THE   NEW   LARNED    HISTORY 

FOR  READY  REFERENCE 
READING  AND   RESEARCH 

VOLUME  I 

Original  Edition — s  '"olumes  ....  18QJ-4 
Seconti  Edilion — original  edition  revised,  with 

supplemental  volume igol 

Third  Edition — as  second,  with  scroiid  supplc- 

mcn'al  volume igio 

Complete  Revision — 12  volumes     ....     ig22 


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WltH   A  LARGE  WPMBrR  OP  TEXt   tL  S,  llANV  Or  THFL.  '.TS, 

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THE   CASA    GR.\NDE,    ARIZONA 

One  or  the  Most  Fauoos  Rdins  or  a  Prehistoric  Race  in  America 

The  principal  structure  of  a  ruined  pueblo  on  the  south  bank  ol  the  Gila  River, 
8c  miles  northwest  of  Tucson.    Its  aboriginal  name  is  Sitatu-Ki  ^House  of  Sivano) 

Painlfd  by  Olio  Kiirlh 

Fr.tn  phdrtfTipk  Copyrishlai 
hy  Pubiiikm'    Pholt  Sertice 


THE     NEW     LARNED 
HISTORY 

FOR    READY     REFERENCE 
READING    AND    RESEARCH 

THE     ACTUAL    WORDS 

OF 

THE    WORLD'S    BEST    HISTORIANS 
BIOGRAPHERS     AND     SPECIALISTS 


A    COMPLETE    SYSTEM    OF    HISTORY    FOR    ALL    USES,   EXTENDING    TO 

ALL    COUNTRIES    AND    SUBJECTS    AND    REPRESENTING 

THE    BETTER   AND    NEWER    LITERATURE 

OF     HISTORY 


THE    WORK    of 

J.   N.    LARNED 


COMPLETELY    REVISED.    ENLARGED    AND    BROUGHT    UP    TO    DATE 
UNDER    THE    SUPERVISION    OF    THE    PUBLISHERS 

BY 

DONALD     E.    SMITH,    Ph.D. 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

CHARLES    SEYMOUR,    M.A.,    Ph.D.,  Litt.D. 
AUGUSTUS  H.  SHEARER,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  DANIEL  C.  KNOWLTON,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE    EDITORS 
AND      A      LARGE      CORPS      OF       SPECIALLY       TRAINED 
HESEAHCHERS,    CRITICAL     READERS,     INDEXERS,     ETC. 


IN    12    VOLUMES 


VOL.   I.  — A  TO   BALK 

WITH    A   LARGE   NUMBER   OF   TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS,  MAPS   AND  CHARTS,  MANY   OF   THEM   PULL-PAGE   INSERTS, 
IN   DUOTONE,   AND   FRONTISPIECES   IN   COLOR;    ALSO   NUMEROUS   DOUBLE   AND   SINGLE-PAGE   HIS- 
TORICAL AND  OTHER   MAPS   IN  COLOR,    FROM   ORIGINAL   STUDIES   AND  DRAWINGS   BY 
ALAN   C.  REILEY   AND   OTHERS 


SPRINGFIELD,   MASSACHUSETTS 

C.   A.   NICHOLS    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

BUSINESS    FOUNDED    l8SI 
1922 


Copyright,  1804.  1901,  1910, 
By  J    N.  LARNED 

Copyright.  igi3, 

By  S.  J.  LARNED 

(Above  copyrights  have  been  assigned  to  the  publishers.) 

Copyright,  1922, 
By  C.  a.  NICHOLS  PUBL1SHL\G  COMPANY 


AU  rights  reserved 


J.  J.  Little  &  Ives  Coir.pany,  New  York  City,  U.  S.  A. 

Composition.  Piatci.  &  Presswork 

J.  F.  Tapley  Company.  Long  Island  City,  U.  S.  A, 

binding 


StacR 
D 

EDITORIAL   ORGANIZATION 

EDITOR   OF   ORIGINAL   EDITION   AND   INVENTOR    OF   THE   SYSTEM 

J.   N.  LARNED 
Librarian,  BufTalo  Public  Library  C1877- 1897) 
President,  American  Library  Association  (1892-1804) 
Author  of  "History  of  England  for  Schools,"  "A  History  of  the  United  States  for  Secondary  Schools," 

"Seventy  Centuries,"   etc. 

REVISION  STAFF 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

DONALD   E.   SMITH,   A.B.   (Cornell),  Ph.D.  (C.^LIFORNIA) 

Professor  of  History,  Geojiraphy  and  Economics 

Formerly  at  Uni\-ersity  of  California,  Toledo  Univer'^ity,  etc. 

Author  of  "Viceroy  of  New  Spain  in  iSth  Century,"  "Diary  of  the  Portola  Expedition"  (with  F.  J.  Teggart), 

"The  Geographic  Factor  in  English  History"  (in  "English  Leadership",  with  J.  N.  Earned, 

W.  H.  Taft,  et  al.) 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

CHARLES  SEYMOUR,  B.A.,  M.  A.  (Camrridgk,  Eng.),  Ph.D.  (Yale),  Litt.D.  (Western  Reserve) 

Professor  of  History  at  Yale  University 

Chief  of  Ausfro  Hungarian  division  of  American  Commission  to  Negotiate  Peace 

Author  of  "Electoral  Reform  in  England  and  Wales,"  "Diplomatic  Background  of  the  War,"  "How  the 

World  Votes"  (with  D.  P.  Fraryl,  "What  Really  Happened  at  Paris"  (with 

Col.  E.  M.  House),  "Woodrow  Wilson  and  the  World  War,"  etc. 

AUGUSTUS   H.   SHEARER,   A.B.,   A.M.,   Ph.D.    (Harvard) 
Librarian,  Grosvenor  Library,  Buffalo 
Lecturer,  University  of  Buffalo 
Formerly  Bibliographer,  Newberry  Library,  Chicago,  and  Chairman,  American  Library  .Association 
Committee  on  Manual  of  Historical  Literature 

DANIEL   C.   KNOWLTON.   A.B.,   Ph.D.   (Cornell) 

Head  of  History  and  Civics,  The  Lincoln  School  of  Teachers  College,  New  York 

Member  of  Editorial  Board  of  "The  Historical  Outlook" 

Author  of  many  books  on  teaching  of  history  and  (with  S.  B.  Howe)  of  "  Essentials  in  Modern  European 

History,"  and  (with  Professors  Hazen  and  Webster)   of  a  series  of   wall-charts 

on  ancient,   niedieval  and   modern   history 

ASSISTANT   EDITORS 

ALLEN   L.   CHURCHILL,   A.B.    (Bowdoin) 
On  editorial  staff  of  New  International  Encyclopicdia  and  associate  editor.  New  International  Year  Book 

HENRI   F.   KLEIN   (London) 
Formerly  librarian  "London  Times,"  on  editorial  staff  "London  Standard"  and  contributing  editor, 

"Encyclopedia  Americana,"  etc. 

HELENA   (DOUGHTY)   PETERSON,   A.B.    (Vassar),   A.M.    (Wisconsin) 
Formerly  high  school  teacher  of  history 

JAMES  R.   ROBERTSON,   A.B.    (Beloit),   A.M.   (Michigan),   Ph.D.   (California) 
Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science,  Berea  College,  Kentucky 
Formerly  assistant  curator,  Bancroft  Library  of  University  of  California 

FRED   C.   WHITE,   A.B.,  A.M.    (Alfred) 
First  assistant  in  History.  Morris  High  School,  New  York  City 

V 


2227770 


EDITORIAL  O^^A^NIZATION 

CRITICAL   EDITORIAL   READERS   AND   COMPILERS 

MARGARET  ALSTON  BUCKLEY   (Church  of  Irel.\nd  Teachers'  College) 

WINTHROP  A.   HAMLIN,   A.B.   (H.\rv.«d) 

ELIZABETH  HENDEE,   A.B.   (Iowa) 

MARJORIE  B.   GREENBIE,   A.B.   (Cornell)   Ph.D.    (Yale) 

WILLIAM  JAFFE,   A.M.   (Columbl^) 

JOHN  ALDEN   KROUT,   A.B.   (Miciugan),   A.M.,   Ph.D.   (Coldubm) 

CIL\RLES   F.  ZIMMELE,   Ph.B.   (Lehigh) 

RESEARCHERS   AND   COMPILERS 

RUTH  L.   BENJAMIN,   A.B.    (Barnard)  EDITH  LACY 

JULIA   V.   BOLGER,   A.B.    (Barnard),   A.M.  DAVID   LINDENAUER,   B.Sc. 

(Columbia)  M.   M.   LOURENS 

JAY    B.    BOTSFORD,    A.B.,    Ph.D.    (Columbia)  LEAH  L.  LOWENSOHN,  A.B.,  A.M.  (Cornell) 
LOIS  C.\SSIDY,   A.B.    (VVelle.sley),   A.M.  ROSE  LOWENSOHN 

(Columbia)  MERCEDES   I.   MORITZ,   A.B.   (B.^RN.\Rn) 

E.   MAUD   COLVIN,   M.Mus.  JAMES  F.  MORTON,  Jr.,  A.B.,  A.M.  (Harvard) 
HANA   (GEFFEN)   JOSEPHSON  RICHARD   P.   READ,   A.B.    (Cornell) 

MARION    (WARREN)   FRY,   A.B.    (Barnard)  VICTOR  RIGHKTTI  (Neuch.atel  and  Florence) 
ANNA   COOK,   A.B.   (Mt.  Holyoke)  JANET   H.   ROBB,   A.B.    (Barnard) 

ISADOR   GINSBURG,   A.B.   (Coi.raBi.-i)  CORNELIA   SHAW,   A.B.   (Welt.esley) 

PHILIP  A.  GREENBERG  (University  of  Kiev)  LUELL.\  (G.AFFNEY)  SMITH 

FELICE  H.  JARECKY,   A.B.    (Barnard)  eRNA  (GUNTHER)  SPIER.  A.B.  (Barn.\rd)  A.M. 
LINA   KAHN,   A.m.,   Ph.D.    (Columbia)  (Columbia) 

ETHEL  A.   KOSSMAN,  A.B.   (Barn.^rd)  JEAN  WICK,   A.B.   (Barnard) 

PRESS  EDITORS 

GRACE   F.   CALDWELL,   A.B.   (Minnesota)   A.M.   (California) 

(Until  January,  1921) 

CHRISTINE  CATREVAS,  A.B.   (Mt.  Holyoke) 

ART   EDITOR 
OTTO  KURTH 

INDEXERS   AND   REFERENCERS ' 

MARJORIE   FISHER   (N.  Y.  Public  Libr.\ry  School) 

GRACE   K.   HAVILAND   (Chicago  University) 

KATHERINE   KELJ.OGG,   A.B.    (California),  (California  State  Library  School) 

DORIS  LITTMAN,  A.B.   (Western  Reserve)    . 

ROSE  LOWENSOHN 

FRANCES  MORTON,  A.B.   (Nebrask.\),  (Iowa  University  Library  Training) 


Note:  It  will  be  understood  that  in  buildinc  a  work  with  the  quoted  words  of  the  be.st  authorities,  it  was 
a  prerequisite  that,  in  addition  to  other  special  qualifications,  each  member  of  the  editorial  organization  should 
have  specialized  in  the  field  of  history  and  historical  literature  —  the  broadest  interpretation  being  given  to 
the  term  history.  We  gi\'e  the  full  list  of  names,  with  selections  from  available  data  as  to  some,  though  all 
have  taught,  written  or  lectured  on,  or  devoted  years  of  study  to.  history,  civics,  government,  economics,  etc. 
etc.  Each  of  the  inde.xers  had  extended  experience  in  library  work  also.  See  Publishers'  Foreword  and  Edi- 
tors' Preface. 

The  Publishers. 


VI 


PUBLISHERS'   FOREWORD 

With  confident  expectation  of  a  well-nigh  universal  welcome  and  approval,  we  are  pleased 
to  introduce  THE  NEW  EARNED  HISTORY  FOR  READY  REFERENCE,  READING 
AND  RESEARCH. 

THE  NEW  EARNED  HISTORY,  as  it  will  be  familiarly  called,  is  the  culmination 
of  long-cherished  hopes  and  plans.  For  several  years  there  has  been  an  increasing  demand 
from  thousands  of  owners  and  users  of  the  older  Earned  work,  and  others,  for  the  later 
historical  material — later,  ir  respect  to  modern  scholarship,  as  well  as  chronology — not 
found  in  our  publication  or  any  other.  And,  in  consequence,  soon  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War,  we  determined  to  meet  the  need  in  the  most  adequate  way.  First  of  all, 
and  as  a  proper  service  to  former  patrons,  a  painstaking  expert  examination  of  the  existing 
work  was  made  to  determine  the  practicability  of  adding  a  third  "recent-history,"  sup- 
plemental volume.  As  the  War  continued,  however,  it  became  apparent  that  "recent 
history"  was  rapidly  attaining  such  proportions  that  it  would  not  be  possible  to  present  it 
in  a  single  volume.  Moreover,  we  were  convinced  that  a  mere  supplemental  volume,  or 
volumes,  bringing  the  work  up  to  dale  chronologically,  would  only  partially  solve  the  problem. 
There  would  still  be  lacking  the  indispensable  neu^  historical  knowledge  needed  to  correct, 
amend,  and  supplement  certain  portions  of  the  old  Earned  text.  And,  furthermore,  we 
realized  that  a  set  with  three  supplemental  volumes  would  involve  four  indexes  to  be  con- 
sulted and  would  therefore  not  be  in  accord  with  the  Earned  ideal  of  "ready  reference." 

Our  conclusion  therefore  was  that  only  through  a  complete  revision  and  large  extension 
of  the  old  work,  could  we  provide,  for  the  benefit  of  old  and  new  patrons,  the  following 
substantial  additions  and  improvements: 

1.  Elimination  of  material  which,  though  previously  accepted  as  authorita- 

tive, had,  as  a  result  of  modern  research  and  interpretation,  become 
obsolete,  valueless  and,  in  some  cases,  even  harmful. 

2.  Addition  of  an  important  array  of  newly  available  and  indispensable  ma- 

terial of  distinct  value  in  portraying  certain  events  and  movements  of 
history  treated  in  the  old  work. 

3.  Inclusion  of  the  most  reliable  records  and  descriptions  of  events  and  move- 

ments since  1910  —  a  period  that  may  hereafter  be  considered  the  most 
important  in  all  time. 

4.  Organization  of,  and  welding  together  into  one  harmonious  whole,  all  this 

world-history,  by  application  of  Larned's  unique  and  unexcelled  alpha- 
betical-chronological system  of  arrangement,  with  interwoven  index, 
references  and  cross-references,  citations,  bibliographies,  etc.  [For 
fuller  explanation  of  system,  see  page  xxi.) 

5.  Illumination  of  the  text  by  authentic  and  artistic  Olustrations,  charts,  maps, 

etc. 

THE  NEW  EARNED  HISTORY  was  begun  in  August,  1916,  and  besides  the  above 
named  important  objects,  it  was  decided  to  increase  still  further  the  usefulness  and  value  of 
the  work  by 

(a)  Broadening  its  scope,  through  an  interpretation  of  History  as  embracing 
practically  everything  that  has  affected  the  life  of  mankind  since  time 
began. 

{b)  Adding  thousands  of  new  entries,  for  the  purpose  of  defining  historical 
words  and  terms  and  of  locating  places  and  people,  historicaUy  (not 
to  provide  substitutes  for  dictionaries,  gazeteers,  biographies). 

(c)  Largely  increasing  the  number  of  historical  and  other  maps. 

(d)  Providing  frontispieces  in  color  and  numerous  inserts  in  duotone,  to  illus- 

trate scenes,  things  and  persons  of  distinct  historical  importance  and 
interest. 

Further  explanation  of  the  reasons  for,  and  scope  of,  the  revision  will  be  found  in  the 
Editors'  preface. 

vii 


PUBLISHERS'  FOREWORD 

To  accomplish  all  these  objects  required  historical,  bibliographical,  editorial  and  other 
knowledge  and  skill  of  a  high  order,  and  we  sought  the  advice  of  some  of  the  leading  historical 
scholars  and  librarians  before  choosing  our  Editor-in-chief  and  his  associates.  We  were 
contident  that  those  selected  possessed  the  necessary  special  qualifications  and  felt  that  we 
were  fortunate  in  securing  the  advantages  of  the  varied  points  of  view  of  trained  students 
and  teachers  of  history  in  university,  college  and  school,  the  experienced  librarian,  and  the 
publicist.  And,  with  the  purpose  of  achieving  results  as  nearly  perfect  as  humanlv  possible, 
we  devised  an  elaborate  system  of  research,  compilation,  critical  reading,  and  review  by 
each  editor  of  all  manuscripts,  with  amplification,  modification  or  change  in  accord  with  the 
final  concensus  of  editorial  opinion.  These  processes,  and  the  indexing,  cross-referencing, 
proof-reading  and  arranging  of  bibliographies  were  entrusted  to  individuals  who  were  well 
qualified  by  education  and  experience  and  who  also  enjoyed  our  own  special  training.  We 
are  pleased  to  record  on  page  v  the  names  of  these  valued  coadjutors. 

The  entire  undertaking  necessarily  rested  upon  the  cooperation  of  authors  and  pub- 
lishers, for  we  could  not  quote  from  their  copyrighted  works  without  permisson  and  did  not 
purpose,  without  acquiescence,  even  to  make  extracts  from  books  not  so  protected.  The 
"golden  rule"  of  observing  all  the  rights  of  those  concerned  has  been  consistently  obeyecf; 
we  have  been  allowed  to  draw  from  a  "golden  fountain"  of  historical  literature  and'  we 
value  among  our  most  prized  possessions  the  hundreds  of  letters  most  generously  and  cor- 
dially granting  us  the  desired  permissions.  These  permissions  are  quite  exceptional  and  We 
are  confident  the  owners  and  users  of  THE  NEW  LARNED  HISTORY  will  be  fully  ap^- 
preciative  and  will  join  us  in  grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  great  service  thus  rendered  by 
our  brother  publishers  and  authors  of  the  English-speaking  world  and  elsewhere.  More 
detailed  acknowledgments  will  be  found  on  page  xiii. 

Perhaps  it  is  needless  to  say  that  our  procedure  in  this  respect  has  been  in  strict  accord 
with  the  Earned  practice,  as  stated  in  the  preface  to  the  original  edition,  written  by  Earned 
himself,  from  which  we  quote  as  follows: —  "But  the  extensive  borrowing  which  the  work 
represents  has  not  been  done  in  an  unlicensed  way.  I  have  felt  warranted,  by  common 
custom,  in  using  moderate  extracts  without  permit.  But  for  everything  beyond  these,  in 
my  selections  from  books  now  in  print  and  on  sale,  whether  under  copyright  or  deprived  of 
copyright,  I  have  sought  the  consent  of  those,  authors  or  publishers,  or  both,  to  whom  the 
right  of  consent  or  denial  appears  to  belong.  .  .  .  The  authors  of  books  have  other  rights 
beyond  their  rights  of  property,  to  which  respect  has  been  paid.  No  liberties  have  been  taken 
with  the  text  of  their  writings.  ...  In  the  matter  of  difTerent  spellings,  it  has  been  more 
difficult  to  preserve  for  each  writer  his  own.  As  a  rule  this  is  done,  in  names,  and  in  the 
divergencies  between  English  and  American  orthography;  but,  since  much  of  the  matter 
quoted  has  been  taken  from  American  editions  of  English  books,  and  since  both  copyists  and 
printers  have  worked  under  the  habit  of  American  spellings,  the  rule  may  not  have  governed 
with  strict  consistency  throughout." 

The  dimensions  of  the  new  work  considerably  exceed  those  of  its  predecessor,  which 
had  5600  pages.  Roughly  speaking,  seventy  percent  of  the  old  has  been  retained  in  the  new 
work,  which  totals  about  10,000  pages,  approximating  12,000,000  words.  Thus  sixty  percent 
of  the  new  work  comprises  additional  material  supplied  by  the  present  editorial  organization. 
The  entire  work  is  new  mechanically.  The  plates  are  made  from  linotype  composition. 
The  format  and  type  faces  were'specially  designed  to  insure  readability,  attractive  appearance 
and,  withal,  economy. 

THE  NEW  LARNED  HISTORY,  to  an  even  greater  degree  than  the  old  work,  offers 
to  the  casual  reader  the  opportunity  of  discovering  quickly  and  easily  the  established  facts 
concerning  an}'  historical  e\ent  or  movement:  to  the  scholar  it  constitutes  a  technical  guide, 
providing  him  at  once  with  the  conclusions  of  the  most  eminent  historians,  and  an  indication 
as  to  where  further  information  ma)'  be  obtained.  In  addition  to  its  encyclopedic  and 
bibliographical  uses  the  work  serves  as  a  compendium  of  the  best  historical  literature,  since 
the  more  important  historical  articles  are  not,  as  in  the  case  of  some  historical  dictionaries 
and  encyclopedias,  the  work  of  so-called  hack  writers,  but  are  composed  of  careful  selections 
from  the  writings  of  the  world's  leading  historians.  They  include  some  of  the  finest  passages 
from  Herodotus,  Froissart,  Machiavelli,  Voltaire,  Gibbon,  JNIacaulay,  Ranke,  Treitschke, 
Stubbs,  Renan,  Lavisse,  Aulard,  Ferrero,  Breasted,  Parkman,  Rhodes,  and  a  host  of  other 
famous  writers.  The  student  will  thus  find  in  the  revised  Earned  work,  not  merely  the  most 
authoritative  statement  of  facts,  but  also  unlimited  examples  of  the  best  historical  writing. 

Those  of  us  who  were  privileged  to  plan  the  undertaking  and  to  observe  at  close  range 
the  labors  of  the  Editors  and  their  assistants,  can  testify  to  the  difficulties  of  the  task.  It 
demanded  broad  vision  and  the  most  delicate  sense  of  proportion.     The  high  degree  of  suc- 

viii 


PUBLISHERS'  FOREWORD 

cess  achieved  by  the  earlier  edition,  while  it  supplied  a  stimulus,  did  not  remove  the  necessity 
of  gathering  a  vast  collection  of  new  material,  some  of  it  to  describe  the  events  of  the  past 
three  decades,  much  to  supplant  material  in  the  unrevised  edition  which  might  fairly  be 
regarded  as  out  of  date.  There  was  necessary  the  meticulous  weighing  of  the  merits  of 
different  accounts  of  the  same  subject;  a  close  acquaintance  with  the  sources  and  materials 
of  history  in  all  generations,  and  the  scrupulous  investigation  of  the  most  recent  and  most 
authoritative  output  of  historical  literature.  Finally,  it  required  a  sense  of  imagination, 
unusually  acute,  which  would  enable  the  Editors  to  place  themselves  in  the  positions  of  people 
in  various  walks  of  life  so  as  to  visualize  the  sort  of  information  these  people  were  likely  to 
seek.  Only  thus,  indeed,  could  the  work  possibly  justify  itself  and  supply  the  incomparable 
Lamed  service  to  all  who  would  apply  to  it  for  aid. 

The  extent  to  which  those  demands  have  been  met  and  the  success  with  which  the 
accompanying  difficulties  have  been  overcome  will  be  demonstrated  in  the  actual  experience 
of  those  who  use  the  work,  and  theirs  will  be  the  final  words  of  appreciation.  As  constant 
observers  and  critics,  we  confidently  promise  that  THE  NEW  EARNED  HISTORY  will 
be  for  this  generation  what  the  "Old  Earned"  was  for  the  past  —  than  which  there  can  be 
no  higher  praise.. 

The  familiarity  with  history,  histories  and  historians,  resulting  from  use  of  these  volumes, 
should  prove  a  constant  stimulus  to  the  acquisition  and  reading  of  some  of  the  older  standard 
books  and  many  of  the  worth)'  new  books  as  they  are  published.  In  this  connection  our 
carefully  prepared  bibliographies  and  lists  of  books,  selections  from  which  have  been  made, 
will  prove  a  valuable  guide,  especially  when  supplemented  by  our  established  "Editorial 
Service"  which  may  be  freely  called  upon  at  all  times. 

Finally,  it  is  our  earnest  hope  and  expectation,  as  publishers  for  more  than  seventy 
years  and  as  producers  of  the  former  editions  and  supplemental  volumes  of  the  Earned 
work,  that  the  further  knowledge  and  understanding  of  world-history  made  available  in 
THE  NEW  EARNED  HISTORY  FOR  READY  REFERENCE,  READING  AND 
RESEARCH  will  constitute  a  genuine  public  service  and  contribute  appreciably  towards 
the  raising  of  the  standard  of  citizenship  and  government  in  our  own  country  and  elsewhere. 
For,  as  Burke  said: 

"In  History  a  great  volume  is  unrolled  for  our  instruction,  drawing  the  materials 
of  future  wisdom  from  the  past  errors  and  infirmities  of  mankind." 
And,  when  mortals  thus  turn  their  errors  into  stepping  stones  leading  to  the  Divine  Way  of 
Life,  they  will  share  what  Cervantes  evidently  visioned  when  he  wrote: 

"History  is  like  sacred  writing  because  Truth  is  essential  to  it,  and  where 
Truth  is,  there  God  himself  is." 

C.  A.  NICHOLS  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

F.  C.  H.  Gibbons,  Managing  Director. 


IX 


EDITORS'   PREFACE 

The  problem  of  writing  a  history  of  the  world  which  will  be  at  once  fully  satisfactory 
to  scholars  and  to  the  general  reader  has  never  been  fully  solved.  Nevertheless,  the  initial 
publication  of  LARNED'S  HISTORY  FOR  READY  REFERENCE  was  undoubtedly 
the  nearest  approach  to  a  solution.  For  nearly  thirty  years,  that  work  has  held  a  detinitely 
marked  position  in  the  field  of  historical  studies  and  has  been  the  standard  work  of  historical 
reference  for  both  casual  student  and  professional  scholar.  It  was  the  purpose  of  the  author 
to  present  a  coherent  narrative  of  thehistory  of  mankind  which  would  be  not  merely  authentic, 
instructive  and  interesting,  but  would  also  permit  the  reader  to  have  actually  before  him, 
the  words  of  the  great  masters  of  historical  writing.  Perhaps  we  can  do  no  better  than  to 
state  the  aims  of  Earned,  in  his  own  words,  quoted  from  the  preface  to  the  original  edition: 

'This  work  has  two  aims:  to  represent  and  exhibit  the  better  Literature  of  Historj'  in 
the  Enghsh  language,  and  to  give  it  an  organized  body  —  a  system  - —  adapted  to  the  greatest 
convenience  in  any  use,  whether  for  reference,  or  for  reading,  for  teacher,  student,  or  casual 
inquirer.  The  entire  contents  of  the  work,  with  slight  exceptions  readily  distinguished, 
have  been  carefully  culled  from  some  thousands  of  books, —  embracing  the  whole  range 
(in  the  English  language)  of  standard  historical  writing,  both  general  and  special:  the  bi- 
ography, the  institutional  and  constitutional  studies,  the  social  investigations,  the  archaeo- 
logical researches,  the  ecclesiastical  and  religious  discussions,  and  all  other  important  tribu- 
taries to  the  great  and  swelling  main  stream  of  historical  knowledge.  It  has  been  culled 
as  one  might  pick  choice  fruits,  careful  to  choose  the  perfect  and  the  ripe,  where  such  are 
found,  and  careful  to  keep  their  flavor  unimpaired.  The  flavor  of  the  Literature  of  History, 
in  its  best  examples,  and  the  ripe  quality  of  its  latest  and  best  thought,  are  faith- 
fully preserved  in  what  aims  to  be  the  garner  of  a  fair  selection  from  its  fruits.  History 
as  written  by  those,  on  one  hand,  who  have  depicted  its  scenes  most  vividly,'  and 
by  those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  have  searched  its  facts,  weighed  its  evidences,  and 
pondered  its  meanings  most  critically  and  deeply,  is  given  in  their  own  words.  If  com- 
moner narratives  are  sometimes  quoted,  their  use  enters  but  slightly  into  the  construction 
of  the  work.  The  whole  matter  is  presented  under  an  arrangement  which  imparts  distinctness 
to  its  topics,  while  showing  them  in  their  sequence  and  in  aU  their  large  relations,  both 
national  and  international.  For  every  subject,  a  history  more  complete,  I  think,  in  the 
broad  meaning  of  'History,'  is  supplied  by  this  mode  than  could  possibly  be  produced  on 
the  plan  of  dry  synopsis  which  is  common  to  encyclopedic  works.  It  holds  the  charm  and 
interest  of  many  styles  of  excellence  in  writing,  and  it  is  read  in  a  clear  light  which  shines 
directly  from  the  pens  that  have  made  History  luminous  by  their  interpretations." 

That  Earned  achieved  his  purpose  has  been  abundantly  attested  by  the  most  exacting 
critics  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  and  of  the  most  diverse  points  of  view.  However,  as  has 
been  so  truly  said,  "Each  generation  must  write  its  own  history,"  and  the  time  came  to 
acknowledge  the  need  of  thorough  revision.  During  the  past  thirty  years  historical  scholars 
have  been  active  as  never  before,  in  both  research  and  interpretation.  Much  that  our 
fathers  knew  is  now  recognized  to  be  not  in  accord  with  the  historical  record,  or  of  doubtful 
value.  New  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  events  of  the  past;  conclusions  which  had  to  be 
couched  in  tentative  form  may  now  be  stated  definitely,  while  other  conclusions  must  be 
revised.  The  whole  horizon  of  historical  knowledge  has  been  widened,  while  the  general 
progress  of  science  has  given  new  significance  to  what  was  formerly  thought  unimportant  or 
irrelevant.  History,  whether  it  be  a  science  or  an  art,  or  something  of  both,  is  never  static; 
it  must  always  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  the  present,  and  the  present  is  always  changing. 

Moreover,  as  the  point  of  view  of  the  generation  has  changed,  the  term  "History" 
has  broadened  in  its  connotation.  It  is  no  longer  merely  what  Professor  Freeman  called 
"past  politics,"  but  now  embraces  an  infinite  variety  of  subjects  —  literary,  economic,  social 
and  scientific  in  character.  A  general  work  of  historical  reference  must  now  include  fully 
elaborated  articles  on  such  topics  as  education,  chemistry,  money  and  banking,  philology 
and  archaeology,  which  formerly  would  not  have  appeared  to  be  within  its  scope.  Finally, 
and  if  for  no  other  reason,  the  need  for  revision  would  have  been  occasioned  by  the  speed 
with  which  actual  history  has  been  made  since  the  appearance  of  the  former  editions  of  the 


EDITORS'  PREFACE 

Lamed  work.  In  a  sense,  every  age  is  one  of  transition,  but  the  one  in  which  we  have  been 
living  seems  to  have  been  fraught  with  events  of  the  utmost  importance  as  affecting  the 
progress  of  human  civilization.  Historical  scholarship  cannot  refuse  to  deal  with  this  most 
difiScult  recent  period,  merely  because  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  lack  of  a  proper 
historical  perspective.  The  rapid  development  of  applied  science,  the  changing  character 
of  industrial  organization,  the  internationalization  of  trade,  the  crises  in  international 
politics  which  culminated  in  the  World  War,  and  its  aftermath;  all  these  historical  facts 
are  of  such  weight  and  complexity  that  the  student  may  justly  demand  an  adequate  guide 
to  their  comprehension. 

Furthermore,  it  has  been  recognized  that  in  the  writing  of  history  methods  change. 
Even  where  sources  of  information  were  open  to  the  older  historians,  they  often,  because 
obsessed  by  political  and  diplomatic  history,  disregarded  what  now  appear  to  be  facts  of 
fundamental  importance.  This  was  already  recognized  by  the  generation  to  which  Lamed 
belonged,  yet  even  he,  in  practice,  encountered  well-nigh  insuperable  obstacles  in  setting 
forth  in  orderly  narrative  the  proper  blending  of  these  subjects  with  the  social  and  economic 
facts  of  human  existence.  Larned  recognized  the  need  of  a  more  adequate  treatment  of 
non-political  history  and  met  the  difficulty  by  the  creation  of  separate  articles  dealing  with 
commerce,  tariff-legislation,  railroads  and  the  like.  In  the  present  edition  an  even  greater 
emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  the  facts  of  our  industrial  life.  Such  articles  in  the  original 
work  have  been  much  enlarged,  while  many  new  articles,  such  as  the  industrial  revolution, 
have  been  added.  Likewise  the  former  editions  have  been  enriched  by  many  new  or  fuller 
articles  on  subjects  vital  to  the  history  of  civilization  such  as  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, costume,  drama,  science,  literature  and  religion. 

Popular  interest  in  the  best  sense  has  also  been  aroused  concerning  many  countries  and 
parts  of  the  earth  which  were  regarded,  only  a  quarter  a  century  ago,  as  of  interest  only  to 
specialists.  The  history  of  Latin  America  now  subtends  a  much  larger  angle  of  the  world's 
intellectual  interest  than  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Questions  relating  to  Africa  and  the 
Far  East  have  taken  on  in  recent  years  a  new  importance,  while  all  phases  of  international 
relationships  have  come  to  occupy  the  foreground  of  our  thought.  All  this  has  been  taken 
into  consideration  in  the  preparation  of  the  new  work  and  constitutes,  if  not  a  departure 
from,  at  least  a  further  development  of  the  original  Larned  idea.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
two  principal  auxiliaries  of  history,  namely,  geography  and  political  science  or  government 
to  which  extended  treatment  has  been  given. 

The  necessity  of  knowing  the  location  of  historic  places  has  led  to  the  introduction  of 
what  may  be  termed  a  gazetteer  feature,  by  which  cities  and  places  mentioned  in  the  regular 
narrative  are  entered  in  their  proper  alphabetical  place  and  their  location  briefly  indicated, 
with  necessary  cross-references.  In  order  to  afford  a  quick  and  easy  way  of  visualizing  these 
places,  the  changes  in  boundaries  and  many  other  facts,  a  large  number  of  specially  prepared 
historical  maps  has  been  provided.  These  maps,  if  bound  together,  would  constitute  a 
complete  historical  atlas,  such  as  is  now  used  in  our  principal  universities  and  colleges.  Also, 
the  claims  of  geography  are  met  by  the  use  of  actual  geographical  description  where,  as  so 
often  is  the  case,  a  knowledge  of  the  terrain  and  of  the  physical  environment  is  essential 
to  the  understanding  of  history. 

The  amplification  of  the  material  dealing  with  government  or  civics,  in  contradistinction 
to  politics  and  political  history,  is  likewise  in  response  to  a  pressing  need.  Problems  of 
municipal  government  and  suffrage  are  not  matters  of  mere  abstract  political  theory,  and  they, 
and  many  cognate  subjects,  are  treated  as  most  important  parts  of  the  life  of  mankind. 
In  order  to  understand  better  the  broad  political  structure  of  a  nation,  the  constitution  of 
that  nation  is  placed  immediately  with  the  article,  and  usually  accompanied  by  explanations 
which  will  render  it  intelligible  to  the  general  reader. 

More  than  a  rearrangement  or  a  simple  expansion  of  material  in  the  former  editions,  is 
the  use  of  illustrations.  Often  a  picture  can  convey  to  the  mind  more  than  pages  of  descrip- 
tion. The  hundreds  of  illustrations  which  are  introduced  into  the  new  edition  are  intended 
primarily  to  be  a  part  of  the  exposition  of  human  development  rather  than  ornamentation, 
and  constitute,  together  with  the  maps  and  plans,  a  powerful  visual  help  to  the  compre- 
hension of  the  drama  of  human  progress. 

The  two  concluding  volumes  of  the  work  are  taken  up  principally  with  the  history  of 
the  World  War.  It  will  of  course  be  many  years  before  all  the  evidence  is  in  and  the  verdict 
of  history  rendered  on  all  the  extremely  complex  issues  raised  by  this  struggle.  But  in  the 
meantime,  we  can  know  a  great  deal,  and  the  most  intense  human  interest  must  attach  to 
that  knowledge.  The  editors  and  publishers  have  spared  no  effort  to  bring  together,  after 
a  most  careful  sifting  and  winnowing,  a  complete,  authoritative,  and  impartial  treatment  of 

xi 


EDITORS'  PREFACE 

the  war,  in  all  its  phases,  and  with  due  regard  to  every  point  of  view.  The  diplomacy, 
national  policies,  strategy  and  tactics,  economics,  international  law,  devastation  and  relief, 
and  various  other  aspects  of  the  great  conflict  of  nations  and  interests,  are  set  forth  with 
informing  amplicity  and  fidelity  to  truth. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  orthodox  historians  do  not  like  to  deal  with  these  most 
recent  events,  which  thev  are  tempted  to  call  "present  politics'  or  "historv  in  the  making." 
In  the  presence  of  this  difficulty,  the  compilers  of  THE  NEW  LARNEI)  HISTORY  are 
forced  to  draw  more  heavily  upon  documents,  or  the  primary  material  for  history,  than  for 
the  periods  in  the  more  remote  past.  So  far  as  practicable  the  material  used  for  the  history 
of  these  later  years  is  taken  from  ofiicial  sources;  that  is  from  statements  of  fact  that  are 
made  with  official  responsibility,  in  despatches,  reports,  diplomatic  correspondence  and 
other  state  papers  published  with  governmental  sanction.  Important  documents  connected 
with  greater  events  of  the  times,  such  as  treaties,  international  agreements,  new  national 
constitutions  and  legislative  acts  are  given  generally  in  full  from  officially  printed  texts. 
The  aim  has  thus  been  to  prepare  for  students  and  inquirers  a  compilation  of  recent  history 
as  nearly  authentic  in  its  sources  as  can  be  gathered  thus  immediately  after  the  events,  and 
to  organize  it  for  "ready  reference"  in  the  form  that  has  had  approval  in  the  older  work. 

The  editors  would  be  sadly  remiss  if  they  did  not  acknowledge  their  deep  and  constant 
obligations  to  the  publishers  and  to  the  editorial  office  staff  for  their  unwearied  cooperation 
in  carrying  through  the  work  to  successful  completion.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  the  authori- 
ties of  the  New  York  Public  Library  and  its  Hamilton  Grange  branch  for  their  kind  coopera- 
tion in  meeting  our  somewhat  unusual  demands  upon  their  facilities;  to  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  for  the  generous  placing  of  its  library  resources  at  our  service,  and  to  the 
City  Library  Association  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  for  help  on  bibliographical  questions. 

DONALD  E.  SMITH 
CIL\RLES  SEYMOUR 
DANIEL  C.  KNOWLTON 
AUGUSTUS  H.  SHEARER 


Xll 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

In  the  Publishers'  Foreword  we  have  acknowledged  in  general  terms  the  courtesy  and  liberality  of 
authors  and  publishers,  by  whose  permission  we  have  used  much  of  the  matter  quoted  in  this  work.  Follow- 
ing the  example  of  the  original  editor.  J.  N.  Larned,  we  wish  now  to  make  the  acknowledgment  more  specific, 
by  naming  those  persons  and  publishing  houses  whose  cooperation  has  been  so  large  a  factor  in  maintaining 
the  authorit.\-  of  the  work,  as  well  as  its  timeliness.  Since  many  of  the  names  in  the  original  list  are  those  of 
persons  and  firms  no  longer  existent,  we  have  thought  it  proper  to  retain  that  list  with  its  original  classifica- 
tions, as  a  separate  item,  omitting  only  the  few  whose  contributions  have  been  deleted,  because  later  discov- 
eries, or  later  and  more  authentic  information,  have  provided  better  material  in  replacement.  The  old  list 
will  be  followed  by  a  list  of  those  authors  and  publishers  who  have  contributed  to  the  revision,  and  though 
some  dupUcate  names  will  be  found  in  both,  the  fact  may  be  easily  accounted  for. 

The  two  lists  suggest  two  significant  points  of  comparison,  namely,  the  greater  number  of  authors'  names 
in  the  older  list,  and  the  noticeable  increase  in  the  American  publishers'  names  in  the  present  list.  With  regard 
to  the  first,  we  may  say  that  most  of  the  writers  quoted  in  the  revised  portions  of  the  old  work  and  the  addi- 
tions thereto,  have  authorized  their  publishers  to  represent  them.  And  we  may  add  that,  although  in  some 
cases  conditions  have  been  imposed,  neither  from  authors  nor  pubUshers  have  we  met  with  refusal.  With 
regard  to  the  second  point,  it  may  be  said  to  be  an  indication  of  the  growth  in  historical  scholarship  and  in 
publishing  enterprise  in  this  country. 

And,  finally,  with  our  acknowledgment,  it  is  a  very  great  pleasure  to  mention  the  helpful  goodwill  of  rep- 
resentatives in  America  of  English  houses,  which  in  not  a  few  instances  has  strengthened  the  understanding 
and  cooperation  of  such  firms.  The  evidences  of  an  Anglo-American  community  of  interest,  high  purpose, 
and  fraternal  spirit,  are  also  extremely  gratifying. 

THE  ORIGINAL  LIST 


Evelyn  Abbott,  M.A.;  President  Charles  Kendall  Adams;  Trof.  Herbert  B.  Adams;  Prof.  Joseph  H.  Allen;  Sir 
William  Anson,  Bart.;  Rev.  Henry  M.  Baird;  Mr.  Hubert  Howe  Bancroft;  Hon.  S.  G.  W.  Benjamin;  Sir  Walter  Besant; 
Prof.  Albert  S.  Belles;  John  G.  Bourinot,  F..S  S.;  Henry  Bradley,  M.A.;  Rev.  James  Franck  Bright,  D.D.;  Daniel 
G.  Brinton,  M.D.;  Prof.  William  Hand  Browne;  Prof.  George  Bryce;  Rt.  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.P.;  Prof.  J.  B.  Bury; 
Mr.  Lucien  Carr;  Gen.  Henry  B.  Carrington;  Mr.  John  D.  Champlin,  Jr.;  Mr.  Charles  Carleton  Coffin;  Hon.  Thomas 
M.  Cooley;  Prof.  Henry  Coppee;  Rev.  Sir  George  W.  Cox,  Bart.;  Gen.  Jacob  Dolson  Cox;  Mrs.  Cox  (for  "Three  Dec- 
ades of  Federal  Legislation."  by  the  late  Hon.  Samuel  S.  Cox);  Prof.  Thomas  F.  Crane;  Rt.  Rev.  Mandell  Creighton, 
Bishop  of  Peterborough;  Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry;  Hon.  George  Ticknor  Curtis;  Prof.  Robert  K.  Douglas;  J.  A.  Doyle, 
M.A.;  Mr.  Samuel  Adams  Drake;  Sir  Mountstuart  E.  Grant-Duff ;  Hon.  Sir  Charles  Gavan  Duffy ;  Mr.  Charles  Henry 
Eden;  Mr.  Henry  Sutherland  Edwards;  Orrin  LesUe  Elliott,  Ph.D.:  Mr.  Loyall  Farragut ;  The  Ven.  Frederic  William 
Farrar,  Archdeacon  of  Westminster;  Prof.  George  Park  Fisher;  Prof.  John  Fiske;  Mr.  Wm.  E.  Foster;  William  Warde 
Fowler,  M.A.;  Prof.  Edward  A.  Freeman;  Prof.  James  Anthony  Froude:  Mr.  James  Gairdner;  Arthur  Gilman,  M..'\.; 
Mr.  Parke  Godwin;  Rev.  .Sabine  Baring-Gould;  Mr.  Ulysses  S.  Grant.  Jr.  (for  the  "Personal  Memoirs"  of  the  late  Gen. 
Grant);  Mrs.  John  Richard  Green  (for  her  own  writings  and  for  those  of  the  late  John  Richard  CJreen);  William  Gres- 
well,  M.B.;  Maj.  Arthur  Griffiths;  Frederic  Harrison,  M..'\.;  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart;  Mr.  William  Heaton;  Col. 
Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson;  Prof.  B.  A.  Hinsdale;  Miss  Margaret  L.  Hooper  (for  the  writings  of  the  late  Mr.  George 
Hooper);  Rev.  Robert  F.  Horton;  Prof.  James  K.  Hosmer;  Col.  Henry  M.  Hozier;  Rev.  William  Hunt;  Sir  William 
Wilson  Hunter;  Mr.  Rossiter  Johnson;  Mr.  John  Foster  Kirk;  The  Ver>-  Rev.  George  William  Kitchin,  Dean  of  Win- 
chester; Col.  Thos.  W.  Knox;  Mr.  J.  S.  Landon;  Hon.  Emily  Lawless;  William  E.  H.  Lecky.  LL.D.,  D.C.L.;  Mrs. 
Margaret  Levi  (for  the  "History  of  British  Commerce,"  by  the  late  Dr.  Leone  Levi);  Prof.  Charlton  T.  Lewis';  The 
Very  Rev.  Henry  George  Liddell,  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  Hon.  Henry  Cabot  Lodge;  Prof.  Richard  Lodge; 
Rev.  W.  J.  Loftie;  Mrs.  Mary  S.  Long  (for  the  "Life  of  General  Robert  E.  r,ee,"  by  the  late  Gen.  A.  L.  Long);  Mrs! 
Helen  Lossing  (for  the  writings  of  the  late  Benson  J.  Lossing);  Charles  Lowe,  M.A.;  Charles  P.  Lucas,  B.A";  Justin 
McCarthy,  M.P.;  Prof.  John  Bach  McMaster;  Hon.  Edward  Mcl'herson;  Prof.  John  P.  Mahaify;  Capt.  Alfred  T. 
Mahan.  U.S.N. ;  Col.  George  B.  Malleson;  Sir  Clements  R.  Markham,  F.R.S.;  The  Very  Rev.  Charles  Merivale, 
Dean  of  Ely;  Prof.  John  Henry  Middleton;  Mr.  J.  G.  Cotton  Minchin;  Willi  ,m  R.  MorfiU,  M.A.;  Rt.  Hon.  John 
Morley,  M.P.;  Mr.  John  T.  Morse,  Jr.;  Sir  William  Muir;  Mr.  Harold  Murdock;  Rev.  Arthur  Howard  Noll;  Miss 
Kate  Norgate;  C.  W.  C.  Oman,  M.A.;  Mr.  John  C.  Palfrey  (for  "History  of  New  England,"  by  the  late  John  Gor- 
ham  Palfrey);  Francis  Parkman,  LL.D.;  Edward  James  Payne.  M.A.;  Charles  Henry  Pearson,  M.A.;  Mr.  James 
Breck  Perkins;  Mrs.  Mary  E.  Phelan  (for  the  "History  of  Tennessee,"  by  the  late  James  Phelan);  Col.  George  E.  Pond; 
Reginald  L.  Poole,  Ph.D.;  Mr.  Stanley  Lane-Poole;  William  F.  Poole,  LL.D.;  Maj.  John  W.  Powell;  Mr.  John  w! 
Probyn;  Prof.  John  Clark  Ridpath;  Hon.  Ellis  H.  Roberts;  Hon.  Theodore  Roosevelt;  Mr.  John  Codman  Ropes; 
J.  H.  Rose,  M. A.;  I^rof.  Josiah  Royce;  Rev.  PhiHp  Schaff;  Jiunes  Schouler,  LL.D.;  Hon.  Carl  Schurz;  Mr.  Eben  Green- 
ough  Scott;  Sir  J.  R.  Seeley;  Prof.  Nathaniel  Southgate  Shaler;  Mr.  Edward  Morse  Shepard;  Col.  M.  V.  Sheridan 
(for  the  "Personal  Memoirs"  of  the  late  Gen.  Sheridan);   Mr.  P.  T.  Sherman  (for  the  "Memoirs"  of  the  late  Gen.  Sher- 

xiii 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

man);  Samuel  Smiles,  LL.D.;  Prof.  Goldwin  Smith;  Prof.  James  Russell  Soley;  Mr.  Edward  Stanwood;  Leslie  Stephen, 
M.A.;  Prof.  H.  Morse  Stephens:  Mr.  Simon  Sterne;  Charles  J.  Stills,  LL.D.;  Sir  John  Strachey;  Rt.  Rev.  William 
Stubbs,  Bishop  of  Oxford;  Prof.  William  draham  Sumner;  Prof.  Frank  William  Taussig;  Mr.  William  Roscoe  Thayer; 
Prof.  Robert  H.  Thurston;  Mr.  Telemachus  T.  Timayenis;  Henry  D.  Traill,  D.C.L.;  Gen.  R.  de  Trobriand;  Mr. 
Bayard  Tuckerman;  Samuel  Epes  Turner,  Ph.D.;  Prof.  Herbert  Tuttle;  Prof.  Arminius  Vambery;  Mr.  Henri  Van 
Laun;  Gen.  Francis  A.  Walker;  Sir  D.  Mackenzie  Wallace;  Spencer  Walpole,  LL.D.;  Mr.  J.  Talboys  Wheeler;  Mr. 
Arthur  Silva  White;  Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams;  Justin  Winsor,  LL.D.;  Rev.  Frederick  C.  Woodhouse;  John  Yeats, 
LL.D.;   Miss  Charlotte  M.  Yonge. 

PUBLISHERS 

London:  Messrs.  W.  H.  Allen  &  Co.;  Asher&Co.;  George  Bell  &  Sons;  Richard  Bentley  &  Son;  Bickers  &  Sons; 
A.  &C.  Black;  Cassell  &  Co.;  Chapman  &  Hall;  Chatto  &  Windus;  Thos.  De  La  Rue  &  Co.;  H.  Grevel  &  Co.;  Grif- 
fith, Farran  &  Co.;  W.  Heinemann;  Hodder  &  Stoughton;  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.;  Sampson  I.,ow,  Marston  &  Co.; 
Macmillan  &  Co.;  Methuen  &  Co.;  John  Murray;  John  C.  Nimmo;  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.;  George 
Philip  &  Son;  The  Religious  Tract  Society ;  Routledge  &  Sons;  Seeley  &  Co.;  Smith,  Elder  &  Co.;  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Christian  Knowledge;  Edward  Stanford;  Stevens  &  Haynes;  Henry  Stevens  &  Son;  Elliot  Stock;  Swan 
Sonnenschein  &  Co.;  The  Times;  T.  Fisher  Unwin;  Ward,  Lock,  Bowden  &  Co.;  Frederick  Warne  &  Co.;  Williams 
&  Norgate. 

New  York:  Messrs.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.;  Armstrong  &  Co.;  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.;  The  Century  Co.;  T.  Y.  Crowell 
&  Co.;  Derby  &  Miller;  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.;  Harper  &  Brothers;  Henry  Holt  &  Co.;  Townsend  MacCoun;  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons;   Anson  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.;   D.  J.  Sadler  &  Co.;    Charles  Scribner's  Sons;    Charles  L.  Webster  &  Co. 

Edinburgh:  Messrs.  William  Blackwood  &  Sons;  W.  &  R.  Chambers;  David  Douglas;  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons; 
W.  P.  Nimmo. 

Philadelphia:    Messrs.  L.  H.  Everts  &  Co.;   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company;    Porter  &  Coates. 

Boston:  Messrs.  Est es  &  Lauriat;  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.;  Little,  Brown  &  Co.;  D.  Lothrop  Company;  Roberts 
Brothers. 

Dublin:    Messrs.  James  Dufly  &  Co.;   Hodges,  Figgis  &  Co. 

Chicago:    Messrs.  Callaghan  &  Co.;    A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

Ciruinnati:    Messrs.  Robert  Clarke  &  Co. 

Hartford,  Conn.:    Messrs.  O.  D.  Case  &  Co.;    S.  S.  Scranton  &  Co. 

Albany:    Messrs.  Joel  Munsell's  Sons. 

Cambridge,  Eng.:    The  University  Press. 

Norwich,  Conn.:    The  Henry  Bill  Publishing  Co. 

Oxford:    The  Clarendon  Press. 

Providence,  R.  I.:    Messrs.  J.  A.  &  R.  A.  Reid. 

THE   ADDITIONAL  LIST 

AUTHORS 

C.  L.  G.  Anderson,  M.D.;  William  Archer;  Rev.  James  Baikie,  F.R.A.S.;  William  D.  Boyce;  Robert  Bruce; 
Mary  Agnes  Burton;  Philip  Cabot;  George  Agnew  Chamberlain:  Robert  S.  Cotterill;  Dr.  Dunshee  de  Abranches; 
Edward  R.  Dyer,  D.D.;  Logan  Esary;  John  A.  Fairlie,  A.M.,  Ph.D.;  Arthur  T.  Hadley,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.;  Lynn 
Haines;  W.  Haydon;  G.  K.  Kaye;  Helen  E.  Keep;  Hon.  Samuel  W.  McCall;  Major  Haldane  Macfall;  Sir  Malcolm 
Mcllwraith,  K.C.M.G.;  J.  A.  R.  Marriott,  M.A.;  David  Hunter  Miller,  LL.M.;  Floyd  W.  Parsons;  Elia  W.  Peattie; 
M.  M.  Quaife,  A.M.,  Ph.D.;  James  Harvey  Robinson,  A.M.,  Ph.D.;  John  Horace  Round,  M.A.;  Robert  Scott; 
Frank  M.  Sparks;   D.  J.  Sweeney;   William  Jewett  Tucker,  D.D.,  LL.D.;   Wilfred  Mark  Webb,  F.L.S.,  F.R.M.S. 

PUBLISHERS 

Foreign:  Messrs.  W.  H.  Allen  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  George  Allen  &  Unwin,  Ltd.;  Balliere.  Tindall  &  Cox;  B.  T.  Batsford, 
Ltd.;  G.  Bell  &  Sons,  Ltd.;  A.  and  C.  Black,  Ltd.;  Blackie  &  Son,  Ltd.;  The  British  Museum;  James  Brown  &  Son 
(The  Nautical  Press);  Burns,  Oates  &  Washbourne,  Ltd.;  Cambridge  Antiquarian  Society;  Cassell  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  Honors 
Champion;  Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd.;  Chatto  &  Windus;  Clarendon  Press;  Wm.  Collins  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  Commercial 
Press,  Ltd.;  Constable  &  Co.;  The  Contemporary  Review;  Cornish  Brothers,  Ltd.;  J.  M.  Dent  &  Sons,  Ltd.;  Duck- 
worth &  Co.;  The  Fortnightly  Review;  Alexander  Gardner;  The  Hakluyt  Society;  George  C.  Harrap  &  Co.,  Ltd.; 
Harrison  &  Sons,  Ltd.;  Wm.  Heinemann;  His  Majesty's  .Stationery  Office;  Hodder  &  Stoughton;  The  Institute  of  Ja- 
maica; T.  C.  &  E.  C.  Jack;  P.  S.  King. &  Son,  Ltd.;  T.  Werner  Laurie,  Ltd.;  The  London  Times;  Luzac  &  Co.;  Mac- 
Lehose,  Jackson  &  Co.;  Maunsel  &  Roberts,  Ltd.;  The  Medici  Society;  .Andrew  Melrose,  Ltd.;  Methuen  &  Co.,  Ltd.; 
John  Murray;  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons;  Oxford  University  Press;  Leonard  Parsons,  Ltd.;  Keegan  Paul  Trench;  George 
Philip  &  Son,  Ltd.;  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons;  Probsthain  &  Co.;  The  Round  Table;  George  Routledge  &  Sons,  Ltd.;  Samp- 
son Low,  Marston  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  Sands  &  Co.;  Seeley,  Service  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  Sidgwick  &  Jackson,  Ltd.;  Simpkin,  Mar- 
shall Hamilton,  Kent  &  Co.,  Ltd.;  Skeffington  &  Son,  Ltd.;  The  Specialty  Press;  Edward  Stanford,  Ltd.;  W.  Thacker 
&  Co.;   T.  Fisher  Unwin;    Watts  &  Co.;    Wells,  Gardner,  Darton  &  Co.,  Ltd.;    Williams  &  Norgate. 

American:  Messrs.  Abingdon  Press;  Academy  of  Political  Science  in  the  City  of  New  York;  Aeronautical  Chamber  of 
Comme.rce;  Ally n  &  Bacon;  H.  Altemus  Co. ;  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science;  .'Vmerican  AssociatioD 
for  International  Conciliation;  American  Book  Co.;  The  American  City;  American  Civil  Liberties  Union;  American 
Geographical  Society;  American  Historical  Review;  American  Humane  Association;  American  Institute  of  Criminal 
Law  and  Criminology;  American  Issue  Publishing  Co.;  American  Museum  of  Natural  History;  American  Peace  So- 
ciety; American  Philosophical  Society;  American  Political  Science  Review;  American  Review  of  Reviews;  American 
Social  Hygiene  Association;  American  Society  of  International  Law;  American  Tract  Society;  The  W.  H.  Anderson 
Co.;  The  Anti-Saloon  League  of  .\merica;  Benjamin  S.  Appelstein,  City  Librarian,  Baltimore  (for  the  Baltimore  Book); 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.;  Arkansas  Historical  Association;  Art  and  Archaeology;  Asia  Publishing  Co.;  The  Atlantic  Monthly; 
Richard  G.  Badger;  Edwin  Swift  Balch;  Bankers  Trust  Co.;  Banks  &  Co.;  Banks  Law  Publishing  Co.;  G.  Banta  Pub- 
lishing Co.;  The  A.  S.  Barnes  Co.;  George  Barrie's  Sons;  Matthew  Bender  &  Co.;  Edward  Lyman  Bill,  Inc.;  Bobbs- 
Merrill  Co.;    Boni  &  Liveright;    Boston  City  Planning  Board;    R.  R.  Bowker  Co.;    The  Bradley -Garretson  Co.,  Ltd.; 

xiv 


Acknowledgments 

Brentano's;  Nicholas  L.  Brown;  The  Burrows  Brothers  Co.;  Callaghan  &  Co.;  Canadian  Official  Publications;  The 
Canadian  Annual  Review  of  Public  Affairs;  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace;  Central  Law  Journal  Co.; 
The  Century  Co.;  The  Century  History  Co.;  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  ol  New  York;  Charity  Organization 
Society  of  the  City  of  New  York;  The  Christian  Herald;  The  Christian  Science  Monitor;  Citizens'  Union  of  the  City 
of  New  York;  The  Arthur  H.  Clark  Co.;  Columbia  University  Press:  The  Co-operative  League  of  America;  Crane  & 
Co.;  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co.;  Detroit  Board  of  Commerce;  Detroit  Bureau  of  Governmental  Research;  Philip  R.  Dillon 
Publishing  Co.;  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.;  Dodge  Publishing  Co.;  M.  A.  Donohue  &  Co.;  George  H.  Doran  Co.;  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.;  Dutton  &  Co.;  The  Elm  Tree  Press;  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America;  Ginn  &  Co.; 
Glasgow,  Brook  &  Co.;  The  Goodhue  Co.;  The  H.  W.  Gray  Co.;  E.  P.  Greer;  Harper  &  Brothers;  Harvard  Univer- 
sity Press;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.;  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co.;  B.  Herder  Book  Co.;  Hinds,  Hayden  &  Eldredge, 
Inc.;  Historical  Department  of  Iowa;  Henry  Holt  &  Co.;  The  Home  Market  Club;  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.;  B.  W. 
Huebsch,  Inc.;  Illinois  State  Historical  Library;  The  Independent;  Industrial  Management;  International  Journal  of 
Ethics;  International  Trade  Press;  George  W.  Jacobs  &  Co.;  Johns  Hopkins  Press;  Journal  of  Education;  Journal  of 
Geography:  Journal  of  International  Relations;  Joseph  A.  Judd  Publishing  Co.;  P.  J.  Kenedy  &  Sons;  Mitchell  Ken- 
nerley;  Charles  H.  Kerr  &  Co.;  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  Inc.;  Korean  National  Association  of  America;  John  Lane  Co.;  La 
Salle  E.xtension  University;  Lawyers'  Cooperative  Publishing  Co.;  Lewis  Historical  Publishing  Co.;  A.  A.  Lindsay  Pub- 
lishing Co.;  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.;  Little  Brown  &  Co.;  The  Living  Age  Co.;  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.;  John  W.  Luce 
&  Co.;  Robert  M.  McBride  &  Co.;  A.  C.  McClurg  Co.;  Thomas  F.  McGrath;  The  Macmillan  Co.;  A.  M.  Marton; 
Charles  E-  Merrill  Co.;  Methodist  Book  Concern;  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  Publishing  House  of;  Missis- 
sippi Historical  Society;  Moffat,  Yard  &  Co.;  Barry  Mohun;  Munn  &  Co.  (The  Scientific  American);  Munson  Press 
Co.;  Mnseum  of  Fine  Arts  (Boston);  The  Nation  Press;  National  Housing  Association;  National  Industrial  Confer- 
ence Board;  National  Municipal  League:  Neale  Publishing  Co.;  Nebraska  State  Historical  Society;  Thomas  Nelson  & 
Sons;  The  New  Republic;  New  York  Times  Co.;  Open  Court  Publishing  Co.;  The  Outlook  Co. ;  The  Page  Co.;  Paine 
Publishing  Co.;  Pan  American  Union;  Park  Institute  of  America;  Pennsylvania  Prison  Society;  The  Philadelphia 
Museums;  Le  Roy  Phillips;  The  Pilgrim  Press;  The  Prang  Co.;  Princeton  University  Press;  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  Educational  Division,  Department  of  Missions;  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons;  Rand  McNally  &  Co.;  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Co.;  J.  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.;  Rudder  Publishing  Co.;  Russell  Sage  Foundation;  G.  Schirmer.  Inc.;  The  Schulte 
Press;  Scott,  Foresman'&  Co.;  The  A.  A.  Scranton  Co.;  Charles  Scribner's  Sons;  Silver  Burdett  &  Co.;  Simmons- 
Boardman  Publishing  Co.;  Small  Maynard  &  Co.;  United  States  National  Museum;  The  State  Co.;  State  Historical 
Society  of  Iowa;  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin;  F,  C.  Stechert  Co.  Inc.;  Stewart  &  Kidd  Co.;  Frederick  A. 
Stokes  Co.;  Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Missions;  George  Sully  &  Co.;  The  Survey  Associates  Inc.; 
Mrs.  Charles  F.  Taylor  (lor  The  Equity  Series);  The  Torch  Press;  The  Truth  Seeker  Co.;  The  Tuttle  Morehouse  & 
Taylor  Co.;  United  States  Government;  United  States  Publishers  Association;  United  Typothetae  of  America;  Uni- 
versity of  California;  University  of  Chicago;  University  of  Missouri;  University  of  Southern  California;  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand  Co.;  James  T.  White  &  Co.;  Williams  &  Wilkins  Co.;  The  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.;  The  John  C.  Winston  Co.; 
Women's  International  League  for  Peace  and  Freedom;  World  Book  Co.;  World  Peace  Foundation;  Yale  Law  Journal; 
Yale  University  Press. 

A  full  list  of  books  quoted  from  will  be  found  in  the  final  volume. 
The  Ust  will  include  authors'  and  publishers'  names. 


XV 


LTST   OF   MAPS    IN   VOLUME   I 

1.  AFRICA,  iqi4,  political See  Africa 

2.  AFRICA,  mocleni  railroad  lines See  Africa 

3.  AFRICA,  political  (colored) See  Africa 

[Editor's  Note:  This  map  of  the  Dark  Continent  now  has  more  definite  and  accurately  determined 
frontiers  than  that  of  Asia,  and  it  is  possible  to  show  the  actual  political  subdivisions  as  they  now  stand. 
It  will  be  noted  that  Abyssinia  and  Liberia  arc  the  only  remaining  indejjendent  states,  and  that  all  the 
rest  of  the  continent  has  passed  under  the  sovereignty  or  political  control  of  the  various  European  powers. 
However,  the  World  War  brought  about  several  interesting  changes  in  the  i^olitical  map  of  the  continent. 
Togoland  and  the  Kamerun  (Cameroon)  were  di\'ided  between  France  and  England,  the  former  country 
securing  the  greater  part  of  both  the  former  German  colonies,  German  Southwest  Africa  was  given  to 
the  Union  of  South  Africa  and  German  East  Africa,  renamed  Tangamdka  Territor\',  to  Great  Britain. 
Tanganyika  Territor.v,  however,  is  not  exactly  coterminous  with  the  former  German  East  Africa  because 
a  district  in  the  northwestern  part  was  entrusted  to  Belgium.  All  these  transfers  of  territory  were  made 
under  the  new  system  of  mandates  under  the  League  of  Nations.  The  reader  shoidd  also  notice  that 
the  new  name  Kenya  Territon,-  is  now  ofhcially  applied  to  the  former  British  East  African  protectorate. 
The  recent  railroad  development  in  .Africa  and  particularly  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  will  be  found  on  a 
special  black  and  white  map  (see  number  2  above).] 

4.  ALASKA,  political  (colored) • See  Alaska 

5.  AMERICA,  voyages  of  discover}',  1492-1611  (colored) See  America 

[Editor's  Note:  A  map  drawn  on  the  Mercator  projection  listing  the  voyages  of  discovery  and 
exploration  from  1492  to  i6ii.  The  voyage  of  Magellan  is  omitted  because  it  was  only  of  incidental  im- 
portance to  America  proper.  In  most  cases  routes  as  laid  down  are,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  only  of 
approximate  accuracy.  The  historical  importance  of  the  map  is  twofold.  In  the  first  place  it  reveals 
the  progress  of  geographical  knowledge  of  the  western  hemisphere  as  successive  voyages  of  e.xploration 
changed  the  preconceived  notions  of  Europe  regarding  the  New  World.  In  the  second  place,  since  dis- 
covery and  exploration  were  generally  acknowledged  to  be  a  proper  basis  for  a  claim  to  possession  of  ter- 
ritory under  international  law,  this  map  reveals  in  a  general  way  how  the  early  partition  of  America 
among  the  European  powers  was  effected.  Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  voyage  of  Cabral,  the 
Portuguese  na\igator,  whose  accidental  encountering  of  the  eastern  coast  of  South  .\merica  on  his  voyage 
to  India  by  way  of  the  (^ape  of  Good  Hope,  reinforced  the  Portuguese  claim  to  the  lands  which  were  later 
known  as  Brazil.] 

6.  AMERICA,  colonial  grants  (colored)  ...     A See  America 

7.  ANTARCTIC  REGIONS  (colored)  .'.... \ See  Antarctic  Explor.\tion 

8.  ARABIA  (colored) See  Arabia- 

[Editor's  Note:  No  part  of  the  world  had  its  political  geography  changed  more  completely  by  the 
World  War  than  Arabia.  The  independent  Kingdom  of  Uejdx  and  the  Zionist  state  in  Palestine,  under 
British  mandate,  no  longer  appear  on  the  map  as  Turkish  territory;  while  to  the  northeast  the  new 
Kingdom  of  Irak,  with  its  capital  at  Bagdad,  was  organized  by  the  British,  acting  as  mandatory  for 
Mesopotamia.  The  boundaries  of  Palestine  and  of  Syria  (under  French  mandate)  were  not  entirely  set- 
tled by  the  early  part  of  1922.] 

9.  ARCTIC  REGIONS  (colored) .    .     . ' Sec  Arc:tic  Exploration 

10.     ASIA,  political  (colored) See  Asia 

[Editor's  Note:  A  map  representing  the  political  divisions  of  the  continent  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1922.  Many  of  the  frontiers  which  were  disturbed  by  the  World  War  were  still  purely  conjectural. 
Those  of  Armenia,  although  decided  by  President  Wilson  when  they  were  referred  to  him  by  the  League 
of  Nations,  have  ne\'er  l)een  put  into  effect  because  of  unsettled  conditions  in  .Asia  Minor.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  froiUiers  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  where  the  new  kingdom  of  Irak  has  just  been  cstab- 

xvi 


LIST  OF  MAPS  IN   VOLUME  I 

lished.  The  latest  information  available  regarding  the  boundaries  of  these  regions  will  be  found  in  the 
map  of  Arabia.  Even  less  clear  is  the  situation  in  the  Far  East  where  the  status  of  Mongolia  has  yet 
to  be  decided,  and  the  territorial  extension  of  the  new  Far  Eastern  republic  in  eastern  Siberia  has  fluc- 
tuated from  month  to  month.  The  boundaries  of  the  Chinese  republic  are,  therefore,  left  as  they  were 
at  the  time  of  its  establishment  in  191 2.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  the  expansion  of  Japanese 
influence  in  Manchuria  and  Inner  Mongolia,  because  it  lacks  a  definite  territorial  basis.  The  indefinite- 
ness  of  our  information  regarding  Persia  also  justifies  the  reproduction  of  the  map  of  that  country  as  it 
was  in  igi4.  except  that  the  Russian  and  British  spheres  of  influence  given  on  the  older  maps  have  now 
disappeared.] 

11.  EGYPTIAN,  ASSYRIAN,  BABYLONIAN  AND  MEDIAN  POWERS  (colored)   .     .     .  See  Assyria 

12.  ANCIENT  ATHENS  (colored) See  Athens 

13.  AUSTR.'^LIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND,  political  (colored) See  Australia 

14.  AUSTRIA,  four  de\e!opment  maps  (colored) See  Austria 

15.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  NATIONALITIES  IN  SOUTHEASTERN  EUROPE  (colored) 

See  Balkan  States 
[Editor's  Note:  This  ethnographic  map  of  Southeastern  Europe  reveals  the  tangle  of  races  in  the 
former  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  and  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  which  goes  far  to  explain  the  causes 
of  the  Balkan  Wars  of  1912-1Q13  and  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  in  1914.  The  extraordinary  com- 
plexit)'  of  the  Macedonian  problem,  which  more  than  anything  else  produced  the  Balkan  Wars,  is  obvious 
from  what  the  map  reveals  of  the  racial  intermixture  in  that  former  Turkish  pro\-ince.  It  is  also  appar- 
ent how  strong  was  the  argument,  based  upon  race,  which  induced  the  Peace  Conference  at  Paris  to  fix 
the  limits  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Cro-ts,  and  Slovenes,  excluding  Italy  from  the  greater  part  of 
the  eastern  Adriatic  littoral.    The  claim  of  Rumania  upon  Transylvania  is  shown  by  the  common  color.) 

16.  BALKAN  STATES,  political  and  physical  (colored) See  Balkan  States 

[Editor's  Note:  The  boundaries  of  the  Balkan  States  and  Hungarj'  were  laid  down  by  the  treaties  of 
St.  Germain,  Neuilly,  Trianon,  and  Sevres.'  These  treaties  superseded  the  settlements  made  at  London 
and  Bukarest,  at  the  end  of  the  Balkan  Wars  of  1912-1913,  and  represent  an  attempt  to  make  poHtical 
frontiers  conform  with  racial  and  natural  boundaries.  The  greatest  difficulty  was  encountered  in  deter- 
mining the  territorial  limits  of  Albania  and  the  Turkish  frontier  in  Thrace,  which  are  admittedly  of  a 
provisional  character.  The  partition  of  jMacedonia  among  Bulgaria,  Greece,  and  Serbia  followed  lines 
of  nationality  only  approximately.] 


XVll 


ILLUSTRATIONS   IN   VOLUME   I 

COLORED  FRONTISPIECE 
The  Casa  Grande,  Arizona 

INSERTS  IN  DUOTONE 

Court  of  the  Lions  in  the  Alhambra,  Spain See  Alhambra 

American  Explorers See  America 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims See  America 

Noted  American  Writers See  American  Literature 

Indian  Architecture See  Architecture 

Types  of  Italian  Architecture See  Arciiitecture 

Examples  of  Modern  American  Architecture See  Architecture 

Types  of  Aeroplanes See  Aviation 

Life  in  Ancient  Athens See  Athens 

TEXT  CUTS 

Fountains  Abbey,  England See  Abbey:  Architectural  features 

Plan  of  Fountains  Abbey See  Abbey;   Architectural  features 

Abyssinian  Councillors  in  Ceremonial  Robes See  Abyssinia:    1907-1920 

The  Throne-room  at  Cnossus See  Aegean  Civilization:  Cretan  area 

Arch^ological  Findings See  Aegean  Civilization:   Minoan  Age:   Characteristics 

Jamrud  Fort  at  Khyber  Pass See  Afghanistan:    1838-1842 

Dr.  David  Livingstone See  Africa:   1855 

Sir  Henry  M.  Stanley See  Africa:   1873-1875 

Africa  in  1914,  Political See  Africa:   1914:   European  Sovereignty 

Modern  Railroad  Lines  in  Africa See  Africa:   1914-1920 

Types  of  Early  Agricultural  Implements See  Agriculture:  Medieval 

Levelling  a  Far  Eastern  Rice-field  for  Sowing See  Agriculture:   Modem 

Combined  Reaper  and  Thresher,  Drawn  by  a  Tractor See  Agriculture:   Modern 

Wallis  Tractor  Pulling  Case  Disc  Plow  and  Harrow See  Agriculture;   Modern 

Irrigation  Trenches  in  Southern  California See  Agriculture:  Modern 

Types  of  Totem  Poles,  Alaska See  Alaska 

Group  of  Modern  Albanians See  Albania:  Medieval 

Examples  of  Early  Alphabets See  Alphabet 

Road  over  the  St.  Gotthakd  Pass See  Alps 

Cliff  Dwellings  in  Mesa  Verde  National  Park See  America:   Prehistoric 

Landing  of  Columbus See  America:   1492 

First  Map  Showing  American  Continent See  America;   1499-1500 

Henry  Hudson  and  Son  Cast  Adrift See  America;   1609 

Movement  of  American  Expeditionary  Forces  to  Europe    .  See  American  E.xpeditionary  Forces 

Abandoning  the  Sinking  "Endurance" See  Antarctic  Exploration:   1901-1909 

Shackleton,  Amundsen,  and  Scott See  Antarctic  Exploration:   1910-1913 

Amundsen  Taking  Observations  at  the  South  Pole     .    .     .      See  Antarctic  Exploration;   1911-1912 
Compamson  of  Skeletons  of  Vertebrates See  Anthropology:  Evolutionary  Theories 

xviii 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN   VOLUME  I 

Ancient  Roman  Aqueduct,  Segovia,  Spain See  Aqueducts 

Catskill  Aqueduct,  New  York See  Aqueducts 

Tomb  of  Eve  at  Djeddah  (Hejaz) See  Arabia:   Fusion  of  Races 

Emir  Feisal,  King  of  Irak See  Arabia:   1918 

Removing  Specimens  Excavated  from  Thebes See  Archjeology 

Excavations  at  Thebes,  1918-1919 See  Archaeology 

Excavations  in  Ancient  Babylon .      See  Archseology 

Stonehenge See  Architecture:   Prehistoric 

Tejiple  or  Luxor  at  Thebes See  Architecture:  Oriental:   Egypt 

Temple  of  Heaven,  Forbidden  City,  Peking See  Architecture:  Oriental:   China 

The  Parthenon See  Architecture:   Classic:   Greek 

The  Acropolis  of  Athens See  Architecture:   Classic:   Greek 

Excavated  Street  in  Pompeii See  Architecture:   Classic:  Rome 

Interior  of  St.  Sophia See  Architecture:   Classic:   Byzantine 

Michael  Angelo's  Style  of  Renaissance See  Architecture:   Renaissance:   Italy 

Peary,  The  "Roosevelt"  and  Stefansson See  Arctic  Exploration:    1886-1909 

Members  of  Peary's  Polar  Expedition See  Arctic  Exploration:    1886-1909 

Assyrian  Palace,  Nineveh See  Assyria:  Early  History 

King  Tiglath-Pileser  in  His  Chariot See  Assyria:   Later  Empire 

Palace  of  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  705  b.c See  Assyria:   Later  Empire 

Assur-Nazir-Pal  on  his  Throne See  Assyria:   Archjeological  remains 

Copernicus See  Astronomy:   130-1609 

Mount  Wilson  Solar  Observatory See  Astronomy:   Photographic 

Telescope  Tower,  Pasadena,  California See  Astronomy:   Measuring  stars 

Porch  of  the  Maidens See  Athens:  B.C.  461-431 

Temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus See  Athens:  b.c.  461-431 

Temple  of  Nike  (Victory) See  Athens:  b.c.  461-431 

William  Morris  Hughes See  Australia:   1916-1917 

Rudolf  I See  Austria:    1 246-1 282 

Maximilian  I See  Austria:   1471-1491 

Charles  V See  Austria:   1519-1555 

Maria  Theresa See  .Austria:   1740  (Oct.) 

Dissolution  of  Austria-Hungary See  Austria-Hungary:   1918 

Types  of  Early  Attempts  at  F'lying  Machines See  Aviation:   Balloons  and  Dirigibles 

Spherical  Balloons See  Aviation:   Balloons  and  Dirigibles:    1890-1913 

Turtle  Observation  Balloon See  Aviation;   Balloons  and  Dirigibles:    1896-1914 

A  Zeppelin  in  Flight.     Count  Zeppelin    .    ...     See  Aviation:   Balloons  and  Dirigibles:   1896-1914 

Otto  Lilienthal  in  his  Glider See  Aviation:   Airplanes  and  Air  Service:   1889-1900 

Orville  and  Wilbur  Wright  and  Machine  in  First  Long  Flight 

See  Aviation:  Airplanes  and  Air  Service:    1896-1910 

First  Aerial  Crossing  of  the  Channel See  Aviation:  Important  Flights:   1909 

NC4  AT  Lisbon  after  Flight  from  Newfoundland   .     .    See  Aviation:  Important  Flights:   1919  May 
ViCKERS-ViMY  Plane  as  it  Landed  at  Clifden,  Ireland 

See  Aviation:   Important  Flights:    1919  June 
British  Dirigible  R34  at  Mineola  after  Transatlantic  Flight 

See  Aviation:   Important  Flights:    1919  July 

Temple  of  the  Sun  and  Jupiter .     .       Sec  Baalbek 

Excavations  at  Babylon See  Babylon:   Excavations 

Bagdad  Railroad See  Bagdad  Railway 

Balkan  States  after  Treaty  of  Berlin  and  after  Balkan  Wars     .    .    See  Balkan  States:   1913-1914 

xix 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES  ON  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF 
MATERIAL  AND  METHOD  OF  USING  THE  EARNED  SYSTEM 

Before  beginning  to  examine  or  use  the  volumes,  be  sure  to  read  through  carefully  the  following  notes. 
A  few  moments'  attention  will  show  that  the  unique  combination  of  alphabetical  and  chronological  ar- 
rangement, with  thorough  cross-reference,  makes  possible: 

(a)     Instant  accessibility  of  any  specific  topic; 

(6)     Continuous  reading  of  any  nation's  history; 

(c)     Easy  tracing  of  the  inter-relations  of  history. 

A.  Alphabeticai,  Arrangement  of  Subject. — Filing  Rules. — The  primary  arrangement  is  alpha- 
betical, the  index  being  embodied  in  the  work  encyclopedic  fashion.  (This  is  the  only  respect  in  which 
there  is  a  resemblance  to  any  encyclopedia.) 

The  latest  library  filing  methods  have  been  followed.  For  example:  (a)  Hyphenated  words  are 
considered  as  one  word,  thus,  "ANTI-FEDERALISTS"  follows  "ANTIETAM";  but  separated  words 
are  arranged  by  the  first  word,  so  that  "NEW  ZEALAND"  precedes  "NEWFOUNDLAND."  (6) 
The  rule  of  person,  place  and  thing  is  observed,  as  (i)  LONDON,  Jack;  (2)  LONDON,  a  city;  (3) 
LONDON,  passenger  steamer,  (c)  M'  Mc  or  Mac  are  all  arranged  as  if  spelled  Mac.  (d)  Proper  names 
in  order  of  rank,  as  follows:  CHARLES,  St.;  CHARLES,  pope;  CHARLES,  emperor;  CHARLES, 
king;  CHARLES,  duke;  CHARLES,  John;  CHARLES  ALBERT;  CHARLES  OF  BURGUNDY. 
For  subject  headings  the  American  Library  Association  and  Library  of  Congress  practice  has  been  the 
guide,  with  few  exceptions.  The  texts,  in  full  or  in  part,  or  summaries  of  national  constitutions,  will  be 
found  immediately  following  the  national  histories.  For  example,  following  the  history  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  is  "UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  Constitution  of"  under  which  heading  is 
the  text  in  full.  Historical  documents  are  usually  placed  with  the  history  of  the  country  or  movement  to 
which  they  belong  and  in  their  chronological  places,  but  some  of  the  outstanding  documents  are  to  be  found 
under  their  own  headings,  such  as  "Berlin,  'Treaty  of";  "Versailles,  Treaty  of".  All  of  them  are,  of  course, 
properly  indexed. 

B.  Chronological  and  Other  Arrangement  under  Subjects.— Under  most  of  the  subjects  the 
topics  are  arranged  in  chronological  order,  so  that  one  may  read  continuously  the  entire  history  of  any 
nation  or  movement.  Each  topic  has  a  suitable  heading  in  bold-face  type  which  catches  the  eye  instantly. 
For  example  under  AUSTRIA  one  of  the  topic-headings  is  as  follows: 

1848-1849. — Revolutionary  risings. — Bombard- 
ment of  Prague  and  Vienna. — Abdication  of  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand. — Accession  of  Francis 
Joseph. — The  Hungarian  struggle  for  independ- 
ence. 

There  are  some  necessary  exceptions  to  the  strict  chronological  arrangement  of  the  topics,  as  some 
subjects  require  alphabetical,  topical  or  logical  arrangement  and  in  certain  cases  a  combination  of  some 
or  even  all  of  these.    As  examples: 

ADRIATIC  QUESTION  has  a  topical  arrangement  of  topic-headings,  such  as: 

Friction  between  Italy  and  Jugo-Slavia. 
Treaty  of  Rapallo,  Nov.  12,  1920. 
Problem  of  Italy's  new  frontiers. 
Jugo-Slav  contention. 

Torre-Trumbitch  agreement.  —  Congress  at 
Rome  (April  8-10,  1918).— Pact  of  Rome. 

.£GEAN  CIVILIZATION  has  three  logical  main  divisions  indicated  by  center  column  heads: 

EXCAVATIONS  AND  ANTIQUITIES 

NEOLITHIC  AGE 

MINOAN  AGE 

Under  each  of  these  divisions  are  topic-headings  chronologically  arranged,  such  as 

B.  C.  3000-2200.— Early  Minoan  Age. 
B.  C.  2200-1600.— Middle   Minoan  age. 
B.  C.   1200-750. — Assimilation  of  Minoan  cul- 
ture by  people  of  Hellaa. 

AFRICA  also  has  logical  main  divisions: 

GEOGRAPHIC  DESCRIPTION 

RACES  OF  AFRICA 

ANCIENT  AND  MEDIEVAL  CIVILIZATION 

MODERN   EUROPEAN   OCCUPATION 

xxi 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES 

Topic-headings  are  in  logical  order  under  some  of  these  division  heads  and  in  chronological  sequence 
under  others.    For  illustration,  under  the  third  division  appear: 

Development  of  Egyptian  civilization. 
Carthaginian  empire. 
Roman  occupation. 
Arab  occupation. 

Some  topics  require  even  further  division,  as  for  example  under  the  same  subject,  AFRICA: 

Division-heading:  MODERN    EUROPEAN    OCCUPATION 

Topic-heading:  Later    19th    century. — Partitioning    of    Africa 

among  European  powers. 
Sub-topic-heading:       Congo  Basin. 

HISTORY  has  several  main  divisions  and  these,  as  well  as  the  topics  under  them,  are  arranged  for  the 
most  part  in  logical  order,  but,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  adhering  to  strict  chronological  order,  the  topic- 
headings  are  given  numerals,  as  an  aid  to  reference.  Thus  index  entries  arising  from  this  subject  will  be 
found  referring  to  such  topics  as: 

1.  Definitions 

2.  Philosophy  of  history 

11.  Development  of  chronology 

16.  Greek  historians 

32.  Modern  scientific  historians 

34.  New  orientation  of  history 

WORLD  WAR  is  a  subject  which  comprises  considerably  over  a  thousand  pages  and  requires  special 
treatment.  While  it  was  possible  to  construct  a  chronological  table  of  war  events  (q.v.),  the  descriptive 
matter  could  not  be  arranged  in  that  order.  This  was  due  not  only  to  the  great  length  of  the  article  but 
to  its  complexity.  A  scheme  of  numerals  and  letters  was  devised,  full  explanation  of  which  will  be  found 
at  the  beginning  of  the  article. 

ARBITRATION  AND  CONCILIATION,  Industrial,  naturally  falls  into  alphabetical  main  di- 
visions by  countries,  with  chronological  topic-headings  thereunder. 

C.  Page-headings. — To  facilitate  reference,  the  page-headings  throughout  the  work  indicate  dates 
wherever  possible  and,  in  italics,  the  principal  topics  on  the  pages.    For  example,  the  page-heading: 

AUSTRIA,  1798-1806  AusterlUz  AUSTRIA,  1806 

D.  Rule  for  Reference. — Each  specific  topic  treated  under  a  larger  subject  appears  in  the  general 
alphabetical  index,  where  it  is  followed  by  explicit  directions  leading  to  the  place  where  the  treatment  will 
be  found.  Thus  to  find  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  one  does  not  turn  to  Austria  and  search  through  its  fifty 
pages;  he  should  turn  alphabetically  to  .\usterlitz,  where  he  will  find 

AUSTERLITZ,  Battle  of.    See  .Austria:  i7q8-i8o6. 

Turning  then,  as  directed,  to  AUSTRIA,  the  dated  page-headings  guide  him  quickly  to  1798-1806, 
as  above,  under  which  the  required  topic  is  instantly  found. 

The  simple  rule  for  locating  any  desired  topic  will  now  be  clear: 

Turn  alphabetically  to  the  specific  topic.  Either  the  required  treatment,  or  specific  directions  leading 
to  it  will  be  found. 

E.  Groxjping  of  subjects. — Many  events  are  of  such  a  character  that  the  reader's  interest  is  served 
by  listing  them  in  groups,  in  addition  to  the  indexing  of  each  separate  item.  In  such  cases  they  are 
brought  together  under  the  class  title,  as,  for  instance:  .Abdications;  Armistices;  .Assassinations;  Battles 
(famous);  Cities  (abandoned  or  destroyed) ,  Clubs;  Coalitions  and  alliances;  Codes;  Congresses;  Con- 
spiracies; Constitutions;  Councils  of  the  church;  Documents;  Executions  (notable);  Genealogical  tables; 
Impeachments;  Laws;  Leagues;  Massacres;  Parties  and  factions;  Religions;  Treaties;  Wars. 

F.  Genealogical  tables. — The  lineage  of  each  historic  ruling  family  is  to  be  found  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  with  which  it  was  most  closely  connected.  For  list  and  index  of  these  tables,  see 
Genealogical  tables. 

G.  Non-repetition. — Inter-relations  of  History. — Cross-references. — There  is  practically  no  rep- 
etition in  the  work.  A  topic  that  is  part  of  the  history  of  two  or  more  countries  is  treated  fully  once  only, 
where  it  most  properly  belongs  and  in  the  connection  which  shows  its  antecedents  and  consequences  best. 
It  is  then  cross-referenced  to  every  other  point  where  it  is  of  interest  and  multiple  index  entries  made. 
Economics  of  this  character  bring  into  the  compass  of  twelve  volumes  a  body  of  history  that  would  need 
twice  the  number,  at  least,  for  equal  fullness  on  the  monographic  plan  of  encyclopedic  works.  An  illustra- 
ion  will  make  clear  the  method  and  its  unique  exhibit  of  the  Inter-relations  of  History. 

A  very  complete  and  interesting  account  of  the  dispute  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
in  Jefferson's  administration,  over  the  impressment  of  .American  seamen,  is  given  under  the  following  sub- 
ject and  topic  headings: 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

1804-1809.— Difficulties  with  Great  Britain.— 
Neutral  rights. — The  right  of  search. — Impress- 
ment.— Blockade  by  orders  in  council  and  the 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees.  Embargo  and  non- 
intercourse. 

1808. — The  efiect  of  the  embargo. 

xxii 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES 

It  is  cross-referenced  from  France  and  England  and  also  from  Admiralty  law,  International  law,  Neu- 
trality, etc.,  in  the  proper  chronological  places  as  follows: 

ENGLAND 
1804-1809.— Difficulties  with  the  United  States. 
— Neutral  rights. — Right  of  search  and  impress- 
ment.— The  American  embargo.     See  U.  S.  A.: 
1804-1809;  and  1808. 

FRANCE 
1807-09. — The  American  embargo  and  non-in- 
tercourse  laws.     See   U.  S.  A.:    1804-1809;   and 
1808. 

ADMIRALTY  LAW 
1804-1809.— United  States  and  England  differ 
over  impressment.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1804-1809. 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW 
1804-09. — Right  of  blockade. — British  impress- 
ment of  United  States  seamen.     See  U.  S.  A.: 

1804-1809. 

NEUTRALITY 
1804-1809.— Relations    of   United   States   amd 
England.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1804-1809. 

It  is  separately  indexed  as  follows: 

BERLIN  DECREE.  See  France:  1806-1810 
and  U.  S.  A.:  1804-1809. 

BLOCKADE,  Paper.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1804-1809. 

IMPRESSMENT  OF  AMERICAN  SEA- 
MEN BY  BRITISH  NAVY.  See  V.S.  A.:  1804- 
1809;  and  1812. 

MILAN  DECREE.  See  France:  1806-18:0; 
also  U.  S.  A.:  1804-1809. 

NON-INTERCOURSE  BILL,  United  States. 
See  U.  S    A.:  1804-1809;  1808-1810. 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL:  Blockade  by  Brit- 
ish. See  France:  1806-18:0;  and  U.  S.  A.:  :8o4- 
i8og. 

RIGHT  OF  SEARCH.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1804- 
i8og;  and  :8:2. 

SEARCH,  Right  of.  See  U.  S.  A.:  :8o4-:8o9; 
and  :8:2. 

Cross-references  are  also  inserted  at  the  end  of  numberless  subjects  and  topics,  for  the  purpose  of 
guiding  the  reader  to  further  material  related  to  the  subject  upon  which  he  is  reading. 
Thus,  under  AUSTRIA,  at  the  end  of  the  text  on  topic: 

1291-1349. — Loss  and  recovery  of  imperialcrown 
appears:  — See  also  Germany:  :3:4-:347. 

Also,  as  an  aid,  wherever  there  is  an  allusion  to  a  movement,  or  event,  upon  which  information  is 
available  elsewhere  in  the  work,  a  reference  is  inserted  immediately  after  the  allusion.  Thus,  under 
AUSTRIA: 

1848-1849.  —  Revolutionary  risings.  —  "News 
came  of  the  flight  of  Louis  Philippe  from  Paris  [see 
France:   :84:-:848;  1848]." 

In  this  way,  through  the  index  entries,  cross-references  and  references,  the  entire  text  is  tied  together 
in  one  harmonious  whole  and  nothing  is  buried. 

H.  Spelung  and  Accents. — The  style  or  system  of  accentuation  adopted  for  the  work  is,  in  general, 
that  in  everyday  use  in  English  language  books  and  periodicals.  The  essential  French,  Italian  and  Span- 
ish accents  and  the  German  umlaut  are,  of  course,  rigidly  adhered  to.  In  the  transliteration  of  words  and 
proper  names  taken  from  the  Slavonic,  Arabic,  Turkish  and  other  oriental  languages,  the  style  of  the 
author  quoted  has  been  respected,  though  in  editorial  matter  and  headings  a  simpler  and  more  representa- 
tive phonetic  rendering  for  English  language  readers  has  occasionally  been  found  desirable.  Webster's  New 
International  Dictionary  (Merriam  series)  has  been  the  authority  for  ordinary  orthography.  In  the  non- 
use  of  capitals  the  modern  library  practice  has  been  our  guide. 

I.  Citation  of  Sources. — Bibliographies. — All  quoted  matter  is  in  quotation  marks,  and  the  source 
is  invariably  cited  in  full.  Abridgment  by  omissions  is  indicated  by  the  usual  omission  marks,  and  occa- 
sional editorial  interpolations  are  inclosed  in  brackets.  Abridgment  by  paraphrasing  has  been  resorted  to 
only  when  unavoidable  and  is  shown  by  interruption  of  quotation  marks.    Bibliographies  for  topics,  as 

xxiii 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES 

well  as  for  the  larger  subjects  will  be  found  in  their  proper  connections.  In  addition,  in  the  last  volume  of 
the  work  there  is  a  carefully  selected  and  classified  bibliography,  and  a  full  list  of  books,  from  which 
selections  have  been  made,  giving  names  of  publishers,  full  names  of  authors,  and  other  useful  informa- 
tion. 

J.  What  the  Work  Is  Not. — The  work  is  first  and  last,  history,  not  science  nor  biography  (except, 
as  in  the  words  of  Carlyle,  "History  is  the  essence  of  innumerable  biographies").  Yet  the  person  who  has 
been  a  maker  of  history,  so  to  speak,  has  his  record  as  such  given  and  his  name  and  brief  facts  and  cross- 
references  are  entered  in  alphabetical  place. 

K.  Free  Editorial  Service. — Our  established  editorial  service  is  always  available  to  the  subscribers  to 
"THE  NEW  L.'VRN^D  HISTORY  FOR  RE.\DY  REFERENCE,  RE.\DING  .^ND  RESEARCH,"— 
which  we  believe  more  than  ever  merits  the  description  given  in  the  earlier  editions  by  many  an  owner, 
viz.,  "the  greatest  saver  of  time  and  money  and  labor  in  the  whole  realm  of  books." 


XXIV 


THE  NEW  LARNED  HISTORY 

FOR  READY  REFERENCE,  READING  AND  RESEARCH 


A 


A,  the  initial  letter  of  the  English  and  almost 
all  other  alphabets.  In  the  Runic  Futhark  alpha- 
bet it  occupies  fourth  place,  while  in  the  Ethiopic 
the  arrangement  differs  again,  "aleph"  being  thir- 
teenth. Since  the  English  alphabet  follows  the 
Latin  directly,  which  in  turn  is  based  on  the  Greek, 
the  letter  "a"  agrees  with  the  Greek  letter  "alpha." 
In  the  Semitic  languages  "aleph"  is  a  consonant, 
although  at  times  it  loses  completely  its  conso- 
nantal quality.  This  explains  the  adoption  of  the 
letter  as  a  vowel  by  the  Greeks,  there  being  no 
corresponding  sound  in  their  language.  The  Phoe- 
nicians called  the  letter  "aleph"  seemingly  because 
of  the  resemblance  of  the  character  to  the  head 
of  an  ox.  Although  nothing  is  known  with  any 
degree  of  certainty  concerning  the  ultimate  origin 
of  this  letter,  in  recent  years,  there  has  been  strong 
advocacy  of  abandoning  the  assumption  first  pro- 
pounded in  i8S9  by  Vicomte  Emanuel  de  Rouge, 
of  immediate  derivation  of  the  Phojnician  or  North 
Semitic  alphabet  from  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  or 
from  Babylonian  cuneiform  characters.  On  the 
other  hand  a  marked  tendency  is  in  evidence  to 
look  for  the  solution  of  the  problem  to  the  later 
Cretan  system  of  writing  transferred  to  Syria  as 
indicated  by  Sir  Arthur  Evans  (Scripla  Minoa, 
iqoq)  or  to  linear  pottery  marks  abundantly  found 
in  many  Mediterranean  countries,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Flinders  Petrie  (Formation  of  the  alpha- 
bet, iQiz).  Stucken  (Das  Alphabet  und  die  Mond- 
stationen,  1913)  traces  the  origin  of  the  Semitic 
alphabet  to  the  signs  of  the  lunar  zodiac. — See  also 
Alphabet. 

A  POSTERIORI  LANGUAGES.  See  Inter- 
national language:  Early  history. 

A  PRIORI  LANGUAGES.  See  International 
language:    Early  history. 

AA,  a  common  name  for  small  rivers  in  Europe. 
Of  the  forty  or  more  of  this  name,  two  of  the  best 
known  are  in  Russia;  two  others,  the  Westphalian 
Aa  and  the  Miinster  Aa,  are  in  Germany. 

AACHEN.     See  Ai.\-la-Chapelle. 

AAHMES.     See  Amasis. 

AALAND  ISLANDS.     See  Aland  Islands. 

AALI,  Mehemet,  Pasha  (1815-1871),  Turkish 
statesman.  Five  times  grand  vizier;  in  1867  was 
appointed  regent  of  Turkey,  during  the  sultan's 
visit  to  Paris;  strong  advocate  of  a  reform  policy. 

AALST.     See  Alost. 

AARAU,  an  important  military  center  and  cap- 
ital of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Aargau,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  .^ar,  at  the  foot  of  the  Jura. 
The  cantonal  library  contains  many  works  relating 
to  Swiss  history,  also  manuscripts  from  the  sup- 
pressed Argovian  monasteries.  The  ancient  for- 
tress of  Aarau  was  taken  by  the  Bernese  in  141 5. 
In  i7q8  it  became  for  a  short  time  the  capital  of 
the  Helvetic  Republic.  Near  by  is  the  ruined 
castle  of  Hapsburg,  the  original  home  of  the 
Hapsburg  house. 


AARAU,  Peace  of  (1712).    See  Switzerland: 

1652-1789. 

AARGAU,  one  of  the  most  northerly  Swiss 
cantons.  Up  to  1415  this  region  was  the  center 
of  Hapsburg  power,  and  there  is  still  to  be  seen, 
near  Brugg,  the  ruined  castle  of  the  Hapsburgs 
as  well  as  the  old  convent  of  Kbnigsfelden  and 
remains  of  the  ancient  Roman  settlement  of  Vin- 
donissa.  The  canton  contains  many  old  castles 
and  former  monasteries;  the  suppression  of  the 
latter  in  1847  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
Sonderbund  War. 

AARON,  in  biblical  history,  brother  of  Moses 
and  his  spokesman  before  Pharaoh.  In  company 
with  Moses,  leader  of  the  Israelites  during  the 
Exodus.  Founder  of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  which 
became  hereditary  in  his  tribe. — See  also  Jews: 
Children  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 

AARSSENS,  Francis  Van  (1572-1641),  Dutch 
diplomat  and  statesman.  Protege  of  Advocate 
Johan  Van  Oldenbarneveldt,  who  sent  him  as  a 
diplomatic  agent  to  the  court  of  France,  and  later 
recalled  him  for  giving  offense  to  the  French 
king;  instrumental  in  condemning  his  aged  bene- 
factor to  death;  ranked  by  Richelieu  among  the 
three  greatest  politicians  of  his  time. 

AB,  the  fifth  month  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical 
year,  and  the  eleventh  (in  intercalary  years  the 
twelfth)  of  the  Jewish  civil  year.  It  corresponds 
approximately  to  the  period  from  July  15  to  August 
15.  On  the  first  day  of  Ab  is  kept  a  fast  com- 
memorating the  death  of  Aaron ;  on  the  ninth,  the 
Black  Fast  bewailing  the  destruction  of  the  First 
Temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (586  B.C.)  and  of  the 
Second  Temple  by  Titus  (A.D.  70).  The  word 
was  adopted  by  the  Jews  after  the  Babylonian 
captivity. 

ABABDA,  a  nomad  African  tribe  of  Hamitic 
stock,  extending  along  the  southern  border  of 
Egypt  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  sea.  In  Roman 
times  they  were  known  as  Gebadei,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  as  Beja.  They  are  noted  as  caravan  guides 
and   trade   carriers. 

ABACAENUM,  an  ancient  town  of  Sicily,  lying 
west  of  Messana  and  north  of  Mt.  Etna.  It  was 
one  of  the  last  Sicilian  cities  to  give  way  to  Greek 
influence. 

ABACUS,  in  the  Greek  Doric  order  a  square 
stone  slab  that  covers  the  capital  of  a  column. 
In  the  Roman  order,  the  abacus  is  crowned  by  a 
molding;  in  the  Archaic-Greek  Ionic  it  is  rec- 
tangular in  form  in  view  of  the  greater  width  of 
the  capital.  Abacus  is  also  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment employed  by  ancient  mathematicians  for 
arithmetical  calculations,  and  still  used  in  China. 

ABAE,  a  city  of  Phocis,  Greece,  famous  in 
ancient  times  for  its  oracle  of  Apollo.  (See  Ora- 
cles) It  was  exceedingly  rich  in  treasures  until 
pillaged  by  the  Persians.  Restoration  of  the  city 
and   the  temple   was  attempted  by   the   Emperor 


ABAFY 


ABBEY 


Hadrian.  Traces  of  the  polygonal  walls  of  the 
acropolis  have  been  preserved,  including  a  gateway 
and  part  of  the  town  walls,  excavations  of  which 
were  made  in  1894  by  the  British  School  at 
Athens. 

ABAFY  (Abaffi),  Michael  (1632-1690),  ruler 
in  Hungarv.     See  Hungary:   1660-1664. 

ABAILARDUS.     See  Abelard. 

ABANCOURT,  Charles  Xavier  Joseph  de 
Franqueville  d'  (1758-1702),  French  statesman; 
Louis  XVI's  last  minister  of  war.  Contrary  to 
orders  of  the  Legislative  .Assembly,  brought  Swiss 
Guards  to  Paris  for  defense  of  Tuileries,  .August 
10;  arrested  for  treason;  murdered  while  awaiting 
trial. — See  also  France:   1702   (June-August). 

ABANTES,  the  most  powerful  tribe  of  ancient 
Eubcea,  from  whom  in  the  Homeric  age  the  island 
took  its  name  .Abantis. 

ABATIS,  a  term  in  miUtary  parlance  for  a  field 
fortification  formed  of  trees  laid  in  a  row  with 
sharpened  limbs  pointing  toward  the  enemy ;  this 
obstacle  is  frequently  used  in  connection  with  wire 
entanglements. 

ABATTOIR,  a  French  word  often  used  instead 
of  the  English  "slaughter-house,"  a  place  where 
animals  are  killed  for  food.  Public  control  of 
such  places  has  in  recent  years  become  a  matter 
of  great  concern.  In  the  United  States,  abattoirs 
are  recognized  by  the  law  as  in  their  nature  nui- 
sances and  are  regulated  or  prohibited  by  munici- 
pal ordinance.  Though  the  meat  industry  is  con- 
centrated in  a  few  cities,  there  are  very  few 
municipal  slaughter-houses,  a  fact  in  sharp  con- 
trast with  Continental  Europe  where  they  are  very 
common,  especially  in  Germany.  In  England  leg- 
islation has,  since  1388,  been  enacted  for  the  regu- 
lation of  abattoirs  in  cities. — See  also  Louisiana; 
I8q4-ig2i. 

Also  in:  J.  A.  and  H.  C.  Joyce,  Treatise  on  the 
law  goveriihtg  nuisances,  pp.  167-171. — E.  Freund, 
Police  power,  public  policy  and  constitutional 
rights. 

ABBADIDES,  a  short-lived  Mohammedan  dy- 
nasty in  Spain,  c.  1023-1OQ1,  succeeding  the  Western 
caliphate.  It  was  characterized  by  extravagance 
and  corruption,  and  was  finally  overthrown  by  the 
Almoravides,  its  last  monarch  dying  in  prison.  See 
Spain:   1031-1086. 

ABBAS  I  (1813-1854),  khedive  of  Egypt.  Son 
of  Tusun  Pasha  and  grandson  of  Mehemet  Ali, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1848.  Was  reactionary  in 
policy.  Murdered  in  1854,  and  succeeded  by  his 
uncle,  Sa'id  Pasha.     See  Egypt:   1840-1869. 

Abbas  II  (.Abbas  Hilmi  Pasha,  1874-  ). 
khedive  of  Egypt.  Deposed  by  the  British  during 
the  World  War  (December  17,  IQ14),  at  which 
time  a  British  protectorate  was  proclaimed  and 
Hussein  Kemal  Pasha,  an  uncle  of  the  khedive, 
installed  as  sultan;  this  action  was  taken  in  conse- 
quence of  the  defection  of  Abbas  to  Turkey, 
which  was  at  the  time  at  war  with  England. 
See  Egypt:  1914;  World  War:  1014:  IV'.  Turkev: 
h. 

Abbas  I  (called  the  Great),  shah  of  Persia, 
1 586- 1 628;  greatly  extended  the  dominions  of 
Persia.  See  Bagdad:  1393-1638;  Persia:  1499- 
1887;  Turkey:   1623-1640. 

Abbas  II,  shah  of  Persia,  1641-1668.  Suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Shah  Safi  I;  regained  Kandahar 
at  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Abbas  III,  shah  of  Persia,  1732-1736.  A  child 
ruler,  son  of  Tahmasp  II ;  succeeded  by  the  usurper 
Nadir   Kuli. 

ABBAS  EFFENDI  (1844-1921),  the  late 
leader  of  the  Bahais;  better  known  by  the  name 
of  Abdu'l    Baha,   which   signifies   "Servant   of   the 


(divine)  Glory."  Abdu'l  Baha  is  styled  "Center 
of  the  Covenant,"  and  regarded  by  his  followers 
as  a  divinely  appointed  teacher  of  spiritual  truth 
— See  also  Bahaism:   .Abdu'l  Baha. 

ABBAS  HILMI  PASHA.  See  Abbas  II, 
khedive  of  Egvpt. 

ABBAS  MIRZA  (C.17S3-1833),  prince  of  Persia. 
He  introduced  reforms,  especially  in  the  army ; 
was  leader  in  two  unsuccessful  wars  with  Russia, 
but  held  his  own  in  a  war  with  Turkey. 

ABBASIDS,  the  name  usually  given  to  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad,  constituting  with  the  Omayyads, 
their  predecessors,  the  two  greatest  dynasties  of 
the  Eastern  caliphate.  In  opposition  to  the  Omay- 
yads who  traced  their  descent  from  Omayya,  the 
Abbasids  based  their  claim  to  the  office  of  caliph, 
according  to  Mohammedan  custom,  upon  their 
descent  from  Abbas  (566-652),  the  eldest  uncle 
of  Mohammed.  See  Abul  Abbas;  Caliphate: 
71S-750,  752-750,  756-1031,  763,  815-945,  and  1262- 
1543;  B.\gdad:  762-763  and  1258;  Jerusalem: 
1144-1187. 

Conquest  by  Arabs.     See  Arabia:   1916. 

ABBAZIA,  Agreement  at  (1921).  See  Italy: 
1920-1921. 

ABBESS,  a  title  given  to  the  superior  of  a 
monastic  establishment  of  twelve  or  more  nuns. 
Her  duties  correspond  very  closely  to  those  of  an 
abbot  (q.v.).  See  Monasticism:  Women  and 
monasticism;    Women's    rights:    300-1400,    1200- 

1600 

ABBEY,  Edwin  Austin  (1852-1911),  American 
mural  painter.  See  Painting:  .American;  19th 
century. 

ABBEY. — Organization  and  activities. — In 
its  broader  sense  an  abbey  is  a  canonically  erected 
monastery  (or  a  religious  organization  under 
strictly  prescribed  rules  of  living),  having  not 
fewer  than  twelve  religious  monks  or  nuns,  under 
the  government  of  an  abbot  or  abbess  respectively ; 
in  its  narrower  sense  the  word  is  synonymous  with 
the  church  of  a  monastery.  It  is  to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  priory,  a  term  applied  to 
smaller  monastic  establishments  some  of  which 
were  founded  independently,  others  as  cells  or  off- 
shoots from  an  abbey,  remaining  dependent  on 
the  parent  house  and  having  their  priors  chosen  or 
removed  by  the  abbot  at  will.  Originally  the  term 
monastery  designated,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West  the  dwelling  of  a  solitary  or  hermit.  In 
time,  however,  there  grew  up  around  the  more 
famous  of  these  solitaries  settlements  of  enthusiastic 
disciples,  necessitating  an  intricate  and  wide-spread 
system  of  organization.  These  establishments  in 
turn  developed  into  great  centers  of  industry  and 
culture  assuming  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
great  abbeys  of  medieval  times.  "The  abbeys, 
however  .  .  .  while  containing  great  and  wonderful 
buildings  of  cathedral-like  proportion  where  wor- 
ship to  which  the  public  was  admitted  was  con- 
ducted with  solemn  and  beautiful  ritual,  were 
never  intended  to  serve,  and  never  did  serve  the 
purpose  of  parish  churches.  These  abbeys  were 
not  made  for  the  people,  but  for  the  monks  who 
found  therein  a  home.  They  were  generally  built 
in  remote  places,  far  from  centers  of  population, 
and  there  maintained  an  entirely  independent  ex- 
istence. .As  time  went  on  and  their  wealth  and 
membership  steadily  increased,  this  wealth  and 
this  membership  constituted  potential  elements  of 
power  that  forcibly  appealed  to  ambitious  men. 
tVnder  this  new  impetus  the  abbeys  became  not 
only  centers  of  wealth  and  art  and  luxury,  but 
also  of  political  power.  During  the  period  of  their 
widest  influence  the  greater  abbeys  were  represented 
in   the   national   councils,   on   a   plane   of  political 


ABBEY 


Organization,    Acfivifies 
Historical   importance 


ABBEY 


equality  with  the  great  feudal  lords.  It  was  this 
combination  of  wealth  and  political  influence 
which,  arousing  more  and  more  the  cupidity  and 
the  antagonism  of  secular  rulers,  ultimately  re- 
sulted, during  the  sixteenth  century,  in  the  sup- 
pression of  these  great  establishments  and  the 
confiscation  of  their  estates.]  In  the  very  old 
days  these  abbeys  were  great  and  beautiful  places 
that  sheltered  within  their  walls  about  all  of 
culture  and  learning  and  peace  that  was  to  be 
found.  .  .  .  While  the  monks  did  not  at  first  seek 
any  part  in  controlling  the  life  of  the  community, 
or  indeed  any  share  whatever  therein,  yet  their 
position  was  of  first  importance  to  the  people  in 
that  rude  and  early  period.  The  very  poor  were 
in  evidence  in  those  days  far  more  than  they 
ever  have  been  since,  and  on  the  long  table  of 
every  monastic  dining-room  a  basket  always  stood, 
receiving  a  large  proportion  of  every  kind  of  food 
as  it  was  served,  food  that  was  afterwards  dis- 
bursed as  alms  at  the  .^bbey  gates.  No  physicians 
practised  then,  and  the  monks  alone  knew  what 
there  was  to  know  of  the  healing  art,  and  always 
were  their  services  freely  given  to  both  rich  and 
poor.  There  were  no  libraries  outside  the  mon- 
astery's rolls,  but  here  was  collected  as  incentive 
to  study  and  to  thought  the  literature  of  the  time. 
There  were  no  schools  save  those  the  monks  main- 
tained, and  to  them  could  come  the  children  of 
the  very  poor,  who,  while  they  may  not  have 
learned  much,  yet  were  given  an  opportunity  to 
find  what  learning  meant,  and  some  at  least  we 
know  of  who  through  these  schools  found  opening 
a  career  of  usefulness  and  distinction.  There  were 
no  inns,  but  the  traveler  could  always  find  a  refuge 
at  the  monastery,  where  a  great  house  was  as 
much  a  part  of  the  establishment  as  the  chapel 
itself.  Hundreds  of  monks  found  their  homes  in 
the  great  abbeys.  ...  It  was  a  wonderful  or- 
ganization that  their  necessities  required  and  main- 
tained. Everything  needed  for  daily  life  was 
produced  here.  Thousands  of  acres  of  adjoining 
land  were  under  constant  cultivation,  and  to  such 
of  the  brethren  as  had  a  taste  in  that  direction 
was  committed  the  task  of  overseeing  the  laborers 
on  this  great  farm.  From  their  vineyards  came 
the  wines  that  filled  the  cellars.  On  their  pastures 
were  the  sheep  from  whose  wool  were  woven  their 
garments.  Beef  and  pork  came  from  the  cattle 
and  swine  that  every  monastery  owned.  And 
fruits  and  flowers  grew  in  the  gardens  and  orchards 
the  older  or  infirm  brothers  had  in  charge.  .  .  . 
First  of  all  the  day's  real  business  was  the  meeting 
of  the  chapter,  over  which  the  abbot  presided  and 
heard  reports  of  the  progress  of  all  the  work  in 
hand.  Here  too  was  received  the  news  from  other 
[abbeys],  for  the  custom  was  to  send  forth  on  a 
parchment  roll  what  might  be  termed  a  circular 
letter.  It  gave  the  information  current  in  the 
abbey  whence  it  started,  and  was  entrusted  to  a 
monk  who  thence  started  on  the  rounds  of  other 
monasteries,  a  journey  that  sometimes  occupied  a 
year.  After  being  read  aloud  in  chapter  there  was 
added  to  it  the  news  of  that  establishment,  and 
so  it  went  its  way.  At  Durham  there  is  yet 
preserved  one  of  these  rolls  which  is  nearly  forty 
feet  in  length.  And  here  in  this  public  gathering 
the  monks  confessed  their  faults,  or  had  tales  told 
on  them  if  they  didn't,  and  thereupon  were 
soundly  whipped  precisely  like  naughty  boys  at 
school.  Then  they  went  to  the  day's  task — some 
to  teach,  some  to  labor  at  the  loom  or  in  the  field, 
and  some  in  the  cloisters  to  illumine  those  rare 
rolls  or  volumes,  each  according  to  the  gift  God 
had  given  him.  And  so  they  filled  their  days.  At 
dinner  one  read  while   the  others  ate,  and   after- 


ward recreation,  the  telling  of  stories,  perhaps  the 
singing  of  songs,  while  some  few  walked  along 
the  sweet-smelUng  garden  paths  in  the  lingering 
northern  twilight,  for  very  beautiful  friendships 
sometimes  grew  up  among  these  unworldly  men." — 
A.  B.  Osborne,  As  it  is  in  England,  pp.  178-189. — 
See  also  Abbot;   Monasticism ;  Trappists. 

Medieval  monastic  libraries.  See  Libraries: 
Medieval:   Monastic  libraries. 

Abbeys  in  history. — .\n  illustration  of  the 
importance  of  abbeys  in  the  history  of  medieval 
Europe  is  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  the  Abbey 
of  Saint-Denis,  a  few  miles  north  of  Paris.  "St- 
Denis  (Dionysius),  the  first  Bishop  of  Paris,  and 
his  companions,  martyred  in  270,  were  buried 
here  and  the  small  chapel  built  over  the  spot  be- 
came a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  during  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries.  In  630  King  Dagobert  founded 
the  abbey  for  Benedictine  monks,  replacing  the 
original  chapel  by  a  large  basilica,  of  which  but 
little  now  remains.  He  and  his  successors  enriched 
the  new  foundation  with  many  gifts  and  privileges 
and,  possessing  as  it  did  the  shrine  of  St-Denis,  it 
became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  important 
abbeys  in  France.  In  653  it  was  made  exempt  from 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  A  new  church  was  com- 
menced in  750  by  Charlemagne,  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  which  Christ,  according  to  popular  tradi- 
tion, was  supposed  to  have  assisted  in  person.  .  .  . 
The  present  church  of  St-Denis  was  commenced 
about  1 140  and  marks  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic 
tendency  in  architecture  and  its  transition  from 
the  Romanesque  style.  Further  additions  and  al- 
terations under  succeeding  abbots  resulted  in  pro- 
ducing one  of  the  finest  Gothic  buildings  in  France. 
.  .  .  The  abbey  figures  prominently  in  the  history 
of  France  and  its  abbots  were  for  several  cen- 
turies amongst  the  chief  seigneurs  of  the  kingdom. 
The  'Oriflamme,'  originally  the  banner  of  the 
abbey,  became  the  standard  of  the  kings  of  France 
and  was  suspended  above  the  high  altar,  whence  it 
was  only  removed  when  the  king  took  the  field  in 
person.  Its  last  appearance  was  at  the  battle  of 
Agincourt  in  141 5.  Joan  of  .\rc  hung  up  her  arms 
in  the  church  of  St-Denis  in  1429.  Many  kings 
and  princes  and  other  noble  persons  were  buried 
there  and  three  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  stayed  in 
the  abbey  at  different  times:  .  .  .  After  the  Council 
of  Trent  the  Abbey  of  St-Denis  became  the  head 
of  a  congregation  of  ten  monasteries,  and  in  1633 
it  was  united,  with  its  dependent  houses,  to  the 
new  Congregation  of  St-Maur,  when  its  conventual 
buildings  were  entirely  reconstructed.  In  i6qi 
Louis  XVI  suppressed  the  abbacy  and  united  the 
monastery  with  its  revenues  to  the  royal  house  of 
noble  ladies  at  St-Cyr,  founded  by  Madame  de 
Maintenon.  The  abbey  was  finally  dissolved  at 
the  revolution,  when  much  damage  was  done  to 
the  church  and  tombs.  It  was  subsequently  re- 
stored, under  Napoleon  III,  by  Viollet-le-Duc. 
The  relics  of  St-Denis,  which  had  been  trans- 
formed to  the  parish  church  of  the  town  in  1795, 
were  brought  back  again  to  the  abbey  in  1819. 
It  is  now  a  'national  monument'  and  one  of  the 
show-places  of  Paris.  Many  of  the  chartularies 
and  other  manuscripts  relating  to  its  history  are 
now  either  in  the  Archives  Nationales  or  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale." — Catholic  encyclopedia,  v. 
'.(,  PP-  343-344- — See  also  Brittany:   992-1237. 

Architectural  features. — "The  arrangement  of 
all  these  [abbeys]  shows  a  thorough  uniformity  in 
their  important  features.  On  all  sides  of  3  rec- 
tangular court,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  square,  sur- 
rounded by  arcades  (the  cloisters,  ambitus),  are 
grouped  the  church,  and  the  places  appointed  for 
the  residence  of   the  monks,   which  are  comprised 


ABBEY 


Architectural  Features 


ABBEY 


under  the  name  of  the  clausures.  It  is  the  plan  of 
the  ancient  villa  urbana,  which  seems  to  have 
served  as  a  pattern  to  the  Benedictines.  In  the 
same  way  the  out-houses  exterior  to  the  clausures, 
which  are  attached  to  them,  follow  the  plan  of 
the  villa  ruslica  among  the  Romans.  Of  the  plan 
of  a  Benedictine  abbey  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Gall  (in  Switzerland],  designed  about 
S20,  is  an  excellent  example.  The  whole  plan  in- 
cludes a  space  of  from  300  to  430  feet  square. 
The  central  point  is  the  church,  on  the  south  side 
of  which  is  the  cloister,  with  the  buildings  be- 
longing to  the  dausure;  and  to  the  east  of  the 
cloister,  contiguous  to  it,  is  the  dwelling-house  of 
the  monks,  with  the  general  dormitory,  the  bath 
and  wash-house;  to  the  south  the  refeclorium  (the 
dining-halU,  with  the  church;  and  to  the  west 
the  cellarage.  The  wing  of  Ihe  cloister  next  to 
the  church  serves  as  the  chapttr-housf.     Near  the 


round  outhouses  for  the  chickens  and  geese,  the 
garden,  and  the  burial-place.  .  .  .  Next  to  the 
Benedictines,  the  Cistercians,  an  order  proceeding 
on  the  same  discipline,  have  a  great  significance  for 
the  history  of  media;val  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
The  strictness  of  this  order  immediately  brought 
with  it  a  simplifying  of  church  building.  While 
generally  the  apse  was  omitted,  and  the  choir 
terminated  as  a  rectangle,  minor  chapels,  as  a 
rule,  were  attached  to  both  sides  of  the  transept. 
.  .  .  Besides,  the  Cistercian  Order  forbade  the  in- 
troduction of  bell-towers,  and  instead  of  these, 
even  in  the  largest  churches,  they  contented  them- 
selves with  a  small  roof-turret  in  the  middle  of  the 
transept.  The  towers  of  the  church  at  Oliva, 
near  Danzig,  form  an  exception.  Lastly,  an  ex- 
traordinary length  of  nave  is  common  in  Cistercian 
churches,  the  reason  of  which  is  so  much  more 
difficult   to  explain,  as   the  cloister  churches   were 


FOUNTAhNS  AliBEY,  ENdLAND 


eastern  choir  of  the  church  is,  on  the  north  side, 
the  writing-room,  with  the  Ubrary  above,  and  on 
the  south  side  the  justice-chamber.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  church  lie,  separated  by  two  chapels, 
the  infirmary  and  the  school  for  the  novices,  each 
with  its  small  cloister  in  the  centre  To  the  north 
side  of  the  infirmary  stands  the  dwelling  of  the 
physician,  with  a  special  house  for  bleeding  and 
purging.  The  dwelling  of  the  abbot,  the  school- 
house,  and  the  lodgings  for  illustrious  strangers, 
with  an  out-house,  are  to  be  found  on  the  north 
side  of  the  church ;  corresponding  to  this  last  on 
the  south-western  side  are  the  lodgings  for  pil- 
grims and  the  poor.  Attached  to  these  important 
parts  thus  spread  out  are,  on  the  western  and 
southern  sides,  the  house  for  servants,  and  the 
stalls  for  sheep,  pigs,  goats,  cows,  oxen,  and  horses, 
besides  the  workhouse,  the  malt-kiln,  the  brewery, 
and  the  bakehouse  attached  to  the  kitchen  of  the 
monastery,  the  stamping-mill  and  the  corn-mill, 
the  house  of  the  various  labourers,  and  the  great 
barn.     Lastly,  at  the  south-eastern  corner,  are  the 


little  attended  by  laity,  and  their  use  completely 
forbidden  to  women  The  cloister  arrangements 
of  the  Cistercians  are  in  other  things  similar  to 
those  of  the  Benedictines.  The  cloister  is  here, 
as  there,  generally  on  the  southern  side,  and  seldom 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  church  With  the 
Cistercians  there  was  generally,  on  the  side  of 
the  cloister  lying  opposite  the  church,  a  polygonal 
or  round  well-house,  in  which  the  beard  and  the 
hair  of  the  crown  of  the  head  (the  tonsure)  were 
shaven  off.  The  chapter-hall  for  the  meetings  of 
the  convent  is  generally  on  the  east  side  of  the 
cloister,  and  is  sometimes  provided  with  an  altar 
apse.  Important  monasterial  arrangements  of  the 
Cistercians  arc  still  to  be  found  at  Ebrach,  at 
.Altenberg  near  Cologne,  at  Riddagshausen  and 
Maulbronn  in  Wiirtemberg.  In  the  last  place,  even 
the  fortified  walls,  with  their  towers,  as  well  as 
the  other  details  of  mediasval  arrangements,  are  all 
preserved.  From  the  large  entrance-hall,  we  enter 
the  church,  the  nave  of  which  is  separated  from 
the    presbyterium    by    the    screen      On    the    north 


ABBEY 


ABBOT 


side  of  the  church  lie  the  cloisters  with  the  well- 
house,  the  refectory  and  the  chapter-hall  with  its 
altar  apse.  From  this,  a  corridor  leads  us  to  the 
house  of  the  abbot  The  space,  at  the  north- 
eastern corner  of  the  cloisters,  seems  to  contain 
the  discipline-chamber,  to  which  adjoins  the  vault- 
ed cellar  space.  On  the  west  side  of  the  cloister  is 
another  vaulted  cellar  and  an  older  refectory, 
which,  used  alternately  with  the  above-mentioned 
space,  may  have  served  as  the  winter  refectory; 
for  we  find  in  many  monasteries,  as  for  example 
at  Bebenhausen,  special  refectories  for  winter  and 
summer.  The  monasteries  of  the  Premonstraten- 
sians  have  much  resemblance  in  arrangement  and 


c  Ale  of    feel 


PLAN  OF  FOUNTAINS  ABBEY 


I, 

Guest  House. 

14- 

Tower, 

2. 

Infirmary. 

i.S. 

Chapels. 

,?■ 

C'ellars. 

1 6. 

Choir. 

4- 

Refectory. 

17. 

Chapel    of    Nine 

,«;. 

Kitchen. 

Altars. 

6. 

(  loister. 

18. 

Passage. 

7. 

Nave  of  Church. 

19. 

Yard. 

«. 

Calefactory. 

20. 

Store   House. 

Q. 

Water  Courts. 

21. 

Great    Hall. 

10. 

Base  Courts. 

22. 

Abbot's   House. 

1 1. 

Chapter  House 

23. 

Kitchen. 

12. 

Sacristy. 

24- 

Chapel. 

13. 

Transept. 

25. 

Store   House. 

execution  to  those  of  the  Cistercians.  The  mon- 
asteries of  the  Madonna  at  Macdeburc  and  the 
Abbey  Kappenberg  in  Westphalia,  are  examples 
of  this  kind,  whose  unassuming  simplicity  rivals 
the  simplest  arrangements  of  the  Cistercians.  If 
the  Benedictines  preferred  to  build  in  an  open 
position  at  the  back  of  a  woody  chain  of  moun- 
tains, and  if  the  Cistercians  sought  separation 
from  the  world  in  the  quiet  woody  glens,  the 
Orders  of  Preachers  and  Mendicants,  arising  since 
the  thirteenth  century,  of  the  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans,   or   of   the   minor   orders,   established 


themselves  in  the  populous  towns.  For  if  the 
generality  of  (he  superior  orders  lived  apart,  with 
the  view  of  devoting  themselves  to  learned  studies 
or  artistic  work,  the  popular  orders  undertook  to 
work  on  the  masses  as  curers  of  the  soul  by 
preaching  and  confession.  They  sought  for  a 
modest  place  in  the  towns,  close  to  the  walls  or 
elsewhere,  where  they  erected  their  monasterial 
arrangements,  in  fact,  conformable  to  those  of  the 
older  orders  of  monks.  .  .  .  Really  differing  from 
all  these  monasterial  arran'zements  are  the  great 
establishments  of  the  Carthusians,  who  arose  about 
the  fourteenth  century  in  Germany.  Their  mon- 
asteries are  distinguished  by  this:  that  they  possess, 
by  the  side  of  the  church,  and  of  the  cloister  in 
connexion  with  it,  a  second  far  larger  cloister, 
generally  on  the  east  side  of  the  church,  which 
includes  the  burial  ground,  and  is  surrounded  by 
the  single  dwellings  of  the  monks,  which  are  sep- 
arated from  it  by  small  gardens." — W.  Liibke, 
Ecdesia^tical  art  in  Germany,  pp.  10.5-108 — In 
consequence  of  the  fact  that  the  various  building.s 
of  an  establishment  were  erected  at  different 
periods,  the  greater  abbeys  were  seldom  archi- 
tecturally homogeneous;  this  multiplicity  of  styles 
affords,  however,  a  pleasing  variety  which,  added 
to  the  stately  grandeur  of  nave  and  'arch  and 
tower,  presents,  even  in  their  ruins,  a  picturesque- 
ness  which  appeals  alike  to  artist  and  historian. 

There    follows    a    list    of    the    more    important 
historic   abbeys: 

Bangor,  County  Down,  Ireland 
Bath,  Somersetshire,  England 
Battle,  Sussex,  Ent;land 
Beaulieu,  Hampshire,  England 
Bee,  Normandy    (q.v.) 
Bursfeld,  near  Gottingcn,  Hanover,  Prussia 
Bury  St,  Edmund's,  Suffolk  Co.,  England  (q.v.) 
Canterbury,  Kent,  England 
Cluny,    Burgundy,    France 
Dryburgh,   Scottish   border 
Einsiedein,  Canton  of  Schwyz,  Switzerland 
Farfa,  near  Rome 
Fontenelle,  Normandy 
Fountains,  Yorskhire,  England   (q.v.) 
Furness,  Lancashire,  England  (q.v.) 
Glastonbury,  Somersetshire,   England 
Hersfeld,  Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia 
Hirschau,  near  Stuttgart,  Wiirlemberg 
Holy  Cross,  County  Tipperary,  Ireland  (q.v.) 
Holyrood,  Edinburgh,  Scotland 
Jumieges,  Normandy 
Mellifont,  County  Louth,  Ireland 
Melrose,  Roxburghshire,  Scotland 
Monte  Cassino,  near  Rome 
New,  near  Dumfries,  Scotland 
Peterborou'j;h,  Northamptonshire,  England 
Premontre,   Aisne,   France 
Saint  Albans,  Hertfordshire,  England 
Saint   Denis,  near  Paris,   France 
St.  Gall,  Canton  of  Gall,  Switzerland 
Saint  Mary,  York,  England 
Tavistock,  Devonshire,  England 
Tewkesbury,  Gloucestershire,  England 
Tintern,  Monmouthshire,  England 
Vendome,  France 
Waltham,  Essex,  England 
VVearmoulh,  Durham,  England 
Westminster,  London,  England 
Whitby,  Yorkshire,  England.    See  Bible,  Eng- 
lish:  7th-8th  centuries. 

ABBOT,  George  (1562-1633),  English  divine, 
Took  a  leading  part  in  preparing  the  authorized 
version  of  the  New  Testament;  assisted  in  arrang- 


ABBOT 


ABBOT 


ing  for  the  union  of  the  churches  of  England  and 
Scotland;  for  this  he  was  rewarded  by  James  I, 
who  in  1610  made  him  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

ABBOT,  a  title  given  to  the  superior  of  a 
monastic  establishment  of  twelve  or  more  monks. 
The  term  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  word  ab 
meaning  father,  originally  used  as  a  title  of  honor 
and  respect.  Carried  over  from  the  East  to  the 
West  the  word  came  to  imply  also  the  exercise  of 
authority  and  hence  was  used  to  designate  the 
head  of  an  abbey  or  monastery.  This  usage  was 
definitely  fixed  by  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  "The  ad- 
ministration of  the  monastery  was  vested  pri- 
marily in  the  hands  of  the  abbot  or  lather,  in 
whose  hands  lay,  theoretically,  complete  control 
over  all  the  management  of  the  house  The  vow 
of  obedience  was  made  to  him,  and  without  his 
consent  the  individual  monk  could  not  properly 
perform  any  act  of  life.  It  was  his  duty  to  see 
that  the  monks  observed  the  rule  in  all  its  de- 
tails, and  to  punish  infractions  of  it  at  his  dis- 
cretion. He  was  the  responsible  manager  of  the 
temporal  property  of  the  community,  must  see  that 
its  accounts  were  properly  kept  and  must  be  in 
readiness  at  specified  times  to  render  an  account 
of  his  stewardship  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 
He  occupies  in  the  feudal  hierarchy  the  same  rank 
held  by  the  bishop;  he  is  the  responsible  person 
for  the  performance  of  the  feudal  dues  to  the 
overlord  and  stands  for  the  monastery  in  all  its 
efforts  to  keep  the  feudal  hold  upon  its  vassal 
tenants.  It  was  as  important  to  the  monastery 
as  it  was  to  the  bishopric  that  its  head  should  be 
chosen  freely,  without  the  use  of  any  of  the 
lower  motives  which  were  almost  certain  to  affect 
the  choice.  The  electors  are  the  monks,  but, 
since  the  abbot  is  regularly  to  be  confirmed  both 
by  the  secular  head  of  the  territory  and  by  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  it  is  clear  that  these  larger 
interests  would  have  to  be  considered,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  more  important  monasteries  we  find 
the  same  difficulties  in  getting  'pure'  elections  that 
we  have  spoken  of  in  connection  with  episcopal 
elections  The  succession  in  a  great  monastery 
was  often  the  occasion  of  violent  conflicts  between 
the  complicated  interests  at  stake." — E.  Emerton, 
Median'ol  Europe,  pp.  572-573. 

The  following  list  of  famous  abbots  and  ab- 
besses gives  an  idea  of  the  variety  of  activity  and 
influence  possible  to  the  office.  The  list  is  not,  of 
course,  exhaustive ;  it  is  merely  a  citation  of  a  few 
typical  cases. 

Anselm  of  Canterbury  (1033-noQ). — A  scho- 
lastic philosopher  and  able  churchman,  who.  as 
abbot  of  Canterbury,  made  the  monastery  a 
famous  scat  of  medieval  learning.  His  writings 
"Cur  Deus  Homo"  and  "De  Concordia  PrsscientiiE 
et  Pripdestinationis"  made  an  epoch  in  Christian 
philosophy,  and  inaugurated  the  work  of  the 
schoolmen.  His  conflicts  with  William  Rufus  and 
Henry  I  of  England  made  him,  in  his  time,  a 
powerful  political  force.  See  Excland:  1087- 
1I3S- 

Benedict  of  Nursia  (c.  480-544),  the  founder 
of  western  monasticism.  He  first  organized  the 
scattered  companies  of  the  western  monks  into 
orders,  and  the  humanity,  moderation,  and  con- 
structive social  character  of  the  "Rule  of  St. 
Benedict"  which  he  devised  for  these  monasteries 
turned  the  ascetic  impulses  that  were  hitherto  some- 
what sterile  into  a  civilizing  force  of  almost  in- 
calculable value  in  the  development  of  Europe. 
For  the  importance  of  this  rule  in  the  history  of 
western  monasticism,  see  Monasticism:  6th 
century. 


Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (ioqo-1153),  the  first 
abbot  of  Clairvaux,  and  a  leader  in  the  reform  of 
the  monastic  orders,  and  the  chief  center  of  the 
religious  life  of  Europe,  at  the  time  when  Christian 
fervor  was  reaching  its  height  in  the  crusades  and 
in  the  beginnings  of  Christian  art  It  was  his 
preaching  which  fired  all  Europe  to  undertake  the 
lirst  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land  and  his  ardent, 
childlike,  and  inspiring  personality  interpenetrates 
all  the  life  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  con- 
stantly called  to  act  as  peace-maker  in  the  quarrels 
of  emperor  and  pope,  and  pope  and  anti-pope, 
and  to  represent  the  purest  conscience  of  the  church 
in  the  highest  councils  of  his  time.  See  Crusades; 
1147-1149- 

Bruno  (1030-1 101),  founder  of  the  Carthusian 
order  which  was  a  union  of  the  hermit  and  the 
communal  types  of  monasticism.  Unlike  most  of 
the  great  abbots,  who  were  also  commanding  figures 
in  the  intellectual  and  political  life  of  their  time, 
he  is  notable  chiefly  for  the  personal  and  creative 
influence  within  the  strict  bounds  of  the  monastic 
life  which  made  him  a  saint  of  the  church  and 
the  subject  of  several  notable  works  of  religious 
art. 

Hilda  (614-680),  foundress  and  abbess  of 
Whitby,  the  famous  double  monastery  which  in- 
cluded among  its  members  five  future  bishops 
as  well  as  the  poet  Caedmon,  and  which  was  a 
powerful  center  of  ecclesiastical  and  political  in- 
fluence. Statesmen  and  churchmen  from  all  over 
Christian  England  came  to  Hilda  for  advice,  and 
she  stands  out  in  the  scanty  records  of  the  seventh 
century,  as  one  of  the  most  vigorous  personalities 
of  the  age. 

Hildegarde  (ioo8-ii7q),  a  German  abbess  and 
mystic  who  from  her  convent  near  Bingen,  carried 
on  a  voluminous  and  influential  correspondence 
with  the  most  notable  figures  of  her  time  Among 
her  correspondents  were  Pope  Anastasius  and  Pope 
.■\drian  IV,  and  the  emperors  Conrad  III  and 
Frederick  I.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  the  theo- 
logian Guibert  of  Gembloux  were  among  those 
who  sought  her  advice  on  theolo-'ical  questions. 
While  it  was  her  supposed  gift  of  prophecy  which 
made  her  most  famous  in  her  own  time,  her  writ- 
ings on  natural  science  are  now  greatly  respected 
by  scholars  as  representing  the  highest  point  to 
which  the  scientific  study  of  nature  in  medieval 
Europe  had  yet  attained. 

Lanfranc  (d.  io8q),  first  abbot  of  St.  Stephens 
at  Caen  and  later  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Trained  in  legal  studies,  and  a  pioneer  in  the 
revival  of  Roman  law,  and  in  education,  he  be- 
came the  political  counsellor  of  William,  the  Con- 
queror, and  did  much  to  consolidate  the  power  of 
the  Normans  in  England,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
procure  honorable  conditions  for  the  native  English 
As  an  abbot  he  elevated  the  clerical  standards  of 
discipline  and  education. 

Sugier,  .^bbot  of  St.  Denis  (1081-1151),  states- 
man and  historian,  and  constant  adviser  of  Louis 
VI  and  Louis  VII  of  France  During  the  absence 
of  Louis  VII  on  the  Second  Crusade,  he  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  so 
successful  in  keeping  the  turbulent  vassals  in 
order  and  improving  the  administration,  that  the 
king,  on  his  return,  bestowed  upon  him  the  title 
of  "Father  of  the  Country."  As  a  statesman  he 
strerxgthened  the  royal  power,  improved  agri- 
culture and  commerce,  and  reformed  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  His  chief  literan,'  works  are 
historical  accounts  of  his  own  stirring  times.  His 
work  as  an  abbot  had  the  same  characteristics 
as  his  secular  achievements,  being  a  thorough- 
going and  efficient  administration  and  discipline  of 


ABBREVIATION 


Roman   System 


ABBREVIATION 


the   convent. — See   also   Abbey:    Organization    and 
activities;   Monast:cism:    iith-i.^th  centuries. 

ABBREVIATION.— The  representation  of  a 
word  or  phrase  by  the  initial  letter  or  letters  or  by 
some  other  standard  shorter  form.  This  practice 
was  employed  extensively  by  both  ancient  and 
medieval  manuscript  writers,  with  whom  abbre- 
viation was  of  considerable  importance  as  a  labor- 
saving  and  space-saving  device.  The  saving  of 
space  was  especially  necessary  as  the  material  for 
writing  (parchment,  or,  in  Roman  times,  wax  tab- 
lets)   was  extremely  limited  and  very  expensive. 

Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  especially  those 
which  have  been  on  technical  subjects,  made  very 
great  use  of  abbreviations,  so  that  a  certain 
Roman  is  said  to  have  made  a  collection  of  5000 
abbreviations  used  in  his  time.  .\  form  of  abbrevi- 
ation was  invented  by  Tiro,  a  slave  of  Cicero, 
who  took  down  every  word  of  his  master's  speech 
in  specially  devised  shorthand  symbols;  these  were 
known  as  Tironian  notes,  after  the  name  of  their 
inventor.  In  the  earliest  transcriptions  of  the 
Bible,  no  abbreviations  were  used,  but  from  being 
employed  in  notes  and  maruinal  glosses,  they  soon 
began  to  appear  in  the  texts.  The  universality  of 
Latin  as  a  language  for  scholars  during  the  Middle 
Ages  made  the  application  of  abbreviations  a  very 
simple  matter,  as  the  usage  could  become  stand- 
ardized without  much  difficulty  or  confusion. 
The  reform  in  handwriting  effected  by  the  Caro- 
lingian  schools  in  the  Middle  Ages  did  not  dis- 
courage the  use  of  abbreviations  and  contractions; 
on  the  contrary,  it  was  under  their  influence  that 
the  fullest  development  was  accomplished,  letters 
from  the  middle  as  well  as  the  end  of  words 
being  omitted.  ."Ml  western  Europe  used  common 
forms  of  contraction,  with  the  exception  of  Spain, 
where  slightly  different  meanings  were  attached 
to  the  various  marks.  In  early  English  and  Irish 
manuscripts  certain  arbitrary  shorthand  symbols 
were  used  to  indicate  common  or  special  words. 
These  were  adaptations  of  the  Tironian  notes  of 
Cicero's  time.  The  use  of  abbreviations  continued 
to  increase  until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
practice  reached  its  height.  From  that  time  on  three 
things  caused  its  decline:  first,  the  invention  of 
the  printing  press,  which  obviated  the  necessity 
for  the  copying  of  manuscript  by  hand;  second, 
the  introduction  of  cheap  paper  for  printing;  and 
third,  the  widesyiread  use  of  vernacular  tongues, 
in  which  abbreviations  were  very  much  more 
difficult  because  of  the  peculiarities  of  grammar. 
In  modern  times  some  Latin  abbreviations  and 
contractions  are  still  in  use.  Membership  in  cer- 
tain orders  or  academies,  university  degrees,  titles 
of  address,  or  of  office,  and  the  names  of  certain 
very  well-known  organizations  are  indicated  by 
abbreviations,  usually  consisting  of  the  first  letter 
or  letters  of  each  word  in  the  phrase  denoted.  In 
addition  practically  every  science  has  its  own  sys- 
tem of  abbreviations  and  symbols  known  to  stu- 
dents and  specialists  in  its  field.  Although  ab- 
breviations are  no  longer  generally  employed  in 
books  or  other  printed  matter,  commercial  letter 
writing  has  given  rise  to  more  or  less  complicated 
systems  of  shorthand  which,  with  phonetics  as  a 
basis,  are  comprehensive  of  all  languages,  indi- 
cating sounds  or  groups  of  sounds  by  standard 
straight  and  curved  .symbols.  In  the  United  States 
the  best  known  systems  are  the  Pitman  and  the 
Gregg. 

Abbreviations  in  Babylonian  writing.  See 
Education:  Ancient:  B.C.  35th-6th  centuries: 
Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Roman  System. — Use  in  the  Middle  Ages. — 
"The   first    mention    of   an   abbreviated   system   is 


in  connection  with  the  Roman  poet  Quintus  En- 
nius,  200  B.C.,  who  used  a  scheme  of  eleven  hun- 
dred signs  that  he  devised  for  the  purpose  of 
writing  more  swiftly  than  was  possible  by  the 
ordinary  alphabet.  Doubtless  some  method  of 
abbreviating  words  was  used  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  also  by  the  Persians,  several  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  though  there  is  no  evidence  that 
shorthand  characters  or  other  special  symbols  were 
employed.  The  first  definite  and  indisputable  evi- 
dence of  the  use  of  shorthand  is  recorded  by 
Plutarch,  who  mentions  that  in  the  debate  on  the 
Catilinian  conspiracy  in  the  Roman  Senate  in  63 
B.C.  the  famous  oration  of  Cicero  was  reported  in 
shorthand.  The  method  of  shorthand  used  was 
invented  by  Tiro,  who  was  a  freedman  of  Marcus 
Tullius  Cicero.  Like  many  of  the  slaves  of  that 
time,  captives  of  other  nations,  he  was  highly 
educated,  and  on  receiving  his  freedom  from  Cicero 
he  adopted  two  thirds  of  his  master's  name  and 
became  Marcus  Tullius  Tiro.  He  then  became 
Cicero's  secretary  and  confidant.  When  one  re- 
members that  the  shorthand-writers  of  those  days 
were  without  paper,  pen,  pencil,  or  ink,  and  pos- 
sessed only  a  crude  method  of  shorthand-writing, 
it  is  almost  incredible  that  they  could  report 
anything.  The  writing  was  done  on  tablets  that 
were  covered  with  a  layer  of  wax.  The  ed  cs  of 
the  wax  tablets  were  raised  in  order  to  allow  their 
being  closed  without  injury  to  the  writing.  These 
tablets  were  fastened  together  at  the  corners  by 
wire,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  book.  As  many  as 
twenty  tablets  could  be  so  fastened.  When  the 
book  consisted  of  two  tablets  only  it  was  called  a 
diploma,  and  the  official  appointments  conferring 
public  office  were  in  that  form ;  hence  our  word 
'diploma.'  The  instrument  used  for  writing  was  a 
stylus,  which  was  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
pencil,  the  point  being  of  ivory  or  steel,  with  the 
other  end  flattened  for  the  purpose  of  smoothing 
the  wax  after  a  record  had  been  made,  in  order 
that  the  tablet  could  be  used  again.  It  was  with 
such  instruments  that  Cssar  was  stabbed  to  death. 
Tiro  must  have  possessed  unusual  skill  as  a  short  - 
hand-writer,  for  Cicero,  in  writing  to  a  friend 
when  Tiro  was  absent,  complained  that  his  work 
was  delayed  because,  while  he  could  dictate  to 
Tiro  in  'periods,'  he  had  to  dictate  to  others  in 
'syllables.'  Cicero  himself  was  a  shorthand-writer, 
but  evidently  not  a  skilful  one,  as  he  writes  to 
Atticus,  'You  did  not  understand  what  I  wrote 
you  concerning  the  ten  deputies,  I  suppose,  because 
I  wrote  you  in  shorthand.'  In  reporting  the  Roman 
Senate,  it  is  said  that  Tiro  stationed  about  forty 
shorthand-writers  in  different  parts  of  the  Curia, 
who  wrote  down  on  their  tablets  what  they  could. 
The  transcripts  were  afterward  pieced  together 
into  connected  discourse.  Even  to-day,  in  the 
reporting  in  our  own  Congress,  a  somewhat  similar 
method  is  used,  except  that  the  writers  take  notes 
in  relays.  It  is  stated  that  some  of  the  Roman 
stenographers  were  trained  to  take  down  the  first 
parts  of  sentences  and  others  the  closi:ig  words. 
The  world  is  indebted  to  Tiro  and  his  followers 
for  the  transmission  to  posterity  of  some  of  the 
finest  bits  of  literature  and  some  of  the  most  effec- 
tive orations  of  Roman  civilization.  By  the  grace 
of  shorthand,  we  possess  the  opinions  on  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  of  two  of  the  famous  men 
who  lived  before  the  Christian  era.  When  we 
remember  that  in  the  days  of  Cicero  and  Czesar 
the  sayings  of  the  famous  intellectuals  were  passed 
on  almost  entirely  by  word  of  mouth,  and  were 
handed  down  in  the  same  manner,  the  part  that 
shorthand  played  in  the  preservation  of  thought 
was    enormous.      A    knowledge    of    the    Tironian 


ABBREVIATION 


Roman  Sysfem 
Modern    Development 


ABBREVIATION 


notes  became  a  much-prized  possession  in  Horace, 
Livy,  Ovid,  Martial,  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  Suetonius. 
Julius  Caesar  was  a  writer  of  shorthand,  and  the 
poet  Ovid,  in  speaking  of  this,  records,  'By  these 
marks  secrets  were  borne  over  land  and  sea.'  .  .  . 
With  the  rise  of  the  early  Christian  Church  and  the 
demand  for  a  record  of  the  exact  words  of  the 
religious  leaders  of  the  day,  the  teaching  and 
practice  of  the  shorthand  of  Tiro  received  a  new 
impetus.  Pope  Clement,  in  A.D.  196,  divided  Rome 
into  seven  districts  and  appointed  a  shorthand- 
writer  for  each.  Cyprian,  the  famous  bishop  of 
Carthage,  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  elabora- 
tion of  several  thousand  abbreviations  to  supple- 
ment the  Tironian  notes.  These  abbreviations  were 
devoted  for  the  main  part  to  scriptural  and  proper 
names  and  to  current  phrases  peculiar  to  the  early 
Christians,  thereby  rendering  the  work  'much  more 
useful  to  the  faithful,'  as  he  expressed  it,  but  at 
the  same  time  making  the  learning  of  shorthand 
much  more  difficult.  .  .  .  The  famous  preacher 
Origen  (A.D.  185-253)  has  left  on  record  the  state- 
ment that  he  prepared  his  addresses  in  shorthand. 
He  did  not,  however,  permit  the  addresses  to  be 
reported  until  after  he  was  sixty  years  of  age,  when 
he  had  acquired  such  skill  as  an  orator  that  he 
could  be  certain  that  his  orations  were  given  in 
the  form  he  wished.  St.  Augustine  employed  ten 
stenographers.  Basil  the  Great  (.\.D.  32g-379) 
wrote:  'Words  have  wings,  therefore  we  use 
signs  so  that  we  can  attain  in  writing  the  swiftness 
of  speech.'  .  .  .  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (.\.D.  sqo- 
604).  in  the  dedication  to  his  famous  'Homilies,' 
mentions  that  he  had  revised  them  from  the 
stenographic  reports.  St.  Jerome  had  ten  stenogra- 
phers, four  of  whom  took  down  his  dictation,  while 
six  were  transcribers  who  wrote  out  what  the 
others  had  taken  from  dictation.  .  .  .  Bearing  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  Tironian  notes  consisted  of 
thousands  of  arbitrary  signs  for  words  and  phrases, 
that  the  famous  orator  Seneca  developed  the 
Tironian  notes  by  five  thousand  additional  signs 
of  his  own  invention,  and  that  Bishop  Cyprian 
added  many  thousands  of  abbreviations  for  scrip- 
tural terms,  one  may  have  some  idea  of  the  diffi- 
culties with  which  the  students  of  shorthand  in 
ancient  times  had  to  contend.  Perhaps  these  Ion:: 
lists  of  arbitraries  were  responsible  for  the  sad 
fate  of  Cassianus  when  teaching  shorthand.  Cassi- 
anus  had  been  a  bishop  of  Brescia,  and  when  he 
was  expelled  from  his  see,  he  established  an  acad- 
emy at  Imola,  in  the  Province  of  Bologna,  in 
which  he  taught  shorthand.  It  is  recorded  that 
his  exasperated  pupils  suddenly  surrounded  him 
and  stabbed  him  to  death  with  their  styli.  .  .  . 
Then  there  is  the  sad  case  of  the  stenographer  to  a 
great  ecclesiastic  who,  finding  his  stenographer 
dozing  when  he  should  have  been  transcribing  his 
notes,  dealt  him  such  a  vigorous 'blow  on  the  ear 
that  the  stenographer  died  from  the  effects  of  it, 
and  the  churchman  had  to  leave  the  city  in  order 
to  avoid  trial  for  manslaughter.  With  the  crude 
form  of  shorthand  that  then  prevailed,  shorthand- 
writers  had  enough  to  worry  about;  but  we  find 
that  the  Emperor  Severus,  in  the  third  century, 
decreed  that  a  shorthand-writer  who  made  a  mis- 
take in  reporting  a  case  should  be  banished  and 
have  the  nerves  of  his  fingers  cut  so  that  he  could 
never  write  again.  In  1903  archa=olo.:ists  discov- 
ered, one  hundred  miles  south  of  Cairo,  a  great 
many  ancient  documents  on  papyri.  Among  them 
was  a  contract  with  a  shorthand-writer,  dated  .\.D. 
137,  whereby  a  boy  was  to  be  taught  shorthand 
for  the  sum  of  120  drachms  (about  $24.00)  ;  40 
drachmae  to  be  paid  in  advance,  40  drachmae  on 
satisfactory  evidence  of  the  progress  of  the  boy  in 


the  acquirement  of  the  art,  and  a  final  40  drachmae 
when  he  had  become  a  proficient  writer.  Remem- 
ber that,  this  was  137  years  after  the  birth  of 
Christ.  Shorthand  was  so  much  in  demand  in 
those  days  that  there  may  have  been  some  profiteer- 
ing among  the  teachers  of  it,  because  we  find  that 
in  A.D.  301  the  Emperor  Diocletian  issued  an  edict 
fixing  tuition  fees  at  seventy-five  denares  per 
month  for  each  pupil,  about  a  dollar  and  a  half 
a  month.  Evidently  the  high  cost  of  living  did 
not  vex  teachers  in  those  days.  St.  .Augustine 
records  the  fact  that  the  stenographers  of  Rome 
went  on  strike  on  one  occasion  and  succeeded  in 
securing  their  demands.  .  .  .  Peocopius,  who  was  a 
stenographer  to  the  Emperor  Constantine  II,  be- 
came a  count.  He  attempted  to  seize  Julius's 
crown,  but,  vacillating  at  the  critical  moment,  was 
betrayed  by  his  generals  and  put  to  death.  A 
teacher  of  oratory,  Fabius  Quintilian  (.AD.  35-95). 
in  publishing  his  'Guide  to  the  Art  of  Oratory,' 
complained  that  his  lectures,  published  by  others 
under  his  name,  had  injured  him  because  they 
had  been  reported  by  'greedy  shorthand-writers 
who  had  taken  them  down,  and  circulated  them.' 
It  is  stated  that  the  early  Christians  bribed  the 
judicial  shorthand-writers  to  take  down  the  say- 
ings of  the  Christian  on  trial.  These  were  pre- 
served in  the  archives  and  read  at  the  martyrs' 
anniversaries  in  order  to  encourage  the  faithful 
With  the  decline  and  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  shorthand,  like  all  other  arts,  lost  favor. 
It  was  no  longer  regarded  as  a  great,  fashionable 
art.  The  Emperor  Justinian,  in  the  sixth  century, 
forbade  his  records  being  kept  by  the  'catches  and 
short-cut  riddles  of  signs'  Later,  Frederick  II 
ordered  the  destruction  of  all  shorthand-characters 
as  being  'necromantic  and  diabolical.'  As  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  then  covered  almost  the  en- 
tire known  world,  the  edict  of  Frederick  II  ren- 
dered sharthand  one  of  the  lost  arts.  Then  came 
the  Dark  .Ages,  and  for  nearly  a  thousand  years 
the  arts  and  sciences,  among  them  shorthand,  were 
banished  from  the  world." — J.  R.  Gregg,  Juliut 
CiFsar's  stenographer  {Century  Magazine,  May, 
1921). 

Modern  development. — "The  first  evidence  of 
the  revival  of  shorthand  that  we  have  in  the 
Renaissance  is  in  the  fact  that  the  orations  of  the 
reformer  Savonarola  (1452-1498)  were  reported 
in  some  form  of  abbreviated  writing  by  Lorenzo 
di  Jacopo  ^'iola.  There  are  many  omissions  or 
incomplete  sentences  in  these  reports,  and  in  paren- 
thesis there  is  this  quaint  explanation  by  the  re- 
porter. 'Here  I  was  unable  to  proceed  because  of 
weeping.'  Was  the  reporter  merely  camouflaging 
his  own  inability  to  keep  pace  with  the  fiery  tongue 
of  the  orator?  .  .  .  The  first  system  of  short- 
hand published  in  modern  times  was  that  of  Dr. 
Timothy  Bright,  whose  system  of  'characterie' 
was  published  in  London  in  1588.  Dr.  Bright, 
in  the  introduction  to  his  book,  said  that  he  was 
inspired  to  devise  his  system  through  reading 
Plutarch's  reference  to  the  reporting  of  the  Catili- 
nian  conspiracy.  The  full  title  of  Dr.  Bright's 
book  was,  'Characterie.  .An  .Arte  of  Shorte,  Swifte 
and  Secrete  Writing  by  Character.'  The  system 
was  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  letters 
patent  were  issued  to  the  author  by  the  crown, 
dated  July  13.  1588,  giving  him  the  exclusive  right 
to  the  publication  and  use  of  shorthand  .  .  . 
'Characterie'  did  not  meet  with  favor,  and  it  was 
superseded  by  branchy jraphy,  tachygraphy,  stenog- 
raphy, and  many  other  names.  It  is  a  curious 
thing  that  the  first  mention  of  the  word  'short- 
hand,' by  which  the  art  is  now  generally  known, 
is  in  an  epitaph  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 


8 


ABBREVIATION 


ABC   CONFERENCE 


cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey.  It  is  to  William 
Laurence,  who  died  December  28,  1661,  and  reads: 

'Shorthand  he  wrot,  his  flowre  in  prime  did  fade, 
And  hasty  death  shorthand  of  him  hath  made.' 

Dr.  Bright  was  a  man  of  rare  attainments.  He 
was  a  distinguished  physician  and  an  author  of 
several  books  of  importance.  In  1580  one  of  his 
books  was  called  'A  Treatise  on  Melancholy,'  and 
it  is  beUeved  that  it  suggested  to  Shakspere  many 
of  the  pranks  of  mad  people  as  set  forth  in  his 
plays,  and  especially,  'Hamlet.'  Shakspere  was 
twenty-four  years  of  age  when  Bright's  book  was 
published,  and  no  doubt  he  was  familiar  with  it, 
as  it  created  a  stir  at  the  time;  indeed,  the  word 
'characterie'  is  used  in  two  of  his  plays.  Bright's 
'Treatise  on  Melancholy'  was  published  in  1586, 
and  therefore  long  preceded  'Hamlet.'  Recent  in- 
vestigators have  found  that  several  expressions  in 
'Hamlet,'  which  were  heretofore  believed  to  have 
been  original  with  Shakspere,  are  to  be  found 
in  Bright's  book ;  such  as  'discourse  of  reason.' 
Bright's  system  was  arbitrary  and  had  not  an 
alphabet  that  could  be  connected;  it  was  simply  a 
list  of  signs  to  be  used  for  words.  The  first  system 
with  an  alphabet  was  that  of  John  Willis,  pub- 
lished in  1602,  and  from  that  time  on  there  was  a 
steady  stream  of  systems  or  modifications  of  sys- 
tems. In  the  next  century  and  a  half  more  than 
two  hundred  systems  were  published.  There  was 
great  interest  in  shorthand  at  this  time.  The 
people  were  eagerly  desirous  of  preserving  in  per- 
manent form  the  utterances  of  their  beloved  re- 
ligious leaders.  All  textbooks  of  that  time  reflect 
this,  because  they  are  full  of  abbreviations  for 
biblical  phrases.  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  the 
founders  of  the  Methodist  Church,  were  short- 
hand-writers. The  Wesleys  used  the  celebrated 
system  of  Dr.  John  Byrom.  Dr.  Philip  Doddridge, 
in  his  famous  theological  college,  insisted  that  all 
students  preparing  for  the  ministry  should  learn 
shorthand  first  in  order  that  they  might  easily 
take  down  his  lectures.  In  1628  Bishop  Earle  de- 
nounced certain  'graceless'  persons  who  did  not 
scruple  to  report  sermons  in  stenography  and  then 
palm  them  off  later  as  their  own.  But  shorthand 
was  used  for  other  purposes.  The  most  famous 
diary  ever  published  was  that  of  Samuel  Pepys, 
which  was  written  in  the  Shelton  system.  In  this 
diary  Pepys  gives  a  vivid  account  of  the  Great 
Plague  and  the  Great  Fire  of  London,  with  many 
intimate  accounts  of  the  court  of  King  Charles  II. 
Pepys  was  an  expert  shorthand-writer,  because  he 
mentions  in  his  diary  that  in  April,  1680,  he  at- 
tended the  king,  by  command,  at  Newmarket,  and 
there  'took  down  in  shorthand  from  his  own  mouth 
the  narrative  of  his  escape  from  the  battle  of 
Worcester.'  It  is  interesting  to  recall  that  Thomas 
Jefferson,  in  a  letter  to  his  friend  Page,  dated 
January  23,  1764,  proposed  that  they  should 
master  Shelton's  system,  the  one  used  by  Pepys, 
so  that  they  might  have  something  which  was 
unintelligible  to  any  one  else.  He  said,  'I  will 
send  you  some  of  these  days  Shelton's  Tachygraph- 
ical  Alphabet  and  directions. '  There  is  evidence 
that  the  art  of  shorthand  was  in  use  in  this 
country  within  half  a  dozen  years  of  the  landing 
of  the  Pilgrims.  In  the  library  at  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  there  is  preserved  the  shorthand 
note-books  of  Major  John  Pynchon,  the  son  of 
the  founder  of  Springlield,  containing  reports  of 
the  sermons  of  the  first  pastor  of  Springfield,  the 
Rev.  George  Moxon.  These  sermons  are  dated 
from  1637  to  1639,  seventeen  years  after  the 
coming    of    the    Mayflower.      A    majority    of    the 


writers  of  shorthand  in  New  England  in  the  early 
colonial  days  were  men  of  distinction.  Roger 
Williams,  the  founder  of  Rhode  Island,  was  a  very 
accomplished  shorthand-writer.  An  Indian  Bible 
belonging  to  him  in  which  are  annotations  in 
shorthand  is  still  preserved  in  one  of  the  historical 
societies.  It  is  not,  however,  generally  known 
that  many  years  before  coming  to  this  country 
Roger  Williams,  at  nineteen  years  of  age,  was  em- 
ployed by  the  famous  lawyer  Sir  Edward  Coke  to 
report  the  proceedings  of  the  Star  Chamber  in 
1618.  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  the  son  of  the  first 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  who  was  himself 
afterward  governor  of  Connecticut,  was  an  ac- 
complished shorthand-writer.  When  he  arrived  in 
Boston  in  1631  he  proceeded  to  superintend  the 
settlement  of  the  town  of  Ipswich,  Massachusetts, 
while  his  wife  Martha  remained  in  Boston.  They 
corresponded  in  shorthand,  and  many  of  these 
shorthand  letters,  which  were  written  in  1633,  are 
preserved  by  the  Winthrop  families  under  the  date 
of  that  year.  I  mention  this  particularly  because 
Martha  Winthrop  is  the  first  American  shorthand- 
writer  of  the  gentler  sex  of  whom  we  have  record. 
As  early  as  1650  Sir  Ralph  Verney  spoke  of  the 
'multitudes  of  women  practicing  shorthand  in 
church.'  A  discourse  published  in  1700  was  de- 
scribed as  'taken  down  in  characters  from  the 
pulpit  by  a  young  maiden.'  In  his  autobio.;raphy 
Benjamin  Franklin  says:  'My  uncle  Benjamin  had 
formed  a  shorthand  of  his  own,  which  he  taught 
me.  He  was  very  pious  and  a  very  great  attender 
of  the  best  preachers  which  he  took  down  in  short- 
hand, and  he  had  many  volumes  of  them.  My 
father  intended  to  devote  me  to  the  service  of  the 
Church.  My  uncle  offered  to  give  me  his  collec- 
tion of  sermons  as  a  sort  of  stock  in  trade  with 
which  to  start.'  In  1837  Isaac  Pitman  published 
a  system  called  'Stenographic  Sound-Hand,'  which 
was  revived  in  1840  and  published  as  'Phonog- 
raphy.' So  great  was  the  interest  displayed  in  the 
study  of  the  art  that  enormous  classes  were  or- 
ganized, and  in  order  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
teaching  of  Pitman,  many  of  these  met  at  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  others  continued  their 
work  until  ten  in  the  evening.  ...  It  was  not 
until  the  invention  of  a  simpler  shorthand  that 
there  came  the  present  growing  interest  in  it  as  an 
art  that  should  be  mastered  by  everybody,  whether 
they  wish  to  make  use  of  it  professionally  or 
otherwise." — Ibid. 

Ciphers  of  Roger  Bacon.  See  Science:  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Renaissance. 

ABC  ALLIANCE:  Origin  and  nature  of. 
See  Latin  America:  1012-1015;  1018. 

ABC  CONFERENCE,  a  meeting  held  at 
Niagara,  May-June,  1Q14,  of  representatives  chosen 
by  the  ABC  powers,  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Chile, 
which  had  as  its  object  the  peaceful  settlement  of 
the  differences  which  had  arisen  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico  in  1Q14.  "President  Wilson 
had  a  very  disagreeable  situation  to  face  when  he 
assumed  control  of  affairs  at  Washington.  He 
refused  to  recognize  Huerta  whose  authority  was 
contested  by  insurrectionary  chiefs  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  It  was  claimed  by  the  critics  of 
the  administration  that  the  refusal  to  recognize 
Huerta  was  a  direct  violation  of  the  well  known 
American  policy  of  recognizing  de  jacto  govern- 
ments without  undertaking  to  pass  upon  the  rights 
involved.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  the  United 
States  has  consistently  followed  the  policy  of 
recognizing  de  jacto  governments  as  soon  as  it  is 
evident  in  each  case  that  the  new  government  rests 
on  popular  approval  and  is  likely  to  be  permanent. 
This    doctrine    of    recognition    is    distinctively    an 


ABC  CONFERENCE 


ABDICATION 


American  doctrine.  It  was  first  laid  down  by 
Thomas  Jefferson  when  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
as  an  offset  to  the  European  doctrine  of  divine 
right,  and  it  was  the  natural  outgrowth  of  that 
other  Jeflersonian  doctrine  that  all  governments 
derive  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the 
governed.  Huerta  could  lay  no  claim  to  authority 
derived  from  a  majority  or  anything  like  a 
majority  of  the  Me.xican  people.  He  was  a  self- 
constituted  dictator,  whose  authority  rested  solely 
on  military  force.  President  Wilson  and  Secretary 
Bryan  were  fully  justified  in  refusing  to  recognize 
his  u.surpation  of  power,  though  they  probably 
made  a  mistake  in  announcing  that  they  would 
never  recognize  him  and  in  demanding  his  elim- 
ination from  the  presidential  contest.  This  an- 
nouncement made  him  deaf  to  advice  from  Wash- 
ington and  utterly  indifferent  to  the  destruction 
of  American  life  and  property.  The  ne.xt  step  in 
the  President's  course  with  reference  to  Mexico 
was  the  occupation  of  Vera  Cruz.  On  April  20, 
1Q14,  the  President  asked  Congress  for  authority 
to  employ  the  armed  forces  of  the  United  States  in 
demanding  redress  for  the  arbitrary  arrest  of 
.American  marines  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  next  day 
-Admiral  Fletcher  was  ordered  to  seize  the  custom 
house  at  that  port.  This  he  did  after  a  sharp 
fight  with  Huerta's  troops  in  which  nineteen  Amer- 
icans were  killed  and  seventy  wounded.  The  Amer- 
ican charge  d'affaires,  Nelson  O'Shaughnessy,  was 
at  once  handed  his  passports,  and  all  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico 
were  severed.  .\  few  days  later  the  representatives 
of  the  so-called  ABC  powers,  Argentina,  Brazil, 
and  Chile,  tendered  their  good  offices  for  a  peaceful 
settlement  of  the  conflict  and  President  Wilson 
promptly  accepted  their  mediation." — J.  H.  Latane, 
United  Stales  and  Latin  America,  pp.  308-310. 

Mediation  agreement:  Protocol. — The  first  for- 
mal session  of  the  mediation  conference  was  held  at 
Niagara  Falls  on  May  20,  1014.  The  United  States 
was  represented  by  .Associate  Justice  Joseph  R. 
Lamar  and  Frederick  W.  Lehmann,  former  So- 
licitor-General, -Argentina,  Brazil  and  Chile  by  their 
Plenipotentiaries,  and  Gen.  Huerta  by  .Augustin 
Rodriguez,  Emilio  Rabasa,  and  Luis  Elguero. 
After  five  weeks  of  difficult  labor  during  which 
the  conference  was  several  times  on  the  brink  of 
failure,  the  delegates  issued  a  protocol  which  was 
signed  on  June  24  by  all  the  mediators.  It  read  as 
follows:  "Article  I. — The  provisional  government 
referred  to  in  protocol  No.  3  shall  be  constituted 
by  agreement  of  the  delegates  representing  the 
parties  between  which  the  internal  struggle  in 
Mexico  is  taking  place.  Article  11. — (a)  Upon 
the  constitution  of  the  provisional  government  in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  of  America  will  recognize  it  immediately, 
and  thereupon  diplomatic  relations  between  the  two 
countries  will  be  restored,  (ft)  The  Government 
of  the  United  States  also  will  not  in  any  form 
whatsoever  claim  a  war  indemnity  or  other  in- 
ternational satisfaction,  (c)  The  provisional  gov- 
ernment will  proclaim  an  absolute  amnesty  to  all 
foreigners  for  any  and  all  political  offenses  com- 
mitted during  the  period  of  Civil  War  in  Mexico, 
(rf)  The  provisional  government  will  negotiate  for 
the  constitution  of  international  commissions  for 
the  settlement  of  the  claims  of  foreigners  on  ac- 
count of  damages  sustained  during  the  period  of 
Civil  War  as  a  consequence  of  military  acts  or 
the  acts  of  the  national  authorities.  -Article  III. — 
The  Three  mediating  Governments  agree  on  their 
part  to  recognize  the  provisional  government  or- 
ganized as  provided  in  section  1  of  this  protocol." 
— American  year  book,  iqi4,  p.  76.— .Although  this 


protocol  was  not  made  operative  in  any  par- 
ticular, Huerta  voluntarily  resigned  July  15th 
"On  August  :o,  General  Venustiano  Carranza,  head 
of  one  of  the  revolutionary  factions,  assumed  con- 
trol of  affairs  at  the  capital,  but  his  authority  was 
disputed  by  General  Francisco  Villa,  another  in- 
surrectionary chief.  On  Carranza's  promise  to  re- 
spect the  lives  and  property  of  American  citizens 
the  United  States  forces  were  withdrawn  from 
Vera  Cruz  in  November,  1914.  In  .August,  1Q15, 
at  the  request  ef  President  Wilson  the  six  ranking 
representatives  of  Latin  -America  at  Washington 
made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  reconcile  the  con- 
tending factions  of  Mexico.  On  their  advice,  how- 
ever. President  Wilson  decided  in  October  to 
recognize  the  government  of  Carranza,  who  now 
controlled  three-fourths  of  the  territory  of  Mexico." 
— Ibid.,  p.  310. — See  also  U.S..A.:   1014  (.April). 

ABD-AL-BAHA  IBN  BAHA  ALLAH.  See 
Abbas  Effendi. 

ABDALLAH,  Mohammedan  missionary  in  Af- 
rica, nth  centurv.     See  .Almoravides. 

ABDALLAH  IBN  ZOBAIR  (022-692),  caliph 
of  -Mecca.     See  Caliphate:   715-750. 

ABDALLEE,  Ahmed  (Ahmad  Shah  Durani), 
shah  of  .Afghanistan,  1747-1773.  See  Ixdta:  1747- 
1761. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN  (I-V),  a  succession  of 
members  of  the  Ommayyad  family,  whose  founder. 
-Abd-ar-rahman  I,  escaped  from  the  destruction  of 
his  house  by  the  -Abbasids,  and  ultimately  founded 
in  Spain  the  Ommayyad  caliphate  of  Cordova.  His 
reign  began  in  756,  and  his  family  continued  to 
rule  until  1031.    See  Caliphate:   756-1031. 

ABD-EL-AZIZ  IV  (1880-  ),  sultan  of  Mo- 
rocco, iQoo-igo8.  Proposed  the  conference  at  Al- 
geciras  in  igo6;  regarded  by  his  people  as  a  weak 
ruler  and  in  1907-1908  was  supplanted  by  his 
brother  Mulai  el  Hafid.  See  Morocco:  1903,  and 
1907-1909. 

ABD-EL-KADER  (c.1807-1883),  amir  of  Mas- 
cara. The  i-'reat  leader  of  the  .Algerian  tribes 
against  France,  1830-1847;  yielded  in  1847  and 
spent  his  last  years  in  Damascus;  celebrated 
throughout  the  Barbary  States  and  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  French.  See  Barb.ary  States:  1830- 
1846. 

ABD-EL-MUMIN  EL  KUMI  (1130-1163), 
caliph  and  Commander  of  the  Faithful.  See  Al- 
MOHADEs;  .Africa:  -Ancient  and  medieval  civiliza- 
tion: .Arab  occupation:  Relations  with  Europe: 
Effects  of  Arab  influence. 

ABDERA,  an  ancient  maritime  town  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Spain,  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  The  Carthaginians  founded  the  town 
to  be  used  as  a  trading  station.  It  was  subse- 
quently taken  over  by  the  Romans.  Abdera  is 
the  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Democritus,  of 
the  historian  Hecataus  and  other  distinguished 
men. 

ABDERHALDEN'S  ENZYME  REACTION. 
See  Medical  science:  Modern:  20th  century:  Ex- 
perimental  method. 

ABDICATION,  the  renunciation,  formally  or 
otherwise,  of  an  office,  power  or  right.  The  term 
is  used  chiefly  with  reference  to  rulers.  An  ab- 
solute monarch  may  abdicate  at  will ;  in  some 
constitutional  monarchies  the  consent  of  the  par- 
liament is  required.  In  England,  action  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  is  necessary  to  validate  an 
abdication.  In  the  case  of  King  James  II  it  was 
decided  by  Parliament  that  the  king's  desertion  of 
his  official  duties,  followed  by  his  flight  from  the 
realm,  constituted  an  abdication  of  his  royal  po- 
sition. History  records  a  number  of  voluntary  ab- 
dications, as  well  as  numerous  occasions  on  which 


10 


ABDICATION 


ABELARD 


the  ruler  was  compelled  by  insurrection  to  renounce 
his  throne. 

The  following  list  of  abdications,  forced  and 
voluntary,  is  by  no  means  exhaustive,  but  includes 
those  which  have  special  interest  or  importance. 
Wholesale  abdications,  such  as  occurred  in  the 
minor  German  states  immediately  after  the  World 
War,  may  be  found  under  the  names  of  the  sep- 
arate states. 

Ptolemy  I  of  E^ypt  (B.C.  285).  See  Mace- 
donia: B.C.  2g7-28o. 

Diocletian,  Roman  Emperor  (A.D.  May,  305). 
See  Rome:  284-305. 

Edward  II   of   England    (1327)      See   England: 

1327- 

Richard  II  of  England  (ijqq).  See  England: 
I3qg-i47i. 

Charles  V,  Emperor  (Sept.,  1558).  See  Ger- 
many:  1552-1561;  Netherlands:   i5.';s. 

Christina  of  Sweden  (July,  1(154).  See 
Sweden:  1644-1607. 

Charles  IV  of  Spain  (May,  1808).  See  Spain: 
1807-1808. 

Ferdinand  VII  of  Spain  (May,  1808).  See 
Spain:    1807-1808. 

Louis  Bonaparte  of  Holland  (July,  1810).  See 
Netherlands:    1806-1810. 

Napoleon  I  (April,  1814;  June,  1815).  See 
France:    1814   (March-April)  ;    1815,   ( June-.Aug.). 

Victor  Emmanuel  I  (March,  1821).  See  Italy: 
1820-1821. 

Charles  X  of  France  (July,  1830).  See  France: 
1815-1830. 

Pedro  I  of  Brazil  (1831).    See  Brazil:  1825-1865. 

Pedro  IV  of  Portugal  (.^pril,  1831).  See 
Portugal:    1824-1800;    Brazil:    1825- 1865. 

Christina  of  Spain  (Oct.,  1840).  See  Sp.«n: 
1833-1846. 

William  I  of  Holland  (Oct.,  1840).  See  Nether- 
lands:  1840-1840. 

Ferdinand  of  Austria  (Dec,  1848).  See  Aus- 
tria:  1848-1840;  Hungary:   1847-1840. 

Louis  Philippe  of  France  (Feb.,  1848).  See 
France:   1841-1848. 

Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  (March,  1840).  See 
Italy:   1848-1840. 

Isabella  II  of  Spain  (June,  1870).  See  Spain: 
1868-1873. 

Amadeus  I  of  Spain  (Feb.  11,  1873).  See  Spain: 
1868-1873. 

Alexander  I  of  Bulgaria  (Sept.,  1886).  See  Bul- 
garia:   1885-1886. 

Milan  of  Serbia  (March,  i88q).  See  Serbia: 
1885-1003. 

Pedro  II  of  Brazil  (t88o).     See  Brazil:  i 880-1 8qi. 

Yl  Hiong,  Emperor  of  Korea  (July,  1Q07).  See 
Korea:    1005-1000. 

Abd-ul-Hamid  II  of  Turkey  (April  27,  igog). 
See  Turkey:   igoq. 

Mohammed  Ali  of  Persia  (July,  igog).  See 
Persia:    iqo8-igog. 

Hsuan  Tung  (Pu  Yi)  of  China  (Feb.,  1012). 
See  China:   1012    (Jan.). 

Nicholas  II  of  Russia  (March,  igi7).  See 
Europe:  Modern  period;  Russia  in  the  igth  cen- 
tury; Russia:  March,  igi7  (March  8-15);  World 
War:   igi7:   HI.  Russia  and  the  Eastern  front:  h. 

Michael,  grand  duke  of  Russia  (March,  igi7). 
See  Russia:   1017  (March,  16-20). 

Constantine  I  of  Greece  (June,  1Q17).  See 
Greece:  igi6;  World  War:  igi?:  V.  Balkan  the- 
atre:  a,  1. 

Charles  I  of  Austria  (Nov.,  igi8).  See  Austria- 
Hungary:   igi8. 

Grand  duke  of  Baden  (igi8).    See  Baden:   igi8. 


Ferdinand  I  of  Bulgaria  (Oct.,  igi8).  See  Bul- 
garia: 1018;  World  War;  1918:  V.  Balkan  the- 
atre: c,  11. 

William  II  of  Germany  (Nov.,  1918).  See 
Europe:  Nov.,  igi8;  Germany:  Nov.,  1918. 

Marie  Adelaide,  grand  duchess  of  Luxemburg 
(iq2o).     See  Lu.vemburg:    igig-ig2i. 

ABDUL  AZIZ,  sultan  of  Turkey,  1861-1876. 
By  imperial  lirman  of  1866  he  conceded  to  Ismail 
Pasha  and  his  descendants,  the  hereditary  right  to 
the  office  of  khedive  of  Egypt.  Largely  re.sponsible 
for  the  Bulgarian  massacres  of  1875.  Popular  dis- 
content at  his  misgovernment  led  to  his  deposition, 
May  30,  1876.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  apart- 
ments four  days  later.     See  Turkey:   1861-1870. 

Islamic  teachings  of.    See  Wahhabis. 

ABDU'L  BAHA.    See  Abbas  Effendi. 

ABDUL  HAMID  I,  sultan  of  Turkey,  1773- 
17S0.  Involved  in  a  series  of  unsuccessful  wars 
with  Catherine  II  of  Russia,  as  a  result  of  which 
Turkey  lost  the  Crimea  and  adjacent  territories. 
See   Turkey:    1774   and   1776-1792. 

Abdul  Hamid  II  (1842- 1018),  sultan  of  Tur- 
key, 1876-igog.  Came  to  power  in  trying  times, 
suppressed  the  attempted  Parliamentary  reforms 
of  the  Young  Turks  and  inaugurated  an  ab- 
solutist regime;  responsible  for  the  Armenian 
outrages  of  1805  and  i8g6.  Political  conflicts 
caused  by  the  SHCcess  of  the  Young  Turks  enabled 
Austria-Hungary  formally  to  annex  the  occupied 
provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (igo8).  De- 
posed (igog)  by  the  Youiv4  Turks. — See  also  Tur- 
key:  1861-1876;   1877   io  igog. 

Supporter  of  Fan-Islamic  movement.  See 
Pan-Islanhsm. 

ABDUL  MEJID,  sultan  of  Turkey,  1830-1861. 
In  spite  of  sincere  attempts  at  reform,  his  reign 
was  a  failure  because  of  the  practical  loss  of  Egypt 
through  his  defeat  by  Mehcmet  Ali,  and  the  ex- 
haustion of  Turkey  in  consequence  of  the  Crimean 
war. — See  also  Turkey:   1830. 

ABDULLAH,  Mohammed,  Somali  mullah, 
leader  of  the  rebellion  in   igo2.     See  Somaliland. 

ABDULLAH  IBN  SEYYID  MOHAMMED 
(c.  1846-1800),  the  khalifa,  ruler  of  Egyptian  Su- 
dan.   See  Egypt:    1885-1806. 

ABDUR  RAHMAN  (d.  666),  Saracen  generaL 
See  Caliphate:  715-7^2. 

ABDUR  RAHMAN  KHAN,  amir  of  Afghanis- 
tan, 1880-iqoi.  See  Afghanistan:  i86g-i88i  and 
I001-iqo6. 

ABEKEN,  Heinrich  (i8oq-i872),  chaplain  to 
the  Prussian  embassy  at  Rome  in  1834.  Was  in 
high  favor  with  Bismarck,  whose  official  dispatches 
he  was  employed  to  write,  and  with  King  William, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  several  campaigns  and 
diplomatic  missions  during  the  Franco-German 
War.  Composed  the  famous  Ems  dispatch,  which, 
as  edited  by  Bismarck,  precipitated  the  Franco- 
German  War. — See  also  France:  1870  (June-July). 

ABEL,  Sir  Frederick  Augustus  (1827-1002), 
English  chemist.  Expert  in  the  science  of  ex- 
plosives; consulting  chemist  to  the  British  war 
department,  1854-1 888;  prepared  guncotton  in  a 
form  which  increased  its  usefulness ;  with  James 
Dewar  invented  cordite,  the  standard  explosive  of 
the  British  army — See  also  Che\ustry:  Practical 
application:   Explosives:   Gunpowder. 

ABELARD,  Peter  (1070-1142),  scholastic 
philosopher,  teacher  and  theologian.  He  was  a 
bold  and  original  thinker  with  an  irrepressible 
thirst  for  knowledge,  and  his  overthrow  of  reahsm 
was  the  precursor  of  the  Aristotelian  ascendancy 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  He  created  enemies  among 
the  teachers  who  were  lecturing  in  France  by  de- 
feating   them   in   debate,   and    by    his    remarkable 


II 


ABENAQUES 


ABNAKIS 


work  "Yea  and  Nay"  he  introduced  the  fashion 
of  discussing  the  tenets  of  Christianity.  Cruelly 
persecuted  both  for  his  doctrines,  and  for  his  love 
for  Heloise,  he  lied  from  monastery  to  monastery. 
While  on  his  way  to  Rome  to  suffer  imprisonment 
by  the  church,  he  died  at  Cluny.  The  founding 
of  the  University  of  Paris  was  in  great  part  due 
to  his  influence. — See  also  Eoucation':  Medieval: 
Qth-i5th  centuries:  Scholasticism,  Schoolmen;  and 
iith-i2th  centuries:  Universities,  Their  rise;  also 
U^^VEKSITlKs  .and  colleges:   1201-167Q. 

Also  in:  C.  de  Remusat,  Abelard  (1845). — J. 
McCabe,  Peler  Abelard. — H.  Morton,  Love  letters 
of  Abilard  and  Heloise. 

ABENAQUES.  See  .'Vbnakis,  Abenaques  or 
Taranteens. 

ABENCERRAGES,  a  powerful  family  in  the 
Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada.  The  name  became 
famous  in  Spanish  romance  through  feuds  between 
the  Abencerrages  and  their  rivals,  the  Zegris. 
Toward  the  close  of  Moorish  rule  the  family  is 
said  to  have  been  massacred  in  the  .Mhambra  by 
King  Abu  Hassan.  See  Spain:  12,^8-1273  and  1470- 
1402. 

ABENCERRAGES,  Hall  of.     See  Alhambra. 

ABENSBERG,  a  small  town  in  lower  Bavaria, 
Germany,  on  the  Abens,  eighteen  miles  southwest 
of  Ratisbon.  It  gained  prominence  in  the  .•\ustrian 
offensive  of  iSoq.  Here,  on  the  20th  of  April, 
i8oq.  Napoleon  pained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Austrian  army  under  the  .'\rchduke  Charles  and 
General  Hiller.  This  opened  the  way  to  the  vic- 
tory of  Eckmiihl,  and  the  retirement  of  the  .Aus- 
trians.     See  Germany:    i8oq   ( Januarv-June) . 

ABERCROMBIE,  James  (1706-1781),  com- 
mander-in-chief of  British  and  Colonial  forces  in 
.'\merica,  1757;  his  defeat  following  his  attack  on 
Ticonderoga  led  to  his  removal  ir  1759.  See  Can- 
aua:    1758. 

ABERCROMBIE,  Lascellea  (1881-  ),  Eng- 
lish poet.    See  English  literature:  1880-1920. 

ABERCROMBY,  Sir  Ralph  (1734-1S01),  dis- 
tinguished soldier  of  Great  Britain.  Served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War;  fell  in  battle  with  the  French 
near  Ale.xandria. — See  also   France:    1S01-1S02. 

ABERDARE,  Henry  Austin  Bruce,  1st  Baron 
of  (1815-1805),  English  statesman;  entered  parlia- 
ment, 1862;  home  secretary  under  Gladstone,  i8oq; 
responsible  for  Licensing  Act  of  1872  ;  made  lord 
president  of  the  council  and  raised  to  the  peerage 
1873;  political  life  closed  with  the  defeat  of  the 
Liberal  government  in  1874.  His  last  years  were 
devoted  to  social   and  educational   activities. 

ABERDEEN,  George  Hamilton  Gordon,  4th 
Earl  of  (1784-iSbo),  English  statesman  and  schol- 
ar. Signed  the  treaty  of  Teplitz  at  \'ienna  (1813) 
for  Great  Britain;  represented  his  country  at  the 
Congress  of  Chatillon-sur-Seine  (1814).  Secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  under'Peel,  1841-1846; 
prime  minister,  1852-1855.  See  England:  1851- 
1852,  and    1855. 

ABERDEEN,  a  seaport  and  fourth  largest  city 
in  Scotland,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  .North  Sea 
between  the  rivers  Don  and  Dee;  scat  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  .Aberdeen,  which  was  formed  b.v  the 
incorporation  (i860)  of  King's  College  (founded 
in   1404)   and   Marischal  College   (1500 

ABERDEEN  AND  TEMAIR,  Ishbel  Maria 
(Marjoribanks),  Marchioness  of  (1857-  ),  Brit- 
ish social  worker  and  writer.  Founded  the  On- 
ward and  LIpward  .Assoc!;' Uon  to  promote  coop- 
eration among  women  of  different  stations  of  life; 
the  Irish  Industries  Association;  the  Canadi:in  Na- 
tional Council  of  Women ;  and  the  Victorian  Order 
of  Nurses.  President  of  the  International  Council 
of  Women,   1893  1800;   reelected  in   1904 


ABERDEEN  AND  TEMAIR,  John  Campbell 
Gordon,  1st  Marquess  of  (1847-  ),  English 
Liberal.  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1886;  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Canada,  1893 -1898;  upon  the 
formation  of  the  Liberal  ministry  under  Sir  Henry 
Campbell-Bannerman,  again  Lord-Lieutenant  of 
Ireland,   1905-1915. 

ABGEORDNETEN  HAUS  (Chamber  of 
Deputies),  Austria.    See  Austria:  1907. 

ABHORRERS,  the  name  given  to  those  who 
were  opposed  to  the  signers  of  a  petition  in  1079 
urging  King  Charles  II  to  assemble  parliament. 
During  this  controversy,  it  is  said,  the  terms  Whig 
and  Tory  were  first  applied  to  the  two  English 
factions.     See  also  Petitioners  and  Abiiorrers. 

ABILITY  TESTS  FOR  CHILDREN.  See 
Education:  Modern  developments:  Experiments: 
Intelligence  tests. 

ABIPONES.     See  Pamp.«  tribes. 

A6IR,  or  A.  B.  I.  R.  Company.  See  Belgian 
Congo:    1903-1905. 

ABJURATION,  Act  of.  See  Netherlands: 
1577-1581. 

ABLAINCOURT,  France,  stormed  by  the 
French.  See  World  War:  1910:  II.  Western  front: 
c,  3. 

ABLAIN-ST.  NAZAIRE,  France,  taken  by 
the  French.  See  World  War:  1915:  II.  Western 
front:   a,  5. 

ABLAINZEVELLE,  France,  taken  by  the 
Germans.  See  World  War:  1918:  II.  Western 
Iront:   c,  26. 

ABNAKIS,  or  Abenaques,  or  Taranteens.— 
"The  Abnakis  I  Indians]  were  called  Taranteens 
by  the  English,  and  Owenagungas  by  the  New 
Yorkers.  .  .  .  We  must  admit  that  a  large  portion 
of  the  North  .American  Indians  were  called  .Vbnakis, 
if  not  by  themselves,  at  least  by  others.  This  wont 
.Abnaki  is  found  spelt  .Abenaques,  .Abenaki,  Wapa- 
nachki,  and  Wabenakics  by  different  writers  of  var- 
ious nations,  each  adopting  the  manner  of  spelling 
according  to  the  rules  of  pronunciation  of  their 
respective  native  languages.  .  .,.  The  word  gen- 
erally received  is  spelled  thus,  .Abnaki,  but  it 
should  be  'Wanbanaghi,'  from  the  Indian  word 
'wanbanban,'  designating  the  people  of  Ihe  .Aurora 
Borealis,  or  in  general,  of  the  place  where  the  sky 
commences  to  appear  white  at  the  breaking  of  the 
day.  ...  It  has  been  difficult  for  different  writers 
to  determine  the  number  of  nations  or  tribes  com- 
prehended under  this  word  .Abnaki.  It  being  a 
general  word,  by  itself  designates  the  people  of  the 
east  or  northeast.  .  .  .  We  find  that  the  word  Ab- 
naki was  applied  in  general,  more  or  less,  to  all  the 
Indians  of  the  East,  by  persons  who  were  not 
much  acquainted  with  the  aborigines  of  the  coun- 
try. On  the  contrary,  the  early  writers  and  other- 
well  acquainted  with  the  natives  of  New  France 
and  Acadia,  and  the  Indians  themselves,  by  Ab- 
nakis  always  pointed  out  a  particular  nation  ex- 
isting north-west  and  south  of  the  Keimebec  river, 
and  they  never  designated  any  other  people  of. the 
.Atlantic  shore,  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Newfound- 
land. .  .  .  The  .Abnakis  had  five  great  villages,  tw.i 
amongst  the  French  colonies,  which  must  be  the 
village  of  St.  Joseph  or  Sillery,  and  that  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales,  both  in  Canada,  three  on  the  head 
waters,  or  along  three  rivers,  between  .Acadia  and 
New  England.  These  three  rivers  are  Ihe  Kenne- 
bec, the  Androscoggin,  and  the  Saco.  .  .  .  The  na- 
tion of  the  .Abnakis  bear  evident  marks  of  having 
been  an  original  people  in  their  name,  manners, 
and  language.  They  show  a  kind  of  civilization 
which  must  be  the  effect  of  antiquity,  and  of  a 
past  flourishing  age."— E  Vetromile,  Abnaki  In- 
dians (Maine  Historical  Soc.  Coll.,  v.  6) — See  also 


12 


ABNORMAL  CHILDREN 


ABSENTEEISM 


Algonquian  Fahuly;  Indians,  American:  Cul- 
tural areas  in  North  America:  Eastern  Woodlands 
Area.- — For  some  account  of  the  wars  of  the  Ab- 
nakis,  with  the  New  England  colonics,  see  Canada 
(New  France):  1689-1690,  1692-1697;  New  Eng- 
land: 1675  (July-September);  1702-1710,  1711- 
i7n;  Nova  Scotia:    I7i,vi7.50- 

ABNORMAL  CHILDREN.  See  Child  Wel- 
fare. 

ABNORMAL  CLASSES,  Education  for.  See 
Education:  Modern  developments:  Education  for 
the_  deaf,  the  blind  and  the  feeble-minded. 

ABO,  Peace  of  (1743).    See  Russia:   1740-1762. 

ABOLITION,  ABOLITIONISTS.  See  Illi- 
nois: 1831-1837;  Slavery:  1828-1832  and  1840- 
1847;  U.  S.  A.:  1807,  1S29-1S32,  1831-1836,  1835, 
1837-1840,  18.S0  (March),  (April-September);  ViR- 
GiNnA:   1776-1S15. 

Abolitionism  In  literature.  See  American  lit- 
erature:   1830-1890. 

ABOMINATIONS,  Bill  of.  See  Tariff: 
1828. 

ABORIGINES,  American.  See  Indians,  Amer- 
ican. 

ABORIGINES,  Exchange  among.  See  Com- 
merce:  Prehistoric  and  primitive. 

ABOUKIR,  a  village  in  northern  Egypt  on  the 
bay  of  Aboukir,  thirteen  miles  northeast  of  Alex- 
andria. In  the  bay  was  fought  the  battle  of  the 
Nile  (1798)  [see  France:  1798-1799:  Au^ust-.^u- 
gust]  in  which  the  English  under  Lord  Nelson 
defeated  the  French  fleet  under  Brueys.  Near  the 
village  a  year  later,  Napoleon  defeated  the  Turks. 
■In  1801  the  town  was  captured  by  the  English 
under  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby.  See  France:  1801- 
1802;  World  War:  1914:  IX.  Naval  operations: 
b. 

ABOUKIR,  British  cruiser,  sunk  on  September 
22,  1914,  together  with  the  Hague  and  the  Cressy, 
by  Otto  von  Weddigen,  commander  of  a  German 
submarine.  See  World  War:  1914:  IX.  Naval 
operations. 

ABRAHAM,  biblical  and  traditional  patriarch, 
founder  of  the  Hebrew  nation.  His  name  has  be- 
come synonymous  with  absolute  faith  in  God  and 
implicit  obedience  to  the  divine  will.  In  the  Ko- 
ran, he  is  represented  as  being  from  early  child- 
hood the  solitary  exponent  of  monotheism  and  vio- 
lently persecuted  by  the  polytheistic  idolators  on 
account  of  his  fearless  proclamation  of  the  oneness 
of  God.  It  is  on  the  strength  of  the  divine  promise 
to  Abraham  that  the  Bible  represents  the  jews  as 
a  chosen  people. — See  also  Jews:  Early  Hebrew 
history;  Jews:  Children  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 

ABRAHAM,  Plains  of,  that  part  of  the  high 
plateau  of  Quebec  on  which  the  memorable  victory 
of  Wolfe  was  won,  September  13,  1759.  The  plain 
was  so  called  "from  Abraham  Martin,  a  pilot 
known  as  Maitrc  .Abraham,  who  had  owned  a  piece 
of  land  here  in  the  early  times  of  the  colony." — F. 
Parkman,  Montcalm  and  iVolfe,  v.  2,  p.  289. — For 
an  account  of  the  battle  which  gave  distinction  to 
the  Plains  of  .Abraham,  see  Canada:  1759  (July- 
September). 

ABRAMS  VERSUS  UNITED  STATES.— 
Supreme  Court  decisions.  Sec  Supreme  Court: 
1917-1921. 

ABRANTES,  Duke  of.    See  Tunot,  Andoche. 

ABRANTES,  a  town  of  Portugal  in  Estrema- 
dura,  on  the  Tagus.  Captured  on  the  24th  of  No- 
vember, 1807,  by  the  French  General  Junot  (Due  d' 
Abrantes),  who  made  it  the  starting-point  of  his 
march   on   Lisbon   and   the   conquest   of  Portugal. 

ABRUZZI,  Prince  Luigi  Amedeo,  Duke  of  the 
(1873-        ),  Arctic  explorer.    See  Arctic  explora- 


tion:  1917-1918;  Chronological  record:   1899-1900, 
1901 ;  and  Map  of  Arctic  Regions. 

ABSALON  (II28-I20I),  Danish  archbishop, 
statesman  and  soldier.  In  1168  succeeded  in  forc- 
ing the  Wends  to  accept  the  Christian  religion 
and  Danish  sovereignty. 

ABSAROKAS.    See  Siouan  Family. 

ABSENCE,  Ascertaining  legality  of  death. 
Sec  Common  Law:    1604. 

ABSENTEE  OWNERSHIP.  See  Absentee- 
ism. 

ABSENTEE  VOTING.  See  Suffrage:  Elec- 
tions. 

ABSENTEEISM.— "An  absentee  may  be  vari- 
ously defined  (i)  as  a  landed  proprietor  who  re- 
sides away  from  his  estate,  or  (2)  from  his 
country;  or  more  generally  (3)  any  unproductive 
consumer  who  lives  out  of  the  country  from  which 
he  derives  his  income.  Examples  of  these  species 
are  (i)  a  seigneur  under  the  ancien  regime  living 
in  Paris  at  a  distance  from  his  estates;  (2)  an 
Irish  landlord  resident  abroad;  an  Anglo-Indian 
ex-official  resident  in  England  and  drawing  a  pen- 
.sion  from  India.  ' — R.  H.  I.  Palgrave,  Dictionary 
of  political  economy. — "Those  who  live  in  another 
country  contribute  nothing,  by  their  consumption, 
towards  the  support  of  the  government  of  that 
country  in  which  is  situated  the  source  of  their 
revenue.  If  in  this  latter  country  there  should  be 
no  land  tax,  nor  any  considerable  duty  upon  the 
transference  either  of  moveable  or  immoveable 
property,  as  is  the  case  in  Ireland,  such  absentees 
may  derive  a  great  revenue  from  the  protection 
of  a  government  to  the  support  of  which  they  do 
not  contribute  a  single  shilling.  This  inequality 
is  likely  to  be  greatest  in  a  country  of  which  the 
government  is  in  some  respects  subordinate  and 
dependent  upon  that  of  some  other.  The  people 
who  possess  the  most  extensive  property  in  the 
dependent,  will  in  this  case  generally  choose  to 
live  in  the  governing  country.  Ireland  is  pre- 
cisely in  this  situation,  and  we  cannot  therefor 
wonder  that  the  proposal  of  a  tax  upon  absentees 
should  be  so  very  popular  in  that  country." — 
A.  Smith,  Wealth  of  nations  (1776). — "Absen- 
teeism is  an  old  evil,  and  in  very  early  times  re- 
ceived attention  from  the  government.  .  .  .  . 
Some  of  the  disadvantages  to  the  community  aris- 
ing from  the  absence  of  the  more  wealthy  and  in- 
telligent classes  are  apparent  to  every  one.  Unless 
the  landlord  is  utterly  poverty-stricken  or  very 
unenterprising,  'there  is  a  great  deal  more  going 
on'  when  he  is  in  the  country.  ...  I  am  con- 
vinced that  absenteeism  is  a  great  disadvantage 
to  the  country  and  the  people.  .  .  .  It  is  too 
much  to  attribute  to  it  all  the  evils  that  have 
been  set  down  to  its  charge.  It  is,  however,  an 
important  consideration  that  the  people  regard  it 
as  a  grievance;  and  think  the  twenty-five  or  thirty 
millions  of  dollars  paid  every  year  to  these  land- 
lords, who  are  rarely  or  never  in  Ireland,  is  a 
tax  grievous  to  be  borne." — D.  B.  King,  Irish 
question    (1882),  pp.  S-ii. 

"The  Irish  system  of  landholding  was  exceed- 
ingly bad,  for  it  contained  many  vicious  features 
with  scarcely  any  redeeming  ones.  .  .  .  The 
ownership  of  the  soil  was  vested,  not  in  those  who 
tilled  it.  but  in  those  whose  ancestors  had  profited 
from  the  confiscations  in  former  years.  These 
Irish  landlords,  mainly  of  English  origin,  regarded 
their  estates  merely  as  sources  of  revenue  and 
cared  little  about  the  condition  of  the  tenants, 
whom  they  greatly  despised.  Many  of  them  were 
'absentee  landlords'  living  in  England ;  their  prop- 
erties were  managed  by  agents,  who,  in  order  to 


13 


ABSENTEEISM 


ABSENTEEISM 


please  their  employers,  would  raise  the  rents  of 
the  tenants  on  every  possible  pretext.  Improve- 
ments on  the  farm  had  to  be  made  by  the 
peasant.  If  he  drained  a  marsh,  built  a  fence,  or 
improved  his  cottage,  his  rent  was  immediately 
raised  by  the  landlord;  if  he  refused  to  pay  it, 
he  was  promptly  evicted  and  the  improvements, 
as  well  as  the  farm,  became  the  landlord's  prop- 
erty without  compensation  to  the  tenant.  From 
1849  to  1882  no  fewer  than  363,000  peasant  fam- 
ilies were  evicted  from  their  homes.  Often  the 
fear  of  losing  the  money  invested  in  the  improve- 
ments compelled  the  peasant  to  suffer  the  greatest 
privations  in  order  to  satisfy  the  greed  of  the 
landlord.  In  this  way  the  latter  used  as  a  means 
of  coercion  the  very  value  created  by  the  peasant. 
Owners  refused  to  improve  their  properties,  and 
the  tenants  were  naturally  slow  to  invest  labor 
and  money  for  the  benefit  of  the  former ;  hence 
the  land  was  wretchedly  cultivated.  This  system 
of  'rack-renting,'  as  it  was  called,  became  notorious 
the  world  over  and  excited  the  greatest  sympathy 
for  the  Irish  peasants." — J.  S.  Schapiro,  Modern 
and  contemporary  European  history,  pp.  388-389. 
— See  also  Agriculture;  Ireland:   1O07-1611. 

France  was  in  somewhat  the  same  position  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  which  effected  a  great  reform 
in  land  ownership.  A  French  authority  thus  de- 
scribes the  situation;  "Set  aside  in  public  mat- 
ters, freed  from  taxation,  the  seignior  remains 
isolated  and  a  stranger  among  his  vassals;  his 
extinct  authority  with  his  unimpaired  privileges 
form  for  him  an  existence  apart.  When  he 
emerges  from  it,  it  is  to  forcibly  add  to  the  pub- 
lic misery.  On  this  soil,  ruined  by  the  fisc  [the 
crown  rights  to  an  estate],  he  takes  a  portion  of 
its  product,  so  much  in  sheaves  of  wheat  and  so 
many  measures  of  wine.  His  pigeons  and  his 
game  eat  up  the  crops.  People  are  obliged  to 
grind  in  his  mill,  and  to  leave  with  him  a  six- 
teenth of  the  flour.  .  .  .  The  spectacle  be- 
comes still  more  gloomy,  on  passing  from  the 
estates  on  which  the  seigniors  reside  to  those 
on  which  they  are  non-residents.  Noble  or  en- 
nobled, lay  and  ecclesiastic,  the  latter  are  priv- 
ileged among  the  privileged  and  form  an  aris- 
tocracy inside  of  an  aristocracy.  Almost  all  the 
powerful  and  accredited  families  belong  to  it 
whatever  may  be  their  origin  and  their  date. 
Through  their  habitual  or  frequent  residence  near 
the  court,  through  their  alliances  or  mutual  visits, 
through  their  habits  and  their  luxuries,  through 
the  influence  which  they  exercise  and  the  enmities 
which  they  provoke,  they  form  a  group  apart, 
and  are  those  who  possess  the  most  extensive 
estates,  the  leading  suzerainties,  and  the  com- 
pletest  and  most  comprehensive  jurisdictions.  Of 
the  court  nobility  and  of  the  higher  clergy,  they 
number,  perhaps,  a  thousand  in  each  order,  while 
their  small  number  only  brings  out  in  higher  re- 
lief the  enormity  of  their  advantages.  ...  It 
is  evident,  that,  with  such  revenues,  coupled  with 
the  feudal  rights,  police,  justiciary  and  adminis- 
trative, which  accompany  them,  an  ecclesiastic  or 
lay  grand  seignior  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  prince 
in  his  district;  that  he  bears  too  close  a  resem- 
blance to  the  ancient  sovereign  to  be  entitled  to 
live  as  an  ordinary  individual ;  that  his  private 
advantages  impose  on  him  a  public  character;  that 
his  rank,  and  his  enormons  profits,  make  it  in- 
cumbent on  him  to  perform  proportionate  services, 
and  that,  even  under  the  sway  of  the  intendant, 
he  owes  to  his  vassals,  to  his  tenants,  to  his 
feudatories  the  support  of  his  mediation,  of  his 
patronage  and  of  his  gains.     This  requires  a  home 


residence,  but,  generally,  he  is  an  absentee.  For 
a  hundred  and  fifty  years  a  kind  of  all-powerful 
attraction  diverts  the  grandees  from  the  provinces 
and  impels  them  towards  the  capital;  and  the 
movement  is  irresistible  for  it  is  the  effect  of  two 
forces,  the  greatest  and  most  universal  that  in- 
fluence mankind,  one,  a  social  position,  and  the 
other  the  national  character.  A  tree  is  not  to  be 
severed  from  its  roots  with  impunity.  .'Xn  aris- 
tocracy organized  to  rule  becomes  detached  from 
the  soil  when  it  no  longer  rules;  and  it  ceases  to 
rule  the  moment  when,  through  increasing  and 
constant  encroachments,  almost  the  entire  justi- 
ciary, the  entire  administration,  the  entire  police, 
each  detail  of  the  local  or  general  government, 
the  power  of  initiating,  of  collaboration,  of  con- 
trol regarding  taxation,  elections,  roads,  public 
works  and  charities,  passes  over  into  the  hands  of 
the  intendant  or  of  the  sub-delegate,  under  the 
supreme  direction  of  the  comptroller-general  or 
of  the  king's  council.  Clerks,  gentry  'of  the  robe 
and  the  quill,'  plebeians  enjoying  no  considera- 
tion, perform  the  work;  there  is  no  way  to  pre- 
vent it.  .  .  .  'The  great  proprietors,'  says 
another  contemporary,  ['De  I'etat  religieux,'  by  the 
abbes  de  Bonnefoi  et  Bernard,  1784]  'attracted  to 
and  kept  in  our  cities  by  luxurious  enjoyments 
know  nothing  of  their  estates,'  save  'of  their 
agents  whom  they  harass  for  the  support  of  a 
ruinous  ostentation.  How  can  ameliorations  be 
looked  for  from  those  who  even  refuse  to  keep 
things  up  and  make  indispensable  repairs?'  A 
sure  proof  that  their  absence  is  the  cause  of  the 
evil  is  found  in  the  visible  difference  between  the 
domain  worked  under  an  absent  abbe-commenda- 
tory and  a  domain  superintended  by  monks  living 
on  the  spot.  'The  intelligent  traveller  recognizes 
it'  at  first  sight  by  the  state  of  cultivation.  'If 
he  finds  fields  well  enclosed  by  ditches,  carefully 
planted,  and  covered  with  rich  crops,  these  fields, 
he  says  to  himself,  belong  to  the  monks.  Almost 
always,  alongside  of  these  fertile  plains,  is  an 
area  of  ground  badly  tilled  and  almost  barren, 
presenting  a  painful  contrast;  and  yet  the  soil  is 
the  same,  being  two  portions  of  the  same  domain ; 
he  sees  that  the  latter  is  the  portion  of  the  abbe- 
commendatop.'.'  'The  abbatial  manse,'  said  Le- 
franc  de  Pompignan,  'frequently  looks  like  the 
patrimony  of  a  dissipator;  the  monastic  manse  is 
like  a  patrimony  whereon  nothing  is  neglected  for 
its  amelioration,'  to  such  an  extent  that  'the  two- 
thirds'  which  the  abbe  enjoys  bring  him  less  than 
the  third  reserved  by  his  monks.  The  ruin  or 
impoverishment  of  agriculture  is,  again,  one  of  the 
effects  of  absenteeism ;  there  was,  perhaps,  one- 
third  of  the  soil  in  France,  which,  deserted  as  in 
Ireland,  was  as  badly  tilled,  as  little  productive  as 
in  Ireland  in  the  hands  of  the  rich  absentees,  the 
English  bishops,  deans  and  nobles.  Doing  nothing 
for  the  soil  how  could  they  do  anything  for  men? 
Now  and  then,  undoubtedly,  especially  with  farms 
that  pay  no  rent,  the  steward  writes  a  letter, 
alleging  the  misery  of  the  farmer.  There  is  no 
doubt,  also,  and  especially  for  thirty  years  back, 
they  desire  to  be  humane;  they  descant  among 
themselves  about  the  rights  of  man ;  the  sight 
of  the  pale  face  of  a  hungry  peasant  would  give 
them  pain.  But  they  never  see  him;  does  it  ever 
occur  to  them  to  fancy  what  it  is  like  under  the 
awkward  and  complimentary  phrases  of  their 
agent?  Moreover,  do  they  know  what  hunger  is? 
Who  amongst  them  has  had  any  rural  expe- 
riences? And  how  could  they  picture  to  them- 
selves the  misery  of  this  forlorn  being  ?  They 
are  too  remote  from  him  to  do  that,  too  ignorant 


14 


ABSOLUTE  MUSIC 


ABSOLUTISM 


of   his  mode  of  life.     The  portrait   they   conceive 
of    him    is    imaginary ;    never   was    there    a    falser 
representation    of    the    peasant;    accordingly    the 
awakening  is  to  be  terrible.    They  view  him  as  the 
amiable  swain,  gentle,  humble  and  grateful,  simple- 
hearted   and   right-minded,   easily   led,   being   con- 
ceived  according   to   Rousseau  and   the   idyls  per- 
formed at  this  very  epoch  in  all  private  drawing- 
rooms      Lacking   a  knowledge  of  him  they   over- 
look him ;   they  read  the  steward's  letter  and  im- 
mediately the  whirl  of  high  life  again  seizes  them 
and,  after  a  sigh  bestowed  on  the  distress  of  the 
poor,   they    make    up    their    minds   that   their   in- 
come  for   the   year   will   be   short.     A   disposition 
of    this    kind    is    not    favorable    to    charity.      Ac- 
cordingly,  complaints  arise,   not   against   the   resi- 
dents but   against   the   absentees.     ...     'I  have 
in  my   parish,"  says  a  curate  of  Berry,  'six  .simple 
benefices   of   which    the   titularies   are   always   ab- 
sent, and  they  enjoy  together  an  income  of  nine 
thousand   livres;   I  sent  them  in  writing  the  most 
urgent  entreaties  during  the  calamity  of  the  past 
year;  I  received  from  one  of  them  two  louis  only, 
and    most    of    them    did    not    even    answer    me.' 
Stronger   is   the   reason    for   a   conviction   that   in 
ordinary  times  they  will  make  no  remission  of  their 
dues      Moreover,   these   dues,   the   censives    [quit- 
rent],  the  lods  el  ventes   [lord's  dues],  tithes,  and 
the  like,  are  in  the  hands  of  a  steward,  and  he  is 
a   good   steward   who   returns   a   large   amount   of 
money      He   has   no   right   to  be  generous   at  his 
master's  expense,  and   he   is   tempted  to   turn  the 
subjects    of    his    master    to    his    own    profit.     In 
vain    might   the   soft   seignorial   hand    be   disposed 
to    be   easy    or    paternal ;    the    hard    hand    of    the 
proxy    bears   down    on    the    peasants    with    all    its 
weight,  and  the  cautiousness  of  a  chief  gives  place 
to  the  exactions  of  a  clerk     How  is  it  then  when, 
instead    of    a    clerk    on    the    domain,    a    fermier 
[farmer]    is   found,    an    adjudicator   who,    for    an 
annual   sum    purchases  of   the  seignior   the  man- 
agement and  product  of  his  dues?     In  the  election 
of  Mayenne,   and   certainly    also   in   many   others, 
the    principal    domains    are    rented    in    this    way. 
Moreover    there   are   a  number   of   dues,   like   the 
tolls,    the    market-place    tax,    that    on    the    flock 
apart,  the  monopoly  of  the  oven  and  of  the  mill 
which    can    scarcely    be    managed    otherwise;    the 
seignior    must    necessarily    employ    an    adjudicator 
who  spares  him   the   disputes  and   the  trouble   of 
collecting      In  this  case,  so  frequent,  the  pressure 
and   the   rapacity    of    the   contractor,   who   is   de- 
termined  to   gain    or,   at   least,   not   to   lose,   falls 
on   the  peasantry:    'He  is  a  ravenous  wolf,'  says 
Renauldon,  'let  loose  on  the  estate,  who  draws  upon 
it  to  the  last  sou,  who  crushes  the  subjects,  reduces 
them  to  beggary,  forces  the  cultivators  to  desert, 
and   renders  odious  the  master  who   finds  himself 
obliged  to  tolerate  his  exactions  as  to  be  able  to 
profit    by    them"— H.    A     Taine,    Ancient    regime 
(tr    by  J.  Durand),  pp.  40-52. 

Also  in:  J.  S.  Mill,  Political  economy.^].  R. 
McCulloch,  article  Absenteeism,  in  Treatises  and 
essays  on  mnnev.—A.  de  Tocquevillc,  Old  regime. 

ABSOLUTE  MUSIC,  a  term  used  to  express 
the  type  of  music  that  derives  none  of  its  in- 
terest from  external  things,  therefore  being  in  the 
greatest  contrast  to  program  music.  It  appeals 
directly  to  the  emotions  without  reference  to  the 
intellect.  The  term  arose  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  when  the  new  school  of  pro- 
gram music  came  into  being.  See  Music:  Later 
iqth  century:   Brahms. 

ABSOLUTISM,  in  the  stricter  sense,  a  form  of 
government  in  which  the  sovereign  wields  supreme 


power  based  directly  upon  force  and  unchecked 
by  laws  or  political  tradition;  in  the  more  usual 
sense,  a  term  applied  to  the  political  system  of 
any  state  which  has  not  achieved  representative 
government.  With  the  exception  of  two  brief 
periods,  those  of  the  Athenian  democracy  and  the 
Roman  republic.  It  was  almost  the  only  form 
known  to  the  ancient  world,  and  in  Oriental 
countries  has  prevailed  even  down  to  recent 
years.  In  Western  Europe,  in  consequence  of  the 
barbarian  invasions,  absolute  monarchy  gave  way 
to  feudalism,  a  system  in  which,  though  the  king 
was  recognized  as  the  nominal  sovereign,  supreme 
power  was  in  reality  in  the  hands  of  the  greater 
nobles.  During  the  middle  ages  the  greater  part 
of  Central  and  Western  Europe  was  divided  into 
a  number  of  states,  the  most  important  rulers  of 
which  were  called  kings.  Most  of  these  kings 
possessed  very  little  power  and  were  constantly 
thwarted  in  what  they  regarded  as  the  perform- 
ance of  their  regal  functions  by  a  turbulent  and 
intractable  nobility.  To  be  sure  under  the  feudal 
system  all  their  nobles  owed  and  sometimes  ren- 
dered various  services  to  their  over-lord  or 
suzerain,  but  upon  their  own  estates  the  nobles 
were  practically  supreme.  During  the  fifteenth 
century  a  variety  of  forces  combined  to  exalt  the 
power  of  the  kings  and  the  bourgeoisie  of  the 
cities,  at  the  expense  of  the  nobility.  By  the  end 
of  the  century  powerful  centralized  monarchies 
had  emerged  in  France,  Spain  and  Portugal,  while 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  in  England  paved  the  way 
for  the  domineering  house  of  Tudor.  (See  Eng- 
land: 1471-1485,  1485-1603.)  In  France  and  Spain 
this  process  of  centralizing  all  poHtical  authority 
in  the  crown  made  those  countries  absolute 
monarchies  in  reality.  (See  Spain:  Machinery  of 
absolutism.) 

Louis  XIV  of  France  converted  the  great  nobles 
into  courtiers  and  the  lesser  ones  into  officers  of 
his  military  and  diplomatic  service.  The  rise  to 
power  and  prosperity  of  the  middle  class  was  at 
the  expense  of  the  nobility,  and  despotic  rulers 
like  Philip  II  of  Spain  and  John  the  Perfect  of 
Portugal  employed  men  not  of  the  noble  caste  in 
important   positions   in   the   government. 

"The  period  which  preceded  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  the  era  of  war,  from  the  troubles  of 
which  modern  Europe  was  to  be  born,  may  be 
characterised  as  that  of  the  benevolent  despots. 
The  State  was  everything;  the  nation  nothing. 
The  ruler  was  supreme,  but  his  supremacy  rested 
on  the  assumption  that  he  ruled  his  subjects  for 
their  good.  This  conception  of  the  Aufgeklarte 
Despotismus  [enlightened  despotism]  was  devel- 
oped to  its  highest  degree  by  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  'I  am  but  the  first  servant  of  the 
nation,'  he  wrote,  a  phrase  which  irresistibly  re- 
calls the  definition  of  the  position  of  Louis  XVI. 
by  the  first  leaders  of  the  French  Revolution. 
This  attitude  was  defended  by  great  thinkers 
like  Diderot,  and  is  the  keynote  to  the  internal 
policy  of  the  monarchs  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  towards  their  people.  The  Em- 
press Catherine  of  Russia,  Gustavus  III.  of  Swe- 
den, Charles  III.  of  Spain,  the  Archduke  Leopold 
of  Tuscany,  and,  above  all,  the  Emperor  Joseph 
II.  defended  their  absolutism  on  the  ground  that 
they  exercised  their  power  for  the  good  of  their 
subjects.  Never  was  more  earnest  zeal  displayed 
in  promoting  the  material  well-being  of  all  classes, 
never  did  monarchs  labour  so  hard  to  justify  their 
existence,  or  effect  such  important  civil  reforms, 
as  on  the  eve  of  the  French  Revolution,  which 
was  to  herald  the  overthrow  of  the  doctrine   of 


15 


ABSOLUTISM 


ABUD 


absolute  monarchy.  The  intrinsic  weakness  of  the 
position  of  the  benevolent  despots  was  that  they 
could  not  ensure  the  permanence  of  their  reforms, 
or  vivify  the  rotten  fabric  of  the  administrative 
edifices,  which  had  grown  up  in  the  feudal  mon- 
archies. Great  ministers,  such  as  Tanucci  and 
Aranda,  could  do  much  to  help  their  masters  to 
carry  out  their  benevolent  ideas,  but  they  could 
not  form  or  nominate  their  successors,  or  create 
a  perfect  body  of  unselfish  administrators.  When 
Frederick  the  Great's  master  hand  was  withdrawn, 
Prussia  speedily  exhibited  a  condition  of  adminis- 
trative decay,  and  since  this  was  the  case  in 
Prussia,  which  had  been  for  more  than  forty 
years  under  the  rule  of  the  greatest  and  wisest 
of  the  benevolent  despots,  the  falling-off  was 
likely  to  be  even  more  marked  in  other  countries. 
The  conception  of  benevolent  despots  ruling  for 
their  people's  good  was  eventually  superseded,  as 
was  certain  to  be  the  case,  owing  to  the  impos- 
sibility of  their  ensuring  its  permanence,  by  the 
modern  idea  of  the  people  ruhng  themselves." — 
H.  M.  Stephens.  Revolutionary  Europe,  pp.  4-5. 

"The  government  of  nearly  every  European 
country  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
monarchical,  and  everywhere  the  monarch  was 
absolute,  except  in  England,  which  had  established 
a  parliamentary  system.  Feudalism  on  its  politi- 
cal side  had  disappeared,  and  the  once  haughty 
noble  was  transformed  into  the  fawning  courtier. 
Only  in  Germany  did  political  feudalism  still  main- 
tain itself;  there,  the  lord  continued  to  govern 
and  to  judge  as  he  had  done  in  medieval  times. 
The  explanation  given  for  absolute  monarchy  was 
known  as  'divine  right,'  which  asserted  that  the 
King's  right  to  govern  came  from  God,  to  whom 
alone  he  was  responsible  for  his  acts.  Was  a 
king  good,  just,  and  wise?  Then  the  people 
were  fortunate.  Was  he  wicked,  cruel,  and  stupid? 
Then  they  were  unfortunate.  In  no  case  were 
they  to  revolt,  for  disobedience  was  not  only  a 
crime  to  be  punished  on  earth,  but  likewise  a 
sin  to  be  punished  in  the  hereafter.  In  case  a 
bad  king  reigned,  the  people  were  to  bear  his 
rule  patiently  and  meekly,  and  to  pray  to  God 
to  soften  his  heart.  This  doctrine  of  'divine  right' 
was  insistently  preached  by  the  loyal  followers 
of  the  monarch.  Lutheran  Prussia  subscribed  to 
it  as  heartily  as  Catholic  Spain.  In  medieval 
times,  the  largest  part  of  the  taxes  came  from 
land.  But  the  commercial  expansion  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  increased  the 
scope  of  government,  and  taxes  had  to  be  in- 
creased correspondingly  in  order  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  a  rapidly  developing  bureaucracy.  While 
the  kings  of  the  ancien  regime  still  gathered  around 
them  the  territorial  lords  who,  in  former  days, 
had  been  their  bitter  opponents,  they  now  looked 
more  and  more  to  the  middle  classes  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  State.  But  their  traditions 
and  sympathies,  however,  remained  with  the 
landed  aristocracy;  and  the  latter  were  conse- 
quently exempt  in  large  measure  from  the  ever  in- 
creasing burden  of  taxation,  as  is  revealed  by  the 
legislation  of  the  eighteenth  century.  .  .  .  Many 
of  the  changes  inaugurated  by  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  by  Napoleon  could  not  be  abolished  with- 
out a  violent  wrench  of  the  entire  social  system, 
and  so  were  allowed  to  remain.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire  was  gone,  feudalism  was  gone,  and  gone 
was  the  old  authority  of  the  Church.  If  absolute 
monarchy  did  return,  it  should  do  so  without  pop- 
ular endorsement,  for  the  doctrine  of  'divine  right' 
was  now  being  prearhed  to  unwilling  ears.  The 
generation   that   had   seen   so   many   kings  hurled 


from  their  thrones  during  the  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  periods  found  it  difficult  to  believe  in 
a  divine  sanction  of  governments  that  could  be 
so  easily  overturned.  Absolute  monarchy,  feared 
for  ages  as  all-powerful,  had  but  to  show  its 
weakness  to  become  ridiculous.  Although  Napo- 
leon had  preached  'divine  right,'  he  did  more  to 
discredit  the  doctrine  than  even  the  French  Revo- 
lution. For  the  first  time,  mankind  saw  in  the 
bright  light  of  the  nineteenth  century  how  kings 
were  made  and  unmade  by  force  of  arms.  And 
now  that  its  moral  authority  was  gone,  abso- 
lutism could  maintain  itself  only  by  resorting  to 
brute  force.  Sullen  obedience  had  succeeded  loyal 
devotion  among  the  masses  of  Europe." — J.  S. 
Schapiro,  Modern  and  contemporary  European 
history,  pp.  2-3,  24. — The  nineteenth  century- 
marks  the  desperate  efforts  of  the  monarchs  of 
Europe  to  reestablish  the  absolutism  that  had 
been  shaken  to  its  foundations  by  the  French 
revolution.  The  inspiring  genius  of  this  reaction- 
ary policy  was  Metternick,  the  crafty  Austrian 
chancellor,  who  dominated  Europe  from  1815  to 
1S48,  and  whose  cynical  doctrines  continued  in 
force  despite  the  democratic  outbreaks  of  1848. 
(See  Austrla:  1815-1846;  1849-1850.)  From  the 
apotheosis  of  absolutism  expressed  in  Louis  XIV's 
"L'etat  c'est  moi"  ("I  am  the  state")  less  than  three 
centuries  have  sufficed  to  bring  about  its  downfall 
in  every  civilized  country  of  the  Old  World  and 
the  New.  The  overthrow  of  the  shogunate  and 
the  establishment  of  parliamentary  government  in 
Japan  in  1880  {See  JAP.^^■:  1868-1894),  the  revo- 
lution of  the  Young  Turks  in  IQ08,  the  downfall 
of  Nicholas  II  of  Russia,  and  the  overthrow  of 
the  militaristic  power  in  Germany  mark  the  final 
victory  of  popular  government  over  the  theory 
of  absolutism  and  divine  right  of  kings. — See  also 

MoN.^RCHY. 

In  Russia.    See  Russu:  1916. 

ABT,  Franz  (1819-1885),  German  composer  of 
popular  songs  and  conductor  of  the  court  orchestra 
at  Brunswick,  1852-1882.  Wrote  over  3,000  songs, 
among  them  "When  the  swallows  homeward  fly." 

ABU  BAKR  (fl.  nth  century),  Almoravide 
chief.     See  .■\lmor.h\ides. 

ABU  BEKR  (573-634),  first  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan caliphs  and  successor  of  the  prophet,  632-634. 
The  name.  .\bu  Bekr  (meaning  "Father  of  the 
Virgin"),  was  adopted  in  place  of  his  original 
name.  .^bd-el-Ka'ba,  after  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  to  Mohammed.  On  his  accession,  he 
successfully  put  down  the  formidable  opposition 
led  by  the  imposter  Mosailima ;  had  the  record 
of  the  sayings  of  the  prophet  preserved  in  written 
form  and  this  furnished  most  of  the  material  out 
of  which  the  Koran  was  prepared.  His  zeal  in 
the  propagation  of  Mohammedan  doctrines  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  success  and  spread  of 
the  faith  of  Islam.     See  C.'vliphate,  also  632-639; 

MOHAXrMEn.^MSM. 

ABU  GHARAIB.— 1918.— Region  of  British 
attack.     See  World  War:   1018:   \'I.  Turkish  the- 

ABU  HAMED,  Sudan,  captured  by  the  British 
in  1807.     See  Egypt:   1807-1808. 

ABU  IRGEIG.— Occupied  by  the  British 
(1917).  See  World  War:  1917:  VI.  Turkish  thea- 
ter: c,  2,  iii. 

ABU  KLEA,  Battle  of  (1885).  See  Egypt: 
1884-188';. 

ABU  TELLUL:  Held  by  British  (1918).  See 
World  War:   1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c,  3. 

ABUD.— 1918.— Held  by  British.  See  World 
War;    1918:   VI.  Turkish  theater:   c,  2. 


16 


ABUKIR 


ABYSSINIA 


ABUKIR.     See  Aboukir. 

ABU'L  ABBAS  (also  called  Abdullah),  caliph, 
7S°-754-  His  father  was  great-grandson  of  the 
uncle  of  the  prophet;  upon  this  relation  the  Ab- 
basids  based  their  claim  to  the  caliphate. 

ABUMIR.    See  Pyramid. 

ABUNA.     See  Abyssinian  church. 

ABUNA  (Salama)  OF  ABYSSINIA.— "Since 
the  days  of  Frumentius  [who  introduced  Chris- 
tianity into  Abyssinia  in  the  fourth  century] 
every  orthodox  Primate  of  Abyssinia  has  been  con- 
secrated by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  the  Church  of 
Alexandria,  and  has  borne  the  title  of  'Abuna' — 
or  'Abuna  Salama' — 'Father  of  Peace.'  " — H.  M. 
Hozier,  Britisk  expedition  to  Abyssinia,  p.  4. 

ABURY.     See  Avebury. 

ABYDENOS.     See  History;   14. 

ABYDOS,  an  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor,  near 
the  Hellespont,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  as  one  of 
the  towns  that  were  in  alliance  with  the  Trojans. 
Originally  Thracian,  as  is  supposed,  it  became  a 
colony  of  Miletus,  and  passed  at  different  times 
under  Persian,  Athenian,  Lacedecmonian  and  Mace- 
donian rule.  Its  site  was  at  the  narrowest  point 
of  the  Hellespont — the  scene  of  the  ancient  ro- 
mantic story  of  Hero  and  Leander — nearly  oppo- 
site to  the  town  of  Sestos.  It  was  in  the  near 
neighborhood  of  Abydos  that  Xerxes  built  his 
bridge  of  boats  (480  B.C.).  The  town  is  also 
famed  for  its  stubborn  resistance  to  Philip  V  of 
Macedon  {200  B.  C).  See  Greece;  B.  C.  411-407; 
and  Map  of  Ancient  Greece. 

ABYDOS,  Egypt.— "There  was  a  city  in  Egypt 
called  by  the  Greeks  Abydos.  This  is  an  example 
of  popular  etymology  or  rather  popular  trans- 
cription. Its  Egyptian  name  was  'About,'  which 
through  resemblance  of  sound  recalled  the  distant 
well-known  Grecian  city  of  Abydos  on  the  Helles- 
pont, made  famous  by  the  passage  of  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  and  led  to  caUing  the  Egyptian  city  by 
that  name.  It  played  no  part  in  the  political 
world,  but  became  famous  chiefly  as  a  place  for 
the  worship  of  Osiris;  one  could  almost  call  it  a 
Mecca  of  pilgrims.  Osiris,  the  most  human  god 
of  the  Egyptian  pantheon,  had  been  cut  into  pieces 
by  his  rival.  Set,  or  Typhon;  but  his  son  Horus 
had  brought  him  back  to  life  by  reconstructing  his 
body.  His  tomb,  however,  was  at  Abydos,  though 
we  do  not  know  whether  it  contained  the  body 
of  the  god,  or  as  Greek  writers  say,  only  his  head. 
On  account  of  the  sanctity  of  the  place,  the  Egyp- 
tians liked  to  be  buried  there,  and  very  few  locali- 
ties contained  cemeteries  so  rich,  belonging  to  all 
epochs  from  the  neolithic  age  down  to  the  Roman 
Empire.  Kings  had  there  built  temples  most  of 
which,  excepting  two,  have  been  destroyed,  though 
one  in  particular,  built  by  Seti  I,  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  the  father  of  Rameses  II,  has  remained 
almost  in  its  entirety.  It  was  unearthed  by  Mari- 
ette.  It  is  a  large  temple  which  was  completed 
by  Rameses.  In  the  part  built  by  Seti  there  are 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  sculptures  in  Egypt, 
but  from  father  to  son  the  style  changed  com- 
pletely, the  work  of  Rameses  being  hastily  done 
with  the  carelessness  characterizing  so  many  of 
his  monuments.  The  temple  of  Seti  is  what  is 
called  a  memnonium,  that  is,  an  edifice  in  connec- 
tion with  a  tomb  and  in  which  they  rendered 
services  to  the  dead.  Since  it  is  dedicated  to  Osiris, 
it  seemed  probable  that  the  tomb  of  this  god 
might  be  in  this  vicinity.  For  several  years  [W. 
Flinders]  Petrie  had  attracted  attention  to  what 
he  called  the  Osireion.  He  had  discovered  a  pas- 
sageway leading  to  a  room  ornamented  with 
funeral  paintings  showing  a  scene  of  worship  ren- 


dered to  Osiris.  In  this  passageway  was  a  side 
door  before  which  Petrie  was  stopped  and  which 
he  shows  upon  his  map  to  be  a  passage  leading  to 
the  temple  of  Seti,  situated  about  eighty  meters 
from  this  door.  .  .  .  Between  the  doorway  with 
enormous  lintels  and  the  temple  of  Seti  is  a  large 
edifice  evidently  built  at  the  time  of  the  pyra- 
mids, that  is,  belonging  to  the  first  dynasties.  It 
is  very  much  ruined,  but  it  was  constructed  of 
massive  materials,  the  largest  that  have  been  found 
in  Egypt  in  like  quantity.  It  is  an  edifice  unique 
among  those  numerous  temples  and  tombs  that 
one  finds  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  .  .  .  There  is 
no  longer  any  doubt,  then,  that  we  have  discov- 
ered what  Strabo  calls  the  well  or  the  fountain  of 
Abydos.  He  spoke  of  it  as  being  near  the  temple, 
at  a  great  depth,  and  remarkable  for  some  corri- 
dors whose  ceilings  were  formed  of  enormous 
monolithic  blocks.  That  is  exactly  what  we  have 
found." — E  Naville,  Excavations  at  Abydos 
{Smithsonian    report,    1014,   pp.    S7q-58i). 

ABYDOS,  Tablet  of,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
records  of  Egyptian  history,  found  in  the  ruins  ot 
Abydos  and  now  preserved  in  the  British  Museum 
"It  gives  a  list  of  kings  whom  Rameses  II  selected 
from  among  his  ancestors  to  pay  homage  to.  The 
tablet  was  much  mutilated  when  found,  but  an- 
other copy  more  perfect  has  been  unearthed  by 
M.  Mariette,  which  supplies  nearly  all  the  names 
lacking  on  the  first." — F.  Lenormant,  Manual  of 
ancient  historv  oj  the  East,  v.  i,  bk.  3. 

ABYSSINIA  (officially  Ethiopia),  an  inland 
empire  in  northeast  Africa,  surrounded  by  the 
possessions  of  Britain,  Italy  and  France.  The  area 
is  about  350,000  square  miles  and  the  population 
in  ig2o  about  8,000,000.  Both  the  character  of 
the  land  itself  and  that  of  the  people  are  reflected 
in  the  history  of  Abyssinia.  The  country  consists 
of  elevated  plateaus  and  rugged  mountain  ranges, 
which  as  in  the  case  of  Switzerland  are  favorable 
to  the  development  of  a  hardy  race  capable  of 
maintaining  its  independence.  As  Miss  Semple  has 
pointed  out,  the  stronger  the  natural  location  the 
more  strongly  marked  is  likely  to  De  the  national 
character  The  Abyssinians,  who  furnish  a  rather 
unusual  example  of  a  civilized  people  wholly  cen- 
tral in  location,  "have  used  the  fortress  character 
of  their  land  to  resist  conquest,  and  have  preferred 
independence  to  the  commercial  advantages  to  be 
gained  only  by  affiliation  with  their  peripheral 
neighbors.  .  .  .  [But]  even  the  most  pronounced 
land  barriers  have  their  passways  and  favored 
spots  for  short  summer  habitation,  where  the 
people  from  the  opposite  slopes  meet  and  mingle 
for  a  season.  Sandy  wastes  are  hospitable  at 
times.  When  the  spring  rains  on  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia  start  a  wave  of  moisture  lapping 
over  the  edges  of  the  Nubian  desert,  it  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  a  tide  of  .^rabs  with  their 
camels  and  herds,  who  make  a  wide  zone  of  tem- 
porary occupation  spread  over  the  newly  created 
grassland,  but  who  retire  in  a  few  weeks  before 
the  desiccating  heat  of  summer." — E.  C.  Sempic, 
Influences  of  geographic  environment,  pp.  141,  215. 
— In  consequence  of  such  intermingling  the  people 
are  of  mixed  Hamitic  and  Semitic  origin  with  a 
negroid  element.  Though  the  people  still  call 
themselves  Ethiopians,  the  name  Abyssinians  (de- 
rived from  the  Portuguese  form  of  the  Arabic 
Habesh,  meaning  mi.xture  or  composite  race)  is  the 
one  by  which  they  are  known  outside  their  own 
country.  A  race  of  warriors  and  traders,  they 
have  long  felt  a  marked  national  consciousness 
which  in  recent  years  has  resulted  in  vigorous 
efforts   to   establish    and   maintain    political   inde- 


17 


BYSSINIA,  ANCIENT 


ABYSSINIA,   15TH-19TH    CENTURIES 


pendence.    See  also  Africa:  Races  of  Africa:  Mod- 
ern people;  and  Map 

Embraced  in  ancient  Ethiopia. — In  ancient 
times  Abyssinia,  or  at  least  the  northern  part  of 
it  was  known  as  Ethiopia,  of  which  the  northern- 
most limit  at  one  tirrte  reached  nearly  to  Syene, 
Between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  interchange  of  cul- 
ture was  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  both  countries 
were  occasionally  under  the  same  ruler.  Inter- 
course with  the  Jews,  at  first  merely  commercial, 
was  extended  after  the  visit  of  the  Queen  of 
Sheba  to  the  court  of  Solomon.  Their  son  Mene- 
lek  is  claimed  as  the  ancestor  of  the  kings  of 
Abyssinia;  and  more  intimate  relations  of  language 
and  traditions  were  secured  by  the  settling  of 
many  Jews  in  .Abyssinia  during  the  captivity. 
Greek  colonization,  begun  after  the  invasion  of 
Ptolemy  Eucrgctes  (247-221  B.C.),  succeeded  in 
estabUshing  the  kingdom  of  Axum.  This  included 
nearly  all  of  modern  .Abyssinia  and  was  most 
vigorous  between  the  first  and  the  seventh  centu- 
ries A.  D. 

B.C.  2nd  century.  In  Axum.  See  Arabia;  The 
Sabaeans. 

A.  D.  4th  century. — Converted  to  Christianity. 
— "Whatever  may  have  been  the  effect  produced  in 
his  native  country  by  the  convecsion  of  Queen 
Candace's  treasurer,  recorded  in  the  .\cts  of  the 
Apostles  it  would  appear  to  have  been  transitory ; 
and  the  Ethiopian  or  Abyssinian  church  owes  its 
origin  to  an  expedition  made  early  in  the  fourth 
century  by  Meropius,  a  philosopher  of  Tyre,  for 
the  purpose  of  scientific  inquiry.  On  his  voyage 
homewards,  he  and  his  companions  were  attacked 
at  a  place  where  they  had  landed  in  search  of 
water,  and  all  were  massacred  e.xcept  two  youths, 
-IJdesius  and  Frumentius,  the  relatives  and  pupils 
of  Meropius.  These  were  carried  to  the  king  of 
the  country,  who  advanced  ^desius  to  be  his  cup- 
bearer, and  Frumentius  to  be  his  secretary  and 
treasurer.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  who  left  a 
boy  as  his  heir,  the  two  strangers,  at  the  request 
of  the  widowed  queen,  acted  as  regents  of  the 
kingdom  until  the  prince  came  of  age.  ^^desius 
then  returned  to  Tyre,  where  he  became  a  pres- 
byter. Frumentius,  who,  with  the  help  of  such 
Christian  traders  as  visited  the  country,  had  al- 
ready introduced  the  Christian  doctrine  and  wor- 
ship into  Abyssinia,  repaired  to  Alexandria,  re- 
lated his  story  to  .\thanasius,  and  .  .  .  .Athanasius 
.  .  .  consecrated  him  to  the  bishoprick  of  Axum 
[the  capital  of  the  Abyssinian  kingdom!.  The 
church  thus  founded  continues  to  this  day  subject 
to  the  see  of  Alexandria." — J.  C.  Robertson,  His- 
tory of  the  Christian  church,  hk.  2,  ch.  6. 

6th  to  16th  centuries. — Wars  in  Arabia. — 
Struggle  with  the  Mohammedans. — Isolation 
from  the  Christian  world. — "The  fate  of  the 
Christian  church  among  the  Homeritcs  in  Arabia 
Felix  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  .Abyssin- 
ians,  under  the  reigns  of  the  Emperors  Justin  and 
Justinian,  to  show  their  zeal  in  behalf  of  the 
cause  of  the  Christians.  The  prince  of  that  .Ara- 
bian population,  Dunaan,  or  Dsunovas,  was  a 
zealous  adherent  of  Judaism;  and.  under  pretext 
of  avenging  the  oppressions  which  his  fellow-be- 
lievers were  obliged  to  suffer  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire, he  caused  the  Christian  merchants  who  came 
from  that  quarter  and  visited  Arabia  for  the  pur- 
poses of  trade,  or  passed  through  the  country  to 
Abyssinia,  to  be  murdered.  Elesbaan  for  Caleb], 
the  Christian  king  of  Abyssinia,  made  this  a 
cause  for  declaring  war  on  the  .\rabian  prince. 
He  conquered  Dsunovas.  deprived  him  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  set  up  a  Christian,  by  the  name  of 


.\braham,  as  king  in  his  stead.  But  at  the  death 
of  the  latter,  which  happened  soon  after,  Dsunovas 
again  made  himself  master  of  the  throne;  and  it 
was  a  natural  consequence  of  what  he  had  suf- 
fered, that  he  now  became  a  fiercer  and  more  cruel 
persecutor  than  he  was  before.  .  .  .  Upon  this, 
Elesbaan  interfered  once  more,  under  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  who  stimulated  him  to  the 
undertaking.  He  made  a  second  expedition  to 
Arabia  Felix,  and  was  again  victorious.  Dsunovas 
lost  his  life  in  the  war ;  the  ."Vbyssinian  prince  put 
an  end  to  the  ancient,  independent  empire  of  the 
Homerites,  and  established  a  new  government  fav- 
ourable to  the  Christians." — J.  A.  W.  Neander, 
General  history  of  the  Christian  religion  and 
church,  second  period,  sect.  i. — "In  the  year  592, 
as  nearly  as  can  be  calculated  from  the  dates  given 
by  the  native  writers,  the  Persians,  whose  power 
seems  to  have  kept  pace  with  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire,  sent  a  great  force  against  the 
Abyssinians,  possessed  themselves  once  more  of 
Arabia,  acquired  a  naval  superiority  in  the  gulf, 
and  secured  the  principal  ports  on  either  side  of 
it.  It  is  uncertain  how  long  these  conquerors  re- 
tained their  acquisition ;  but,  in  all  probability 
their  ascendancy  gave  way  to  the  rising  greatness 
of  the  Mahometan  power;  which  soon  afterwards 
overwhelmed  all  the  nations  contiguous  to  .Arabia, 
spread  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  East,  and  even 
penetrated  the  African  deserts  from  Egypt  to  the 
Congo.  Meanwhile  Abyssinia,  though  within  two 
hundred  miles  of  the  walls  of  Mecca,  remained 
unconquered  and  true  to  the  Christian  faith;  pre- 
senting a  mortifying  and  galling  object  to  the 
more  zealous  followers  of  the  Prophet.  On  this 
account,  implacable  and  incessant  wars  ravaged 
her  territories.  .  .  .  She  lost  her  commerce,  saw 
her  consequence  annihilated,  her  capital  threat- 
ened, and  the  richest  of  her  provinces  laid  waste. 
.  There  is  reason  to  apprehend  that  she  must 
shortly  have  sunk  under  the  pressure  of  repeated 
invasions,  had  not  the  Portuguese  arrived  [in  the 
16th  century]  at  a  seasonable  moment  to  aid  her 
endeavours  against  the  Moslem  chiefs." — M.  Rus- 
sell, Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  ch.  3. — "When  Nubia, 
which  intervenes  between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia, 
ceased  to  be  a  Christian  country,  owing  to  the  de- 
struction of  its  church  by  the  Mahometans,  the 
.Abyssinian  church  was  cut  off  from  communica- 
tion with  the  rest  of  Christendom.  .  .  .  They  [the 
.\byssinians]  remain  an  almost  unique  specimen 
of  a  semi-barbarous  Christian  people.  Their  wor- 
ship is  strangely  mixed  with  Jewish  customs." — H. 
F.  Tozer.  Church  and  the  eastern  empire,  ch.  5. — 
See  also  .\bvssimax  Church. 

15th  to  19th  centuries. — European  attempts  at 
intercourse. — Intrusion  of  the  Gallas. — Intestine 
conflicts. — "About  the  middle  of  the  15th  century, 
.Abyssinia  came  in  contact  with  Western  Europe. 
.\n  .Abyssinian  convent  was  endowed  at  Rome,  and 
legates  were  sent  from  the  .Abyssinian  convent  at 
Jerusalem  to  the  council  of  Florence.  These  ad- 
hered to  the  Greek  schism.  But  from  that  time 
the  Church  of  Rome  made  an  impress  upon 
Ethiopia.  .  .  .  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal  .  .  .  next 
opened  up  communication  with  Europe.  He  hoped 
to  open  up  a  route  from  the  West  to  the  East 
coast  of  Africa  [see  Portugal:  1415-1460],  by 
which  the  East  Indies  might  be  reached  without 
touching  Mahometan  territory.  During  his  efforts 
to  discover  such  a  passage  to  India,  and  to  destroy 
the  revenues  derived  by  the  Moors  from  the  spice 
trade,  he  sent  an  ambassador  named  Covillan  to 
the  Court  of  Shoa.  Covillan  was  not  suffered  to 
return  bv  .Alexander,  the  then  Ncgoos  [or  Negus, 

18 


ABYSSINIA,   15TH-19TH    CENTURIES 


ABYSSINIA,  1854-1889 


or  Nagash — the  title  of  the  Abyssinian  sovereign]. 
He  married  nobly,  and  acquired  rich  possessions  in 
the  country.  He  kept  up  correspondence  with 
Portugal,  and  urged  Prince  Henry  to  diligently 
continue  his  efforts  to  discover  the  Southern  pas- 
sage to  the  East.  In  1498  the  Portuguese  effected 
the  circuit  of  Africa.  The  Turks  shortly  after- 
wards extended  their  conquests  towards  India, 
where  they  were  baulked  by  the  Portuguese,  but 
they  established  a  post  and  a  toll  at  Zeyla,  on  the 
African  coast.  From  here  they  hampered  and 
threatened  to  destroy  the  trade  of  Abyssinia,"  and 
soon,  in  alliance  with  the  Mahometan  tribes  of 
the  coast,  invaded  the  country.  "They  were  de- 
feated by  the  Ncgoos  David,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  Turkish  town  of  Zeyla  was  stormed  and 
burned  by  a  Portuguese  fleet."  Considerable  inti- 
macy of  friendly  relations  was  maintained  for 
some  time  between  the  Abyssinians  and  the  Portu- 
guese, who  assisted  in  defending  them  against  the 
Turks.  "In  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  .  .  . 
a  migration  of  Gallas  came  from  the  South  and 
swept  up  to  and  over  the  confines  of  Abyssinia. 
Men  of  lighter  complexion  and  fairer  skin  than 
most  Africans,  they  were  Pagan  in  religion  and 
savages  in  customs.  Notwithstapding  frequent 
efforts  to  dislodge  them,  they  have  firmly  estab- 
lished themselves.  A  large  colony  has  planted 
itself  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Takkazie,  the 
Jidda  and  the  Bashilo.  Since  their  establishment 
here  they  have  for  the  most  part  embraced  the 
creed  of  Mahomet.  The  province  of  Shoa  is  but 
an  outlier  of  Christian  Abyssinia,  separated  com- 
pletely from  co-religionist  districts  by  these  Galla 
bands.  About  the  same  time  the  Turks  took  a 
firm  hold  of  Massowah  and  of  the  lowland  by 
the  coast,  which  had  hitherto  been  ruled  by  the 
Abyssinian  Bahar  Nagash.  Islamism  and  hea- 
thenism surrounded  Abyssinia,  where  the  lamp  of 
Christianity  faintly  glimmered  amidst  dark  su- 
perstition in  the  deep  recesses  of  rugged  valleys." 
In  1558  a  Jesuit  mission  arrived  in  the  country 
and  established  itself  at  Fremona.  "For  nearly  a 
century  Fremona  existed,  and  its  superiors  were 
the  trusted  advisors  of  the  Ethiopian  throne.  .  .  . 
But  the  same  fate  which  fell  upon  the  company 
of  Jesus  in  more  civilized  lands,  pursued  it  in  the 
wilds  of  Africa.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  were  uni- 
versally popular  with  the  Negoos,  but  the  preju- 
dice of  the  people  refused  to  recognize  the  benefits 
which  flowed  from  Fremona."  Persecution  befell 
the  fathers,  and  two  of  them  won  the  crown  of 
martyrdom.  The  Negoos,  Facilidas,  "sent  for  a 
Coptic  Abuna  [ecclesiastical  primate]  from  Alex- 
andria, and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Turkish 
governors  of  Massowah  and  Souakin  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  Europeans  into  his  dominions. 
Some  Capuchin  preachers,  who  attempted  to  evade 
this  treaty  and  enter  Abyssinia,  met  with  cruel 
deaths.  Facilidas  thus  completed  the  work  of  the 
Turks  and  the  Gallas,  and  shut  Abyssinia  out  from 
European  influence  and  civilization.  .  .  .  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  Abyssinia  was  torn  by 
internal  feuds  and  constantly  harassed  by  the  en- 
croachments of  and  wars  with  the  Gallas.  An- 
archy and  confusion  ruled  supreme.  Towns  and 
villages  were  burnt  down,  and  the  inhabitants  sold 
into  slavery.  .  .  .  Towards  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century  the  Gallas  appear  to  have  increased  con- 
siderably in  power.  In  the  intestine  quarrels  of 
Abyssinia  their  alliance  was  courted  by  each  side, 
and  in  their  country  political  refugees  obtained  a 
secure  asylum."  During  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  campaigns  in  Egypt  attracted 
English  attention  to  the  Red  sea.     "In  1804  Lord 


Valentia,  the  Viceroy  of  India,  sent  his  Secretary, 
Mr.  Salt,  into  Abyssinia;"  but  Mr.  Salt  was  un- 
able to  penetrate  beyond  Tigre.  In  18 10  he  at- 
tempted a  second  mission  and  again  failed.  It  was 
not  until  1848  that  English  attempts  to  open  diplo- 
matic and  commercial  relations  with  Abyssinia  be- 
came successful.  "Mr.  Plowden  was  appointed 
consular  agent,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  Ras  Ali,  the  ruling  Galla  chief." — J.  J. 
Holland  and  H.  M.  Hozier,  Expedition  to  Abyssinia, 
Introduction. 

1854-1889.— Advent  of  King  Theodore.— His 
English  captives  and  the  expedition  which  re- 
leased them. — "Consul  Plowden  had  been  residing 
six  years  at  Massowah  when  he  heard  that .  the 
Prince  to  whom  he  had  been  accredited,  Ras  AU, 
had  been  defeated  and  dethroned  by  an  adven- 
turer, whose  name,  a  few  years  before,  had  been 
unknown  outside  the  boundaries  of  his  native 
province.  This  was  Lij  Kasa,  better  known  by  his 
adopted  name  of  Theodore.  He  was  born  of  an 
old  family,  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Kwara, 
where  the  land  begins  to  slope  downwards  towards 
the  Blue  Nile,  and  educated  in  a  convent,  where 
he  learned  to  read,  and  acquired  a  considerable 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  Kasa's  convent  life 
was  suddenly  put  an  end  to,  when  one  of  those 
marauding  Galla  bands,  whose  ravages  are  the 
curse  of  Abyssinia,  attacked  and  plundered  the 
monastery.  From  that  time  he  himself  took  to 
the  life  of  a  freebooter.  .  .  .  Adventurers  flocked 
to  his  standard ;  his  power  continually  increased ; 
and  in  1854  he  defeated  Ras  Ali  in  a  pitched 
battle,  and  made  himself  master  of  central  Abys- 
sinia." In  1855  he  overthrew  the  ruler  of  Tigre. 
"He  now  resolved  to  assume  a  title  commensurate 
with  the  wide  extent  of  his  dominion.  In  the 
church  of  Derezgye  he  had  himself  crowned  by 
the  Abuna  as  King  of  the  Kings  of  Ethiopia,  tak- 
ing the  name  of  Theodore,  because  an  ancient  tra- 
dition declared  that  a  great  monarch  would  some 
day  arise  in  Abyssinia."  Mr.  Plowden  now  visited 
the  new  monarch,  was  impressed  with  admiration 
of  his  talents  and  character,  and  became  his  coun- 
sellor and  friend.  But  in  i860  the  English  consul 
lost  his  life,  while  on  a  journey,  and  Theodore, 
embittered  by  several  misfortunes,  began  to  give 
rein  to  a  savage  temper.  "The  British  Govern- 
ment, on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Plowden,  im- 
mediately replaced  him  at  Massowah  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  Captain  Cameron."  The  new  Con- 
sul was  well  received,  and  was  entrusted  by  the 
Abyssinian  King  with  a  letter  addressed  to  the 
Queen  of  England,  soliciting  her  friendship.  The 
letter,  duly  despatched  to  its  destination,  was 
pigeon-holed  in  the  Foreign  Office  at  London,  and 
no  reply  to  it  was  ever  made.  Insulted  and  en- 
raged by  this  treatment,  and  by  other  evidences 
of  the  indifference  of  the  British  Government  to 
his  overtures.  King  Theodore,  in  January,  1864, 
seized  and  imprisoned  Consul  Cameron  with  all 
his  suite.  About  the  same  time  he  was  still 
further  offended  by  certain  passages  in  a  book  on 
.Abyssinia  that  had  been  published  by  a  mission- 
ary named  Stern.  Stern  and  a  fellow  missionary, 
Rosenthal  with  the  laftcr's  wife,  were  lodged  in 
prison,  and  subjected  to  flogging  and  torture.  The 
first  step  taken  by  the  British  Government,  when 
news  of  Consul  Cameron's  imprisonment  reached 
England,  was  to  send  out  a  regular  mission  to 
Abyssinia,  bearing  a  letter  signed  by  the  Queen, 
demanding  the  release  of  the  captives.  The  mis- 
sion, headed  by  a  Syrian  named  Rassam,  made  its 
way  to  the  King's  presence  in  January,  1866. 
Theodore   seemed  to  be  placated  by   the  Queen's 


19 


ABYSSINIA,  1854-1889 


ABYSSINIA,  1906 


epistle  and  promised  freedom  to  his  prisoners. 
But  soon  his  moody  mind  became  tilled  with  sus- 
picions as  to  the  genuineness  of  Rassam's  cre- 
dentials from  the  Queen,  and  as  to  the  designs 
and  intentions  of  all  the  foreigners  who  were  in 
his  power.  He  was  drinking  heavily  at  the  time, 
.ind  the  result  of  his  "drunken  cogitations  was  a 
determination  to  detain  the  mission — at  any  rate 
until  by  their  means  he  should  have  obtained  a 
supply  of  skilled  artisans  and  machinery  from 
England."  Mr.  Rassam  and  his  companions  were 
accordingly  put  into  confmement,  as  Captain 
Cameron  had  been.  But  they  were  allowed  to 
send  a  messenger  to  England,  making  their  situa- 
tion known,  and  conveying  the  demand  of  King 
Theodore  that  a  man  be  sent  to  him  "who  can 
make  cannons  and  muskets."  The  demand  was 
actually  complied  with.  Six  skilled  artisans  and 
a  civil  engineer  were  sent  out.  together  with  a 
quantity  of  machinery  and  other  presents,  in  the 
hope  that  they  would  procure  the  release  of  the 
unfortunate  captives  at  Magdala.  .Mmost  a  j'car 
was  wasted  in  these  futile  proceedings,  and  it  was 
not  until  September,  1S67,  that  an  expedition  con- 
sisting of  4,000  British  and  S,ooo  native  troops, 
under  General  Sir  Robert  Napier,  was  sent  from 
India  to  bring  the  insensate  barbarian  to  terms. 
It  landed  in  .\nnesley  Bay,  and,  overcoming  enor- 
mous difficulties  with  regard  to  water,  food-sup- 
plies and  transportation,  was  ready,  about  the 
middle  of  January,  1S68,  to  start  upon  its  march 
to  the  fortress  of  Magdala,  where  Theodore's  pris- 
oners were  confined.  The  distance  was  400  miles, 
and  several  high  ranges  of  mountains  had  to  be 
passed  to  reach  the  interior  table-land.  The  in- 
vading army  met  with  no  resistance  until  it  reached 
the  Valley  of  the  Beshilo,  when  it  was  attacked 
(.^pril  10)  on  the  plain  of  Aroge  or  .^rogi,  by  the 
whole  force  which  Theodore  was  able  to  muster, 
numbering  a  few  thousands,  only,  of  poorly  armed 
men.  The  battle  was  simply  a  rapid  slaughtering 
of  the  barbaric  assailants,  and  when  they  tied, 
leaving  700  or  See  dead  and  1,500  wounded  on  the 
field,  the  .\byssinian  King  had  no  power  of  resis- 
tance left.  He  offered  at  once  to  make  peace, 
surrendering  all  the  captives  in  his  hands;  but  Sir 
Robert  Napier  required  an  unconditional  submis- 
sion, with  a  view  to  displacing  him  from  the 
throne,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  and  expecta- 
tion which  he  had  found  to  be  general  in  the  coun- 
try. Theodore  refu.sed  these  terms,  and  when 
(April  13)  Magdala  was  bombarded  and  stormed 
by  the  British  troops — slight  resistance  being 
made — he  shot  himself  at  the  moment  of  their 
entrance  to  the  place.  The  sovereignty  he  had 
successfully  concentrated  in  himself  for  a  time  was 
again  divided.  Between  .April  and  June  the  Eng- 
lish army  was  entirely  withdrawn,  and  "Abyssinia 
was  sealed  up  again  from  intercourse  with  the 
outer  world." — Cassell's  illmtrnled  liislory  of  Eng- 
land, v.  q,  cli.  28. — "The  task  of  permanently  unit- 
ing .\by.ssinia,  in  which  Theodore  failed,  proved 
equally  impracticable  to  John,  who  came  to  the 
front,  in  the  first  instance,  as  an  ally  of  the 
British,  and  afterwards  succeeded  to  the  sov- 
ereignty. By  his  fall  (loth  March,  18S0)  in  the 
unhappy  war  against  the  Dervishes  Tsce  Egypt: 
1885-1806!  or  Moslem  zealots  of  the  Soudan,  the 
path  was  cleared  for  Menilek  of  Shoa,  who  en- 
joyed the  support  of  Italy.  The  establishment  of 
the  Italians  on  the  Red  Sea  littoral  .  .  .  promises 
a  new  era  for  .Abyssinia." — T.  Noldeke,  Sketches 
from  eastern  liistory,  ch.  0. — See  also  .Africa:  Mod- 
ern European  occupation:  1884-1889;  and 
Eritrea. 


1895-1896.— War  with  Italy.  See  Italy:  1870- 
iqoi,    i8o5-iSot>. 

1896-1897. — Convention  between  Italy  and 
Abyssinia. — Treaty  with  Great  Britain. — By  the 
convention  of  Adis  Ababa  of  October  ;6,  t8oO, 
between  Italy  and  King  Mcnelek,  the  independence 
of  Abyssinia  was  recognized.  This  was  followed, 
in  May,  1807,  by  another  treaty  between  Meneiek 
and  the  British  government,  giving  to  British  sub- 
jects the  privileges  of  the  most  favored  nations  in 
trade,  and  opening  the  port  of  Zaila  to  Abyssinian 
importations.  The  treaty  also  defined  the  bound- 
ary of  the  British  Somali  Protectorate,  and 
pledged   .Abyssiania's  hostility   to  the   Mahdists. 

1902. — The  French  in  favor. — Their  railway 
building  and  plans. — Treaty  with  Great  Britain. 
— "Through  .Abyssinia  the  French  hope  to  estab- 
lish a  line  of  trade  acro.ss  Africa  from  east  to  west 
in  opposition  to  our  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  from 
north  to  south.  In  this  they  have  already  achieved 
some  success.  They  have  settled  themselves  along 
the  Gulf  of  Tadjoura,  on  the  south  of  which  they 
hold  the  ma,gnificent  Bay  of  Djibouti,  while  on 
the  north  their  flag  waves  over  the  small  port  of 
Obok.  But  their  real  triumph  in  these  regions  has 
been  the  establishment  of  a  lasting  friendship  with 
.Abyssinia  by  judicious  consignments  of  arms  and 
ammunition — which  were  used  against  Italy  in 
the  war  of  i8q6.  Finally,  they  are  now  in  the 
act  of  building  a  French  railway  from  Djibouti  to 
Addis  Abeba,  the  capital  of  .Abyssinia.  This  rail- 
way will  completely  cut  out  the  British  port  of 
Zeila,  for  in  the  concession  granted  by  Menclik  it 
is  stipulated  that  no  company  is  to  be  permitted 
to  construct  a  railroad  on  Abyssinian  territory 
that  shall  enter  into  competition  with  that  of  M. 
Ilg  and  M.  Chefneux."— G.  F.  H.  Berkeley,  Abys- 
sinian question  and  its  history  (Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, Jan.,  iqo3). — A  treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  Emperor  Meneiek,  of  the  kingdom  of  Ethi- 
opia (Abyssinia),  signed  on  the  isth  of  May,  IQ02, 
defines  the  boundaries  between  the  Soudan  and 
Ethiopia,  and  contains  the  following  important 
provisions: 

"Article  HI.  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  Mene- 
iek II.,  King  of  Kings  of  Ethiopia,  engages  him- 
self towards  the  Government  of  his  Britannic  Ma- 
jesty not  to  construct,  or  allow  to  be  constructed, 
any  work  across  the  Blue  Nile,  I.ake  Tsana,  or 
the  Sobat,  which  would  arrest  the  flow  of  their 
waters  into  the  Nile,  except  in  acrecnient  with  his 
Britannic  Majesty's  Government  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Soudan.  Article  IV.  The  Emperor 
Meneiek  engages  himself  to  allow  his  Britannic 
Majesty's  Government  ;nid  the  Government  of  the 
Soudan  to  select  in  the  neighborhood  of  Itang,  on 
the  Baro  River,  a  block  of  territory  having  a  river 
frontace  of  not  more  than  2000  metres,  in  area  not 
exceeding  400  hectares,  which  shall  be  leased  to  the 
Government  of  the  Soudan,  to  be  administered  and 
occupied  as  a  commercial  station,  so  long  as  the 
Soudan  is  under  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Government. 
It  is  agreed  between  the  two  high  contracting 
parties  that  the  territory  so  leased  shall  not  be 
used  for  any  political  or  military  purpose.  Article 
V.  The  Emperor  Meneiek  grants  his  Britannic 
M.ajesty's  Government  and  the  Government  of  the 
Soudan  the  right  to  construct  a  railway  through 
Abyssinian  territory  to  connect  the  Soudan  with 
Uganda.  A  route  for  the  railway  will  be  selected 
by  mutual  agreement  between  the  two  high  con- 
tracting  parties." 

1906. — Agreement  guaranteeing  Abyssinia's 
integrity. — In  December,  1006,  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Italy  agreed  by  treaty  to  respect  and 


20 


ABYSSINIA,  1907-1920 


ABYSSINIA,  1913-1920 


preserve  the  independence  and  territorial  integrity 
of  Abyssinia.  The  tiiree  Powers  specifically  under- 
took to  secure  no  industrial  concessions  which 
would  injure  the  other  Powers  and  not  to  inter- 
fere in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country.  It  was 
further  agreed  that  no  one  of  these  Powers  was 
to  attempt  independently  to  strengthen  its  position 
in  the  territories  bordering  Abyssinia,  but  they 
were  to  act  together  in  promoting  the  construc- 
tion of  railways  and  telegraph  lines,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  trade  for  their  common  benefit. 

1907-1920. — Menelek's  reforms. — Political  in- 
stitutions and  government. — Internal  develop- 
ment.^In  1Q07,  Menelek  issued  a  decree  consti- 
tuting a  cabinet  on  the  European  model,  and  ap- 
pointed ministers  for  the  various  departments. 
Politically  Abyssinia  has  been  and  still  is,  a  back- 
ward state  with  what  may  be  called  feudal  insti- 
tutions. The  negus  [king  or  emperor]  has  a  sort 
of  a  Council  of  State  to  advise  the  crown  and 
keep  a  watch  over  the  governors  and  other  ad- 
ministrative   officials    of    the    provinces    and    their 


but  small  quantities.  A  wild  coffee  plant  thrives 
in  the  forests  and  is  the  chief  export.  Cattle, 
sheep,  goats  and  particularly  mules  are  numerous. 
Manufacturing  industry  is,  however,  in  a  back- 
ward state,  for  Abyssinia  has  not  yet  made  the 
most  of  her  abundant  resources  in  trees,  rubber, 
iron  and  coal  as  well  as  numerous  other  mineral 
products.  Means  of  transportation  are  also  poor. 
Roads  are  mere  tracks  across  sandy  wastes  and 
transportation  is  mainly  by  mules,  pack-horses, 
donkeys  and  in  some  places,  camels.  There  is, 
however,  a  railway  from  the  port  of  Jibuti  in 
French  Somaliland  to  Dire  Dawa  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Abyssinia.  Some  time  ago  a  com- 
pany undertook  to  extend  the  line  to  Adis  Ababa. 
This  undertaking  was  completed  in  igiy  when  the 
line  reached  the  capital.  In  consequence  of  the 
rapid  development  of  transportation,  business 
methods  are  being  modernized  to  some  extent.  At 
Adis  Ababa  is  located  the  bank  of  Abyssinia  with 
an  authorized  capital  of  .$2,500,000  and  a  paid  up 
capital  ij[  .S(jJ5,ooo.     The  bank   i>  contrnlled,  how- 


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subdivisions.  It  was  not  till  July,  iqoS,  that  a 
cabinet  or  Council  of  Ministers  was  actually  or- 
ganized, the  various  state  departments  being  simi- 
lar to  those  of  civilized  nations.  The  legal  system 
of  the  country  has  its  basis  in  the  Code  of  Jus- 
tinian but  the  relationship  is  scarcely  recognizable. 
The  Emperor  is  the  fountain  of  justice  and  is  the 
final  court  of  appeal.  In  the  same  year  (1Q07) 
Menelek  also  enjoined  free  compulsory  education 
for  all  boys  up  to  twelve;  but  the  decree  could 
not  be  very  widely  and  effectively  enforced ;  for 
in  spite  of  the  edict,  education  in  the  modern 
sense  is  still  unpopular.  In  Adis  Ababa  there  is  a 
school  under  the  direction  of  Coptic  teachers; 
this,  the  only  Abyssinian  school  in  the  country 
has  over  one  hundred  pupils,  but  attendance  is 
still  irregular.  The  lack  of  modern  educational 
methods  is  due  not  so  much  to  native  hostility, 
as  to  the  rivalry  existing  between  various  prosely- 
ting religions. 

Although  most  of  the  land  of  Abyssinia  would 
probably  permit  of  an  extensive  agriculture,  this 
industry  is,  nevertheless,  backward,  due  perhaps  to 
the  absence  of  the  idea  of  landed  property.  Cot- 
ton,   sugar-cane,    and    date-palm    are    produced    in 


ever,  from  Cairo;  there  its  governing  body  sits, 
and  the  governor  of  the  National  Bank  of  Egypt 
is  its  president.  A  new  coinage  has  recently  been 
put  in  circulation  with  the  Menelek  dollar  as  the 
standard  coin.  Outside  the  immediate  radius  of 
foreign  influence,  exchange  is  si  ill  very  primitive, 
various  articles,  such  as  bars  of  salt,  cartridges, 
etc.,  being  used  as  barter.  This  in  turn  is  but  one 
indication  of  the  primitive  customs  which  prevail 
in  many  backward  regions, 

1913-1920.— Anarchy  following  the  death  of 
Menelek. — Revolution  of  1916. — Reign  of  Em- 
press Zauditu. — "Just  at  the  time  of  his  ambi- 
tious projects,  Menelik  had  a  stroke,  and  he  grad- 
ually became  paralyzed.  Frequent  to  the  point  of 
becoming  a  joke  were  the  newspaper  reports,  gen- 
erally from  Italy,  during  the  period  of  1907  to 
IQ13,  announcing  the  death  of  Menelik.  Each 
time  they  were  contradicted,  and  when  he  finally 
passed  away  in  December,  1Q13,  many  newspapers 
refused  to  publish  once  more  the  familiar  biog- 
raphy. Menelik's  long  illness  was  a  great  misfor- 
tune to  -Abyssinia,  and  it  is  still  too  soon  to  esti- 
mate the  injury  done,  by  the  anarchy  of  the 
regency,    to    the    Kingdom    surrounded    by    land- 


21 


ABYSSINIA,  1913-1920 


ABYSSINIA,  1913-1920 


hungry  neighbors.  In  1909,  Lidj  Yeassu,  Mene- 
lik's  grandson,  who  was  thirteen,  and  the  hus- 
band of  the  seven-year-old  Princess  Romanie, 
granddaughter  of  the  old  Emperor  Johannes,  was 
chosen  as  the  successor.  He,  by  his  own  blood 
and  that  of  his  wife,  would  reconcile  the  rival 
factions  of  the  Imperial  family.  Notwithstanding 
the  heralded  harmony,  civil  war  broke  out,  and 
dragged  on,  with  varying  fortunes,  lor  several 
years.  Italy  feared  the  breaking  away  from  au- 
thority of  the  tribes  on  her  Eritrean  frontier,  es- 
pecially after  the  Tripolitan  War  began  [iqii], 
and  there  was  some  apprehension  of  raiding  in 
the  Sudan.  The  anarchy  caused  no  particular 
difference  in  the  Sonialiland  situation,  because 
Great  Britain  already  had  her  hands  full  there,  and 
the  responsibility  for  the  Mullah  could  in  no  way 
be  chargeable  to  Abyssinian  unrest.  The  troubles 
in  Abyssinia  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
rival  court  factions:  for  the  country  as  a  whole 
remained  quiet  throughout  the  years  of  Menelik's 
illness.  However,  there  was  apprehension  in  Adis 
.Abeba  just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  over  the  sudden  and  inexplicable  strengthen- 
ing of  Italian  forces  in  Eritrea." — H.  A.  Gibbons, 
New  map  of  Africa,  pp.  102-104. 

"The  recent  [1916]  coup  d'etat  in  Ethiopia,  as 
Abyssinia  is  properly  called,  when  the  Powers  act- 
ing on  their  Treaty  of  1Q06  helped  the  .Abyssinian 
nobles  and  the  people  to  dethrone  their  young  king 
and  his  Turko-Teuton  clique,  once  more  calls  at- 
tention to  the  remarkable  signs  of  vitality  that 
Mohammedanism  is  showing  in  that  historically 
Christian  kingdom.  It  is  not  the  lirst  time  that 
the  great  aggressive  Asiatic  religion  has  precipi- 
tated a  revolution  in  Abyssinia ;  but  the  persist- 
ence with  which  it  has  survived  oppression,  as  one 
strong  Ethiopian  ruler  after  another  rose  at  the 
psychological  hour  to  stamp  it  out,  is  merely  in- 
dicative of  the  remarkable  progress  it  has  made 
throughout  the  Darkest  Continent  as  far  south  as 
the  Zambesi.  .  .  .  The  late  Emperor  Menelek  of 
Abyssinia  died  without  an  heir  to  the  throne,  but 
before  his  death  he  appointed  as  his  successor 
Prince  Lidj  Jeassu,  the  son  of  one  of  his  daugh- 
ters. The  young  king  had  reigned  three  years 
when  it  became  apparent  that  his  father,  a  power- 
ful chief,  Negus  Mikael,  was  a  fanatical  Moslem, 
and  was  cooperating  with  the  Turko-Teuton  emis- 
saries in  a  Pan-Islamic  movement.  Not  only  was 
this  conspiracy  planning  to  deliver  Abyssinia  to 
Islam  and  secure  its  entrance  into  the  war  on  the 
side  of  the  Central  Powers,  but  Abyssinia  was 
being  made  a  center  for  plots  against  the  Islamic 
colonies  of  the  French,  Italians  and  British  in  the 
adjacent  territories  of  Somaliland,  Eritrea,  Brit- 
ish East  Africa  and  the  Sudan.  The  young  ruler 
had  become  a  Moslem,  and  was  a  pliant  tool  in  the 
hands  of  the  Central  Powers  and  Turkey.  The 
.AlUes  accordingly  took  the  part  of  the  Christian 
.Abysslnians.  In  the  revolution  that  followed,  iqi6, 
Lidj  Jeassu  was  deposed  [Sept.  27],  his  Moslem 
father,  Negus  Mikael,  was  defeated  by  the  Abys- 
sinian army  after  a  temporary  success,  and  on  Feb- 
ruary II,  the  n^w  0"Mn  [Empress  Waizeru  Zau- 
ditu,  another  daughter  of  Menelek],  was  crowned 
at  the  capital  Adis  Abeba,  a  not  unprecedented 
event — .Abyssinia  already  having  known  one  able 
oueen  in  her  history,  while  her  rulers  trace  the 
roval  lineage  back  to  the  Queen  of  Sheba  and 
Solomon. 

"But  missionaries  and  travelers  have  unani- 
mously testified  to  the  great  inroads  that  Moham- 
medanism has  made  in  this  historically  Christian 
country      Whole   tribes   professing   Islam   may    be 


found  today  still  retaining  their  Christian  Ethi- 
opian names.  All  northern  Abyssinia  will  soon  be 
unitedly  Moslem,  and  the  encroachments  are  con- 
tinuing in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The 
reasons  for  this  growth  are  to  be  found  in  the 
lax  and  superstitious  brand  of  Christianity  of  mod- 
ern Ethiopia.  .A  strong  Christian  ruler,  in  the 
spirit  and  mould  of  the  late  Menelek,  may  yei 
appear  to  save  the  countp.-  and  its  faith,  which 
dates  back  to  the  fourth  century  when  Athanasius 
of  .Alexandria  was  installed  the  first  Bishop  of 
Ethiopia.  In  .Abyssinia  the  Powers  have  a  senti- 
mental interest,  as  an  ancient  outpost  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Dark  Continent,  and  its  political  in- 
tegrity was  guaranteed  in  the  Treaty  of  iQOb  with 
Menelek,  by  Great  Britain,  Italy  and  France, 
whose  colonies  are  adjacent.  Despite  the  fact  that 
Menelek  frequently  thrashed  the  Italians  when 
they  encroached  on  his  territory,  yet  he  and  the 
previous  rulers  of  Ethiopia  ha>  e  cherished  their 
bond  of  Christianity  with  Eu'ope,  and  have 
favored  western  civilization.  When  the  British 
stormed  Magdala,  the  fortress  of  King  Theodore, 
in  1S08,  to  release  British  prisoners,  and  found  the 
king  a  suicide,  according  to  his  wishes  they  took 
his  eighteen-year-old  heir  to  be  educated  in  Eng- 
land. The  boy  was  sent  to  Rugby  school,  but 
died  shortly  after.  .At  Queen  Victoria's  request 
the  body  of  the  Ethiopian  prince  was  buried  in 
St.  George's,  the  Chapel-Royal  at  Windsor.  The 
Moslem  evangelist  has  always  been  attracted  to 
thb  historically  Christian  country  of  Abyssinia,  not 
only  because  of  its  proximity  to  Mecca  and  the 
land  that  cradled  the  Founder  and  his  Faith,  but 
because  of  the  early  intimate  associations  between 
the  Christian  kingdom  and  Mohammed.  In  the 
sixth  century  the  .Abyssinians  invaded  Arabia,  cap- 
tured the  rich  province  of  Yemen,  which  alone 
gives  to  desert  .Arabia  the  paradoxical  title  of 
.Arabia  Felix,  and  for  fifty  years  controlled  the 
important  land  and  sea  routes  East  and  West. 
It  was  the  rise  of  Mohammed  and  his  new  faith 
in  the  seventh  century  that  put  an  end  to  the 
power  of  .Abyssinia,  and  which,  from  that  time 
down  to  the  sixteenth  centur>%  when  the  King 
asked  aid  of  the  Portuguese,  effectually  isolated 
this  lone  Christian  country  in  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent from  the  rest  of  the  world.  When  Mo- 
hammed began  his  career,  northern  Arabia  held 
Christian  colonies  due  to  the  influence  of  Byzan- 
tium, and  at  the  same  time  in  the  south,  neigh- 
boring to  Mecca,  there  were  Syrian  and  Ethiopian 
Christians.  .  .  .  The  Prophet,  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  his  new  faith  at  the  hands  of  the  pagan 
Meccans,  at  the  suggestion  of  an  .Abyssinian  dis- 
ciple found  a  haven  for  his  followers  in  Abys- 
sinia. Mohammed  sent  a  delegation  under  his 
famous  general.  '.Amr  ibn  al-.Ass,  later  conqueror 
of  Egypt,  to  the  Christian  kingdom  asking  refuge 
and  support,  which  the  Ethiopian  king  readily 
gave.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  .Abyssinian 
records  surviving  to  show  how  intimate  this  rela- 
tionship was;  but  when  Mohammed,  at  the 
height  of  his  power,  sent  letters  to  the  kings  ol 
the  earth  calling  on  them  to  accept  his  new  creed, 
one  was  sent  to  Byzantium  and  another  to  Ethio- 
pia. By  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  an  Arab 
dynasty  had  won  the  coast  lands,  and  with  the 
fifteenth  century  began  that  long  contest  between 
Islam  and  Christianity  which  lasted  to  the  recent 
revolution  and  dethronement  of  Menelek's  grand- 
son, and  which  has  swept  inwards  to  include  the 
pagan  tribes  of  the  great  Dark  Continent.  .  .  . 
While  Moslems  are  now  alarmed  at  the  obvious 
signs  of  disintegration  elsewhere,   they   must   view 


22 


ABYSSINIA,  1913-1920 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


with  satisfaction  the  comparatively  robust  condi- 
tion of  the  Faith  in  Africa,  where  it  is  progress- 
ing with  something  of  the  old  traditions  that  once 
prevailed  when  it  swept  into  the  fold  in  early 
times  the  pagan  tribes  of  Arabia.  The  failure  of 
the  proclamation  of  the  famous  jihad,  or  holy  war, 
in  the  Mohammedan  world,  and  the  Secession  of 
important  Arab  states  like  the  Hejaz  and  Koweit 
whose  chiefs  and  imams  are  renouncing  allegiance 
to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  as  Caliph,  thus  precipi- 
tating the  all-important  question  of  the  Caliphate, 
have  brought  this  historic  Asiatic  religion  to  a 
critical  point  in  its  great  career.  .  .  .  Will  Islam 
so  change  its  fundamental  traditionalism  to  suit 
the  needs  of  its  twentieth  century  adherents,  and 
save  itself  from  the  disintegration  with  which 
political  and  economic  conditions  now  threaten  it? 
Since  the  Turkish  Caliph  has  deliberately  used  the 
Faith  as  a  catspav/  for  Germany,  a  kafir,  or  un- 
believer nation,  and  since  the  purity  of  the  Young 
Turk  brand  of  Mohammedanism  has  long  been 
suspect  in  the  fanatical  world  of  Islam,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  loyal  supporters  of  Islam  have  at 
last  realised  that  the  future  of  the  Faith  is  in 
jeopardy.  But  while  there  is  a  crying  need  for 
reorganization  in  enlightened  communities  like 
the  Moslem  worlds  of  India  and  Egypt,  yet,  true 
to  its  medieval  energy,  it  has  made  enormous 
gains  in  Africa  during  these  last  few  decades  of 
apparent  stagnation,  extending  from  pseudo-Chris- 
tian Abyssinia  to  the  pagan  tribes  north  of 
Zambesi.  ...  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the 
Turko-Teuton  regime  seized  upon  the  Moslem  idea 
of  jihad  as  a  vehicle  for  galvanizing  the  warHke 
spirit  of  Islam.  It  failed  for  two  reasons:  psycho- 
logically, because  they  forgot  to  what  degree  eco- 
nomic conditions  throughout  the  East  have  modi- 
fied the  old  fanatical  cohesions  of  Islam.  In 
India  and  China,  in  the  Dutch  East  and  in  French 
Africa,  Moslems  have  come  to  recognize  the  ad- 
vantages accruing  under  a  stable  and  just  rule  of 
centralized  European  government.  The  annual 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  cannot  have  failed  "to  im- 
press the  multitudes  with  the  system  of  petty 
graft  and  tyranny,  of  over-taxation  and  economic 
stagnation,  that  has  always  characterized  the 
greatest  Islamic  state,  and  the  rule  of  their  nomi- 
nal Caliph,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  Moslems  were 
averse  to  losing  these  advantages  for  a  shadowy 
substitute  promised  by  a  Pan-Islamic  empire.  The 
Turko-Teuton  regime  failed  dogmatically,  because 
every  intelligent  Moslem  knows  that  the  express 
purpose  of  a  jihad,  or  holy  war,  in  Islamic  polity, 
is  to  free  their  co-religionists  in  duress.  While 
Moslems  had  long  been  oppressed  by  the  Turkish 
Caliph,  their  co-religionists  under  British,  Dutch, 
French  and  Russian  rule  had  made  no  appeal 
against  the  tyranny  of  their  respective  suzerains. 
Moreover,  a  jiliad  must  be  led  by  the  Caliph; 
many  .schismatics  in  Arabia  and  Africa  (the 
Senussei  were  antagonistic  until  bribed  by  Enver 
Pasha),  and  the  sultans  of  Morocco,  have  vari- 
ously disputed  the  claim  of  the  Turkish  Sultan  to 
the  Caliphate.  As  a  result  the  spectacle  was  fur- 
nished Islam  of  British,  French,  Belgian,  and 
Russian  Moslem  troops  fighting  loyally  under 
their  respective  flags.  Finally,  Islamic  law  ex- 
pressly forbids  the  waging  of  a  jihad  against  co- 
members  of  the  Faith.  It  is  this  pragmatic  and 
economic  aspect  of  modern  Islam  that  is  now  con- 
cerning its  leaders  and  thinkers.  The  war  with  its 
racial  confusion  has  merely  accentuated  the  need 
for  a  widespread  reform,  at  least  so  far  as  Asia 
is  involved." — W.  G.  Tinckom-Fernandez,  Asia  in 
Africa  (Asia,  Nov.,  1Q17). — See  also  Africa:  Mod- 


ern European  occupation;  1914;  Moslem  occupa- 
tion. 

Also  in;  A.  B.  Wylde,  Modern  Abyssinia 
{Geographical  Journal,  v.  XV,  igoo). — E.  Hertslet, 
Map  oj  Africa  by  treaty,  2nd  ed. — H.  H.  Johnston, 
History  of  the  colonization  of  Africa  by  alien 
races,  id  ed.—T.  L.  Gilmour,  Abyssinia:  the  Ethio- 
pian railway  and  the  powers. — H.  Vivian,  .Abys- 
sinia.— H.  A.  Stern,  Captive  missionary. — H.  M. 
Stanley,  Coomassie  and  Magdata,  pt.  2. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH.— Christianity,  ac- 
cording to  the  chronicle  of  Axum,  was  first  in- 
troduced into  Abyssinia  by  Frumentius  in  the 
fourth  century.  [See  Abyssinia:  4th  century.]  The 
Abyssinians,  refusing  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451),  remained  monophysites.  Their 
close  bond  with  the  Coptic  church  of  Egypt,  which 
had  been  maintained  from  the  beginning,  was  not 
affected  by  the  Arab  conquest.  Further  than  this, 
little  is  known  of  their  ecclesiastical  history  until 
that  eastern  bond  was  broken  by  the  period  of  the 
Jesuit  rule  (about  1500  to  1633).  In  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  Roman  Catholic  church  at- 
tempted to  establish  sway  over  the  Abyssinian 
church  through  the  missionary  work  of  Portugal, 
whose  interest  lay,  not  in  religion,  but  in  trade 
routes  through  the  Red  Sea  to  India.  The  rule  of 
the  western  church  was  formally  recognized  by 
the  king  in  1604,  but  in  1633  the  king  was  mur- 
dered, the  Jesuits  expelled,  and  allegiance  once 
more  given  to  Alexandria  [see  also  Abyssinia;  6tb- 
i6th  centuries].  The  Abyssinian  church  agrees,  in 
general,  with  the  Coptic  in  matters  of  dogma. 
Though  graven  images  are  forbidden,  saints  and 
angels  are  held  in  great  reverence.  The  clergy 
must  marry  once,  but  only  once ;  and  their  power 
is  greatly  increased  by  the  strict  enforcement  of 
confession  and  absolution.  Pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem constitutes  atonement  for  many  sins  "This 
ancient,  strange  and  barbaric  church  has  the  true 
Semitic  instinct  of  regarding  God  as  Majesty 
rather  than  as  Love  This  explains  its  monophy- 
site  tendency  which  almost  completely  swallows  up 
Christ's  humanity.  .  .  The  church  has  now  but 
one  bishop,  the  Abuna,  always  sent  from  Alexan- 
dria or  (Tairo.  [He  is  always  a  Copt,  but  his 
influence  is  controlled  by  the  Echegheh,  a  native 
ecclesiastical  dignitary,  who  presides  over  the 
spirituality,  numbering  about  100,000  ecclesiastics.] 
The  abbots  also,  as  in  the  Roman  church,  have 
great  authority.  The  cloisters  are  the  principal 
seats  of  education  which  is  chiefly  scholastic  and 
cultivates  wonderful  dialectical  keenness.  The 
parochial  clergy  often  know  little  except  how  to 
repeat  the  liturgy  [in  Geez]  now  obsolete  in  lan- 
guage. The  worship  is  a  rude  copy  of  that  of 
the  Greek  church.  Saints  and  above  all  the  Virgin 
are  plentifully  invoked  Transubstantiation,  how- 
ever, is  unknown  Ordination  is  so  carelessly  per- 
formed that  Rome  has  some  hesitation  in  acknowl- 
edging it.  Popular  morals  are  very  corrupt  and 
barbarous  and  the  priesthood  is  not  a  mirror  of 
virtue  although  it  enjoys  very  profound  respect 
among  the  people." — B  E.  Pastor,  Christianity  in 
.Abyssinia  (Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  April, 
iqo2 ) . 

ABYSSINIAN  EAST  AFRICA.    See  Somali- 

I.AND. 

A.  C.  (Ante  Christum),  used  sometimes  instead 
of  the  more  familiar  abbreviation,  B.C.  (Before 
Christ.) 

ACADAMUS.     See  Academy. 

ACADEMIC  FREEDOM.— "The  question  of 
freedom  of  instruction — Lehrfreiheit — is  at  bottom 
a    question    as   to   the   relation    of    institutions   of 


23 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM     Relation   to   the  Church     ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


education  to  other  institutions  with  which  they 
have  to  do.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  educational 
cstabhshments  have  for  the  most  part  been  set  up 
at  first  to  serve  other  than  purely  educational 
purposes.  The  training  which  they  have  offered 
has  been  regarded  as  a  means  to  some  end  beyond 
itself ;  and  this  ultimate  end  has  been  found  em- 
bodied in  some  other  institution,  to  which  the 
school  has  been  made  tributary.  Each  of  the  great 
capital  institutions  oF  human  society  may  be  re- 
garded as  having  an  educational  aspect.  This  is 
true  of  the  family,  of  the  Church,  of  civil  govern- 
ment, of  industrial  societies.  And  it  is  a  fact  of 
no  small  significance  that  an  appreciation  of  the 
need  and  value  of  education  has  commonly  arisen 
in  connection  with  one  or  another  of  these  insti- 
tutions. The  ideas  which  they  severally  embody 
are  the  ideas  which  have  been  uppermost  in  the 
educational  systems  which  they  have  severally 
fostered.  ...  It  has  been  commonly  noted  that 
public  education  in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Age 
was  carried  on  almost  exclusively  by  the  Church. 
Leaving  out  of  account  the  system  of  apprentice- 
ship fostered  by  the  trade  guilds  and  the  training 
for  the  profession  of  arms  which  arose  with  chiv- 
alry, this  is  a  fair  statement  of  the  case.  The 
higher  s[>iritual  interests  of  the  medieval  peoples 
were  represented  in  the  Church.  She  embraced,  as 
Geffcken  has  remarked,  'many  spheres  of  life  which 
as  yet  were  incapable  of  independent  development: 
she  united  in  her  bosom  those  elements  of  spiritual 
culture  which  were  destined  to  occupy  in  the 
future  each  a  distinct  and  prominent  position. 
Her  schools  were  the  sole  avenues  to  knowledge.' 
It  should  be  added  that  the  schools  found  their 
place,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  the  general  admin- 
istrative system  of  the  Church,  and  were  accord- 
ingly in  the  main  under  episcopal  control.  By  the 
twelfth  century,  education  I.ad  come  into  sufficient 
prominence  to  receive  special  recognition  in  the 
episcopal  system.  Under  the  bishop,  the  super- 
vision of  the  schools  was  exercised  sometimes  by 
the  chancellor,  sometimes  by  the  precentor,  and 
sometimes  by  a  dignitary  designated  for  that  par- 
ticular service,  and  variously  known  as  magister 
scholarum,  scholasticns,  or  sclwlaster.  It  became 
the  prerogative  of  this  official  to  license  teachers 
who  sought  to  open  schools  within  his  jurisdic- 
tion. This  may  have  been  at  first  a  mere  means 
of  preserving  his  monopoly  of  education.  But  in 
1170  the  Third  Council  of  Lateran  decreed  that  the 
license  should  issue  to  every  qualified  applicant, 
and  that  without  the  exaction  of  a  fee.  .  .  .  While 
there  appear  occasional  signs  of  real  academic  in- 
dependence, the  medieval  universities  were  in  the 
main  faithful  subjects  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
And  when  they  sided  with  the  civil  as  against  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  their  course  was  so  often 
marked  with  extreme  servility  that  it  can  call  forth 
but  little  whole  souled  commendation.  The  first 
freshness  of  intellectual  life  which  marked  their 
beginnings  soon  gave  way  to  a  dreary  and  spirit- 
less following  of  their  own  traditions.  A  deeper 
and  more  pervasive  interest  in  education  appeared 
with  the  Revival  of  Learning  ...  It  is  charged 
by  Catholic  writers  that  the  main  educational  out- 
come of  the  Protestant  movement  was  the  control 
of  education  by  the  state  There  is  a  large  meas- 
ure of  truth  in  this  charee.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  modern  school  systems  came  at  once 
into  being  upon  the  change  of  the  states  of  north- 
ern Europe  from  the  Catholic  to  the  Protestant 
faith  The  new  organization  grew  out  of  the  old. 
.  .  .  The  relations  of  church  and  state  in  Prussia 
during  the  nineteenth   century   have  been   full  of 


interest ;  and  they  have  reacted  powerfully  upon 
the  educational  system.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  ques- 
tion relating  to  the  schools  which  precipitated  the 
Kulturkampj  in  the  early  seventies;  and  one  of  the 
most  notable  results  of  that  struggle  was  the  as- 
sumption by  the  state  of  the  local  supervision  of 
the  schools,  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  a 
recognized  prerogative  of  the  church  authorities. 
...  By  the  code  of  17Q4,  the  teachers  in  the 
gymnasiums  and  higher  schools  were  declared  to 
be  officers  of  the  state.  In  the  higher  institutions, 
and  particularly  in  the  universities,  the  eighteenth 
century  had  seen  the  upgrowth  of  a  demand  that 
instructors  should  be  free  to  teach  what  they 
conceived  to  be  the  truth,  without  interference 
from  the  authorities.  Under  Frederick  William  I., 
this  freedom  was  ruthlessly  invaded,  on  grounds 
that  were  fully  as  much  ecclesiastical  as  poUtical. 
Frederick  the  Great  would  hear  nothing  of  such 
interference,  at  least  so  far  as  questions  of  reli- 
gious controversy  were  concerned.  Under  succeed- 
ing reigns  the  universities  were  by  no  means  secure 
from  interference  on  political  grounds.  The  ardent 
participation  in  political  movements  on  the  part 
of  university  professors  and  students  during  the 
first  half  of  the  present  century  brought  the  ques- 
tion of  academic  freedom  sharply  to  the  front.  If 
the  universities  were  to  be  freed  from  ecclesiastical 
supervision  only  to  be  brought  under  a  kind  of 
bondage  to  the  government  the  real  extent  of  their 
gain  was  problematical.  When  at  last,  in  1850, 
the  long-sought-for  written  constitution  was  se- 
cured, it  contained  the  liberal  provision  that 
'Science  and  the  teaching  of  science  are  free.'  This 
was  not  the  end  of  controversy ;  but  it  marked  one 
of  the  great  educational  gains  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  ...  As  Lutheran  Prussia  led  the  nations 
of  Europe  In  the  matter  of  state  provision  for 
public  education,  so  Calvinistic  Massachusetts  was 
the  leader  of  our  American  commonwealths.  Un- 
der the  quasi-theocracy  of  early  colonial  times, 
the  people  proceeded  zealously  in  the  establishment 
of  educational  institutions  under  public  patronage 
and  control.  The  General  Court  of  the  Colony 
appropriated  moneys  for  the  founding  of  a  col- 
lege. A  little  later,  each  town  in  the  Colony 
having  sufficient  population  was  required  by  law 
to  establish  an  elementary  school ;  and  with  a 
somewhat  larger  population,  a  Latin  school  capa- 
ble of  preparing  students  for  the  university,  The 
purpose  of  these  provisions  was  to  circumvent  the 
devices  of  Satan  and  to  prevent  learning  from  be- 
ing 'buried  in  the  graves  of  our  forefathers.'  Dur- 
ing the  .seventeenth  century  these  provisions  were 
rigorously  enforced.  The  eighteenth  saw  consider- 
able relaxation  of  this  strenuousness.  .  .  .  But 
New  England  democracy  survived  the  decay  of 
its  ecclesiastical  sponsors.  And  the  doctrine  that 
public  education  of  secondary  as  well  as  of  ele- 
mentary grade  should  be  carried  on  under  public 
control  and  with  public  support  passed  over  to 
the  modern  state,  when  the  theocracy  which  had 
nourished  it  was  dead  and  gone." — E.  E.  Brown, 
Academic  freedom  {Educational  Review,  Mar., 
looo) ,  pp.  200-218. 

"The  ecclesiastical  and  educational  history  of 
England  has  been  far  different.  .  .  .  The  episcopal 
control  of  English  education  was  continued  after 
the  Tudor  Reformation,  and  was  expressly  con- 
firmed by  the  Canons  of  1604.  For  a  century 
and  a  half  the  Church  of  England  claimed  a  mo- 
nopoly of  public  education  on  the  basis  of  these 
canons,  and  of  the  immemorial  us.age  which  they 
confirmed.  The  Act  of  Uniformity,  of  1662,  dis- 
allowed all  orders  save  those  conferred  by  bishops. 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM        Relation  to  the  State       ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


The   same   act    required   schoolmasters   as   well   as 
clergymen  to  subscribe  not  only  to  a  declaration  of 
their    assent    to    the    prayer-book,    but    also    to    a 
pledge  that  they  would  seek  to  make  no  change 
in   church   or  state.     Under  this  act,  some   of  the 
most  learned  men  at  both  universities  were  driven 
from    their    posts;    and    instruction    thruout    Eng- 
land was  made  absolutely  subservient  to  the  Es- 
tablished Church.  .  .  .  The  e.xample  of  the  Roman 
Empire  had  shown  that  education  was  a  possible 
field    for    state    agency.      The    long    history    of 
ecclesiastical    control    down    to    the    time    of    the 
Reformation    greatly    obscured    this    fact.      Many 
sincerely   believed   that  schools  could   be   managed 
and  maintained  only  by  the  church.     If  men  had 
not  come  to  serious  theological  differences,  the  me- 
dijeval  system  would  probably  have  continued  to 
the  present  time.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  most  significant 
contributions   to   modern    thought   on   the   institu- 
tional relations  of  education  were  made  by  French 
writers   of   the   latter  half   of   the  eighteenth   cen- 
tury.     When    we    remember    the    influence    which 
France    exercised    over    German    thought    at    that 
period,  we  are  ready  to  look  for  French  elements 
even   in  the  remarkable   development  of   academic 
freedom    in    the    Prussian    universities    under    the 
leadership  of  Halle.     The  trend  of  French  thought 
at  the  time  takes  two  noteworthy  directions.     On 
the  one  hand,  a  vigorous  group  of  writers  called 
for  education  by  the  state  for  the  purposes  of  the 
state.     One  of   the   most  influential   of   these   was 
La  Chalotais.     Protesting  against  a  too  exclusively 
ecclesiastical    training,   he   declared,   'I   dare   claim 
for  the  nation  an  education  which  depends  only  on 
the    state,    because    it   belongs    essentially    to    the 
state ;   because  every  state  has  an   inalienable  and 
indefeasible  right  to  instruct  its  members;  because, 
finally,  the  children  of  the  state  ought  to  be  edu- 
cated   by    the    members    of    the    state.'     Voltaire 
called  education   a  'government  undertaking.'  .  .  . 
The   contention   of   these   writers  seems  to   be,   in 
substance,  that  education  shall  change  its  ecclesias- 
tical master  for  a  governmental  master.     The  other 
direction  is  represented  by   Rousseau  and  his  fol- 
lowers.    Here  appears  the  demand  that  early  edu- 
cation shall  be  cut  off  from  all  connection  with  in- 
stitutional life.     It  is  to  be  universal,  in  that  the 
ends  which  it  seeks  are  to  be  such  as  will  be  of 
equal  value  to  Christian,  Jew,  and  pagan,  and  to 
those   of  any   nation   and  any   occupation   in   life. 
Here  we  have  a  universalism  more  abstract  than 
any  that  the  Renaissance  produced.     Children  are 
to  be  brought  up  not  even  for  participation  in  the 
ideal    life    of    ancient    Greece    and    Rome,    nor    for 
citizenship     in     a     supramundane     Kingdom     of 
Heaven ;    but    rather   for   ideal    perfection    as   indi- 
viduals.    Education,   according   to  this  scheme,  is 
not   to   change   masters,   but   rather   to   free   itself 
from  masters  altogether.     It  is  to  become  free  by 
cutting  itself  loose,  in  some  quixotic  manner,  from 
all    connection   with    any    other   institution    what- 
soever. .  .      Freedom  of  instruction,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  words,  implies  instruction  which  puts 
the  learner  in  possession  of  universal  standards  of 
excellence,  or  at  least  of  standards  as  nearly  uni- 
versal as  he  can  at  any  given  stage  of  his  develop- 
ment  really   make   his   own ;   but   which  also  puts 
him  in  the  way   of  employing  these  standards  in 
the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  real  life.     Something 
like  this  seems  to  be  implied  in  the  demand  that 
educational  questions  shall  be  determined  solely  on 
educational  grounds;  and  in  that  demand  is  briefly 
summed  up  the  whole  question  of  academic  free- 
dom.    It  will  be  observed  that  in  this  discussion 
the  case  of  the  lower  schools  has  been  considered 


along  with  that  of  the  higher,  as  if  the  question  of 
freedom  of  instruction  affected  them  all  alike.  This 
has  been  done  advisedly,  in  the  belief  that  educa- 
tion is  one  concern  from  the  lowest  grades  to  the 
highest.     A  state   which   undertakes   to   determine 
the  questions  of  higher  education  on  purely  edu- 
cational grounds,  while  it  determines  questions  re- 
lating   to    primary    schools    on    narrowly    govern- 
mental grounds,  is  preparing  the  different  classes  of 
its  people  to  misunderstand  one  another.     Such  a 
condition   can   only   promote   a  'severance   for  the 
time  between  the  thinking  classes  and  the  general 
bulk  of  the  nation' — to  u.se  a  happy  expression  of 
Mr.  John  Richard  Green's.    It  can  hardly  continue 
permanently  in  any  modern  society.  .  .  .  The  first 
half-century  of  our  own   Republic  saw  the  begin- 
nings  of   a   remarkable   movement    toward    public 
control  of  education  in  all  of  its  grades.     Particu- 
larly    in    secondary    and    higher    instruction     the 
change  of  sentiment  within  that  period  was  highly 
significant.     At  the  outset,  institutions  of  learning 
were  very  generally  controlled  by  self-perpetuatmg 
boards   of   trustees,  acting   under   charters   granted 
or   confirmed   by   the   several   States.     Not   infre- 
quently   state    aid    was    granted    in    considerable 
amounts  to  these  institutions  and  no  condition  of 
state  control  was  added  to  such  grants.    For  a  time 
such    institutions    increased    rapidly    in    numbers. 
Finally  there  arose  an  insistent  demand  that  instil 
tutions  of  learning  be  under  public  direction  and 
control ;   a  demand  which  found  expression  in  the 
Dartmouth   College   case,   in   the   establishment   of 
the   University   of  Virginia,  and  in   the  beginnings 
of  the  high-school  movement.     For  the  past  three- 
quarters   of   a   century,   we   have   seen   schools   of 
secondary  and  higher  education  growing  up  under 
systems  of  public  administration,  alongside  of  other 
schools   which,   however   public   in    other   respects, 
are   under   one   form   or   another   of   private   con- 
trol. .  .  .  The    demand    for    public    control,    as   it 
appeared  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  was  in 
part  a  protest  against  ecclesiastical  influence;  but 
it  was  perhaps  quite  as  much  an  expression  of  the 
purpose  to  make  public  schools  directly  responsible 
to  the  public  to  which  they  ministered.    But,  as  we 
have  seen,  an  increase  of  responsibility  is  an  ap- 
proach  toward   real   freedom;   it  being   impossible 
that   an   irresponsible   institution,   if   such   a   thing 
exists,  should  be  really  free.  ...  On  the  whole  it 
seems  fair  to  say  that  the  movement  toward  public 
control  in  this  country  as  in  others  is  a  step  in  the 
direction   of  academic  freedom — of  academic  free- 
dom  which    is    one    with    academic    responsibility. 
The  importance  of  this  movement  to  our  national 
life  can  hardly  be  overestimated.     But  schools  and 
universities  under   private  control   cannot   be   dis- 
pensed with.     If  such  did  not  exist,  the  public  wel- 
fare would  demand  their  establishment;   for  times 
will  inevit,ably  appear  in  our  national  life  when  the 
immediate   pressure    of   governmental   control    will 
unduly    restrain   our   State   institutions.     Nor   can 
we  suppose  that  the  schools  of  the  churches,  where 
these    exist,    will    not    have    their    call,    now    and 
again,  to  take  up  the  theme  and  speak  some  free 
word  of  instruction  which  other  institutions  at  the 
time  fail  to  utter.     John  Stuart  Mill  was  clearly 
justified  in  the  contention  that  there  .should  be  no 
monopoly    in   education,   whether   of   the   govern- 
ment, of  the  clergy,  or  of  philosophers.   This  ques- 
tion of  academic  freedom  is  intimately  bound  up 
with  the  question  of  freedom  of  the  press,  of  the 
.sciences,  of  the  arts.     In  our  university  organiza- 
tion of  the  future,  these  several  interests  may  be 
found  more  and  more  incorporated  in  the  system 
of  educational  administration.     Here  we  find  some 


25 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


Relation  to 
Educational   insfilulions 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


of  (he  highest  concerns  of  the  state  which  cannot 
be  compressed  into  mere  governments  in  a  kind  of 
independence  which  makes  possible  the  best  sort 
of  co-operation.  .  .  .  After  all  is  said  and  done, 
academic  freedom  cannot  be  expressed  in  formulas 
nor  secured  by  mere  systems  of  administration. 
It  belongs  to  men  who  deserve  it  for  pre-eminent 
worth  and  command  it  by  the  courage  of  well- 
reasoned  conviction.  No  sort  of  freedom  is  worth 
having  which  can  be  marked  out  by  fixed  lines  or 
maintained  by  inferior  men  without  a  struggle. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  mission  of  educational  institu- 
tions to  take  their  place  and  play  their  part  in  the 
conflicts  which  are  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  peo- 
ples; and  when  their  part  assumes  the  form  of  a 
struggle  for  the  right  to  teach  the  truth  as  they 
find  it,  the  conflict  itself  may  prove  their  best 
means  of  persuading  men  that  truth  is  worth  fight- 
ing for." — E.  E.  Brown,  Academic  freedom  (Edu- 
cational Review,  Mar.,  iqoo,  pp.  219-231). 

"The  term  'academic  freedom'  has  traditionally 
had  two  applications — to  the  freedom  of  the 
teacher  and  to  that  of  the  student.  It  need 
scarcely  be  pointed  out  that  the  freedom  which  is 
the  subject  of  this  report  is  that  of  the  teacher. 
Academic  freedom  in  this  sense  comprises  three 
elements:  freedom  of  inquiry  and  research;  free- 
dom of  teaching  within  the  university  or  college; 
and  freedom  of  extra-mural  utterance  and  action. 
The  first  of  these  is  almost  everywhere  so  safe- 
guarded that  the  dangers  of  its  infringement  are 
slight.  It  may  therefore  be  disregarded  in  this 
report.  The  second  and  third  phases  of  academic 
freedom  are  closely  related,  and  are  often  not  dis- 
tinguished. The  third,  however,  has  an  importance 
of  its  own,  since  of  late  it  has  perhaps  more  fre- 
quently been  the  occasion  of  difficulties  and  con- 
troversies than  has  the  question  of  freedom  of 
intra-academic  teaching.  All  five  of  the  cases 
which  have  recently  been  investigated  by  commit- 
tees of  this  Association  have  involved,  at  least  as 
one  factor,  the  right  of  university  teachers  to  ex- 
press their  opinions  freely  outside  the  university  or 
to  engage  in  political  activities  in  their  capacity  as 
citizens.  .  .  .  The  simplest  case  is  that  of  a  pro- 
prietary school  or  college  designed  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  specific  doctrines  prescribed  by  those  who 
have  furnished  its  endowment.  It  is  evident  that 
in  such  cases  the  trustees  are  bound  by  the  deed 
of  gift,  and,  whatever  be  their  own  views,  are 
obligated  to  carry  out  the  terms  of  the  trust.  .  .  . 
Their  purpose  is  not  to  advance  knowledge  by  the 
unrestricted  research  and  unfettered  discussion  of 
impartial  investigators,  but  rather  to  subsidize  the 
promotion  of  the  opinions  held  by  the  persons, 
usually  not  of  the  scholar's  calling,  who  provide 
the  funds  for  their  maintenance.  Leaving  aside, 
then,  the  small  number  of  institutions  of  the  pro- 
prietary type,  what  is  the  nature  of  the  trust  re- 
posed in  the  governing  boards  of  the  ordinary 
institutions  of  learning?  .  .  .  They  cannot  be  per- 
mitted to  assume  the  proprietary  attitude  and 
pri\-ilege.  if  they  are  appealing  to  the  general  pub- 
lic for  support.  Trustees  of  such  universities  or 
colleges  have  no  moral  right  to  bind  the  reason  or 
the  conscience  of  any  professor.  .All  claim  to  such 
right  is  waived  by  the  appeal  to  the  general  public 
for  contributions  and  for  moral  support  in  the 
maintenance,  not  of  a  propaganda,  but  of  a  non- 
partisan institution  of  learning.  .  .  .  The  function 
[of  professors]  is  to  deal  at  first  hand,  after  pro- 
longed and  specialized  technical  training,  with  the 
sources  of  knowledge;  and  to  impart  the  results  of 
their  own  and  of  their  fellow-specialists'  investiga- 
tions and  reflection,  both  to  students  and  to  the 


general  public,  without  fear  or  favor.  The  proper 
discharge  of  this  function  requires  (among  other 
things)  that  the  university  teacher  shall  be  exempt 
from  any  pecuniary  motive  or  inducement  to  hold, 
or  to  express,  any  conclusion  which  is  not  the 
genuine  and  uncolored  product  of  his  own  study 
or  that  of  fellow-specialists.  .  .  . 

"The  importance  of  academic  freedom  is  most 
clearly  perceived  in  the  light  of  the  purposes  for 
which  universities  exist.  These  are  three  in  num- 
ber; {.\)  To  promote  inquiry  and  advance  the 
sum  of  human  knowledge.  (B)  To  provide  gen- 
eral instruction  to  the  students.  (C)  To  develop 
experts  for  various  branches  of  the  public  service. 
Let  us  consider  each  of  these.  In  the  earlier 
stages  of  a  nation's  intellectual  development,  the 
chief  concern  of  educational  institutions  is  to  train 
the  growing  generation  and  to  diffuse  the  already 
accepted  knowledge.  It  is  only  slowly  that  there 
comes  to  be  provided  in  the  highest  institutions  of 
learning  the  opportunity  for  the  gradual  wresting 
from  nature  of  her  intimate  secrets.  The  modern 
university  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  home 
of  scientific  research.  There  are  three  fields  of 
human  inquiry  in  which  the  race  is  only  at  the  be- 
ginning: natural  science,  social  science,  and  philos- 
ophy and  religion,  dealing  with  the  relations  of 
man  to  outer  nature,  to  his  fellow  men,  and  to  the 
ultimate  realities  and  values.  The  second  function 
— which  for  a  long  time  was  the  only  function — of 
the  American  college  or  university  is  to  provide  in- 
struction for  students.  It  is  scarcely  open  to  ques- 
tion that  freedom  of  utterance  is  as  important  to 
the  teacher  as  it  ts  to  the  investigator.  No  man 
can  be  a  successful  teacher  unless  he  enjoys  the 
respect  of  his  students,  and  their  confidence  in  his 
intellectual  integrity.  It  is  clear,  however,  that 
this  confidence  will  be  impaired  if  there  is  suspi- 
cion on  the  part  of  the  student  that  the  teacher  is 
not  expressing  himself  fully  or  frankly,  or  that 
college  and  university  teachers  in  general  are  a 
repressed  and  intimidated  class  who  dare  not  speak 
with  that  candor  and  courage  which  youth  always 
demands  in  those  whom  it  is  to  esteem.  .  .  .  The 
third  function  of  the  modern  university  is  to  de- 
velop experts  for  the  use  of  the  community.  If 
there  is  one  thing  that  distinguishes  the  more 
recent  developments  of  democracy,  it  is  the  recog- 
nition by  legislators  of  the  inherent  complexities 
of  economic,  social,  and  political  life,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  solving  problems  of  technical  adjustment 
without  technical  knowledge.  ...  It  is  obvious 
that  here  again  the  scholar  must  be  absolutely  free 
not  only  to  pursue  his  investigations  but  to  declare 
the  results  of  his  researches,  no  matter  where  they 
may  lead  him  or  to  what  extent  they  may  come 
into  conflict  with  accepted  opinion.  To  be  of  use 
to  the  legislator  or  the  administrator,  he  must 
enjoy  their  complete  confidence  in  the  disinterest- 
edness of  his  conclusions  It  is  clear,  then,  that 
the  university  cannot  perform  its  threefold  func- 
tion without  accepting  and  enforcing  to  the  fullest 
extent  the  principle  of  academic  freedom.  The  re- 
sponsibility of  the  university  as  a  whole  is  to  the 
community  at  large,  and  any  restriction  upon  the 
freedom  of  the  instructor  is  bound  to  react  inju- 
riously upon  the  efficiency  and  the  morale  of  the 
institution,  and  therefore  ultimately  upon  the  in- 
tere.sts  of  the  community. 

"The  special  dangers  to  freedom  of  teaching  in 
the  domain  of  the  social  sciences  are  evidently 
two.  The  one  which  is  the  more  likely  to  affect 
the  privately  endowed  colleges  and  universities  is 
the  danger  of  restrictions  upon  the  expression  of 
opinions  which  point  towards  extensive  social  in- 


26 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


Various  opinions 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


novations,  or  call  in  question  the  moral  legitimacy 
or  social  expediency  of  economic  conditions  or 
commercial  practices  in  which  large  vested  inter- 
ests are  involved.  In  the  political,  social,  and  eco- 
nomic field  almost  every  question,  no  matter  how 
large  and  general  it  at  first  appears,  is  more  or 
less  affected  with  private  or  class  interests ;  and, 
as  the  governing  body  of  a  university  is  naturally 
made  up  of  men  who  through  their  standing  and 
ability  are  personally  interested  in  great  private 
enterprises,  the  points  of  possible  conflict  are  num- 
berless. When  to  this  is  added  the  consideration 
that  benefactors,  as  well  as  most  of  the  parents 
who  send  their  children  to  privately  endowed  in- 
stitutions, themselves  belong  to  the  more  prosper- 
ous and  therefore  usually  to  the  more  conservative 
classes,  it  is  apparent  that,  so  long  as  effectual  safe- 
guards for  academic  freedom  are  not  established, 
there  is  a  real  danger  that  piessure  from  vested  in- 
terests may,  sometimes  deliberately  and  sometimes 
unconsciously,  sometimes  openly  and  sometimes 
subtly  and  in  obscure  ways,  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  academic  authorities.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
our  state  universities  the  danger  may  be  the  re- 
verse. Where  the  university  is  dependent  for  funds 
upon  legislative  favor,  it  has  sometimes  happened 
that  the  conduct  of  the  institution  has  been  af- 
fected by  political  considerations;  and  where  there 
is  a  definite  governmental  policy  or  a  strong  public 
feeling  on  economic,  social,  or  political  questions, 
the  menace  to  academic  freedom  may  consist  in  the 
repression  of  opinions  that  in  the  particular  po- 
litical situation  are  deemed  ultra-conservative 
rather  than  ultra-radical.  The  essential  point, 
however,  is  not  so  much  that  the  opinion  is  of 
one  or  another  shade,  as  that  it  differs  from  the 
views  entertained  by  the  authorities.  The  question 
resolves  itself  into  one  of  departure  from  accepted 
standards;  whether  the  departure  is  in  the  one 
direction  or  the  other  is  immaterial.  This  brings 
us  to  the  mo3t  serious  difficulty  of  this  problem; 
namely,  the  dangers  connected  with  the  existence 
in  a  democracy  of  an  overwhelming  and  concen- 
trated public  opinion.  The  tendency  of  modern 
democracy  is  for  men  to  think  alike,  feel  alike,  and 
to  speak  alike.  ...  In  a  democracy  there  is  politi- 
cal freedom,  but  there  is  likely  to  be  a  tyranny  of 
political  opinion.  An  inviolable  refuge  from  such 
tyranny  should  be  found  in  the  university.  ...  It 
is,  in  short,  not  the  absolute  freedom  of  utterance 
of  the  individual  scholar,  but  the  absolute  freedom 
of  thought,  of  inquiry,  of  discussion  and  of  teach- 
ing, of  the  academic  profession,  that  is  asserted  by 
this  declaration  of  principles." — American  Associa- 
tion of  University  Professors,  Generai  report  of  the 
committee  on  academic  freedom  and  academic 
tenure  (American  Political  Science  Review,  May, 
1916). 

Opinion  of  President  Barrows  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California. — "Finally,  we  come  to  that 
special  freedom  to  which  the  term  'academic  free- 
dom' is  sometimes  confined — freedom  of  teaching 
and  of  thought  and  utterance  associated  with  it. 
This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  crucial  point  of  our 
inquiry.  Is  a  professor  in  a  university,  and  above 
all  in  a  state  university,  to  be  permitted  to  express 
himself  without  restraint?  I  am  not  sure  that  I 
represent  the  unanimous  academic  view,  but  as  a 
practical  answer  I  would  say,  'yes,  once  a  man  is 
called  to  be  a  professor.'  The  earlier  grades  of 
academic  advancement  are  necessarily  probation- 
ary, but  once  the  professorial  status  is  conferred 
the  scholar  can  not  thereafter  successfully  be  laid 
under  restraint.  ...  I  appreciate  that  there  are 
times  which  are  exceptional;  when  men  neither  in 


a  university  nor  in  civil  society  generally  may  use 
their  privilege  of  speech  and  criticism.  War  is 
such  a  season.  .  .  .  War  is  a  highly  abnormal  ex- 
perience in  which  thousands  and  millions  of  men, 
at  utmost  danger  to  their  lives,  forego  all  freedom, 
surrender  all  liberty  to  the  necessary  requirements 
of  militaPi'  discipline.  And  this  being  the  situation 
of  the  men  who  fight,  some  measure  of  restraint  is 
justifiable  over  the  entire  nation,  that  the  army 
may  suffer  no  increased  hazard.  And  there  may 
also  be  other  crises  in  a  state  so  acute,  so  disturb- 
ing, so  painful  to  large  numbers,  as  to  necessitate 
a  temporary  suppression  of  free  utterance,  but 
normally  the  rule  of  academic  freedom  holds.  The 
university  is  not  an  open  forum.  Its  platforms  are 
not  free  to  the  uninstructed  or  to  those  without 
repute.  It  is  not  a  place  where  any  sort  of  doc- 
trine may  be  expounded  by  any  sort  of  person. 
There  is  a  public  attitude  that  sometimes  questions 
the  right,  particularly  of  a  state  university,  to  ex- 
clude any  from  public  utterance  in  university  halls. 
But  just  as  the  permanent  members  of  a  univer- 
sity are  selected  with  great  care  and  for  reasons 
of  confidence  in  their  knowledge,  so  those  who  arc 
invited  to  speak  incidentally  or  occasionally  must 
be  judged  with  comparable  considerations." — D.  P. 
Barrows,  Academic  freedom  (School  and  Society, 
Apr.  17,  iQ2o). 

Opinion  of  President  Lowell  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity.— "The  teaching  by  the  professor  in  his 
class-room  on  the  subjects  within  the  scope  of  his 
chair  ought  to  be  absolutely  free.  He  must  teach 
the  truth  as  he  has  found  it  and  sees  it.  This  is 
the  primary  condition  of  academic  freedom,  and 
any  violation  of  it  endangers  intellectual  progress. 
In  order  to  make  it  secure  it  is  essential  that  the 
teaching  in  the  class-room  should  be  confidential. 
This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  secret,  but  that  what 
is  said  there  should  not  be  published.  If  the  re- 
marks of  the  instructor  were  repeated  by  the  pupils 
in  the  public  press,  he  would  be  subjected  to  con- 
stant criticism  by  people,  not  familiar  with  the 
subject,  who  misunderstood  his  teaching ;  and, 
what  is  more  important,  he  would  certainly  be 
misquoted,  because  his  remarks  would  be  reported 
by  the  student  without  their  context  or  the  quali- 
fications that  give  them  their  accuracy.  Moreover, 
if  the  rule  that  remarks  in  the  class-room  shall  not 
be  reported  for  publication  elsewhere  is  to  be 
maintained,  the  professor  himself  must  not  report 
them.  .  .  .  That  does  not  mean  a  denial  of  the 
right  to  publish  them  in  a  book,  or  their  substance 
in  a  learned  periodical.  On  the  contrary  the  object 
of  institutions  of  learning  is  not  only  the  acquisi- 
tion but  also  the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  ...  In 
troublous  times  much  more  serious  difficulty,  and 
much  more  confusion  of  thought,  arises  from  the 
other  half  of  our  subject,  the  right  of  a  professor 
to  express  his  views  without  restraint  on  matters 
lying  outside  the  sphere  of  his  professorship.  .  .  . 
The  fact  that  a  man  fills  a  chair  of  astronomy,  for 
example,  confers  on  him  no  special  knowledge  of, 
and  no  peculiar  right  to  speak  upon,  the  protective 
tariff.  His  right  to  speak  about  a  subject  on  which 
he  is  not  an  authority  is  simply  the  right  of  any 
other  man,  and  the  question  is  simply  whether  the 
university  or  college  by  employing  him  as  a  pro- 
fessor acquires  a  right  to  restrict  his  freedom  as  a 
citizen.  ...  On  their  [the  students']  side  they 
have  a  right  not  to  be  compelled  to  listen  to  re- 
marks offensive  or  injurious  to  them  on  subjects 
of  which  the  instructor  is  not  a  master, — a  right 
which  the  teacher  is  bound  to  respect.  .  .  .  The 
gravest  questions,  and  the  strongest  feelings,  arise 
from  action  by  a  professor  beyond  his  chosen  field 


27 


ACADEMIC  FREEDOM 


ACADEMY,  FRENCH 


and  outside  his  class-room.  Here  he  speaks  only 
as  a  citizen.  By  appointment  to  a  professorship  he 
acquires  no  rights  that  he  did  not  possess  before; 
but  there  is  a  real  difference  of  opinion  to-day  on 
the  question  whether  he  loses  any  rights  that  he 
would  otherwise  enjoy.  ...  In  the  first  place,  to 
impose  upon  the  teacher  in  a  university  restrictions 
to  which  the  members  of  other  professions,  law- 
yers, physicians,  engineers,  and  so  forth,  are  not 
subjected,  would  produce  a  sense  of  irritation  and 
humiliation.  In  accepting  a  chair  under  such  con- 
ditions a  man  woulcl  surrender  a  part  of  his  lib- 
erty; what  he  might  say  would  be  submitted  to 
the  censorship  of  a  board  of  trustees,  and  he  would 
cease  to  be  a  free  citiien.  .  .  .  Such  a  policy  would 
tend  seriously  to  discourage  some  of  the  best  men 
from  taking  up  the  scholar's  Ufe.  ...  If  a  univer- 
sity or  college  censors  what  its  professors  may  say, 
if  it  restrains  them  from  uttering  something  that 
it  does  not  approve,  it  thereby  assumes  responsibil- 
ity for  that  which  it  permits  them  to  say.  This  is 
logical  and  inevitable,  but  it  is  a  responsibility 
which  an  institution  of  learning  would  be  very  un- 
wise in  assuming.  .  .  .  Surely  abuse  of  speech, 
abuse  of  authority  and  arbitrary  restraint  and 
friction  would  be  reduced  if  men  kept  in  mind  the 
distinction  between  the  privilege  of  academic  free- 
dom and  the  common  right  of  personal  liberty  as 
a  citizen,  between  what  may  properly  be  said  in 
(he  class-room  and  what  in  pubUc.  But  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  all  liberty  and  every  privilege 
implies  responsibilities.  Professors  should  speak  in 
public  soberly  and  seriously,  not  for  notoriety  or 
self  advertisement,  under  a  deep  sense  of  responsi- 
bility for  the  good  name  of  the  institution  and  the 
dignity  of  their  profession.  They  should  take  care 
that  they  are  understood  to  speak  personally,  not 
officially.  When  they  so  speak,  and  governing 
boards  respect  their  freedom  to  express  their  sin- 
cere opinions  as  other  citizens  may  do,  there  will 
be  little  danger  that  liberty  of  speech  will  be 
either  misused  or  curtailed." — A.  L.  Lowell,  Annual 
report  to  the  board  oj  overseers,  1916-1917  (£1- 
cerpts  as  quoted  in  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine, 
Mar.,  1018). 

Opiiuon  of  President  Hadley  of  Yale  Univer- 
sity.— "The  problem  of  the  liberty  of  teaching  con- 
nects itself  with  other  problems  of  civil  liberty; 
and  all  these  problems  together  reach  back  into 
past  history,  and  can  be  properly  analyzed  only 
by  historical  study.  Only  by  placing  them  all  in 
their  proper  relations  to  one  another  can  we  under- 
stand either  the  reasons  or  the  limitations  of  our 
system'  of  academic  freedom  as  it  e.xists  at  the 
present  day.  To  the  modern  observer  liberty  in  its 
various  manifestations  is  neither  an  abstract  right 
to  be  assumed,  as  Rousseau  would  have  assumed 
it,  nor  a  pernicious  phantom  to  Jse  condemned  and 
exorcised,  as  Carlyle  or  Ruskin  would  have  con- 
demned it,  but  an  essential  element  in  orderly 
progress;  not  without  its  dangers  and  not  without 
its  limitations,  yet  justified  on  the  whole  because 
the  necessar>'  combination  of  progress  and  order 
can  be  better  secured  by  a  high  degree  of  indi- 
vidual liberty  than  in  any  other  fashion.  .  .  ." — 
A.  T.  Hadley,  Academic  freedom  in  theory  and  in 
practice  (.Atlantic  Monthh,  Feb.,  IQ03,  pp.  152- 
153)- 

Opinion  of  President  Butler  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.— "You  will  enter  here  into  an  atmosphere 
of  complete  intellectual  freedom.  Each  member 
of  this  university,  teacher  and  taught  alike,  is 
under  two  limitations,  and  only  two,  in  matters  of 
speech  and  of  conduct.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
limitation  put  upon  us  all  by  the  laws  of  the  land, 
which   are   enforced    by    the   properly    constituted 


authorities  The  second  is  the  limitation  in  speech 
and  in  conduct  which  an  American  gentleman  puts 
upon  himself.  .  .  .  The  gravest,  and  indeed  the 
only,  university  offence  that  one  can  commit  is  to 
be  guilty  of  conduct  unbecoming  a  gentleman."— 
N.  M.  Butler,  from  address  quoted  in  New  York 
Sun,  Oct.  22,  IQ17. 
ACADEMIE    DES   SCIENCES.     See   Acad- 

ElvrV    OF    SCTENXES. 

ACADEMIE    FRANCAISE.      See   Academy, 

French. 

ACADEMIES,  International  Union  of.  See 
International  Union  of  .'\cadeiiies. 

ACADEMY,  takes  its  name  from  the  "Aca- 
demia"  on  the  Cephissus,  a  sacred  precinct  of 
Athens,  which  spot  probably  belonged  to  Acada- 
mus,  a  hero  of  Atticus.  In  time  it  became  a  pub- 
lic park;  later,  a  gymnasium  was  built  here  where 
Plato  held  his  first  lectures  in  philosophy.  The 
masters  of  the  great  schools  of  philosophy  at 
Athens  "chose  for  their  lectures  and  discussions 
the  public  buildings  which  were  called  gymnasia, 
of  which  there  were  several  in  different  quarters  of 
the  city.  They  could  only  use  them  by  the  suffer- 
ance of  the  State,  which  had  built  them  chiefly 
for  bodily  exercises  and  athletic  feats.  .  .  .  Before 
long  several  of  the  schools  drew  themselves  apart 
in  special  buildings,  and  even  took  their  most  fa- 
miliar names,  such  as  the  Lyceum  and  the  .Acad- 
emy, from  the  gymnasia  in  which  they  made  them- 
selves at  home.  Gradually  we  find  the  traces  of 
some  material  provisions,  which  helped  to  define 
and  to  perpetuate  the  different  sects.  Plato  had 
a  little  garden,  close  by  the  sacred  Eleusinian  Way, 
in  the  shady  groves  of  the  Academy.  .  .  .  Aris- 
totle, as  we  know,  in  later  life  had  taught  in  the 
Lyceum,  in  the  rich  grounds  near  the  llissus.  ' — 
W.  W.  Capes.  University  life  in  ancient  Athens,  pp. 
31-33. — Academy  in  its  modern  sense,  is  a  corpora- 
tion or  society  organized  to  encourage  the  disin- 
terested pursuit  of  art  or  science,  or  both.  It  is 
now  used  to  refer  to  learned  organizations  of  all 
kinds.  It  is  usually  endowed  by  the  state  or  other- 
wise publicly  recognized.  A  list  of  the  more  im- 
portant academies,  with  the  date  of  founding  is 
appended:  .\cademie  francaise  (1620-1635);  Acad- 
emic des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres  or  "Petite 
academic"  (1663);  Academic  des  sciences  (1666); 
Academic  des  beaux  arts  (Berne.  1677);  Akademie 
der  Wissenschaften  zu  Berlin  (formerly  Societas 
Regia  Scientiarum,  1700)  ;  Academic  Imperiale  des 
sciences  de  Saint-Petersbourg  (Imperatorskaya 
Akademiya  naiik,  1725);  Royal  Academy  of  Arts 
(London,  1768);  American  ,\cademy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  (1780);  National  .Academy  of  Design 
(New  York,  1826)  ;  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
(U.  S.  A..  1S63)  ;  American  Academy  in  Rome 
(1865);  British  Academy  (iqo2).  Separate  arti- 
cles on  the  more  important  academies  will  be 
found  under  their  own  headings. — See  also  Educa- 
tion: .Ancient:  B.C.  7th-.\.  D.  3rd  centuries: 
Greece,  Socrates  and  the  philosophical  schools; 
Gymnasia:  Greek. 

ACADEMY,  American.  See  American  Acad- 
emy in  Ro.vie. 

ACADEMY,  French.— Founded  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  in  1635,  for  the  refining  of  the  language 
and  the  literary  taste  of  France.  [See  also  French 
literature:  1608-1715.]  Its  forty  members  are 
styled  "les  Quarante  Immortels"  (the  Forty  Im- 
mortals). Election  to  a  seat  among  them  is  a 
high  object  of  ambition  among  French  writers. 
The  seals  are  numbered  from  one  to  forty,  and  the 
records  of  members  are  kept  under  the  numbers  of 
their  respective  chairs. — "The  literary  movement 
of  the  Renaissance  ended  in  Europe  about  the  mid- 


28 


ACADEMY,  FRENCH 


ACADEMY,  FRENCH 


die  of  the  seventeenth  century.  There  appeared  no 
more  great  writers  in  Spain,  nor  in  Italy,  nor  in 
Germany.  France,  only,  was  for  a  century  the 
country  of  learning.  The  writers  of  that  period 
had  a  totally  different  conception  of  the  art  of 
writing  from  those  of  the  time  of  the  Renaissance. 
They  neither  wrote  for  the  learned  nor  for  the 
common  people;  they  wrote  for  society;  for  those 
whom  they  called  well-bred  people,  and  it  was  the 
well-bred  company  gathered  in  the  salons  which 
decided  upon  the  value  of  the  works.  The  salons 
were  set  up  in  France  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIII.;  manners  and  language  had  been  rude  at 
first;  the  nobles  brought  with  them  the  customs 
of  the  soldier;  little  by  little  the  ladies  brought 
about  a  change  in  the  general  tone,  and  introduced 
the  custom  of  speaking  politely,  and  in  choice 
terms.  The  Marquise  de  Rambouillet  (q.  v.)  set 
the  example,  by  holding  in  her  own  mansion  regu- 
lar reunions  where  questions  of  literature  and 
morals  were  discussed.  The  employment  of  trivial 
expressions  was  forbidden ;  the  ladies  called  them- 
selves 'Precieuses.'  They  sought  to  purify  the  lan- 
guage, and  were  aided  in  their  work  by  the  gram- 
marians, and  by  the  Academy.  The  French  lan- 
guage at  that  time  was  composed  of  many  words 
and  turns  of  phrase,  which  had  their  origin  in  the 
French  of  the  Middle  Ages;  others  had  been  drawn 
from  the  Greek  or  Latm  by  the  men  of  the 
Renaissance.  The  grammarians  and  the  'Pre- 
cieuses' proscribed  a  great  many  expressions  on 
account  of  their  coarseness,  or  their  provincialism 
and  many  new  words  taken  from  the  Latin,  be- 
cause they  were  too  pedantic.  They  endeavored  to 
'follow  good  usage,'  that  is,  to  employ  only  such 
words  as  were  used  in  the  best  circles  in  Paris. 
'It  is  far  better,'  said  Vaugelas,  'to  consult  the 
women,  and  those  who  have  not  studied,  than  to 
counsel  with  those  who  are  learned  in  Greek  and 
Latin.'  The  French  language  thus  purilied,  be- 
came the  language  of  the  court,  and  of  the  salon, 
which  every  one  must  speak  if  one  wished  to  be 
considered  educated,  and  well-bred.  'One  word 
amiss  is  sufficient  to  make  one  scorned  in  society.' 
'To  speak  well  is  one  of  the  forms  required  by 
good  breeding.'  In  order  to  fix  rules  for  the  lan- 
guage, Richelieu  founded  the  French  Academy; 
to  edit  a  dictionary  of  the  French  language  is  its 
especial  charge.  'This  small  band  called  good  so- 
ciety is  the  flower  of  the  human  race,'  said  Vol- 
taire. 'It  is  for  them  that  the  greatest  men  have 
labored.'  'It  is  the  taste  of  the  court  that  should 
be  studied,'  said  Moliere.  'There  is  no  place  where 
decisions  can  be  more  just.'  This  taste  which  was 
imposed  on  all  writers,  is  called  the  classic  taste 
It  consists  in  expressing  only  ideas  that  can  be 
easily  understood,  and  expressing  them  in  terms 
clear,  precise,  and  elegant,  setting  them  forth  in 
perfect  order,  taking  care  to  employ  no  popular 
expression,  neither  a  term  of  science,  trade,  or  of 
the  household ;  in  one  word,  sparing  the  reader 
everything  which  may  demand  an  effort  of  the 
mind,  or  which  may  shock  the  proprieties.  Litera- 
ture became  the  art  of  making  fine  discourses;  it 
was  oratorical  rather  than  poetic.  Its  dominant 
quality  was  perfection." — C.  Seignobos,  History  oj 
mediaeval  and  oj  modern  civilization,  pp.  424-426. — ■ 
During  the  revolutionary  period  the  Academy  was 
suspected  of  monarchical  sentiments  and  accused 
of  constituting  an  intellectual  aristocracy.  It  was 
accordingly  suppressed  August  8,  1703,  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  Convention  and  incorporated,  in  I7gs, 
into  the  Institut  National,  under  the  name  of 
"La  classe  de  la  langue  et  litterature  frangaises" 
The  Restoration  replaced  the  .Academy  to  its  origi- 
nal status     The  first  edition  of  its  dictionnaire  was 


issued  in  1694;  the  sixth  edition  appeared  in  183S, 
since  augmented  by  supplements  and  revised.  The 
selection  of  members  for  the  Academy  has  long 
been  a  matter  of  bitter  controversy.  While  a 
goodly  number  of  great  names  in  French  history 
and  literature  appear  on  its  roll,  it  is  true  that 
many  others,  equally  great,  are  conspicuous  by 
their  absence.  Among  the  more  prominent  of  the 
latter  category  may  be  mentioned  Diderot,  RoUin, 
Rousseau,  Beaumarchais,  Helvetius,  Condillac, 
Benjamin  Constant,  J.  de  Maistre,  Prudhon, 
Beranger,  Conte,  Balzac,  Gautier,  Stendhal,  Flau- 
bert, Uaudet,  Zola,  Flaubert,  de  Maupassant,  etc. 
None  of  these  became  an  "imaiurtal."  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  celebrated  Frenchmen  who 
held  seats  in  the  Academy:  Racine  (1672); 
Seguier  (1635)  ;  Boileau-Despreaux  (1084)  ;  Vol- 
taire (1746)  ;  Corneille  (1647)  ;  Bougainville 
(17S4);  D'Alembert  (1754);  Cardinal  Dubois 
(1722)  ;  Cardinal  de  Rohan  (1704)  ;  Bossuet 
(1071);  Montesquieu  (172S);  Nicolas  Bourdon, 
first  occupant  of  seat  No.  i  (1637)  ;  Scribe  {1834)  , 
O.  Feuillet  (i85i);  Buffon  (1753);  Guizot  (183O)  ; 
Hugo  (1841);  Sainte  Beuve  (1844);  Ampere 
(1S47)  ;  De  Tocqueville  (1841)  ;  Lacordaire  (pere, 
1859);  Ph.  de  Segur  (1830);  A.  Thiers  (1833); 
Merimee  (1844);  Chateaubriand  (1811);  Lamar- 
tine  (1829)  ;  Condorcet  (17S2)  ;  Jules  Favrc 
C1867)  ;  Tissot  (1833)  ;  A.  de  Vigny  (1845)  ;  A.  de 
Musset  (1852);  Montalembert  (1851);  Laplace 
(i8ib);  Cuvier  (1818)  and  Royer-Collard  (1S27), 
1919. — Calling  of  International  conference  for 
union.     See  under  International  union  of  acau- 

EMIES. 

The  membership  of  the  Academy  in  1920  in  the 
order  of  election  with  the  name  of  the  predece.^sor 
in  each  case,  was  as  follows: 

Comte  d'Haussonville,  Gabriel  Paul  Othenin   de 

Cleron    (Caro) 

de  Freycinet,   Claude  Louis  de  Saulces    (Augier, 

Emile) 

Loti-Viaud,  Pierre  Louis  Marie  Julien   (Feuillet, 

Octave) 

Lavisse,  Ernest   (de  la  Graviere,  Jurien) 

Bourget,  Paul  (du  Camp,  Max) 

France,  Anatole  Jacques  Thibault  (de  Lesseps) 

Hanotaux,  Gabriel  (Challerael-Lacour) 

Lavedan,  Henri  (Meilhac,  Henry) 

Deschanel,    Paul    Eugene    Louis    (Herve,    Flori- 

mond  Ronge) 
Masson,  Louis  Claude  Frederic  (Paris) 
Bazin,  Rene  Fran<;ois  Nicolas  (Legouve) 
Ribot,  Alexandre    (due   d'.^udiffret-Pasquier) 
Barres,  Maurice   (de  Heredia,  J.  M) 
Donnay,  Maurice  (Sorel,  Albert) 
Richepin,  Jean   (Theuriet,  Andre) 
Poincare,  Raymond   (Gebhart) 
Brieux,  Eugene  (Halevy) 
Aicard,  Jean  (Coppee,  Francois) 
Prevost,  Marcel  (Sardou,  Victorien) 
Doumic,  Rene  (Boissier) 
Mgr.     Duchesne,    Louis    Marie    Olivier     (Card. 

Mathieu) 

Vte.  de  Regnier,  Henri   (Comte  de  Vogiie) 
Baron     Cochin,     Henrv     Denys     Benoit     Marie 

(Vandal) 
General  Lyautey,  Herbert  (Houssaye,  Henri) 
Boutroux,  Etienne  Emile  Maiie   (General  Lang- 

lois) 

Capus,  Alfred  Vincent  Marie   (Poincare,  H.) 
de  la  Gorce,  Pierre  (Thureau-Dangin) 
Bergson,  Henri  Louis  (Olivier,  Emile) 
Marechal  Joffre,  Joseph  Jacques  Cesaire  (Clare- 
tie,  Jules) 

Barthou,  Louis  (Roujon,  Henri) 


29 


ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES 


ACCIDENT  INSURANCE 


Mgr.  Baudrillart,  Henri  Marie  Alfred  (Comte  de 
Mun,  Albert) 

Boylesve,  Rene  (Mezieres) 

de  Curel,  Fran<;ois  (Hervieu,  Paul) 

Cambon,  Jules    (Charmes,  Francis) 

Clemenceau,  Georges   (Faguet,  Emile) 

Marechal  Foch,  Ferdinand   (Marquis  de  Vogiie) 

Bordeaux,  Henry   (Lemaitre,  Jules) 

de  Flers,  Robert  (Marquis  de  Segur) 

Bedier,  Joseph  (Rostand,  Edmond) 

Chevrillon,  Andre  (Lamy,  Ktienne) 

The  above  list  was  furnished  by  courtesy  of 
the  French  government,  in  December,  lyio. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  (lAcademie  des 
sciences),  an  institution  founded  at  Paris  in  ibbd 
by  Colbert  and  approved  by  Louis  XIV  in  1699; 
suppressed  by  the  National  Convention  during  the 
French  Revolution  and  in  1816  reconstituted  as  a 
branch  of  the  Institut  de  France  (founded  1795)- 
At  first  it  served  as  an  experimental  laboratory  and 
observatory ;  its  purpose  is  to  promote  scientific 
research.  It  numbers  sixty-eight  members,  ten 
honorary  academicians,  eight  foreign  associates, 
and  one  hundred  corresponding  members. 

ACADIA.  See  Canada:  iboj-ioos,  1O10-1013, 
1692-1097. 

Origin  of  the  name.     See  Nova  Scotia:   1604. 

Capture  of.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1690. 

Given  to  Great  Britain  at  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
See  NtwFouNDLAND,  Dominion  of:   1713. 

In  Nova  Scotia.    See  Nova  Scoiia;   1713-1730. 

Boundary  dispute  with  England.  See  Nova 
Scoiia:  1749-1755. 

Exile  of  inhabitants.     See  Nova  Scotia:   1755. 

ACANTHUS,  a  plant  found  in  great  abundance 
in  ancient  Greece.  Because  of  its  attractive  form 
it  was  reproduced  on  metals  and  sub.sequently 
carved  in  stone,  particularly  by  the  Greeks.  The 
succeeding  styles  of  architecture  employed  the  de- 
sign especially  in  the  Corinthian  capital. 

ACAPULCO,  a  seaport  of  Mexico,  on  the  Pa- 
cific, in  the  state  of  Guerrero,  with  a  very  fine 
landlocked  harbor,  the  chief  port  of  call  for  steam- 
ships plying  between  San  Francisco  and  South 
American  ports.  In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was 
the  port  used  for  the  Philippine  trade.^See  also 
Mexico:    1810-1819. 

ACARNANIA,  a  land  in  the  western  part  of 
Greece,  south  of  Epirus  (see  Greece:  Map  of 
ancient  Greece),  whose  people  first  emerged 
from  obscurity  at  the  beginning  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  (431-404  B.C.).  The  Acarna- 
nians  formed  "a  hnk  of  transition"  between  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  their  barbarous  or  non- 
Hellenic  neighbours  in  the  Epirus  and  beyond. 
"They  occupied  the  territory  between  the  river 
Achelous,  the  Ionian  sea  and  the  Ambrakian  gulf ; 
they  were  Greeks  and  admitted  as  such  to  contend 
at  the  Pan-Hellenic  games,  yet  they  were  also 
closely  connected  with  the  Amphilochi  and  Agrcei, 
who  were  not  Greeks.  In  manners,  sentiments  and 
intelligence,  they  were  half-Hellenic  and  half- 
Epirotic, — like  the  ^tolians  and  the  Ozolian 
Lokrians.  Even  down  to  the  time  of  Thucydides, 
these  nations  were  subdivided  into  numerous  petty 
communities,  lived  in  unfortified  villages,  were 
frequently  in  the  habit  of  plundering  each  other, 
and  never  permitted  themselves  to  be  unarmed. 
.  .  .  Notwithstanding  this  state  of  disunion  and 
insecurity,  however,  the  Akarnanians  maintained  a 
loose  political  league  among  themselves.  .  .  .  The 
Akarnanians  appear  to  have  produced  many 
prophets.  They  traced  up  their  mythical  ancestry, 
as  well  as  that  of  their  neighbours  the  Amphilo- 
chians,  to  the  most  renowned  prophetic  family 
among  the  Grecian  heroes, — Amphiaraus,  with  his 


sons  Alkmson  and  Ampilocbus:  Akarnan,  the 
eponymous  hero  of  the  nation,  and  other  epony- 
mous heroes  of  the  separate  towns,  were  supposed 
to  be  the  sons  of  Alkmseon.  They  are  spoken  of, 
together  with  the  .-Etolians,  as  mere  rude  shep- 
herds, by  the  lyric  poet  Alkman,  and  so  they  seem 
to  have  continued  with  little  alteration  until  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  we  hear 
of  them,  for  the  first  time,  as  allies  of  Athens  and 
as  bitter  enemies  of  the  Corinthian  colonies  on 
their  coast.  The  contact  of  those  colonies,  how- 
ever, and  the  large  spread  of  Akarnanian  accessible 
coast,  could  not  fail  to  produce  some  effect  in  so- 
cializing and  improving  the  people.  And  it  is 
probable  that  this  effect  would  have  been  more 
sensibly  felt,  had  not  the  Akarnanians  been  kept 
back  by  the  fatal  neighbourhood, of  the  .■Etolians, 
with  whom  they  were  in  perpetual  feud,— a  people 
the  most  unprincipled  and  unimprovable  of  all 
who  bore  the  Hellenic  name,  and  whose  habitual 
faithlessness  stood  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
rectitude  and  steadfastness  of  the  Akarnanian 
rectitude  and  steadfastness  of  the  Akarnanian  char- 
acter."— G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  cli.  24. 

ACARNANIAN  LEAGUE.— "Of  the  .Akar- 
nanian League,  formed  by  one  of  the  least  im- 
portant, but  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most 
estimable  peoples  in  Greece  .  .  .  our  knowledge  is 
only  fragmentary.  The  boundaries  of  .'\karnania 
fluctuated,  but  we  always  find  the  people  spoken 
of  as  a  political  whole.  .  .  .  Thucydides  speaks,  by 
impHcation  at  least,  of  the  Akarnanian  League  as 
an  institution  of  old  standing  in  his  time.  The 
Akarnanians  had,  in  early  times,  occupied  the  hill 
of  Olpai  as  a  place  for  judicial  proceedings  com- 
mon to  the  whole  nation.  Thus  the  supreme  court 
of  the  Akarnanian  Union  held  its  sittings,  not  in 
a  town,  but  in  a  mountain  fortress.  But  in 
Thucydides'  own  time  Stratos  had  attained  its 
position  as  the  greatest  city  of  -Akarnania,  and 
probably  the  federal  assemblies  were  already  held 
there.  ...  Of  the  constitution  of  the  League  we 
know  but  little.  Ambassadors  were  sent  by  the 
federal  body,  and  probably,  just  as  in  the 
Achaian  League,  it  would  have  been  held  to  be  a 
breach  of  the  federal  tie  if  any  single  city  had 
entered  on  diplomatic  intercourse  v/ith  other 
powers.  As  in  Achaia,  too,  there  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  League  a  General  with  high  authority.  .  .  . 
The  existence  of  coins  bearing  the  name  of  the 
whole  Akarnanian  nation  shows  that  there  was 
unity  enough  to  admit  of  a  federal  coinage,  though 
coins  of  particular  cities  also  occur." — E.  A.  Free- 
man, History  oj  federal  government,  ch.  4,  sect.  i. — 
See  also  Athens:   B.C.  336-332. 

ACAWOIOS.     See  Cakibs:   Their  kindred. 

ACCA  LARENTIA,  the  wife  of  Faustulus,  who 
reared  the   Roman  twins,  Romulus  and  Remus. 

ACCAD:  Ancient  civilization.  See  Baby- 
lonia: Earliest  inhabitants;  Semites:  Primitive 
Babylonia. 

Language  and  literature.  See  Assyria:  Art  and 
archa;ological  remains;  Education:  Ancient:  B.C. 
35th-6th  centuries:  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

ACCEPTANTS.     See  Convulsionists. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE,  Industrial  See 
Insurance:  Industrial  insurance;  Social  insur- 
ance: Accident  and  sickness  insurance. 

France.  See  Social  insurance:  Details  for  vari- 
ous countries:  France:  1919- 

Germany.  See  Social  Insurance:  Origin  and 
early  development. 

Great  Britain.  See  Social  insurance:  Details 
for  various  countries:   Great  Britain:   1833-1911. 

Holland.  See  Social  insukance:  Details  for 
various  countries:  Holland:  1894-1901. 


30 


ACCOLADE 

New  Zealand.  See  Social  insurance:  Details 
for  various  countries:  New  Zealand:  igoo-igi2. 

Norway.  See  Social  insurance:  Details  for 
various  countries.  1885-1910. 

Portugal.  See  Social  insurance:  Details  for 
various  countries:    1919. 

United  States.  See  Social  insurance:  Details 
for  various  countries:   1893-1018. 

ACCOLADE.— "The  concluding  sign  of  being 
dubbt<l  or  adopted  into  the  order  of  knighthood 
was  a  slight  blow  given  by  the  lord  to  the  cavalier, 
and  called  the  accolade,  from  the  part  of  the  body, 
the  neck,  whereon  it  was  struck.  .  .  .  Many  writ- 
ers have  imagined  that  the  accolade  was  the  last 
blow  which  the  soldier  might  receive  with  impu- 
nity: but  this  interpretation  is  not  correct,  for  the 
squire  was  as  jealous  of  his  honour  as  the  knight. 
The  origin  of  the  accolade  it  is  impossible  to 
trace,  but  it  was  clearly  considered  symbolical  of 
the  religious  and  moral  duties  of  knighthood,  and 
was  the  only  ceremony  used  when  knights  were 
made  in  places  (the  field  of  battle,  for  instance), 
where  time  and  circumstances  did  not  allow  of 
many  ceremonies." — C.  Mills,  History  of  chivalry, 
V.  I,  p.  S3,  and  foot-note. 

ACCOUNTING  OFFICE,  created  in  Budget 
Bureau  Bill.    See  U.S.A.:   1921   (June). 

ACCRETION,  Title  of.     See  Riparian  rights. 

ACE  OF  DIAMONDS,  U.  S.  A.  Division.— 
In  Meuse-Argonne.  See  World  War:  igi8:  II. 
Western  front,  v,  7. 

ACES,  a  term  applied  in  the  World  War  to 
aviators  who  had  brought  down  in  combat,  five 
or  more  enemy  aircraft  under  conditions  enabling 
official  recognition  and  sanction  of  the  accomplish- 
ment to  be  made.  The  following  list  contains  only 
the  leading  aces  of  the  belligerent  nations. 


Germnn 


No.  of 

Aircraft 

Nation 

Pilot 

Destroyed 

French 

Lieutenant  Rene  Fonck 

59 

" 

Captain  Georges  Guynemer 

53 

ii 

Lieutenant  Charles  Nungesser 

38 

(( 

Lieutenant  Georges  Madon 

38 

British 

Major  Raymond  Colleshau 

77 

*' 

Captain  William  A.  Bishop 

72 

" 

Major  E.  Mannock 

71 

" 

Captain  J.  McCudden 

58 

" 

Captain  Donald  E.  McLaren 

48 

(( 

Captain  Philip  F.  Fullard 

48 

(( 

Captain  R.  A.  Little 

47 

II 

Captain  G.  E.  H.  McElroy 

46 

" 

Captain  Albert  Ball 

43 

*' 

Captain  H.  W.  Wallet 

43 

(1 

Captain  L.  Jones 

40 

II 

Captain  A.  W.  B.  Proctor 

30 

(1 

Major  Roderic  S.  Dallas 

39 

" 

Captain  W.  G.  Claxton 

37 

(( 

Captain  F.  R.  McCall 

34 

" 

Captain  Frank  G.  Quigley 

34 

" 

Major  Albert  D.  Carter 

31 

" 

Captain  Cedric  E.  Howell 

30 

i( 

Captain  A.  E.  McKeever 

30 

Italian 

Major  Baracca 

36 

" 

Lieutenant  Florio  Barachini 

31 

Belgian 

Lieutenant  Coppeus 

30 

German 

Captain   von   Richthofen 

80 

»' 

Lieutenant  Udet 

69 

" 

Lieutenant  Lowenhardt 

53 

" 

Lieutenant  von  Crefeld 

49 

" 

Captain  Boelke 

40 

*' 

Lieutenant  Gontermann 

39 

" 

Captain  Berthold 

39 

" 

Lieutenant  Max  MUller 

38 

(( 

Lieutenant  Bongartz 

36 

ACH.SA 

Lieutenant  Max  Buckler 

34 

Lieutenant  Menckhoff 

34 

Lieutenant  Loerzer 

33 

Lieutenant  Carl  Wolff 

33 

Lieutenant  Klein 

33 

Lieutenant  Roenneke 

32 

Lieutenant  Bolle 

31 

Lieutenant  KroU 

31 

Corporal  Rumey 

30 

Lieutenant  Schleich 

30 

Lieutenant  Schaeffer 

30 

Lieutenant  Almenroeder 

30 

The  American   aces  who  brought  down  at  least 
ten  enemy  aircraft  are: 


Captain  E.  V.  Rickenbacker 
Lieutenant  Frank  Luke 
Major  Raoul  Lufberry 
Lieutenant  G.  Vaughn 
Lieutenant  F.  Kindley 
Lieutenant  D.  Putnam 
Lieutenant  E.  Springs 
Lieutenant  Reed  Landis 
Lieutenant  J.  M.  Schwaab 


2S 
18 

17 
13 
12 
12 
II 
10 
10 


ACH.SA. — "Crossing  the  river  Larissus,  and 
pursuing  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus  south 
of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  the  traveller  would  pass 
into  Achaia — a  name  which  designated  the  narrow 
strip  of  level  land,  and  the  projecting  spurs  and 
declivities  between  that  gulf  and  the  northernmost 
mountains  of  the  peninsula.  .  .  .  Achaean  cities — 
twelve  in  number  at  least,  if  not  more — divided 
this  long  strip  of  land  amongst  them,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Larissus  and  the  northwestern  Cape 
Araxus  on  one  side,  to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  Sikyon  territory  on  the  other.  According  to 
the  accounts  of  the  ancient  legends  and  the  belief 
of  Herodotus,  this  territory  had  been  once  occu- 
pied by  Ionian  inhabitants,  whom  the  Achaeans 
had  expelled." — G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  v.  2, 
pt.  2,  ch.  4. — After  the  Roman  conquest  (see 
Rome:  B.C.  197-146)  and  the  suppression  of  the 
Achsan  League,  the  name  Achsa  was  given  to  the 
Roman  province  then  organized,  which  embraced 
all  Greece  south  of  Macedonia  and  Epirus. — See 
Greece:  B.  C.  280-146. — "In  the  Homeric  poems, 
where  .  .  .  the  'Hellenes'  only  appear  in  one  dis- 
trict of  Southern  Thessaly,  the  name  Achaeans  is 
employed  by  preference  as  a  general  appellation  * 
for  the  whole  race.  But  the  Achaeans  we  may 
term,  without  hesitation,  a  Pelasgian  people,  in  so 
far,  that  is,  as  we  use  this  name  merely  as  the 
opposite  of  the  term  'Hellenes,'  which  prevailed  at 
a  later  time,  although  it  is  true  that  the  Hellenes 
themselves  were  nothing  more  than  a  particular 
branch  of  the  Pelasgian  stock.  .  .  .  [The  name  of 
the]  Acheeans,  after  it  had  dropped  its  earlier  and 
more  universal  application,  was  preserved  as  the 
special  name  of  a  population  dwelling  in  the  north 
of  the  Peloponnese  and  the  south  of  Thessaly-" — 
G.  F.  Schomann,  .4ntiquities  of  Greece:  The  State, 
Introd. — Legend  has  it  that  the  Achaens  were  de- 
scended from  Achaeus,  son  of  [uthus,  who  was  the 
son  of  Hellen.  According  to  Homer  and  later 
traditions  they  came  to  Greece  about  1300  B.  C. 
and  soon  acquired  control  of  all  Greece.  "The 
ancients  regarded  them  [the  Achaeans!  as  a  branch 
of  the  .^i^olians,  with  whom  they  afterwards  re- 
united into  one  national  body,  i.  e.,  not  as  an 
originally  distinct  nationality  or  independent 
branch  of  the  Greek  people.  Accordingly,  we 
hear  neither  of  an  Achaean  language  nor  of 
Achcean  art  A  manifest  and  decided  influence  of 
the   maritime   Greeks,   wherever   the   .Achseans  ap- 


31 


ACM^AN  CITIES,  LEAGUE  OF 


ACH^ANS 


pear,  is  common  to  the  latter  with  the  yEoIians. 
Achseans  are  everywhere  settled  on  the  coast,  and 
are  always  regarded  as  particularly  near  relations 
of  the  lonians.  The  Achaeans  appear  scattered 
about  in  localities  on  the  coast  of  the  ^gean  so 
remote  from  one  another,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
consider  all  bearing  this  name  as  fragments  of  a 
people  originally  united  in  one  social  community ; 
nor  do  they  in  fact  anywhere  appear,  properly 
speaking,  as  a  popular  body,  as  the  main  stock  of 
the  population,  but  rather  as  eminent  families, 
from  which  spring  heroes;  hence  the  use  of  the 
expression  'Sons  of  the  Achceans'  to  indicate  noble 
descent." — E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  i,  ch. 
3. — See    also    Greece;    Indo-European    migrations. 

Also  in;  M.  Duncker,  History  of  Greece,  bk. 
I,  ch.  2  and  bk.  2,  ch.  2. 

1205-1387. — Medieval  principality. — Among  the 
conquests  of  the  French  and  Lombard  Crusaders 
in  Greece,  after  the  taking  of  Constantinople,  was 
that  of  a  major  part  of  the  Peloponnesus— then 
beginning  to  be  called  the  Morea — by  William  de 
Champlitte,  a  French  knight,  assisted  by  Geoffrey 
de  Villehardouin,  the  younger — nephew  and  name- 
sake of  the  Marshal  of  Champagne,  who  was 
chronicler  of  the  conquest  of  the  Empire  of  the 
East.  William  de  Champlitte  was  invested  with 
this  Principality  of  Achaea  (or  Morea).  Geof- 
frey Villehardouin  represented  him  in  the  govern- 
ment, as  his  "bailly,"  for  a  time,  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  supplanting  him.  (See  also  Athens; 
1205-1308).  Half  a  century  later  the  Greeks,  who 
had  recovered  Constantinople,  reduced  the  territory 
of  the  Principality  of  Achsa  to  about  half  the 
peninsula,  and  a  destructive  war  was  waged  be- 
tween the  two  races.  Subsequently  the  Principality 
became  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
and  underwent  many  changes  of  possession  until 
the  title  was  in  confusion  and  dispute  between  the 
houses  of  Anjou,  Aragon  and  Savoy.  Before  it  was 
engulfed  finally  in  the  Empire  of  the  Turks,  it  was 
ruined  by  their  piracies  and  ravages. — G.  Finlay, 
History  of  Greece  from  its  conquest  by  the  Cru- 
saders, ch.  8. 

ACHAEAN  CITIES,  League  of— This,  which 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  Achaean  League 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  a  league  of  early  Greek 
colonists  in  Italy.  They  arrived  in  the  eighth 
century  B.  C.  and  built  their  fortified  towns 
,  or  "cities"  of  which  the  most  powerful  were 
Sybaris,  Croton  and  Tarentum.  The  former  in- 
habitants, living  side  by  side  with  the  colonists, 
adopted  the  superior  culture  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
whole  of  central  Italy  became  known  as  Magna 
Graecia.  "Of  the  Greek  settlements,  that  which 
retained  most  thoroughly  its  distinctive  character 
and  was  least  affected  by  influences  from  without, 
was  the  settlement  which  gave  birth  to  the  League 
of  the  Achaean  cities,  composed  of  the  towns  of 
Siris,  Pandosia,  Metabus  or  Metapontum,  Sybaris 
with  its  offsets  Posidonia  and  Laus,  Crotona,  Cau- 
lonia,  Temesa,  Terina  and  Pyxus.  .  .  .  The  lan- 
guage of  Polybius  regarding  the  Achaean  sym- 
machy  [alliance]  in  the  Peloponnesus  may  be  ap- 
plied also  to  these  Italian  Achaeans;  'not  only  did 
they  live  in  federal  and  friendly  communion,  but 
they  made  use  of  the  same  laws,  and  the  same 
weights,  measures  and  coins,  as  well  as  of  the 
same  magistrates,  councillors  and  judges.' " — T. 
Mommscn,  Historv  of  Rome,  bk.  i,  ch.  10. 

ACHAEAN  FEDERATION.  See  Federal 
government:    Greek   federations. 

ACH.ffiAN  LEAGUE,  in  early  times  a  con- 
federation of  twelve  .Achaean  cities  formed  as  a 
protection  against  the  raids  of  pirates  to  which, 
because  of   their  isolated   position   on   the  narrow 


strips  of  plain,  they  were  constantly  exposed.  Of 
the  functions  of  this  early  league  we  have  no 
definite  record  other  than  the  worship  of  Zeus 
Araarios  and  an  occasional  arbitration  between 
Greek  belligerents.  "Under  the  Macedonian  su- 
premacy the  league  was  dissolved;  but  about  the 
year  280  [B.C.],  four  cities,  Dyme,  Patrae, 
Pharae,  and  Tritaea,  shook  off  the  foreign  yoke, 
and  united  in  a  new  league.  Other  city-states 
were  gradually  added  till  240  [B.  C],  when  the 
accession  of  Sicyon  under  the  leadership  of  Aratus 
made  the  union  a  power  to  be  reckoned  with  in 
international  affairs.  From  that  time  Aratus  was 
the  inspiring  genius  of  the  federation.  Under  his 
direction  it  adopted  a  vigorous  policy  of  freeing 
all  Peloponnesus  from  the  despots  and  from  Mace- 
donian control,  and  of  annexing  the  individual 
states  by  negotiation  or  force." — (Polybius  ii.  37 
sg.)  G.  W.  Botsford  and  E.  G.  Sihler,  Hellenic 
civilization,  pp.  613-614. — "The  object  of  the 
union  was  the  maintenance  of  peace  within 
its  borders  and  protection  from  foreign 
enemies.  The      federal      power      was      limited 

strictly  to  this  object.  It  alone  made  war,  peace, 
and  alliances,  and  managed  all  diplomatic  mat- 
ters. The  army  and  navy  though  furnished  by  the 
states  according  to  their  means,  were  solely  at  the 
command  of  the  federal  power.  It  coined  all 
money,  excepting  small  change,  and  enforced  a 
uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures.  Aside 
from  these  necessary  restrictions,  the  states  were 
sovereign  and  self-governing.  The  only  require- 
ment was  that  they  should  be  republics  and  should 
remain  (jermanently  in  the  union.  They  enjoyed 
full  rights  of  trade  and  intermarriage  with  one 
another;  and  any  state  was  free  to  admit  to  its 
citizenship  the  inhabitants  of  any  other.  All  stood 
on  an  absolute  political  equality.  To  prevent  any 
one  of  them  from  gaining  the  leadership,  it  was 
decided  that  the  cities  should  serve  in  turn  as  the 
place  for  holding  the  federal  assembly." — G.  W. 
Bolsford,  History  of  the  ancient  world,  p.  301. — 
The  central  government  of  the  Achaean  League, 
as  of  the  affiliated  cities,  was  based  on  democratic 
principles.  An  assembly  of  all  the  members  over 
thirty  years  of  age  constituted  the  chief  legisla- 
tive assembly,  which  met  twice  a  year  to  decide 
the  league's  future  policies  and  to  elect  its  magis- 
trates. "Nowhere  could  be  found  a  more  unal- 
loyed and  deliberately  established  system  of  equal- 
ity and  absolute  freedom, — in  a  word,  of  democ- 
racy,-— than  among  the  Achaeans.  This  constitu- 
tion found  many  of  the  Peloponnesians  ready 
enough  to  adopt  it  of  their  own  accord:  many 
were  brought  to  share  it  by  persuasion  and  argu- 
ment: some  though  acting  upon  compulsion  at 
first,  were  quickly  brought  to  acquiesce  in  its 
benefits;  for  none  of  the  original  members  hadj,any 
special  privilege  reserved  for  them,  but  equal  rights 
were  given  to  all  comers:  the  object  aimed  at  was 
therefore  quickly  attained  by  the  two  most  unfail- 
ing expedients  of  equality  and  fraternity.  This 
then  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  source  and 
original  cause  of  Peloponnesian  unity  and  conse- 
quent prosperity." — G.  W.  Botsford  and  E.  G. 
Sihler,  Hellenic  cii'iti:ation,  p.  615. — -During  the 
life  of  the  league,  however,  federal  wars  were  di- 
rected against  Macedonia  (2  So  B.  C),  /Etolia 
(230-220  B.  C),  Spiarta  (207  B.  C,  201  B.  C), 
and  Antiochus  (100  B.  C).  In  r^o  B.  C.  a  con- 
troversy arose  between  the  Achaean  League  and 
Rome.  An  attack  on  Sparta  by  the  federal  troops 
provoked  war  with  Rome  which  soon  ended  the 
influence  of  the  league.  See  Megalopolis;  B.  C. 
:.'-'.  10418^ — See  also  Gheece:  B.  C.  280-146. 
ACH^ANS.     See  Ach.sa. 


32 


ACH^MENES 


ACOMA 


ACH^MENES.     See   Ach-^menids. 

ACH^MENIDS,  the  dynastic  name  (in  Greek 
form)  of  the  kings  of  the  Persian  Empire  founded 
by  Cyrus,  derived  from  an  ancestor,  Achimenes 
(see  Athens:  B.C.  460-455)  probably  a  chief 
of  the  Persian  tribe  of  Pasargaai.  "In  the. in- 
scription of  Behistun,  King  Darius  says:  'From 
old  time  we  were  kings;  eight  of  my  family  have 
been  kings,  I  am  the  ninth;  from  very  ancient 
times  we  have  been  kings.'  He  enumerates  his 
ancestors:  'My  father  was  Vista(;pa,  the  father  of 
Vistai;pa  was  Arsama;  the  father  of  Arsama  was 
Ariyaramna,  the  father  of  Ariyaramna  was  Khais- 
pis,  the  father  of  Khaispis  was  Hakharaanis;  hence 
we  are  called  Hakhamanisiya  (Achaemenids) .'  In 
these  words  Darius  gives  the  tree  of  his  own  fam- 
ily up  to  Khaispis;  this  was  the  younger  branch 
of  the  Achaemenids.  Teispes,  the  son  of  Achae- 
menes,  had  two  sons;  the  elder  was  Cambyses 
(Kambujiya),  the  younger  Ariamnes;  the  son  of 
Cambyses  was  Cyrus  (Kurus),  the  son  of  Cyrus 
was  Cambyses  II.  Hence  Darius  could  indeed 
maintain  that  eight  princes  of  his  family  had  pre- 
ceded him;  but  it  was  not  correct  to  maintain 
that  they  had  been  kings  before  him  and  that  he 
was  the  ninth  king." — M.  Duncker,  History  oj  an- 
tiquity, V.  5,  bk.  8,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:  G.  Rawlinson,  Family  oj  the  Achce- 
menidce,  app.  to  bk.  7  of  Herodotus. 

A-CnJEMS  (484-448  B.C.),  a  Greek  tragic 
dramatist  and  poet  of  Eretria;  contemporary  of 
Sophocles  and  Euripides;  author  of  forty-four 
dramas,  of  which  onlv  fragments  remain. 

ACHAIA.     See   Ach.t.a. 

ACHARN.S,  the  principal  deme  of  Attica,  di- 
rectly north  of  Athens  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Parnes. 

ACHELOUS,  (mod.  Aspropotamo),  the  larg- 
est river  in  Greece,  rises  in  Epirus  and  empties 
into  the  Ionian  sea.  This  river,  which  formed 
the  boundary  between  ancient  Acarnania  and  ^to- 
lia  in  western  Hellas,  "by  overflowing  its  delta 
region,  constantly  obliterated  the  boundaries 
agreed  upon  by  the  two  neighbors,  and  thereby 
gave  rise  to  disputes  that  were  only  settled  by 
force  of  arms." — E.  C.  Semple,  Influences  of 
geographic  environment,  p.  363. — It  was  doubt- 
less as  a  personification  of  this  river  that  the  name 
Achelous  appears  in  mythology  as  the  river-god 
over  whom  Hercules  won  a  great  victory. 

ACHESON,  Edward  Goodrich  (1856-  ), 
American  inventor;  became  Edison's  assistant  in 
1880;  invented  widely  used  carborundum;  dis- 
covered artificial  graphite  which  far  surpasses  the 
natural;  found  a  process  for  finely  subdividing 
graphite;  responsible  for  the  development  of  the 
modern  electric  furnace,  perfecting,  a  more  dur- 
able graphitized  anode  to  replace  the  carbon 
electrodes;  invented  siloxicon,  a  compound  of  car- 
bon, silicon,  and  oxygen,  to  meet  the  requirement 
for  a  highly  refractory  material ;  was  awarded 
in  1 9 10  the  Perkin  Medal  of  the  Society  of  Chem- 
ical Industry,  for  the  most  valuable  work  in  ap- 
plied chemist  rv 

ACHEULIAN  INDUSTRY  AND  IMPLE- 
MENTS.    See   Europe:   Stone  Age,  Divisions. 

ACHEULIAN  MAN.  See  Europe:  Prehis- 
toric period. 

ACHI  BABA,  a  hill  700  feet  high,  near  the 
southwestern  end  of  the  Gallipoli  peninsula ;  the 
main  position  of  the  Turkish  defense  in  the  fight- 
ing of  iQii;. 

ACHIET-LE-PETIT,  France.— Taken  by  the 
British  (1918).  See  World  War:  iqi8:  II.  West- 
ern front,  k,  1. 

ACHILL  ISLAND,  a  large  island  off  the  west 


coast  of  Ireland.  Its  jagged  cUffs  and  bogs,  in- 
capable of  cultivation,  leave  only  fishing  and  an 
exceedingly  scant  and  difficult  farming  of  oats  as 
a  means  of  livelihood.  Its  people  have  remained 
distinctly  Gaelic  in  language  and  custom.  There 
are   antiquarian    remains   near  Slievemore. 

ACHILLES,  one  of  the  most  famous  lege«dary 
heroes  of  ancient  Greece,  and  one  of  the  most 
prominent  leaders  in  the  Trojan  War.  "The  Black 
sea  and  the  Propontis  were  the  special  domain  of 
the  sea-god  AchiHes,  whose  fame  grew  greater 
by  his  association  as  a  hero  with  the  legend  of 
Troy.  He  was  worshipped  along  the  coasts  as  'lord 
of  the  Pontus';  and  in  Leuce,  the  'shining  island' 
near  the  Danube's  mouth,  the  lonely  island  where 
no  man  dwelled,  he  had  a  temple,  and  the  birds 
of  the  sea  were  said  to  be  its  warders." — J.  B. 
Bury,  History  oj  Greece,  p.  92. 

ACHILLINI,  Alessandro  (1463-1512).  See 
Science:  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance:  l6th 
century. 

ACHIN  (Dutch  Atjeh),  a  region  formerly  an 
independent  sultanate,  now  a  Dutch  administra- 
tive district  in  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Su- 
matra. The  city  of  Kotaraja,  the  old  Achinese 
capital,  was  once  the  center  of  considerable  wealth 
and  power  and  had  diplomatic  relations  with 
European  powers.  It  was  visited  by  Marco  Polo 
at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1506.  In  the  first  half  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  the  sultan  of  Achin  had  an  ex- 
tensive empire,  including  portions  of  the  Malay 
peninsula.  A  century  later  it  was  but  a  petty 
state  protected  by  the  British  until  1S71.  Since 
that  time  it  has  been  a  party  to  bitter  and  inter- 
mittent wars  with  the  Dutch,  and  even  now 
(1920)  there  are  portions  of  the  interior  not  en- 
tirely  subdued. 

Hostilities  with  the  Dutch.  See  Netherlands: 
1904. 

ACHMET.     See  Ahmed. 

ACHRADINA,  a  part  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Syracuse,  Sicily,  known  as  the  "outer  city,"  occu- 
pying the  peninsula  north  of  Ortygia,  the  island, 
which   was  the  "inner  city." 

ACHRIDA,  Kingdom  of.— After  the  death  of 
John  Zimisces  who  had  reunited  Bulgaria  to  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  Bulgarians  were  roused  to 
a  struggle  for  the  recovery  of  their  independence, 
under  the  lead  of  four  brothers  of  a  noble  family, 
all  of  whom  soon  perished  save  one,  named  Sam- 
uel. Samuel  proved  to  be  so  vigorous  and  able 
a  soldier  and  had  so  much  success  that  he  as- 
sumed presently  the  title  of  king.  His  authority 
was  established  over  the  greater  part  of  Bulgaria, 
and  extended  into  Macedonia,  Epirus  and  Illyria. 
He  established  his  capital  at  .Achrida  (modern 
Ochrida,  in  Albania),  which  gave  its  name  to  his 
kingdom.  The  suppression  of  this  new  Bulgarian 
monarchy  occupied  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  Basil 
II.,  in  wars  from  981  until  loiS,  when  its  last 
strongholds,  including  the  city  of  Achrida,  were  sur- 
rendered to  him. — G.  Finlay, //(sfory  oj  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire  jrom  716  to  1057,  bk.  2.  sh.  2,  sect.  2. 

ACILIUS   GLABRIO.     See   Glabrio. 

ACKERMAN,  Francis  (1335-1387),  Flemish 
diplomat  and  soldier.  Took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  struggle  between  the  burghers  of  Ghent  and 
Louis  II,  count  of  Flanders;  helped  to  sign  the 
peace  treaty  between  the  city  of  Ghent  and  Philip 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy. 

ACKERMAN,  or  Akkerman,  Convention  of 
(1826).     See  Turkey:    1826-1829. 

ACOLHUAS.    See  Mexico:  Aboriginal  peoples. 

ACOLYTH.     See  Varangians  or  Warings. 

ACOMA,  an  Indian  pueblo  in  New  Mexico,  not 


zz 


ACKA 


ACRE  DISPUTES 


far  from  Albuquerque.  It  was  visited  by  Coro- 
nado's  expedition  (1540),  by  Espejo  (1583)  and 
Juan  de  Oiiate  (1508).  Because  of  the  fidelity 
with  which  it  has  preserved  its  ancient  customs, 
it  has  become  in  recent  years  one  of  the  chief 
centers  of  interest  to  students  of  Indian  antiquities. 
ACRA,  Mount  of.  See  Jerusalem:  .\.  D.  33; 
see  also  Chrisiianitv:  Map  of  Jerusalem. 

ACRABA,  Battle  of  (633).  See  Yemama,  Bat- 
tle OF. 

ACRABATENE,    Battle    of    (B.C.    164).     A 
sanguinary    defeat    of    the    Idumeans    or   Edomites 
by  the  Jews  under  Judas  Maccabaeus. — Josephus, 
Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  bk.   12,  ch.  8. 
ACRAGAS.     See  Acrigentum. 
ACRE,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Syria,  known  in 
antiquity    as   Ptolemais    and    in    the    days    of    the 
Crusades   as   St.    Jean    d'.Acre.     Though    once    re- 
garded as  the  key  to  Palestine,  it  has  been   sup- 
planted by  Haifa  to  the  south.     In  consequence  of 
its  strategic  position  it  has  been  the  scene  of  many 
famous  sieges.     See  Crtsades:  Map  (after  1204). 
1104-1110. — Conquest,  pillage  and  massacre  by 
the    Crusaders    and    Genoese.      See    Crusades: 
I 104-1 III. 

1187. — Taken  from  the  Christians  by  Saladin. 
See  Jerusalem:  ii 44-1 187, 

1189-1191. — Great  siege  and  reconquest  by  the 
Crusaders.  See  Crusades:  1188-1192,  also  Mili- 
tary aspect. 

1256-1258. — Quarrels  and  battles  between  the 
Genoese  and   Venetians.     See  Venice:   1256-1258. 
1291. — Final   triumph    of   the    Moslems.     See 
Crusades:    Military   aspect;   Jerusalem:    i2gi. 

1517. — Taken  by  Selim  I.  Captured  in  his 
Syrian  campaign,  it  fell  rapidly  into  decay 

18th  century. — Restored  to  importance  by 
Sheik  Daher. — ".^cre  .  .  .  had,  by  the  middle  of 
the  iSth  century,  been  almost  entirely  forsaken, 
when  Sheik  Daher,  the  .Arab  rebel,  restored  its 
commerce  and  navigation.  This  able  prince,  whose 
sway  comprehended  the  whole  of  ancient  Galilee, 
was  succeeded  by  the  infamous  tyrant,  Djezzar- 
Pasha,  who  fortified  .Acre,  and  adorned  it  with  a 
mosque,  enriched  with  columns  of  antique  marble, 
collected  from  all  the  neighbouring  cities." — M. 
Malte-Brun,  System  of  universal  geograplty,  t'.  i, 
bk.  28. 

1799. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  Napoleon.  See 
France:    I7q8-i700   (.\ugust-.-\ugust). 

1832. — Siege  and  capture  by  Mehemet  AH. — 
Recovery  for  the  sultan  by  the  western  powers. 
See  Turkey:    1831-1840. 

1918. — Capture  by  British.  See  World  W.ar: 
IQ18:  \I   Turkish  theater:  c,  13  and  c,  19. 

ACRE  DISPUTES.— Claims  on  the  region  by 
Brazil,  Peru,  and  Bolivia. — A  considerable  terri- 
tury  of  much  richness  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  Amazon  valley,  around  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Madeira,  the  .Aquiry,  and  the  Purus  tributaries, 
was  long  in  dispute  between  Brazil,  Bolivia,  and 
Peru,  and  became  a  cause  of  serious  quarrel  be- 
tween the  two  first  named  in  IQ03.  (See  Latin- 
.■\merica:  Map  of  South  .America.)  The  then 
Brazilian  president,  Rodriguez  .Alves,  in  his  first 
annual  message,  May,  1003,  stated  the  situation 
from  the  Brazilian  standpoint  as  follows: 

"Our  former  relations  of  such  cordial  friendship 
with  Bolivia  have  suffered  a  not  insignificant 
strain  since  the  time  when  the  Government  of  that 
*ister  Republic,  unable  to  maintain  its  authority  in 
the  .Acre  region,  inhabited  exclusively,  as  you 
know,  by  Brazilians  who,  many  years  previously, 
had  established  themselves  there  in  good  faith, 
saw  fit  to  deliver  it  over  to  3  foreign  syndicate 
upon  whom  it  conferred  powers  almost  sovereign. 


That  concession,  as  dangerous  for  the  neighboring 
nations  as  for  Bolivia  itself,  encountered  general 
disapproval  in  South  .America.  As  the  most  im- 
mediately interested,  Brazil,  already  in  the  time 
of  my  illustrious  predecessor,  protested  against  the 
contract  to  which  I  refer,  and  entered  upon  the 
policy  of  reprisals,  prohibiting  the  free  transit 
by  the  .Amazon  of  merchandise  between  Bolivia 
and  abroad.  Neither  that  protest  nor  the  coun- 
sels of  friendship  produced  at  that  time  the  de- 
sired effect  in  La  Paz,  and,  far  from  rescinding 
the  contract  or  making  the  hoped-for  modifications 
therein,  the  Bolivian  Government  concluded  an 
especial  arrangement  for  the  purpose  of  hurrying 
.  .  .  the  syndicate  into  the  .  .  .  territory. 

"When  I  assumed  the  government  that  was  the 
situation,  and  in  addition  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Acre,  who  had  again  proclaimed  their  indepen- 
dence, were  masters  of  the  whole  country,  except- 
ing Puerto  .Acre,  of  which  they  did  not  get  pos- 
session until  the  end  of  January.  .Although  since 
January  negotiations  have  been  initiated  by  us 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  amicably  the  cause 
of  the  disorders  and  complications  which  have  had 
their  seat  of  action  in  the  .Acre  ever  since  the  time 
when  for  the  first  time  the  Bolivian  authorities 
penetrated  thither,  in  iSqo.  yet  the  Government  of 
La  Paz  has  nevertheless  thought  proper  that  its 
President  and  his  minister  of  war  should  march 
against  that  territory  at  the  head  of  armed  forces 
with  the  end  in  view  of  crushing  its  inhabitants 
and  then  establishing  the  agents  of  the  syndicate." 

The  Brazilian  president  proceeded  then  to  re- 
late that  he  had  notified  the  Bolivian  government 
of  the  intention  of  Brazil  to  "defend  as  its  bound- 
ary the  parallel  of  10^  20'  south,"  which  it  held 
to  be  the  line  indicated  by  the  letter  and  the  spirit 
of  a  treaty  concluded  in  1867 ;  and  that  Bolivia 
had  then  agreed  to  a  settlement  of  the  dispute 
through  diplomatic  channels.  "Upon  the  Bolivian 
Government  agreeing  to  this,"  he  continued,  "we 
promptly  reestablished  freedom  of  transit  for  its 
foreign  commerce  by  Brazilian  waters.  Shortly 
after  this  the  syndicate,  by  reason  of  the  indem- 
nity which  we  paid  it,  renounced  the  concession 
which  had  been  made  it,  eliminating  thus  this  dis- 
turbing element." 

In  conclusion  of  the  subject.  President  Alves  re- 
ported: "To  the  Peruvian  Government  we  have 
announced,  very  willingly,  since  January,  that  we 
will  examine,  with  attention,  the  claims  which  in 
due  time  they  may  be  pleased  to  make  upon  the 
subject  of  the  territories  now  in  dispute  between 
Brazil  and   Bolivia." 

The  result  of  the  ensuing  negotiations  between 
Brazil  and  Bolivia  was  a  treaty  signed  in  the 
following  November  and  duly  ratified,  the  terms 
of  which  were  summarized  as  follows  in  a  despatch 
from  the  .American  Legation  at  La  Paz,  December 
26:  "Three  months  after  exchange  of  ratifications 
Brazil  is  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  £1,000,000  and 
in  March,  IQ05,  £i,ooc,ooo.  A  small  strip  of  ter- 
ritory, north  Marso,  Brazilero,  embracing  Bahia 
N'egra  and  a  port  opposite  Coimbra,  on  Paraguay 
River,  are  conceded,  and  all  responsibilities  re- 
specting Peruvian  contentions  are  assumed.  The 
disputed  Acre  territon,'  is  conceded  by  Bolivia.  A 
railroad  for  the  common  use  of  both  countries  is 
to  be  built  from  San  .Antonio,  on  Madeira  River, 
to  Cuajar  .Ameren,  on  Mamore  River,  within  four 
years  after  ratification.  Free  navigation  on  the 
.Amazon  and  its  Bolis-ian  affluents  is  conceded  A 
mixed  commission,  with  umpire  chosen  from  the 
diplomatic  representation  to  Brazil,  will  treat  all 
individual  .Acre  claims." 

Subsequently  it  was  determined  in  Bolivia  that 


34 


ACRE  DISPUTES 


ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS 


the  entire  indemnity  received  from  Brazil  should 
be  expended  on  railroads,  with  an  additional  sum 
of  £3,500,000,  to  be  raised  by  loan. 

For  the  settlement  of  the  remaining  question  of 
rights  in  the  Acre  territory,  between  Bolivia  and 
Peru,  a  treaty  of  arbitration,  negotiated  in  De- 
cember, i()02,  but  ratified  with  modifications  by 
the  Bolivian  Congress  in  October,  moj,  provided 
that  "the  high  contracting  parties  submit  to  the 
judgment  and  decision  of  the  Government  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  as  arbitrator  and  judge  of 
rights,  the  question  uf  limits  now  pending  between 
both  republics,  so  as  to  obtain  a  definite  and  un- 
appealable sentence,  in  virtue  of  which  all  the 
territory  which  in  1810  belonged  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion or  district  of  the  Ancient  Audience  of  Char- 
cas,  within  the  limits  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  by  acts  of  the  ancient  sovereign,  may  belong 
to  the  Republic  of  Bolivia;  and  all  the  territory 
which  at  the  same  date  and  by  acts  of  equal  origin 
belonged  to  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru  may  belong 
to  the  Republic  of  Peru." 

1909. — Final  partition. — The  case  was  pending 
until  July,  1900,  when  judgment  favorable  to  the 
ilaims  ol  Peru  was  pronounced  by  the  President  of 
Ihe  Argentine  Republic,  Serior  Figueroa  Alcorta. 
.According  to  the  award,  as  announced  ofiicially 
from  Peru,  the  line  was  drawn  to  "follow  the  riv- 
ers Heath  and  Madre  de  Dios  up  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Toromonas  and  from  there  a  straight  line  as 
far  as  the  intersection  of  the  river  Tehuamanu  with 
meridian  6q.  It  will  then  run  northwards  along 
this  meridian  until  it  meets  the  territorial  sov- 
ereignty of  another  nation  " 

The  Bolivians  were  ehraged  by  the  decision 
against  them,  and  riotous  attacks  were  made  on 
the  Argentine  Legation  at  La  Paz,  the  Bolivian 
capital,  and  on  .Argentine  consulates  elsewhere 
Worse  than  this  in  offensiveness  was  a  published 
declaration  by  President  Montes  of  Bolivia  that 
the  arbitration  award  respecting  the  frontiers  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru  had  been  given  by  Argentina 
without  regard  to  Bolivia's  petition  that  an  actual 
itispection  of  the  territory  should  be  made  in  case 
(he  documents  and  titles  submitted  were  unsatis- 
factory. "Had  this  been  done,"  said  the  president 
of  Bolivia,  "the  arbitrator  would  have  been  con- 
vinced of  the  respective  possessions  of  the  two 
countries.  It  is  inexplicable  how  the  arbitrator, 
after  examining  the  titles  and  documents,  could 
give  such  a  decision.  He  passed  over  the  elemen- 
tary principles  of  international  rights  in  awarding 
to  Peru  territory  which  had  never  been  questioned 
as  belonging  to  Bolivia.  As  a  consequence  Bolivia 
rejects  the  award." 

The  insulted  government  of  Argentina  demanded 
explanations;  diplomatic  relations  between  the  two 
countries  were  broken  off,  and  war  seemed  immi- 
nent. Fortunately  the  term  of  President  Montes 
was  near  its  close,  and  a  man  of  evidently  cooler 
temper,  Elidoro  Villazon,  succeeded  him  in  the 
presidency  on  August  12.  The  new  President, 
in  his  message  to  Congress  next  day,  while  char- 
acterizing the  award  as  unjust,  said:  "We  must 
proceed  circumspectly,  and  be  guided  by  interna- 
tional rights  and  the  customs  of  civilized  nations 
in  similar  cases.  I  consider  it  right  to  avail  our- 
selves of  the  means  offered  bv  diplomacy  to  obtain 
a  rectification  of  the  new  frontier  line  given  by 
arbitration,  thus  saving  the  compromised  posses- 
sions  of   Bolivia." 

With  this  better  spirit  entering  into  the  contro- 
versy, Bolivia  was  soon  able  to  arrange  with  Peru 
for  a  concession  from  the  latter  which  made  her 
people  willing  to  recognize  the  award.  This 
agreement  was  effected  on  the  nth  of  September, 


and  its  terms,  as  made  known  in  a  despatch  from 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  were  as  follows:  "Peru  surrenders 
to  Bolivia  a  very  small  extent  of  territory  lying 
between  the  Madre  de  Dios  River  and  the  Acre, 
traversed  by  the  rivers  Tahuamano  and  Buyamaro, 
which  together  form  the  river  Orton,  an  affluent 
of  the  Beni  River.  This  territory,  with  an  area  of 
about  6,500  square  kilometres,  was  discovered  and 
colonized  by  Bolivians,  who  to-day  are  in  posses- 
sion of  numerous  prosperous  industries  there. 
Peru  gets  possession  of  all  the  upper  course  of  the 
Madre  de  Dios,  from  its  head  waters  to  its  con- 
fluence with  the  river  Heath.  Such  a  slight  modi- 
lication  as  the  foregoing  from  the  decision  reached 
by  the  arbitrator  in  no  way  disturbs  the  Argentine 
Republic." 

As  between  Peru  and  Brazil  the  boundary  ques- 
tion was  settled  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  on  the  Sth  of  September,  three  days  be- 
fore  the    Bolivian   pacification. 

This  probably  closes  a  territorial  dispute  which 
has  troubled  four  countries  in  South  America  for 
many  years,  and  brought  quarrelling  couple-s  to 
the  verge  of  war  a  number  of  times. 

ACROCERAUNIAN    PROMONTORY.     See 

CORCVRA. 

ACROPOLIS,  literally  "the  upper  city"  (or  the 
highest  part  of  the  city),  a  term  applied  to  the 
citadel  or  fortified  part  of  an  ancient  Greek  city. 
For  purposes  of  defence  the  earliest  settlements 
were  usually  made  upon  some  lofty  hill  or  other 
natural  stronghold,  further  protected  by  fortifi- 
cation. As  the  town  increased  in  size  and  more 
extensive  walls  were  built,  the  acropolis,  gradually 
losing  its  military  character,  was  given  over  to 
temples,  theatres  and  other  public  buildings  dedi- 
cated to  the  protecting  deity  of  the  city.  Among 
the  more  noteworthy  of  such  acropolises  were 
those  at  .Athens  and  Corinth,  Troy,  Mycenae  and 
Tirviis,   Thebes,   .^rgos,   Messene   (q.   v.). 

ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS,  a  precipitous  and 
lofty  tlat-topped  hill  near  the  center  of  the  city  of 
Athens,  forming  a  natural  stronghold  which  be- 
came the  seat  of  the  earliest  settlement.  It  meas- 
ures about  1,000  feet  long  by  500  feet  wide  and 
reaches  its  maximum  elevation  of  512  feet  on  the 
northeast  side.  "In  the  early  days,  when  the 
Acropolis  was  essentially  a  fortified  castle,  the 
bastion  on  which  the  temple  of  Athena  Victory 
was  afterwards  built  was  an  effective  outwork 
against  approaching  enemies,  who,  as  at  Tiryns  and 
other  primitive  citadels,  could  be  attacked  from 
above  on  their  unshielded  right  side.  The  wall  of 
the  bastion  has  been  repeatedly  rebuilt,  but  the 
evidence  is  too  scanty  to  permit  as  yet  a  final 
interpretation  of  its  history,  and  opinions  are  still 
diverse." — C.  H.  Weller,  Athens  and  its  monu- 
ments, pp.  240-241. — Long  before  the  Per.sian 
wars,  the  city  having  outgrown  these  narrow  con- 
fines, the  acropolis  had  been  consecrated  to  the 
patron  goddess  .Athena,  for  whose  worship  mag- 
nificent shrines  were  erected.  "The  private  dwell- 
ings of  the  Athenians  and  even  their  state  offices 
were  small  and  inexpensive.  Religion  alone  in- 
s|ilrfd  them  to  buiki  beautifully  and  grandly. 
When  the  Persians  entered  Athens,  they  burned 
the  temples  and  other  buildings,  leaving  the  Acrop- 
olis strewn  with  heaps  of  ruins.  For  a  time  after 
their  return  the  citizens  had  neither  the  leisure  nor 
the  means  of  restoring  these  shrines.  Cimon,  how- 
ever, completing  a  work  begun  by  Themistocles, 
levelled  the  surface  of  the  Acropolis  to  fit  it  better 
for  buildincs.  This  end  was  accomplished  bv 
erecting  a  h'gh  wall  along  the  southern  edee,  a 
lower  one  along  the  northern,  and  filling  up  the 
space   thus   made   with    earth    and    rubbish      The 


35 


ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS 


ACTON— BURNELL 


present  steep  appearance  of  the  hill  is  due  chiefly 
to  this  work.  But  it  was  left  to  Pericles  to  build 
the  temple  on  the  ground  thus  prepared.  For  this 
purpose  Pericles  used  some  of  the  funds  from  the 
imperial  treasury.  Revenues  from  other  sources 
were  likewise  used;  and  as  the  state  owned  the 
marble  quarries  on  Mount  Pentelicus,  the  chief 
cost  was  for  the  labor.'' — G.  W.  Botsford,  History 
of  the  ancient  world,  p.  207. — In  accordance  with 
this  plan  there  were  erected,  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  Pericles  and  under  the  able  direction  of 
Phidias,  Mnesicles,  Ictinus,  Callicrates  and  other 
artists,  those  magnificent  buildings,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  the  marvel  of  the  world. 

"Nothing  in  ancient  Greece  or  Italy  could  be 
compared  with  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  in  its 
combination  of  beauty  and  grandeur,  surrounded 
as  it  was  by  temples  and  theatres  among  its  rocks, 
and  encircled  by  a  city  abounding  with  monu- 
ments, some  of  which  rivalled  those  of  the  .Acrop- 
olis. Its  platform  formed  one  great  sanctuary, 
partitioned  only  by  the  boundaries  of  the  .  .  . 
sacred  portions.  We  cannot,  therefore,  admit  the 
suggestion  of  Chandler,  that,  in  addition  to  the 
temples  and  other  monuments  on  the  summit,  there 
were  houses  divided  into  regular  streets.  This 
would  not  have  been  consonant  either  with  the 
customs  or  the  good  taste  of  the  Athenians.  When 
the  people  of  Attica  crowded  into  Athens  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  religious 
prejudices  gave  way,  in  every  possible  case,  to  the 
necessities  of  the  occasion,  even  then  the  Acropolis 
remained  uninhabited." 

Since  the  only  access  from  the  lower  city  to  the 
summit  of  the  Acropolis  was  by  way  of  a  chariot 
road  running  zig-zag  up  the  slope  at  the  western 
end,  and  since  the  total  breadth  of  the  hill  at  this 
point  was  only  168  feet,  it  seemed  advisable  "to 
till  up  the  space  with  a  single  building  which 
should  serve  the  purpose  of  a  gateway  to  the  cita- 
del, as  well  as  of  a  suitable  entrance  to  that  glo- 
rious display  of  architecture  and  sculpture  which 
was  within  the  inclosure.  This  work  [the  Propy- 
lia],  the  greatest  production  of  civil  architecture 
in  Athens,  which  rivalled  the  Parthenon  in  felicity 
of  execution,  surpassed  it  in  boldness  and  origi- 
nality of  design.  ...  It  may  be  defined  as  a  wall 
pierced  with  five  doors,  before  which  on  both  sides 
were  Doric  hexastyle  porticoes." — W.  M.  Leake, 
Topography  of  Athens,  sect.  8. — "On  entering 
through  the  gates  of  the  Propylaea  a  scene  of  un- 
paralleled grandeur  and  beauty  burst  upon  the 
eye.  No  trace  of  human  dwellings  anywhere  ap- 
peared, but  on  all  sides  temples  of  more  or  less 
elevation,  of  Pentelic  marble,  beautiful  in  design 
and  exquisitely  delicate  in  execution,  sparkled  like 
piles  of  alabaster  in  the  sun.  On  the  left  stood 
the  Erectheion,  or  fane  of  Athena.  Polias;  to  the 
right,  that  matchless  edifice  known  as  the  Heca- 
tompedon  of  old,  but  to  later  ages  as  the  Parthe- 
non. Other  buildings,  all  holy  to  the  eye  of  an 
Athenian,  lay  grouped  around  these  master  struc- 
tures, and,  in  the  open  spaces  between,  in  what- 
ever direction  the  spectator  might  look,  appeared 
statues,  some  remarkable  for  their  dimensions, 
others  for  their  beauty,  and  all  for  the  legendary 
sanctity  which  surrounded  them.  No  city  of  the 
ancient  or  modern  world  ever  rivalled  .Athens  in 
the  riches  of  art.  Our  best  filled  museums,  though 
teeming  with  her  spoils,  are  poor  collections  of 
fragments  compared  with  that  assemblage  of  gods 
and  heroes  which  peopled  the  Acropolis,  the  genu- 
ine Olympos  of  ihe  arts" — J  .\  St  John.  The 
Hellenes,  bk  i,  ch.  4 — "Unlike  the  famous  struc- 
tures of  the  .Ancient  East,  it  was  not  the  immense 
size   of   the   Parthenon,   but   its   beautiful   propor- 


tions, exquisite  adornment  and  ideal  sculptures 
that  make  it  memorable.  It  was  100  feet  wide, 
226  feet  lon4,  and  65  feet  high,  built  of  marble 
and  painted  in  harmonious  colors.  A  row  of  46 
Doric  columns  surrounded  it,  and  every  available 
space  above  the  columns  within  and  without  was 
carved  in  relief  with  scenes  representing  glorious 
events  in  the  religious  history  of  Athens.  A  won- 
derfully sculptured  frieze,  extending  for  more  than 
500  feet  around  the  inner  temple,  depicted  with  a 
variety  and  energy  never  surpassed  scenes  in  the 
Panathenaea,  the  festival  in  honor  of  the  patron 
goddess  Athena.  In  the  temple  stood  a  statue  of 
the  deity,  the  masterpiece  of  Phidias,  made  of 
ivory  and  gold,  38  feet  in  height,  including  the 
pedestal.  Though  this  statue  has  long  since  dis- 
appeared and  the  temple  itself  is  but  a  rum,  the 
remains  of  it  illustrate  supremely  the  chief  features 
of  Greek  architecture,  'simplicity,  harmony,  refine- 
ment, the  union  of  strength  and  beauty.'  " — G.  S. 
Goodspeed,  History  of  the  ancient  uiorld,  pp.  148- 
14Q. — See  also  Athe.ns:  461-431,  and  Map  of  an- 
cient Athens;  Parthenon. 

ACS,  Battle  of  (1849).  See  Austria;  1848- 
1840. 

ACT  OF  ABJURATION,  MEDIATION,  SE- 
CURITY, etc.    See  .Abjuration',  Act  of,  etc. 

ACT  OF  GOD,  a  legal  term  denoting  the  opera- 
tion of  uncontrollable  natural  forces,  really  con- 
fined to  unforseeable  disasters.  Prof.  James  H. 
Robinson  derives  the  phrase  from  the  usage  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  general  abysmal  ignorance 
attributed  any  unusual  or  startling  occurrence  to 
the  intervention  of  either  God  or  the  devil,  lead- 
ing at  that  time  to  the  worship  of  what  Harnack 
has  called  "a  God  of  .Arbitrariness." 

ACT  OF  UNION    (1535).     See  Wales:    1535- 

IQ2I. 

ACT  RESCISSORY.  See  Scotland:  1660-1666. 

ACTA  DIURNA,  a  Roman  daily  chronicle,  said 
to  have  been  originated  by  Julius  Cssar  (50  B.  C.) 
who  designed  it  to  disclose  the  acts  of  the  various 
public  officers.  It  served  the  purpose,  in  a  limited 
sense,  of  the  modern  newspaper.  The  acta  were 
published  on  white  boards  so  that  anybody  might 
read  them. 

ACTA  SENATUS  (Commentarii  senatus),  the 
record  of  the  proceedings  and  decisions  of  the 
Roman  Senate.  Cssar  was  the  first  consul  to  issue 
officially  and  publicly  the  proceedings  of  the 
Senate 

ACTION  OF  EJECTMENT:  Its  use.  See 
Common  law:   1400. 

ACTIUM:  B.  C.  434.— Naval  battle  of  the 
Greeks. — A  defeat  inflicted  upon  the  Corinthians 
by  the  Corcyrians,  in  the  contest  over  Epidamnus 
which  was  the  prelude  to  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
— E.  Curtlus,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  4,  ch.  i. 

B.  C.  31. — Victory  of  Octavius.  See  Egypt: 
B.  C.  30;   Ro.mf:  B    C.  31. 

ACTON,  John  Emerich  Edward  Dalberg 
Acton,  1st  Baron  (1834-1Q02),  English  historian, 
and  ardent  Liberal  in  politics;  was  Gladstone's 
advisor  and  intimate  friend;  represented  Great 
Britain  at  the  coronation  of  Alexander  II  in 
1S56.  A  devoted  read?r,  scholar  and  master  of 
the  more  important  foreign  languages;  gave  evi- 
dence of  historical  learning  at  an  early  age,  yet 
never  applied  himself  to  any  appreciable  extent 
to  original  work :  had  a  great  fund  of  knowledge 
and  was  considered  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  time;  in  180.';  accepted  the  appointment  to 
the  Regius  professorship  of  Modern  History  at 
Cambridge. 

ACTON-BURNELL,  a  village  in  Shropshire, 
England ;  here  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle 


36 


ACTS  OF  SETTLEMENT 


ADAMS 


where  Edward  I  in  12S3  issued  the  famous  "Stat- 
ute merchant"  protecting  the  credit  of  merchants. 
The  Statute  of  Acton-BurncU  was  repealed  by 
act   of   Parliament   in    iSb%. 

ACTS  OF  SETTLEMENT:  Attempt  to  re- 
store rights  of  loyal  Irish.  See  iRELANn:  lobo- 
ibb^. 

ACTS   OF   SUBSCRIPTION.     See   Ireland; 

1653- 
ACULCO,    Battle    of    (1810).      See    Mexico: 

1810-1819. 

ACUSILAUS.     See  History;   16. 

A.  D.  (Anno  Domini),  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord. 

AD  DECIMUS,  Battle  of  (533).  See  Van- 
dals:   533-534- 

AD  HOC  CORPORATIONS.  Sec  Municipal 
governmen't:    Early  development  of  public  works. 

AD  SALICES,  Battle  of  (378).  Sec  Rome: 
ibi-MO- 

AD  SEPTEM  FRATRES,  ancient  name  of 
Ceuta. 

AD  VALOREM  DUTIES.     See  Tariff:   1894. 

Underwood  tariff.     See  Tariff:    1913. 

ADAIM  1917:  Occupied  by  British.  See 
World  War:  1917:  VI:  Turkish  theater:  a,  2,  i. 

ADAIS — These  Indians  were  a  "tribe  who, 
according  to  Dr.  Sibley,  lived  about  the  year  i8oo 
near  the  old  Spanish  fort  or  mission  of  Adaize, 
'about  40  miles  from  Natchitoches,  below  the  Yat- 
tassees,  on  a  lake  called  Lac  Macdon,  which  com- 
municates with  the  division  of  Red  River  that 
passes  by  Bayou  Pierre'  [Lewis  and  Clarke).  A 
vocabulary  of  about  250  words  is  all  that  remains 
to  us  of  their  language,  which  according  to  the 
collector,  Dr.  Sibley,  'differs  from  all  others,  and 
is  so  difficult  to  speak  or  understand  that  no  na- 
tion can  speak  ten  words  of  it.  ...  A  recent  com- 
parison of  this  vocabulary  by  Mr.  Gatschet,  with 
several  Caddoan  dialects,  has  led  to  the  discovery 
that  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  Adai  words 
have  a  more  or  less  remote  affinity  with  Caddoan, 
ind  he  regards  it  as  a  Caddoan  dialect." — J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  annual  report,  Bureau  of  ethnol- 
ogy, PP-  45-46- 

ADAIZE.     See   Texas:    Aboriginal   inhabitants. 

ADALBERO,  or  Adalberon,  archbishop  of 
Reims  (d.  088) .  Made  Reims  a  center  of  in- 
tellectual culture;  was  an  important  influence  in 
substituting  the  Capetian  line  for  the  Carolingian; 
chancellor  of  France  under  Lothair  and  Louis  V ; 
lord  high  chancellor  under  Hugh  Capet. 

ADALBERON,  or  Ascelin,  bishop  of  Laon 
in  977,  not  to  be  confounded  with  his  namesake, 
Adalbero  of  Rheims.  Was  imprisoned  in  qSS  by 
Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  captured  the  city 
of  Laon ;  soon  escaped  and  received  the  protection 
of  Hugh  Capet,  king  of  France;  succeeded  in 
winning  the  confidence  of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  and 
was  restored  to  his  see ;  betrayed  Charles  and  the 
city  of  Laon  into  the  hands  of  his  former  bene- 
factor; died  1030  or  1031. 

ADALBERT,  or  Adelbert  (c.  1000-1072), 
archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  his  province  in- 
cluding Scandinavia  and  most  of  Northern  Ger- 
many. As  a  friend  of  the  German  king,  Henry 
III,  and  of  the  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, took  a  leading  part  in  religious  and  civil 
government;  is  said  to  have  refused  the  papal 
throne  in  1046;  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  and 
famous  ecclesiastics  of  his  day. 

ADALBERT  (originally  'Voytech),  (955-997), 
known  as  the  "Apostle  to  the  Prussians";  in  983 
chosen  bishop  of  Prague.  Devoted  himself  to  mis- 
sionary work,  chiefly  in  North  Germany  and 
Poland. 

ADALIA,  a  seaport  of  Asia  Minor  on  the  Gulf 


of  Adalia,  is  built  on  a  hill  around  the  harbor  so 
that  the  .streets  appear  to  rise  behind  each  other 
like  an  amphitheater ;  population  about  30,000, 
mostly  Mohammedans  and  Greeks;  now  heard  of 
most  often  in  connection  with  recent  Italian  im- 
migration and  the  claims  of  Italy  to  the  country 
around  Adalia  Bay  as  her  portion  of  the  Ottoman 
inheritance 

ADALIA  RAILWAY.    See  Italy:  1920. 

ADALING.     See   Adel. 

ADALOALDUS,  King  of  the  Lombards,  616- 
026. 

ADAM,  Adolphe  Charles  (1803-1856),  French 
operatic  composer,  follower  of  Auber  in  the  opera 
comi-que.  See  Music:  19th  century:  Opera  before 
Wagner. 

ADAMAWA.     See  Cameroons. 

ADAMNAN,  or  Adomnan  (c.  624-704),  Irish 
saint  and  historian.  Elected  abbot  of  lona,  679; 
tried  unsuccessfully  to  enforce  the  adoption  of  the 
tonsure  and  a  change  in  the  date  of  the  celebration 
of  Easter. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis  (1807-1886),  Amer- 
ican diplomat  and  statesman.  *Son  of  John  Quincy 
Adams;  edited  the  "Letters  of  Abigail  and  John 
Adams"  and  the  "Works  of  John  Adams";  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1859-1861;  minister  to  England, 
1861-1868;  prominent  leader  in  the  Liberal  Re- 
publican party  in  1872 ;  arbitrator  for  the  United 
States  on  the  Geneva  Tribunal,  1871-1872. — See 
also  U.  S.  A.:  1848:  Free  soil  convention  at  Buffalo. 

ADAMS,  Ephraim  Douglass  (1865-  ), 
American  educator  and  professor  of  history.  See 
History:   33. 

ADAMS,  George  Burton  (1851-  ),  Amer- 
ican historian.  Professor  of  history  at  Yale;  presi- 
dent of  American  Historical  Association,  IQ07- 
1908;  member  of  board  of  editors,  American  His- 
torical Review  1895-1913;  author  of  many  works 
on  medieval  and  modern  history. 

ADAMS,  Henry  (1838-1918),  American  his- 
torian. Third  son  of  C.  F.  Adams  (q.  v.)  ;  chief 
work,  "History  of  the  United  States  from  1801  to 
181 7,"  a  standard  authority  on  the  administra- 
tions of  Jefferson  and  Madison  See  History: 
32. 

ADAMS,  Henry  Carter  (1851-1921),  American 
economist.  Statistician  to  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  1887-1911;  professor  of  political  econ 
omy  and  finance  at  University  of  Michigan,  1887; 
in  1913  became  advisor  to  Chinese  commission  to 
standardize   railway    records. 

ADAMS,  John  (1735-1826),  second  president  of 
the  United  States.  Pungent  writer  against  the 
Stamp  Act;  active  delegate  in  the  First  Continental 
Congress  and  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massa 
chusetts;  member  of  the  Committee  of  Five  which 
drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence  (sec 
U.  S.  A.:  1776,  January-June:  King  George's 
measures;  June:  Resolutions  for  independence; 
July)  ;  served  on  missions  to  France  and  at  the 
Hague  (see  U.  S.  A.:  1776-1778)  ;  first  minister 
of  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain ;  prominent 
Federalist ;  first  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
1789-1797  (see  U.  S.  A.:  1789)  ;  president,  1797- 
1801. 

Views  on  independence.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1775 
(January-,'\pril) . 

At  First  Continental  Congress.    See  U.  S.  A.: 

1774  (September,  and  September-October). 

At  Second  Continental  Congress.  See  U.S.A.: 

1775  (May-August). 

Signed  Declaration  of  Independence.  See 
U.  S.  A.:  1776  (July):  Text  of  the  Declaration. 

Minister  to  Holland.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1782 
(April). 


37 


ADAMS 


ADAMSON  LAW 


Peace  with  England.  See  U.  S.  A.:  178J 
(September). 

Distrust  of  French  aims  in  America.  See 
U.  S.  A.:   1782   (September-November). 

Opinion  on  peace  treaty.  See  U.  S.  .\.:  1783- 
1787- 

Treaty  of  peace  with  England  disputed.  See 
U.  S.  A.:  17S4-1788. 

Negotiations  with  Barbary  States,  1795. — 
War  against  them.  See  Barb.\ry  St.mes:  1783- 
1801. 

Defense   of   Bicameral   system.     See   Biwme- 

RAL  SVSTtM. 

Second   presidential   election.     See   U.   S.   A.: 

I7Q2- 

Third  presidential  election.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1706. 

Attitude  towards  alien  and  sedition  laws. 
See  U.  S.  A.:   iSoo-iSot. 

Death.     Soc   U,  S.  A.:    1826. 

ADAMS,  John  Couch  (iSio-iSq2),  English 
astronomer  and  mathematician.  By  pure  calcula- 
tion he  was  able  to  demonstrate  in  1S45  the  exist- 
ence and  the  exact  position  of  Neptune  (facts 
determined  at  the  same  time  by  an  independent 
investigation  of  the  French  astronomer,  Leverrier) . 
This  mathematical  discovery  of  an  unknown 
planet  is  accounted  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs 
of   science. 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy  (1767-1848),  sixth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Lawyer,  statesman,  and 
diplomat;  minister  to  England,  1812-1817;  secre- 
tary of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Monroe 
(see  U.  S.  A.:  1816)  ;  celebrated  as  "the  old  man 
eloquent"  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  1831- 
1848. 

Denies  Russian  claims  along  the  western 
coast.     See  Orf,con:   1741-1S36. 

Negotiations  at  Treaty  of  Ghent.  See  U.S.  A.: 
1814   (December):   Treaty  of  peace  concluded. 

Monroe  Doctrine.     See  U.  S.  A.:   1823. 

Election. — Administration.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
:824;   1825-182S, 

Ideas  on  Opium  War  of  England  and  China. 
See  Opium  problem:   1S40. 

Defense  of  the  Right  of  Petition.— Opposition. 
See  U.  S.  A.:  1S42:  Victory  of  John  Quincy  .'Vdams. 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy  (  i8.v?-i8q4),  American 
politician:  member  of  Massachusetts  legislature; 
Democratic  nominee  for  vice-president.  See  U.S.A.: 
1872.  , 

ADAMS,  Samuel  (1722-1803),  American  revo- 
lutionary leader.  Author  of  many  important  state 
papers;  sent  to  the  Continental  Concress,  1774- 
1781  (see  U.  S.  A.:  1774.  September):  three  times 
elected  governor  of  Massachusetts,  1704-1707; 
though  he  opposed  the  Federal  constitution  in 
1788,  his  final  adherence  secured  its  ratification 
by  Massachusetts. 

Importance   in   town-meeting.     See  Township 

AND    TOWN-MKETIXG. 

Opposition  to  English  taxation  in  Massa- 
chusetts.— Committee  of  correspondence.  See 
U.  S.  A  .    1772-1773 

On  use  of  the  caucus.    See  Caucus:  Origin. 

Aid  rendered  in  American  revolution. — Ac- 
tions in  Canada.     See  U.  S.  A:   i77S   (May). 

Signed  Declaration  of  Independence.  See 
U.  S    A.:    1776   (Julv):  Text  of  Declaration. 

ADAMS,  WUliam  (d.  1620),  English  pilot  in 
Japan.     See  Japan:    1593-1625. 

ADAMS  ACT  (1006).  See  Education,  Agri- 
cultural: United  States:  Experiment  stations  acts. 

ADAMSON  LAW.— "The  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  and  the  consequent  increase  in  the 
volume  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States 
led  to  very  great  confusion  and  congestion  in  the 


railway  system.  When,  in  February  of  1916,  400,- 
coo  railroad  trainmen  demanded  an  eight-hour 
day  for  the  freight  service,  without  reduction  of 
the  existing  ten-hour  day  wage,  and  time  and  a 
half  pay  for  overtime,  the  whole  industrial  and 
commercial  situation  became  threatening.  In  June 
the  managers  met  the  officers  of  the  Four  Broth- 
erhoods of  trainmen  (Locomotive  Engineers,  Loco- 
motive Firemen,  Railway  Conductors  and  Railway 
Trainmen)  in  a  conference.  The  managers  re- 
fused the  mens  demand,  but  offered  to  submit  it 
to  arbitration  along  with  certain  grievances  ot 
the  railroads.  ...  In  June  no  agreement  could  be 
reached.  The  meeting  broke  up  and  the  brother- 
hood chieftains  took  a  strike  vote.  They  found 
themselves  authorized  by  over  05  per  cent,  of  theii 
constituents  to  call  a  strike  unless  the  railroads 
gave  in.  With  this  power  the  brotherhood  leaders 
met  the  railroad  managers  in  a  second  series  01 
conferences  in  .August.  Now  for  the  first  time  the 
country  realized  the  seriousness  of  the  situation. 
.Ml  eyes  were  on  the  conferees  in  N«w  York. 
.Xgain  they  found  themselves  in  deadlock.  Then, 
as  provided  in  the  Newlands  .■\ct,  one  of  the  par- 
tics  to  the  controversy,  the  railroads,  invoked  the 
F'ederal  Board  of  Mediation  and  Conciliation, 
which  found  it  impossible  to  mediate  and  sug- 
gested arbitration  The  men  refused,  even  if  the 
roads  were  to  agree  to  limit  the  arbitration  pro- 
ceedings to  a  consideration  of  the  men's  de- 
mands alone ;  that  is,  even  if  the  roads  agreed  to 
withdraw  their  complaints.  ...  .At  this  point 
President  Wilson  stepped  in.  On  .August  fifteenth, 
after  seeing  both  men  and  managers,  he  made  his 
proposition  that  the  railroads  grant  the  request  of 
the  men  for  ten  hours"  pay  for  the  first  eight  hours 
of  work  and  that  the  men  agree  to  arbitrate  the 
question  of  getting  more  than  pro  rata  for  over- 
time. That  is,  he  asked  that  the  men  be  given 
their  main  demand,  and  that  their  minor  demand 
alone  be  investigated.  The  committee  of  railroad 
managers  could  not  see  their  way  clear  to  the  as- 
sumption of  this  extra  wage  roll,  without  investi- 
gation. Nothing  was  more  certain  than  that  the 
burden  would  eventually  have  to  be  shifted  to  the 
public,  in  the  form  of  higher  rates,  if  the  financial 
standing  of  the  railroads  was  to  be  maintained 
...  It  is  fair  to  present  the  President's  viewpoint. 
In  describing  these  negotiations,  he  said  to  Con- 
gress on  .August  twenty-ninth:  'The  railway  man- 
agers based  their  decision  to  reject  my  counsel  in 
this  matter  on  their  conviction  that  they  must  at 
any  cost  to  themselves  or  to  the  country  stand 
firm  for  the  principle  of  arbitration  which  the  men 
had  rejected.  I  based  my  counsel  upon  the  in- 
disputable fact  that  there  was  no  means  of  ob- 
taining arbitration.  The  law  supplied  none.  Ear- 
nest efforts  at  mediation  had  failed  to  influence 
the  men  in  the  least.  To  stand  firm  for  the  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration  and  yet  not  get  arbitration 
seemed  to  me'  futile.'  While  negotiations  were 
still  proceeding,  on  Monday,  .August  twenty-eighth, 
the  six  hundred  and  forty  brotherhood  chairmen 
left  Washington.  The  President  called  on  the 
.steering  committee  of  the  Senate  to  plan  legislation 
that  would  satisfy  the  men  and  avert  the  pending 
calamity.  It  transpired  that  when  the  brotherhood 
chairmen  left  Washington,  they  carried  sealed  or- 
ders in  their  hands  for  a  strike,  to  become  effective 
at  7  a.  m.,  September  fourth.  ...  .At  2  p.  m.  on 
Tuesday  the  President  addressed  Congress  in  joint 
session.  He  told  of  the  tragical  consequences  which 
the  strike  would  entail  for  the  whole  country.  He 
told  of  his  proposed  settlement:  the  temporary 
granting  of  an  eight-hour  pay-day;  a  commission 
to  investigate  the  cost  to  the  railroads;   the  .per- 


38 


ADAMSON  LAW 


ADAMSON  LAW 


manent  adjustment  of  all  matters  in  dispute  in  ac- 
cord with  the  commission's  report.  'It  seemed  to 
me,'  he  said,  'in  considering  the  subject  matter  of 
the  controversy,  that  the  whole  spirit  of  the  time 
and  the  preponderant  evidence  of  recent  economic 
experience  spoke  for  the  eight-hour  day.'  He  fore- 
casted the  success  of  the  strike,  should  it  start. 
He  said  that  the  railroad  representatives  had  re- 
jected his  counsel:  'In  the  face  of  what  I  cannot 
but  regard  as  the  practical  certainty  that  they  will 
be  ultimately  obliged  to  accept  the  eight-hour  day 
by  the  concerted  action  of  organized  labor,  backed 
by  the  favorable  judgment  of  society,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  railway  management  have  felt 
justified   in  declining   a   peaceful   settlement.' 

"Finally,  in  order  to  prevent  the  strike  and,  above 
all  to  prevent  such  a  situation  from  ever  arising 
again,  the  President  recommended  these  measures: 
(i)  An  enlargement  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  to  deal  with  the  burden  of  their 
duties.  (This  recommendation  had  nothing  to  do 
with  the  strike.)  (2)  Legislation  making  the 
eight-hour  day  the  basis  for  work  and  wages  on 
trains.  (3)  Authorization  for  the  President  to 
appoint  a  commission  to  investigate  the  effect  of 
the  wage  increases.  (4)  Explicit  approval  given 
by  Congress  to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion with  regard  to  granting  a  rate  increase,  if 
necessary,  to  offset  the  higher  wages.  (5)  Amend- 
ment to  the  Newlands  .Act  providing  that  the  par- 
ties to  such  a  controversy  as  this  in  the  future 
shall  be  compelled  to  submit  their  causes  to  in- 
vestigation, and,  pending  the  completion  of  the 
investigation,  they  shall  be  forbidden  to  strike  or 
lockout.  (6)  That  the  President  be  given  author- 
ity, in  case  of  military  necessity,  to  take  control 
of  trains  and  operate  them.  (This  was  to  meet 
the  peril  to  our  expeditionary  force  on  the  Mexi- 
can border,  in  case  a  strike  occurred  )  .  .  .  These 
Senate  hearings  had  been  held  with  regard  to  the 
drafts  of  three  separate  bills,  prepared  by  the 
Attorney-General,  acting  for  the  President.  They 
carried  all  the  President's  recommendations  for 
legislation.  This  was  on  Wednesday.  On  Thurs- 
day both  Senate  and  House  committees  were  busy 
perfecting  bills  which  they  believed  would  satisfy 
the  views  of  the  labor  leaders,  as  expressed  in  the 
Senate  hearings  and  in  frequent  conferences  at  the 
Capitol,  and  would  induce  them  to  call  off  the 
strike,  .  .  .  The  House  leaders,  having  framed  a 
bill  to  suit  their  labor  constituents  on  Friday  night, 
thoughtfully  let  the  Congressmen  disperse  so  that 
on  Saturday  the  Senate  could  not  possibly  do  any- 
thing but  pass  the  House  bill  if  the  Monday  morn- 
ing strike  was  to  be  averted.  Republican  Senators 
did  protest,  but  at  six  o'clock  the.  Senate  passed 
the  House  bill  by  a  partisan  vote,  forty-three  to 
twenty-eight.  La  Follette  of  the  Republicans 
voted  for  the  bill,  Hardwick  of  Georgia  and  Clarke 
of  Arkansas  voted  against  it.  Twenty-four  Sen- 
ators did  not  vote.  In  the  House  one  hundred 
and  sixty-eight  Democrats  had  been  for  the  bill, 
two  against  it;  seventy  Republicans  had  been  for 
it,  fifty-four  against ;  one  hundred  and  forty-one 
Representatives  did  not  vote  on  the  measure." — 
E.  J.  Clapp,  Adamson  law  (Yale  Review,  Jan., 
igiy,  pp.  261-267), 

Events  preceding  the  law.  See  Arbitration 
AND  CONCILIATION,  Ini)USTRIAl:  United  States: 
i888-iq2i. 

Analysis. — "In  the  first  place,  although  'eight 
hours  shall  in  contracts  for  labor  and  service,  be 
deemed  a  dav's  work  and  the  measure  or  stand- 
ard of  a  day's  work  for  the  purpose  of  reckoning 
the  compensation  for  services  of  all  employees  .  .  . 
actually  engaged  in  any  capacity  in  the  operation 


of  trains,'  this  statute  assuredly  sets  no  limits  to 
the  length  of  the  working  day.  It  bears  not  the 
slightest  resemblance  to  the  Federal  Hours  of  Ser- 
vice Law,  which  positively  fixes  a  maximum  of 
sixteen  hours  as  a  trainman's  daily  stint.  Every 
member  of  the  Brotherhoods  understands  this  per- 
fectly. President  Garretson,  of  the  Order  of  Rail- 
way Conductors,  outlined  the  reason  at  the  Sen- 
ate Committee  hearings;  'The  charge  .  .  .  that 
it  was  impossible  to  put  in  a  true  eight-hour  day 
on  a  railway  is  correct.  It  cannot  be  done.  The 
trainman  cannot  stop,  because  eight  hours  may 
find  him  in  a  semi-desert  country,  or  find  him 
fifty  miles  from  his  home ;  therefore  he  is  com- 
pelled to  go  on  and  work;  but  he  demands  a 
higher  rate  of  speed.'  The  so-called  Eight-Hour 
Law,  then,  is  a  statute  fixing  wages,  with  only  an 
incidental  bearing  upon  hours,  as  will  soon  appear. 
The  new  statute  is  in  effect  a  minimum  wage  law 
for  men  engaged  in  a  quasi-public  employment. 
.  .  .  But  this  new  statute  of  ours  not  only  fixes 
wages,  it  positively  increases  them  by  a  substan- 
tial amount.  In  effect  the  new  law  orders  ten 
hours'  pay — that  being  roughly  the  former  stand- 
ard day — for  eight  hours'  work,  with  the  remain- 
ing two  hours  at  the  same  rate." — W.  Z.  Ripley, 
Railroad  eight -hour  law  (American  Review  of  Re- 
views, Oct.  1016,  pp.  389-390). 

Question  of  constitutionality. — "The  railroads 
immediately  instituted  proceedings  in  the  courts  to 
test  the  constitutionality  of  this  Act.  As  a  result  of 
this  action  the  Brotherhoods  again  threatened  to 
strike  without  awaiting  the  decision  of  the  courts 
if  a  settlement  were  not  at  once  effected.  The 
President  thereupon  appointed  a  committee  repre- 
senting the  Council  of  National  Defense  to  attempt 
the  settlement  of  the  controversy.  On  March  19, 
1917,  the  committee  made  an  award  which  was  in 
harmony  with  the  eight-hour  law  but  defined 
somewhat  more  specifically  the  application  of  the 
eight-hour  basis  to  existing  schedules  and  prac- 
tices. This  award  provided  for  a  Commission  of 
Eight,  the  railroads  and  Brotherhoods  each  being 
represented  by  four  commissioners,  to  decide  dis- 
putes arising  under  the  award.  The  award  was 
accepted  by  both  parties.  On  the  same  day,  March 
19,  1917,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
rendered  its  decision  sustaining  the  constitution- 
ality of  the  Adamson  Act  [by  a  vote  of  five  to 
four]  (Wilson  vs.  New  et  al,  243  U.  S.  332)." — 
W.  F.  Willoughby,  Government  organization  in 
war  time  and  after,  pp.  183-184. — See  also  Su- 
preme Court:   1917. 

Economic  considerations. — "With  the  estab- 
lishment of  federal  control  and  the  operation  of 
the  railways  as  a  consolidated  system,  numerous 
economies  became  possible  through  the  elimination 
of  expense  due  to  competition  of  the  different  com- 
panies with  each  other.  Great  publicity  was  given 
to  these  savings,  effected  by  the  Administration. 
Notwithstanding  these  economies,  the  large  increase 
in  rates  and  the  record  breaking  volume  of  traffic, 
the  net  earnings  of  the  railways  have  fallen  far 
below  the  amount  necessary  to  pay  the  standard 
return  to  the  companies.  The  deficit  for  the  two 
years  will  probably  exceed  half  a  billion  dollars, 
and  in  addition,  the  physical  condition  of  the  rail- 
ways has  deteriorated  materially.  .  .  The  chief 
reason  why  railway  net  earnings  have  fallen  off 
is  the  great  increase  in  railway  wajes.  The  pub- 
lic believes  that  the  railway  employe  is  a  profiteer, 
who  is  receiving  higher  wages  than  are  warranted 
and  has  been  unduly  favored  by  the  federal  Ad- 
ministration in  its  grant  of  increased  wages  and 
better  working  conditions.  ...  In  1016  and  1917 
the   railway   employes   were   hard   hit   by   the   in- 


39 


ADANA 


ADELAIDE 


crease  in  the  cost  of  living  and  .  .  .  the  increase 
of  wages  which  the  federal  Administration  granted 
them  in  1918  and  igig  was  not  sufficient  to  offset 
the  increase  in  the  cost  of  goods  Had  the  rail- 
ways continued  under  private  control,  instead  of 
being  taken  over  by  the  government,  wages  would 
have  had  to  be  increased  just  the  same.  In  fact, 
the  increases  in  wages  to  railway  employes  have 
been  less  than  the  increases  to  factory  workers. 
But  those  who  indict  the  federal  Railway  Admin- 
istration declare  that  its  yielding  to  the  railway 
employes  on  the  eight  hour  day  and  on  other 
matters  where  conditions  of  working  are  con- 
cerned, has  also  been  responsible  for  a  great  in- 
crease in  railway  expenses.  There  is  a  certain 
measure  of  truth  in  this  charge.  The  eight  hour 
day,  it  is  fair  to  recall,  however,  was  established  in 
train  service  by  the  Adamson  law  fifteen  months 
before  the  government  took  over  the  railways.  Its 
general  extension  to  all  classes  of  railway  employes 
was  sooner  or  later  inevitable.  A  number  of  other 
concessions  were  made  to  the  railway  employes, 
for  some  of  which,  very  Hkely,  the  Administration 
may  properly  be  criticised.  In  dealing  with  the 
general  question  before  us,  however,  we  must  look 
at  the  broad,  general  results  in  order  to  reach 
sound  conclusions,  and  not  at  minor  details.  It  is 
possible  to  determine  from  unimpeachable  statistics 
whether  there  has  been  actually  a  great  falling  off 
in  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  average  rail- 
way employe.  If  the  eight  hour  law  and  the 
other  concessions  in  working  conditions  have 
really  greatly  reduced  the  amount  of  work  done 
per  employe,  then  there  would  have  to  be  a  large 
increase  in  the  number  of  employes.  Indeed  a 
large  increase  would  be  looked  for  anyway,  for 
there  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the  volume  of 
traffic  handled.  The  ton  miles  of  freight  traffic 
were  25  per  cent,  greater  in  igi8  than  in  IQ13 
(409  billion  in  igi8,  and  301  bilUon  in  igi3).  But 
actually  the  number  of  employes  in  igi8,  the  first 
year  of  federal  control,  was  only  3  per  cent  greater 
than  in  1013,  nothing  like  as  large  an  increase  as 
the  growth  in  traffic  would  call  for.  Of  course, 
in  igi8  there  was  a  great  scarcity  of  labor.  The 
railways  got  along  with  as  few  employes  as  pos- 
sible, and  did  as  little  as  possible  in  the  way  of 
maintenance,  repairs  and  improvements  In  the 
first  six  months  of  igig,  however,  when  plenty  of 
men  were  obtainable,  the  number  of  employes  was 
not  much  increased.  Surely  the  above  figures  are 
a  complete  answer  to  the  common  belief  that  the 
federal  Administration  has  granted  higher  wages 
or  better  working  conditions  to  employes  than 
justice  demands." — C.  W.  Baker,  Government  con- 
trol and  operation  of  industry  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  during  the  World  War,  pp. 
4g-54. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:   igi6   (.\ug.-Scpt.) . 

ADANA,  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  Population, 
60,000,  mainly  Armenian.  Here  the  "Adana  mas- 
sacres" took  place  in  loog.  SeeTtiRKEv:  loog;  also 
Arabia:   Map;  and  Turkey:   Map  of  Asia  Minor. 

ADDA,  Battle  of  (490).     See  Rome:   488-526 

ADDAMS,  Jane  (i860-  ),  American  social 
settlement  leader;  lecturer  and  writer  on  social 
problems;  in  1880  with  Miss  Ellen  Gates  Starr 
established  Hull  House,  a  social  settlement  in  Chi- 
cago ;  prominent  in  organizing  the  Progressive 
Party  in  IQ12;  member  of  the  Henry  Ford  Peace 
Mission,   1015-1016. 

ADDICKS,  John  Edward  (1814-igig),  Amer- 
ican capitalist  in  Delaware.     See  Delaware:   igoi- 

1903 

ADDINGTON,  Henry,  Viscount  Sidmouth 
(1757-1844),  English  Tory  statesman;  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  1780-1801;  premier,  1801- 


1804;  concluded  the  Peace  of  Amiens  (1802);  he 
upheld  the  Manchester  massacre  (i8ig)  as  Home 
Secretary,  and  was  author  of  four  of  the  "six 
acts." — See  also  England:   1801-1806. 

ADDISON,  Joseph  (1672-1719),  English  poet 
and  essayist.  Entered  politics  as  a  Whig  in  1706; 
secretary  of  state  in  171 7.  In  1704  wrote  "The 
Campaign,"  a  poem  on  the  victory  of  Blenheim. 
Chief  contributor  to  the  Spectator  from  1711  to 
1 7 12,  creating  the  character  of  Sir  Roger  de  Cover- 
ley.  Author  of  the  political  tragedy,  "Cato" 
(1713). — See  English  literature:  1660-1780; 
Printing  and  the  press:   1700-1752. 

"ADDLED"  PARLIAMENT.  See  England: 
1625:  Gains  of  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  James  I; 
Parliament,  English:   1614. 

ADDYSTON  PIPE  CASE  (Addyston  Pipe 
and  Steel  Co,  vs.  United  States,  175  U.  S.  211) 
decided  in  i8g9,  is  an  important  case  construing 
the  extent  of  the  regulative  powers  given  to  the 
Federal  Government  under  the  commerce  clause 
of  the  Constitution,  and  defining  the  scope  of  the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law  of  i8go.  In  earlier  cases 
it  had  been  held  that  the  manufacture  of  com- 
modities intended  for  export  and,  in  fact,  thus 
exported,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  interstate 
transportation  of  those  goods,  that  "commerce 
succeeds  to  manufacture  and  is  not  a  part  of  it," 
and  that  the  federal  jurisdiction  begins  only  when 
transportation  has  begun.  In  the  Sugar  Trust 
Case  (United  States  vs.  E.  C.  Knight  Co.,  156 
U.  S.  i),  decided  in  i8g5,  the  Supreme  Court  had, 
for  this  reason,  held  that  the  act  of  i8go  did  not, 
and  constitutionally  could  not,  relate  to  the  ac- 
quisition by  one  company  of  the  stock  of  a  num- 
ber of  other  companies  with  a  view  to.  and  the 
result  of,  establishing  a  substantial  monopoly  of 
the  business  of  refining  sugar  in  the  United  States. 
The  fact  that  the  product  was,  for  the  most  part,  a 
subject  of  commerce  among  the  states,  was  de- 
clared immaterial.  The  importance  of  the  Addy- 
ston Pipe  Case  was  that  the  court  showed  a  wil- 
lingness to  give  a  more  liberal  interpretation  to 
the  federal  commercial  power  and  to  the  act  of 
1800.  and  to  bring  within  the  constitutional  scope 
of  the  latter  a  combination  or  agreement  between 
manufacturers  or  dealers  if  it  should  appear  that 
in  any  way  the  agreement,  in  purpose  or  effect, 
controlled  the  normal  course  of  interstate  com- 
merce. In  this  case  an  agreement  was  held  illegal 
under  which  six  companies,  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture or  sale  of  iron  pipe  throughout  the  United 
States,  had  allotted  among  themselves  the  terri- 
tory within  which  each  should  have  the  exclusive 
right  to  sell 
ADEBEMAR    OF    PUY.     See    Adhemar    de 

MnNTEJL. 

ADEE,  Alvey  Augustus  (1842-  ),  2d  assist- 
ant secretary  of  state  (United  States). 

Reply  to  Colombian  government  concerning 
action  in  Venezuela.    See  Colombia:  igo5-igog. 

ADEL,  ancient  name  by  which  the  northern 
and  central  districts  of  Somaliland  were  known. 

ADEL  (Athel  or  iEthel),  ADALING.— "The 
homestead  of  the  original  settler,  his  house,  farm- 
buildings  and  enclosure,  'the  toft  and  croft,'  with 
the  share  of  arable  and  appurtenant  common  rights, 
bore  among  the  northern  nations  [early  Teutonic] 
the  name  of  Odal.  or  Edhel ;  the  primitive  mother 
village  was  an  .^thelby,  or  .■\thelham;  the  owner 
was  an  .'Vthelbonde ;  the  same  word  \de\  or  Athel 
signified  also  nobility  of  descent,  and  an  Adaling 
was  a  nobleman." — W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  his- 
tory of  England,  ch.  3,  sect.  24. — See  also  ^^^thel, 
.■Ethelixgs;  Folcland. 

ADELAIDE,  Marie  (i8g4-        ),  former  grand 


40 


ADELAIDE 


ADIRONDACKS 


duchess  of  Luxemburg,  abdicated  (see  Luxem- 
burg: iqi9-i92i)  in  favor  of  fier  sister,  Char- 
lotte, January  o,  1919.  In  1914,  the  grand  duchess 
protested  in  vain  against  the  German  occupation 
of  Luxemburg. 

ADELAIDE,  or  Adelheid  (931-999),  empress, 
daughter  of  Rudolph  II  of  Burgundy;  wife  of 
Lothair  of  Italy.  "Upon  Lothair's  death  in  950, 
she  was  imprisoned  by  Berengar  who  wanted  her 
to  marry  his  son.  She  escaped  and  sent  a  piteous 
appeal  to  Otto  of  Germany,  who  had  already  de- 
fended her  father's  house  in  Burgundy.  The  pope 
Agapitus  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  the  papal 
lands  on  the  .Adriatic  .  .  .  joined  in  the  appeal." — 
E.  Emerton,  Medinval  Europe,  pp.  126-128. — Otto 
marched  into  Italy  and  camped  at  Pavia.  Here 
he  summoned  Adelaide,  who  had  found  refuge  with 
the  bishop  Reggio,  and  offered  his  hand  in  mar- 
riage. Adelaide  accepted.  It  is  believed  to  be  due 
to  this  marriage  that  the  son  of  Otto  I  revolted 
against  him  in  963,  the  crushing  of  which  revolt 
established  Adelaide's  power.  She  ruled  Germany 
from  the  death  of  Otto  I  in  973  until  906,  when 
Otto  III  was  declared  of  age.  For  her  devotion 
to  the  church  and  the  establishment  of  the  Bene- 
dictine cloister  at  Selz  in  Alsace,  she  v^as  pro- 
claimed a  saint. — See  also  Germany:  936-976. 

ADELAIDE,  Australia,  Founding  and  nam- 
ing of.  See  Australia:  1800-1840;  1787-1840: 
Penal  settlements. 

ADELANTADO,  a  medieval  Spanish  offi- 
cial. "The  king  of  Castile,  in  addition  to  being 
recognized  by  most  of  the  nobles  as  their  overlord, 
had  his  own  domains  in  which  he  exercised  the 
same  kind  of  proprietary  sovereignty  as  the  nobles 
on  their  estates.  The  outlying  royal  territories,  as 
they  increased  in  size  and  number,  and  as  the 
sovereigns  became  more  sure  of  their  heritage,  were 
divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  royal  dis- 
tricts with  a  count,  appointed  by  the  king,  as 
administrative  head  of  each.  These  counts  were 
the  first  officials  with  administrative,  judicial  and 
military  functions  to  represent  the  king  at  the 
head  of  frontier  districts  and  provinces.  Their 
duties  were  chiefly  military,  and  these  counts  were 
frequently  obliged  to  go  beyond  their  own  frontiers 
in  the  interest  of  the  extension  of  the  royal  power. 
The  great  drawback,  however,  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  king,  consisted  of  the  fact  that  the  only 
class  from  which  these  officials  could  be  enlisted 
was  the  noble  class.  In  fact,  they  showed  them- 
selves to  be  more  faithful  to  the  aristocratic  ele- 
ment than  to  the  royal  interests,  and  for  this 
reason  the  counts  were  replaced  by  royal  officials 
called  adelanlados,  who  were  more  completely  de- 
pendent on  the  royal  power  than  their  predecessors 
had  been.  Antequera  fails  to  give  the  date  for  the 
inauguration  of  this  reform,  but  since  the  Council 
of  Leon  of  1020  defined  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
frontier  counts,  we  know  that  the  adelanlados 
were  substituted  for  these  officials  at  some  subse- 
quent date. 

"The  earliest  regulations  which  apply  to  these 
officials  were  the  'Laws  of  the  Adelanlados  May- 
ores'  of  125s  and  1274.  The  frontier  adelantado 
has  been  noticed  already.  The  provincial  adelan- 
tado was  mentioned  in  the  law  referred  to  as  hav- 
ing been  in  charge  of  the  larger  and  nearer  prov- 
inces of  Castile,  JLeon,  Navarre,  and  Galicia.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  provincial  governor,  judge, 
and  captain-general.  Possibly  the  most  far-reach- 
ing and  characteristic  feature  of  this  office  was  the 
requirement  that  the  adelanlado  should  be  accom- 
panied on  his  tours  of  inspection  by  letrados  or 
asesores— men  of  legal  training,  who  should  ad- 
vise him  in  all  questions  of  law,  and  assume  re- 


sponsibility for  all  his  official  acts  of  an  adminis- 
trative or  judicial  character.  The  adelanlados 
were  not  trained  lawyers  or  administrators,  but 
soldiers — the  predecessors  of  the  colonial  captains- 
general.  They  were  empowered,  however,  to  ren- 
der legal  opinions  and  dispense  justice  on  the  ad- 
vice of,  and  by  the  assistance  of  the  letrados.  The 
asesor  or  teniente  lelrado  played  an  important  role 
subsequently  in  the  administration  of  justice  in 
the  colonies.  .  .  .  The  third  type  of  adelantado 
specified  in  the  ordinance  of  1274  was  the  ade- 
lantado mayor.  This  magistrate,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  provincial  adelantado,  was  a  lawyer, 
and  his  activities  were  confined  exclusively  to  the 
exercise  of  judicial  functions.  He  was  not  accom- 
panied, therefore,  by  an  asesor.  He  was  a  peregri- 
nating magistrate,  holding  court  in  difl'erent  parts 
of  the  kingdom.  Finally,  he  was  frequently  desig- 
nated for  special  service  as  adelantado  mayor  from 
a  higher  tribunal  of  which  he  was  a  magistrate, 
and  this  tribunal  was  called  the  curia,  or  corte  del 
rey,  which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  royal 
andiencia.  .  .  .  This  magistrate  was  in  reality  a 
judge  of  the  first  royal  audiencia  of  Castile,  and 
his  designation  to  try  cases  in  the  provinces  was 
identical  in  character  with  the  subsequent  designa- 
tion of  magistrates  of  colonial  audiencias  to  try 
cases  and  conduct  special  investigations." — C.  H. 
Cunningham,  Institutional  background  of  Spanish- 
.'Unerican  history  {Hispanic  American  Historical 
Review,  Feb.,  1918,  pp.  26-30). — See  also  Audien- 
cias. 
ADELHEID,  empress.    See  Adelaide  or  Adel- 

HEtD. 

ADEN  is  a  rocky  barren  peninsula  in  south- 
western Arabia  on  the  Indian  ocean  about  100 
miles  east  of  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  It  is 
one  of  the  important  fortified  coaling  stations  on 
the  great  highway  from  western  Europe  to  India 
and  the  East.  A  brief  Portuguese  occupation  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  fol- 
lowed by  Turkish  seizure  in  1535.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  Aden  came  under  the  rule  of  the 
Sultan  of  Sana  and  native  chiefs,  which  lasted 
until  1830,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
punishment  for  native  maltreatment  of  a  ship- 
wrecked British  crew.  The  island  of  Sokotra  off 
the  coast  of  Africa  is  under  British  protection,  and 
the  Kuria  Muria  islands  off  the  coast  of  Arabia  are 
attached  to  Aden. — See  also  Arabia:  Political  di- 
visions; British  empire:  Extent. 

ADERBEISAN,  or  Azerbaijan,  north-western 
province  of  Persia,  anciently  called  atropatene.  See 
Atropatene. 

ADHEMAR,  Ademar,  Aimar,  Aelarz  de 
Monteil  (d.  1098),  bishop  of  Puy  en  Velay;  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  first  crusade,  which  he  accom- 
panied as  papal  legate ;  caused  the  Siege  of  An- 
tioch  to  be  raised.     See  Crusades:    1096-1090. 

ADHERBAL  (f\.  112  B.C.),  king  of  Numidia. 
See  Numioia:  B.  C.  118-104. 

ADIABENE,  a  name  which  came  to  be  applied 
anciently  to  the  tract  of  country  east  of  the  middle 
Tigris,  embracing  what  was  originally  the  proper 
territory  of  Assyria,  together  with  Arbelitis.  Under 
the  Parthian  monarchy  formed  a  tributary  king- 
dom, much  disputed  between  Parthia  and  Armenia. 
It  was  seized  several  times  by  the  Romans,  but 
never  permanently  held — G.  Rawlinson,  Sixth 
great   oriental  monarchy,  p.    140. 

ADIGE,   Counts  of.     See  Tyrol:   Origin. 

ADIGE  RIVER:  Northern  Italy.— Scene  of 
fighting  (1916).  See  World  War:  1916:  IV:  Aus- 
tro-Italian  front:  b,  2. 

ADIRONDACKS.— "This  is  a  term  bestowed 
by   the   Iroquois,   in   derision,   on   the   tribes   who 


41 


ADIS  ABABA 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


appear,  at  an  early  day,  to  have  descended  the 
Utawas  river,  and  occupied  the  left  banks  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  above  the  present  site  of  Quebec, 
about  the  close  of  the  isth  century.  It  is  said  to 
signify  men  who  eat  trees,  in  allusion  to  their 
using  the  bark  of  certain  trees  for  food,  when  re- 
duced to  straits,  in  their  war  excursions.  The 
French,  who  entered  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the 
gulf,  called  the  same  people  Algonquins — a  generic 
appellation,  which  has  been  long  employed  and 
come  into  universal  use,  among  historians  and 
philologists.  According  to  early  accounts,  the 
.\dirondacks  had  preceded  the  Iroquois  in  arts  and 
attainments." — H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  Notes  on  the 
Iroquois,  ch.  5. — See  also  below:  Iroquois  Cox- 
FEDERACv:   Their  Conquests,  &c. 

ADIS  ABABA,  Convention  of  (1896).  See 
Abvssinw:   1806-1897. 

ADITES.— "The  Cushites,  the  first  inhabitants 
of  Arabia,  are  known  in  the  national  traditions  by 
the  name  of  Adites,  from  their  progenitor,  who  is 
called  Ad,  the  grandson  of  Ham."— F.  Lenormant, 
Manual  of  ancient  history,  bk.  7,  ch.  2.— See  Ara- 
bia.  .•\ncient  succession  and  fusion  of  races. 

ADJUTATORS,  or  Agitators.  See  England: 
i(j.j7    (April-August). 

ADLERCREUTZ,  Karl  Johan,  Count  (i757- 
1815),  Swedish  general;  defeated  in  Finland  in 
iSoS  by  the  Russians;  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of 
C.ustavus  IV. 

ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW.  — Definition.— 
General  survey.— Origin.— Character  of  tribu- 
nals.—Administrative  law  is  the  portion  of  the 
law  dealing  with  the  enforcement  of  the  social  will 
as  expressed  by  its  authorized  representatives  in  the 
established  legislative  bodies.  Administrative  law- 
includes  the  organization  of  the  executive  powers  of 
the  State  and  of  its  general  and  local  subdivisions, 
together  with  the  respective  functions  of  the  admin- 
istrative officers,  the  limitations  of  their  powers  and 
the  remedies  afforded  in  case  of  abuse  of  power  or 
dereliction  of  duty.  In  the  United  States  this 
branch  of  law  would  embrace  all  provisions  relat- 
ing to  both  elective  and  appointive  officers,  federal, 
state,  county,  municipal  or  other.  It  would  also 
cover  such  matters  as  the  law  of  municipal  cor- 
porations, the  abatement  of  nuisances,  taxation  and 
other  revenue  matters,  such  extraordinary  legal 
remedies  as  the  writ  of  prohibition,  mandamus, 
injunction,  habeas  corpus,  quo  warranto  and  cer- 
tiorari, and  such  equitable  remedies  as  may  be 
applied  to  executive  officials. 

"On  the  continent  of  Europe,  particularly  in 
France  and  Prussia,  a  special  class  of  tribunals, 
separate  and  distinct  from  the  ordinary  courts  of 
justice  and  constituted  on  different  principles,  has 
been  provided,  for  the  determination  of  adminis- 
trative controversies,  that  is,  disputes  between 
private  individuals  and  the  public  authorities  as 
well  as  disputes  among  administrative  officials 
themselves  In  general,  where  such  a  system  pre- 
vails, so-called  administrative  controversies  are  not 
allowed  to  be  determined  by  the  regular  judicial 
courts.  The  idea  originated  in  France  at  the  time 
of  the  Revolution,  and  may  be  said  to  have  re- 
sulted from  the  extreme  conception  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  separation  of  powers,  then  held  by  the 
French.  Montesquieu's  famous  theory  concerning 
the  necessity  of  intrusting  the  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  powers  to  separate  and  distinct  organs 
was  embodied  in  extreme  form  in  the  'declaration 
of  rights  of  man  and  the  citizen'  of  170T  by  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  which  asserted  that  if  the 
judiciary  were  permitted  to  meddle  with  adminis- 
trative officials  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  the 
constitution  would  be  violated  and  the  operations 


of  the  government  hindered.  The  administrative 
authorities  were  therefore  made  completely  inde- 
pendent of  judicial  control,  and  the  judges  were 
interdicted  under  pain  of  forfeiting  their  offices 
from  interfering  in  any  manner  with  the  acts  of 
the  administration.  This  principle  was  in  turn 
introduced  into  other  continental  states,  particu- 
larly into  Prussia  and  Italy,  and  has  been  retained 
by  them  to  the  present  day. 

"The  chief  advantage  claimed  for  the  system  is 
that  the  subjection  of  the  public  authorities  to  the 
continual  control  and  interference  of  the  judicial 
courts  is  detrimental  to  prompt  and  efficient  ad- 
ministration. .Administrative  controversies  are 
somewhat  peculiar  in  their  nature  and  involve 
questions  which  for  proper  consideration  require  a 
special  and  technical  knowledge  not  ordinarily  pos- 
sessed by  judges  whose  training  and  experience 
have  been  confined  to  the  field  of  private  law,  and 
whose  education  has  been  academic  rather  than 
practical.  Such  judges  are  likely  to  have  exagger- 
ated notions  of  the  rights  of  private  individuals, 
as  against  those  of  the  public;  they  are  inclined  to 
a  natural  timidity  in  deciding  issues  between  indi- 
viduals and  the  government  adversely  to  the  claims 
of  the  individual;  and  with  their  disposition  to 
adhere  strictly  to  legal  rules  and  traditions  they 
sometimes  unnecessarily  hamper  and  obstruct  the 
legitimate  operations  of  the  government. 

"The  history  of  administration  in  the  United 
States  and  England  abounds  in  illustrations  of  the 
truth  of  these  observations.  Only  men  who  have 
been  trained  in  the  study  of  administrative  law 
and  who  have  had  practical  experience  in  the 
actual  work  of  public  administration,  it  is  said,  are 
capable  of  deciding  wisely  controversies  involving 
a  technical  knowledge  of  an  administrative  ques- 
tion. Judges  without  such  special  knowledge  or 
experience  are  apt  to  apply  to  the  interpretation 
of  controversies  between  private  individuals  and 
the  public  authorities  the  pure  principles  of  private 
law,  rather  than  those  of  the  public  law.  This 
sometimes  leads  to  results  that  are  wholly  incon- 
sistent with  sound  public  policy  and  efficient  ad- 
ministration, for  the  rules  of  law  governing  the 
organization  and  functions  of  the  administration 
are  quite  different  from  those  governing  the  rela- 
tions of  private  individuals,  since  the  purpose  of 
the  former  is  the  public  welfare  rather  than  pri- 
vate interests.  When  the  government  is  a  party 
to  a  dispute  it  cannot  be  treated  like  a  private 
litigant  without  seriously  injuring  at  times  its  effi- 
ciency and  impeding  its  operations.  The  law  of 
contract  and  tort,  for  example,  which  plays  so 
important  a  part  in  the  regulation  of  the  conduct 
of  private  individuals,  occupies  a  very  unimportant 
place  in  the  law  governing  the  relations  of  the 
public  authorities.  The  administration  of  two  such 
widely  different  bodies  of  rules  requires,  therefore, 
different  habits  of  mind,  traditions,  and  training. 
It  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  the  individual  under 
the  continental  system  can  often  obtain  redress 
where  he  could  not  do  so  in  .America  or  England. 
as  for  example,  in  a  case  of  neglect  or  abuse  of 
power  by  an  official,  who  would  not  in  .America 
or  England  be  liable  in  dam.ages.  .  .  . 

"Where  there  are  two  sets  of  tribunals  and  two 
separate  bodies  of  law,  disputes  must  sometimes 
arise  as  to  which  domain  a  particular  controversy 
belongs  and  which  tribunal  shfluld  have  jurisdic- 
tion of  it.  For  the  determination  of  such  disputes 
of  jurisdiction  the  French  law  provides  for  a  tri- 
bunal of  conflicts,  while  in  Germany  there  is  usu- 
allv  a  similar  tribunal  known  as  a  competence- 
conflict  court.  In  both  countries  these  courts  arc 
composed   of   a  certain   number   of  regular  judges 


42 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


Courts 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


and  of  persons  in  the  administrative  service.  In 
the  German  imperial  system,  however,  all  conflicts 
of  jurisdiction  between  the  imperial  administrative 
courts  and  the  judicial  courts  are  settled  by  the 
latter,  there  being  no  special  conflict  courts.  In 
both  countries  the  power  of  raising  the  question 
of  a  conflict  of  jurisdiction  belongs  to  the  admin- 
istration only,  the  theory  being  that  it  alone  can 
be  interested.  When  the  administration  notifies 
the  judicial  court  that  in  taking  jurisdiction  over 
a  particular  controversy,  it  is  encroaching  upon 
the  sphere  of  the  administration,  the  court  suspends 
further  proceedings,  and  the  question  of  compe- 
tence is  referred  to  the  tribunal  of  conflicts  for  de- 
termination. If  the  decision  is  in  favor  of  the 
claim  set  up  by  the  administration,  the  case  is  re- 
moved to  the  administrative  courts  for  final  de- 
cision, otherwise  it  is  decided  by  the  judicial  court. 
"In  England  and  America,  and  in  countries  gen- 
erally where  English  legal  institutions  have  been 
introduced,  the  doctrine  of  administrative  jurisdic- 
tion, as  it  is  known  and  practiced  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  is  little  known.  There  administrative 
law  is  not  a  separate  branch  of  jurisprudence,  and 
specially  constituted  administrative  courts  with 
jurisdiction  over  controversies  between  private  in- 
dividuals and  public  officials  do  not  exist,  at  least 
not  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  found  on  the 
continent.  Disputes  between  the  public  authorities 
and  private  citizens,  like  differences  between  pri- 
vate individuals  themselves,  are  decided  by  the 
regular  judicial  courts  and  according  to  the  ordi- 
nary law  of  the  land.  Nevertheless,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  there  are  numerous  boards, 
commissions,  and  authorities  which  possess  what 
may  not  improperly  be  described  as  administrative 
jurisdiction.  They  are,  in  fact,  often  referred  to 
as  administrative  tribunals;  they  possess  the  power 
of  adjudication  and  determination  in  many  cases, 
and  not  infrequently  their  decisions  are  conclusive, 
and  hence  not  subject  to  review  by  the  courts. 
Although  they  are  not  a  part  of  the  judicial  sys- 
tem, their  procedure  when  hearing  and  determining 
controversies  is  often  characterized  by  the  for- 
malism of  the  courts  of  justice.  A  regular  system 
of  appeal  is  often  allowed  from  one  to  another, 
and  in  some  cases  their  decisions  are  published  and 
cited  as  precedents.  In  England  examples  of  au- 
thorities which  exercise  a  limited  administrative 
jurisdiction  are  the  Railway  Commission,  the  Local 
Government  Board,  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  Board 
of  Education,  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  In 
the  United  States  similar  bodies  are  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission,  whose  powers  have  been 
described  as  'quasi  administrative,  quasi  judicial'; 
the  Pension  Office,  the  Patent  Office,  the  Land 
Office,  the  Bureau  of  Immigration,  the  office  of 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  the  General  Board  of 
Customs  Appraisers,  the  United  States  Customs 
Court,  and  the  Court  of  Claims.  In  the  state 
governments  there  are  almost  countless  boards  and 
commissions  which  possess  similar  powers,  .\mong 
these  may  be  mentioned  railroad  commissions, 
boards  of  health,  departments  of  education,  pure 
food  commissions,  etc.  There  is,  in  fact,  scarcely 
any  department  of  the  administrative  service  in 
which  controversies  involving  both  public  and  pri- 
vate rights  do  not  frequently  arise,  which  can  be 
more  wisely  determined  by  the  administration  it- 
self than  by  a  court  of  justice.  This  fact  has  been 
recently  recognized  by  the  Congress  of  the  LTnited 
States  in  the  act  creating  a  customs  court  vested 
with  power  to  determine  controversies  between 
the  government  and  importers,  regarding  the  value 
and  classification  of  imported  articles  upon  which 
a  customs  tariff  is  imposed.     Whatever,  therefore, 


may  be  said  against  the  European  system  of  ad- 
ministrative justice  and  of  administrative  law,  with 
its  somewhat  exaggerated  emphasis  upon  the  rights 
of  the  government  in  contradistinction  to  those  of 
private  individuals,  the  fact  remains  that  it  exists 
in  England  and  America,  though  in  less  developed 
form;  and  the  role  which  it  is  destined  to  play  in 
the  future  is  bound  to  increase  with  the  multipli- 
cation of  governmental  functions  and  the  increas- 
ing complexity  of  the  governmental  organization." 
— J.  W.  Garner,  Introduction  to  political  science, 
PP-  S85-SQ4. — See  also  Cabinet;  Commission  gov- 
ernment; Congress;  Municipal  government; 
Representative  government;  Supreme  court. 

Administrative  law  in  France. — "The  terri- 
torial unity  of  the  French  state  was  attained  many 
years  ago.  The  great  vassals  who  under  a  weak 
monarchy  might  have  developed  into  independent 
princes,  and  whose  domains  might  then  have 
formed  separate  commonwealths,  were  suppressed 
by  the  kings  and  their  lands  became  provinces  of 
the  kingdom  of  France.  Most  matters  of  admin- 
istration, which  during  the  feudal  regime  had  been 
attended  to  by  vassals,  became  a  part  of  the  royal 
administration  and  were  attended  to  by  the  royal 
officers  who  were  subject  to  a  strong  central  con- 
trol. These  were  the  intendants,  who  date  from 
the  time  of  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII,  and  whose 
work  was  performed  in  the  provinces  or  generali- 
ties as  they  were  sometimes  called,  and  the  council 
of  the  king  at  the  centre  which  directed  all  their 
actions  and  heard  appeals,  taken  by  individuals 
aggrieved,  from  their  decisions.  The  great  cen- 
tralization of  government  under  the  absolute  mon- 
archy left  little  room  for  any  important  local  au- 
thorities; though  we  do  find  even  in  the  times  of 
the  most  extreme  centralization  that  there  were  in 
certain  of  the  provinces,  called  pays  d'elats  and 
occupying  a  privileged  position,  local  assemblies 
having  more  or  less  control  over  the  actions  of  the 
intendants;  and  also  that  in  some  of  the  largest 
of  the  cities  the  people  had  more  or  less  well- 
defined  rights  to  elect  their  municipal  officers, 
rights,  however,  of  which  the  king  was  endeavor- 
ing in  the  interest  of  centralized  government  to 
deprive  them.  The  attempt  made  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Louis  X\T  just  before  the  revolution  to 
introduce  into  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  provincial 
assemblies  modelled  on  the  assemblies  of  the  pays 
d'etats  failed;  and  when  the  revolution  came  in 
i/Sq  it  found  a  most  highly  centralized  system  of 
administration — a  system  which  hardly  recognized 
the  local  districts  as  anything  more  than  adminis- 
trative circumscriptions,  possessing  few  if  any  cor- 
porate powers.  In  these  districts  most  matters  of 
administration  were  attended  to  by  officers  either 
appointed  and  removed  by  the  king  in  his  pleasure, 
or  else  subject  to  a  strict  central  control.  The 
system  which  the  revolution  received  as  a  legacy 
from  the  absolute  monarchy  it  made  few  radical 
changes  in.  .  .  .  The  aim  of  the  revolution  was 
social  and  political  rather  than  administrative  re- 
form. The  revolution  destroyed  the  social  system 
on  which  the  absolute  monarchy  rested  and  intro- 
duced the  political  principle  that  the  people  should 
have  a  larger  influence  in  the  management  of  the 
government,  but  it  did  little  more  in  the  way  of 
permanent  administrative  reform  than  to  make 
the  system  more  symmetrical  than  it  had  been  be- 
fore. The  reason  why  no  greater  change  was  made 
in  the  general  character  of  the  administrative  sys- 
tem was  that  the  revolution  really  aimed  at  the 
same  end  that  had  been  before  the  eyes  of  the 
absolute  monarchy.  This  end  was  the  crushing  out 
of  feudalism,  the  taking  away  from  the  privileged 
classes  those  semi-poUtical  and  social  privileges  and 


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exemptions  which  had  been  the  cause  of  so  many 
of  the  miseries  of  the  absolute  monarchy,  but  for 
which  the  absolute  monarchy  was  responsible  only 
in  so  far  as  it  had  allowed  them  to  continue  to 
exist,  after  the  duties  which  had  been  originally 
associated  with  them  had  been  assumed  by  the 
Crown,  and  after  the  expenses  which  their  per- 
formance necessitated  had  been  imposed  upon  the 
tax-payers.  The  cause  of  the  dissatisfaction  of  the 
people  with  the  absolute  monarchy  is  to  be  found 
not  so  much  in  the  character  of  the  government 
which  it  gave  the  people  as  in  the  fact  that  its 
progress  in  the  desired  direction  of  abolition  of 
feudal  privileges  seemed  almost  to  have  ceased. 
Therefore  we  find  that  the  chief  reforms  of  the 
revolution  were  social  and,  to  a  degree,  political 
but  not  administrative.  The  celebrated  night  of 
the  fourth  of  August,  1789,  saw  the  abolition  at 
one  time  of  about  all  that  was  left  of  the  feudal 
regime,  while  the  exemption  of  the  privileged 
classes  from  taxation  was  done  away  with  by  the 
new  and  proportional  system  of  taxation  formu- 
lated and  enacted  by  the  revolutionary  leaders  in 
the  constituent  assembly.  After  the  constituent 
assembly  had  thus  cleared  away  the  debris  of  the 
feudal  system  it  would  have  been  suicidal  for  it  to 
establish  any  system  of  administration  in  which 
large  rights  of  local  government  were  given  to  the 
people  of  the  localities.  For  the  people,  as  a  whole, 
were  so  utterly  incapacitated  for  political  work, 
through  long  administrative  and  governmental 
tutelage,  that  it  is  improbable  that  they  could  have 
succeeded  in  governing  themselves  well.  At  first  it 
is  true  there  was  a  slight  attempt  in  the  direction 
of  decentralization,  but  this,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  was  unsuccessful  and  led  to  disorganiza- 
tion and  inefficient  government,  as  indeed,  did  all 
attempts  at  reorganization  until  the  government  of 
the  directory  when  Napoleon  came  into  power. 
.  .  .  Napoleon  is  to  France  what  the  Norman 
kings  are  to  England.  He  moulded  the  form  of 
her  local  institutions.  The  laws  and  decrees  which 
were  passed  during  the  period  of  his  control  of  the 
government  have,  it  is  true,  received  during  this 
century  most  important  modifications,  but  the 
main  principles  of  the  present  system  of  local  ad- 
ministration are  even  now  to  be  found  in  them. 
Napoleon  was  satisfied  that  the  social  principles  of 
the  revolution  could  be  adhered  to  only  through 
the  establishment  of  a  most  centralized  system  of 
administration  and  government,  by  means  of  which 
the  impulse  to  action  should  come  from  the  centre 
and  which  should  be  controlled  by  those  who  were 
in  sympathy  with  the  new  order  of  things.  Since 
Napoleon's  time,  however,  there  has  been  great 
progress  in  the  direction  of  decentralization.  This 
began  with  the  government  of  the  restoration  and 
reached  its  climax  in  the  communes  act  of  1884; 
and  has  consisted  in  the  recognition  of  the  posses- 
sion by  the  localities,  or  at  least  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  localities,  of  juristic  personality  and 
that  there  belongs  to  them  a  sphere  of  action  of 
their  own  in  which  the  central  administration  is 
to  interfere  but  little. 

"But  notwithstanding  the  decentralization  which 
has  been  going  on,  the  French  system  of  adminis- 
tration retains  even  at  the  present  time  quite 
enough  of  the  old  Napoleonic  principles  to  make 
it,  as  compared  with  our  own,  a  system  which 
from  the  administrative  point  of  view  is  quite 
centralized.  .  .  . 

"Below  the  department  district  and  canton  we 
find  the  commune  as  the  lowest  administrative 
unit.  The  commune  is  either  rural  or  urban,  but 
the  French  law  makes  no  formal  distinction  in  or- 
ganization  between  the  two,  both  being  governed 


by  the  same  law,  1^12.,  the  law  of  April  Si  1884. 
While  the  department  is  an  artificial  creation  of 
the  revolutionary  period,  the  commune  is  a  natural 
growth.  Before  the  revolution  we  find  that  there 
were,  as  a  result  of  social  and  political  concUtions, 
two  kinds  of  local  communities  in  France,  viz.,  the 
urban  communes  and  the  rural  communes.  In  the 
former  were  an  officer,  called  by  different  names 
but  performing  for  the  most  part  executive  func- 
tions, and  a  deliberative  council.  In  the  rural 
communes,  and  even  in  some  of  the  cities,  a  gen- 
eral meeting  of  the  inhabitants  was  often  found 
together  with  a  series  of  executive  officers.  A  de- 
cree of  1702  established  in  each  of  these  rural  com- 
munes an  officer  called  a  syndic,  who  was  to  act 
to  a  large  extent  under  the  supervision  of  the  In- 
tendant  of  the  generality  or  province  in  which  the 
commune  was  situated.  The  acts  of  all  these  au- 
thorities were  subject,  just  before  the  revolution, 
to  very  strict  central  control,  which  was  one  of 
the  results  of  the  administrative  centralization  of 
the  absolute  monarchy.  In  1789  the  constituent 
assembly  decided  to  efface  all  distinction  in  admin- 
istrative organization  between  the  rural  and  the 
urban  districts,  and  provided  for  the  formation  of 
about  44,000  communes.  Different  experiments  at 
organization  were  made  in  the  period  between  1790 
and  the  year  VIII  or  iSoo  when  the  Napoleonic 
legislation  was  adopted.  By  this  legislation  there 
were  placed  in  each  commune  a  mayor  and  a  mu- 
nicipal council,  the  former  attending  to  executive 
business,  both  that  relating  to  the  commune,  which 
was  a  municipal  corporation,  and  that  affecting  the 
state  as  a  whole,  and  the  latter  attending  simply 
to  local  business.  By  this  Napoleonic  legislation, 
both  the  mayor  and  the  members  of  the  municipal 
council  were  appointed  and  could  be  removed  by 
the  central  administration,  while  the  decisions  of 
the  municipal  council,  even  though  they  affected 
simply  the  local  affairs  of  the  commune,  were  in 
all  cases  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  central 
administration.  Since  the  overthrow  of  the  empire 
there  has  been  an  almost  continuous  tendency  to 
decentralize  this  extremely  centralized  system.  In 
183 1  the  municipal  council  became  elective,  and  by 
a  gradual  process  the  mayor  has  become  elected 
by  the  municipal  council  in  all  the  communes  of 
France.  But  up  to  about  1884  no  actual  power 
of  decision  was  given  to  the  municipal  council, 
whose  resolutions  were  in  most  cases  subject  to 
central  administrative  approval.  The  law  of  April 
5,  18S4,  has  made  a  most  radical  change  in  this 
respect  by  providing  that  the  decisions  of  the 
municipal  council  are  absolutely  final  except  in 
those  cases  in  which. the  law  has  specially  provided 
for  central  administrative  approval.  ...  In  each 
commune  at  the  present  time  are  to  be  found  a 
mayor  and  several  deputies  who  are  to  assist  him 
in  the  performance  of  his  duties,  all  elected  by  the 
municipal  council.  In  both  cases  the  choice  of  the 
council  is  limited  to  its  members.  They  ser\'e  for 
the  term  of  the  council,  but  may  be  suspended  by 
the  prefect  of  the  department  for  one  month,  by 
the  minister  of  the  interior  for  three  months,  and 
may  be  removed  by  the  President  of  the  republic. 
Removal  makes  the  person  removed  ineligible  for 
the  period  of  one  year.  Further,  the  prefect  has 
quite  a  large  control  over  the  mayor  in  that  the 
law  provides  that  if  the  mayor  refuses  to  do  an 
act  which  he  is  obliged  by  law  to  do,  the  prefect 
may  step  in  and,  after  demand  made  by  the  mayor, 
proceed  to  do  the  act  himself  or  may  have  the  act 
done  by  a  special  appointee.  Tne  mayor  and  his 
deputies  are  unsalaried  and  are  not  professional 
officers  like  the  prefect.  Their  official  expenses  are 
to  be  paid,  however     Like  the  prefect,  the  mayor 


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Prussia 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


is  at  the  same  time  the  agent  of  the  central  admm- 
istration  in  the  commune  and  is  the  representative 
and  the  executive  of  the  communal  municipal  cor- 
poration. As  an  officer  of  the  central  administra- 
tion he  is  in  most  cases  under  the  supervision  of 
the  prefect.  Among  his  duties  as  such  central  offi- 
cer may  be  mentioned  his  duty  to  keep  a  register 
of  vital  statistics.  As  the  French  law  expresses  it, 
he  is  an  officer  of  the  etat  civil.  As  such  he  also 
solemnizes  all  marriages.  He  is  also  an  officer  of 
what  is  known  as  the  judicial  police  and,  as  such, 
has  the  power  to  file  informations  in  purely  petty 
offences  and  may  act  as  piublic  prosecutor  in  the 
smaller  places.  He  has  to  publish  and  execute  all 
the  laws  and  decrees  within  the  commune,  makes 
up  the  election  lists,  the  census  tables  for  the  re- 
cruiting of  the  army,  publishes  the  assessment  rolls, 
etc.,  etc.  Finally  the  mayor  has  a  large  power  of 
local  police.  He  has  quite  a  large  power  of  ordi- 
nance, a  power  which,  like  the  similar  power  of 
the  prefect,  is  always  based  upon  some  express 
provision  of  law.  The  power  of  ordinance  granted 
by  the  statutes  is,  however,  quite  a  general  one. 
fie  has  the  right  to  issue  such  ordinances  as  may 
be  necessary  to  maintain  good  order,  public  secu- 
rity and  health.  He  has  also  a  large  power  of  issu- 
ing orders  of  individual  and  not  general  applica- 
tion, as,  e.  g.,  to  fix  the  building  line  for  particular 
edifices,  to  grant  building  permits,  to  remove 
nuisances,  and  so  on.  .\\\  such  ordinances  and 
orders  are  sanctioned  by  the  penal  code,  which 
punishes  the  violation  of  all  legal  ordinances  and 
orders  by  a  fine.  An  instance  of  the  control  which 
the  prefect  has  over  the  acts  of  the  mayor  when 
the  latter  is  acting  as  an  officer  of  the  general  state 
administration,  is  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  these 
ordinances  and  orders  which  may  be  repealed  by 
the  prefect  within  a  month  after  their  issue. 

"As  the  executive  officer  of  the  communal  mu- 
nicipal corporation  the  mayor  has  the  appointment 
of  most  of  the  communal  officers,  the  only  impor- 
tant exceptions  being  found  in  the  case  of  the  local 
constabulary  who  are,  to  a  large  extent,  central 
officers  and  under  central  control,  the  teachers,  the 
forest  guards,  and  the  communal  treasurer.  Fur- 
ther the  mayor  is  to  attend  to  the  detailed  admin- 
istration of  all  local  property  and  is  to  supervise 
the  different  administrative  services  which  are  at- 
tended to  by  the  commune.  Thus  in  the  financial 
administration  of  the  commune  the  mayor  draws 
up  the  budget  of  receipts  and  expenses  of  the  com- 
mune, orders  all  expenses  to  be  paid,  has  the  de- 
tailed management  of  the  revenue  and  property 
of  the  commune,  executes  its  contracts  and  super- 
vises its  accounts  and  its  public  institutions.  But 
in  all  these  matters  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  mayor  is  simply  to  execute  the  decisions  of  the 
municipal  council,  which  has  the  final  determina- 
tion of  all   matters   of  communal   interest. 

"The  municipal  council  is  elected  by  universal 
manhood  suffrage  Electors  must  have  resided  for 
six  months  within  the  commune  or  have  paid 
direct  taxes  there.  Electors  must  be  registered  in 
order  to  be  able  to  vote.  The  rules  in  regard  to 
eligibility  are  similar  to  those  in  force  for  the 
general  council  of  the  department.  The  term  of 
office  is  four  years.  The  council  has  four  ordinary 
sessions  each  year,  but  extraordinary  sessions  may 
be  called  at  any  time.  The  meetings  of  the  council 
are  generally  public.  The  mayor  presides  at  all 
meetings  of  the  council  except  when  his  accounts 
are  being  examined.  As  a  rule  a  majority  of  the 
members  constitutes  a  quorum.  Finally  the  council 
may  be  suspended  for  a  month  by  the  prefect ;  and 
may  be  dissolved  by  the  President  of  the  republic. 

"The  duties  of  the  municipal  council  relate  al- 


most exclusively  to  the  local  affairs  of  the  com- 
mune, their  general  duties  being  so  few  in  number 
and  so  unimportant  in  character  as  not  to  deserve 
special  notice.  In  the  legal  provisions  governing 
the  powers  of  the  municipal  council  we  find  a  good 
example  of  the  continental  method  of  regulating 
the  participation  of  the  localities  in  the  work  of 
administration.  The  law  of  1884  (the  municipal 
code  of  the  present  time)  simply  says  that  the 
municipal  council  shall  govern  by  its  decisions  the 
affairs  of  the  commune.  In  order,  however,  to 
prevent  the  municipal  council  from  being  extrava- 
gant or  acting  unwisely,  article  68  of  the  law  pro- 
vides that  in  certain  eumerated  cases  the  approval 
of  some  central  authority,  as  a  general  rule  the 
prefect,  shall  be  necessary,  before  the  resolutions 
of  the  council  are  of  force.  In  general  this  ap- 
proval of  the  central  administration  is  necessary 
for  the  sale  or  long  lease  of  communal  property, 
for  the  undertaking  of  expensive  public  works,  for 
the  change  of  use  of  buildings  used  for  general 
administrative  purposes,  for  the  regulation,  laying 
out  or  closing  of  streets,  for  the  levy  of  taxes 
above  certain  limits,  and  for  the  borrowing  of 
money  beyond  a  certain  amount,  and  the  imposi- 
tion of  octroi  taxes,  i.  c.,  indirect  taxes  on  objects 
consumed  within  the  cities.  Finally,  the  budget  of 
the  commune  must  be  submitted  to  the  central  ad- 
ministration, which  must  approve  it  before  it  can 
be  executed.  The  purpose  of  submitting  the  bud- 
get to  the  central  administration,  is  to  afford  it  an 
opportunity  to  see  if  the  municipal  council  has 
made  appropriation  for  the  obligatory  expenses 
made  necessary  by  law,  and  to  prevent  the  council 
from  being  extravagant.  If  the  budget  does  not 
provide  for  obligatory  expenses,  levies  taxes  or 
borrows  money  beyond  certain  limits,  or  provides 
for  the  payment  of  the  current  expenses  of  the 
commune  from  loans  or  extraordinary  revenue,  the 
central  administration  may  make  changes  in  the 
budget  so  as  to  make  it  conform  to  the  provisions 
of  law  or  to  what  the  central  administration  re- 
gards as  proper.  Otherwise  the  central  administra- 
tion may  make  no  alterations  in  the  budget  as 
voted  by  the  council.  Finally,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  municipal  council  from  overstepping  the 
bounds  of  its  competence  as  an  authority  for  the 
purposes  of  purely  local  administration  and  from 
assuming  functions  of  a  central  character,  it  is 
provided  that  the  central  administration  may  de- 
clare any  act  of  the  municipal  council  outside  of 
its  jurisdiction  to  be  void.  In  such  case  the  muni- 
cipal council  or  any  one  interested  has  the  ri.:ht  to 
appeal  from  the  decision,  declaring  the  act  of  the 
municipal  council  void,  to  the  administrative 
courts,  which  thus  have  the  power  of  determining 
finally  the  question  of  local  jurisdiction." — F.  J. 
Goodnow,  Comparative  administrative  law,  v.  1. 
pp.   268-272,   285-202. 

Prussian  administrative  law. — "The  present 
form  of  local  government  in  Prussia  was  fixed  in 
1807.  The  Prussia  of  the  time  previous  to  1807 
was  feudal  rather  than  modern.  The  collapse  of 
feudal  Prussia  at  the  time  of  the  French  invasion 
In  1806  was  so  sudden  and  so  complete  as  to  prove 
beyond  pcradventure  that  the  magnificent  fabric 
reared  with  so  much  pains  by  the  great  Prussian 
kings  of  the  eighteenth  century  rested  on  most  in- 
secure foundations.  The  administrative  system 
which  had  come  down  from  the  time  of  Frederick 
William  I  was  bureaucratic  to  the  last  degree.  The 
result  of  such  a  system  was  that  the  people  partici- 
pated hardly  at  all  in  the  administration  or  even 
in  the  government,  and  naturally  not  only  had  lost 
all  political  capacity,  but  also  had  come  to  regard 
the   government   either   with   indifference   or   with 


45 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


Prussia 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


absolute  hatred.  The  social  conditions  of  the 
Prussian  people  also  had  been  such  as  to  favor 
one  class  at  the  expense  of  the  others  and  at  the 
same  time  to  impoverish  the  country  as  a  whole. 
The  distinctions  of  class  had  been  so  fixed  as  al- 
most to  divide  the  people  into  castes,  and  artificial 
barriers  placed  about  the  freedom  of  trade  and 
labor  in  the  interest  of  the  richer  classes  had  pre- 
vented all  classes  alike  from  making  the  best  use 
of  their  opportunities.  .  .  .  After  the  fall  of  Prus- 
sia, Baron  Stein  was  made  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration and  during  the  one  year  of  service,  from 
which  he  was  fmally  driven  by  the  influence  of 
Napoleon,  was  the  director  of  the  policy  of  Prussia 
and  may  well  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
Prussia  of  to-day.  Recognizing  the  defects  of  the 
Prussian  system,  he  formulated  and  published  his 
plan  of  government;  and  although  unable  during 
his  short  term  of  service  to  secure  the  adoption  of 
this  plan,  he  left  to  his  successors  a  model  of  ad- 
ministrative reform  in  his  great  municipal  corpora- 
tions act  of  1808.  Besides  this.  Stein  was  able  to 
abolish  serfdom,  to  make  it  possible  for  those  not 
of  noble  blood  to  acquire  and  hold  land,  and  to 
introduce  important  reforms  in  the  general  admin- 
istrative system.  Stein's  concrete  model  of  an  ad- 
ministrative system  was  to  be  found  in  the  English 
system  as  then  existing.  But  his  idea  of  granting 
to  the  nobility  large  local  powers,  to  be  exercised 
under  central  control  so  as  to  prevent  the  abuse  of 
the  powers  granted,  was  not  adopted.  The  failure 
of  Stein's  plans  brought  Hardenberg  to  the  front  in 
1810.  Hardenberg 's  ideas  were  quite  different  from 
those  of  Stein.  Hardenberg  felt  that  before  many 
privileges  of  local  self-government  could  be  granted 
to  the  people,  the  poorer  classes  in  the  community 
must  he  released  from  their  economic  dependence 
upon  the  richer  classses.  He  had  the  experience 
of  the  French  before  him  and  believed  that  the 
first  thing  to  do  was  to  establish  a  strongly  cen- 
tralized administration  like  the  French,  which 
should  be  directed  by  men  of  liberal  ideas.  Har- 
denberg was  not.  however,  able  to  overthrow  what 
Stein  had  already  establi.'^hed.  .As  a  part  of  his 
reform  Stein  had  divided  the  country  into  govern- 
ment districts  ...  at  the  head  of  each  of  which 
was  placed  a  board  called  the  'government'  .  .  . 
which  attended  to  almost  all  central  administrative 
matters  that  in  the  nature  of  things  could  be  at- 
tended to  in  the  localities.  Purely  local  matters, 
;.  f.,  matters  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  sphere 
of  local  autonomy,  which  were  quite  unimportant, 
were  left  in  the  charge  of  the  cities  and  the  rural 
communities,  which  were  to  act  under  the  super\'i- 
sion  of  these  'governments.'  Hardenberg  suffered 
this  organization  to  remain,  but.  in  order  to  in- 
crease his  influence  over  it.  he  put  every  two  or 
three  districts  under  a  provincial- governor  who 
was  to  repre.^ent  the  central  government  in  the 
province  Below  the  district  Stein  had  retained  a 
historic  Prussian  division,  to  wit  the  'circle.'  at  the 
head  of  which  was  the  landrath,  who  was  now 
made  the  subordinate  of  the  'government  '  All  of 
these  authorities — the  governor,  the  'covernment,' 
and  the  landrath — were  placed  under  the  direction 
of  the  chancellor,  which  last  position  Hardenberg 
had  created  for  himself.  Most  of  the  officers  in 
this  organization  were  salaried  and  professional  in 
character  The  system  was  therefore,  as  before,  a 
centralized  bureaucracy.  But  it  was  better  organ- 
ized than  before,  and  it  was  directed  by  a  man 
of  advanced  liberal  ideas,  and  who  made  use  of 
the  vast  power  he  possessed  to  further  the  inter- 
ests of  the  state  as  a  whole.  With  this  wonderfully 
efficient  instrument  great  progress  was  made  in 
carr>ing  out  the  social  and  economic  reforms  begun 


46 


by  Stein.  .  .  .  But  before  the  reform  could  be 
completed  Hardenberg  died  (in  1S22)  and  a  reac- 
tion immediately  set  in.  The  great  landholders, 
whose  privileges  had  been  seriously  diminished  by 
what  had  been  accomplished,  came  forward  and 
managed  to  persuade  the  king  to  grant  them  cer- 
tain powers  in  the  domain  of  purely  local  govern- 
ment. Local  legislatures  were  formed  in  which  the 
landholders  had  almost  complete  control;  and  the 
attempt  was  made  later  to  form  out  of  delegates 
from  these  local  legislatures  a  national  parliament. 
This  attempt  was  frustrated  by  the  revolution  of 
1848,  which  was  largely  a  protest  by  the  commer- 
cial and  industrial  classes  against  the  monopoly  of 
governing  which  the  landholders  were  beginning  to 
claim.  The  result  of  the  revolution  was  t-he  for- 
mation of  a  constitution  in  which  the  suffrage  was 
made  to  depend  not  upon  the  ownership  of  land 
but  upon  the  ownership  of  any  kind  of  property. 
M  first  the  legislature  which  was  formed  on  this 
basis  contained  a  liberal  majority  which  set  to 
work  to  curtail  the  powers  of  the  landowners. 
This  led  to  another  reaction,  viz..  the  conservative 
reaction  of  1850-60,  during  which  the  entire  power 
of  the  administration  was  prostituted  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  Conservative  party  and  the  landholders. 
This  preying  of  one  class  upon  another,  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  the  internal  history  of  Prussia 
from  1S22  and  1S60,  was  largely  the  result  of  the 
weakness  of  the  monarchy  during  that  period  and 
of  the  introduction  of  the  principle  of  the  parlia- 
mentary responsibility  of  the  ministry  into  a  coun- 
try in  which  the  people  had  not  as  yet  learned 
how  to  govern  themselves.  It  was  only  natural 
therefore  that,  when  the  monarchy  became  stronger 
by  the  accession  of  the  late  King  William  I.  who 
repudiated  the  principle  of  the  parliamentary  re- 
sponsibility of  his  ministers,  this  class  tyranny 
should  cease.  The  great  constitutional  conflict  in 
Prussia  which  followed  his  accession  to  the  throne 
(1860-4)  showed  the  Prussian  people  that  they  had 
found  their  master,  and  that  the  Crown  in  a  mon- 
archical country  is  the  natural  arbiter  between 
conflicting  social  classes  and  should  protect  the 
weak  against  the  aggressions  of  the  strong.  ...  It 
was  seen  that  important  changes  must  be  made  in 
the  system  of  local  government  in  order  to  accus- 
tom the  people  to  exercise  their  powers  with  mod- 
eration and  with  a  regard  for  the  interests  of  the 
minority.  The  necessary  concrete  measures  were 
sketched  by  Dr.  Gnei.<;t  of  the  University  of  Berlin, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  public  lawyers, 
in  his  little  book  entitled  Dif  Kreisordnnng.  In 
this  work  Dr.  Gncist  referred,  as  had  Stein  before 
him,  to  the  English  system  of  local  administration 
which  they  both  knew  so  well  and  admired  so 
much.  .After  a  long  discussion  the  plans  advocated 
by  Gneist  were  for  the  most  part  incorporated  into 
the  law  of  Dec.  13.  1872,  commonly  known  as  the 
Kreisordnnng.  The  adoption  of  these  plans  was 
largely  due  to  Prince  Bismarck,  who  believed 
.strongly  in  local  autonomy  and  self-administration, 
and  who  supported  the  ideas  advocated  by  Gnei.st 
in  the  face  of  the  opposition  of  the  general  public 
and  of  that  of  his  colleagues  in  the  ministry  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  government  officials  who 
were  loth  to  give  up  any  of  the  powers  which  they 
possessed  in  the  organization  founded  by  Harden- 
berg. In  addition  to  the  Krrisprdnung  several 
other  laws  were  passed  in  the  course  of  the  next 
ten  years,  all  either  carrying  the  reform  further,  or 
modifying  details  which  experience  had  shown  to 
be  faulty.  The  definite  ends  which  this  reform 
has  had  in  view  are:  First.  The  extension  of  the 
sphere  of  local  autonomv  Second  The  introduc- 
tion of  a  judicial  control  over  the  actions  of  ad- 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


Prussia 
England 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


ministrative  officers  in  the  hope  of  preventing  a 
recurrence  of  the  prostitution  of  the  powers  of  the 
administration  in  the  interest  of  party  or  social 
faction.  Third.  The  introduction  of  a  non-pro- 
fessional or  lay  element  into  the  administration  of 
central  as  well  as  of  local  matters  in  the  hope  of 
Micreasing  the  political  capacity  of  the  people.  .  .  . 
"In  accordance  with  continental  ideas  as  to  the 
territorial  distribution  of  administrative  functions 
two  spheres  of  administrative  action  are  recognized 
by  the  law:  the  one,  central;  the  other,  local.  For 
the  purposes  of  the  central  administration  which 
needs  attention  in  the  localities,  the  country  is 
divided  into  administrative  circumscriptions  called 
provinces,  government  districts,  circles,  etc.,  in 
which  are  officers  under  the  control  of  the  heads 
of  the  various  executive  departments  at  Berlin. 
For  the  purposes  of  local  government  certain  mu- 
nicipal or  public  corporations  have  grown  up  which 
have  their  own  officers  and  their  own  property 
separate  and  apart  from  that  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment. At  the  time  of  the  reform  in  many  in- 
stances the  boundaries  of  the  administrative  cir- 
cumscriptions for  the  purposes  of  central  admin- 
istration were  not  identical  with  those  of  the  vari- 
ous public  corporations,  e.  g.,  the  boundaries  of  the 
administrative  provinces  were  not  the  same  as 
those  of  the  public  corporations  bearing  the  same 
name.  In  most  cases,  further,  the  authorities  for 
the  purposes  of  central  administration  were  not  the 
same  as  those  of  the  public  corporations.  The  re- 
form of  1872  has  endeavored  to  simplify  matters. 
It  has  in  the  first  place  adopted  the  old  divisions, 
vis.,  the  provinces,  districts,  and  circles,  but  it  has 
added  a  new  division,  viz.,  the  justice  of  the  peace 
division  (..imlsbezirk)  ;  in  the  second  place  it  has 
in  almost  all  instances  insisted  upon  the  coincidence 
of  the  boundaries  of  the  corresponding  areas.  Thus 
at  the  present  time  in  almost  all  cases  the  area  of 
the  administrative  province  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  provincial  corporation.  In  the  third  place  the 
central  and  local  authorities  within  the  same  area 
have  in  most  cases  been  consolidated.  In  the 
province,  however,  the  attempts  at  such  consoli- 
dation were  unsuccessful.  ...  As  in  the  French,  so 
in  the  Prussian  system  of  local  government,  the 
interference  of  the  central  legislature  in  local  af- 
fairs is  infinitesimal  if  it  exists  at  all.  Enough  of 
the  old  feudal  ideas  of  local  autonomy  have  re- 
mained to  permit  of  the  development  of  the  prin- 
ciple that  there  is  a  sphere  of  administrative  action 
which  must  be  left  almost  entirely  to  the  localities; 
that  within  this  sphere  the  legislature  should  not 
interfere  at  all;  that  any  central  interference  or 
control  that  may  be  required  over  this  local  ad- 
ministration should  come  from  the  administration 
and  in  the  main  from  the  lay  authorities  of  the 
administration,  and  should  be  confined  simply  to 
preventing  the  localities  from  incurring  too  great 
financial  burdens.  Therefore  the  law  does  not,  as 
in  the  United  States  and  as  it  does  to  a  certain 
extent  in  England,  enumerate  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  localities,  but  says  simply  that  the 
local  affairs  of  particular  districts  shall  be  governed 
^v  the  decisions  of  local  authorities  in  the  nature 
of  local  legislatures,  and  that  in  those  cases  only 
in  which  the  law  has  expressly  given  it  the  power, 
may  the  central  administration  step  in  to  protect 
the  localities  from  their  own  unwise  action.  This 
system  is  one  of  general  grants  of  local  power 
with  the  necessity  in  certain  cases  of  central  ad- 
ministrative—not legislative — approval  or  control. 
The  benefits  of  such  a"  system  cannot  be  over- 
estimated Through  its  adoption  all  the  evils  of 
local  anrl  special  legislation  are  avoided.  In  place 
of  an  irresponsible  legislative  control,  which  in  the 


United  States  has  shown  itself  so  incapable  of  pre- 
venting the  exPravagance  of  localities  that  in  many 
cases  the  power  of  the  legislature  to  permit  local 
action  has  been  curtailed  by  the  constitutions,  is 
to  be  found  a  control  exercised  by  responsible  au- 
thorities— authorities  which  have  a  certain  perma- 
nence and  are  well  able  to  judge  whether  a  given 
action  will  be  really  hurtful  to  a  locality  or  not. 
.\t  the  same  time  the  greater  freedom  from  central 
interference  guaranteed  to  the  localities  by  this  sys- 
tem is  well  calculated  to  encourage  the  growth  of 
local  pride  and  responsibiUty." — F.  J.  Goodnow, 
Comparative  administrative  law,  v.  i,  pp.  295-302, 
33<'-337. 

Administrative  law  in  England. — "The  Eng- 
lish administrative  jurisdiction,  whose  main  prin- 
ciples have  been  adopted  in  the  United  States,  is 
simply  an  outgrowth  of  the  original  system  of  ad- 
ministrative control.  The  Norman  political  system 
made  no  distinction  between  governmental  authori- 
ties. .'\ll  powers  of  government  were  consolidated 
in  the  hands  of  the  Crown.  First  to  be  differen- 
tiated was  the  legislative  authority,  the  Parliament. 
But  for  a  long  time  after  the  differentiation  of 
Parliament  there  was  almost  no  legal  distinction 
between  the  position  of  the  officers  for  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  and  that  of  the  officers  for  the 
administration  of  government.  Indeed  most  im- 
portant officers  ciischarged  functions  in  both 
branches  and  all  alike  were  regarded  as  merely  the 
servants  of  the  Crown.  Some,  it  is  true,  were  en- 
gaged mainly  in  the  application  of  the  private  law, 
others  were  engaged  mainly  in  the  application  of 
the  public  and  administrative  law.  But  all  were 
officers  of  the  Crown,  which  directly  or  indirectly 
could  remove  them  all  from  office  and  could  dic- 
tate to  them  what  should  be  the  decision  of  the 
cases  which  were  brought  before  them.  To  the 
officers  of  one  of  the  courts,  viz.,  the  court  of 
king's  bench,  which  was  regarded  as  occupying  a 
superior  position  because  the  Crown  by  a  fiction 
of  the  law  was  supposed  always  to  be  present  in 
it,  was  given  a  supervisory  power  over  all  other 
authorities.  If  anyone  was  aggrieved  by  an  act 
of  a  subordinate  officer  of  the  Crown  he  had  the 
right  to  appeal  to  the  Crown,  who  was  the  foun- 
tain of  justice,  and  such  an  appeal  went  to  the 
court  of  king's  bench.  At  first  it  seems  to  have 
gone  to  the  Curia  Regis  or  King's  Council  before 
the  development  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  In- 
deed, after  the  development  of  the  king's  bench, 
when  with  the  usual  habits  of  judges  the  members 
of  this  court  became  very  technical  in  their  appli- 
cation of  the  law,  appeals  went  in  many  cases 
directly  to  the  Crown  and  were  attended  to  gener- 
ally by  the  chancellor  or  the  council.  For  the 
King  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  court  of 
king's  bench  especially  reserved  to  himself  the  de- 
cision of  particularly  difficult  cases.  From  these 
reserved  judicial  powers  grew  up  the  court  of 
chancery  as  well  as  other  courts.  In  answer  to 
such  appeals  the  court  of  king's  bench  issued  in  the 
name  of  the  Crown  certain  writs  directed  to  the 
officer  whose  decision  was  complained  of,  and  so 
formed  as  to  afford  the  desired  relief.  Though 
these  writs  were  originally  issued  from  the  office  of 
the  chancellor,  the  court  soon  obtained  the  right  to 
issue  them  directly.  These  writs  were  named  from 
the  most  prominent  words  in  them — words 
which  largely  expressed  the  purpose  of  the  writ. 
Thus,  if  anyone  appealed  to  the  Crown  to  force  a 
recalcitrant  officer  to  do  something  which  the  law 
of  the  land  commanded  the  officer  to  do.  the  writ 
which  was  issued  in  an.swer  to  the  appeal  was 
called  the  writ  of  mandamus.  But  at  the  .same 
time  that  the  court  of  king's  bench  was  developing 


47 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


England 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW 


these  special  remedies,  which  became  known  as 
extraordinar>'  legal  remedies  or  prerogative  writs, 
the  chancellor,  the  keeper  of  the  King's  conscience, 
was,  through  the  exercise  of  the  reserved  judicial 
powers  of  the  King,  also  developing  a  series  of 
special  remedies  called  equitable  remedies,  the  most 
important  of  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
administrative  law,  was  the  bill  of  injunction. 
Originally,  however,  the  injunction  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  made  use  of  commonly  against  offi- 
cers. While  most  of  the  writs  issued  by  the  royal 
courts  were  issued  to  litigants  upon  proper  demand 
de  ctirsu,  and  were  known  as  writs  ex  dehito  jtis- 
litiae,  the  writs  by  means  of  which  the  court  of 
King's  bench  exercised  its  supervisory  powers  over 
the  other  authorities  do  not  seem  to  have  become, 
in  early  times  at  any  rate,  writs  of  right,  writs 
ex  debilo  jtistitiw,  but  were  issued  only  in  extraor- 
dinary cases  when  some  gross  injustice  was  done. 
They  were  known,  therefore,  as  'prerogative  writs. ' 
The  same  was  practically  true  of  the  equitable 
remedies,  and  particularly  of  the  bill  of  injunction. 
Further  on  the  return  to  these  writs,  generally  only 
questions  of  law  were  considered.  They  were  made 
use  of  simply  to  keep  the  lower  authorities  within 
the  bounds  of  the  law,  and  could  not  be  used, 
after  the  practice  in  regard  to  them  became  crys- 
tallized, to  review  any  question  of  fact  or  expe- 
diency. It  therefore  became  necessary  to  develop 
some  further  remedy,  unless  the  lower  authorities 
were  to  be  permitted  to  decide  such  questions  free 
from  all  control.  Such  a  method  was  found  in  the 
power  which  was  granted  to  the  individual  to  ap- 
peal to  the  Privy  Council.  Such  appeals  the  coun- 
cil might  hear  as  a  result  of  the  fact  that  the  King 
granted  to  a  division  of  it,  37:.,  the  star  chamber, 
a  portion  of  his  reserved  judicial  powers.  This 
body  acted  as  the  administrative  superior  of  the 
royal  authorities  in  the  localities,  and  on  appeal  to 
it  questions  of  fact  and  expediency,  as  well  as  of 
law,  could  be  considered.  Formed  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VII  to  control  the  nobility,  who  had  grown 
turbulent  during  the  wars  of  the  Roses,  it  served  at 
first  to  protect  the  weaker  classes  of  the  commu- 
nity against  the  arbitrariness  of  the  administrative 
authorities,  which  were  largely  chosen  from  the 
nobility;  but  it  was  later,  viz.,  under  the  Stuarts, 
used  in  such  a  way  that  it  was  abolished  on  the 
occasion  of  the  revolution  in  1640.  In  order  to 
offer  an  appeal  similar  to  the  one  which  disap- 
peared on  the  occasion  of  its  abolition,  it  was 
provided  in  a  series  of  statutes  that  the  court  of 
quarter  sessions  of  the  justices  of  the  peace,  which 
had  been  theretofore  mainly  an  administrative  au- 
thority for  the  purpose  of  county  administration, 
could  hear  and  decide  appeals  from  those  decisions 
of  the  justices  of  the  peace,  acting  singly  or  in 
petty  and  special  sessions,  which  affected  property 
and  the  richt  of  personal  liberty.  There  was  thus 
formed  for  the  deci.sion  of  questions  of  fact  and 
expediency,  as  well  as  of  law,  an  administrative 
court  in  each  county,  which  came  finally  to  have  a 
very  wide  power  of  control  over  the  acts  of  sub- 
ordinate administrative  officers.  Its  members  fur- 
ther would  certainly  have  special  knowledge  of 
the  law  they  had  to  apply  and  of  the  conditions 
of  administrative  action,  since  they  were  engaged 
in  other  capacities  as  administrative  officers.  Fur- 
ther the  commission  of  the  justices  of  the  peace 
enjoined  upon  them  in  difficult  cases  to  take  the 
advice  of  the  royal  courts.  This  came  finally  to 
be  done  by  'stating  a  case'  which  was  agreed  upon 
by  the  justices  and  the  parties  before  them,  and 
which  was  then  submitted  to  the  royal  courts,  and 
finally  decided  by  them.  In  consequence  of  these 
facts,  one  of  the  writs  which  were  originally  issued 


by  the  court  of  king's  bench,  viz.,  the  certiorari, 
lost  much  of  its  earlier  importance  in  England; 
and  we  find  that  statute  after  statute  was  passed 
which  prohibited  its  use  as  a  means  of  appealing 
from  the  acts  of  administrative  officers.  But  up  to 
the  coming  to  the  throne  of  the  Orange-Stuarts  in 
i68g,  all  officers,  whether  judges  or  administrative 
officers,  held  their  office  at  the  will  of  the  Crown. 
There  was  no  judicial  tenure  as  there  was  at  the 
time  in  both  France  and  Germany.  In  this  fact, 
and  in  the  existence  in  the  Crown  of  reserved 
judicial  powers,  are  probably  to  be  found  the  rea- 
sons why  the  Crown  permitted  such  a  control  over 
the  administration  to  be  given  to  the  courts.  For 
the  Crown  could  exercise  at  any  time  a  strong 
personal  influence  over  the  judges  of  the  courts; 
and  if  it  was  found  that  the  administration  of  the 
law  was  becoming  so  technical  as  to  hamper  the 
action  of  the  administration,  the  Crown  could  at 
any  time  exercise  its  reserved  powers  and  transfer 
any  matter  to  a  newly  created  and  more  pliable 
authority.  In  1701,  however,  all  this  was  changed. 
The  act  of  settlement  made  the  judges  independent 
of  the  royal  power,  and  the  whole  tendency  of 
English  development  was  to  make  the  justices  of 
the  peace  actually,  though  not  legally  independent 
of  the  Crown,  .^n  attempt  by  Lord  Somers  during 
the  reign  of  William  III  to  coerce,  through  the 
power  of  dismissal  from  office,  numerous  justices 
of  the  peace  raised  such  a  storm  of  opposition  that 
no  later  ministry  has  dared  to  make  use  of  such  a 
power.  At  the  same  time  that  the  tenure  of  the 
judges  and  the  justices  became  independent  of  the 
Crown  their  administrative  jurisdiction  remained 
essentially  the  same,  with  the  result  that  the  con- 
trol which  might  before  have  been  regarded  as 
merely  a  part  of  the  administrative  control  became 
absolutely  judicial  in  character,  ;'.  p.,  was  exercised 
by  authorities  independent  of  the  administration 
which  was  to  be  controlled. 

"Such  was  the  condition  of  the  English  adminis- 
trative jurisdiction  at  the  time  the  American 
colonies  were  founded.  At  first,  indeed,  the  Ameri- 
can judges,  like  the  English  judges  of  the  same 
period,  were  both  in  tenure  and  action  under  the 
control  of  the  executive  which  they  were  to  con- 
trol, but  soon  their  tenure  was  assured  both  against 
the  executive  and  the  legislature,  so  that  from  a 
very  early  time  the  higher  courts  exercised  a  really 
judicial  control  over  the  actions  of  the  administra- 
tion. The  justices  of  the  peace  did  not,  however, 
at  first  become  independent  of  the  administration 
in  tenure.  .And  this  was  probably  the  reason  why 
our  courts  of  quarter  sessions  were  not  able  to 
develop  any  very  large  administrative  jurisdiction. 
The  appointment  early  in  our  history  of  other 
officers  for  purely  administrative  purposes  relegated 
the  justices  to  the  position  of  inferior  judicial  offi- 
cers who  have  a  police  jurisdiction  and  a  minor 
civil  private  law  jurisdiction.  They  were  left  very 
few  administrative  duties  to  perform.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  justices  of  the  peace  in 
the  United  States  later  on  obtained  a  tenure  inde- 
pendent of  the  administration,  in  that  they  became 
generally  elected  by  the  people  for  a  fixed  term  of 
office,  they  never  got  anything  like  the  same  ad- 
ministrative jurisdiction  that  was  given  to  their 
English  brothers.  It  is  true  that  in  special  in- 
stances we  find  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  ad- 
ministrative officers  allowed  to  the  courts  of  the 
justices  or  their  successors,  the  county  courts 
Especially  is  this  true  in^  some  of  the  southern 
commonwealths  and  in  Pennsylvania.  But  it  may 
safely  be  said  that  there  has  never  been,  and  is 
not  now  in  the  United  States  any  at  all  important 
administrative  jurisdiction  except  such  as  is  to  be 


48 


ADMIRAL 


ADMIRALTY 


found  in  the  writs  which  the  higher  courts,  as  a 
result  of  their  being  the  heirs  of  the  Enghsh  court 
of  king's  bench,  have  the  right  to  issue.  We  have 
lost  an  important  part  of  the  English  administra- 
tive jurisdiction — particularly  important  because  by 
its  means  a  host  of  questions  of  fact  and  of  expe- 
diency could  be  reviewed  on  appeal.  With  us  such 
questions  are  decided  finally  by  the  administration, 
with  the  result  that  a  most  precious  means  of  pro- 
tecting individual  rights  has  been  lost." — F.  J. 
Goodnow,  Comparative  administrative  law,  v.  2, 
pp.   192-1Q9. 

ADMIRAL. — Origin  of  name. — Duties.  See 
Naval  law:  Origin. 

ADMIRALTY.— Constitution  of  the  British 
Admiralty. — "The  Navy,  as  every  one  knows,  is 
ruled  by  the  .'\dmiralty,  and  the  Admiralty  is  one 
of  the  oldest  organs  of  administration  in  this  coun- 
try [England].  It  is  also  quite  unique  in  its  con- 
stitution and  characteristics.  .  .  .  The  Admiralty, 
indeed,  has  no  iixcd  constitution.  There  are  cer- 
tain documents  which  seem  to  define  its  duties, 
functions,  and  responsibilities,  but  the  inner  spirit 
of  its  working  is  not  to  be  found  in  them.  That 
is  embodied  in  a  whole  mass  of  usages,  precedents, 
prescriptions,  and  informal  understandings,  many 
of  which  have  come  down  from  time  immemorial, 
none  of  which  possesses  the  fixity  of  a  constitu- 
tional text,  while  all  are  endowed  with  a  flexibility 
which  enables  them  to  conform  without  stress  or 
friction  to  circumstances  as  they  arise  in  any 
emergency.  Sir  James  Graham,  a  former  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  who  had  closely  studied  its 
constitution  and  who  himself  took  a  leading  part 
in  one  of  its  most  memorable  reorganizations,  de- 
clared in  1861  to  a  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  'The  more  I  have  investigated  the  mat- 
ter the  more  I  am  satisfied  that,  like  the  common 
law  in  aid  of  the  Statute  Law,  the  power  exercised 
by  the  Board  of  .Admiralty  and  the  different  mem- 
bers of  it  rests  more  upon  usage  than  upon  the 
Patents,  uninterrupted  usage  from  a  very  early 
period.'  Mention  is  here  made  of  'the  Patents.' 
Each  successive  Board  of  Admiralty  derives  its 
formal  authority  from  a  Patent  issued  by  the 
Crown,  a  new  Patent  being  required  whenever  any 
change  is  made  in  the  personnel  of  the  Board.  But 
these  successive  Patents  are,  and  have  been  for 
more  than  two  centuries,  issued  in  substantially  the 
same  form.  The  Patent  issued  by  Queen  Anne 
vesting  in  Commissioners — now  officially  known  as 
'My  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty' — all 
the  powers  previously  exercised  by  her  husband. 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  as  Lord  High  Admiral, 
is,  save  for  certain  small  alterations,  omissions,  and 
additions,  textually  identical  with  that  issued  to  the 
present  Board  of  Admiralty  by  King  George  V. 
From  it  is  nominally  derived  all  the  authority  ex- 
ercised by  the  Board  of  Admiralty  over  the  whole 
naval  service  and  over  the  civil  departments  sub- 
ject to  its  control,  though  in  reality  much  of  that 
authority  is  of  much  earlier  origin  and  date.  The 
Patent  of  Queen  Anne  is  only  one  of  a  long  series, 
though  it  derives  its  special  importance,  on  the  one 
hand,  from  the  fact  that  it  marks  a  break  in  that 
series,  and  on  the  other  from  the  fact  that  it  has 
survived  to  our  own  days.  The  essential  thing  to 
bear  in  mind  is  that  the  Board  of  .'\dmiralty  as  we 
know  it  is  a  body  of  Commissioners  appointed  by 
the  Crown  to  execute  the  office  of  Lord  High 
Admiral.  Now  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
goes  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
its  incumbent  receiving  a  Patent  of  office  just  as 
the  Board  of  Admiraltv  receives  a  similar  Patent 
to-day  The  powers  conferred  on  successive  Lords 
High  Admiral  varied  from  time  to  time  and  were 


gradually  enlarged.  As  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.  the  Patent  had  received  a  form  and  scope  not 
greatly  differing  from  those  of  the  Patent  issued  by 
Queen  Anne  and  her  successors.  We  need  not, 
however,  trace  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
through  its  expansion  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII 
into  an  Office  of  Admiralty  on  the  one  hand  and 
a  Navy  Board  on  the  other,  or  through  its  vicissi- 
tudes in  Stuart  and  Commonwealth  times  down  to 
its  final  abeyance  on  the  death  of  Prince  George  of 
Denmark.  It  was,  it  is  true,  revived  for  a  short 
period  early  in  the  last  century  in  favour  of  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  afterwards  King  William  IV, 
but  the  revival  proved  so  disastrous  to  the  welfare 
and  good  government  of  the  Navy  that  it  soon 
came  to  an  end,  and  for  all  practical  purposes  it 
may  be  said  that  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
has  been  in  commission  since  Prince  George  of 
Denmark  died  in  1709.  But  its  spirit  survives  not 
merely  in  the  Patent  of  Queen  Anne  but  in  an 
earlier  declaratory  Act  passed  in  i6qo  under  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  to  define  the  powers  of  a  Board 
of  Admiralty  appointed  at  a  time  when  the  office 
of  Lord  High  Admiral  was  in  temporary  abeyance. 
That  Statute  recited  that  'all  and  singular  authori- 
ties, jurisdictions  and  powers  which,  by  Act  of 
Parliament  or  otherwise,"  had  been  lawfully  vested 
in  the  Lord  High  ."Kdmiral  of  England,  haci  always 
appertained  and  should  appertain  to  the  Commis- 
sioners for  executing  the  office  for  the  time  being 
'to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  if  the  said  Com- 
missioners were  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England.' 
Whatever,  therefore,  the  Lord  High  Admiral,  in 
the  height  and  plenitude  of  his  power,  might  law- 
fully do,  that  the  Board  of  Admiralty  may  also 
lawfully  do.  Its  power  and  authority  extend  far 
beyond  the  Patent  and  the  Statute  of  William  and 
Mary  because  both  those  instruments  confirm  the 
powers  of  the  Lord  High  Admiral  without  at- 
tempting to  define  them." — C.  Beresford,  Book  of 
the  Navy,  pp.  120-132. 

"We  have  dwelt  upon  this  peculiar  history  be- 
cause it  affords  an  instructive  insight  into  those 
inestimable  qualities  of  flexibility  of  administration 
and  ready  adaptability  to  circumstances  which 
have  made  the  Admiralty  what  it  is.  We  have 
seen  that  both  an  Office  of  Admiralty — constitut- 
ing as  it  were  the  Staff  of  the  Lord  High  Admiral 
— and  a  Navy  Board  existed  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  The  latter  administered  the  civil 
departments  connected  with  the  Navy  in  greater 
or  less  subordination  to  the  former,  which  in  its 
turn  performed  many  of  the  directive  and  execu- 
tive duties  pertaining  to  the  Lord  High  .\dmiral 
himself.  This  was  no  very  logical  distribution  of 
the  administrative  work  to  be  done,  and  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  history  of  naval  administra- 
tion in  the  eighteenth  century  are  well  aware  that 
there  was  constant  friction  between  the  Navy 
Board  and  the  Admiralty  and  that  the  former 
became  in  the  course  of  time  a  very  hotbed  of 
inefficiency  and  even  corruption — vices,  however, 
from  which  the  Admiralty  itself  was  not  entirely 
free.  Still,  the  system  survived  through  the  great 
wars  of  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centu- 
ries and  provided  a  Navy  which,  thanks  mainly 
to  the  zeal  and  devotion  of  the  officers  who  served 
in  it,  was  generally  equal  to  the  work  it  had  to  do. 
It  was  abolished  in  1832,  when  Sir  James  Graham 
in  a  series  of  far-reaching  reforms  put  an  end  to 
what  was  regarded  as  a  mischievous  dual  control. 
The  Navy  Board,  alwavs  subordinate  to  the  Ad- 
miralty, was  then  finally  incorporated  with  the 
latter.  .  .  .  We  must  pass  over  the  various  forms 
which  the  Board  of  Admiralty  has  assumed  since 
the  Patent  of  Queen  Anne  finally  settled  such  writ- 


49 


ADMIRALTY 


Functions 


ADMIRALTY 


ten  constitution  as  it  has,  and  come  at  once  to  its 
structure  and  organization  at  the  present  day 
The  pivot  and  centre  of  the  whole  is  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  naval  officer  of  high 
rank  and  repute,  such  as  Anson,  Hawke,  St. 
Vincent,  Barham,  and  others,  to  hold  the  office 
of  First  Lord.  But  in  more  modern  times  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  has  always  been  a  civilian, 
and  a  politician  with  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet.  The 
professional  element  so  necessary  to  the  govern- 
ment and  control  of  a  great  fighting  service  is  to 
be  found  in  the  naval  members  of  the  Board — Sea 
Lords  as  they  are  officially  designated — and  not  in 
the  statesman  who  presides  over  them.  The  pow- 
ers, functions,  and  responsibilities  of  the  First  Lord 
have  never  been  very  precisely  determined.  He  is 
not  a  Lord  High  Admiral,  since  he  is  only  the 
chief  of  a  body  of  Commissioners  for  executing 
the  office  of  that  functionary,  and  the  powers  con- 
ferred by  the  Patent  are  conferred  not  on  any  indi- 
vidual but  on  'any  two  or  more  of  you.'  Nor  can 
he  as  a  Minister  representing  his  Department  in 
the  Cabinet  and  in  Parliament  act  wholly  inde- 
pendently of  his  colleagues  on  the  Board.  Theo- 
retically he  could,  perhaps,  and  there  may  in  past 
times  have  been  a  few  exceptional  cases  in  which 
a  First  Lord  has  so  acted.  But  in  these  days  a 
First  Lord  who  took  important  decisions  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  judgment  of  his  professional  colleagues 
would  very  soon  find  his  position  untenable.  As 
a  rule,  then,  the  First  Lord  is  the  intermediary 
between  the  Cabinet  and  the  Board,  and  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  Department  in  Parliament,  deriving 
immense  authority  and  influence  from  the  fact 
that — under  the  Cabinet  which  can  always  overrule 
him — he  is  directly  responsible  to  Parliament  and 
the  country  for  the  efficiency  and  sufficiency  of 
the  Fleet,  the  other  members  of  the  Board  being  in 
like  manner  directly  responsible  to  him.  .  .  .  The 
Board  of  Admiralty  as  now  constituted  consists  of 
the  First  Lord,  who  presides  over  it,  of  the  First, 
Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Sea  Lords,  of  the  Civil 
Lord,  of  the  additional  Civil  Lord — who  holds  an 
office  which  formerly  existed  for  a  short  time  and 
was  revived  for  special  purposes  by  Mr.  Churchill 
in  January,  1Q12 — of  the  Parliamentary  Secretary, 
and  of  the  Permanent  Secretary.  The  whole  of 
the  business  of  the  Admiralty  is  distributed  among 
these  several  members  of  the  Board  according  to  a 
standing  scheme  known  as  the  'Distribution  of 
Business.'  This  scheme  is  modified  from  time  to 
time  and  revised  according  to  circumstances,  but 
as  it  stands  for  the  time  being  it  clearly  defines  the 
sphere  of  administration  for  which  each  member 
of  the  Board  is  responsible.  Thus,  according  to 
the  scheme  at  present  in  force,  the  First  Lord  is 
responsible  for  the  'general  direction  of  all  busi- 
ness'— a  comprehensive  range  of  responsibility 
which  of  itself  invests  the  First  Lord  with  a  large 
measure  of  authority  over  each  and  all  of  his  col- 
leagues. The  First  Sea  Lord  is  responsible  for 
'organization  for  war  and  distribution  of  the 
Fleet'  and  for  all  executive  and  administrative 
questions  relating  thereto.  In  particular  he  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  War  Staff, 
about  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  hereafter. 
The  Second  Sea  Lord  is  responsible  for  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  'Personnel'  and  the  Third  Sea  Lord 
for  all  questions  relating  to  'Materiel  '  The  Fourth 
Sea  Lord  is  responsible  for  all  questions  relating  to 
'Stores  and  Transport,'  The  Civil  Lord  is  respon- 
sible for  all  questions  relating  to  'Works,  Build- 
ings, and  Oreenwich  Hospital.'  and  the  .Additional 
Civil  Lord  for  all  questions  relating  to  'Contracts 
and  Dockyard  Business.'     The  Parliamentary  Sec- 


retary is  at  the  head  of  the  department  of 
'Finance'  and  the  Permanent  Secretary  superin- 
tends all  '.Admiralty  Business.'  He  controls  the 
internal  administration  of  the  Department,  and  all 
communications  from  'My  Lords  Commissioners 
of  the  Admiralty'  pass  through  his  office  and  are 
signed  by  him.  .  .  .  Thus  all  the  master  threads  of 
a  vast  network  of  administration,  affecting  every 
branch  of  naval  policy,  naval  preparation,  naval 
construction,  and  naval  finance,  pass  in  due  order 
into  the  Board  Room,  thence,  after  due  delibera- 
tion and  decision,  to  issue  in  the  form  of  execu- 
tive orders  and  directions.  This  is  the  paramount 
function  of  the  Board,  a  function  which  immemo- 
rial usage  and  that  flexibility  of  adaptation  which 
is  native  to  the  sea  service  enable  it  to  discharge 
with  rare  efficiency  and,  on  occasion,  with  unex- 
ampled celerity  and  dispatch,  all  Statutes,  Patents, 
and  Orders  in  Council  notwithstanding.  As  Lord 
George  Hamilton,  a  former  First  Lord  of  great 
experience,  told  a  Royal  Commission  in  1887,  'It 
has  this  advantage,  that  you  have  all  departments 
represented  round  a  table,  and  that  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  quick  action,  you  can  do  in  a  few 
minutes  that  which  it  would  take  hours  under  any 
other  system  to  do.'  Lastly,  there  is  one  vital 
organ  of  naval  administration  which  has  already 
been  mentioned  above,  but  which  will  well  repay 
some  further  consideration.  This  is  the  War  Staff. 
In  its  present  form  the  War  Staff  is  a  newly-con- 
stituted department — the  country  owes  it  to  the 
initiative  of  the  present  First  Lord — though  its 
constituent  elements,  imperfectly  articulated  and 
co-ordinated,  have  existed  at  the  Admiralty  for 
many  years  past.  .\  Foreign  Intelligence  Branch 
was  first  established  in  1883.  This  developed  in  a 
few  years  into  the  Naval  Intelligence  Department, 
its  development  in  that  direction  having  been 
greatly  advanced  by  that  gallant  and  zealous  offi- 
cer Admiral  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  who  as  Fourth 
Sea  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  from  1886  to  1888 
strenuously  insisted  on  its  vital  importance,  and 
is  believed  to  have  resigned  in  the  latter  year  be- 
cause he  could  not  overcome  the  apathy  of  his 
colleagues  on  the  subject.  The  Naval  Intelligence 
Department  has  now  in  its  turn  been  absorb.cd  into 
a  fully  constituted  War  Staff,  of  which  the  best 
description  is  to  be  found  in  the  following  extracts 
from  a  Memorandum  drawn  up  by  the  present 
First  Lord  [Winston  S.  Churchill]  and  issued  by 
the  Admiralty  on  January   i,  1Q12:  — 

"'.  .  .  Naval  war  is  at  once  more  simple  and 
more  intense  than  war  on  land.  The  executive  ac- 
tion and  control  of  fleet  and  squadron  commanders 
is  direct  and  personal  in  a  far  stronger  degree  than 
that  of  generals  in  the  field,  especially  under  mod- 
ern conditions.  The  art  of  handling  a  great  fleet 
on  important  occasions  with  deft  and  sure  judg- 
ment is  the  supreme  gift  of  the  admiral,  and  prac- 
tical seamanship  must  never  be  displaced  from  its 
position  as  the  first  qualification  of  every  sailor. 
The  formation  of  a  War  Staff  does  not  mean  the 
setting  up  of  new  standards  of  professional  merit 
of  the  opening  of  a  road  of  advancement  to  a  dif- 
ferent class  of  officers.  The  War  Staff  is  to  be  the 
means  of  preparing  and  training  those  officers  who 
arrive,  or  are  likely  to  arrive  by  the  excellence  of 
Iheir  sea  service,  at  stations  of  high  responsibility 
for  dealing  with  the  more  extended  problems  which 
await  them  there.  It  is  to  be  the  means  of  sifting, 
developing,  and  applying  the  results  of  history  and 
experience,  and  of  preserving  them  as  a  general 
stork  of  reasoned  opinion  available  as  an  aid 
and  as  a  guide  for  all  who  are  called  upon  to 
determine,  in  peace  or  war,  the  naval  policy  of 
the   country.  .  .  . 


50 


ADMIRALTY 


ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS 


"  'It  should  not  be  supposed  that  these  functions 
find  no  place  in  Admiralty  organization  at  the 
present  time.  On  the  contrary,  during  the  course 
of  years,  all  or  nearly  all  the  elements  of  a  War 
Staff  at  the  Admiralty  have  been  successively 
evolved  in  the  practical  working  of  every-day  af- 
fairs, and  have  been  developing  since  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Foreign  Intelligence  Branch  in  18S3. 
The  time  has  now  come  to  combine  these  elements 
into  an  harmonious  and  effective  organization,  to 
invest  that  new  body  with  a  significance  and  influ- 
ence it  has  not  hitherto  possessed,  and  to  place  it 
in  its  proper  relation  to  existing  power. 

"  'Since,  however,  under  the  distribution  of  Ad- 
miralty business  on  the  Board,  the  First  Sea  Lord 
occupies  for  certain  purposes,  especially  the  daily 
distribution  of  the  Fleet,  on  which  the  safety  of 
the  country  depends,  the  position  of  a  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Navy,  with  the  First  Lord 
immediately  over  him,  as  the  delegate  of  the 
Crown  in  exercising  supreme  executive  power,  it 
follows  that  the  War  Staff  must  work  at  all  times 
directly  under  the  First  Sea  Lord.  His  position 
is  different  in  important  respects  from  that  of  the 
senior  member  of  the  .'\rmy  Council  as  constituted. 
The  First  Sea  Lord  is  an  executive  officer  in  active 
control  of  daily  Fleet  movements,  who  requires, 
like  a  General  in  the  field,  to  have  at  his  disposal 
a  Chief  of  the  Staff,  but  who  is  not  the  Chief  of 
the  Staff  himself. 

"  'A  proper  staff,  whether  naval  or  military, 
should  comprise  three  main  branches — namely,  a 
branch  to  acquire  the  information  on  which  action 
may  be  taken;  a  branch  to  deliberate  on  the  facts 
so  obtained  in  relation  to  the  policy  of  the  State, 
and  to  report  thereupon;  and,  thirdly,  a  branch  to 
enable  the  final  decision  of  superior  authority  to 
be  put  into  actual  effect.  The  War  Staff  at  the 
Admiralty  will,  in  pursuance  of  this  principle,  be 
organized  from  the  existing  elements  in  three  divi- 
sions— the  Intelligence  Division,  the  Operations  Di- 
vision, and  the  Mobilization  Division.  These  may 
be  shortly  described  as  dealing  with  war  informa- 
tion, war  plans,  and  war  arrangements  respectively. 
The  divisions  will  be  equal  in  status,  and  each 
will  be  under  a  director,  who  will  usually  be  a 
Captain  of  standin.'.  The  three  divisions  will 
be  combined  together  under  a  Chief  of  the 
Staff. 

"  'The  Chief  of  the  Staff  will  be  a  Flag  Officer. 
He  will  be  primarily  responsible  to  the  First  Sea 
Lord,  and  will  work  under  him  as  his  principal  as- 
sistant and  agent.  He  will  not,  however,  be  the 
sole  channel  of  communication  between  the  First 
Sea  Lord  and  the  Staff;  and  the  First  Lord  and 
the  First  Sea  Lord  will,  whenever  convenient,  con- 
sult the  Directors  of  the  various  Divisions  or 
other  officers  if  necessary.  .  .  .  The  Chief  of  the 
War  Staff  will  guide  and  co-ordinate  the  work  of 
the  Staff  in  all  its  branches.  He  will,  when  de- 
sired, accompany  the  First  Lord  and  the  First  Sea 
Lord  to  the  Committee  of  Imperial  Defence.  .  .  . 
"  'The  functions  of  the  W'ar  Staff  will  be  advi- 
sory. The  Chief  of  the  Staff,  when  decision  has 
been  taken  upon  any  proposal,  will  be  jointly  re- 
sponsible with  the  Secretary  for  the  precise  form 
in  which  the  necessary  orders  to  the  Fleet  are  is- 
sued, but  the  Staff  will  possess  no  executive  au- 
thority. It  will  discharge  no  administrative  duties. 
Its  responsibilities  will  end  with  the  tendering  of 
advice  and  with  the  accuracy  of  the  facts  on  which 
that  advice  is  based. 

"  'Decision  as  to  accepting  or  rejecting  the  ad- 
vice of  the  Staff  wholly  or  in  part  rests  with  the 
First  Sea  lord,  who,  in  the  name  of  the  Board  of 
Admiralty,  discharges   the   duties  assigned  to  him 


by  the  Minister.  In  the  absence  of  the  First  Sea 
Lord  for  any  cause  the  Second  Sea  Lord  would 
act  for  him.  .  .  . 

"  'The  selection  and  training  of  the  officers  to 
compose  a  Staff  of  the  nature  described  as  impor- 
tant Hitherto  no  special  qualifications  have  been 
regarded  as  essential  for  the  officers  employed  in 
the  Intelligence  and  Mobilization  Departments, 
because  the  ordinary  sea  training  of  naval  officers 
was  supposed  to  supply  all  that  was  required. 
This  training,  however,  although  admirable  on  its 
practical  side,  affords  no  instruction  in  the 
broader  questions  of  strategy  and  policy,  which  be- 
come increasingly  important  year  by  year,  A 
change  in  this  respect  is  therefore  considered  ad- 
visable, and  a  special  course  of  training  at  the  War 
College  will  form  an  essential  part  of  the  new 
arrangements.  The  President  of  the  College  will 
be  entrusted  with  this  important  duty,  and  in 
order  that  it  may  be  carried  out  to  the  best  effect, 
he  will  at  all  times  be  in  close  touch  and  associa- 
tion with  the  Chief  of  the  Staff.  In  course  of 
time  the  appointment  will  be  held  by  a  Flag  Offi- 
cer who  has  been  a  Staff  Officer  himself.  Candi- 
dates for  the  Staff  will  be  selected  from  volunteers 
among  lieutenants  of  suitable  seniority  as  well  as 
officers  of  other  branches  throughout  the  Service 
irrespective  .of  their  previous  qualifications  as 
specialist  officers  or  otherwise,  and  those  who  pass 
the  necessary  examinations  at  the  end  of  or  during 
the  War  College  course  will  be  eligible  to  receive 
appointments  either  at  the  Admiralty  or  on  the 
Staff  of  Flag  Officers  afloat  as  they  fall  vacant. 
In  all  cases,  however,  regular  periods  of  sea-going 
executive  duty  will  alternate  with  the  other  duties 
of  Staff  Officers  of  all  ranks,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  kept  up  to  the  necessary  standard  as  prac- 
tical sea  officers.  .'\ll  appointments  on  sea-going 
staffs  will  in  the  course  of  time  be  filled  by  these 
officers,  and  form  the  proper  avenue  to  eventual 
employment  in  the  highest  Staff  positions  at  the 
■Admiralty.   .   .   ." — Ibid.,   1,^3-137,   130-144. 

1912-1920. — Reorganizations. — There  have  been 
two  important  reorganizations  of  the  Admiralty  in 
recent  years,  the  first  being  part  of  Winston 
Churchill's  naval  schemes,  the  second  made  neces- 
sary by  the  increased  responsibilities  of  the  World 
War,  In  igi2,  the  various  members  of  the  board 
of  Admiralty  were  made  responsible  for  special 
functions: — the  First  Lord,  general  direction  of 
business;  First  Sea  Lord,  organization  for  war  and 
distribution  of  the  fleet;  Second  Sea  Lord,  per- 
sonnel; Third  Sea  Lord,  stores  and  transport;  Civil 
Lord,  works,  buildings,  and  hospital;  Additional 
Civil  Lord,  contracts  and  dockyard  business;  Par- 
liamentary Secretary,  finance;  Permanent  Secre- 
tary, admiralty  business.  The  reorganization  of 
iqi7  took  place  on  May  14,  the  principal  feature 
being  that  a  Naval  Staff  was  embodied  in  the 
Board.  At  present  fio::]  the  duties  of  the  Ad- 
miralty are  divided  into  the  two  departments  of 
operations  and  maintenance.  The  first  division  has 
as  its  functions  naval  policy  and  the  general  direc- 
tion of  operations,  war  operations  in  home  waters 
and  elsewhere,  trade  protection  and  anti-submarine 
operations.  The  officers  in  charge  are  the  First 
Sea  Lord  and  Chief  of  the  Naval  Staff,  and  the 
Deputy  and  .Assistant  Chiefs  of  the  Naval  Staff. 
The  maintenance  division  is  in  charge  of  the  Sec- 
ond. Third,  and  Fourth  Sea  Lords,  and  the  Civil 
Lord,  and  is  concerned  with  personnel,  finance, 
supplies   and   transport. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a  small  group  of 
tropical  islands,  off  the  northeastern  coast  of  New 
Guinea,  forming  a  part  of  the  Bismarck  Archipel- 
ago.    Became  a  German  protectorate  in  1884.   The 


51 


ADMIRALTY  LAW 


ADMIRALTY  LAW 


principal  island  is  Taui,  or  Manus.  On  September 
12,  igi4,  they  were  occupied  by  an  Australian  force 
and  were  awarded  to  Australia  as  mandatory  in 
igig. — See  also  Bismarck  archipelago;  Melane- 
sia. 

ADMIRALTY  LAW,  the  system  of  law  and 
procedure  referring  to  maritime  transactions.  The 
term  originated  in  England  from  the  fact  that  this 
branch  of  law  was  originally  administered  by  the 
Lord  High  Admiral.  At  present,  the  Court  of 
Admiralty  in  that  country  forms  a  separate  part  of 
the  High  Court  of  Justice,  being  grouped  with  the 
Probate  and  Divorce  Courts  in  a  special  division. 
Its  jurisdiction  includes  actions  to  recover  posses- 
sion of  a  ship,  to  recover  damages  for  injuries  to 
shipping,  to  recover  seamen's  wages,  for  necessaries 
furnished  to  a  ship,  for  bottomry  [a  loan  on  the 
ship],  respondentia  |a  loan  on  the  goods  in  the 
ship]  and  mortgage,  for  pilotage  and  towage,  for 
salvage,  for  restoration  of  goods  taken  by  pirates, 
for  assaults  and  batteries  on  the  high  seas  and  all 
actions  of  similar  scope.  In  the  United  States,  the 
federal  judiciary  possesses  exclusive  jurisdiction  in 
all  maritime  cases.  This  includes  all  cases  arising 
on  the  high  seas  or  Great  Lakes,  and  most  of  those 
on  navigable  rivers  and  canals  within  the  territory 
of  the  United  States.  In  this  country  there  is  no 
special  Admiralty  Court.  .^dmiralty  cases  are 
heard  in  the  first  instance  in  the  United  States 
District  Courts,  from  which  they  may  be  appealed 
to  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  and  finally  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court. — See  also  Naval 
law:  Court  of  Admiralty. 

1183. — Law  as  to  shipwrecks. — "The  Emperor 
Constantine,  or  Antonine  (for  there  is  some  doubt 
as  to  which  it  was),  had  the  honour  of  being  the 
first  to  renounce  the  claim  to  shipwrecked  property 
in  favor  of  the  rightful  owner.  But  the  inhuman 
customs  on  this  subject  were  too  deeply  rooted  to 
be  eradicated  by  the  wisdom  and  vigilance  of  the 
Roman  law  givers.  The  legislation  in  favor  of  the 
unfortunate  was  disregarded  by  succeeding  em- 
perors, and  when  the  empire  itself  was  overturned 
by  the  northern  barbarians,  the  laws  of  humanity 
were  swept  away  in  the  tempest,  and  the  continual 
depredations  of  the  Saxons  and  Normans  induced 
the  inhabitants  of  the  western  coasts  of  Europe  to 
treat  all  navigators  who  were  thrown  by  the  perils 
of  the  sea  upon  their  shores  as  pirates,  and  to 
punish  them  as  such,  without  inquiry  or  discrim- 
ination. The  Emperor  Andronicus  Comncnus,  who 
reigned  at  Constantinople  in  1183,  made  great 
efforts  to  repress  this  inhuman  practice.  His  edict 
was  worthy  of  the  highest  praise,  but  it  cea.sed  to 
be  put  in  execution  after  his  death.  .  .  .  VaUn 
says,  it  was  reserved  to  the  ordinances  of  Lewis 
XIV.  to  put  the  finishing  stroke  towards  the  ex- 
tinction of  this  species  of  piracy,-  by  declaring  that 
shipwrecked  persons  and  property  were  placed  un- 
der the  special  protection  and  safe  guard  of  the 
crown,  and  the  punishment  of  death  without  hope 
of  pardon,  was  pronounced  against  the  guilty." — 
J.   Kent,  hilrrnntiPiHi!  Ia-d\  p.  31. 

1537. — Jurisdiction.— The  act  of  28  Henry 
VIII,  c.  T?,  granted  jurisdiction  to  the  lord  high 
admiral  of  England. 

1575. — Jurisdiction.— "The  request  of  the  Judge 
of  the  Admiralty,  to  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  her 
Majesty's  bench  and  his  colleagues,  and  the  Judges' 
.Agreement  7th  May  157,=;, "^by  which  the  long 
controversy  between  these  courts  as  to  their  rela- 
tive jurisdiction  was  terminated,  will  be  found  in 
full  in  E.  C.  Benedict,  American  Admiralty,  4lh 
ed.,  p    7,0. 

1664. — Tide-mark. — The  space  between  high 
and  low  water  mark  is  to  be  taken  as  part  of  the 


sea,  when  the  tide  is  in.— E.  C.  Benedict,  American 
Admiralty,  4th  ed.,  p.  a. 

1789. — United  States  Judiciary  Act. — The  Act 
of  I78g  declared  admiralty  jurisdiction  to  extend 
to  all  cases  "where  the  seizures  are  made  on  waters 
which  are  navigable  from  the  sea  by  vessels  of  ten 
or  more  tons  burthen." — Judiciary  Act,  U.  S.  stat- 
utes at  large,  v.  1,  p.  76. — See  also  Supreme  Court: 
I78g-i835. 

1798. — Lord  Stowell  and  admiralty  law. — 
"Lord  Mansfield,  at  a  very  early  period  of  his 
judicial  life,  introduced  to  the  notice  of  the  Eng- 
lish bar  the  Rhodian  laws,  the  Consolato  del  Mare, 
the  laws  of  Oleron,  the  treatises  of  Roccus,  the 
laws  of  Wisbuy,  and,  above  all,  the  marine  ordi- 
nances of  Louis  XIV,  and  the  commentary  'f 
Valin.  These  authorities  were  cited  by  him  in 
Luke  V.  Lyde  (2  Burr.  882),  and  from  that  time  a 
new  direction  was  given  to  English  studies,  and 
new  vigor,  and  more  liberal  and  enlarged  views, 
communicated  to  forensic  investigations." — J.  Kent, 
Commentaries,  pi.  5,  lecture  42. — The  old  maritime 
codes  brought  before  the  English  bar  at  this  time 
were  among  the  most  important  in  the  develop- 
ment of  maritime  law.  The  Rhodian  laws  dating 
back  possibly  to  the  third  century  stated  that  "if 
cargo  is  thrown  overboard  to  lighten  a  ship  all 
must  contribute  to  make  good  the  loss  incurred  for 
the  benefit  of  all."  The  laws  of  Oleron,  compiled 
in  the  twelfth  century  by  order  of  Eleanor  of 
Aquitaine  were  made  up  of  the  judgments  of  the 
court  of  Oleron,  an  important  shipping  center,  and 
of  the  usages  of  the  sea  having  force  among  the 
mariners  of  that  island.  The  Consolato  del  Mare, 
compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Catalans 
of  Barcelona,  was  made  up  of  the  settled  uses  of 
trade  and  navigation  of  the  maritime  provinces  of 
the  Mediterranean.  The  laws  of  Wisby  were  the 
mercantile  customs  and  regulations  from  Wisby, 
Sweden,  compiled  in  the  last  years  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  in  force  throughout  the  Baltic  sea. 
They  were  the  basis  of  the  maritime  regulations 
of  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1681,  Louis  XIV  had 
collected  and  systematised  the  whole  law  of  ship- 
ping, navigation,  marine  insurance,  bottomry,  etc. 
— "Since  the  year  1708,  the  decisions  of  Sir  William 
Scott  (now  Lord  Stowell)  on  the  admiralty  side  of 
Westminster  Hall,  have  been  read  and  admired  in 
every  region  of  the  republic  of  letters,  as  models 
of  the  most  cultivated  and  the  most  enlightened 
human  reason.  .  .  .  The  doctrines  are  there  rea- 
soned out  at  large,  and  practically  applied.  The 
arguments  at  the  bar,  and  the  opinions  from  the 
bench,  are  intermingled  with  the  greatest  reflec- 
tions, .  .  the  soundest  policy,  and  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  all  the  various  topics  which 
concern  the  great  social  interests  of  mankind." — 
Ibid. 

1803-1809 — Impressment  of  American  seamen 
by  British  navy.  See  U  S  ,\  :  1803:  Report  on 
British   impressment;    1804-1800. 

1841-1842. — Jurisdiction. — The  act  3  and  4  Vic, 
c  b^,  restored  to  the  English  .Xdmiralty  some  juris- 
diction of  which  it  had  been  deprived  by  the  Com- 
mon Law  Courts. — E.  C.  Benedict,  American  Ad- 
miralty, p.   .s6 

1845. — Extension  of  admiralty  jurisdiction. — 
"It  took  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
more  than  fifty  years  to  reject  the  antiquated  doc- 
trine of  the  English  courts,  that  admiralty  juris- 
diction was  confined  to  salt  water,  or  water  where 
the  tide  ebbed  and  flowed.  Congress  in  184S 
passed  an  act  extending  the  admiralty  jurisdiction 
of  the  Federal  courts  to  certain  cases  upon  the 
great  lakes,  and  the  navigable  waters  connecting 
the  same.     The  constitutionality  of  this  act  was 


52 


ADMIRALTY  LAW 


ADRIA 


seriously  questioned,  and  it  was  not  till.  1851  that 
the  Supreme  Court,  by  a  divided  court,  in  the  case 
of  the  Genesee  Chief,  which  collided  with  another 
vessel    on    Lake    Ontario,    sustained    the    constitu- 
tionality   of    the   act,    and    repudiated    the   absurd 
doctrine  that  tides   had   anything   to  do   with  the 
admiralty  jurisdiction  conferred  by  the  constitution 
upon  Federal  courts." — L.  Trumbull,  Precedent   ver- 
sus justice  {American  Law  Review,  v.  27,  p.  324). 
Also  in:  Act  of  1845,5  U.S.  Statutes  at  large,  726. 
1873. — Division   of   loss   in   case   of    collision 
settled  by  Judicature  Act. — "The  rule  that  where 
both  ships  are  at   fault  for  a  collision  each  shall 
recover  half  his   loss   from   the   other,  contradicts 
the  old   rule   of  the  common  law  that   a   plaintiff 
who  is  guilty   of  contributory   negligence   can   re- 
cover nothing.     This  conflict  between  the  common 
law  and  the  law  of  the  Admiralty  was  put  an  end 
to   in    1873   by    the  Judicature   Act    of   that   year, 
which  (s.  25,  subs,  g)   provides  that  'if  both  ships 
shall   be   found   to    have   been    in    fault'    the    Ad- 
miralty   rule   shall   prevail.  .  .  .  There   can    be   no 
doubt  that  in  some  instances  it  works  positive  in- 
justice;  as  where  it   prevents  the  innocent  cargo- 
owner    from    recovering    more    than    half   his   loss 
from    one    of    the    two    wrong-doing    shipowners. 
And  recent  cases  show  that  it  works  in   an  arbi- 
trary and  uncertain  manner  when  combined  with 
the    enactments    limiting    the    shipowner's    liability 
for  damage  done  by  his  ship.     The  fact,  however, 
remains,   that   it   has   been   in   operation   with   the 
approval  of  the  shipping  community   for  at   least 
two   centuries,    and    probably    for   a   much    longer 
period;   and  an  attempt  to  abolish  it  at  the  time 
of   the   passing   of   the   Judicature   Acts   met   with 
no   success.     The   true   reason   of  its   very   general 
acceptance  is  probably  this — that  it  gives  effect  to 
the  principle  of  distributing  losses  at  sea,  which  is 
widely    prevalent    in   maritime   affairs.     Insurance, 
limitation    of    shipowner's    liability,    and    general 
average   contribution    are    all   connected,    more    or 
less  directly,  with  this  principle." — R.  G.  Marsden, 
Two    points    of    admiralty    law    (Law    Quarterly 
Review,  v.  2,  pp.  357-362). 

An  enumeration  of  the  various  maritime  codes 
with  their  dates  may  be  found  in  E.  C.  Benedict, 
American  admiralty,  pp.  88-Qq,  4tli  ed. — G.  B, 
Davis,  Outlines  of  international  law,  pp.  5-6. 

1917-1921.— Effect  of  Supreme  Court  de- 
cisions.    See  Supreme  Court:   1017-1021. 

1920. — American  principle  in  admiralty  pro- 
cedure.—  Federal  jurisdiction.  —  Federal  and 
state  regulations. — "The  wisdom  of  our  ancestors, 
in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  Republic,  is  in 
nothing  more  evident  than  in  our  organic  regula- 
tions in  relation  to  commerce.  For  all  commercial 
purposes  we  must  be  one  people;  no  different  rules 
must  be  applied  in  our  maritime  commerce  in  the 
ports  of  different  states;  perfect  freedom  and  equal- 
ity of  trade  and  navigation  amon,'  ourselves  is  con- 
stitutionally secure.  If  it  had  not  been  so,  long  be- 
fore this  time  we  should  have  been  divided,  weak 
and  antagonistic  sections,  the  fragments  of  our  orig- 
inal Union.  How  easy  it  is  to  perceive  that  our  har- 
mony might  be  interrupted,  and  our  strength  im- 
paired, if  each  state  might  adopt  and  enforce,  on 
its  half  of  a  river,  its  section  of  a  lake,  its  short 
stretch  of  coast,  in  its  own  ports  and  harbors  and 
local  waters,  to  which  all  states  have  a  common 
right  of  use,  a  system  of  commercial  and  maritime 
law,  repealing,  or  conflicting  with  that  great  sys- 
tem of  commercial  law  which  is  known  as  the 
Admiralty  and  Maritime  Law,  and  which  alone 
can  secure  those  equal  state  rights  which  it  was 
one  great  object  of  the  Constitution  to  protect." — 
E.  C.  Benedict,  American  admiralty,  4tli  ed.,  p.  112 


The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  pro- 
vides (Art.  3,  Sect.  2)  that  the  judicial  power  of 
the  United  States  should  extend  to  all  cases  of 
admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction.  Art.  i,  Sec- 
tion 8  gives  Congress  power  to  make  all  laws  neces- 
sary to  carry  into  execution  the  powers  vested  in 
the  Federal  government. 

The  Federal  Constitution  adopted  and  established, 
as  part  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  approved 
rules  of  the  general  maritime  law,  and  empowered 
Congress  to  legislate  in  respect  of  them  and  other 
matters  within  the  admiralty  and  maritime  juris- 
diction. Moreover,  it  took  from  the  states  all 
power,  by  legislation  or  judicial  decision,  to  con- 
travene the  essential  purposes  of,  or  to  work  ma- 
terial injury  to,  characteristic  features  of  such  law, 
or  to  interfere  with  its  proper  harmony  and  uni- 
formity in  its  international  and  interstate  relations. 
(Knickerbocker  Ice  Co.  vs.  Stewart,  1920),  253 
U.  S.  149). 

See  also  Armed  merch.^ntmen  ;  Asylum,  right 
of;  Continuous  voyage;  Freedom  of  the  seas: 
1650-1815;  Hague  conference:  IQ07;  London, 
Declaration  of;  Navigation  laws;  Paris,  Dec- 
laration of. 

ADOLPH  of  NASSAU  (1255-1298),  German 
king,  son  of  Walram,  count  of  Nassau,  chosen 
king  to  succeed  Rudolph  I,  on  May  5,  1292,  being 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  July  i.  To 
strengthen  his  position  in  1204  he  allied  himself 
with  Edward  I  of  England,  against  France,  but 
failed  to  aid  him.  Was  deposed  in  1298  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  conspiracy  against  him  by  Albert  I  of 
Austria  and  VVenceslaus  II  of  Bohemia,  Albert  suc- 
ceeding him.    See  Austria:   1291-1349. 

ADOLPHUS  FREDERICK  (1710-1771),  king 
of  Sweden.  After  being  bishop  of  Liibeck,  was  in 
1743  chosen  as  heir  to  the  Swedish  throne;  became 
king  in  1751  and  reigned  until  1771.  Due  to  the 
wrangling  in  the  Riksdag  which  was  composed  of 
the  two  political  cliques,  the  Caps  and  the  Hats, 
his  position  was  without  real  power.  See  Sweden: 
1720-1792. 

ADONIJAH,  son  of  David;  attempted  to  gain 
throne  from  Solomon.  See  Jews:  Kingdoms  of 
Israel  and  Judah. 
ADOPTION,  Roman.  See  Roman  FAinLv. 
ADOPTIONISM,  a  doctrine,  condemned  as 
heretical  in  the  eighth  century,  which  taught  that 
"Christ,  as  to  his  human  nature,  was  not  truly  the 
Son  of  God,  but  only  His  son  by  adoption."  The 
dogma  is  also  known  as  the  Felician  heresy,  from 
a  Spanish  bishop,  Felix,  who  was  prominent  among 
its  supporters.  Charlemagne  took  active  measures 
to  suppress  the  heresy. — J.  I.  Mombert,  History  of 
Charles  the  Great,  bk.  2,  ch.  12. 

ADOR,  Gustave,  (1845-  ),  president  of 
Switzerland  during  igiq  and  during  the  World  War 
was  president  of  International  Committee  of  the 
Red  Cross.  See  Switzerland:  Swiss  Red  Cross 
and  the  World  War. 

ADORNI    FACTION:    Genoa.      See    Genoa: 
1458-1464. 
ADOWA,  Battle  of.    See  Italy:  1895-1896. 
ADRAR,  an   oasis   in  the  western  part   of   the 
Sahara,  on  the  caravan  route  of  Morocco;  by  the 
agreement  of  1892  a  part  of  French  Sahara. 

ADRENALINE,  Isolation  and  development 
of.  See  Chemistry:  Practical  application:  Drugs. 
ADRIA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Rovigo,  Italy,  the  ancient  Atria  (the  form 
Hadria  is  less  correct) .  About  30  miles  southwest 
of  Venice;  was  originally  an  island,  and  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  a  naval  station  and  flourish- 
ing port  but  is  now  far  inland;  has  numerous 
antiquities,  having  been  successively  an  Illyrian,  a 


53 


ADRIAN 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


Greek,  and  a  Roman  town;  population  {1Q20) 
about   17,000. 

ADRIAN,  or  Hadrian  (Lat.  Hadrianus),  the 
name  of  six  popes. 

Adrian  I,  pope  from  772  to  795;  found  it  neces- 
sary to  call  upon  Charlemangne  to  drive  out  Desi- 
derius,  King  of  the  Lombards,  from  the  territory 
bestowed  on  the  popes  by  King  Pepin.  .Adrian  was 
faithful  to  the  Prankish  alliance  throughout  his 
reign.  Charlemagne  wrote  the  epitaph  upon 
Adrian's  death  which  may  be  seen  to  this  day  on 
the  door  of  the  Vatican  basilica. 

Adrian  11,  pope  from  867-872,  assuming  his 
duties  at  an  advanced  age.  He  spent  his  last  years 
in  a  vain  effort  to  mediate  between  the  quarrels  of 
the  Prankish  princes.  Adrian  II  was  forced  to  sub- 
mit to  Emperor  Louis  II  in  numerous  temporal 
disputes. 

Adrian  III,  pope,  succeeding  Marinus  I  in  884. 
Died  the  following  year  while  journeying  to 
Worms. 

Adrian  IV  (Nicholas  Breakspeare),  pope  from 
1 1 54  to  1150,  the  only  Englishman  who  has  oc- 
cupied the  papal  chair;  born  at  Langjey  in  Hert- 
fordshire before  1100;  served  as  legate  in  Scan- 
dinavia from  1 1 52  to  1 1 54;  placed  Rome  under 
the  interdict  because  of  the  murder  of  one  of  the 
cardinals.  Adrian  I\'  bestowed  the  soverei  nty  of 
Ireland  on  Henry  H  of  England.  In  11 55  he  used 
drastic  measures  in  putting  down  the  democratic 
aspirations  of  the  Roman  people  under  Arnold  of 
Brescia  whom  he  succeeded  in  having  executed. 
He  virtually  began  the  bitter  struggle  between  the 
papal  power  and  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  and 
died  just  as  he  was  about  to  march  at  the  head  of 
the  Italian  forces  against  Emperor  Frederick  I. 

Adrian  V  (Ottobuono  de  Fieschi),  became  pope 
July  II,  127b,  succeeding  pope  Innocent  I\';  lived 
but  five  weeks  following  his  election  to  the  papal 
chair,  dying  at  \iterbo  on  .August  18. 

Adrian  VI  (Adrian  Dedel,  1450-1523),  pope, 
1522-1523;  appointed  tutor  by  the  Emperor  Max- 
imilian to  his  seven-year-old  grandson,  Charles, 
who  later  became  Charles  V.  Adrian's  former 
pupil  made  him  regent  of  Spain  in  1520,  under 
which  regency  a  serious  revolt  broke  out.  As 
pope,  Adrian  sought  to  correct  many  ecclesiastical 
abuses.  Because  of  his  brief  occujiancy  of  the 
papal  throne,  however,  his  efforts  as  reformer  were 
hardly  effective. — See  also  Pap.^cy:  1522-1525; 
Sfain:  1518-1522. 

ADRIANOPLE  (Hadrianople),  a  city  in 
Thrace  founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  and 
designated  by  hi?  name.  It  was  the  scene  of  Con- 
stantine's  victory  over  Licinius  in  323  (see  Rome: 
305-323),  and  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Valens 
in  battle  with  the  Goths  (see  Goths:  Visigoths: 
37Q-382;  Rome:  363-370).  In-1361  it  became  for 
some  years  the  capital  of  the  'Turks  in  Europe. 
It  was  occu[)ied  by  the  Russians  in  1820,  and 
again  in  1878,  and  gave  its  name  to  (he  treaty 
negotiated  in  1820  between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 
In  the  first  Balk:in  War  it  was  captured  and 
annexed  by  Bulgaria;  in  the  second,  Bulgaria 
being  at  war  with  Greece.  Serbia,  Montenegro  and 
Rumania,  the  Turks  were  able  to  recapture  their 
ancient  capital  (1013).  fSee  Balkan  States:  1878; 
1Q12-1Q13;  Turkey:  1012-1013.)  .As  a  result  of 
the  World  War,  it  is  now  included  in  the  posses- 
sions of  Greece — See  also  Balkan  States:  Map 

ADRIANOPLE,  Treaty  of,  the  treaty  estab- 
lishing Greek  in<lependence  'The  uprising  of  the 
Greeks  [1821]  awakened  general  en(hii?ia=m 
throughout  Europe,  and  m:my  ardent  lovers  of 
ancient  Hellas,  among  them  the  English  poet 
Byron,  volunteered   to  help  in  the  Greek  struggle 


for  independence.  In  spite  of  many  valorous 
deeds,  the  Greeks  would  have  succumbed  to  the 
superior  forces  of  Turkey  had  not  Russia,  England, 
and  Prance  intervened  in  their  behalf.  The  Powers 
were  induced  to  champion  the  cause  of  Greece 
chiefly  through  the  influence  of  thousands  cf  their 
citizens  in  whom  the  memory  of  the  ancient  land 
of  philosophy,  literature,  and  art  had  roused  an 
intense  desire  to  see  it  freed  from  Turkish  misrule. 
In  1827  the  representatives  of  the  Powers  met  in 
London  and  demanded  an  armistice  of  the  Sultan; 
but  before  final  arrangements  for  this  were  made, 
a  Turkish  squadron  was  destroyed  by  the  fleets  of 
the  Allies  at  the  Battle  of  Navarino.  The  Sultan 
was  furious,  and  he  determined  to  resist  the  de- 
mands of  the  Powers  at  all  costs.  England  now 
withdrew  from  the  alliance  because  she  feared  that 
a  war  might  lead  to  the  destruction  of  Turkey,  a 
consummation  which  she  by  no  means  desired. 
Tsar  Nicholas  I  decided  to  wage  war  on  his  own 
account.  Russian  armies  defeated  the  Turks  in 
several  battles  and  began  marching  toward  Con- 
stantinople. .'Vt  the  same  time  Prench  armies  drove 
the  Turks  out  of  Morea,  or  southern  Greece. 
These  reverses  compelled  the  Sultan  to  sue  for 
peace,  and  he  signed  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople 
(1820)  granting  complete  independence  to  Greece. 
In  1S33  the  latter  was  organized  as  a  constitutional 
monarchy  with  a  Bavarian  prince,  Otto,  as  her 
first  king." — J.  S.  Schapiro,  Modern  and  contem- 
porary European  history,  p.  62S. — "By  the  settle- 
ment, Turkey  virtually  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece ;  granted  practical  autonomy 
to  Serbia  and  to  the  principalities  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  (modern  Rumania)  ;  surrendered 
claims  on  Georgia  and  other  provinces  of  the  Cau- 
casus to  Russia ;  and  recognized  the  exclusive  juris- 
diction of  Russian  consuls  over  Russian  traders  in 
Turkey." — C.  J.  Hayes,  Politkal  and  social  history 
of  modern  Europe,  v.  2,  pp.  4Q-50. — See  also 
Serbia:   1S04-1S17;  Turkey:   1826-18213. 

ADRIATIC,  Wedding  of.  See  Vemce:  1177; 
14th  centiirv. 

ADRIA'TIC  QUESTION.— FricUon  between 
Italy  and  Jugo-Slavia. — Treaty  of  Rapallo, 
Nov.  12,  1920. — "We  do  not  think  we  are  wrong,' 
wrote  the  Weser  Zeilung,  in  December,  IQ16, 
'in  regarding  the  Adriatic  question  as  the  surest 
source  of  future  discord  within  the  ranks  of 
the  present  Allies.'  The  grave  events  of  which 
Piume  and  Ljubljana  (Laibach)  have  lately  been 
the  scene,  and  which  are  the  direct  and  natural 
result  of  the  unsound  principles  underlying  the 
Austro-Hungarian  armistice,  are  giving  point  to 
the  enemy's  comment,  and  convince  us  of  the  need 
for  plain  speech,  before  the  growing  breach  be- 
tween the  Italians  and  Jugoslavs  becomes  irrepara- 
ble .  .  .  The  relations  between  Italy  and  the 
Jugoslavs  are  one  of  the  pivotal  problems  of  the 
war  and  its  settlement,  both  as  regards  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  public  pledges  towards  'the  small 
nations,'  and  also  as  regards  territories  once  known 
as  the  Habsburg  Monarchy." — R.  W.  Seton-Wat- 
son,  Europe  in  the  melting  pot,  p.  297. — "The 
areas  involved  in  the  dispute  are  not  large  com- 
pared with  other  regions  which  have  been  re- 
assigned fby  the  treaty  of  Versailles]  nor  are  they 
particularly  fertile  or  wealthy.  They  are,  however, 
so  situated  as  to  be  of  considerable  importance 
strategically  and  economically  and  the  question  of 
their  control  and  of  the  allegiance  of  their  inhabi- 
tants has  become  a  matter  of  national  honor  and 
prestige.  Questions  of  this  type  are  especially  deli- 
cate Concretely  the  clash  is  over  the  political 
future  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Tstrian  Peninsula, 
the  town  and  district  of  Fiume,  northern  Dalmatia, 


54 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


yVew 
Italian   Frontiers 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


and  a  number  of  the  islands  of  the  eastern  Adri- 
atic. Closely  linked  with  these  is  the  future  of 
part  of  Albania.  With  the  e.xception  of  the  city  of 
Fiume,  which  enjoyed  a  degree  of  local  self-gov- 
ernment under  the  Hungarian  crown,  the  disputed 
areas  formed  part  of  the  former  Austrian  Empire. 
The  population  is  predominantly  South  Slav,  but 
in  the  towns,  and  notably  in  Fiume  and  Zara, 
there  is  an  important  ItaUan  element.  By  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  signed  by  Austria,  and  that 
presented  to  Hungary,  the  principal  Allied  and 
Associated  Powers  are  to  dispose  of  these  terri- 
tories. Italy  has  therefore  the  advantage  of  being 
both  a  judge  and  claimant." — A.  P.  Scott,  Intro- 
duction to  the  peace  treaties,  p.  270. — By  the 
treaty  of  Rapallo,  November  12,  1920,  between 
Jugo-Slavia  and  Italy,  the  city  of  Zara  was  as- 
signed to  Italy,  the  remainder  of  Dalmatia  being 
given  to  Jugo-Slavia.  To  the  north  Italy  re- 
ceived a  favorable  frontier.  Fiume  was  to  be  inde- 
pendent. All  concerned  seemed  fairly  satisfied 
with  this  compromise,  with  the  exception  of 
DAnnunzio,  the  master  of  Fiume,  who  at  the  end 
of  1920  still  maintained  his  defiant  attitude  there, 
but  he  finally  relinquished  control  and  left  the 
city.  The  civil  authorities  then  adhered  to  the 
treaty,  made  peace  with  Italy  and  prepared  to 
govern  Fiume  as  an  independent  state. 

Problem  of  Italy's  new  frontiers. — "The  story 
of  Fiume  is  closely  linked  with  the  whole  problem 
of  Italy's  new  frontiers.  Both  in  the  Trentino  on 
the  north  and  in  the  region  of  the  Isonzo  on  the 
east  Italy  suffered  before  the  war  from  frontiers 
which  were  geographically  unsound,  and  which 
invited  invasion  by  a  dangerous  neighbor.  The 
boundary  ran  either  close  to  the  southern  margin 
of  the  Alps,  or  actually  down  on  the  piedmont 
plain  south  of  them,  leaving  almost  the  whole  of 
the  formidable  mountain  mass  in  Austria  as  a  well- 
nigh  impregnable  defense  against  Italy,  while  Italy 
remained  virtually  defenseless  against  possi()!e  Aus- 
trian aggression.  ...  If  we  are  to  appreciate  the 
Italian  point  of  view,  we  must  try  to  put  our- 
selves in  the  position  of  a  people  who  find  the 
gateways  into  their  country  held  by  an  hereditary 
enemy,  who  have  often  suffered  from  invasions 
through  those  gateways  in  the  past,  and  who  know 
that  they  are  held  by  the  enemy  for  the  deliberate 
purpose  of  making  any  possible  future  invasion 
easy.  Add  to  this  the  further  fact  that  Austria's 
.strategic  designs  against  Italy  involved  the  enslave- 
ment of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Italians,  both 
in  the  north  and  in  the  east,  and  it  is  not  difficult 
to  understand  that  the  battle-cry  of  'Trent  and 
Trieste !'  should  awaken  the  fighting  spirit  of  every 
patriotic  Italian.  Whatever  the  objectives  of  the 
then-existing  government  of  Italy,  it  would  seem 
clear  that  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  who  knew 
nothing  of  the  terms  of  the  secret  Treaty  of  Lon- 
don, entered  the  war  not  to  subject  large  areas  of 
Germanic  and  Slavonic  territory  to  their  rule,  nor 
even  to  gain  the  port  of  Fiume,  with  its  remote 
islet  of  Italian  population ;  rather,  they  entered  the 
war  in  a  fervor  of  exalted  patriotism,  to  complete 
the  great  work  of  unification  of  Italy  by  freeing 
truly  Italian  territory  from  a  foreign  yoke,  and  to 
drive  the  enemy  from  the  very  threshold  of  their 
homes  back  into  his  own  domain.  Since  certain 
aspects  of  the  Trentino  or  Tyrol  problem  are  in- 
separable from  the  story  of  Fiume,  let  us  pass  in 
brief  review  the  salient  features  of  that  problem. 
The  Italian  Government  demanded  the  whole  Tren- 
tino, to  the  line  of  the  Brenner  Pass,  and  in  the 
secret  Treaty  of  London  the  Allies  promised  it  as 
part  of  the  compensation  to  be  given  Italy  for 
her  aid  against  the  Central  Powers.     At  the  Peace 


Conference  Italy  increased  her  demands,  claiming 
in  addition  to  what  the  treaty  allowed  her  several 
important  areas  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
watershed  having  considerable  strategic  impor- 
tance. As  the  Italian  claims  would  certainly  be 
supported  by  racial,  historical,  geographic,  and 
strategic  arguments,  it  was  necessary  for  the  Amer- 
ican speciaUsts  to  examine  fully  into  every  aspect 
of  the  problem.  It  is  true  that  in  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  Adige  River,  forming  most  of  the 
Trentino,  the  majority  of  the  population  is  Italian. 
But  it  is  equally  true  that  even  the  Italian  authori- 
ties on  the  distribution  of  races  in  the  Trentino 
admit  that  the  Italian  majority  is  largely  confined 
to  the  south,  while  the  northern  parts  of  the  basin 
are  overwhelmingly  German  and  have  been  so  for 
centuries.  It  was  found  possible  to  draw  in  the 
Trentino  one  of  the  cleanest-cut  ethnographic 
frontiers  in  the  world,  leaving  few  Germans  to  the 
south  and  few  Italians  to  the  north  of  it.  A  care- 
ful study  of  the  theory  that  the  watershed  cross- 
ing the  Brenner  Pass  was  the  only  natural  north- 
ern frontier  for  Italy,  and  that  the  drainage  basin 
of  the  Adige  River  constituted  an  indivisible  geo- 
graphic unit,  did  not  substantiate  that  view.  In 
the  Alps,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  glaciated  moun- 
tains, the  drainage  divide  is  in  places  determined 
by  some  insignificant  topographic  detail,  such  as  a 
small  moraine  or  a  tiny  alluvial  fan  in  the  bottom 
of  a  great  valley.  The  Adige  watershed,  instead 
of  following  along  Alpine  ridges,  actually  descends 
into  and  cuts  squarely  across  the  floor  of  the 
Pusterthal,  thus  dividing  in  an  accidental  and  ab- 
normal manner  one  of  the  most  striking  geographic 
units  in  the  Alps.  The  true  boundary  between 
geographic  units,  the  real  topographic  barrier  sep- 
arating German  and  Italian  lands  in  that  part  of 
the  Alps  east  of  the  Brenner  Pass,  lies  not  on  the 
watershed,  but  some  distance  south  of  it.  Italy's 
historical  claim  to  a  frontier  on  the  Brenner  Pass 
seemed  equally  weak.  The  former  extent  of  the 
Roman  Empire  over  the  coveted  area  could  not 
seriously  be  regarded  as  a  basis  of  territorial 
awards  in  the  twentieth  century.  The  argument 
that  Napoleon's  annexation  of  the  upper  Adige  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  showed  the  military  and  po- 
litical necessity  of  granting  Italy  a  frontier  on  the 
Brenner,  fell  to  the  ground  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  'Upper  Adige'  of  Napoleon's  time  stopped  far 
short  of  the  Brenner  and  included  little  beyond  the 
lands  which  to-day  are  unquestionably  Italian.  If 
Napoleon's  action  proved  anything,  it  proved  that 
that  military  genius  did  not  regard  a  frontier  on 
the  Brenner  as  vital  to  Italy.  Yet  the  strategic 
arguments  in  favor  of  Italy's  claim  to  the  whole 
of  the  Trentino  were  the  strongest  which  rould  be 
advanced.  The  long,  narrow  form  of  the  Italian 
peninsula,  by  rendering  peculiarly  difficult  the 
mobilization  of  Italy's  man-power,  makes  the  need 
of  a  strong  frontier  on  the  north  especially  urgent. 
Fifty  per  cent  of  the  defenders  of  the  frontier 
must  come  from  south  of  the  constriction  of  the 
peninsula  near  the  latitude  of  Bologna,  and  must 
journey  to  and  through  that  constriction  on  four 
main  railway  lines,  of  which  three  traverse  the 
.'\pennines  mountain  barrier  and  two  can  be  de- 
stroyed from  the  sea.  Hence,  Italy  might  with 
some  show  of  reason  demand  a  strategic  frontier 
so  strong  that  in  case  of  attack  a  fraction  of  her 
man-power  could  defend  it  successfully  against 
superior  enemy  forces  until  the  whole  could  be 
mobilized. 

"The  geographic  character  of  Italy's  northern 
frontier  compels  her  to  maintain  two  campaigns 
against  a  Teutonic  or  a  combined  Teutonic- 
Slavonic  aggression.     Italy's  northern  plain  is  vul- 


55 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


Jugo-Slavia 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


nerable  from  the  north  and  from  the  east.  The 
armies  defending  the  eastern  frontier  depend  upon 
supply  lines  which  traverse  the  Venetian  plain  for 
ISO  miles  in  sight  of  an  enemy  advancing  over  the 
northern  mountains.  Hence  the  eastern  armies 
must  always  fight  under  the  menace  of  a  disaster 
which  is  inevitable  if  the  enemy  on  the  north  suc- 
ceeds in  reaching  the  plain  and  cutting  their  com- 
munications. In  the  present  war  Cadorna's  eastern 
operations  came  to  an  abrupt  halt  in  May,  1916, 
when  he  was  compelled  to  transfer  large  forces 
westward  to  check  the  dangerous  Austrian  advance 
across  the  Asiago  plateau  almost  to  the  edge  of 
the  plains.  Irretrievable  disaster  to  the  eastern 
armies  was  narrowly  averted.  The  magnitude  of 
the  Caporetto  disaster,  consequent  upon  the  Teu- 
tonic armies'  breaking  through  to  the  plains  near 
the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the  northern  frontier, 
enables  one  to  picture  the  far  more  serious  conse- 
quences which  must  ensue  if  ever  the  northern 
mountain  barrier  is  breached  farther  west,  and  the 
communications  of  the  eastern  armies  destroyed  150 
miles  in  their  rear.  Since  Italy's  military  forces 
will  not  admit  of  two  offensive  campaigns  against 
so  powerful  an  enemy,  at  least  one  of  these  cam- 
paigns must  be  defensive.  Topographic  conditions 
dictate  that  the  defensive  campaign  should  be  the 
northern  one,  for  a  successful  offensive  across  the 
main  Alpine  barrier,  supported  by  but  one  through 
railway  line,  has  less  chance  of  success  than  an 
offensive  in  the  east,  where  the  terrain  is  less  diffi- 
cult, railways  are  more  numerous,  and  support  by 
sea  is  possible.  Hence  we  conclude  that  Italy's 
northern  frontier  should  be  strategically  so  strong 
as  to  render  a  defensive  campaign  In  the  north 
comparatively  simple  and  assured  of  success,  leav- 
ing the  bulk  of  her  forces  free  to  defend  the  east- 
ern gateways.  It  so  happens  that  the  Central  Alps 
provide  a  series  of  natural  trenches  and  mountain 
barriers  together  constituting  one  of  the  strongest 
defensive  terrains  in  the  world.  But  the  Austrian 
province  of  the  Trentino  drove  a  wedge  clear 
through  the  system,  rendering  the  defense  of  Italian 
territory  extremely  difficult,  and  assuring  tremen- 
dous advantage  to  a  possible  Teutonic  Invasion. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  .'\merican  specialists,  to  push 
the  frontier  nortliward  only  so  far  as  the  ethno- 
graphic frontier  would  still  leave  Austria,  or  Ger- 
many and  Austria  combined  in  case  of  their  fu- 
ture union,  in  possession  of  very  great  strategic 
advantages  over  their  Latin  neighbor,  advantages 
which  might  invite  aggression.  To  push  the  bound- 
ary farther  north,  to  the  natural  topographic 
barrier  referred  to  above,  would  give  reasonable 
protection  to  Italy  by  making  invasion  from  the 
north  so  difficult  as  to  be  highly  improbable,  and 
would  add  the  minimum  German  population  to 
Italy  compatible  with  securing  a  good  geographic 
and  defensive  frontier  for  the  southern  Kingdom. 
To  push  the  frontier  clear  to  the  Brenner  and 
eastward  into  the  Pusterthal,  as  Italy  asked,  would 
be  to  carry  it  far  into  purely  Germanic  territory, 
to  enlarge  the  German  irredenta  to  dangerous  pro- 
portions, and  to  split  the  geographic  and  economic 
unit  of  the  Pusterthal.  In  favor  of  the  latter  pro- 
posal it  could,  however,  be  urged  that  the  terri- 
tory to  the  Brenner  had  secretly  been  promised  to 
Italy  by  England  and  France  in  order  to  secure 
Italy's  entry  into  the  war  on  the  .\llied  side,  that 
a  frontier  well  advanced  Into  Germanic  territory 
would  still  more  effectively  protect  Italian  terri- 
tory, and  that  generous  treatment  of  Italy's  de- 
mands on  the  northern  frontier,  where  the  moun- 
tainous terrain  was  not  in  any  sense  vital  to  the 
development  of  neighboring  lands,  might  make 
Italy  more  willing  to  reduce  her  demands  on  the 


east  where  she  claimed  areas  the  annexation  of 
which  would  render  impossible  the  free  economic 
development  of  her  neighbors. 

"The  Conference  decided  in  favor  of  the  most 
generous  fulfilment  of  Italian  ambitions  on  the 
north,  and  gave  her  not  only  all  the  territory  to 
the  watershed  frontier  promised  by  the  Treaty  of 
London,  but  in  addition  the  Sexten  valley  district 
lying  beyond  the  watershed  and  conferring  impor- 
tant strategic  advantages  on  its  possessor.  With 
Italy's  frontier  established  In  an  impregnable  posi- 
tion on  the  north,  and  all  danger  of  invasion  from 
that  direction  eliminated,  we  may  now  consider 
the  eastern  frontier  in  its  proper  relation  to  Italy's 
frontier  problem  as  a  whole.  On  the  east  the 
Italian  Government  had  demanded  as  one  of  the 
conditions  of  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war,  and  in 
the  Treaty  of  London  England  and  France  had 
promised  to  give,  not  only  the  ItaUan-lnhabited 
areas  around  Goritzla  and  Trieste,  but  vast  areas 
of  almost  pure  Slavonic  country  about  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic  and  on  the  eastern  shores  of  that 
sea,  as  well  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  Slav- 
populated  Islands  fringing  the  eastern  coast.  The 
American  Government  not  only  consistently  re- 
fused to  recognize  the  Treaty  of  London,  a  docu- 
ment held  to  be,  both  in  the  manner  of  its  execu- 
tion and  in  Its  precise  terms,  fundamentally  in 
opposition  to  the  very  principles  for  which  America 
was  fighting,  but  early  recognized  the  right  of  the 
Jugo-Slavs  to  rule  themselves.  President  Wilson 
took  certain  other  steps  more  or  less  incompatible 
with  the  fulfilment  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  such 
as  securing  the  consent  of  the  Allied  Powers  to 
make  peace  on  terms  which  provided  for  the 
determination  of  Italy's  new  frontiers  'along  clearly 
recognizable  lines  of  nationality.'  Throughout  the 
negotiations  the  American  Government  held  to  the 
view  that  the  Treaty  of  London  was  obsolete  in 
view  of  the  disappearance  of  Austria-Hungary  as 
a  great  Power  (at  whose  expense  the  treaty  was 
to  have  been  executed),  the  agreement  of  the  Allies 
to  erect  a  new  Jugo-Slav  nation  associated  with 
them  and  Italy,  the  entry  into  the  war  of  new 
nations  not  parties  to  the  treaty,  and  the  agree- 
ment of  the  Allies,  Italy  included,  to  make  peace 
on  a  new  basis  of  right  and  justice.  .  .  ,  Such  was 
the  background  of  the  thorny  problem  of  Flume 
and  the  Adriatic  when  it  came  before  the  Peace 
Conference.  Instead  of  reducing  their  territorial 
demands  to  accord  with  the  provisions  of  the  Pact 
of  Rome  and  the  Fourteen  Points,  the  Italian 
representatives  believed  themselves  justified  in  in- 
creasing them  even  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Treaty 
of  London.  While  insisting  upon  the  execution  of 
the  Treaty  of  London  in  respect  to  the  territories 
which  it  assigned  to  Italy,  the  Italian  representa- 
tives asked  that  it  be  revised  where  favorable 
to  the  Jugo-Slavs,  in  order  that  Flume,  definitely 
assigned  to  Croatia  by  the  treaty,  should  be  given 
to  Italy.  Other  territories  of  much  strategic  or 
economic  value,  lying  beyond  the  Treaty  of  Lon- 
don line,  were  also  included  in  the  Italian  de- 
mands."— E.  M.  House  and  C.  Seymour,  What 
really  happened  at  Paris,  pp.  112-121. — See  also 
LoNmiN',  Tkkatv  or  pact  of. 

Jugo-Slav  contention. — "It  is  generally  admitted 
that  no  frontier  question  before  the  Conference  is 
so  complex  as  that  provided  by  the  Adriatic,  and 
yet,  shorn  of  a  multitude  of  secondary  considera- 
tions which  have  been  deliberately  introduced, 
there  is  none  in  which  it  is  easier  to  establish  the 
facts.  To  take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  the 
nationality  of  the  inhabitants  of  Flume,  Dalmatia, 
etc.  The  facts  in  this  matter  are  by  no  means 
difficult  to  ascertain.     It  has  been  suggested  that 


56 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION       Treaty  of  London         ADRIATIC  QUESTION 


the  Yougo  Slav  majority  on  the  Adriatic  coast 
was  deliberately  created  for  political  purposes  by 
the  Habsburg  authorities.  The  fallacy  of  this  argu- 
ment is  shown  by  the  existence  of  no  less  than 
60,000  Slavs  who  inhabited  the  district  of  the 
Udine,  and  who  were  there  before  there  was  a 
political,  or  even  a  national,  Italy.  Nor  can  it  be 
allowed  that  Austria  invented  the  Slav  names  of 
the  cities,  villages,  rivers,  and  mountains  of  the 
Eastern  Adriatic.  Trieste,  for  instance,  is  built  on 
purely  Slovene  territory.  .  .  .  Even  the  sons  of 
Italian  immigrants  adopted  Slav  nicknames.  We 
find  the  Magyar  historian  Fcst  stating  that  'they 
(the  Italian  immigrants)  arc  being  Slavizcd  by  the 
local  Slav  influence.'  In  the  fifteenth  century  the 
tradesmen  of  Fiume  labelled  their  occupations  with 
Slav  words;  thus,  for  instance,  a  bootmaker  would 
be  called  postolar.  The  judges  and  priests  of  the 
same  era  were  exclusively  Slav.  ...  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  history  of  the  period  1392-1600  indi- 
cates the  name  of  one  hundred  and  seven  local 
judges,  all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of  twelve, 
were  Slavs.  We  are  further  indebted  to  Kobler 
{Memorie,  pp.  149-252)  for  a  list  of  the  judges  of 
Fiume  from  1651-1776,  and  among  them  the  Ital- 
ian and  German  names  are  merely  sporadic. 
When  we  examine  the  lists  of  the  Church  digni- 
taries, we  find  that  from  1371-1780  twenty-one 
Archdeacons  out  of  twenty-five  were  Slavs.  From 
1371-1626  there  appear  the  names  of  forty  Slav 
and  only  four  Italian  canons.  So  far  as  the  dialect 
of  the  city  is  concerned,  Professor  N.  G.  Bartoli, 
of  the  University  of  Torino,  has  confirmed  that 
this  is  of  very  recent  origin.  From  Monfalcone 
to  Albania,  the  Slav  element  has  been  autochtho- 
nous since  the  seventh  century.  It  is  true  that  in 
the  coast  towns  it  came  under  the  influence  of 
the  stronger  Latin  culture,  and  began  to  use  the 
Italian  tongue  in  commercial  intercourse  with  its 
neighbours.  Yet  ever  since  the  decay  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  Dalmatia  has  maintained  its  de- 
votion to  the  Slavonic  idea,  concerning  which  Maz- 
zini  and  Tommaseo  have  written  epic  pages.  This 
idea  manifested  itself  in  the  national  folk-lore  and 
in  the  great  works  of  the  Slav  poets,  scholars,  and 
artists  of  Dalmatia.  And  it  is  a  significant  fact 
that  whilst  at  the  courts  of  Italian  princes  and  at 
the  university  of  Florence  the  Serbo-Croatian  lan- 
guage was  placed  next  to  Greek  and  Latin,  Venice, 
the  mistress  of  Dalmatia,  did  not  benueath  to  the 
country  a  single  national  school  or  printing  press. 
...  It  is  fundamentally  wrong  to  judge  the  na- 
tional character  of  the  Eastern  Adriatic  by  marble 
monuments  and  a  study  of  history  which  does  not 
take  into  consideration  the  national  spirit.  The 
Italian,  defeated  in  argument,  will  urge  that  in  this 
dispute  numbers  alone  cannot -decide.  Yet,- for  the 
sake  of  argument,  even  that  theory  may  be  ad- 
mitted, for  the  Yougo  Slavs  arc  ready  at  any  mo- 
ment to  discuss  the  relative  cultural  progress  of 
their  peasantry  in  the  occupied  territory  with  any 
Italian  groups  save  the  Calahreze,  Sicilians,  etc. 
Yougo  Slavs  have  urged  since  the  beginning  of 
this  war  that  their  problem  should  be  discussed  by 
the  great  Western  democracies;  but  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  the  discussion  has  degenerated  into 
propaganda  of  a  more  or  less  sensational  order. 
The  real  point  has  been  lost  sight  of.  It -is  not 
merely  the  question  of  Fiume,  nor  a  certain  area 
of  Dalmatia,  nor  the  Slovenian  territory  on  the 
Isonzo  which  are  at  issue.  These  are  all  parts  of 
the  same  problem — the  accomplished  fact  of  Yougo 
Slav  unification  and  the  attitude  which  should  be 
adopted  towards  it  by  the  Italian  nation.  The 
Yougo  Slavs,  as  the  children  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury and  as  collaborators   in  the  Great  War,  ask 


that  their  problem  should  be  solved  on  the  basis 
of  nationality,  and  not  by  jorce  majeure.  They, 
as  a  cultured  people,  do  not  relish  being  compared 
with  the  negroes  of  Middle  Africa." — J.  Yedlowski, 
Thoiighls  on  the  Adriatic  dispute  (Balkan  Review, 
June,  rgig,  pp.  375-378)- 

Treaty  of  London,  April  26,  1915. — "The  root 
of  the  whole  evil  lies  in  the  secret  treaty  con- 
cluded on  April  26,  1915,  by  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Russia  with  Italy.  The  main  lines  of  this  in- 
iquitous arrangement  had  already  leaked  out  soon 
after  its  conclusion,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
Bolsheviks  obtained  control  in  Petrograd  that  the 
actual  text  of  the  treaty  became  known.  .  .  .  The 
territorial  concessions  thus  secured  by  Italy  in- 
clude, not  merely  Southern  Tirol  to  the  Brenner, 
Gorizia,  Trieste,  the  line  oi  the  Julian  Alps  to  near 
Fiume,  and  the  whole  of  Istria  (with  the  islands 
of  Lussin  and  Cherso),  but  also  the  whole  of 
Northern  Dalmatia,  including  Zara,  Sebenico  and 
their  hinterland,  and  even  the  southern  islands  of 
Lissa,  Lesina,  Curzola,  and  Meleda.  This  involves 
the  annexation  of  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  million 
Slovenes  and  Croats,  living  in  compact  masses  and 
with  a  keenly  developed  national  consciousness. 
.  .  .  The  Italian  Government  insisted,  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  negotiations,  that  the  whole  trans- 
action should  be  concealed  from  the  knowledge  of 
the  Serbian  Government.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  quite 
apart  from  all  moral  considerations,  the  terms  of 
the  treaty  are  entirely  meaningless,  save  on  the 
assumption  that  Austria-Hungary  is  to  survive  as 
a  Great  Power.  .  .  .  The  effect  of  the  treaty,  when 
hints  as  to  its  contents  trickled  through  to  Austria, 
was  exactly  that  which  all  competent  observers 
had  prophesied  at  the  time.  Italy,  who  by  unre- 
servedly entering  the  war  upon  the  basis  of  the 
Mazzinian  principle  of  liberation,  could  have  ral- 
lied all  the  subject-races  of  Austria-Hungary  to 
her  standard,  saw  herself  regarded  by  them  with 
alarm  and  suspicion,  which  Viennese  and  Magyar 
intrigue  did  everything  to  inflame.  The  false  pol- 
icy of  Sonnino  and  his  group  galvanized  Austria- 
Hungary  into  fresh  life,  and  has  cost  the  lives  of 
many  thousands  on  both  sides  of  the  black-and- 
yellow  frontier.  Nothing  can  better  illustrate  the 
unnatural  situation  thus  produced  than  the  fact 
that  while  Austria-Hungary  was  employing  every 
measure  of  repression  and  persecution  against  the 
Jugoslavs  at  home,  and  while  thousands  of  their 
volunteers  were 'fighting  heroically  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Serbian  .Army  in  Macedonia  and  the  Dobrudja, 
other  Slav  regiments  stubbornly  defended  the 
Carso  against  Italy  in  the  belief  that  they  were 
saving  their  national  territory  'from  foreign  im- 
perialistic designs.  The  absurdity  of  denouncing 
as  Austrophile  this  action  of  a  race  of  Austro- 
phobes  is  at  last  becoming  clear  even  to  the  most 
wilfully  blind:  for  the  Serbs  of  the  kingdom  are 
absolutely  solid  with  their  kinsmen  of  Croatia  and 
Slovenia  in  resisting  Italian  aggression.  .  .  .  From 
1915-1017  Italy  reaped  the  fruit  of  her'shortsighted 
policy,  but  nothing  occurred  to  shake  the  attach- 
ment of  the  leading  Entente  statesmen  to  the  old 
diplomatic  methods.  But  the  situation  was  com- 
pletely transformed  by  the  Russian  Revolution  and 
the  entry  of  America  into  the  war.  For,  on  the 
one  hand,  the  young  Russian  Democracy,  as  yet 
free  from  Bol.shevist  infection,  repudiated  the  secret 
methods  of  Tsardom  and  inscribed  the  watchword 
of  Self-Determination  upon  its  banners;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  .America  was  entirely  free  from 
any  European  engagements  and  had  not  the  slight- 
est intention  of  entangling  herself  in  diplomatic 
commitments  savoring  of  the  Congresses  of  Vienna 
and  Berlin." — R.  W    Seton-Watson,  Europe  in  the 


57 


ADRIATIC  QUESTION      Congress  at  Rome        ADRIATIC   QUESTION 


melting    pot,    p.    299. — Sec    abo    Africa;    Modern 
European  occupation:    igiS-io^o. 

Torre-Trumbitch  agreement.  —  Congress  at 
Rome  (April  8-10,  1918).— Pact  of  Rome.— 
"In  such  circumstances  it  became  more  and  more 
obvious  that,  unless  professions  and  practice  could 
be  squared,  eventual  disaster  was  inevitable.  As 
official  circles  in  the  three  Western  countries 
showed  a  complete  inability  to  grasp  this  situation 
or  to  find  a  new  and  sounder  basis  of  policy,  a 
number  of  private  individuals  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Britain  set  themselves  to  create  a  favourable  at- 
mosphere in  the  press  and  public  opinion  for  the 
new  ideas.  In  particular  an  attempt  was  made  to 
bring  together  the  more  progressive  political  lead- 
ers of  Italy  and  the  e.xiled  Jugoslav  representa- 
tives— it  being  recognised  that  an  understanding 
between  Italians  and  Jueoslavs  was  an  essential 
condition  to  a  sound  collective  Entente  policy 
towards  Austria,  and  therefore  towards  the  whole 
problem  of  racial  and  political  reconstruction  in 
Southern  Europe.  .After  a  number  of  preliminary 
meetings  and  discussions,  an  agreement  was  reached 
last  March,  between  Signor  Torre,  representmg  a 
large  proportion  of  Italian  senators  and  deputies, 
and  Dr.  Trumbic,  the  President  of  the  Jugoslav 
Committee  and  co-signatory  with  Mr.  Pasic  of  the 
Declaration  of  Corfu  of  July,  1917.  The  Torre- 
Trumbic  agreement  formed  the  basis  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Oppressed  .Austrian  Nationalities  which 
met  in  .April  [loiSl  in  the  Roman  capital,  and 
inaugurated  a  political  campaign  which  contributed 
so  materially  towards  sapping  the  final  resistance 
of  the  Dual  Monarchy.  The  public  endorsement 
of  the  agreement  by  the  Italian  Premier,  Signor 
Orlando,  was  generally  regarded  as  an  acceptance 
of  the  principle  of  revision  of  the  London  Conven- 
tion. .  .  .  The  inclusion  in  the  .Austro-Hungarian 
armistice  of  the  territorial  line  conceded  to  Italy 
,  by  the  London  Convention — a  step  which  has  ab- 
solutely no  military  sisnificance  in  view  of  the 
break-up  of  .Austria-Huncary  into  distinct  national 
units — has  not  unnaturally  been  regarded  in  all 
Slav  circles  as  the  affirmation  of  Italy's  extreme 
territorial  claim.  The  fact  that  the  Italians  have 
not  even  rested  content  with  the  line  assigned  to 
them  by  the  .Armistice,  but  have  pushed  forward 
into  territory  to  which  they  have  no  conceivable 
claim,  has  greatly  increased  the  danger  of  the 
situation  and  has  led  the  Zagreb  Government  to 
lodge  a  formal  appeal  with  the  Entente,  demanding 
that  Italian  troops  shall  be  replaced  by  British, 
French,  and  .American  troops  on  Jugoslav  terri- 
tory, lest  Italy  should  attempt  by  occupation  to 
create  some  kind  of  title  of  possession.  .  .  .  Mean- 
while, the  Pact  of  Rome  remains  the  charter  of 
all  who  still  uphold  the  cause  of  Italo-Jugoslav 
friendship:  and  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  it  will  also 
remain  one  of  the  historic  documents  of  the  war. 
Its  text  runs  as  follows:  The  representatives  of 
the  nationalities  subjected,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to 
the  rule  of  .Austria-Hunear\- — the  Italians,  Poles, 
Roumanians.  Czechs,  and  Jugoslavs — join  in  af- 
firming their  principles  of  common  action  as  fol- 
lows: (i)  Each  of  these  peoples  proclaims  its 
right  to  constitute  its  own  nationality  and  State 
unity  or  to  complete  it  and  to  attain  full  political 
and  economic  independence:  f:)  Each  of  these 
peoples  recoenises  in  the  Auslro-Hungarian  Mon- 
archy the  instrument  of  German  domination  and 
the  fundamental  obstacle  to  the  realization  of  its 
aspirations  and  rights;  (3)  The  assembly  recog- 
nises the  necessity  of  a  common  struggle  against 
the  common  oppressors,  in  order  that  each  people 
may  attain  complete  liberation  and  national  unity 
within   a   free  State   unit.     The   representatives   of 


the  Italian  people  and  of  the  Jugoslav  people  in 
particular  agree  as  follows:  (i)  In  the  relations 
between  the  Italian  nation  and  the  nation  of  the 
Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes — known  also  under  the 
name  of  the  Jugoslav  nation — the  representatives 
of  the  two  peoples  recognise  that  the  unity  and 
independence  of  the  Jugoslav  nation  is  a  vital  in- 
terest of  Italy,  just  as  the  completion  of  Italian 
national  unity  is  a  vital  interest  of  the  Jugoslav 
nation.  .And  therefore  the  representatives  of  the 
two  peoples  pledge  themselves  to  employ  every 
effort  in  order  that,  during  the  war  and  at  the 
moment  of  the  peace,  these  decisions  of  the  two 
nations  may  be  completely  attained;  (2)  They 
declare  that  the  liberation  of  the  .Adriatic  Sea  and 
its  defense  against  every  present  and  future  enemy 
is  a  vital  interest  of  the  two  peoples;  (3)  They 
pledge  themselves  also,  in  the  interest  of  good  and 
sincere  relations  between  the  two  peoples  in  the 
future,  to  solve  amicably  the  various  territorial 
controversies  on  the  basis  of  the  principles  of  na- 
tionality and  of  the  right  of  peoples  to  decide  their 
own  fate,  and  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  injure  the 
vital  interests  of  the  two  nations,  such  as  shall  be 
defined  at  the  moment  of  peace;  (4)  To  such 
racial  groups  of  one  people  as  it  may  be  found 
necessary  to  include  within  the  frontiers  of  the 
other,  there  shall  be  recognised  and  guaranteed  the 
right  to  their  language,  culture,  and  moral  and 
economic  interests." — R.  W.  Seton-Watson,  Europe 
in  the  melting  pot.  p.  303. 

Summary  of  arguments  of  both  sides. — "The 
great  mass  of  arguments,  maps,  statistics,  and 
rhetoric  emanating  from  the  rival  camps  may  be 
roughly  grouped  as  geographic,  including  strategic 
considerations  and  economic  outlet  to  the  sea;  his 
torical,  cultural,  and  nationalistic;  and  political, 
diplomatic,  and  practical.  Perhaps  the  best  way 
to  secure  some  idea  of  the  opposing  points  of  view 
is  through  a  summary  of  the  claims  and  counter- 
claims, arguments  and  refutations,  under  these  gen- 
eral headings.  The  Italians  assert  that  the  'nat- 
ural' frontier  of  Italy  follows  the  watershed  of  the 
.Alps  around  the  north-east  curve  of  the  .Adriatic 
and  down  the  mountain  crests  into  Dalmatia  and 
Albania.  They  are  invincibly  persuaded  that  Na- 
ture intended  the  .Adriatic  to  be  an  Italian  lake. 
Their  military  and  naval  experts  point  out  that  the 
eastern  coast  of  Italy  possesses  very  few  good 
harbors  or  naval  bases,  while  the  opposite  coast  of 
the  .Adriatic  contains  maay.  In  order  to  end  for- 
ever the  possibility  of  a  hostile  navy  in  the  .Adri- 
atic, Italy  must  control  alt  points  of  strategic 
value  on  the  farther  shore.  Otherwise  one  of  the 
principal  objects  of  the  war  would  be  lost.  From 
the  military  point  of  view  the  defensible  mountain 
barrier  of  Dalmatia  is  a  necessary  precaution 
against  a  possible  Balkan  Confederation  or  a  re- 
vived Pan-Slavism.  The  South  Slavs  and  their 
sympathizers  reply  that  they  have  no  navy,  that 
they  could  not  possibly  afford  to  build  one,  that 
they  are  willing  to  agree  to  disarmament  under 
the  League  of  Nations,  to  demilitarization  of  the 
eastern  coast,  and  to  the  possession  by  Italy  of  a 
number  of  islands  They  point  out  that  from  the 
military  point  of  view  the  defense  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  difficult  country,  with  poor  communica- 
tions and  across  a  body  of  water,  would  call  for  a 
large  army,  and  would  in  an  emergency  prove  a 
weakness  rather  than  a  source  of  strength,  par- 
ticularly if  it  were  purchased  at  the  cost  of  the 
friendship  of  the  South  Slavs.  The  Italians  have 
had  some  hopes  of  using  the  Dalmatian  base  for 
commercial  penetration  of  tlie  Balkans.  .Again  the 
South  Slavs  warn  of  the  bad  psychology  of  making 
enemies   of    potential    customers.     But    vigorously 


58 


ADRIATIC  QtUESTION 


ADVENTISTS 


and  affirmatively  the  South  Slavs  claim  the  entire 
coast  north  of  Albania  as  necessary  to  that  'free 
and  secure  access  to  the  sea'  which  is  guaranteed 
them  by  the  eleventh  of  the  Fourteen  Points.  To 
the  Italian  assertion  that  ample  seacoast  is  left  to 
them  without  northern  Dalmatia  and  Fiume  they 
retort  that  the  closeness  of  the  mountains  to  the 
sea  makes  it  impossible  to  make  extensive  use  of 
any  port  but  Fiume  except  at  prohibitive  cost  for 
construction  and  hauling.  Only  at  Fiume  is  there 
a  standard-pauRc  railroad  to  the  interior,  and  no- 
where else  is  it  practicable  to  build  one  The 
Italians  keep  insisting  that  something  'just  as  good' 
might  be  improvised  elsewhere,  but  neutral  geog- 
raphers seem  to  agree  with  the  Jugo-Slavs.  It  is 
admitted  that  Fiume  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the 
great  hinterland  of  Hungary,  for  much  of  the 
South  Slav  territory,  and  in  part  for  Czecho- 
slovakia and  Rumania.  The  Italians  insist  that 
under  their  control  it  would  continue  to  be  avail- 
able for  this  purpose.  Some  critics,  however,  ex- 
press the  suspicion  that  in  practice  Trieste  would 
be  favored.  When  the  Itahans  point  out  that 
only  a  relatively  small  part  of  South  Slav  com- 
merce used  to  go  through  Fiume  the  obvious  an- 
swer is  that,  the  new  situation  would  be  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  Magyar  regime. 

"Historically  neither  state  has  claims  of  any  par- 
ticular force.  The  Italians  go  back  to  the  days  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  the  time  when  the  Re- 
public of  Venice  held  a  part  of  Dalmiitia.  They 
point  to  the  Roman  ruins;  they  speak  feelingly  of 
the  impress  of  Italian  culture  on  the  whole  eastern 
shore  of  the  Adriatic.  More  stress  is  laid  upon 
nationalistic  arguments,  and  much  emotion  has 
been  roused  in  favor  of  redeeming  the  Italian- 
speaking  communities  at  Fiume,  Zara,  and  other 
scattered  centers.  The  South  Slavs  are  equally 
vigorous  in  their  nationalistic  claims.  They  deny 
that  the  culture  of  the  region  is  predominantly 
Italian.  The  language  statistics  show  that  about 
07  per  cent,  of  Dalmatia  is  Slavic.  Even  granting 
the  most  extreme  Italian  corrections  of  the  .'\us- 
trian  census,  not  over  lo  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion is  Italian.  To  the  argument  that  this  minority 
is  the  educated,  progressive,  civilized,  capable,  and 
hence  politically  dominant  element,  the  South  Slavs 
indignantly  reply  that  the  principle  of  self-deter- 
mination precludes  the  surrender  of  overwhelming 
majorities  to  any  alien  rule.  They  offer  the  most 
solemn  guarantees  that  the  ItaHan  minority  will 
be  protected  in  its  linguistic,  religious,  educational, 
and  cultural  rights;  but  an  arrangement  which 
would  sacrifice  nine  or  ten  Slavs  for  the  sake  of 
'redeeming'  one  Italian  they  denounce  as  a  travesty, 
not  a  vindication,  of  the  principle  of  nationalism. 

"From  the  practical  point  of  view,  both  sides 
speak  of  the  sacrifices  made  during  the  war,  and 
the  right  to  demand  compensation.  Officially  they 
pomt  out  the  advantages  of  concessions  for  the 
sake  of  future  friendship;  unofficially  they  accuse 
each  other  of  imperialism.  The  Italians  keep  re- 
ferring to  the  Treaty  of  London ;  the  Slavs  retort 
that  they  have  never  been  officially  informed  that 
such  a  treaty  exists;  that  they  never  agreed  to  it; 
and  that  in  any  case  it  has  been  rendered  inopera- 
tive by  the  acceptance  of  the  Fourteen  Points. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  by 
which  Italy  was  promised  Istria  and  Dalmatia  soon 
became  known  to  the  South  Slavs  both  in  Serbia 
and  .Austria-Hungary.  The  Serbians  regarded 
themselves  as  rather  badly  treated,  and  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  authorities  used  the  news  to  stimulate 
their  Croatian  and  Slovene  recruits  to  hatred  of 
Italy.  On  December  q,  iqig,  an  agreement  was 
reached  between  the  English,  French,  and  Ameri- 


can representatives  in  Paris  on  the  general  prin- 
ciples which  should  determine  the  .Adriatic  settle- 
ment. President  Wilson  had  long  before  indicated 
the  boundary  line  in  Istria  which  seemed  to  him 
satisfactory.  In  general  the  South  Slavs  were  will- 
ing to  accept  it,  but  the  Italians  did  not  regard  it 
as  strategically  adequate.  The  creation  of  a  sep- 
arate buffer  state  of  Fiume  was  now  proposed. 
Dalmatia  was  to  go  to  the  South  Slavs.  In  their 
conferences  at  London  early  in  iq2o  the  Italian, 
French,  and  British  premiers  drew  up  a  somewhat 
different  settlement,  and  attempted  to  force  the 
South  Slav  Kingdom  to  accept  it  on  penalty  of 
having  the  Treaty  of  London  put  in  force.  Presi- 
dent Wilson  with  unexpected  vigor  denounced  this 
proposal,  and  insisted  that  the  principles  of  De- 
cember 0  should  not  be  modified.  The  compensa- 
tion of  the  South  Slavs  at  the  expense  of  Albania, 
which  was  part  of  the  suggested  settlement,  he 
refused  to  countenance  for  a  moment.  All  con- 
cerned then  urged  Italians  and  South  Slavs  to 
attempt  to  reach  a  settlement  [which  they  did) 
by  direct  negotiation" — A.  P.  Scott,  Introduction 
lo  the  peace  treaties,  pp.  271-275. — See  also  Aus- 
tria: 1Q17:  Division  into  separate  nationalities; 
B.\LKAN  states:  Map  showing  distribution  of  na- 
tionalities; Itai-y:  igiS-igio;  Fiume:  Attitude  of 
President  Wilson,  also  1919-1921 

ADRIATIC  SEA.  — 1378-1379.  — Battles  be- 
tween Genoese  and  Venetians.  See  Venice: 
1378-1379- 

1915. — Naval  operations  of  Italians  and  Aus- 
trians. — Closed  by  Italians.  See  World  War; 
1915:  IX.  Naval  operations:  b,  4. 

1917. — Military  operations  of  Austrians  and 
lalians.  See  World  War:  1917.  IX.  Naval 
operations:  b. 

1918. — Italian  expedition  to  Pola.  See  World 
War:  1918:  IX.  Naval  operations:  b. 

ADRUMENTUM.  See  Carthage,  Dominion  of. 

ADUATUCI.     See  Belg.e. 

ADULLAM,  a  Canaanite  city  of  Judea,  the 
exact  location  of  which  is  uncertain  .Although 
David  was  said  to  have  twice  taken  refuge  in  the 
"Cave"  of  Adullam,  this  is  a  scribal  error,  and  his 
retreat  was  really  the  stronghold  of  the  city. 
When  he  had  been  cast  out  by  the  Philistines, 
among  whom  he  sought  refuge  from  the  enmity  of 
Saul,  "his  first  retreat  was  the  Cave  of  .Adullam, 
probably  the  large  cavern  not  far  from  Bethlehem, 
now  called  Khureitun.  From  its  vicinity  to  Beth- 
lehem, he  was  joined  there  by  his  whole  family, 
now  feeling  themselves  insecure  from  Saul's  fury. 
.  .  .  Besides  these  were  outlaws  from  every  part, 
including  doubtless  some  of  the  original  Canaan- 
ites — of  whom  the  name  of  one  at  least  has  been 
preserved,  Ahimelech  the  Hittite.  In  the  vast 
columnar  halls  and  arched  chambers  of  this  sub- 
terranean palace,  all  who  had  any  grudge  against 
the  existing  system  gathered  round  the  hero  of  the 
coming  age." — Dean  Stanley,  Lectures  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jewish  church,  lect.  22. — In  modern 
American  and  British  politics  the  expression  "Cave 
of  Adullam"  has  been  frequently  used  to  denote 
any  body  of  seceders  or  political  irreconcilables. 
.Abraham  Lincoln  in  1864  and  John  Bright  in  1866 
used  the  term. 

ADULLAMITES.  See  Engund:  1865-1868; 
Liberal  p.^^rtv:    1866-1900. 

ADVENTISTS.— "This  is  the  general  name  of 
a  family  of  denominations  whose  leading  tenet  is  a 
belief  in  the  proximate  and  personal  second  com- 
ing of  Christ.  The  movement  began  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1 83 1,  under  the  leadership  of  William 
Miller,  who  previously  had  been  a  member  of  the 
Baptist  Church.    As  a  result  of  much  study  of  the 


59 


ADVOCATUS 


iEGEAN 


prophecies,  Miller  became  convinced  that  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  was  near  at  hand,  and  began 
to  lecture  on  the  subject.  In  1833  he  published  a 
pamphlet  entitled  'Evidences  from  Scripture  and 
History  of  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ  about  the 
year  1843  and  of  His  Personal  Reign  of  One  Thou- 
sand V'ears.'  Miller  made  many  converts  to  his 
views,  and  the  doctrine  announced  in  his  pamphlet 
was  widely  proclaimed.  Upon  the  failure  of  his 
prophecy  for  the  year  1843,  he  fixed  1844 — to  be 
exact,  October  22  of  that  year — as  the  date  of  the 
second  advent.  When  this  prophecy  failed,  his  fol- 
lowers became  divided.  It  is  estimated  that  at  the 
time  of  Miller's  death  (1840)  they  numbered 
50,000.  As  a  result  of  various  divisions,  there  are 
now  six  bodies  of  Adventists,  who,  as  a  rule,  sim- 
ply await  the  second  coming  of  Christ  without 
attempting  to  fix  a  date  for  it  All  hold,  however, 
that  it  is  near  at  hand,  and  they  generally  look 
for  the  personal  reign  nf  Christ  on  earth.  All 
agree  also  in  practicing  immersion  as  the  mode  of 
baptism" — M.  Phelan,  Handbook  of  all  denomina- 
tions, p.  q. 

ADVOCATUS  (Vogt),  a  layman  of  high  stand- 
ing who  "represented  the  abbey  in  its  dealing  with 
the  outside  world.  .  .  .  The  advocate  of  a  large 
monastery,  especially  if,  as  was  often  the  case,  he 
held  the  advocacy  of  several  houses  at  once,  tried 
naturally  to  make  his  office  hereditary.  .  .  .  The 
advocacy  of  the  Frauenmiinster  at  Ziirich  by  the 
Hapsburg  family  was  the  entering  w'edge  for  their 
claims  over  the  Forest  Cantons  which  finally  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion,"— E.  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  p.  574. 

ADWALTON  MOOR,  the  scene  of  a  battle 
fought  near  Bradford  in  Yorkshire,  England,  June 
2Q,  1643,  in  which  the  Parliamentary  forces,  under 
Lord  Fairfax,  were  routed  by  the  Royalists,  under 
Newcastle. — C.  R.  Markham,  Life  of  the  great  Lord 
Fairfax,  ch.  11. 

ADYE,  Sir  John  (1857-  ),  British  major- 
general  who  captured  Ukerewe  Island  in  igi6. 
See  World  War:  iqi6:  VII   African  theater:  a,  12. 

Defense  of  southern  Egypt.  See  World  War: 
1016:  V'l.     Turkish  theater:   b,  1. 

ADYNATI,  those  who,  because  of  physical  in- 
firmity, received  pensions  from  the  Athenian  state. 

JEACl^M  (.ffiakids),  the  supposed  descendants 
of  the  dcmi-god  .^acus,  whose  grandson  was 
Achilles.  Miltiades,  the  hero  of  Marathon,  and 
Pyrrhus,  the  warrior  King  of  Epirus,  were  among 
those  claiming  to  belong  to  the  royal  race  of 
.r^acida;. 

JEACVS.  See  ^acid.i!  (.-Eakids)  ;  Myrmi- 
dons. 

/EDESIUS  (d.  A.D.  355),  Neoplatinist  philos- 
opher.   See  Abyssinia:  4th  centurv. 

,ffiDHILING.     See  .^thel;  ^^'thelino. 

.£DILE,  the  name  of  a  certain  class  of  magis- 
trates in  ancient  Rome.  According  to  Cicero  the 
aediles  were  supposed  to  take  care  of  the  city's 
various  departments,  to  have  jurisdiction  over  pro- 
visions and  correctness  of  weights  and  measures 
and  to  superintend  and  organize  the  public  games. 
The  office  was  created  in  the  year  404  B.  C  The 
name  is  probably  derived  from  (rdis.  meaning  tem- 
ple, since  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  jediles  was 


to  take  care  of  the  temple  of  Ceres.  Their  persons 
>vere  inviolable.  See  Civil  law:  B.C.  471  ;  Rome: 
B.  C.  404-402;  133. 

/EDILES  PLEBIS.  See  Suffrage,  Manhood: 
B  C.   3d  century. 

.^DUI. — "The  two  most  powerful  nations  in 
Gallia  were  the  .-I'^dui  lor  Hsdui]  and  the  Arverni. 
The  /Edui  occupied  that  part  which  lies  between 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Loire  and  the  Saone,  which 
river  was  part  of  the  boundary  between  ihem  and 
the  Sequani.  The  Loire  separated  the  /Edui  from 
the  Bituriges,  whose  chief  town  was  Avaricum  on 
the  site  of  Bourges.  At  this  time  [121  B.  C]  the 
Arverni,  the  rivals  of  the  .-Edui,  were  seeking  the 
supremacy  in  Gallia.  The  Arverni  occupied  the 
mountainous  country  of  Auvergne  in  the  centre  of 
France  and  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Elaver  (Allier) 
nearly  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Allier  and  the 
Loire,  .  .  .  They  were  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
Allobroges,  a  powerful  nation  east  of  the  Rhone, 
who  occupied  the  country  between  the  Rhone  and 
the  Isara  (Isere).  ...  In  order  to  break  the  for- 
midable combination  of  the  Arverni  and  the  Allo- 
broges, the  Romans  made  use  of  the  ^dui,  who 
were  the  enemies  both  of  the  Allobroges  and  the 
Arverni.  ...  A  treaty  was  made  eit,her  at  this 
time  or  somewhat  earlier  between  the  ,4idui  and 
the  Roman  senate,  who  conferred  on  their  new 
Gallic  friends  the  honourable  title  of  brothers  and 
kinsmen.  This  fraternizing  was  a  piece  of  political 
cant  which  »he  Romans  practiced  when  it  was  use- 
ful."— G.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  republic,  v. 
I,  ch.  21. — Later  the  Sequani,  neighbors  with  whom 
the  .'Edui  were  continually  at  odds,  invaded  them. 
The  .'Edui  appealed  to  the  Roman  senate  for  help; 
but  it  was  not  forthcoming  until  Caesar's  arrival  in 
Gaul  (58  B.  C),  when  he  restored  their  inde- 
pendence.— See  also  Gaul;   Csesar's  description. 

A.  E.  F.  Popular  abbreviation  for  the  American 
Expeditionary  Forces  in  the  World  War.  See  Amer- 
ican Expeditionary  Forces. 

.SGATIAN  ISLES,  Naval  battle  of  (241 
B  C)      See   Punic   War,  First. 

.ffiGEALEA,  .SGEALEANS.  — The  original 
name  of  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  and 
its  inhabitants.    See  Greece:  Migrations. 

.SGEAN,  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  sea 
lying  between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  connected 
by  the  Dardanelles  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and 
the  Black  sea.  It  washes  the  shores  of  a  large 
number  of  islands  known  as  the  Grecian  archi- 
fielago.  Before  the  World  War  groups  of  these 
islands,  including  the  Cyclades,  the  Northern 
Sporades,  Euboea  and  a  few  others  belonged  to 
Greece,  the  Dodecanese  to  Italy,  and  most  of  the 
others  to  Turkey.  After  the  war  all  of  the  islands 
belonging  to  Turkey,  except  Imbros,  Tenedos,  and 
Castelorizo,  and  all  the  Dodecanese  except  Rhodes, 
were  ceded  to  Greece.  The  rocky  elevations  01 
these  islands,  many  of  which  are  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, though  they  lend  a  most  picturesque  appear- 
ance to  the  .^-^^gean,  nevertheless  render  navigation 
by  large  modern  vessels  especially  hazardous. 
Some  of  the  larger  islands  contain  well  watered 
and  fertile  valleys  in  which  are  raised  the  usual 
liroducts  of  Mediterranean  lands.  The  inhabitants 
arc  of  the  vigorous  Greek  type. 


60 


-ffiGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


-ffiXJEAN  CIVILIZATION 


The  ancient  culture  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean 
basin,  covering  the  period  up  to  1200  B.  C,  and 
including  Greece,  the  islands  of  the  .^i^gean  sea, 
Crete  and  parts  of  North  Africa,  has  been  vari- 
ously designated  Mycenx'an,  Minoan,  and  ^gean. 
The  terra  Mycensan,  however,  has  in  recent  years 
been  to  a  great  extent  displaced  by  the  other  two. 
"Whether  the  word  Minoan  was  the  best  one  to 
substitute  is  of  course  another  matter.  It  is 
argued  by  some  German  archaeologists,  such  as  Dr. 
Dorpfeld  and  Professor  Reisch,  that  it  is  absurd  to 
describe  periods  that  stretch  over  thousands  of 
years  by  a  name  that  was  presumably  given  to  one 
particular  historical  personage.  For  the  plea 
which  they  put  in  for  the  time-honoured  word 
Mycenaean,  consecrated  by  Schliemann's  epoch- 
making  discoveries,  we  have  much  sympathy,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  ambiguity  that  now 
involves  the  term  Mycena;an,  used  sometimes  in  its 
old  generic  and  sometimes  in  its  new  specific  sense, 
will,  for  a  long  time  to  come,  lead  to  confusion. 
On  the  other  hand  the  argument  that  the  term  is 
inapplicable  to  the  early  periods  that  are  almost 
unrepresented  at  or  near  Mycens  is  unanswer- 
able. .  .  .  'yEgean,'  on  the  other  hand,  which  Pro- 
fessor Reisch  supports,  will  possibly  prove  ulti- 
mately the  best  generic  word  for  the  civilization 
as  a  whole,  while  Mycenaean  and  Minoan  will  fit 
into  it,  as  representing  certain  stages  of  its  devel- 
opment in  different  localities.  .  .  ." — R.  M.  Bur- 
rows, Discoveries  in  Crete,  pp.  41-42. 

"Till  recently  historians  have  begun  their  account 
of  Greek  affairs  with  the  eighth  century  B.  C, 
some  of  them  precisely  with  the  year  776;  and  for 
the  first  century  and  a  half  they  have  given  hardly 
more  than  a  few  bare  dates.  But  all  this  has  been 
changed  by  explorations  in  the  .-Egean  area.  The 
pioneer  in  the  work  was  Heinrich  Schliemann.  In 
his  boyhood  he  learned  the  stories  told  by  the 
Hellenic  poet  Homer  of  the  deeds  of  mighty  heroes 
during  the  Trojan  war;  and  thinking  them  real 
history,  he  believed  the  ancient  city  of  Troy 
might  be  found  buried  beneath  the  earth.  To 
achieve  this  task  became  the  inspiration  of  his  life. 
After  amassing  a  fortune  in  business,  in  1870  he 
began  digging  on  the  hilltop  where,  from  Homer's 
description,  he  concluded  Troy  must  have  stood. 
This  hill  is  in  northwestern  Asia  Minor,  not  far 
from  the  sea.  The  result  more  than  justified  his 
hopes.  On  this  spot  he  and  his  successor  in  the 
work  unearthed  the  ruins  of  nine  settlements,  built 
above  one  another  and  belonging  to  different  ages. 
It  is  calculated  that  the  lowest  settlement,  a  rude 
village,  was  inhabited  about  3500  B.  C,  and  that 
the  sixth,  which  shows  a  highly  developed  civiliza- 
tion, flourished  isooriooo.  Afterward  Schliemann 
excavated  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  in  Argolis,  Greece. 
They  were  contemporary  with  the  sixth  city  at 
Troy.  Mycenae  showed  such  signs  of  wealth  and 
culture  that  he  believed  it  to  have  been  the  centre 
of  the  civilization  which  flourished  at  that  time  on 
the  shores  of  Greece  and  in  Troy.  Hence  he  called 
the  civilization  Mycenican." — G.  W.  Botsford,  His- 
tory of  ancient  world,  p.  68. 

EXCAVATIONS   AND   ANTIQUITIES 

Mycenaean  area:  Researches  at  Troy,  My- 
cenae, Tiryns  and  Vaphio. — "In  1882  Schliemann 
went  to  Troy  again,  and  resumed  his  excavations 
in  company  with  a  German  architect,  Dr  Dorp- 
feld, whose  help  was  of  the  greatest  value.     Schlie- 


61 


mann  himself  was  no  architect,  and  was  not  even 
a  scientifically-trained  observer  ...  he  was  often 
too  downright  in  his  methods,  and  might  at  times 
be  accused  of  vandalism  in  the  pursuit  of  his  end 
—the     discovery     of     the     Heroic    civilization     of 
Greece.      He    cut    through    everything    ruthlessly. 
.  .  .  Dorpfeld  was  a  guarantee   of  more  scientific 
methods,  necessary  in  a  site  like  Troy,  with  its  su- 
perimposed strata  of  different  ages  of  settlement, 
very   different   from   the  simple   grave-clearing   at 
Mycenae.     The   result   of   the   renewed   work   was 
eventually  the  discovery  of  the  'Mycenaean'  city  of 
Troy."— H.  R.  Hall,  /Egean  archaotogy,  p.  8.— "Dr. 
Dorpfeld  finished  in  1804  the  exploration  which  he 
had  begun  in  i8q3  on  the  site  of  the  excavations  of 
Schliemann   at    Hissarlik    (Troia).     It   appears  to 
be   established   that  Schliemann,  carried   away   by 
his  zeal,   had   overlooked   the   very   end   which  he 
wished  to  attain,  and  that  the  burnt  city,  which 
he  thought  to  be  the  real  Troia,  is  a  more  ancient 
foundation  going  back  beyond  the  year  2000  B.  C. 
M.    Dorpfeld   discerned,   in    one   of   the    layers   of 
ruins   (discovered  but  disregarded  by  Schliemann), 
a  city  which  must  be  the  Ilios  of  Priam  contem- 
poraneous with   the  Mykenai  of  Agamemnon:    he 
removed   the   surrounding    walls,    the   towers,   and 
some  of  the  houses  that  filled  it.    It  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  this  little  acropolis,  analoous  to  that 
of  Tiryns,  is  not  the  whole  of  the  city  but  simply 
its    citadel,    which    Homer    called    'Pergamos.'      It 
was  surrounded,  lower  down,  by  a  city  reserved  for 
the  habitation  of  the  common  people,  some  traces 
of  which  also  have  been  found." — American  Joiir- 
iiai    of   Archceology,    iSoo. — "There   was    no    doubt 
as  to  the  position  of  Mycens,  as  there  had  been 
about   that   of  Troy.     The   Lion  Gate   was   there, 
marking  the  ancient  site  which  since  456  B.C.  had 
been    desolate.      Schliemann    passed    through    and 
struck  spade  into  the  earth  beyond  it  in  the  year 
1878  A.  D.     Immediately  beyond  the  gate   was  a 
circular     space     enclosed     by     weather-worn     and 
lichen-covered  stone  slabs.    Within  this  stone  circle 
Schliemann  dug  and  discovered  what  he  hoped  to 
find:    the   graves  of  the   heroes   of  Mycenae  men- 
tioned    by     Pausanias.  .  .  .  Pausanias    says    there 
were  six  graves.     Schliemann  found  five,  and  then 
stopped.     After   he   left,   a   sixth   was   found.  .  .  . 
Outside  the  grave-precinct  was  found  amid  house- 
ruins  a  stone  chamber  possibly  a  cellar,  into  which 
had   been   placed   a   remarkable   treasure    of   gold, 
consisting    of   solid    drinking-cups,   and   some   fine 
signet-rings  which   are   famous  on   account   of  the 
curious  religious  scenes  engraved  upon  them.  .  .  . 
Looking   out   over   the    ravine   are   the   two   great 
'beehive  tombs'  or  tholoi,  known  as  the  'Treasuries 
of  .'\treus  and  Klytaimnestra.'  .  .  .  Atreus's  Treas- 
ur>-    has    indeed    lost    the    two    great    pilasters    of 
grey-green  stone  that  seemed  to  support  the  heavy 
architrave  of   its  entrance-door.  .  .  .  The   interior, 
though   but   50   feet  in  height,  is  more  impressive 
than  anything  Egypt  has  to  show.  .  .  .  The  great 
explorer   interrupted    his   Trojan   work   in    1884   to 
go  to  Tiryns. 

"The  result  of  the  excavations  of  1884  and  1885 
was  the  discovery  of  the  ground  plan  of  a  palace 
within  the  walls,  placed  on  the  top  of  the  long 
rock,  sixty  feet  above  the  plain.  Its  entrance  gate, 
with  doorposts  and  threshold  of  breccia  is  as  huge 
as  are  the  casemates.  The  plan  of  the  palace  itself 
shews  that  it  was  a  building  of  later  date  than  the 
wall-framework,  and  quite  lately  renewed  excava- 
tions have  brought  to  light  the  remains  of  a  much 


JEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Cretan  Area 


iEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


earlier  palace.  At  Tiryns  Schliemann  found  the 
famous  kyanos-frieze,  the  remains  of  a  carved  ala- 
baster slab-decoration  inlaid  with  hard  blue  glass, 
which  at  once  was  identified  as  the  Homeric 
kyanos.  Here,  too,  were  found  fragments  of  wall- 
painting  which  gave  a  foretaste  of  what  was  to 
come  at  Knossos.  ...  In  i8Sq  our  knowledge  of 
prehistoric  Greek  art  took  a  great  step  in  advance 
when  the  'beehive  tomb'  at  Vaphio  in  Laconia  was 
e.xcavated  b.\  Mr.  Tsountas  for  the  Greek  Ar- 
chslogical  Society,  and  the  famous 'Vaphio  Cups' 
were  found.  .  .  .  Later  finds  in  Crete  have  shown 
us  that  they  could  make  better  things  than  the 
Vaphio  Cups;  but  in  iSSq  these  two  little  golden 
vases  with  their  repousse  designs  of  men  captur- 
ing bulls  were  regarded  as  extraordinary.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  X'aphio  Cups  re- 
called the  flagging  attention  of  the  world  of 
artists  and  archsologists  to  the  work  of  excava- 
tion in  Greece.     Big  discoveries  were  now  looked 


1300  B.  C.)  is  certain  from  the  distinctive  Myce- 
nasan  pottery  that  was  found  in  it :  Schliemann, 
however,  with  his  rough-and-ready  methods,  had 
not  identified  it.  This  distinction  was  reserved 
for  Dbrpfeld,  and  was  the  result  of  his  more  sci- 
entific operations.  The  discovery  was  announced 
in  1803.  •  •  ■  Schliemann  intended  to  follow  up 
his  work,  but  difficulties  ensued  with  the  Turkish 
authorities  in  the  island  with  regard  to  the  ac- 
c|uisition  of  the  site,  and  death  carried  him  off 
before  he  could  get  to  work.  We  may — with  all 
respect  to  Schliemann's  memory  be  it  said — be  not 
altogether  sorry  that  his  somewhat  summary 
methods  were  not  allowed  by  fate  to  be  exercised 
on  Knossos,  and  that  it  was  written  that  not  he, 
but  the  Englishman  Evans,  was  to  excavate  the 
palace  of  Minos  and  the  Italian  Halbherr  to  dis- 
inter the  companion  palace  at  Phaistos.  Both 
were,  when  they  began  their  work  trained  scholars 
and  archaeologists,  and  the  excavation  of  these  two 


THE  THRONE  ROOM  AT  CNOSSUS 

Showing  tbrniie  and   fresco  of  hemldic  gnardiaii    Hon 


for.  They  did  not  come  at  once,  but  when  they 
did  the  promise  of  the  V'aphio  Cups  was  more 
than  fulfilled.  In  iSqo  and.  i8qi  the  'beehive 
tombs'  at  Thorikos  in  Attica  and  at  Kampos  in 
Messenia  were  excavated  by  Tsountas,  and  in  the 
last-named  was  found  the  well-known  leaden 
statuette  of  a  man  making  an  offering  which  has 
figured  in  so  many  books  as  a  good  illustration  of 
Mycensan   male  costume 

"The  next  important  event  after  the  discovery 
of  the  \'aphio  Cups  was  the  identification  of  the 
Sixth  Trojan  City  as  Mycensan,  or  affected  by 
Mycensan  influence.  ...  It  is  the  Sixth  City, 
however,  which  succeeded  the  second  after  its 
total  destruction  by  burning  (after  an  interval 
filled  by  three  small  village  settlements  in  suc- 
cession) that  is  undoubtedly  the  Troy  of  legend, 
round  which  gathered  the  traditions  of  the  great 
siege.  It  was  the  only  important  settlement  after 
the  Second  City,  the  succeeding  settlements  being 
unimportant  and  unjustified.     Its  date  (circa  1400- 


splendid  monuments  of  the  older  civilization  of 
Greece  could  not  have  fallen  into  more  capable 
hands  than  theirs." — H.  R.  Hall,  Aigean  arcltce- 
ology.  pp.  Q-27. 

Cretan  area.— Results  c»f  extraordinary  im- 
portance have  been  already  obtained  from  explo- 
rations in  Crete,  carried  on  during  i8qo  and  1900 
by  the  British  School  at  .Athens,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  D.  G.  Hogarth,  and  by  Mr.  .\rthur 
J.  Evans,  of  the  .Ashmolean  Museum,  working 
with  the  aid  of  a  small  Cretan  Exploration  Fund, 
raised  in  England.  The  excavations  of  both  par- 
ties were  carried  on  at  Knossos.  but  the  latter 
was  the  most  fortunate,  having  opened  the  site  of 
a  prehistoric  palace  which  is  yielding  remarkable 
revelations  of  the  legendary  age  in  Crete.  In  a 
communication  to  the  London  Timfs  of  October 
31,  iQoo,  Mr.  Evans  gave  the  following  account 
of  the  results  so  far  as  then  obtained: 

"The  discoveries  made  at  Knossos  throw  into 
the  shade  all  the  other  exploratory  campaigns  of 


62 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Cnossus 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


last  season  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  by 
whatever  nationality  conducted.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  the  materials  already  gathered 
have  revolutionized  our  knowledge  of  prehistoric 
tireece,  and  that  to  find  even  an  approach  to  the 
results  obtained  we  must  go  back  to  Schliemann's 
great  discovery  of  the  Royal  tombs  at  Mycenae. 
The  prehistoric  site,  of  which  some  two  acres  have 
now  been  uncovered  at  Knossos,  proves  to  con- 
tain a  palace  beside  which  those  of  Tiryns  and 
Mycenae  sink  into  insignificance.  By  an  un- 
hoped-for piece  of  good  fortune  the  site,  though 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  greatest 
civic  centres  of  the  island  in  ancient,  medieval, 
and  modern  times,  had  remained  practically  un- 
touched for  over  3,000  years.  At  but  a  very  slight 
depth  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  spade 
has  uncovered  great  courts  and  corridors,  propy- 
laea,  a  long  succession  of  magazines  containing 
gigantic  store  jars  that  might  have  hidden  the 
I'orty  Thieves,  and  a  multiplicity  of  chambers, 
[ire-eminent  among  which  is  the  actual  throne- 
nium  and  council-chamber  of  Homeric  kings. 
The  throne  itself,  on  which  (if  so  much  faith  be 
jiermitted  to  us)  Minos  may  have  declared  the 
law,  is  carved  out  of  alabaster,  once  brilliant  with 
coloured  designs  and  relieved  with  curious  tracery 
and  crocketed  arcading  which  is  wholly  unique  in 
ancient  art  and  exhibits  a  strange  anticipation  of 
i.^th  century  Gothic.  In  the  throne-room,  the 
western  entrance  gallery,  and  elsewhere,  partly 
still  adhering  to  the  walls,  partly  in  detached 
|)ieces  on  the  floors,  was  a  series  of  fresco  paint- 
ings, excelling  any  known  examples  of  the  art 
in  Mycenaean  (!reece.  A  beautiful  life-size  paint- 
ing of  a  youth,  with  a  European  and  almost  clas- 
■-ically  Greek  profile,  gives  us  the  first  real  knowl- 
edge of  the  race  who  produced  this  mysterious 
early  civilization.  Other  frescoes  introduce  us  to 
.t  lively  and  hitherto  unknown  miniature  style, 
representing,  among  other  subjects,  groups  of 
women  engaged  in  animated  conversation  in  the 
courts  and  on  the  balconies  of  the  Palace.  The 
monuments  of  the  sculptor's  art  are  eciually  strik- 
ing. It  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  here  a  mar- 
ble fountain  in  the  shape  of  a  lioness's  head  with 
enamelled  eyes,  fragments  of  a  frieze  with  beauti- 
fully cut  rosettes,  superior  in  its  kind  to  anything 
known  from  Mycenae ;  an  alabaster  vase  natu- 
ralistically  copied  from  a  Triton  shell ;  a  porphyry 
lamp  with  graceful  foliation  supported  on  an 
Egyptianising  lotus  column.  The  head  and  parts 
of  the  body  of  a  magnificent  painted  relief  of  a 
bull  in  gesso  duro  are  unsurpassed  for  vitality  and 
strength. 

"It  is  impossible  here  to  refer  more  than  inci- 
dentally to  the  new  evidence  of  intercourse  be- 
tween Crete  and  Egypt  at  a  very  remote  period 
supplied  by  the  Palace  finds  of  Knossos.  It  may 
be  mentioned,  however,  as  showing  the  extreme 
antiquity  of  the  earlier  elements  of  the  building 
that  in  the  great  Eastern  Court  was  found  an 
Egyptian  seated  figure  of  diorite,  breken  above, 
which  can  be  approximately  dated  about  2000 
B.  C.  Below  this  again  extends  a  vast  Stone  Age 
settlement  which  forms  a  deposit  in  some  places 
24  ft.  in  thickness. 

"Neither  is  it  possible  here  to  dwell  on  the  new 
indications  supplied  by  some  of  the  discoveries  in 
the  'House  of  Minos'  as  to  the  cult  and  religious 
beliefs  of  its  occupants.  It  must  be  sufficient  to 
observe  that  one  of  the  miniature  frescoes  found 
represents  the  facade  of  a  Mycenaean  shrine  and 
that  the  Palace  itself  seems  to  have  been  a  sanc- 
tuary of  the  Cretan  God  of  the  Double  Axe,  as 
well    as    a    dwelling    place    of    prehistoric    kings. 


63 


There  can  be  little  remaining  doubt  that  this  huge 
building  with  its  maze  of  corridors  and  tortuous 
passages,  its  medley  of  small  chambers,  its  long 
succession  of  magazines  with  their  blind  endings, 
was  in  fact  the  Labyrinth  of  later  tradition  which 
supplied  a  local  habitation  for  the  Minotaur  of 
grisly  fame.  The  great  figures  of  bulls  in  fresco 
and  relief  that  adorned  the  walls,  the  harem 
scenes  of  some  of  the  frescoes,  the  corner  stones 
and  pillars  marked  with  the  labrys  or  double  axe 
— the  emblem  of  the  Cretan  Zeus,  explaining  the 
derivation  of  the  name  'Labyrinth'  itself — are  so 
many  details  which  all  conspire  to  bear  out  this 
identification.  In  the  Palace-shrine  of  Knossos 
there  stands  at  last  revealed  to  us  the  spacious 
structure  which  the  skill  of  Daedalus  is  said  to 
have  imitated  from  the  great  Egyptian  building 
on  the  shore  of  Lake  Moeris,  and  with  it  some 
part  at  least  of  his  fabled  masterpieces  still  cling- 
ing to  the  walls." — Up  to  iqo6  Sir  Arthur  Evans 
attracted  the  attention  of  archseologists  to  his 
excavations  at  Cnossus,  where  he  recovered  nu- 
merous valuable  specimens  of  ancient  art,  which 
were  deposited  in  the  museum  at  Candia.  Par- 
ticular interest  attaches  to  the  architecture  of  the 
palace,  disclosing  among  its  wonders  a  remarkable 
grand  staircase  with  decorated  walls,  and  a  series 
of  sunken  rooms  which  presumably  were  baths. 
Much,  no  doubt,  still  remains  to  be  brought  to 
light  in  this  region ;  various  circumstances  have 
combined  since  1Q06  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
work.  In  the  early  'sixties  of  last  century  the  site 
of  Phaestus,  or  Phaistos,  was  discovered  by  a 
British  naval  officer.  A  famous  city  in  the  legen- 
dary history  of  ancient  Crete,  Phaestus  boasted  a 
palace  outranking  even  that  of  Cnossus.  This 
building,  together  with  a  similar  one  on  a  lesser 
scale  of  magnificence  and  situated  to  the  east  of  it, 
was  uncovered  by  Italians.  Among  the  treasures 
recovered  were  some  fine  specimens  of  gilt  stone 
cups,  imitations  of  the  Vaphio,  of  c.  1600  B.C. 
A  pottery  sarcophagus,  representing  scenes  from 
funeral  ceremonials,  was  discovered  in  iqoS.  At 
Phaestus  the  British  school  discovered  several  in- 
scriptions dating  from  the  sixth  century  B.C.  The 
characters  seem  to  be  (Jreek  but  the  language  it  is 
impossible  to  read.  Scholars  believe  that  it  is 
related  to  the  non-Aryan  tongues  which  were 
spoken  in  its  near  neighborhood.  Its  chief  inter- 
est to  us  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  undoubtedly 
the  speech  of  the  Bronze  Age  Cretans  with  their 
pictographs  and  hieroglyphics.  To  the  east  at 
Palaikastro  the  work  of  the  British  school  was 
crowned  with  complete  success.  Here  they  dis- 
covered a  complete  town  with  shaft  graves  and 
cups  corresponding  in  style  and  age  to  those  at 
Mycenae.  Nearby  Professor  Myres  discovered 
some  interesting  pottery  showing  the  dress  and 
costumes  of  the  Minoan  of  the  Middle  Ages.  A 
little  further  south  Mr.  Hogarth  excavated  a  site 
of  the  best  period  with  many  fine  vases  and  clay 
impressions  of  seals,  which  emphasized  the  bizarre 
side  of  Cretan  art. — See  also  Greece:  ,1£gean  or 
Minoan   civilization. 

Upon  the  advice  of  Dr.  Evans,  two  Americans, 
Miss  Harriet  Boyd  and  Mr.  R.  B.  Seager,  discov- 
ered in  iqo3  a  complete  little  town  of  the  Bronze 
age  called  Gournia.  This  town  like  Pompeii  now 
stands  with  its  streets  and  houses  opened  to  the 
sky.  Its  surprisingly  narrow  streets,  the  rough- 
walled  chambers  of  its  houses  and  its  more  pros- 
perous market  places  give  us  a  good  idea  of  how 
the  ordinary  people  of  the  Bronze  age  lived. 
Nearby  at  Pseira  Mr.  Seager  found  some  objects 
of  art  which  compared  favorably  in  workman- 
ship  and   beauty    with    the   best    products    of   the 


JEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Significance  of 
Cretan  Discoveries 


^CEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Japanese.  On  the  small  island  nearby,  Mochlos, 
Mr.  Seager  discovered  several  tombs  in  which  were 
found  furniture  of  thin  gold  and  beautiful  little 
vases  of  stone.  These  objects  are  contemporary 
with  the  second  city  of  Troy. — Brilliant  as  are 
the  illustrations  thus  recovered  of  the  high  civili- 
zation of  Crete  and  of  the  substantial  truth  of 
early  tradition,  they  are  almost  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  a  discovery  which  carries  back  the  ex- 
istence of  written  documents  in  the  Hellenic  lands 
some  seven  centuries  beyond  the  first  known 
monuments  of  the  historic  Greek  writing.  In  the 
chambers  and  magazines  of  the  Palace  [of  Cnos- 
sus]  there  came  to  light  a  series  of  deposits  of  clay 
tablets,  in  form  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Baby- 
lonian, but  inscribed  with  characters  in  two  dis- 
tinct types  of  indigenous  prehistoric  script — one 
hieroglyphic  or  quasi-pictorial,  the  other  linear. 
The  existence  of  a  hieroglyphic  script  in  the  island 
had  been  already  the  theme  of  some  earlier  re- 
searches by  the  explorer  of  the  Palace,  based  on 
the  more  limited  material  supplied  by  groups  of 
signs  on  a  class  of  Cretan  seal-stones,  and  the 
ample  corroboration  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at 
was,  therefore,  the  more  satisfactory.  These 
Cretan  hieroglyphics  will  be  found  to  have  a  spe- 
cial importance  in  their  bearing  on  the  origin  of 
the  Phoenician  alphabet. 

"But  the  great  bulk  of  the  tablets  belonged  to 
the  linear  class,  exhibiting  an  elegant  and  much 
more  highly-developed  form  of  script,  with  let- 
ters of  an  upright  and  singularly  European  aspect. 
The  inscriptions,  over  i,ooo  of  which  were  col- 
lected, were  originally  contained  in  coffers  of  clay, 
wood,  and  gypsum,  which  had  been  in  turn  se- 
cured by  clay  seals  impressed  with  finely-engraved 
signets  and  counter-marked  and  counter-signed  by 
controlling  officials  in  the  same  script  while  the 
clay  was  still  wet.  The  clay  documents  them- 
selves are,  beyond  doubt,  the  Palace  archives. 
Many  relate  to  accounts  concerning  the  Royal 
Arsenal,  stores,  and  treasures.  Others,  perhaps, 
like  the  contemporary  cuneiform  tablets,  refer  to 
contracts  or  correspondence.  The  problems  at- 
taching to  the  decipherment  of  these  clay  records 
are  of  enthralling  interest,  and  we  have  here  locked 
up  for  us  materials  which  may  some  day  enlarge 
the  bounds  of  history." — London  Times,  Oct.  31, 
1000. 

In  an  earlier  communication  to  The  Times  (Sep- 
tember 15),  Mr.  Evans  had  explained  more  dis- 
tinctly the  importance  of  the  clay  tablets  found 
at  Cnossus,  as  throwing  light  on  the  origin  of  the 
alphabet:  "In  my  excavation  of  the  prehistoric 
Palace  at  Knossos,"  he  wrote,  "I  came  upon  a 
series  of  deposits  of  clay  tablets,  representing  the 
Royal  archives,  the  inscriptions  on  which  belong 
to  two  distinct  systems  of  writing — one  hiero- 
glyphic and  quasi-pictorial ;  the  other  for  the  most 
part  linear  and  much  more  highly  developed.  Of 
these  the  hieroglyphic  class  especially  presents  a 
series  of  forms  answering  to  what,  according  to  the 
names  of  the  Phoenician  letters,  we  must  suppose 
to  have  been  the  original  pictorial  designs  from 
which  these,  too,  were  derived.  A  series  of  con- 
jectural reconstructions  of  the  originals  of  the 
Phoenician  letters  on  this  line  were  in  fact  drawn 
out  by  my  father.  Sir  John  Evans,  for  a  lecture 
on  the  origin  of  the  alphabet  given  at  the  Royal 
Institution  in  1872,  and  it  may  be  said  that  two- 
thirds  of  these  resemble  almost  line  for  line  actual 
forms  of  Cretan  hieroglyphics.  The  oxhead 
(Aleph),  the  house  (Bethi,  the  window  (He),  the 
peg  (Van),  the  fence  (Cheth),  the  hand  (Yod) 
seen  sideways,  and  the  open  palm  (Kaph),  the 
fish   (Nun),  the  post  or  trunk   (Samekh),  the  eye 


(Ain),  the  month  (Pe),  the  teeth  (Shin),  the  cross- 
sign  (Tau),  not  to  speak  of  several  other  prob- 
able examples,  are  all  literally  reproduced.  The 
analogy  thus  supplied  is  indeed  overwhelming.  It 
is  impossible  to  believe  that,  while  on  one  side  of 
the  East  Mediterranean  basin  these  alphabetic 
prototypes  were  naturally  evolving  themselves, 
the  people  of  the  opposite  shore  were  arriving  at 
the  same  result  by  a  complicated  process  of  selec- 
tion and  transformation  of  a  series  of  hieratic 
Egyptian  signs  derived  from  quite  different  ob- 
jects. The  analogy  with  the  Cretan  hieroglyphic 
forms  certainly  weighs  strongly  in  favour  of  the 
simple  and  natural  explanation  of  the  origin  of 
the  Phoenician  letters  which  was  held  from  the 
time  of  Gesenius  onwards,  and  was  only  disturbed 
by  the  extremely  ingenious,  though  over-elaborate, 
theory   of  De  Rouge." 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  subscribers  to  the 
British  School  at  Athens,  held  in  London,  Octo- 
ber 30,  1000,  Mr  Hogarth,  the  Director,  spoke 
with  great  enthusiasm  of  the  significance  of  the 
Cretan  discoveries  already  made,  and  of  the  prom- 
ise of  enlarged  knowledge  which  they  gave.  He 
said:  "The  discovery  made  25  years  ago  [by 
Schliemann]  that  no  barbarians,  but  possessors  of 
a  very  high  and  individual  culture,  preceded  the 
Hellenic  period  in  Greece — a  culture  which  could 
not  but  have  affected  the  Hellenic — had  been  de- 
veloped in  various  ways  since.  It  had  been  es- 
tablished that  this  culture  had  had  a  very  long 
existence  and  development;  it  covered  completely 
a  large  geographical  area;  it  developed  various 
local  characteristics  in  art  production  which 
seemed  to  be  gathered  again  into  one  by  the  typi- 
cal art  of  Mycenae.  But  the  most  important  his- 
torical points  remained  obscure.  Where  was  the 
original  home  of  this  new  civilization;  what  fam- 
ily did  the  race  or  races  belong  to ;  of  what  speech 
were  they  and  what  religions;  what  was  the  his- 
tory of  their  societies  and  art  during  their  domi- 
nance, and  what  became  of  them  after?  Neither 
mainland  Greece  nor  the  Aegean  islands  answered 
these.  But  there  were  two  unknown  quantities, 
Crete  and  .^ste  Minor,  with  Rhodes.  One  of  these 
we  have  now  attacked.  Crete  by  its  great  size  and 
natural  wealth,  its  position,  and  its  mythologic 
fame  was  bound  to  inform  us  of  much.  It  is  too 
early  to  say  that  the  questions  will  all  be  answered 
by  Crete,  but  already  we  have  much  light.  The  , 
discovery  of  written  documents  and  of  shrines  has 
told  us  more  than  any  other  evidence  of  the  origin 
and  family.  The  Knossos  frescoes  show  us  the 
racial  type ;  the  Dictaean  Cave,  and  Knossos 
houses  illuminate  the  religion.  New  arts  have 
been  discovered,  and  the  relation  to  Egypt  and 
Asia  are  already  far  better  understood.  It  remains 
now  to  find  the  early  tombs,  and  clear  the  lower 
stratum  of  the  Palace  ruins  at  Knossos,  to  know 
more  of  the  earliest  Cretan  race,  to  explore  the 
east  or  'Eteocretan'  end  of  the  island,  to  obtain 
light  on  the  language  and  relations  to  Egypt  and 
Asia,  and  »to  investigate  the  'Geometric'  period, 
which  is  the  transition  to  the  Hellenic." 

Commenting  in  another  place  on  the  discoveries 
in  Crete,  Mr.  Hogarth  has  pointed  out  their  effect 
in  modifying  the  ideas  heretofore  entertained  of 
the  importance  of  Phoenician  influence  in  the  rise 
of  European  civilization.  "For  many  years  now," 
he  writes,  "we  have  had  before  our  eyes  two 
standing  protests  against  the  traditional  claim  of 
Phoenicia  to  originate  European  civilization,  and 
those  protests  come  from  two  regions  which  Phoe- 
nician influence,  travelling  west,  ought  first  to 
have  affected,  namely,  Cyprus  and  Asia  Minor.  In 
both  these  regions  exist  remains  of  early  systems 


64 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Northern  Greece 
and  Islands 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


of  writing  which  are  clearly  not  of  Phoenician 
descent.  Both  the  Cypriote  syllabic  script  and  the 
'Hittite'  symbols  must  have  been  firmly  rooted  in 
their  homes  before  ever  the  convenient  alphabet 
of  Sidon  and  Tyre  was  known  there.  And  now, 
since  Mr.  Evans  has  demonstrated  the  existence  of 
two  non-Phoenician  systems  of  writing  in  Crete 
also,  the  use  of  one  of  which  has  been  proved  to 
extend  to  the  Cyclades  and  the  mainland  of 
Greece,  it  has  become  evident  that  we  have  to  deal 
in  south-eastern  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Cyprus 
or  Asia  Minor,  with  a  non-Phoenician  influence  of 
civilization  which,  since  it  could  originate  that 
greatest  of  achievements,  a  local  script,  was  quite 
powerful  enough  to  account  by  itself  also  for  the 
local  art.  Those  who  continue  to  advocate  the 
Phoenician  claim  do  not  seem  sufficiently  to  real- 
ize that  nowadays  they  have  to  take  account 
neither  only  of  the  Homeric  age  nor  only  of  even 
half  a  millennium  before  Homer,  but  of  an  almost 
geologic  antiquity.  Far  into  the  third  millennium 
B.  C.  at  the  very  least,  and  more  probably  much 
eailier  still,  there  was  a  civilization  in  the  Aegean 
and  on  the  Greek  mainland  which,  while  it  con- 
tracted many  debts  to  the  East  and  to  Egypt,  was 
able  to  assimilate  all  that  it  borrowed,  and  to  re- 
issue it  in  an  individual  form,  expressed  in  prod- 
ucts which  are  not  of  the  same  character  with 
those  of  any  Eastern  civilization  that  we  know." — 
D.  G.  Hogarth,  Authority  and  archaeology  sacred 
and  profane,  pt.  2,  pp.  237-238. — "During  the  past 
season,  Evans,  discoverer  of  the  now  famous  early 
Cretan  systems  of  writing,  Halbherr  and  other 
Italians,  as  well  as  the  French,  have  been  proving 
what  was  already  foreshadowed,  that  in  Crete  we 
find  in  its  purest  form  and  in  all  its  historic  and 
racial  phases  that  Mediterranean  civilization, — 
Pelasgic  and  Achaean. — that  culminated  in  Tiryns 
and  Mykenae.  We  now  see  that  Homer  sings  of 
the  closing  years  of  a  Culture  that  dates  back 
of  the  'Trojan  War'  at  least  for  fifteen  hundred 
years.  Crete  is  found  to  be  covered  with  ruined 
Pelasgic  cities,  surrounded  by  gigantic  polygonal 
walls,  crowned  by  acropoli,  adorned  with  royal 
palaces,  defended  by  forts,  connected  by  artificial 
highways,  and  with  necropoli  of  vaulted  tombs 
like  those  discovered  by  Schliemann  at  Mykenae. 
Already  the  royal  palaces  and  libraries  are  being 
unearthed  at  Cnossos  and  'Goulas'  with  sculptures 
and  decoration  of  the  most  novel  description  and 
early  date.  A  literature  in  an  unknown  tongue 
and  in  undeciphered  scripts  is  being  found,  to 
puzzle  scholars  as  much  perhaps  as  the  Hittite  and 
Etruscan  languages.  Some  day  these  'Pelasgic' 
documents  will  disclose  the  secrets  of  a  neglected 
civilization  and  fill  up  the  gap  between  early 
Eastern  and  Hellenic  cultures." — A.  L.  Frothing- 
ham,  Jr.,  Archaeological  progress  {International 
Monthly,  Dec,  iqoo). — See  also  Crete:  Effect  of 
position  and  physical  features  upon  Cretan  civili- 
zation. 

Northern  Greece  and  the  islands. — It  seems 
strange  that  the  Germans  did  not  follow  out  the 
work  of  Schliemann  at  Troy  and  Mycenje ;  on 
the  other  hand  they  have  made  brilliant  finds  at 
Olympia.  Semi-elliptical  stone  houses  of  primitive 
type  and  shaft  graves  of  the  Mycensan  type  to- 
gether with  fine  vases  in  imitation  of  the  Cretan 
originals  were  discovered.  It  is  possible  that  these 
vases  were  actually  imported  from  Crete  The 
wall  paintings  found  here  present  an  interesting 
modification   of  Cretan  art. 

"Finally,  we  come  to  the  latest  and  in  some 
ways  the  most  startling  of  all  the  discoveries.  This 
is  the  fact,  established  by  excavations  in  Boeotia, 
Phokis,    and    Thessaly,    that    down    to    the    latest 


period  of  the  ^gean  Bronze  Age,  North  Greece 
still  remained  in  the  Chalcohthic  period.  Excava- 
tions by  M.  Tsountas  at  Sesklo  and  Dimini  in 
Thessaly,  and  by  M.  Sotiriadis  at  Chaironeia  in 
Bceotia,  had  revealed  a  Stone  Age  culture  with  re- 
markable painted  handmade  pottery,  resembling 
that  from  the  neolithic  sites  of  Southern  Russia. 
The  date  of  this  was  naturally  assumed  to  be  alto- 
gether earlier  than  the  Bronze  Age  in  Greece,  and 
was  equated  with  that  of  the  neolithic  strata  of 
Troy  and  Crete.  But  it  is  always  unsafe  to  as- 
sume absolute  contemporaneity  of  Stone  Age  with 
Stone  Age  and  Bronze  Age  with  Bronze  Age,  even 
in  the  same  quarter  of  the  world,  especially  when, 
as  in  this  case,  the  neolithic  products  of  the  one 
country  in  no  way  resemble  those  of  the  other. 
Cyprus  never  seems  to  have  had  a  Stone  Age  at 
all,  properly  speaking,  but  we  cannot  suppose  that 
the  island  was  uninhabited  when  Crete  was  using 
stone  weapons  and  tools.  In  fact  it  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  an  universal  Age  of  Stone  all  over  one 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface  coming  to  an  end 
everywhere  at  the  same  time,  and  succeeded  by  a 
Copper  and  then  a  Bronze  Age  which  equally 
came  to  their  conclusions  everywhere  at  the  same 
time.  Troy  seems  never  to  have  had  a  Copper 
Age  at  all,  but  passed  straight  from  the  Stone 
period  to  that  of  Bronze;  Cyprus  and  the  Cyclades 
had  a  Copper  Age ;  Egypt  only  reached  the  true 
Bronze  Age — after  long  centuries  of  simple  copper- 
using  (though  she  knew  both  bronze  and  iron  and 
occasionally  used  them) — not  very  long  before  she 
began  commonly  to  use  iron,  and  that  was  not 
long  before  iron  began  to  be  used  even  in  Greece. 
The  works  of  man's  hands  do  not  develop  evenly 
everywhere,  and  an  invention  of  the  highest  mo- 
ment may  be  disregarded  by  one  people  for  hun- 
dreds of  years  after  it  has  been  adopted  by  a 
neighbour.  So  it  seems  to  have  been  in  Greece. 
The  adoption  of  metal  in  the  /Egean  lands  and 
in  Southern  Greece,  which  brought  about  the 
whole  magnificent  development  of  /Egean  civili- 
zation, was  not  imitated  in  the  north,  and  the  men 
of  Thessaly  continued  to  use  their  stone  weapons 
and  their  peculiar  native  pottery  until  the  Bronze 
Age  culture  of  the  South  had  reached  its  deca- 
dence, and  the  time  for  the  introduction  of  iron 
from  the  North  had  almost  arrived." — H.  R.  Hall, 
Aigean  archceology,  pp.  40-41. 

To  the  imagination  and  energy  of  Schliemann 
who  was  a  pioneer  in  this  field  the  world  owes  a 
real  debt  of  gratitude.  It  is  only  fair  to  state, 
however,  that  his  work  paled  into  insignificance 
before  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Arthur  Evans.  His 
patience,  his  energy  and  self-sacrifice,  shown  in 
particular  at  Cnossus,  have  resulted  in  discov- 
eries which  revolutionized  our  knowledge  of  early 
Greece.  Moreover,  his  explorations  opened  to 
archteologists  a  vast  new  field  for  future  endeavor. 
The  cost  of  this  work  and  the  extent  of  the  field 
have  made  it  impossible  for  individuals  to  under- 
take this  work  at  their  own  expense.  Fortunately 
private  munificence  has  made  it  possible  for  na- 
tional societies  to  follow  up  this  work.  Scientists 
of  each  country  have  decided  upon  their  own 
territory,  and  while  there  has  been  a  keen  sense 
of  rivalry  there  have  also  been  encouraging  in- 
stances of  cooperation. 

Also  in:  H.  Boyd,  Transactions  of  the  depart- 
ment of  arckwology. — R.  B.  Seager,  Exploration 
in  the  Island  of  Mochlos;  Excavations  on  the 
Island  of  Pseira. — T.  D.  Atkinson,  Excavations  at 
Philakopi  in  Melos.-rA.  J.  B.  Wace  and  M.  S. 
Thompson,  Prehistoric  Thessaly.— E.  H.  Hall, 
Excavations  in  eastern  Crete. — A.  Evans,  Atlas  of 
Cnossian  antiquities. 


65 


iEGEAN  CIVILIZATION  Neolithic  Age  -AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


NEOLITHIC    AGE 

B.  C.  12000-3000.— Evolution  of  pottery.— Pol- 
ished stone  implements. — Dress. — "The  first  nine 
epochs  designated  as  Minoan  immediately  suc- 
ceed the  Neolithic  Age.  Its  deposit  reaches  to  a 
depth  of  17  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
while  below  it  the  Neolithic  remains  are  found, 
at  one  testing-point  to  a  farther  depth  of  nearly 
2  1  feet,  at  another  to  one  of  26  feet.  Mr.  Evans 
seeks  to  fix  its  date  by  certain  connections  that 
its  remains  show  with  those  of  early  Egypt.  If 
we  thus  allow  about  3  feet  of  deposit  for  every 
millennium,  we  get  a  great  age  for  the  NeoUthic 
strata  that  are  below.  Progress  moves  slowly  in 
the  dim  early  periods,  and  we  need  not  shrink 
from  the  dates  of  10,000  or  12,000  B.C.  which  are 
thus  given  to  the  first  settlement  of  man  upon  the 
hill  at  Knossos.  The  black  hand-burnished  ware, 
or  'Bucchero'  that  it  had  inherited  from  Neo- 
lithic times  is  not  what  is  most  characteristic  of 
Early  Minoan.  ...  It  was  the  achievement  of  the 
Early  Minoan  Age  to  produce,  by  painting  on  the 
flat,  the  geometric  effects  that  hitherto  had  been 
produced  by  the  white  filling,  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  very  pigment  used  was  the  same  white 
gypsum  treated  differently.  The  invention  once 
made,  there  were  rapid  developments.  A  lustrous 
black  glaze  was  spread  as  a  slip  over  the  surface, 
so  that  the  lustreless  white  patterns  over  it  gave 
the  effect  of  the  best  old  incrusted  ware;  and  the 
black  glaze,  once  discovered,  was  seen  itself  to 
have  possibilities  as  decoration,  and  was  in  other 
vases  laid  on  in  black  bands  on  the  natural  light 
buff  of  the  clay." — R.  M,  Burrows,  Discoveries  in 
Crete,  pp.  44-48- 

"Except  in  the  case  of  Egypt  pottery  is  our  only 
guide  in  the  study  of  neolith'c  civilisation.  The 
objects  of  wood  and  leather  and  the  clothing  have 
all  disappeared  in  the  destruction  caused  by  damp 
and  weather  and  the  lapse  of  time.  Only  the  im- 
plements of  bone  and  stone  and  the  terra  cotta 
vases  have  remained.  The  walls  are  very  rare  and 
without  mortar,  and  even  bricks  are  late  in  ap- 
pearing. Modeling  and  design  had  their  first 
expression  in  pottery,  and  by  means  of  this  we 
can  follow  the  progress  of  the  people  in  their  first 
steps  towards  civilisation.  X  plastic  material  like 
clay  is  not  alone  sufficient  for  pottery,  for  it  loses 
moisture  in  drying  and  contracts.  It  is  necessary 
to  add  something  to  the  clay  to  prevent  the  vase 
from  breaking  after  it  is  made.  The  firing  ol 
pottery  presents  another  difficulty,  for  if  the  clay 
is  very  greasy  and  tenacious,  it  does  not  keep  its 
shape,  but  cracks  in  the  furnace.  Some  substance 
had  to  be  mixed  with  the  earth  to  render  it 
porous,  so  that  the  vapour  from  the  water  could 
escape  easily.  The  potters  of  the  neolithic  age 
had  discovered  that  by  adding  powdered  carbon 
to  the  clay  this  effect  was  obtained.  Hencefor- 
ward black  pottery  was  not  a  caprice  of  fashion 
but  a  technical  necessity.  .  .  .  Mitr  having  learnt 
to  polish  the  surface  of  the  vases  by  burnishing 
with  the  bone  or  smooth  stone  spatula,  the  potters 
observed  that  when  these  black  vases  were  placed 
in  the  flame  or  upon  hot  coals  they  became  red  in 
the  parts  where  the  fire  was  hottest ;  to  avoid 
producing  these  red.  yellow,  or  drab  marks,  which 
were  the  effect  of  firing  by  an  open  fire,  they  dis- 
covered how  to  bake  fine  pottery  so  that  it  was 
bright  and  black  as  ebony. 

"In  the  neolithic  soil  of  Phaestos  were  found  the 
three  stone  axes.  They  are  oval-shaped  flints, 
sharpened  on  one  side  to  giVe  a  cutting  edge,  and 
with  the  other  end  left  rough  where  it  would  be 
fixed  on  the  handle.  .  .  .  Among  the  ruins  of  the 


primitive  palace  of  Phaestos  we  had  proof  of  the 
skill  of  the  Cretans  of  the  neolithic  age  in  working 
stone,  and  in  piercing  the  axes  in  order  to  fasten 
them  to  the  handle,  besides  making  double  axes. 
In  a  niche  we  found  some  pieces  of  polished  stone, 
fragments  of  broken  a.xes;  and  amongst  these  a 
round  piece  of  very  hard  green  stone,  about  the 
size  of  a  common  cork.  To  make  a  hole  in  an  axe 
they  used  a  cane  and  some  sand  and  water.  The 
cane  was  spun  round  quickly  and  the  stone  was 
pierced  by  it  with  the  help  of  the  sand,  and  a 
circular  hole  was  made.  When  half  through,  the 
stone  was  turned  and  the  drilling  recommenced 
on  the  opposite  side.  .  .  .  When  the  first  palace 
of  Phaestos  was  built,  the  age  of  bronze  was 
reached,  the  age  of  copper  was  past,  and  prob- 
ably no  flint  weapons  had  been  made  for  centuries. 
The  sight  of  these  useless  fragments  collected  in 
a  niche  of  the  early  palace  convinced  me  that  the 
tradition  of  the  neolithic  age  was  not  spent  and 
that  the  cult  of  the  ancestor  was  still  alive.  One 
of  the  most  important  things  (in  my  opinion) 
which  came  to  light  in  my  excavations  beneath  the 
foundations  of  the  palaces  of  Phaestos  was  the 
discovery  that  even  in  the'  neolithic  age  the  Cre- 
tans had  learnt  the  art  of  giving  colour  to  their 
pottery  by  a  decoration  of  red  and  brown  lines. 
From  the  pile  dw'ellings  beyond  the  .Alps,  in  Sicily 
and  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  from  Greece  to  Troy, 
from  France  to  Spain,  female  figures,  decorated  in 
the  same  manner,  represent  the  rst  traces  of 
female  costume  in  the  stone  age.  The  linen  in 
which  the  neolithic  bodies  in  Egypt  are  wrapped  is 
so  fine  as  to  allow  us  to  believe  that  semi-trans- 
parent robes  may  have  been  made  at  that  period, 
as  was  the  case  under  the  early  dynasties.  The 
neolithic  linen  of  Egypt  is  like  canvas,  so  far  apart 
are  the  threads  of  the  web,  and  it  was  woven  in 
so  thin  a  texture  that  with  the  embroideries  it 
might  have  a  similar  effect  to  this  figure.  Th,- 
woman  who  is  pouring  out  the  liquid  has  a  soit 
of  white  skirt  made  from  the  ,*kin  of  an  animal, 
as  have  also  the  men  who  bear  offerings.  The 
torso  is  not  bare  but  covered  by  a  bodice  with 
sleeves  which  end  above  the  elbow.  Broad  blue 
bands  pass  round  the  neck  and  down  the  sleeve; 
the  girdle,  too,  is  formed  by  a  strip  of  blue,  and  a 
band  of  the  same  colour  probably  crosses  on  the 
breast,  for  another  priestess,  turned  to  the  right, 
has  the  same  kind  of  sash  The  next  figure,  a 
woman  with  two  pails  hung  from  her  shoulders, 
wears  a  long  blue  dress  with  the  lower  edge 
adorned  by  flounces.  The  neck  and  sleeves  are 
edged  by  a  band  of  three  colours,  and  this  woman 
also  has  a  red  sash  edged  with  two  black  lines 
passing  obliquely  across  the  chest  We  know  that 
from  the  time  of  the  first  dynasties  in  Egypt  the 
priests  wore  panther's  skins  at  the  religious  func- 
tions, and  here,  too,  the  priestesses  also  wear  a 
skin  tight  to  the  waist,  with  an  appendage  like 
a  tail." — .K.  Mosso,  Dawn  of  Mediterranean  civi- 
lisation, pp.  79-iQS. — See  also  Europe:  Prehis- 
toric period. 

MINOAN    AGE 

B.  C.  3000-1200. — Chronology.— "The  'Minoan 
Age,'  as  defined  by  Sir  .Arthur  Evans,  includes  the 
whole  of  the  bronze  age.  It  is  classified  in  three 
principal  periods,  early,  middle,  and  late:  and 
each  of  these  similarly  into  three  sub-divisions, 
forming  a  ninefold  series  in  which  each  phase  is 
sufficiently  distineuished  bv  changing  stvles  of 
potterv  and  other  manufactures,  sufficiently  re- 
flected in  the  analogous  products  of  Melos,  Thera, 
and  other  sites,  to  provide  a  standard  series  for 


66 


JEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Minoan  Ages  ^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


the  whole  Aegean  area.  Objects  of  foreign,  and 
particularly  of  Egyptian  make,  and  of  known 
date,  are  found  at  sufficiently  numerous  points  in 
this  series,  to  permit  us  to  regard  the  Early- 
Minoan  period  as  contemporary  with  Dynasties 
I-VI  in  Egypt;  the  many-coloured  pottery  of  the 
Middle-Minoan  is  found  on  Egyptian  sites  ac- 
curately dated  to  Dynasty  XII;  and  at  Cnossus 
the  deposits  classed  as  Middle-Minoan-3  yield  an 
Egyptian  statuette  of  Dynasty  XIII  and  an  in- 
scription of  the  Shepherd-King  Khyan,  between 
1900  and  1600.  The  Late-Minoan  period  is  more 
precisely  dated  still.  Its  first  two  pha.ses,  'L.  M.  i 
and  2'  are  contemporary  with  Dynasty  XVIII, 
and  datable  to  iboo-1400;  they  serve  in  turn  to 
date  the  royal  tombs  at  Mycenae,  and  the  Va- 
phio  tomb  in  Laconia  with  its  magnificent  em- 
bossed gold-cups."  There  was  sudden  destruction 
of  the  Cnossian  Palace,  to  which  last  phase  be- 
long the  third  city  at  Phylakopi,  the  later  graves 
at  Mycenae  and  lalysus,  the  'Sixth  City'  at  Troy, 
and  the  large  Minoan  settlements  in  Cyprus  and 
Sicily.  "Rather  later  than  these,  but  still  within 
the  Late-Minoan  period,  comes  the  attempt  .  .  . 
to  occupy  Thessaly:  and  the  first  contact  with  the 
west  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

"Then,  with  the  cessation  of  intercourse  with 
Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Cyprus,  and  the  simulta- 
neous, though  gradual,  introduction  of  iron,  first 
for  tools,  then  for  weapons — it  had  been  known 
as  a  'precious  metal'  in  the  /Ei^ean  since  'L.  M.  3' 
or  even  'L.  M.  3';  of  a  new  sort  of  costume 
which  required  safety-pins  (fibula)  ;  of  a  new 
type  of  decorative  art,  non-representative,  with  a 
limited  stock  of  stiff  geometrical  designs  based  on 
basketwork  and  incised  ornament;  and  of  the 
practice  of  cremation — wholly  new  in  the  ^^gean, 
but  long  familiar  in  the  forest-clad  north,  begins 
a  new  period,  the  Early  Iron  Age,  with  a  new 
distribution  of  settlements,  and  centers  of  power 
and  industry,  and  almost  total  extinction  of  the 
Late  Minoan  culture,  which  was  still  relatively 
high,  though  already  far  gone  in  decadence,  by  the 
eleventh  century." — J.  L.  Myres,  Dawn  of  his- 
tory, pp.   I73-I7.';. 

B.  C.  3000-2200. — Early  Minoan  age.— .\t  the 
opening  of  this  period  potters  discovered  a  black 
glaze  for  coating  the  wares  on  which  they  painted 
white  or  red  bands  or  sometimes  stripes.  Natu- 
rally as  time  went  on,  the  shapes  of  these  vases 
became  more  regular.  From  this  fact  we  must 
conclude  the  invention  of  the  potters'  wheel.  Vase 
decoration,  too,  became  more  varied  when  potters 
began  to  depict  the  human  body.  At  first  this 
work  was  done  in  the  geometric  style — that  is, 
with  straight  lines  alone.  We  must  remember  that 
at  this  time  the  chief  centre  of  culture  was  Melos 
rather  than  Crete.  LTndoubtedly  this  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  here  were  available  large  quantities 
of  hard  stone  from  which  could  be  fashioned  all 
manner  of  sharp  or  pointed  instruments  such  as 
knives  and  razors,  as  well  as  weapons.  These 
wares  were  exported  to  the  nearby  Cyclades,  to 
Troy  and  to  the  mainland  of  Greece.  Unfortu- 
nately, we  know  little  of  the  life  and  customs  of 
these  early  people.  They  usually  lived  in  rec- 
tangular stone  houses  with  one  or  more  rooms 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  owner.  Many  of 
the  chieftains  built  palaces  of  which  the  ones  at 
Troy  and  Tiryns  are  best  known.  Rough  walls 
of  Cyclopean  masonry  were  constructed  about 
these  palaces  to  prevent  raids  from  neighbouring 
chieftains  or  even  from  foreign  invaders.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  due  to  their  geographic 
isolation  the  palaces  of  Crete  remained  unpro- 
tected.    The    most    important    families    built    sub- 


terranean dome-shaped  tombs  modelled  after  those 
in  which  they  lived.  Here  they  placed  articles  of 
daily  use  for  the  disembodied  spirit. — R.  M.  Bur- 
rows, Discoveries  in  Crete,  ch.  3. — A.  Mosso,  Dawn 
oj  Mediterranean  civilisation,  ch.  6. — C.  Tsountas 
and  I.  Manatt,  Mycencean  age,  pp.  44-55. — "The 
great  innovation  of  the  age  was  the  introduction 
of  copper  most  probably  from  Egypt  and  Cyprus. 
Silver  and  gold  became  known  in  the  same  period. 
For  a  long  time,  however,  stone  maintained  its 
place  in  the  useful  arts.  Equally  important  was 
the  adoption  of  the  system  of  picture  writing, 
pictographs.  They  are  found  in  Crete  on  seals  of 
ivory,  stone,  and  other  material,  in  the  form  of 
cylinders,  buttons,  and  prisms.  Their  near  re- 
semblance to  Egyptian  types  proves  a  close  inter- 
course between  these  two  countries." — G.  W.  Bots- 
ford,  Hellenic  history,  ch.  2. 

B.  C.  2200-1600.— Middle  Minoan  Age.— "Dur- 
ing this  period  the  chief  seats  of  culture  were 
Cnossus  and  Phaestus  in  central  Crete,  where  we 
find  Minoan  civilization  at  its  most  brilliant 
height.  By  this  time  pottery  had  become  really 
a  fine  art  of  which  the  specimens  of  the  Kamares 
type  are  the  most  beautiful.  In  the  egg-shell  thin- 
ness of  their  walls  they  may  be  compared  with 
the  best  Haviland  china  of  today.  At  first  art- 
ists paid  little  attention  to  a  realistic  represen- 
tation of  nature  but  aimed  to  create  a  brilliant 
harmony  of  colors.  Gradually,  however,  the  color 
scheme  became  more  simple  and  artists  attempted 
to  depict  natural  objects  as  they  really  existed. 
This  was  also  a  period  of  the  great  Palace  of 
Cnossus.  By  the  end  of  this  age  pictographs  gave 
way  to  linear  writing  in  pen  and  ink." — A.  Evans, 
Scripta  Minoa,  i.  19/. — C.  H.  and  H.  Hawes,  Crete, 
the  joreninner  oj  Greece,  pp.  136-139. — "Hiero- 
glyphic writing  is  at  its  best,  and  the  first  kind  of 
linear  signs.  Class  A,  though  apparently  only  just 
come  into  fashion,  had  made  rapid  progress. 
They  could  indeed  be  used  so  flexibly  that  we 
find  inside  two  cups  of  the  period  an  inscription 
written  in  ink,  in  a  cursive  hand.  If  we  are  to 
judge  too  from  the  fact  that  the  lines  of  the 
letters  show  a  tendency  to  divide,  it  was  written 
with  a  reed  pen.  What  the  medium  was  on  which 
such  pen  and  ink  were  ordinarily  used,  -we  can- 
not tell;  imported  papyrus,  or  palm-leaves,  per- 
haps, or  even  parchment.  The  invention,  we  may 
be  sure,  once  made,  was  not  confined  to  the  inside 
of  pottery.  The  king  who  built  the  stately  Tomb 
to  rest  in  at  Isopata,  between  the  harbour  and 
the  town,  on  the  hill  that  overlooked  the  sea,  may 
have  had  his  deeds  recorded,  not  on  clay  tablets, 
but  on  something  more  worthy  of  a  literature." — 
R.  M.  Burrows,  Discoveries  in  Crete,  pp,  64-65, 

B.  C.  1600-1200. — Late  Minoan  or  Mycenaean 
age. — "Before  the  end  of  the  Middle  Minoan  .\ge, 
the  inventive  spirit  of  Crete  had  achieved  its  ut- 
most and  had  begun  to  stagnate,  no  longer  creat- 
ing new  forms  but  satisfying  itself  with  stereo- 
typed conventions.  For  a  time,  however,  we 
find  a  political  advance.  Power,  concentrating  in 
Cnossus  involved  the  downfall  of  country  towns. 
The  palace  attained  the  acme  of  its  grandeur 
(about  1500).  To  this  period  belong  most  of  the 
frescoes  still  preserved  as  well  as  a  remarkably 
realistic  style  of  reliefs.  In  vase  ornamentation 
the  characteristic  development  was  the  'palace' 
style,  which  sacrificed  the  natural  to  a  desire  for 
decorative  unity.  The  age  attained  great  skill  in 
bronze  work  and  in  inlaying  metals.  In  writing, 
linear  script  superseded  the  pictographs,  and  a 
new  and  improved  linear  stvle  usurped  the  place 
of  the  old.  Before  this  age  has  far  advanced  the 
interest  shifts,  from  Crete  to  Troy,  and  still  more 


67 


iEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


./lirtoan  Age 
C/uiracteristics 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


to  the  Greek  Continent,  where  Archomenus, 
Tiryns,  and  Mycenae  were  entering  upon  an  era 
of  artistic  and  political  splendor." — 0.  VV.  Bots- 
ford,  Hellenic  history,  ch.  2. — "The  language  of 
the  script  is  not  yet  deciphered,  but  from  the  form 
of  the  written  documents,  which  Arthur  Evans  has 
found  in  very  large  numbers  in  the  palace  archives 
of  Cnossus,  and  other  explorers  in  smaller  quan- 
tity at  Phaestos  and  Agia  Triadha,  it  is  possible 
to  learn  something  ol  Minoan  government  and 
organization.  Most  of  the  tablets  are  inven- 
tories of  treasure  and  stores,  and  receipts  for 
chariots,  armour,  metal  vessels,  ingots  of  copper 
such  as  have  been  found  in  store  at  .^gia  Triadha, 
and  singly  in  Cyprus  and  Sardinia;  and  smaller 
quantities  of  unworked  gold  by  weight.  Other 
tablets  contain  lists  of  persons,  male  and  female ; 
perhaps  tribute  paid  in  slaves,  or  in  person,  as  in 
the  Greelc  legend  of  the  Minotaur.  Clearly  we 
have  to  do  with  the  details  of  a  va.^t  and  exact 
administration,  far  more  extensive  than  Cnossus 
itself  would  justify ;  and  the  comparative  insignif- 
icance of  other  Cretan  towns  during  the  great 
'Palace  Period'  ('Late-Minoan  2'),  the  temporary 
extinction  of  some  of  them,  and  the  traces  of  a 
system  of  highly  engineered  roads  and  forts  over 
the  mountain  passes,  confirra  the  impression  that 
the  later  Greeks  were  right  in  the  main,  in  regard- 
ing Minos  of  Cnossus  as  a  monarch  who  ruled  the 
seas  and  terrorized  the  land,  absolute  and  ruth- 
less, if  only  because  inflexibly  just." — J.  L.  Myres, 
Dawn  of  history,  pp.  i83-iS4.-"Minoan  religion 
cannot  be  fully  studied  until  the  Cretan  writing  is 
deciphered.  It  is  evident,  however,  from  the  ar- 
tistic remains  that  the  chief  figure  in  the  cult  of 
the  island  was  a  goddess.  She  is  represented  in 
many  ways,  from  Neolithic  nude  figures  in  the 
form  of  an  excessively  fat  woman  (many  primi- 
tive races  have  regarded  obesity  as  an  element  of 
feminine  beauty)  to  the  goddess  with  a  flounced 
skirt,  tight-fitting  waist,  and  bare  breast,  of  the 
Late  Minoan  period,  who  holds  serpents  in  her 
hands.  The  serpents  apparently  typify  her  con- 
nection with  the  earth.  Doves  and  lions  were 
often  associated  with  her.  She  was,  then,  god- 
dess of  the  air  and  of  wild  animals.  The  bull 
was  sacred  to  her.  He  was  most  often  offered 
in  sacrifice,  his  horns  adorned  her  altars  and 
temples,  and  ritual  ve.ssels  were  made  in  his  form. 
The  goddess  was  served  by  priestesses  and  wor- 
shiped at  times  in  wild  dances.  As  in  other 
countries  that  worshiped  goddesses,  she  was 
thought  to  have  a  son.  Later  Greek  myths 
traced  the  birth  of  Zeus  to  the  Dictean  cave  in 
Crete,  or  to  Mount  Ida,  where  Rhea,  his  mother, 
secretly  brought  him  forth.  .  .  .  The  son  was  thus 
identified  in  later  time  with  the  Greek  Zeus. 
Cyprus  shared  in  the  /Egeari  civilization,  but 
Semitic  colonies  were  also  established  there,  and 
the  ^gean  goddess  was  blended  with  the  Semitic. 
When  Minoan  civilization  was  dominant  in  Greece 
in  the  Mycenaian  age,  the  cult  of  the  goddess  was 
firmly  established  in  many  parts  of  the  land.  She 
became  Rhea,  mother  of  Zeus,  Poseidon,  and 
other  deities.  She  became  Hera,  goddess  of  Argos, 
Athena  in  Attica,  and  Artemis  in  .'\ttica  and  .^r- 
cada.  .\t  Corinth,  where  formative  influences 
may  have  come  from  Cyprus,  she  became  Aphro- 
dite."— G.  .\.  Barton,  Religious  oj  the  world,  pp. 
247-248. — "The  dwellings  of  the  dead  passed 
through  many  changes  of  fashion  during  the  Mi- 
noan Agp,  and  it  has  been  reasonably  argued  from 
this  that  we  may  be  dealing  with  more  than  one 
set  of  beliefs,  perhaps  held  and  put  in  practice  h*' 
peoples  of  different  origin  .\11  .^Jgean  rituals, 
however,  agree  in  this,  that  the  dead  are  biiried, 


not  burned,  and  that  they  are  provided  with 
copious  equipment  for  their  other  life.  The  lux- 
ury of  the  rich  late  graves,  and  even  of  some  of 
the  earlier,  is  comparable  with  that  of  Egypt 
itself.  The  earliest  tombs  are  'contracted  burials,' 
in  cist-graves  like  those  of  pre-dynastic  Egypt,  and 
of  most  other  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  world, 
as  well  as  of  the  western  regions  which  have  been 
reached  by  Mediterranean  man.  As  in  Egypt, 
also,  some  localities,  in  early  periods,  practised 
secondary  burial;  the  body  was  interred  provi- 
sionally until  it  was  well  decayed,  and  then  the 
bones  were  transferred  to  the  common  charnel- 
house,  as  in  a  modern  Greek  churchyard.  Later, 
families  of  distinction  practised  coffin-burial  in 
larger  and  larger  chambers,  constructed  under- 
ground or  in  hillsides,  and  (on  the  mainland) 
with  domed  masonry  linings.  The  coffins  are  of- 
ten of  clay,  richly  painledi  or  frescoed  as  at  Agia 
Triadha  with  funerary  scenes.  In  the  latest 
phases,  such  chambers  on  a  smaller  scale,  with 
flat  roofs,  became  common  and  superseded  the 
old  'cist -graves';  but  the  royal  tombs  at  Mycenae 
still  preserve,  on  a  glorified  plan,  and  with  bodies 
at  full  length,  the  form  of  the  primitive  'cist- 
grave.'  Among  other  originalities,  Minoan  dresa 
and  armour  deserve  brief  mention,  if  only  for 
their  contrast  with  that  of  the  .'Egean  in  Hellenic 
times.  The  men's  dress  was  of  the  simplest;  long 
hair-plaits  without  other  head-dress,  strong  top- 
boots  (as  in  modern  Crete)  for  scrubland  walk- 
ing, and  a  loin-cloth  or  kilt,  plain  or  fringed,  and 
upheld  by  a  wasp-waisted  belt:  elders  and  officials 
indulged  in  ample  cloaks,  and  quilted  sleeveless 
capes,  like  a  crinoline  hung  from  the  shoulders. 
Women  wore  shaped  and  flounced  skirts,  richly 
embroidered,  with  'zouave'  jackets,  low  in  front, 
puff-sleeved,  with  a  standing  collar  or  a  peak  be- 
hind the  neck;  they  were  tight-laced,  and  the 
skirts  were  belted  like  the  men's?  Gay  curls  and 
shady  hats  with  ribbons  and  rosettes  completed 
the  costume,  which  resembles  more  than  anything 
the  peasant-girls'  full  dress  in  a  Swiss  valley,  and 
may  be  'alpine'  too.  Armour  was  simple;  for 
attack,  a  long  spear,  and  dagger-like  sword  with 
two  straight  hollow-ground  edges;  on  the  head  a 
conical  helmet  of  leather,  strengthened  with  metal 
plates  or  boar's  tusks  in  rows:  and  for  other  pro- 
tection, the  ordinary  high  boots,  and  a  flexible 
shield  of  leather,  oblong  or  oval,  with  metal  rim, 
but  no  handle  or  central  boss.  It  was  slung  over 
the  left  shoulder  by  a  strap,  and  became  distorted 
by  its  own  weight  to  a  quaint  S-shape ;  however, 
it  wholly  enveloped  the  wearer  from  ankles  to 
chin,  and  could  be  bent  so  as  to  enclose  him  on 
each  side.  The  horse  was  in  use,  and  was  brought 
from  oversea;  it  was  driven,  not  ridden,  appar- 
ently; and  light  chariots  were  used  both  for  hunt- 
ing and  in  war." — J.  L.  Myres,  Dawn  oj  history, 
pp.   186-188. 

B.  C.  1600-1200. — Laborers  and  artisans  of 
the  Minoan  Age. — "Many  laborers  busied  them- 
selves with  tilling  the  soil  and  with  rearing 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine.  They  ground  their 
barley  or  wheat  in  querns  or  crushed  it  in  stone 
mortars  still  preserved.  .'Vmong  their  fruits  were 
the  fig  and  the  olive,  whose  oil  entered  into  the 
preparation  of  food.  Trades  were  specialized  as 
in  the  Orient.  Among  the  craftsmen  were  potters, 
brickmakers,  and  carpenters,  whose  bronze  saws, 
axes,  files,  and  other  tools  resemble  in  pattern 
those  of  today.  Naturally  in  an  age  of  bronze 
the  workers  in  that  metal  filled  a  large  place. 
Stone,  while  still  serving  the  le.sser  arts,  had  be- 
come the  essential  architecture,  and  throughout 
all   histon'  wood  has  furnished  a  convenient  ma- 


68 


^^T^f^TTy^"'      'jv^-y^/'^^^ 


^"^  "y*'''*^  "^    "-^  '7^ 


Courteay  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 

ARCH.^OLOGICAL  FINDINGS  FROM  .?5:GEAN  AREA 
I,  The  golden  Vaphio  cups  (Laconia).     2,  Inlaid  daggers  (Mycenae,    1600-1100  B.C.).     3,  Mndel? 
of  house  facades  (Crete,  1500-1350  B.C.).     4.  Statu  tte  of  a  snake  goddess  (Cnossus,   1800-1500  B.C.), 
5,   Fresco   of  flying-fish    (Phylakopi,   Melos,    1600-15  >>    B.C.). 


69 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Minoan 
Decline 


JEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 


terial  for  building  and  for  a  great  variety  of 
furniture.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  skilled 
industries  was  the  cutting  and  engraving  of  pre- 
cious stones,  which  included  practically  all  known 
to  the  moderns  excepting  the  diamond.  On  these 
gems  the  engraver  skillfully  wrought  varied  scenes 
from  nature  and  human  life.  The  highest  de- 
velopment of  art  is  found  in  the  work  of  the 
goldsmith — an  achievement  of  the  painstaking  ex- 
perience of  centuries.  This  metal  was  more  com- 
mon than  silver.  Among  his  products  were  beads 
adorned  with  scenes  in  intaglio  and  rings  with 
similarly  decorated  bezels  used  as  seals.  He  could 
inlay  gold,  as  well  as  ivory  and  other  material, 
on  bodies  of  different  substance,  so  as  to  produce 
a  polychrome  effect.  He  wrought  bracelets,  di- 
verse artistic  patterns  repousse  on  thin  plate  and 
graceful  drinking  cups.  Famed  for  l>eauty  are 
the  two  gold  cups  from  a  beehive  tomb  at 
X'aphio,  Laconia.  The  scenes  which  adorn  them 
are  bold,  spiritual,  and  lifelike." — G.  W  Botsford, 
Hellenic   history,  ch.   2. 

Natural  conditions  had  favored  the  growth  of 
just  such  a  Minoan  world:  "easy  livelihood  from 
small  secluded  corn-lands,  and  abundant  culture 
of  fruit-bearing  trees;  supplemented  by  upland 
pasturage,  and  the  harvest  of  the  sea.  Lasy  in- 
tercourse with  many  similar  lands,  or  coast  plains 
of  the  same  land,  identical  in  natural  economy, 
almost  infinitely  various  in  mineral  resources  and 
in  artistic  and  industrial  dialect.  Intercourse  less 
easy,  but  within  the  power  of  moderate  seaman- 
ship in  the  sailing  season,  with  a  venerable  centre 
of  art  and  luxury,  like  Egypt,  .^bove  all,  a  land- 
scape of  exceptional  beauty,  of  brilliant  atmos- 
phere; grandly  contrasted  profile  of  ridge  and 
promontory ;  infinitely  various  form  and  colour- 
ing of  spring  flowers  and  sponge-diver's  trophies, 
seaweed,  shells,  and  sea-anemones.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, then,  that  it  is  here  that  man  first 
achieved  an  artistic  style  which  was  naturalist  and 
idealist  in  one ;  acutely  observant  of  the  form  and 
habit  of  living  things,  sensitive  to  the  qualities 
and  potentialities  of  raw  material,  wonderfully 
skilled  in  the  art  of  the  potter,  painter,  gem-en- 
graver, and  goldsmith ;  and  above  all,  able  to  draw 
inspiration  from  other  styles  and  methods,  with- 
out losing  the  sureness  of  its  own  touch,  or  the 
power  to  impress  its  own  strong  character  on  its 
works  of  art." — J.  L.  Myres,  Daivn  of  history, 
pp.   180-181. 

B.  C.  1600-1200. — Minoan  architecture. — Pri- 
vate Dwellings. — The  Palace. — "Private  dwellings 
of  the  wealthy  were  surprisingly  modern  They  were 
built  on  no  fixed  plan,  but  followed  the  necessity 
of  the  site  and  the  taste  of  the  owner.  Some 
were  three  or  four  stories  high  and  comprised  a 
multitude  of  rooms  The  owners  furnished  them 
comfortably  and  developed  cooking  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  perfection." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Hellenic 
history,  ih.  2. — "Private  houses  were  constructed 
of  mixed  timber  and  stone  with  stuccoed  fronts, 
many  windows,  and  flat  roofs.  They  crowded 
one  another  along  narrow  tortuous  alleys  on  un- 
even ground,  more  stair  than  street ;  and  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  a  Minoan  town  must  have  been  very 
like  what  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Cretan  vil- 
lages. The  palace  architecture  gives  the  impres- 
sion of  great  luxury  based  on  abundant  wealth 
of  oil  and  other  produce ;  supplemented  by  skill 
in  applied  science,  mechanical,  hydraulic,  sani- 
tary, which  is  unparalleled  till  modern  times.  On 
to  a  central  court,  entered  by  an  elaborate  gate- 
way, opened  halls  of  reception,  with  deep  porti- 
coes and  antechambers.  Others,  more  secluded, 
opened    on    to    terraces    and    bastioned    platforms 


down  the  slope  Between  and  behind  these  prin- 
cipal suites,  winding  corridors  gave  access  to  mag- 
azines and  smaller  living  rooms.  Staircases  led 
to  upper  stories,  with  two  or  even  three  floors  in 
some  places.  Practical  convenience  laid  greater 
stress  on  inner  planning,  and  room-decoration  by 
fresco  and  line  stone  panelling,  than  on  external 
design.  Only  the  plinths  of  a  few  original  walls, 
facing  on  to  the  great  courts,  show  any  promise 
of  a  fine  faqade;  and  there  was  in  any  case  so 
much  rcbuildinc  and  patchwork  addition,  that  the 
general  effect  must  have  been  that  of  a  crowded 
village  rather  than  a  single  residence." — J.  L. 
Myres,  Dav:n  of  history,  pp.  i84-i8s.^"Naturally 
the  palace  was  incomparably  larger  and  more 
magnificent  than  the  richest  private  dwellings. 
The  residence  of  the  King  at  Cnossus  occupied 
more  than  five  acres  and  stood  at  least  four  stories 
high.  Its  irregularity  of  plan  may  be  due  to  ad- 
ditions and  modifications  by  successive  rulers.  It 
comprised  an  immense  central  court,  smaller 
courts,  long  corridors,  a  theatral  space,  audience 
rooms,  sanctuaries,  an  industrial  quarter,  and  'a 
system  of  drainage  not  equalled  in  Europe  be- 
tween that  day  and  the  nineteenth  century.'  We 
may  notice  more  particularl.\  the  room  in  which 
the  throne  of  gypsum  stands  against  the  wall  and 
is  fianked  on  both  sides  with  long  benches  of  the 
same  material.  Here  in  the  midst  of  his  noble 
councillors  sat  the  king  on  the  'oldest  throne  in 
Europe,'  presumably  to  receive  embassies  and  to 
transact  business  with  his  subjects.  The  indus- 
trial quarter  swarmed  with  artists  and  artisan,^ 
whose  labors  extended  over  a  wide  range  of  ac- 
tivities from  the  preparation  and  storage  of  wine 
and  olive  oil  in  huge  earthenware  jars  to  the 
finest  gold  work  and  elaborate  mural  frescoes. 
One  chamber,  fitted  up  with  benches  and  'a  seat 
for  the  master,'  is  thought  to  be  a  school  room, 
in  which  the  young  learned  to  mould  clay  into 
little  tablets  and  to  inscribe  them  with  linear 
writing  Elsewhere  were  the  archives  in  which 
those  tablets  were  stored  by  the  thousands.  Al- 
though the  script  has  not  yet  been  deciphered, 
the  inscriptions  thus  far  discovered  seem  to  be 
accounts  of  stores  and  of  receipts  and  dues.  \ 
larger  tablet,  a  case  shrine  has  the  appearance  of 
a  list  of  rings.  If  the  Cretans  possessed  a  litera- 
ture of  songs,  epics  and  chronicles,  as  is  not  un- 
likely, it  must  have  been  written  on  perishable 
material,  for  nothing  of  the  kind  has  been  dis- 
covered " — G    W.  Botsford.  Hellenic  hist.,  ch.  2. 

B.  C.  1400-1200.— Decline  and  fall  of  Minoan 
culture. — "In  the  main,  the  .-Egean  was  at  peace 
in  the  Minoan  .^ge,  a  striking  contrast  with  the 
wear-and-tear  of  the  Hellespontine  bridge,  as  suc- 
cessive 'cities'  reveal  it  at  Troy.  In  the  south,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  any  non- 
.^igean  enemy  either  in  Crete  or  even  in  the 
islands,  down  to  the  fall  of  Cnossus;  and  it  re- 
mains obscure  whether  this  last  catastrophe  was 
not  due  to  internal  discord;  the  circumference, 
as  has  been  recently  suggested,  turning  against 
the  centre,  and  terminating  its  tyranny.  Cretan 
tradition  told  also,  later,  how  a  lord  of  Cnossus 
went  on  a  Sicilian  expedition,  with  all  his  force, 
and  never  came  back.  But  at  this  point  in  the 
story,  Egyptian  records  come  to  our  aid  where 
Cretan  archives  are  still  dumb.  They  know  of  a 
change  in  the  name  and  behaviour  of  the  'people 
from  over-sea' ;  and  they  give  a  clue  to  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Cretan  culture." — J.  L.  Myres, 
Da-ii'n  of  Itislory,  pp.  t88-iSq. — See  also  Greece: 
/Egean   or  Minoan   civilization. 

"These  conditions  were  suddenly  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  destruction  of  the  palace      The  black- 


70 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


Assimilation 
by  Hellas 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


ened  walls,  the  charred  ends  of  beams,  the  al- 
most complete  absence  of  gold  and  bronze  seem  to 
proclaim  the  sack  and  burning  of  the  city.  As 
the  same  thing  happened  at  Phaestus  and  Hagia 
Triada  no  long  time  afterward  we  conclude  that 
the  catastrophe  was  this  time  due  to  no  accident 
or  dynastic  revolution  or  uprising  of  the  masses. 
We  can  explain  the  event  best  by  supposing  it  to 
have  been  the  work  of  raiders,  who  swept  over 
the  wealthy  cities  of  the  island  in  their  career  of 
plunder,  whose  object  was  not  colonization  but 
booty.  This  event  occurred  about  1400  B.  C.  It 
came  as  a  premonition  of  an  upheaval  of  <^igean 
populations  whose  waves  of  migration  were  to 
reach  the  shores  of  Syria  and  Egypt."  Among 
them  were  peoples  whose  names  sound  like  Sar- 
dinians, Sicilians,  Achaeans,  Lycians  and  Tyrsen- 
ians  (Etruscans),  ".Although  we  may  not  with 
certainty  identify  all  these  peoples,  we  may  be 
sure  there  were  among  them  vEgean  and  European 
tribes." — G.   W.    Botsford,   Hellenic   history,  ch.   2. 

B.  C.  1200-750. — Assimilation  of  Minoan  cul- 
ture by  the  peoples  of  Hellas. — "It  was  reserved 
for  British  archaeologists,  Messrs.  Wace,  Droop, 
and  Thompson,  to  prove  by  their  excavations  of 
the  magoulas  or  village-mounds  of  Thessaly  and 
Phokis  that  it  was  not  till  the  'Mycenaean'  period 
that  the  ,^Jgean  culture,  with  its  bronze,  reached 
Northern  Greece,  and  that  before  then  there  had 
existed  no  proper  Bronze  Age  in  the  North.  The 
remarkable  remains  of  the  northern  stone-using 
culture  are,  then,  not  all  contemporary  with  the 
Stone  Age  in  the  South;  only  the  earliest  of  them 
are.  The  Cretan  Stone  Age  never  developed  very 
highly;  it  was  early  supplanted  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  copper  from  Cyprus.  But  the  Northern- 
ers, without  metal,  developed  their  primitive  cul- 
ture more  highly,  especially  in  the  ceramic  art, 
and  almost  reached  the  height  which  was  attained 
by  the  stone-users  of  South  Russia,  whose  culture 
seems  to  have  died  out  before  metal  could  reach 
it."  It  was,  however,  impossible  that  the  North- 
erners should  be  entirely  without  knowledge  of 
the  great  civiHzation  and  art  almost  at  their 
doors ;  "^gean  pottery  must  have  reached  them 
before  the  general  civilization  of  the  .4i;gean  im- 
posed itself  upon  them  in  the  'Mycenaean'  or  Late 
Bronze  Age.  And  that  it  did  and  left  traces  upon 
their  pottery  even  in  the  earlier  Bronze  Age  we 
see  not  only  from  M.  Sotiriadis's  find,  but  from 
traces  of  spirals,  the  most  charactenistic  form  of 
/Egean  decorations,  in  the  Neolithic  decoration 
scheme,  which  was  severely  geometrical,  thus  dif- 
fering in  tola  from  that  of  the  South.  .  .  .  But 
this  would  not  account  for  the  finds  in  Phokis 
and  Bcpotia,  and  the  ^^Cgeans  were  from  the  be- 
ginning seafarers  who  could  easily  reach  the 
Pagasaean  Gulf.  The  facts  are  very  difficult  of 
explanation.  A  large  number  of  sites  of  this 
Northern  neolithic  culture  and  its  succeeding  Chal- 
colitic  development,  which  lasted  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Third  Late  Minoan  period  of  the 
South,  have  been  excavated  from  Chaironeia, 
Schiste,  and  Drakhmani  in  Phokis  through  Liano- 
kladhi  in  the  Spercheios  Valley  to  Rakhmani  in 
Northern  and  Tsani  Magoula  in  West-central 
Thessaly.  Besides  those  mentioned,  the  chief  sites 
are  Dimini,  Sesklo,  Zerelia,  and  Tsangli,  all  in 
Thessaly." — H.  R.  Hall,  Mgean  archceology,  pp. 
41-42. 

The  period  beginning  about  1200  B.  C,  when 
the  Minoan  decorative  style  has  yielded  to  the 
geometric,  and  extending  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighth  century,  when  written  documents  be- 
gin, "resembles  the  European  Middle  Ages  in  that 
both  followed  the  inroads  of  barbarians  and  that  -i 


both  were  marked  by  a  vast  decline  and  an  incipi- 
ent recovery  of  culture.  ...  In  this  period  the 
colonial  movement  from  the  Greek  peninsula  east- 
ward to  the  Anatolian  coast,  begun  in  the  preced- 
ing age,  was  completed.  The  chief  feature,  how- 
ever, was  the  blending  of  the  northern  invaders 
with  the  native  Minoans,  and  through  it  the  for- 
mation of  the  Hellenic  race  and  Hellenic  culture. 
We  discover  the  process  of  assimilation  at  various 
stages.  In  Crete  were  communities  of  diverse 
speech  existing  side  by  side ;  in  Ionia  the  mingling 
of  peoples  was  under  way,  whereas  in  Attica  and 
in  Laconia  we  come  upon  the  completed  blend. 
Within  the  .^gean  area  the  Minoan  civilization 
had  been  most  intense  from  Crete  and  Laconia 
northward  to  Attica  and  the  Cyclades,  in  other 
words  the  region  which  in  the  Middle  Age  came 
to  be  occupied  by  the  Dorians  and  the  lonians. 
A  map  of  Hellas  in  the  Middle  Age  accordingly 
will  show  this  area  fundamentally  Minoan,  though 
necessarily  modified  by  external  and  internal 
forces.  .  .  .  For  example,  there  prevailed  through- 
out the  area  a  nearly  uniform  social  structure, 
in  which  the  great  lord  commanded  the  labor  of  a 
multitude  of  serfs,  whose  rights  and  duties  were 
clearly  defined  by  customary  law.  The  mnoitae 
of  Crete,  the  Laconian  helots,  the  hectemori  of 
Attica,  and  the  gergiths  of  Ionia  seem  to  be 
remnants  of  Minoan  serfdom.  In  Ionia,  too,  as 
in  Crete  and  Laconia,  the  citizens  ate  at  public 
tables.  The  leadership  in  the  fine  arts  at  first 
belonged  to  Crete  but  soon  passed  to  Ionia  The 
Phoenicians  were  also  heirs  of  Minoan  culture. 
Their  chief  contribution  to  civilization  was  neither 
in  art  nor  in  navigation,  but  in  the  transmission 
of  writing  from  the  Minoans  to  the  Hellenes  of 
the  Middle  Age  In  the  view  now  most  probable 
the  Minoan  linear  script  through  wearing  and 
selection  gradually  grew  simpler,  the  Cypriote 
syllabary  being  a  stage  in  the  process.  A  further 
simplification  took  place  in  northern  Syria  when 
the  number  of  characters  was  reduced  to  twenty- 
two.  This  system  the  lonians  adopted  and  by 
further  changes  made  phonetic.  .  .  .  Perhaps  no 
external  feature  of  life  so  characterizes  the  classical 
Greeks  as  their  loose,  graceful  dress.  From  this 
point  of  view  their  ancestors  of  the  Middle  Age 
seem  foreign.  Among  the  laborers  the  Minoan 
waist-cloth  continued  far  down  into  historical 
times.  An  innovation,  however,  was  the  chiton, 
probably  of  Oriental  origin.  Its  tightness  is 
reminiscent  of  Minoan  conditions.  Woman's  dress 
was  more  conservative.  Doubtless  the  grand  lady, 
like  Artemis  Orthia  of  Sparta,  wore  a  low-cut 
waist  with  shoulder  straps,  a  belt,  and  a  tight 
skirt  of  strongly  Minoan  aspect.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  fibula,  however,  was  bringing  about  a 
revolution  in  dress  This  method  of  fastening 
was  used  in  the  peplos,  which  gradually  prevailed 
over  other  styles  and  became  the  Doric  gown  of 
the  historical  age.  Garments  of  both  sexes  were 
elaborately  adorned  with  inwoven  or  embroid- 
ered patterns  of  the  prevailing  geometric  style. 
The  hair  of  women  and  men  alike  grew  long,  and 
hung  down  in  several  heavy  strands  on  both  sides 
of  the  face,  and  was  held  in  order  by  a  band  en- 
circling the  head.  Although  these  styles  of  dress 
began  to  appear  early  in  the  Mycenaean  .\ge  (about 
1500  B.  C),  it  was  not  till  the  Middle  Age  that 
they  displaced  the  Minoan  patterns.  One  of  the 
most  important  constructive  elements  in  the  new 
civilization  which  gradually  emerged  from  the 
decadence  of  the  old  was  the  rise  of  an  iron  in- 
dustry. The  controversy  over  the  place  of  its 
origin  is  now  definitely  settled  by  documentary 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  Hittite  country  in  eastern 


71 


^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 


MGINA 


Asia  Minor  (Mitteilungen  der  V orderasiatischen 
Gesellschaft,  XVIII.  6i,  «.  I).  This  industr>',  in- 
cluding the  process  of  hardening  to  steel,  must 
have  flourished  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century. 
In  the  thirteenth  it  made  its  way  to  Crete,  whence 
it  passed  more  slowly  over  the  disturbed  ^gean 
region  to  Laconia,  Attica,  Thessaly,  and  their 
colonies.  While  the  metal  was  still  scarce  in  La- 
conia, it  began  to  be  used  as  money.  It  is  un- 
necessary here  to  dilate  on  the  increased  efficiency 
brought  by  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  to  every  walk 
of  life.  No  human  activity  felt  the  impetus  more 
lieenly  than  warfare,  which  at  the  same  time  was 
affected  by  new  economic  and  political  causes. 
The  clumsy  chariot  was  consigned  to  the  archseo- 
logical  junk-heap  and  horse-back  riding  was  sub- 
stituted for  it.  Meanwhile  the  extension  of  pros- 
perity, involving  military  and  political  aspirations, 
to  a  w'idcr  circle  of  the  population  brought  into 
existence  a  body  of  troops  which  we  may  de- 
scribe as  heavy-armed,  though  their  shields  were 
lighter  than  the  Minoan.  It  was  mainly  the  in- 
troduction of  steel  swords  and  lance-points  that 
compelled  the  strengthening  of  the  defensive  ar- 
mor. The  round  or  oval  targe,  reinforced  by  a 
central  boss,  became  the  normal  shield.  ...  In 
religion,  too,  great  changes  took  place.  Among 
the  Minoans  the  burial  of  the  unburned  body, 
involving  a  worship  of  the  dead,  prevailed  with 
but  the  slightest  trace  of  cremation.  The  custom 
of  burning  the  dead,  now  introduced  by  the 
Northerners,  doubtless  weakened  the  belief  in  the 
power  of  ghosts  and  in  the  need  of  ancestor  wor- 
ship. Gradually,  however,  inhumation  reasserted 
itself;  and  henceforth  the  two  forms  existed  side 
by  side,  yet  with  inhumation  more  common  than 
burning.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  within  this 
sphere  of  thought  and  usage  historical  Greece  pre- 
served more  than  half  of  its  Minoan  heritage. 
The  work  of  analyzing  the  greater  gods  of  Hellas 
into  their  Minoan  and  Indo-European  elements 
has  scarcely  begun,  and  yet  enough  has  been  done 
to  warrant  the  assumption  that  in  all  probabil- 
ity no  single  historical  deity  of  Greece  is  in  char- 
acter and  attributes  wholly  Indo-European  or 
wholly  M,inoan.  .  .  .  Identifying  their  own  sky- 
deity  Zeus  with  the  god  of  the  double  axe,  they 
converted  the  shrines  and  sacred  domains  of  the 
Carian  deity  to  their  own  service.  No  less  than 
six  altars  to  Zeus  Labraundios  accordingly  have 
been  found  in  Miletus.  In  like  manner  their 
.\rtemis  usurped  the  property  and  various  attri- 
butes of  the  .\natolian  Great  Mother.  The  char- 
acter and  functions  of  ."Vpollo,  especially  his  heal- 
ings, purifications,  and  oracles,  seem  to  be  in  con- 
siderable part  Minoan.  These  are  but  suggestions 
of  a  vast  and  intricate  amalgamation  which  can- 
not as  yet  be  analyzed  in  detail.  •  The  prevailing 
tendency  to-day  is  to  assign  to  the  invading  people 
the  sunnier  aspects  of  religion,  while  leaving  to 
the  natives  the  gloomy  features,  including  magic, 
the  worship  of  ghosts,  the  doctrine  of  sin,  and 
its  purification  by  washing  in  blood.  This  con- 
trast seems  justified  but  should  not  be  pushed  to 
extremes.  The  great  deities  were  mainly  god- 
desses as  in  the  Minoan  past;  and  correspondingly 
women  occupied  a  high  place  in  society.  .  .  .  This 
is  but  a  hasty  view  of  the  Ionian-Dorian  civiliza- 
tion during  the  Middle  Age.  With  due  apprecia- 
tion of  the  danger  of  attributing  too  much  to 
the  brilliant  Cretans  the  present  writer  cannot 
escape  the  conviction  that  the  life  of  this  area  in 
the  period  under  consideration  was  more  Minoan 
than  Indo-European." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Construc- 
tion of  a  chapter  on  the  Greek  Middle  Age 
{American  Historical  Review,  Jan.,  1918,  pp.  351- 


V 
72 


353). — It  is  safe  to  conclude  that  "'Mycenaean' 
culture  had  dominated  all  the  southern  ^gean  in 
the  later  bronze  age,  and  most  of  mainland  Greece, 
as  far  north  as  South  Thessaly,  and  as  far  west 
as  Cephallenia ;  that  it  was  probably  of  indigenous 
growth;  that  its  intercourse  with  Egypt  was  ex- 
tensive ;  and  that,  whatever  its  origin  or  precise 
date,  it  was  wholly  prior  to  that  of  historic 
Greece,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  violent  ca- 
tastrophe, in  which  cities  were  sacked  and  deserted, 
palaces  and  tombs  looted,  and  the  whole  distribu- 
tion not  only  of  political  power,  but  of  economic 
vigour,  was  fundamentally  changed,  in  a  'dark 
age'  of  tumult  and  barbarism." — J.  L.  My  res, 
Dawn  of  history,  p.  168. — See  also  Europe:  His- 
toric period:  Greek  civilization:  Cretan  and  .-Egean. 

Also  in:  C.  H.  and  H.  Hawcs,  Crete,  the 
forerunner  of  Greece  (a  clear  summary). — J. 
Baikie,  Sea-kings  of  Crete  (popular). — A.  Mosso. 
Dawn  of  Mediterranean  civilization;  Palaces  of 
Crete  (useful  for  special  topics). — C.  Tsountas  and 
I.  Manatt,  Mycenaean  age  (brilliant  but  in  need 
of  revision). — H.  R.  Hall,  /Egean  archaeology; 
Ancient  history  of  the  Near  East. — E.  H.  Hall, 
Decorative  art  of  Greece  in  Bronze  age  (pottery, 
the  alphabet  of  archeology  well  treated  here). — 
R.  M.  Burrows,  Discoveries  in  Crete  (problems). 
G.  W.  Botsford  and  E.  G.  Sihler,  Hellenic  civiliza- 
tion: literary  sources  and  their  interpretation. — .■\. 
Evans,  Nine  Minoan  periods  (summary)  ;  Atlas 
of   Cnossian   antiquities,    -with   explanatory    text. 

.ffiOEAN  ISLANDS.  See  Asw  Minor:  Earlier 
kingdoms  and  people;  Cvcladf.s. 

B.  C.  416. — Siege  and  conquest  of  Males  by 
Athenians.  —  Massacre  of  inhabitants.  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  416. 

B.  C.  8th  century. — Migrations  to.  See  Greece: 
Migrations  to  .^sia  Minor  and  islands  of  the  --Egean. 

A.  D.  1146. — Ravage  of  islands  by  Roger  of 
Sicily.     See  Bvzantinx  empire:    114b. 

1204-1567. — Medieval  dukedom  of  Naxos.  See 
Naxos:   1204-1567. 

1821-1829. — In  Greek  war  for  independence 
against  Turks.    See  Greece:   1821-1820. 

1912. — Temporary  Italian  occupation  and  final 
evacuation.     See  Turkey:   iqii-igi2. 

.ffiOIDIUS,  king  of  the  Franks  (457-464).  See 
G.wl:  417-486. 

iEGIKOREIS.     See  Phyl.c:   Phratiae:   Gentes. 

.ffiOINA,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  Saronic 
gulf,  between  .'\ttica  and  .-Vrgolis.  First  colonized 
by  Achsans  it  was  afterwards  occupied  by  Dori- 
ans (see  Greece:  Migrations)  and  was  unfriendly 
to  Athens.  During  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  it  rose 
to  great  power  and  commercial  importance,  and 
became  for  a  time  the  most  brilliant  center  of 
Greek  art.  .\t  the  period  of  the  Persian  war, 
/Egina  was  "the  first  maritime  power  in  Greece." 
But  the  .-Eginetans  were  at  that  time  engaged  in 
war  with  .Athens,  as  the  allies  of  Thebes,  and 
rather  than  forego  their  enmity,  they  offered  sub- 
mission to  the  Persian  king.  The  .Athenians  there- 
upon appealed  to  Sparta,  as  the  head  of  Greece, 
to  interfere,  and  the  ^Eginetans  were  compelled 
to  give  hostages  to  .Athens  for  their  fidelity  to  the 
Hellenic  cause.  (See  Greece:  B.  C.  492-491.) 
They  purged  themselves  to  a  great  extent  of  their 
intended  treason  by  the  extraordinary  valor  with 
which  they  fought  at  Salamis. — C.  Thirlwall,  His- 
tory of  Greece,  v.  i,  ch.  14. — See  abo  Athens: 
B.  C.  490-485. 

B.  C.  458-456. — Alliance  with  Corinth  in  war 
with  Athens  and  Megara. — Defeat  and  subju- 
gation. See  Athens:  B.  C.  457-456;  Greece,  B.  C. 
458-456. 

B.  C.  431. — Expulsion  of  the  .Sginetans  from 


iEGIRA 


COHANS 


theii  island  by  the  Athenians. — Their  settlement 
at  Thyrea. 
B.  C.  210.— Desolation  by  the  Romans.— The 

first  appearance  of  the  Romans  in  Greece,  when 
they  entered  the  country  as  the  allies  of  the 
..^tolians,  was  signalized  by  the  barbarous  de- 
struction of  /Egina.  The  city  having  been  taken, 
B.  C.  210,  its  entire  population  was  reduced  to 
slavery  by  the  Romans  and  the  land  and  build- 
ings of  the  city  were  sold  to  Attalus,  king  of  Per- 
gamus. — E.  A.  Freeman,  History  oj  federal  gov- 
ernment, ch.  8,  sect.  2. 

.£GIRA,  a  town  of  Achsa,  Greece,  near  the 
Corinthian    Gulf. 

iEGITIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  426).— A  reverse 
experienced  by  the  Athenian  General,  Demos- 
thenes, in  his  invasion  of  .-Etolia,  during  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War. — Thucydides,  History,  bk.  3,  sect. 

97- 

JEGON,  ruling  house  of  Argos.  See  Greece: 
B.  C.  8th  Century. 

iEGOSPOTAMI  (goat  streams),  a  small  creek 
in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (modern  Gallipoli), 
flowing  into  the  ilellespont  or  Dardanelles,  where 
the  Spartans  destroyed  the  last  remaining  naval 
force  of  Athens,  thus  leading  to  the  end  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (405  B.  C).  See  Greece: 
B.  C.  405. 

.SHRENTHAL,  Alois  von,  Count  Lexa  (1854- 
igi2),  Austro-Hungarian  statesman;  appointed 
minister  to  Rumania,  1S88;  ambassador  to  Russia, 
1889;  premier  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  1Q06; 
brought  about  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  1908. — Sec  also  World  War:  Diplo- 
matic background:  8. 

Opinion  on  Friedjung  forgeries.  See  Aus- 
tria-Hungary: iqoS-iqog. 

Plans  in  Novi  Bazar.    See  Novi  Bazar. 

A.  E.  I.  O.  U. — "The  famous  device  of  Aus- 
tria, A.  E.  I.  O.  U.,  was  first  used  by  Frederic  III 
[1440-1493],  who  adopted  it  on  his  plate,  books, 
and  buildings.  These  initials  stand  for  'Austriae 
Est  Imperare  Orbi  Univcrso';  of,  in  German,  'Alles 
Erdreich  ist  Osterreich  Unterthan';  a  bold  assump- 
tion for  a  man  who  was  not  safe  in  an  inch  of  his 
dominions." — H.  Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  i>.  2,  p.  8q, 
foot-note. — See  also  Austria;   1477-1495. 

iELFRED.    See  Alfred. 

.SLFRIC  (c.  950-1021),  writer  in  early  English 
prose.  See  English  Literature:  6th-iith  cen- 
turies. 

JELIA  CAPITOLINA,  the  new  name  given  to 
Jerusalem  bv  Hadrian.     See  Jews:    130-134. 

.ffiLIAN  AND  FUFIAN  LAWS.— "The  JE\mn 
and  Fufian  laws  (leges  /Elia  and  Fufia)  the  age 
of  which  unfortunately  we  cannot  accurately  de- 
termine .  .  .  enacted  that  a  popular  assembly  [at 
Rome]  might  be  dissolved,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  acceptance  of  any  proposed  law  prevented,  if 
a  magistrate  announced  to  the  president  of  the 
assembly  that  it  was  his  intention  to  choose  the 
same  time  for  watching  the  heavens.  Such  an 
announcement  (obnuntiatio)  was  held  to  be  a 
sufficient  cause  for  interrupting  an  assembly." — W. 
Ihne,  History  of  Rome,  bk.  6,  ch.  16. 

.ffiLIUS,  Pons,  a  Roman  bridge  and  military 
station  on  the  Tyne,  where  Newcastle  is  now 
situated. 

.£LLE,  leader  of  the  South  Saxons.     See  Ella. 

.ffiMILIA,  or  Fulvia,  secular  basilica  in  Rome, 
built  in  167  B.  C.  and  later  rebuilt  by  Paulus 
i^milius  in  50  B.  C.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
monolithic  columns  of  pavonazetto  marble. 

iEMILIAN  WAY.— "M.  .^milius  Lepidus,  Con- 
sul for  the  year  180  B.  C.  .  .  c»nstructed  the 
great   road   which   bore   his   name.     The   .'Emilian 


Way  led  from  Ariminum  through  the  new  colony 
of  Bononia  to  Placentia,  being  a  continuation  of 
the  Flaminian  Way,  or  great  north  road,  made 
by  C.  Flaminius  in  220  B.  C.  from  Rome  to 
Ariminum.  .^t  the  same  epoch,  Flaminius  the 
son,  being  the  colleague  of  Lepidus,  made  a 
branch  road  from  Bononia  across  the  Appenines 
to  Arretium."— H.  G.  Liddell,  History  of  Rome, 
bk.  5,  cit.  41. 

.a;MILIANUS,  Roman  emperor,  A.  D.  253. 
See   Rome:    192-284. 

.ffiMILIANUS,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  Roman 
consul.     See  Rome:   B.  C.  149-146. 

.ffiMILIUS  GENS.— One  of  the  most  famous 
ancient  patrician  houses  at  Rome,  The  first  mem- 
ber to  obtain  the  consulship  was  L.  .Emilius 
Mamercus  in  484  B.  C;  family  names  are  Bar- 
hula,  Buca,  Lepidus,  Mamercus,  Papus,  Paulus, 
Regillus,  and  Scaurus. 

.ffiMILIUS  PAULUS,  Roman  consul  (217-216 
B.  C.)  ;  defeated  at  Cannae  by  Hannibal.  See 
Rome:  B.C.  218-202;  Punic  Wars:  Second. 

.ffiNEAS.— "When  the  Greeks  had  taken  Troy 
by  means  of  the  wooden  horse  and  were  slaying 
the  inhabitants,  -^neas  escaped  by  sea  together 
with  many  followers.  And  though  angry  Junu 
threatened  him  with  storms  and  beset  his  path 
with  trials  and  dangers,  his  goddess  mother, 
Venus,  guided  him  safely  through  every  peril,  and 
brought  him  after  many  wanderings  to  a  haven  on 
the  west  coast  of  Italy.  There  he  landed  and 
began  to  build  a  city.  Trojans  and  natives  lived 
together  in  peace,  all  taking  the  name  of  Latins, 
A  son  of  i^neas  founded  Alba  Longa." — G.  W. 
Botsford,  History  of  the  ancient  world,  p.  324. — 
Roman  myth  further  tells  us  that  ^neas  was  the 
ancestor  of  Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome. 

.ffiOLIANS.— "The  collective  stock  of  Greek 
nationalities  falls,  according  to  the  view  of  those 
ancient  writers  who  laboured  most  to  obtain  an 
exact  knowledge  of  ethnographic  relationships,  into 
three  main  divisions,  .Cohans,  Dorians  and  loni- 
ans.  .  .  .  All  the  other  inhabitants  of  Greece  [not 
Dorians  and  lonians]  and  of  the  islands  included 
in  it,  are  comprised  under  the  common  name  of 
/Eolians — a  name  unknown  as  yet  to  Homer,  and 
which  was  incontestably  applied  to  a  great  diver- 
sity of  peoples,  among  which  it  is  certain  that  no 
such  homogeneity  of  race  is  to  be  assumed  as 
existed  among  the  lonians  and  Dorians.  Among 
the  two  latter  races,  though  even  these  were 
scarcely  in  any  quarter  completely  unmixed,  there 
was  incontestably  to  be  found  a  single  original 
stock,  to  which  others  had  merely  been  attached, 
and  as  it  were  engrafted,  whereas,  among  the 
peoples  assigned  to  the  /Eolians,  no  such  original 
stock  is  recognizable,  but  on  the  contrary,  as  great 
a  difference  is  found  between  the  several  members 
of  this  race  as  between  Dorians  and  lonians,  and 
of  the  so-called  Cohans,  some  stood  nearer  to  the 
former,  others  to  the  latter.  ...  A  thorough  and 
careful  investigation  might  well  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Greek  people  was  divided  not 
into  three,  but  into  two  main  races,  one  of  which 
we  may  call  Ionian,  the  other  Dorian,  while  of 
the  so-called  .-Eolians  some,  and  probably  the 
greater  number,  belonged  to  the  former,  the  rest 
to  the  latter." — G.  F.  Schbman,  Antiquity  of 
Greece:  The  state,  pi.  i,  ch.  2, — In  Greek  myth- 
ology, i^olus,  the  fancied  progenitor  of  the 
Eolians,  appears  as  one  of  the  three  sons 
of  Hellen,  "^olus  is  represented  as  having 
-eigned  in  Thessaly:  his  seven  sons  were  Kre- 
theus,  Sisyphus,  Athamas,  Salmoneus,  Deion,  Mag- 
nes  and  Perieres:  his  five  daughters,  Canace,  Al- 
cyone, Peisidike,  Calyce  and  Permede.    The  fables 


73 


a;olis 


^SCLEPIADAE 


of  this  race  seem  to  be  distinguished  by  a  con- 
stant introduction  of  the  God  Poseidon,  as  well 
as  by  an  unusual  prevalence  of  haughty  and  pre- 
sumptuous attributes  among  the  .-Eolid  heroes, 
leading  them  to  affront  the  gods  by  pretences  of 
equality,  and  sometimes  even  by  defiance." — G. 
Grote,  History  oj  Greece,  pt.  i,  ch.  6. — See  also 
Achaea;  .^ioLis;  Asia  Minor:  Greek  colonies; 
Thessaly,  Dorians  and   Ionians. 

^OLIS  (^olia),  an  ancient  district  of  West- 
ern Asia  Minor,  extending  along  the  .-Egean  coast 
from  the  river  Hermus  to  the  promontory  of  Lec- 
tum;  settled  by  the  so-called  ^olian  Greeks,  who 
before  looo  B.  C.  had  founded  Cyme  and  several 
other  cities  both  on  the  mainland  and  on  the 
island  of  Mytilene. — See  also  Romans. 

iEOLOPELE,  device  showing  power  of  steam. 
See  Steam  and  Gas  Engines:  Development  up  to 
Watt's  time. 

^OLUS.     See  ^olians. 

^OUI  (^quians),  an  ancient  tribe  of  Italy 
who  occupied  the  territory  called  Latium,  a  sec- 
tion east  of  Rome ;  frequently  fought  with  Rome 
but  were  not  subdued  until  the  lifth  century  B.  C. 
See  Rome:   B.  C.  45S;  300-347. 

^OUINOCTIA,  the  name  given  by  E.  C. 
Abendanon  to  an  old  Paleozoic  continent,  now 
sunk  below  the  sea.  From  observations,  he  draws 
the  following  conclusions  regarding  this  ancient 
continent:  "The  gneiss,  the  mica  schists,  the 
phyllites,  and  the  real  'old'  schists,  must  be  Ar- 
chean  and  pre-Cambrian  rocks.  They  once  built 
up  an  old  Paleozoic  continent,  which  extended  at 
least  over  an  area  of  45°  in  latitude,  between  the 
tropics,  from  the  southeast  of  Asia  to  the  east  of 
Australia.  Its  development  from  the  southwest 
to  northeast  is  unknown,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans,  but  at  all  events  this 
continent  must  have  included  most  of  Sumatra 
and  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  in  those  countries 
also  there  has  not  yet  been  found  any  fossil  of 
the  Old  Paleozoic.  To  the  west,  it  may  have 
stretched  out  as  far  as  Madagascar.  In  the  cen- 
tral part,  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  moun- 
tain ranges  of  an  almost  east-west  direction  must 
have  played  an  important  part  in  this  very  old 
continent ."^E.  C.  Abendanon,  Mquinoctia  (Jour- 
nal oj  Geology,  Oil..  1010,  pp.  562-578). 

^RARII,  .ffirarians,  a  class  of  Roman  cit- 
izens who  were  subjected  to  a  poll-tax  by  the 
censor,  usually  placed  upon  inhabitants  of  con- 
quered towns.  Full  Roman  citizens  were  some- 
times punished  for  certain  dishonorable  acts  in 
private  life  by  being  placed  among  this  class. 
See  Censors:  Roman. 

^RARIUM,  the  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Romans  to  the  public  treasury  containing  the  ac- 
counts and  moneys  of  the  state,-  the  standards  of 
the  legions,  engraved  public  laws  and  other  official 
registers  and  papers.  The  aerarium  was  virtual'y 
under  the  administration  of  the  Roman  emperors 
although  the  latter  had  separate  exchequers,  called 
fiscus.  In  time  the  emperors  were  privileged  with 
an  aerarium  privatum,  apart  from  the  fiscus,  an- 
other allotment  which  they  could  use  either  for 
their  personal  purposes  or  to  the  interest  of  the 
empire. — See  also  Fisci^s. 

AERIAL    ARMAMENT.      See    World    War: 
Miscellaneous  auxiliarv  services:  IV.  Aviation:  a,  3. 
AERIAL   DERBY   FLIGHT.     See  Aviation: 
Important  flights  since  1000:    1014. 

AERIAL  FOREST  PATROL.  See  Aviation: 
Development  of  airplanes  and  air  service  iqi8- 
iq2i:   Mr  service  after  World  War. 

AERIAL  LAW.  See  Aviation:  Development 
of  airplanes  and  air  service:   I9i8-ig2i:  Aerial  law. 


AERIAL  LEAGUE  OF  THE  WORLD:  Its 
aims.  See  Aviation:  Development  of  airplanes 
and  air  service;   1918-192 1:  Aerial  law. 

AERIAL  MAIL.  See  .Aviation:  Development 
of  airplanes  and  air  service:  1918-1921:  ."Vir  service 
after  World  War. 

AERIAL  NAVIGATION,  Provisions  regard- 
ing, in  treaty  of  Versailles.  See  Versailles, 
Treaty  of:   Part  XI 

AERIAL  NAVIGATION  LAWS.  See  .\via- 
tion:  Development  of  airplanes  and  air  service: 
1918-1921:    .\erial   law. 

AERIAL  PHOTOGRAPHY,  in  city  planning. 
See  City  planning:  .Aeroplane  in  city  planning; 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  IV. 
.Aviation:  a,  1. 

AERIAL  POSTAL  SERVICE.  See  Avution: 
1021:    .American   aerial   mail   service 

AERIAL  TRANSPORTATION.  See  Avia- 
tion. 

AERIAL  WARFARE.  See  World  War:  1915: 
1916:    IQ17  and   19 18:   .Aerial  operations. 

AERODROMES,  Floating.  See  Aviation: 
Development  of  airplanes  and  air  service:  1910- 
1920. 

AERODROMES,  Langley's.  See  .A«ation: 
Development  of  airplanes  and  air  service:  1889- 
1900:    .Aerial   law 

AERODROMES,  Laws  concerning.  See 
.Aviation:  Development  of  airplanes  and  air  serv-- 
ice:   1918-IQ21:  .Aerial  law. 

AERONAUTIC  MAPS.    See  Aviation:  Devel- 
opment of  airplanes  and  air  service:  1908-1920. 
AERONAUTICS.     See   Aviation. 
AEROPLANE   IN   CITY  PLANNING.     See 
City  planntxg:  .Aeroplane  in  city  planning. 
AEROPLANES.     See  Avlation. 
AERSCHOT,    or    Aarschot,   a   town    of   Bel- 
gium, province  of  Brabant.    Scene  of  the  first  acts 
of  terrorism  by  the  Germans  in  their  invasion  of 
Belgium,  .August,  1914.   See  Belciu.m:  1914;  World 
War:    1014:    I.   Western   front:    c,   1   and   e;    also 
1916:  X.  German  rule  in  northern  France  and  Bel- 
gium:  b,  3;   also  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services: 
X.  .Alleged  atrocities  and  violations  of  international 
law:  a,  7. 

.ffiSCHINES  (389-314  B.  C),  celebrated 
Athenian  statesman  and  orator.  Sent  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  embassy  to  Philip  of  Macedon,  347 
B.  C.  From  that  time  he  actively  favored  Philip 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  peace  party  at 
Athens  as  against  Demosthenes.  In  330  B.  C. 
/Eschines  unsuccessfully  attacked  Ctesiphon's  ef- 
forts to  reward  Demosthenes  with  a  golden  crown 
for  his  services  to  the  state.  .As  a  result  of  this 
defeat  he  went  into  voluntary  exile  at  Rhodes. 
vEschines'  most  famous  contributions  to  oratory, 
the  three  speeches  referred  to  as  "The  Three 
Graces,"  rank  close  to  those  of  Demosthenes. — 
See  also  .Athens:  336-322  B.  C. 

.ESCHINES  (5th  century  B;  C),  an  .Athenian 
philosopher  and  friend  of  Socrates;  held  in  con- 
tempt by  Plato  and  .Aristotle.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  gifted  orators  of  his  time.  His  work  is  con- 
sidered as  the  standard  of  the  pure  .Attic  stvle. 

.ffiSCHYLUS  (525-456  B.  C  ),  first  of  the'three 
great  Greek  tragedians.  Fought  at  Marathon  and 
Salamis.  His  ninety  plays,,  grouped  in  threes,  ex- 
tend over  a  period  of  forty  years,  during  which 
time  he  won  the  first  prize  thirteen  times.  His 
plays,  of  which  seven  are  extant,  show  the  charac- 
ters gradually  displacing  the  chorus  as  protagonist. 
— See  also  Drama:  Origin:  Greek  tragedy:  Rise 
and  development 

.ffiSCLEPIADAE.  See  Medical  science: 
.Ancient  Greece 


74 


^SCULAPIUS 


^THELWULF 


^SCULAPIUS,  Greek  god  of  medicine.  See 
Medical  science:    Ancient  Greece. 

.ffiSOPUS  INDIANS.  See  Algonquian  fam- 
ily. 

.ESTHETICS:  Croce.  See  Art:  Croce's  Aes- 
thetic. 

.ffiSTII,  or  .ffistyi.— "At  this  point  [beyond 
the  SuionesJ  the  Suevic  Sea  [the  Baltic],  on  its 
eastern  shore,  washes  the  tribes  of  the  .-Estii,  whose 
rites  and  fashions  and  styles  of  dress  are  those  of 
the  Suevi,  while  their  language  is  more  like  the 
British.  They  worship  the  mother  of  the  gods 
and  wear  as  a  religious  symbol  the  device  of  a 
wild  boar.  .  .  .  They  often  use  clubs,  iron  weap- 
ons but  seldom.  They  are  more  patient  in  cul- 
tivating corn  and  other  produce  than  might  be 
expected  from  the  general  indolence  of  the  Ger- 
mans. But  they  also  search  the  deep  and  are 
the  only  people  who  gather  amber,  which  they 
call  glesum." — "The  .-Estii  occupied  that  part  of 
Prussia  which  is  to  the  north-east  of  the  Vistula. 
.  .  .  The  name  still  survives  in  the  form  Estonia." 
— Tacitus,  Germany,  tr.  by  Church  and  Brodribb, 
with  nole. 

.ffiSYMNET.^;.— Among  the  Greeks,  an  ex- 
pedient "which  seems  to  have  been  tried  not  un- 
frequently  in  early  times,  for  preserving  or  re- 
storing tranquillity,  was  to  invest  an  individual 
with  absolute  power,  under  a  peculiar  title,  which 
soon  became  obsolete:  that  of  aesymnets.  At 
Cuma,  indeed,  and  in  other  cities,  this  was  the 
title  of  an  ordinary  magistracy,  probably  of  that 
which  succeeded  the  hereditary  monarchy;  but 
when  applied  to  an  extraordinary  office,  it  was 
equivalent  to  the  title  of  protector  or  dictator." — 
C.  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  ch.   lo 

.ffiTHEL,  .aiTHELINGS.  — .-Etheling,  an 
Anglo-Saxon  word  compounded  of  "aethele"  or 
"ethel,"  meaning  "noble,"  and  "ing,"  belonging; 
akin  to  the  modern  German  words  "adel,"  "no- 
bility" and  "adelig,"  "noble,"  was  used  to  denote 
members  of  a  royal  family.  "The  sons  and  broth- 
ers of  the  king  [of  the  English]  were  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  Aethelings.  The  word  .-Etheling, 
like  eorl,  originally  denoted  noble  birth  simply ; 
but  as  the  royal  house  of  Wessex  rose  to  pre-emi- 
nence and  the  other  royal  houses  and  the  nobles 
generally  were  thereby  reduced  to  a  relatively  lower 
grade,  it  became  restricted  to  the  near  kindred  of 
the  national  king." — T.  P.  Taswell-Langmead,  Eng. 
Const.  Hist.,  p  2q. — "It  has  been  sometimes  held 
that  the  only  nobility  of  blood  recognized  in  Eng- 
land before  the  Norman  Conquest  was  that  of  the 
king's  kin.  The  statement  may  be  regarded  as  de- 
ficient in  authority,  and  as  the  result  of  a  too 
hasty  generalization  from  the  fact  that  only  the 
sons  and  brothers  of  the  kings  bear  the  name  of 
aetheling.  On  the  other  hand  must  be  alleged  the 
existence  of  a  noble  (edhiling)  class  among  the 
continental  Saxons  who  had  no  kings  at  all.  .  .  . 
The  laws  of  Ethelbert  prove  the  existence  of  a 
class  bearing  the  name  of  eorl  of  which  no  other 
interpretation  can  be  given.  That  these,  curls  and 
aethel,  were  the  descendants  of  the  primitive  nobles 
of  the  first  settlement,  who,  on  the  institution  of 
royalty,  sank  one  step  in  dignity  from  the  ancient 
state  of  rude  independence,  in  which  they  had  elect- 
ed their  own  chiefs  and  ruled  their  own  dependents, 
may  be  very  reasonably  conjectured.  .  .  .  The 
ancient  name  of  eorl,  like  that  of  aetheling,  changed 
its  application,  and,  under  the  influence,  perhaps,  of 
Danish  association,  was  given  like  that  of  jarl  to 
the  official  ealdorman.  Henceforth  the  thegn  takes 
the  place  of  the  aethel,  and  the  class  of  thegns 
probably  embraces  all  the  remaining  families  of 
noble   blood.     The    change    may    have   been    very 


gradual;  the  'north  people's  law'  of  the  tenth  or 
early  eleventh  century  still  distinguishes  the  eorl 
and  aetheling  with  a  wergild  nearly  double  that 
of  the  ealdorman  and  seven  times  that  of  the 
thegn;  but  the  north  people's  law  was  penetrated 
with  Danish  influence,  and  the  eorl  probably  rep- 
resents the  jarl  rather  than  the  ealdorman,  the  great 
eorl  of  the  fourth  part  of  England  as  it  was 
divided  by  Canute.  .  .  .  The  word  eorl  is  said  to 
be  the  same  as  the  Norse  jarl  and  another  form  of 
ealdor  {?);  whilst  the  ceorl  answers  to  the  Norse 
Karl;  the  original  meaning  of  the  two  being  old 
man  and  young  man."— W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional 
History  of  England,  ch.  6,  sect.  64,  and  note. 

-ffiTHELBALD,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
kings  of  Mercia,  controlling  all  of  Britain  up  to 
the  Humber;  invaded  Wessex  in  733  and  North- 
umbria  in  740;  slain  by  his  guards  in  757  at  Seck- 
ington,   Warwickshire. 

.ffiTHELBALD,  king  of  Wessex;  defeated  the 
Danes  (851)  with  the  help  of  his  father,  ^thel- 
wulf.  ^thelbald  married  his  father's  widow  in 
858  and  ruled  until  his  death  in  860 

.ffiTHELBERHT  OF  KENT,  Saint  (SS2{?)- 
616),  king  of  Kent,  560  to  616.  Established  his 
supremacy  over  all  the  English  south  of  the  Hum- 
ber in  593,  after  the  death  of  Ceowlin,  king  of 
the  West  Saxons;  married  the  daughter  of  Chari- 
bert,  king  of  the  Franks,  agreeing  to  permit  her 
to  practice  her  own  (Christian)  religion ;  was  him- 
self converted  by  St.  Augustine  in  597  and  founded 
the  bishopric  of  Rochester  and  erected  the  church 
of  St.  Paul  in  London;  is  author  of  first  written 
Saxon   laws. 

.ffiTHELBERHT,  king  of  the  West  Saxons; 
younger  brother  of  .^thelbald,  king  of  Wessex 
whom  he  succeeded  upon  the  latter's  death  in  860. 
The  Danes  made  two  attacks  upon  his  kingdom; 
in  one  of  these  (860)  destroyed  Winchester.  Died 
in  865. — See  also  England:   855-880. 

.ffiTHELFLED,  daughter  of  King  Alfred. 
See  Education:  Medieval:  871-900:  England:  King 
Alfred. 

.ffiXHELFRITH,  king  of  Northumberland, 
593-617 

.ffiTHELRED,  king  of  Mercia  from  675  to  704. 
From  704  till  his  death  in  716  he  was  abbot  of 
Bardnev. 

.ffiTHELRED,  king  of  Wessex,  A.  D.  866-871. 
.SITHELRED  II  (968-1016),  surnamed  "The 
Unready";  in  991  instituted  the  payment  of 
"danegeld"  as  a  price  of  peace  with  the  Danes;  or- 
dered a  general  massacre  of  the  Danes  in  1002 
which  caused  more  ravages  of  England  by  the 
Danes  under  King  Sweyn,  who  marched  upon 
London  and  deposed  .^thclred  whom  the  people 
deserted;  was  restored  to  the  throne  in  1014. — See 
also   England:    979-1016. 

.ffiTHELSTAN  (c.  894-940)  succeeded  his 
father.  King  Edward  the  Elder,  as  king  of  the 
Saxons  (924).  Thirteen  years  later  he  had  es- 
tablished himself  as  sovereign  over  the  whole  of 
England   and  Scotland. 

.ffiXHELSWISTHA,  son  of  King  Alfred. 
See  Education:  Medieval:  871-900:  England:  King 
Alfred. 

.ffiXHELWEARD,  Anglo-Saxon  historian;  au- 
thor of  a  Latin  Chronicle  extending  to  975;  in 
991  was  associated  with  Archbishop  Sigeric  in  the 
conclusion  of  a  peace  with  the  Danes. 

.ffiXHELWERD,    son   of     King    Alfred.      See 
Education:     Medieval:    871-900:    England:    King 
Alfred. 
.ffiXHELWULF,  king  of  Wessex,  839-858. 
Viking   invasions.     See   Scandinavian   States: 
8th-9th  centuries. 


75 


-ETIUS 


AFGHANISTAN 


^TIUS  (d.  4S4),  Roman  general  under  Val- 
entinian  III ;  won  many  notable  \'ictories  in 
twenty  years  of  warfare  in  Gaul,  thereby  delay- 
ing the  collapse  of  the  Roman  empire;  won  a 
great  victory  over  Attila  and  the  Huns  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  (September  20,  451).  ^-Etius,  in  454, 
formally  asked  \  alentinian  to  give  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  his  son  Gaudentius.  Suspecting  de- 
signs upon  his  power,  the  emperor  assassinated  his 
general. — See  also  Barbarian  invasions:  4-3-455; 
Huns;   451. 

JETIUS,  founder  of  an  extreme  sect  of  Arians; 
surnamed  "the  Atheist";  banished  from  Alexan- 
dria in  356  b\-  Constantius  for  preaching  Arian- 
ism;  was  a  favorite  with  the  emperor  Julian  who 
recalled  him  and  presented  him  with  an  estate; 
died  at   Constantinople  in  367. 

^TNA  INSURANCE  COMPANY.  See  In- 
surance: Fire  insurance:  Development  in  United 
States. 

JETOLIA,  a  district  of  central  Greece,  directly 
south  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  bordering  on  the 
gulfs  of  Calydon  and  Corinth.  In  ancient  times 
the  inhabitants  of  this  district  were  known  as  a 
backward  and  barbarous  people.  As  late  as  the 
fifth  century  they  were  still  bands  or  tribes  under 
the  leadership  of  plunderers  who  styled  them- 
selves "kings."  The  rise  of  .^itolia  as  a  distinct 
power  may  be  ascribed  to  the  formation  of  the 
.•Etolian  League,  which  was  originally  intended  to 
meet  any  invasion  by  the  Macedonian  regents, 
Antipater  and  Craterus.  The  confederacy,  the 
members  of  which  were  the  districts  of  .-Etolia, 
F;iis,  Locris,  Phocis,  Bu;otia,  CEtsa  and  Phthio- 
tis,  continued  to  extend  its  influence  to  the  north- 
ern sections  of  central  Greece  (2Q0  B.  C).  The 
.-Etolian  League  reached  the  zenith  of  its  power 
between  the  years  245-240  B.  C,  when  the  naval 
power  of  the  .E^tolians  extended  to  the  .Egian 
islands  and  to  the  Hellespont.  .M  this  time  all 
central  Greece  was  under  the  control  of  the  league. 
.\n  inscription  recently  unearthed,  indicates  the 
extent  of  the  .■Etolian  League's  influence  upon  the 
other  states  of  central  Greece.  "This  inscription, 
discovered  at  Avaritza  in  Southern  Thessaly,  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Melitea,  records  a  decision 
of  arbitrators  appointed  by  the  .E^tolian  League  in 
a  dispute  between  the  city-state  of  Melitea  and  the 
neighboring  settlement  of  Perea.  The  two  were, 
at  the  time,  politically  united  into  one  com- 
munity, but  the  Pereans  evidently  were  dissatis- 
fied and  desired  the  right  of  seceding  if  they 
should  choose  to  do  so.  This  the  decision  granted 
to  them,  and  it  also  provided  for  the  subsequent 
relations  between  the  two  communities,  besides 
defining  the  boundar\-  line,  in  the  event  of  a  sep- 
aration. The  inscription  not  only  shows  the  pre- 
ponderant influence  of  the  .-Etolian  League  in  dis- 
putes between  its  member  states,  but  also  gives 
an  interesting  hint  regarding  the  basis  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  federal  council.  The  date  is  the 
last  quarter  of  the  third  century  B.  C,  when  the 
power  of  the  League  extended  into  Southern  Thes- 
saly."—G.  W.  Botsford,  and  E.  G  Sihler,  Hellenic 
civUizalion,  p.  622. — Towards  the  close  of  the 
third  century  B.  C.  the  /Etolians  became  greatly 
alarmed  at  the  growing  power  of  the  Macedonians 
and  in  order  to  check  the  inroads  of  the  Macedo- 
nian king.  Demetrius  (230-220  B.  C),  they  joined 
forces  with  their  former  rivals,  the  .\chcEans. 
But  this  did  not  save  their  rapidly  waning  power, 
for  in  228  their  .Arcadian  po.ssessions  were  aban- 
doned to  Sparta  and  in  224  B.  C.  B(Colia  and 
Phocis  were  lost  to  .\ntigonus  Doson,  son  of 
Demetrius.  New  enemies  began  to  arise  in  all 
directions.     The    Illyrian    pirates,    who    far    sur- 


passed the  .iEtolians  in  unscrupulous  barbarity, 
raided  numerous  towns.  Subsequent  raids  into 
Achsan  territory  by  .Eltolian  chiefs  brought  about 
a  coalition  between  Achaea  and  Philip  V  of  Mace- 
don.  The  combined  forces  attacked  the  .E)tolians, 
drove  them  out  of  the  Peloponnesus,  marched  into 
.-Etolia  and  there  sacked  the  capital,  Thermon. 
Peace  was  finally  purchased  in  217  B.  C.  with  the 
loss  of  .\carnania.  Thereupon  the  .-Etolians  con- 
cluded an  arrangement  with  Rome  which  helped 
to  support  its  rapidly  declining  influence.  The 
combined  forces  of  Rome  and  the  .Etolians  in- 
flicted severe  punishment  upon  the  Macedonian 
troops  under  Philip  V  at  the  battle  of  Cynoceph- 
als  (iQ7  B.  C).  Central  Greece  was  again 
restored  to  the  .-Etolian  League.  The  withholding 
of  the  League's  former  Thessalian  possessions  by 
the  Romans,  however,  excited  the  .-Etolians  to 
such  resentment  that  they  concmded  a  compact 
wUh  .Antiochus  III  of  Syria  and  war  with  Rome 
followed.  But  in  191  15.  C.  the  .Etolians  gave 
very  poor  support  to  Antiochus.  Their  failure  to 
defend  Thermopylse  forced  him  to  leave  Greece 
.Alone  on  the  field  against  the  greatest  power  in 
the  Mediterranean,  the  .-Etolians-  vainly  pleaded 
for  some  compromise.  Their  surrender  in  189 
practically  brought  the  league  to  an  end.  The 
.•Etolian  League's  constitution,  which  the  .\chian 
league  used  as  a  model  for  their  own,  provided  for 
the  yearly  convocation  of  a  general  assembly, 
which  elected  officials  and  usually  shaped  the 
league's  policies.  Although  these  general  as- 
semblies were  open  to  all  freemen  they  were 
usually  controlled  by  .E)tolian  chiefs.  The  strait- 
ens (general)  who  had  complete  control  in  the 
field,  presided  over  the  assembly.  Outlying  de- 
pendencies, which  were  usually  considered  as  pro- 
tectorates, were  rarely  represented  in  the  general 
law  making  body.  .Although  the  /Etolian  troops 
were  reputed  to  be  ruthless  and  lawless,  the  re- 
sponsibility for  which  rested  with  their  generals 
and  chiefs  who  enjoyed  unlimited  powers,  .Etolia 
and  the  league  contributed  invaluable  aid  to  the 
defence  of  Greece  against  foreign  aggression.  In 
1205  .-Etolia  became  part  of  the  old  Greek  Em- 
pire. In  the  fifteenth  century  it  fell  under  the  con- 
trol of  Scanderbeg,  and  was  in  turn  under  the 
Venetians  and  the  Turks. — See  also  Gaul:  B.  C. 
280-270.  . 

JETOLIAN  LEAGUE.  See  ^tolm;  Federal 
GOVEKNMF.NT :      Greek   federations. 

AFAR   PEOPLE.     See  Eritrea. 

AFER,  Domitius  (d.  -A.  D.  60),  a  Roman  ora- 
tor who  accused  Claudia  Pulcra,  cousin  of  .Agrip- 
pina  (.A.  D.  26)  of  having  designs  .against  the 
emperor. 

AFFONSO.     See  .Alfonso. 

AFGHANA,  founder  of  the  Afghan  race.  See 
.Afghanisian:    The   name. 

AFGHANISTAN.— The  Name.— The  People. 
— "The  name  .Afghanistan  was  invented  in  the  six- 
teenth century  and  seventeenth  century,  as  a  con- 
venient term  by  the  Mochul  government  of  India, 
and  since  then  it  has  become  current  in  the  mouths 
of  foreigners.  The  .Afghans  speak  of  their  country 
as  Wilayat  and  less  commonly  as  Khurassan 
IKhorasanl,  although  .Afghanistan  covers  less  than 
a  third  of  that  ancient  Division  of  .Asia." — G.  P. 
Tate,  Kingdom  of  Afgliani^tan. — -Although  a  na- 
tion of  anti  Semites,  the  .Afghans  take  great  pride 
in  their  supposed  Hebrew  lineage.  They  call  them- 
selves Beni-lsrael  (Children  of  Israel),  and  claim 
descent  from  King  Saul,  through  .Afghana,  son  of 
Jeremiah,  son  of  Saul,  from  whose  country  they 
were  forced  to  migrate  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  This 
claim  is  not  substantiated  bv  obtainable  historical 


76 


AFGHANISTAN,  B.C.  330 


AFGHANISTAN,  1803-1838 


Jata,  but  the  unmistakable  Hebrew  cast  of  the 
Afghan  countenance,  as  well  as  the  opinions  of 
Europeans  resident  in  Afghanistan,  put  it  within 
(he  range  of  possibility.  Nine  years  after  Mo- 
hammed's announcement  of  his  mission,  the  "dc- 
scendents  of  Afghana"  heard  of  the  new  prophet 
and  sent  to  Medina  a  deputation  headed  by  Kais, 
to  make  inquiry.  These,  won  over  to  the  new 
belief,  on  their  return  converted  their  counlry- 
men,  and  from  Kais  and  his  three  sons  the  whole 
body   of  genuine  Afghans  claim  descent. 

Geographic  description. — "Between  the  Rus- 
sian Dominions  in  .Asia  and  the  Indian  Empire  of 
Great  Britain,  Afghanistan  is  placed,  like  a  nut 
between  the  levers  of  a  cracker.  The  rivalry  be- 
tween the  great  powers  which  are  the  neighbors 
of  Afghanistan  has  led  to  the  careful  demarcation 
of  the  boundaries  of  that  State  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  short  and  unimportant  length  on  the 
west  and  east.  The  generally  accepted  area  of 
243,000  sq.  miles,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as 
correct.  While,  however,  a  fairly  accurate  general 
knowledge  exists  with  regard  to  Ihc  geography  of 
Afghanistan,  very  little  is  known  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  the  country  supports.  From 
observations  made  in  Seistan,  in  IQ04,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  an  average  density  of  50 
souls  to  a  square  mile,  is  not  an  excessive  estimate 
or  (say)  12,000,000  souls  for  the  population  of 
the  country.  The  richer  lands  in  the  wider  val- 
ley drained  by  the  principal  rivers  of  the  country 
carry  the  densest  population.  In  the  more  ele- 
vated and  poorer  districts,  there  are  fewer  inhabi- 
tants, and  they  are  to  a  certain  extent  migratory. 
Those  who  arc  able  to  avoid  the  rigorous  winter, 
descend  to  the  lower  levels  on  the  approach  of 
that  season.  Above  these  districts  again,  are 
others  to  which  shepherds  resort  in  the  spring, 
and  in  which  during  the  summer,  a  considerable 
population  is  to  be  found.  These  tracts  are 
vacated  as  winter  draws  on.  The  flocks  are  driven 
down  to  warmer  districts,  where  fodder  is  pro- 
curable and  in  which  during  the  early  spring  (the 
lambing  season)  the  climate  is  not  too  severe  for 
the  young  stock.  .  .  .  The  great  range  of  the  Hin- 
du-Kush  divides  Afghanistan  into  two  unequal 
parts,  about  a  third  part  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
watershed.  The  country  generally  consists  of  nar- 
row valleys  sheltered  by  giant  spurs,  and  ridges  of 
inferior  elevation,  which  descend  from  the  parent 
range.  The  Heri-Rud,  the  River  of  Herat,  drains 
)he  western  end  of  this  trough.  Within  the  pres- 
ent limits  of  .Afghanistan,  permanent  snow  covers 
only  the  loftier  summits  of  the  range  or  collects 
at  the  head  of  the  mo.st  elevated  valleys,  which 
descend  on  either  side,  but  the  heavy  snowfall  of 
winter,  on  the  whole  range,  and  rain  which  falls 
at  cerfain  seasons  replenish  the  rivers  which  rise 
high  up  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The 
southern  ridge  of  the  Hindu-Kush  is  pierced  by 
the  beds  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Afghanistan, 
and  the  northern  ridge  is  broken  by  torrential 
streams  which  descend  toward  the  Oxus;  but  only 
the  more  important  of  these  actually  join  that 
river.  The  beds  of  these  streams  and  rivers  are 
followed  by  the  routes  which  cross  the  lofty  sad- 
dles of  the  range,  and  the  lowest  of  these  passes 
is  the  Khawak,  considerably  over  11,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  two  ridges  culminate  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  mass  of  Tirish  Mir,  close  to  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Afghanistan,  the  highest  peak  of 
which  attains  to  an  altitude  of  25,426  feet  above 
the  sea.  .  .  .  There  is  no  part  of  Afghanistan 
where  snow  never  falls.  The  rainfall  is  very  small, 
and  except  on  irrigated  lands  there  is  an  absence 
of  moisture  and  the  climate  of  the  country  is  very 


unfavorable  to  human  existence.  About  43,000 
square  miles  of  unproductive  desert  exists  in  the 
extreme  southern  portion  of  Afghanistan.  .  .  .  Ten 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  of  Afghanistan  may 
perhaps  represent  the  area  which  might  be  culti- 
vated. .  .  .  The  mineral  resources  of  the  country 
arc  as  yet  unexplored,  and  as  it  is  a  task  which 
can  be  successfully  carried  out  only  by  foreign 
experts,  progress  in  this  [direction]  must  be  slow." 
— G.  P.  Tate,  Kingdom  of  Afghnnislan,  pp.  i-ii. 
B.  C.  330-A.  D.  1747.— Under  foreign  rulers.— 
The  territory  now  embraced  in  Afghanistan  has  fre- 
quently changed  hands.  It  was  a  part  of  Alexan- 
der's empire,  of  the  Bagdad  Caliphate,  of  the  empire 
of  theSamanids,  of  the  territories  of  the  Ghaznevid 
dynasty,  of  the  Mongol  Empire,  the  empire  of 
Timur,  and  of  the  Mogul  Empire.  The  invasion 
of  Persia  in  1722  by  the  Afghan  chieftain  Mahmud 
resulted  a  few  years  later  in  an  expedition  under 
Nadir  Kuli,  who  drove  the  Afghans  out  of  Persia 
and  made  the  last  great  conquest  of  Afghanistan. 
Nadir  Shah  was  assassinated  in  1747,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Ahmed  Shah,  one  of  his  own  officers, 
who  established  the  Durani  dynasty  in  Afghanistan 
and  the  independent  status  of  the  country.  Ahmed 
made  considerable  conquests  in  India,  but  none 
of  a  permanent  nature. 

B.  C.  330.— Conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
—Founding  of  Herat  and  Kandahar.  See 
MACEno.MA:    B.   C.  330-323. 

B.  C.  301-246.— In  the  Syrian  empire.  See 
Macedonia:   B.  C.  310-301  ;  Seleucidae. 

13th  century. — Conquest  by  Jenghiz  Khan. 
See  India:   077-1200. 

1380-1386.— Conquest  by  Timur.     See   Timur. 
1722. — Mahmoud's    conquest    of    Persia.     See 
Persia:    1490-1887. 

1732-1800.— Conquest  by  Nadir  Kuli.  See 
Persia:    1400-1887. 

1755-1761. — War  against  Mahrattas.  See  In- 
dia:  1747-1761. 

1803-1838. — Shah  Shuja  and  Dost  Mohammed. 
— English  interference. — "Shah  Soojah-ool  Moolk, 
a  grandson  of  the  illustrious  .Ahmed  Shah,  reigned 
in  Afghanistan  from  1S03  till  iSoo.  His  youth  had 
been  full  of  trouble  and  vicissitude.  He  had 
been  a  wanderer,  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  a 
pedler,  and  a  bandit,  who  raised  money  by  plun- 
dering caravans.  His  courage  was  lightly  reputed, 
and  it  was  as  a  mere  creature  of  circumstance  that 
he  reached  the  throne.  His  reign  was  perturbed, 
and  in  i8oq  he  was  a  fugitive  and  an  exiled 
Runjeet  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler  of  the  Punjaub, 
defrauded  him  of  the  famous  Koh-i-noor,  which 
is  now  the  most  precious  of  the  crown  jewels  of 
England,  and  plundered  and  imprisoned  the  fallen 
man.  Sh.ih  Sonjah  at  'length  escaped  from  La- 
hore. After  further  misfortunes  he  at  length 
reached  the  British  frontier  station  of  Loodianah, 
and  in  1816  became  a  pensioner  of  the  East  India 
Company.  After  the  downfall  of  Shah  Soojah, 
Afghanistan  for  many  years  was  a  prey  to  an- 
archy. At  length  in  1826,  Dost  Mahomed  suc- 
ceeded in  making  himself  supreme  at  Cabul,  and 
this  masterful  man  thenceforward  held  sway  until 
his  death  in  1865,  uninterruptedly  save  during  the 
three  years  of  the  British  occupation.  Dost  Ma- 
homed was  neither  kith  nor  kin  to  the  legitimate 
dynasty  which  he  displaced.  His  father  Poyndah 
khan  was  an  able  statesman  and  gallant  soldier. 
He  left  twenty-one  sons,  of  whom  Futteh  Khan 
was  the  eldest,  and  'Dost  Mahomed  one  of  the 
youngest.  .  .  .  Throughout  his  long  reign  Dost 
Mahomed  was  a  strong  and  wise  ruler.  His  youth 
had  been  neglected  and  dissolute.  His  education 
was  defective,  and  he  had  been  addicted  to  wine. 


77 


AFGHANISTAN,  1803-1838 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1S42 


Once  seated  on  the  throne,  the  reformation  of  our 
Henr>-  V.  was  not  more  thorough  than  was  that 
of  Dost  Mahomed.  He  taught  himself  to  read 
and  write,  studied  the  Koran,  became  scrupulously 
abstemious,  assiduous  in  affairs,  no  longer  trucu- 
lent, but  courteous.  .  .  .  There  was  a  fine  rugged 
honesty  in  his  nature,  and  a  streak  of  genuine 
chivalry ;  notwithstanding  what  he  suffered  at 
our  hands,  he  had  a  real  regard  for  the  English, 
and  his  loyalty  to  us  was  broken  only  by  his 
armed  support  of  the  Sikhs  in  the  second  Punjaub 
war.  The  fallen  Shah  Soojah,  from  his  asylum 
in  Loodianah,  was  continually  intriguing  for  his 
restoration.  His  schemes  were  long  inoperative, 
and  it  was  not  until  1832  that  certain  arrange- 
ments were  entered  into  between  him  and  the 
Maharaja  Runjeet  Singh.  To  an  application  on 
Shah  Soojah's  part  for  countenance  and  pecuniary 
aid,  the  Anglo-Indian  Government  replied  that  to 
afford  him  assistance  would  be  inconsistent  with 
the  policy  of  neutrality  which  the  Government 
had  imposed  on  itself ;  but  it  unwisely  contributed 
financially  toward  his  undertaking  by  granting 
him  four  months'  pension  in  advance.  Sixteen 
thousand  rupees  formed  a  scant  war  fund  with 
which  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  a  throne,  but 
the  Shah  started  on  his  errand  in  February,  1833. 
After  a  successful  contest  with  the  Ameers  of 
Scinde,  he  marched  on  Candahar,  and  besieged 
that  fortress.  Candahar  was  in  extremity  when 
Dost  Mahomed,  hurrying  from  Cabul,  relieved  it, 
and  joining  forces  with  its  defenders,  he  defeated 
and  routed  Shah  Soojah,  who  fled  precipitately, 
leaving  behind  him  his  artillery  and  camp  equi- 
page. During  the  Dost's  absence  in  the  south,  Run- 
jeet Singh's  troops  crossed  the  Attock,  occupied 
the  Afghan  province  of  Peshawur,  and  drove  the 
Afghans  into  the  Khyber  Pass.  No  subsequent 
efforts  on  Dost  Mahomed's  part  availed  to  expel 
the  Sikhs  from  Peshawur,  and  suspicious  of  British 
connivance  with  Runjeet  Singh's  successful  aggres- 
sion, he  took  into  consideration  the  policy  of  for- 
tifying himself  by  a  counter  alliance  with  Persia. 
As  for  Shah  Soojah,  he  had  crept  back  to  his 
refuge  at  Loodianah.  Lord  Auckland  succeeded 
Lord  W'ilUam  Bentinck  as  Governor-General  of 
India  in  March,  1836.  In  reply  to  Dost  Ma- 
homed's letter  of  congratulation,  his  lordship 
wrote:  'You  are  aware  that  it  is  not  the  practice 
of  the  British  Government  to  interfere  with  the 
affairs  of  other  independent  States;'  an  abstention 
which  Lord  Auckland  was  soon  to  violate.  He 
had  brought  from  England  the  feeling  of  dis- 
quietude in  regard  to  the  designs  of  Persia  and 
Russia  which  the  communications  of  our  envoy  in 
Persia  had  fostered  in  the  Home  Government,  but 
it  would  appear  that  he  was  wholly  undecided 
what  line  of  action  to  pursue.  'Swayed,'  says  Dur- 
and,  'by  the  vague  apprehensions  of  a  remote  dan- 
ger entertained  by  others  rather  than  himself,'  he 
despatched  to  Afghanistan  Captain  Burnes  on  a 
nominally  commercial  mission,  which,  in  fact,  was 
one  of  political  discovery,  but  without  definite  in- 
structions. Burnes,  an  able  but  rash  and  ambitious 
man,  reached  Cabul  in  September,  1837,  two 
months  before  the  Persian  army  began  the  siege 
of  Herat.  .  .  .  The  Dost  made  no  concealment  to 
Burnes  of  his  approaches  to  Persia  and  Russia,  in 
despair  of  British  good  offices,  and  being  hungry 
for  assistance  from  any  source  to  meet  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Sikhs,  he  professed  himself 
ready  to  abandon  his  negotiations  with  the  west- 
ern powers  if  he  were  given  reason  to  expect 
countenance  and  assistance  at  the  hands  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  Government.  .  .  The  situation  of 
Burnes  in  relation  to  the  Dost  was  presently  com- 


plicated by  the  arrival  at  Cabul  of  a  Russian  of- 
ficer claiming  to  be  an  envoy  from  the  Czar,  whose 
credentials,  however,  were  regarded  as  dubious, 
and  who,  if  that  circumstance  has  the  least  weight, 
was  on  his  return  to  Russia  utterly  repudiated  by 
Count  Nesselrode.  The  Dost  took  small  account 
of  this  emissary,  continuing  to  assure  Burnes  that 
he  cared  for  no  connection  except  with  the  Eng- 
lish, and  Burnes  professed  to  his  Government  his 
fullest  confidence  in  the  sincerity  of  those  declara- 
tions. But  the  tone  of  Lord  Auckland's  reply, 
addressed  to  the  Dost,  was  so  dictatorial  and 
supercilious  as  to  indicate  the  writer's  intention 
that  it  should  give  offence.  It  had  that  effect, 
and  Burnes'  mission  at  once  became  hopeless.  .  .  . 
The  Russian  envoy,  who  was  profuse  in  his  prom- 
ises of  everything  which  the  Dost  was  most  anx- 
ious to  obtain,  was  received  into  favour  and 
treated  with  distinction,  and  on  his  return  jour- 
ney he  effected  a  treaty  with  the  Candahar  chiefs 
which  was  presently  ratified  by  the  Russian  min- 
ister at  the  Persian  Court.  Burnes,  fallen  into 
discredit  at  Cabul,  quitted  that  place  in  August 
1838.  He  had  not  been  discreet,  but  it  was  not 
his  indiscretion  that  brought  about  the  failure  of 
his  mission.  A  nefarious  transaction,  which  Kaye 
denounces  with  the  passion  of  a  just  indignation, 
connects  itself  with  Burnes'  negotiations  with  the 
Dost ;  his  official  correspondence  was  unscrupu- 
lously mutilated  and  garbled  in  the  published 
Blue  Book  with  deliberate  purpose  to  deceive  the 
British  public.  Burnes  had  failed  because,  since 
he  had  quitted  India  for  Cabul,  Lord  Auckland's 
policy  had  gradually  altered.  Lord  Auckland 
had  landed  in  India  in  the  character  of  a  man 
of  peace.  That,  so  late  as  .^pril  1837,  he  had  no 
design  of  obstructing  the  existing  situation  in 
Afghanistan  is  proved  by  his  written  statement 
of  that  date,  that  'the  British  Government  had 
resolved  decidedly  to  discourage  the  prosecution 
by  the  ex-king  Shah  Soojah-ool-Moolk,  so  long 
as  he  may  remain  under  our  protection,  of  further 
schemes  of  hostility  against  the  chiefs  now  in' 
power  in  Cabul  and  Candahar.'  Vet,  in  the  fol- 
lowing June,  he  concluded  a  treaty  which  sent 
Shah  Soojah  to  Cabul,  escorted  by  British  bayo- 
nets. Of  this  inconsistency  no  explanation  pre- 
sents itself.  It  was  a  far  cry  from  our  frontier 
on  the  Sutlej  ,to  Herat  in  the  confines  of  Central 
Asia — a  distance  of  more  than  1,200  miles,  over 
some  of  the  most  arduous  marching  ground  in  the 
known  world.  .  .  .  Lord  William  Bentinck,  Lord 
Auckland's  predecessor,  denounced  the  project  as 
an  act  of  incredible  folly.  Marquis  Wellesley  re- 
garded 'this  wild  expedition  into  a  distant  region 
of  rocks  and  deserts,  of  sands  and  ice  and  snow,' 
as  an  act  of  infatuation.  The  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton pronounced  with  prophetic  sagacity,  that  the 
consequence  of  once  crossing  the  Indus  to  settle  a 
government  in  Afghanistan  would  be  a  perennial 
march  into  that  country." — A.  Forbes,  Afghan 
■wars,  ch.  i. 

Also  in:  J.  P.  Ferrier,  History  of  the  Afghans, 
ch.  TO-20. — Mohan  Lai,  Life  of  Amir  Dost  Mo- 
hammed Khan.  x\  1 

1808-1810. — Border  wars.    See  India:  1805-1816. 

1837. — War  with  British  in  India.  See  India: 
I 836- I 84 5 

1838-1842. — English  invasion,  and  restoration 
of  Shuja  Dowlah. — Revolt  at  Cabul. — Horrors 
of  the  British  retreat. — Destruction  of  the  entire 
army,  save  one  man,  only. — Sale's  defence  of 
Jellalabad. — "To  approach  Afghanistan  it  was 
necessary  to  secure  the  friendship  of  the  Sikhs, 
who  were,  indeed,  ready  enough  to  join  against 
their  old  enemies;  and  a  threefold  treaty  was  con- 


78 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1842 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1842 


traded  between  Runjeet  Singh,  the  English,  and 
Shah  Soojah  for  the  restoration  of  the  banished 
house.  The  expedition — which  according  to  the 
original  intention  was  to  have  been  carried  out 
chiefly  by  means  of  troops  in  the  pay  of  Shah 
Soojah  and  the  Sikhs — rapidly  grew  into  an  Eng- 
lish invasion  of  Afghanistan.  A  considerable  force 
was  gathered  on  the  Sikh  frontier  from  Bengal;  a 
second  army,  under  General  Keane,  was  to  come 
up  from  Kurrachee  through  Sindh.  Both  of  these 
armies,  and  the  troops  of  Shah  Soojah,  were  to 
enter  the  highlands  of  Afghanistan  by  the  Bolan 
Pass.  As  the  Sikhs  would  not  willingly  allow  the 
free  passage  of  our  troops  through  their  country, 
an  additional  burden  was  laid  upon  the  armies, — 
the  independent  Ameers  of  Sindh  had  to  be 
coerced.  At  length,  with  much  trouble  from  the 
difficulties  of  the  country  and  the  loss  of  the  com- 
missariat animals,  the  forces  were  all  collected 
under  the  command  of  Keane  beyond  the  passes. 
The  want  of  food  permitted  of  no  delay;  the 
army  pushed  on  to  Candahar.  Shah  Soojah  was 
declared  Monarch  of  the  southern  Principality. 
Thence  the  troops  moved  rapidly  onwards  towards 
the  more  important  and  difficult  conquest  of  Ca- 
bal. Ghuznee,  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  lay 
in  the  way.  In  their  hasty  movements  the  English 
had  left  their  battering  train  behind,  but  the  gates 
of  the  fortress  were  blown  in  with  gunpowder,  and 
by  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms  the  fortress  was 
stormed.  Nor  did  the  English  army  encounter 
any  important  resistance  subsequently.  Dost 
Mohamed  found  his  followers  deserting  him,  and 
withdrew  northwards  into  the  mountains  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh.  With  all  the  splendour  that  could 
be  collected.  Shah  Soojah  was  brought  back  to 
his  throne  in  the  Bala  Hissar,  the  fortress  Palace 
of  Cabul.  .  .  .  For  the  moment  the  policy  seemed 
thoroughly  successful.  The  English  Ministry  could 
feel  that  a  fresh  check  had  been  placed  upon  its 
Russian  rival,  and  no  one  dreamt  of  the  terrible 
retribution  that  was  in  store  for  the  unjust  vio- 
lence done  to  the  feelings  of  a  people.  .  .  .  Dost 
Mohamed  thought  it  prudent  to  surrender  him- 
self to  the  English  envoy.  Sir  William  Macnagh- 
ten,  and  to  withdraw  with  his  family  to  the  Eng- 
lish provinces  of  Hindostan  [November,  1840]. 
He  was  there  well  received  and  treated  with  liber- 
ality; for,  as  both  the  Governor-General  and  his 
chief  adviser  Macnaghten  felt,  he  had  not  in  fact 
in  any  way  offended  us,  but  had  fallen  a  victim 
to  our  policy.  It  was  in  the  full  belief  that  their 
pohcy  in  India  had  been  crowned  with  perma- 
nent success  that  the  Whig  Ministers  withdrew 
from  office,  leaving  their  successors  to  encounter 
the  terrible  results  to  which  it  led.  For  while  the 
English  officials  were  blindlv  congratulating  them- 
selves upon  the  happy  completion  of  their  enter- 
prise, to  an  observant  eye  signs  of  approaching 
difficulty  were  on  all  sides  visible.  .  .  .  The  re- 
moval of  the  strong  rule  of  the  Barrukzyes  opened 
a  door  for  undefined  hopes  to  many  of  the  other 
families  and  tribes.  The  whole  country  was  full 
of  intrigues  and  of  diplomatic  bargaining,  carried 
on  by  the  English  political  agents  with  the  various 
chiefs  and  leaders.  But  they  soon  found  that  the 
hopes  excited  by  these  negotiations  were  illusory. 
The  allowances  for  which  they  had  bargained  were 
reduced,  for  the  English  envoy  began  to  be  dis- 
quieted at  the  vast  expenses  of  the  Government. 
They  did  not  find  that  they  derived  any  advan- 
tages from  the  establishment  of  the  new  puppet 
King,  Soojah  Dowlah ;  and  every  Mahomedan, 
even  the  very  king  himself,  felt  disgraced  at  the 
predominance  of  the  English  infidels.  But  as  no 
actual  insurrection  broke  out,  Macnaghten,  a  man 


of  sanguine  temperament  and  anxious  to  believe 
what  he  wished,  in  spite  of  unmistakable  warn- 
ings as  to  the  real  feeling  of  the  people,  clung  with 
almost  angry  vehemence  to  the  persuasion  that  all 
was  going  well,  and  that  the  new  King  had  a  real 
hold  upon  the  people's  affection.  So  completely 
had  he  deceived  himself  on  this  point,  that  he  had 
decided  to  send  back  a  portion  of  the  English 
army,  under  General  Sale,  into  Hindostan.  He 
even  intended  to  accompany  it  himself  to  enjoy 
the  peaceful  post  of  Governor  of  Bombay,  with 
which  his  successful  policy  had  been  rewarded. 
His  place  was  to  be  taken  by  Sir  Alexander 
Burnes,  whose  view  of  the  troubled  condition  of 
the  country  underlying  the  comparative  calm  of 
the  surface  was  much  truer  than  that  of  Mac- 
naghten, but  who,  perhaps  from  that  very  fact, 
was  far  less  popular  among  the  chiefs.  The  army 
which  was  to  remain  at  Candahar  was  under  the 
command  of  General  Nott,  an  able  and  decided  if 
somewhat  irascible  man.  But  General  Elphin- 
stone,  the  commander  of  the  troops  at  Cabul,  was 
of  quite  a  different  stamp.  He  was  much  respected 
and  liked  for  his  honourable  character  and  social 
qualities,  but  was  advanced  in  years,  a  confirmed 
invalid,  and  wholly  wanting  in  the  vigour  and 
decision  which  his  critical  position  was  likely  to 
require.  The  fool's  paradise  with  which  the  Eng- 
lish Envoy  had  surrounded  himself  was  rudely 
destroyed.  He  had  persuaded  himself  that  the 
frequently  recurring  disturbances,  and  especially 
the  insurrection  of  the  Ghilzyes  between  Cabul 
and  Jellalabad,  were  mere  local  outbreaks.  But  in 
fact  a  great  conspiracy  was  on  foot  in  which  the 
chiefs  of  nearly  every  important  tribe  in  the 
country  were  implicated.  On  the  evening  of  the 
ist  of  November  [1841]  a  meeting  of  the  chiefs 
was  held,  and  it  was  decided  that  an  immediate 
attack  should  be  made  on  the  house  of  Sir  Alex- 
ander Burnes.  The  following  morning  an  angry 
crowd  of  assailants  stormed  the  houses  of  Sir 
Alexander  Burnes  and  Captain  Johnson,  murder- 
ing the  inmates,  and  rifling  the  treasure-chests  be- 
longing to  Soojah  Dowlah's  army.  Soon  the  whole 
city  was  in  wild  insurrection.  The  evidence  is 
nearly  irresistible  that  a  little  decision  and  rapidity 
of  action  on  the  .part  of  the  military  would  have 
at  once  crushed  the  outbreak.  But  although  the 
attack  on  Burnes's  house  was  known,  no  troops 
were  sent  to  his  assistance.  Indeed,  that  unbroken 
course  of  folly  and  mismanagement  which  marked 
the  conduct  of  our  military  affairs  throughout  this 
crisis  had  already  begun.  Instead  of  occupying 
the  fortress  of  the  Bala  Hissar,  where  the  army 
would  have  been  in  comparative  security,  Elphin- 
stone  had  placed  his  troops  in  cantonments  far 
too  extensive  to  be  properly  defended,  surrounded 
by  an  entrenchment  of  the  most  insignificant  char- 
acter, commanded  on  almost  all  sides  by  higher 
ground.  To  complete  the  unfitness  of  the  position, 
the  commissariat  supplies  were  not  stored  within 
the  cantonments,  but  were  placed  in  an  isolated 
fort  at  some  Httle  distance.  All  ill-sustained  and 
futile  assault  was  made  upon  the  town  on  the  3d 
of  November,  but  from  that  time  onwards  the 
British  troops  lay  with  incomprehensible  supine- 
ness  awaiting  their  fate  in  their  defenceless  posi- 
tion. The  commissariat  fort  soon  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy  and  rendered  their  situation 
still  more  deplorable.  Some  flashes  of  bravery 
now  and  then  lighted  up  the  sombre  scene  of 
helpless  misfortune,  and  served  to  show  that  de- 
struction might  even  yet  have  been  averted  by  a 
little  firmness.  .  .  .  But  the  commander  had  al- 
ready begun  to  despair,  and  before  many  days 
had  passed  he  was  thinking  of  making  terms  with 


79 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1842 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1842 


the  enemy.  Macnaghten  had  no  course  open  to 
him  under  such  circumstances  but  to  adopt  the 
suggestion  of  the  general,  and  attempt  as  well  as 
he  could  by  bribes,  cajolery,  and  intrigue,  to  di- 
vide the  chiefs  and  secure  a  safe  retreat  for  the 
EngUsh.  Akbar  Khan,  the  son  of  Dost  Mohamed, 
though  not  present  at  the  beginning  of  the  in- 
surrection, had  arrived  from  the  northern  moun- 
tains, and  at  once  asserted  a  predominant  influ- 
ence in  the  insurgent  councils.  With  him  and  with 
the  other  insurgent  chiefs  Macnaghten  entered 
into  an  arrangement  by  which  he  promised  to 
withdraw  the  English  entirely  from  the  country 
if  a  safe  passage  were  secured  for  the  army 
through  the  passes.  .  .  .  The  horrors  of  the  retreat 
form  one  of  the  darkest  passages  in  English  military 
history.  In  bitter  cold  and  snow,  which  took  all 
life  out  of  the  wretched  Sepoys,  without  proper 
clothing  or  shelter,  and  hampered  by  a  disorderly 
mass  of  thousands  of  camp-followers,  the  array  en- 
tered the  terrible  defiles  which  lie  between  Cabul 
and  Jellalabad.  Whether  .Akbar  Khan  could,  had 
he  wished  it,  have  restrained  his  fanatical  followers 
is  uncertain.     As  a  fact  the  retiring  crowd — it  can 


reached  Jellalabad  to  tell  fhc  tale.  Literally  one 
man,  Dr.  Brydon,  came  to  Jellalabad  [January 
13]  out  of  a  moving  host  which  had  numbered 
in  all  some  16,000  when  it  set  out  on  its  march. 
The  curious  eye  will  search  through  history  or 
fiction  in  vain  for  any  picture  more  thrilling  with 
the  suggestions  of  an  awful  catastrophe  than  that 
of  this  solitary  survivor,  faint  and  reeling  on  his 
jaded  horse,  as  he  appeared  under  the  walls  of 
Jellalabad,  to  bear  the  tidings  of  our  Thermopylae 
of  pain  and  shame.  This  is  the  crisis  of  the  story. 
With  this  at  least  the  worst  of  the  pain  and. shame 
were  destined  to  end.  The  rest  is  all,  so  far  as 
we  are  concerned,  reaction  and  recovery.  Our 
successes  are  common  enough ;  we  may  tell  their 
tale  briefly  in  this  instance..  The  garrison  at  Jella- 
labad had  received  before  Dr.  Brydon's  arrival  an 
intimation  that  they  were  to  go  out  and  march 
toward  India  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  extorted  from  Elphinstone  at  Cabul.  They 
very  properly  declined  to  be  bound  by  a  treaty 
which,  as  General  Sale  rightly  conjectured,  had 
been  "forced  from  our  envoy  and  military  com- 
mander with  the  knives  at  their  throats.'    General 


■  ■S*:->,:»iik 


^ 


JAMRLU)   FOKT  .\T   KNTRANCE  OF  FAMOUS  KHYBER   PASS 


scarcely  be  called  an  army — was  a  mere  unresist- 
ing prey  to  the  assaults  of  the  mountaineers.  Con- 
stant communication  was  kept  up  with  Akbar;  on 
the  third  day  all  the  ladies  and  children  with  the 
married  men  were  placed  in  his  hands,  and  finally 
even  the  two  generals  gave  themselves  up  as  host- 
ages, always  in  the  hope  that  the  remnant  of  the 
army  might  be  allowed  to  escape." — J.  F.  Bright, 
History  of  England,  v.  4,  pp.  61-66. — "Then  the 
march  of  the  army,  without  a  general,  went  on 
again.  Soon  it  became  the  story  of  a  general 
without  an  army ;  before  very  long  there  was 
neither  general  nor  army.  It  is  idle  to  lengthen  a 
tale  of  mere  horrors.  The  straggling  remnant  of 
an  army  entered  the  Jugdulluk  Pass — a  dark, 
steep,  narrow,  ascending  path  between  crags.  The 
miserable  toilers  found  that  the  fanatical,  impla- 
cable tribes  had  barricaded  the  pass.  All  was  over. 
The  army  of  Cabul  was  finally  extineuished  in 
that  barricaded  pass.  It  was  a  trap;  the  British 
were  taken  in  it.  A  few  mere  fugitives  escaped 
from  the  scene  of  actual  slaughter,  and  were  on 
the  road  to  Jellalabad,  where  Sale  and  his  little 
army  were  holding  their  own.  When  they  were 
within  sixteen  miles  of  Jellalabad  the  number  was 
reduced  to  six.  Of  these  six  fix^e  were  killed  by 
straggling  marauders  on  the  way.    One  man  alone 


Sale's  determination  was  clear  and  simple.  'I  pro- 
pose to  hold  this  place  on  the  part  of  Govern- 
ment until  I  receive  its  order  to  the  contrary  ' 
This  resolve  of  Sale's  was  really  the  turning  point 
of  the  history.  Sale  held  Jellalabad;  Nott  was 
at  Candahar.  Akbar  Khan  besie.:ed  Jellalabad. 
Nature  seemed  to  have  declared  herself  emphat- 
ically on  his  side,  for  a  succession  of  earthquake 
shocks  shattered  the  walls  of  the  place,  and  pro- 
duced more  terrible  destruction  than  the  most 
formidable  guns  of  modern  warfare  could  have 
done.  But  the  garrison  held  out  fearlessly ;  they 
restored  the  parapets,  re-established  every  battery, 
retrenched  the  whole  of  the  gates  and  built  up  all 
the  breaches.  They  resisted  every  attempt  of 
Akbar  Khan  to  advance  upon  their  works,  and 
at  length,  when  it  became  certain  that  General 
Pollock  was  forcing  the  Khyber  Pass  to  come  to 
their  relief,  they  determined  to  attack  Akbar 
Khan's  army;  they  issued  boldly  out  of  their 
forts,  forced  a  battle  on  the  Afghan  chief,  and 
completely  defeated  him.  Before  Pollock,  having 
gallantly  fought  his  way  through  the  Khyber  Pass, 
had  reached  Jellalabad  [.April  16]  the  beleaguer- 
ing army  had  been  entirely  defeated  and  dis- 
persed. .  .  .  Meanwhile  the  unfortunate  Shah  Soo- 
jah,  whom  we  had  restored  with  so  much  pomp 


80 


AFGHANISTAN,  1842-1869 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881 


of  announcement  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors, 
was  dead.  He  was  assassinated  in  Cabul,  soon 
after  the  departure  of  the  British,  .  .  .  and  his 
body,  stripped  of  its  royal  robes  and  its  many 
jewels,  was  flunf;  into  a  ditch." — J.  McCarthy, 
History  of  our  own  times,  v.  i,  cli.  ii. 

Also  in:  J.  W.  Kaye,  History  of  the  war  in 
Afghanistan. — G.  R.  Gleig,  Sale's  Brigade  in 
Afghanistan. — Lady  Sale,  Journal  of  the  disasters 
in  Afghanistan.— Mohan  Lai,  Life  of  Dost  Mo- 
hammed, eh.   15-18  (v.  2). 

1842-1869. — British  return  to  Cabul. — Restora- 
tion of  Dost  Mahommed. — It  was  not  till  Septem- 
ber that  General  Pollock  "could  obtain  permis- 
sion from  the  Governor-General,  Lord  Ellenbor- 
ough,  to  advance  against  Cabul,  though  both  he 
and  Nott  were  burning  to  do  so.  When  Pollock 
did  advance,  he  found  the  enemy  posted  at  Jug- 
duUuck,  the  scene  of  the  massacre.  'Here,'  says 
one  writer,  'the  skeletons  lay  so  thick  that  they 
had  to  be  cleared  away  to  allow  the  guns  to  pass. 
The  savage  grandeur  of  the  scene  rendered  it  a 
fitting  place  for  the  deed  of  blood  which  had  been 
enacted  under  its  horrid  shade,  never  yet  pierced 
in  some  places  by  sunlight.  The  road  was  strewn 
for  two  miles  with  mouldering  skeletons  like  a 
charnel  house.'  Now  the  enemy  found  they  had 
to  deal  with  other  men,  under  other  leaders,  for, 
putting  their  whole  energy  into  the  work,  the 
British  troops  scaled  the  heights  and  steep  as- 
cents, and  defeated  the  enemy  in  their  strongholds 
on  all  sides.  After  one  more  severe  fight  with 
Akbar  Khan,  and  all  the  force  he  could  collect, 
the  enemy  were  beaten,  and  driven  from  their 
mountains,  and  the  force  marched  quietly  into 
Cabul.  Nott,  on  his  side,  started  from  Candahar 
on  the  7th  of  .\ugust,  and,  after  fighting  several 
small  battles  with  the  enemy,  he  captured  Ghuzni, 
where  Palmer  and  his  garrison  had  been  destroyed. 
From  Ghuzni  General  Nott  brought  away,  by 
command  of  Lord  Elienborough,  the  gates  of 
Somnauth  [said  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
Hindu  temple  of  Somnauth  by  Mahmoud  of 
Ghazni.  the  first  Mohammedan  invader  of  India, 
in  1024],  which  formed  the  subject  of  the  cele- 
brated 'Proclamation  of  the  Gates,'  as  it  was 
called.  .  .  .  These  celebrated  gates,  which  are  be- 
lieved to  be  imitations  of  the  original  gates,  are 
now  lying  neglected  and  worm-eaten,  in  the  back 
part  of  a  small  museum  at  Agra.  But  to  return. 
General  Nott,  having  captured  Ghuzni  and  de- 
feated Sultan  Jan,  pushed  on  to  Cabul,  where  he 
arrived  on  the  17th  of  September,  and  met  Pol- 
lock. The  English  prisoners  (amongst  whom  were 
Brigadier  Sheltnn  and  Lady  Sale),  who  had  been 
captured  at  the  time  of  the  massacre,  were 
brought,  or  found  their  own  way,  to  General  Pol- 
lock's camp.  General  Elphinstone  had  died  during 
his  captivity.  It  was  not  now  considered  neces- 
sary to  take  any  further  steps;  the  bazaar  in  Cabul 
was  destroyed,  and  on  the  12th  of  October  Pol- 
lock and  Nott  turned  their  faces  southwards,  and 
began  their  march  into  India  by  the  Khyber  route. 
The  Afghans  in  captivity  were  sent  back,  and  the 
Governor-General  received  the  troops  at  Feroze- 
poor.  Thus  ended  the  Afghan  war  of  1838-42. 
.  .  .  The  war  being  over,  we  withdrew  our  forces 
into  India,  leaving  the  son  of  Shah  Soojah,  Fathi 
Jung,  who  had  escaped  from  Cabul  when  his 
father  was  murdered,  as  king  of  the  country,  a 
position  that  he  was  unable  to  maintain  long, 
being  very  shortly  afterwards  assassinated.  In 
1842  Dost  Mahomed,  the  ruler  whom  we  had  de- 
posed, and  who  had  been  living  at  our  expense  in 
India,  returned  to  Cabul  and  resumed  his  former 
position  as  king  of  the  country,  still  bearing  ill- 

81 


will  towards  us,  which  he  showed  on  several  oc- 
casions, notably  during  the  Sikh  war,  when  he 
sent  a  body  of  his  horsemen  to  fight  for  the 
Sikhs,  and  he  himself  marched  an  army  through 
the  Khyber  to  Peshawur  to  assist  our  enemies. 
However,  the  occupation  of  the  Punjab  forced 
upon  Dost  Mahomed  the  necessity  of  being  on 
friendly  terms  with  his  powerful  neighbour;  he 
therefore  concluded  a  friendly  treaty  with  us  in 
1854,  hoping  thereby  that  our  power  would  be 
used  to  prevent  the  intrigues  of  Persia  against  his 
kingdom.  This  hope  was  shortly  after  realized, 
for  in  1856  we  declared  war  against  Persia,  an 
event  which  was  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  Dost 
Mahomed,  as  it  prevented  Persian  encroachments 
upon  his  territory.  This  war  lasted  but  a  short 
time,  for  early  in  1857  an  agreement  was  signed 
between  England  and  Persia,  by  which  the  latter 
renounced  all  claims  over  Herat  and  Afghanistan. 
Herat,  however,  still  remained  independent  of 
Afghanistan,  until  1863,  when  Dost  Mahomed  at- 
tacked and  took  the  town,  thus  uniting  the  whole 
kingdom,  including  Candahar  and  Afghan  Turke- 
stan, under  his  rule.  This  was  almost  the  last 
act  of  the  Ameers  life,  for  a  few  days  after  tak- 
ing Herat  he  died.  By  his  will  he  directed  that 
Shere  Ali,  one  of  his  sons,  should  succeed  him  as 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan.  The  new  Ameer  imme- 
diately wrote  to  the  Governor-General  of  India, 
Lord  Elgin,  in  a  friendly  tone,  asking  that  his 
succession  might  be  acknowledged.  Lord  Elgin, 
however,  as  the  commencement  of  the  Liberal 
policy  of  'masterly  inactivity'  neglected  to  answer 
the  letter,  a  neglect  which  cannot  but  be  deeply 
regretted,  as  Shere  Ali  was  at  all  events  the  de 
facto  ruler  of  the  country,  and  even  had  he  been 
beaten  by  any  other  rival  for  the  throne,  it  would 
have  been  time  enough  to  acknowledge  that  rival 
as  soon  as  he  was  really  ruler  of  the  country. 
When  six  months  later  a  cold  acknowledgement  of 
the  letter  was  given  by  Sir  William  Denison,  and 
when  a  rcciuest  that  the  Ameer  made  for  6,000 
muskets  had  been  refused  by  Lord  Lawrence,  the 
Ameer  concluded  that  the  disposition  of  England 
towards  him  was  not  that  of  a  friend;  particu- 
larly as,  when  later  on,  two  of  his  brothers  re- 
volted against  him,  each  of  them  was  told  by  the 
Government  that  he  would  be  acknowledged  for 
that  part  of  the  countrj-  which  he  brought  under 
his  power.  However,  after  various  changes  in 
fortune,  in  i86q  Shere  Ali  finally  defeated  his  two 
brothers  Afzool  and  Azim,  together  with  Afzool's 
son,   Abdurrahman." — P.    F.   Walker,   Afghanistan, 

PP-  45-Si- 

Also  in:  J.  W.  Kaye,  History  of  the  war  in 
Afghanistan. — G.  B.  Malleson,  History  of  .ifghan- 
islan,  eh.  il. 

1869-1881. — Second  war  with  the  English  and 
its  causes. — The  period  of  disturbance  in  Afghan- 
istan, during  the  struggle  of  Shere  Ali  with  his 
brothers,  coincided  with  the  vice  royalty  of  Lord 
Lawrence  in  India.  The  policy  of  Lord  Lawrence, 
"sometimes  slightingly  spoken  of  as  masterly  in- 
activity, consisted  in  holding  entirely  aloof  from 
the  dynastic  quarrels  of  the  Afghans  .  .  .  and  in 
attempting  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  Ameer 
by  gifts  of  money  and  arms,  while  carefully  avoid- 
ing topics  of  offence.  .  .  .  Lord  Lawrence  was 
himself  unable  to  meet  the  Ameer,  but  his  suc- 
cessor. Lord  Mayo,  had  an  interview  with  him  at 
Umballah  in  i86q.  .  .  .  Lord  Mayo  adhered  to  the 
policy  of  his  predecessor.  He  refused  to  enter 
into  any  close  alliance,  he  refused  to  pledge  him- 
self to  support  any  dynasty.  But  on  the  other 
hand  he  promised  that  he  would  not  press  for 
the  admission  of  any  English  officers  as  Residents 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881 


in  Afghanistan.  The  return  expected  by  England 
for  this  attitude  of  friendly  non-interference  was 
that  every  other  foreign  state,  and  especially  Rus- 
sia, should  be  forbidden  to  mix  either  directly  or 
indirectly  with  the  affairs  of  the  country  in  which 
our  interests  were  so  closely  involved.  .  .  .  But  a 
different  view  was  held  by  another  school  of  In- 
dian politicians,  and  was  supported  by  men  of 
such  eminence  as  Sir  Bartle  Frere  and  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  Their  view  was  known  as  the  Sindh 
Policy  as  contrasted  with  that  of  the  Punjab.  It 
appeared  to  theni  desirable  that  English  agents 
should  be  established  at  Quetta,  Candahar,  and 
Herat,  if  not  at  Cabul  itself,  to  keep  the  Indian 
Government  completely  informed  of  the  affairs  of 
Afghanistan  and  to  maintain  English  influence  in 
the  country.  In  1874,  upon  the  accession  of  the 
Conservative  Ministry,  Sir  Bartle  Frere  pro- 
duced a  memorandum  in  which  this  policy  was 
ably  maintained.  ...  A  \  iceroy  whose  views  were 
more  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  who  was  likely  to  be  a  more  ready  in- 
strument in  lits]  hands,  was  found  in  Lord  Lyt- 
ton,  who  went  to  India  intrusted  with  the  duty  of 
giving  effect  to  the  new  policy.  He  was  instructed 
...  to  continue  payments  of  money,  to  recog- 
nise the  permanence  of  the  e.xisting  dynasty,  and 
to  give  a  pledge  of  material  support  in  case  of 
unprovoked  foreign  aggression,  but  to  insist  on 
the  acceptance  of  an  English  Resident  at  certain 
places  in  Afghanistan  in  exchange  for  these  ad- 
vantages. .  .  .  Lord  Lawrence  and  those  who 
thought  with  him  in  England  prophesied  from  the 
first  the  disastrous  results  which  would  arise  from 
the  alienation  of  the  Afghans.  .  .  .  The  suggestion 
of  Lord  Lytton  that  an  English  Commission  should 
go  to  Cabul  to  discuss  matters  of  common  inter- 
est to  the  two  Governments,  was  calculated  .  .  . 
to  excite  feelings  already  somewhat  unfriendly  to 
England.  He  (Sherc  .\\i]  rejected  the  mission,  and 
formulated  his  grievances.  .  .  .  Lord  Lytton 
waived  for  a  time  the  despatch  of  the  mission,  and 
consented  to  a  meeting  between  the  Minister  of 
the  Ameer  and  Sir  Lewis  Pelly  at  Peshawur.  .  .  . 
The  English  Commissioner  was  instructed  to  de- 
clare that  the  one  indispensable  condition  of  the 
Treaty  was  the  admission  of  an  English  represen- 
tative within  the  limits  of  .Afghanistan.  The  al- 
most piteous  request  on  the  part  of  the  Afghans 
for  the  relaxation  of  this  demand  proved  unavail- 
ing, and  the  sudden  death  of  the  Ameer's  envoy 
formed  a  good  excuse  for  breaking  off  the  nego- 
tiation. Lord  Lytton  treated  the  .\meer  as  in- 
corrigible, gave  him  to  understand  that  the  Eng- 
lish would  proceed  to  secure  their  frontier  without 
further  reference  to  him.  and  withdrew  his  native 
agent  from  Cabul  While  the  relations  between 
the  two  countries  were  in  this  uncomfortable  con- 
dition, information  reached  India  that  a  Russian 
mission  had  been  received  at  Cabul.  It  was  just 
at  this  time  that  the  action  of  the  Home  Govern- 
ment seemed  to  be  tending  rapidly  towards  a  war 
with  Russia.  ...  As  the  despatch  of  a  mission 
from  Russia  was  contrary  to  the  engagements  of 
that  country,  and  its  reception  under  existing  cir- 
cumstances wore  an  unfriendly  aspect.  Lord  Lyt- 
ton saw  his  way  with  some  plausible  justification 
to  demand  the  reception  at  Cabul  of  an  English 
embassy.  He  notified  his  intention  to  <he  Ameer, 
but  without  waiting  for  an  answer  selected  Sir 
Neville  Chamberlain  as  his  envoy,  and  sent  him 
forward  with  an  escort  of  more  than  1,000  men, 
too  large,  as  it  was  obser\'ed,  for  peace,  too 
small  for  war  As  a  matter  of  course  the  mission 
was  not  admitted  .  .  .An  outcry  was  raised  both 
in  England  and  in  India.  .  .  .  Troops  were  hastily 


collected  upon  the  Indian  frontier;  and  a  curious 
light  was  thrown  on  what  had  been  done  by  the 
assertion  of  the  Premier  at  the  Guildhall  banquet 
that  the  object  in  view  was  the  formation  of  a 
'scientific  frontier;'  in  other  words,  throwing  aside 
all  former  pretences,  he  declared  that  the  policy 
of  England  was  to  make  use  of  the  opportunity 
offered  for  direct  territorial  aggression.  ...  As 
had  been  foreseen  by  all  parties  from  the  first,  the 
English  armies  were  entirely  successful  in  their 
first  advance  [November,  1878].  .  .  .  By  the  close 
of  December  Jellalabad  was  in  the  hands  of 
Browne,  the  Shutargardan  Pass  had  been  sur- 
mounted by  Roberts,  and  in  January  Stewart  es- 
tablished himself  in  Candahar.  \Vhen  the  re- 
sistance of  his  army  proved  ineffectual,  Shere  AU 
had  taken  to  flight,  only  to  die.  His  refractory 
son  Vakoob  Khan  was  drawn  from  his  prison  and 
assumed  the  reins  of  government  as  regent.  .  .  . 
Yakoob  readily  granted  the  English  demands,  con- 
senting to  place  his  foreign  relations  under  Brit- 
ish control,  and  to  accept  British  agencies.  With 
considerably  more  reluctance,  he  allowed  what  was 
required  for  the  rectification  of  the  frontier  to 
pass  into  English  hands.  He  received  in  exchange 
a  promise  of  support  by  the  British  Government, 
and  an  annual  subsidy  of  £00,000.  On  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  the  troops  in  the  Jellalabad 
\'alley  withdrew  within  the  new  frontier,  and 
Vakoob  Khan  was  left  to  establish  his  authority 
as  best  he  could  at  Cabul,  whither  in  July  Cavag- 
nari  with  an  escort  of  twenty-six  troopers  and 
eighty  infantry  betook  himself.  Then  was  enacted 
again  the  sad  story  which  preluded  the  first  Af- 
ghan war.  All  the  parts  and  scenes  in  the  drama 
repeated  themselves  with  curious  uniformity — the 
English  Resident  with  his  little  garrison  trusting 
bUndly  to  his  capacity  for  influencing  the  Afghan 
mind,  the  puppet  king,  without- the  power  to  make 
himself  respected,  irritated  by  the  constant  pres- 
ence of  the  Resident,  the  chiefs  mutually  distrust- 
ful and  at  one  in  nothing  save  their  hatred  of 
English  interference,  the  people  seething  with  anger 
against  the  infidel  foreigner,  a  wild  outbreak  which 
the  .Ameer,  even  had  he  wished  it,  could  not  con- 
trol, an  attack  upon  the  Residency  and  the  com- 
plete destruction  [Sept.,  1870!  after  a  gallant  but 
futile  resistance  of  the  Resident  and  his  entire  es- 
cort. Fortunately  the  extreme  disaster  of  the  pre- 
vious war  was  avoided.  The  English  troops  which 
were  withdrawn  from  the  country  were  still  within 
reach.  .  .  .  About  the  24th  of  September,  three 
weeks  after  the  outbreak,  the  Cabul  field  force 
under  General  Roberts  was  able  to  move.  On  the 
5th  of  October  it  forced  its  way  into  the  Logar 
Valley  at  Chara.ssiab,  and  on  the  12th  General 
Roberts  was  able  to  make  his  formal  entry  into 
the  city  of  Cabul.  .  .  .  The  Ameer  was  deposed, 
martial  law  was  established,  the  disarmament  of 
the  people  required  under  pain  of  death,  and  the 
country  scoured  to  bring  in  for  punishment  those 
chiefly  implicated  in  the  late  outbreak.  While  thus 
engaged  in  carrying  out  his  work  of  retribution, 
the  wave  of  insurrection  closed  behind  the  Eng- 
lish general,  communication  through  the  Kuram 
Valley  was  cut  off,  and  he  was  left  to  pass  the 
winter  with  an  army  of  some  8,000  men  con- 
nected with  India  only  by  the  Kybur  Pass.  .  .  . 
■A  new  and  formidable  personage  .  .  .  now  made 
his  appearance  on  the  scene.  This  was  Abdurah- 
man,  the  nephew  and  rival  of  the  late  Shere  Ali, 
who  upon  the  defeat  of  his  pretensions  had  sought 
refuge  in  Turkestan,  and  was  supposed  to  be  sup- 
ported by  the  friendship  of  Russia.  The  expected 
attack  did  not  take  place,  constant  reinforcements 
had   raised   the    Cabul   army   to    20,000,    and   ren- 


8i 


AFGHANISTAN,  1893-1895 


AFGHANISTAN,  1907 


dered  it  too  strong  to  be  assailed.  ...  It  was 
thought  desirable  to  break  up  Afghanistan  into  a 
northern  and  southern  province.  .  .  .  The  policy 
thus  declared  was  carried  out.  A  certain  Shere 
Ali,  a  cousin  of  the  late  Ameer  of  the  same  name, 
was  appointed  Wali  or  Governor  of  Candahar. 
In  the  north  signs  were  visible  that  the  only  pos- 
sible successor  to  the  throne  of  Cabul  would  be 
Abdurahman.  .  .  .  The  Bengal  army  under  Gen- 
eral Stewart  was  to  march  northwards,  and,  sup- 
pressing on  the  way  the  Ghuznee  insurgents,  was 
to  join  the  Cabul  army  in  a  sort  of  triumphant 
return  to  Peshawur.  The  first  part  of  the  pro- 
gramme was  carried  out.  .  .  .  The  second  part  of 
the  plan  was  fated  to  be  interrupted  by  a  serious 
disaster  which  rendered  it  for  a  while  uncertain 
whether  the  withdrawal  of  the  troops  from  Af- 
ghanistan was  possible.  .  .  .  Ayoob  had  always 
expressed  his  disapproval  of  his  brother's  friend- 
ship for  the  English,  and  had  constantly  refused 
to  accept  their  overtures.  Though  little  was  known 
about  him,  rumours  were  afloat  that  he  intended 
to  advance  upon  Ghuznee,  and  join  the  insurgents 
there.  At  length  about  the  middle  of  June  [1880] 
his  army  started.  .  .  .  But  before  the  end  of  June 
Farah  had  been  reached  and  it  seemed  plain  that 
Candahar  would  be  assaulted.  .  .  .  General  Bur- 
rows found  it  necessary  to  fall  back  to  a  ridge 
some  forty-five  miles  from  Candahar  called  Kush- 
y-Nakhud.  There  is  a  pass  called  Maiwand  to  the 
north  of  the  highroad  to  Candahar,  by  which  an 
army  avoiding  the  position  on  the  ridge  might  ad- 
vance upon  the  city  On  the  27th  of  July  the 
Afghan  troops  were  seen  moving  in  the  direction 
of  this  pass  In  his  attempt  to  stop  them  with 
his  small  force,  numbering  about  2,500  men.  Gen- 
eral Burrows  was  disastrously  defeated.  With  dif- 
ficulty and  with  the  loss  of  seven  guns,  about  half 
the  English  troops  returned  to  Candahar.  Gen- 
eral Primrose,  who  was  in  command,  had  no 
choice  but  to  strengthen  the  place,  submit  to  an 
investment,  and  wait  till  he  should  be  rescued. 
.  .  .  The  troops  at  Cabul  were  on  the  point  of 
withdrawing  when  the  news  of  the  disaster  reached 
them."  General  Roberts  at  once  pushed  forward 
to  the  beleaguered  city,  and  dispersed  the  army 
of  the  Amir.  Candahar  was  then  held  by  the 
British  until  the  fall  of  1881,  when  they  withdrew, 
Abdurahman  having  apparently  established  him- 
self in  power,  and  the  country  being  in  a  quieted 
state. — J.   F.    Bright,   History    of   England,   period 

4.   pp.  534-544- 

Also  in:  Lord  Roberts'  Forty-one  years  in 
India. 

1893-1895. — Relinquishment  of  claims  over 
Swat,  Bajour  and  Chitral.  See  India;  1805 
( March-September ) . 

1895. — Anglo-Russian  agreement. — Determina- 
tion of  the  northern  frontier. — The  joint  Anglo- 
Russian  commission  for  fixing  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  Afghanistan,  from  Zultikar  on  the  Heri- 
Rud  to  the  Pamirs,  finished  its  work  in  July, 
i8qs.  This  was  consequent  upon  an  agreement 
between  the  governments  of  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  which  had  been  reduced  to  writing  on  the 
previous  nth  of  March.  In  part,  that  agreement 
was  as  follows;  "Her  Britannic  Majesty's  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Government  of  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  engage  to  abstain  from  exer- 
cising any  political  influence  or  control,  the  for- 
mer to  the  north,  the  latter  to  the  south,  of  the 
above  line  of  demarcation.  Her  Britannic  Ma- 
jesty's Government  engage  that  the  territory  lying 
within  the  British  sphere  of  influence  between  the 
Hindu  Kush  and  the  line  running  from  the  east 
end  of  Lake  Victoria  to  the  Chinese  frontier  shall 


form  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Ameer  of  Af- 
ghanistan, that  it  shall  not  be  annexed  to  Great 
Britain,  and  that  no  military  posts  or  forts  shall 
be  established  in  it.  The  execution  of  this  Agree- 
ment is  contingent  upon  the  evacuation  by  the 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan  of  all  the  territories  now 
occupied  by  His  Highness  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Panjah,  and  on  the  evacuation  by  the  Ameer 
of  Bokhara  of  the  portion  of  Darwaz  which  lies 
to  the  south  of  the  Oxus,  in  regard  to  which  Her 
Britannic  Majesty's  Government  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Russia  have 
agreed  to  use  their  influence  respectively  with  the 
two  Ameers." — Great  Britain,  Papers  by  com- 
mand: Treaty  series,  no.  8,  1895. — See  also  India: 
189s    (March-September). 

1896. — Conquest  of  Kafiristan. — By  the  agree- 
ment of  1S93,  between  the  Amir  of  Afghanistan 
and  the  government  of  India,  the  mountain  dis- 
trict of  Kafiristan  was  conceded  to  the  former, 
and  he  presently  set  to  work  to  subjugate  its 
warlike  people,  who  had  never  acknowledged  his 
yoke.  By  the  end  of  1896  the  conquest  of  these 
Asiatic   Kafirs  was  believed  to  be  complete. 

1901-1906. — Death  of  Abdurahman. — Succes- 
sion of  his  son,  Habibullah. — Signs  of  a  pro- 
gressive spirit  in  the  new  Amir. — The  late  Amir, 
Abdurahman,  died  in  October,  1901,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son,  Habibullah.  Early  in 
the  third  year  of  his  reign  the  new  Amir  began 
to  show  signs  of  a  wish  to  have  his  country  move 
a  little  on  the  lines  of  European  progress,  in  the 
march  which  so  many  of  his  Asiatic  neighbors 
were  joining.  His  undertakings  were  disturbed 
for  a  time  by  trouble  with  his  half-brother,  Omar 
Jan,  and  with  the  latter's  mother,  the  Bibi  Halima 
or  Queen  of  the  Harem;  but  he  brought  the 
trouble  to  an  end  which  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  tragical,  and  that,  in  itself,  is  a  notable  mark 
in  his  favor.  The  Russo-Japanese  War  interested 
him  immensely,  and  he  established  a  daily  post 
between  Khyber  and  Cabul  to  bring  speedy  news 
of  events.  He  then  read  the  reports  in  public,  with 
expositions,  to  make  the  listening  people  under- 
stand the  bearing  of  what  was  happening  on  their  . 
own  interests,  and  the  lessons  they  should  learn 
from  what  the  Japanese  were  doing.  He  is  said 
to  have  done  much  in  the  way  of  improving  agri- 
culture and  horse-breeding  in  Afghanistan ;  he  had 
a  desire  to  establish  a  Chiefs'  college,  with  the 
English  language  as  the  basis  of  instruction,  but 
he  met  with  strong  opposition  in  this  undertaking; 
and  he  introduced  electric  lighting,  with  probably 
other  luxuries  of  modern  science,  in  Kabul.  Such 
things  in  Afghanistan  mark  a  highly  progressive 
man.  His  political  intelligence  was  proved  by  the 
cordiality  of  his  relations  with  the  British  Indian 
Government,  .^n  interesting  account  of  conditions 
in  the  Amir's  country  in  1004  was  given  by  D.  C. 
Boulger,  in  the  Fortnightly  Revieiv  of  December, 
that  year,  under  the  title  of  "The  Awakening  of 
Afghanistan." 

1905. — The  Amir  becomes  king. — In  a  new 
treaty  between  the  Government  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  Amir  of  Afghanistan,  the  latter  was  rec- 
ognized as  king. 

1907. — Convention  between  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  relative  to  Afghanistan.  See  Anglo-Rus- 
sian  AGREEMENT    OF    100?. 

1907. — Effect  of  Russian  and  British  agree- 
ment on  Afghan  trade. — "Russian  goods  enter 
Afghanistan  chiefly  through  Herat,  near  to  Kush- 
kinski  Post  in  Russian  Turkestan,  the  terminus  of 
the  Nurghab  Valley  Railway,  which  connects  with 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  into  European  Rus- 
sia.    The  treaty  signed  between  Russia  and  Great 


83 


AFGHANISTAN,  1915-1916 


AFGHANISTAN,  1921 


Britain  in  1907  concerning  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
Tibet,  states  that  the  British  Government  engages 
to  exercise  its  influence  in  Afghanistan  only  in  a 
pacific  sense,  and  will  not  encourage  Afghanistan 
to  take  any  measures  threatening  Russia,  while 
the  Russian  Government  on  its  part  recognizes 
that  Afghanistan  is  outside  the  sphere  of  Russian 
influence,  and  that  all  political  relations  with  this 
country  shall  be  conducted  through  the  intermedi- 
ary of  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Government. 
Further,  it  engages  not  to  send  any  agents  into 
Afghanistan,  though  Russian  and  Afghan  authori- 
ties may  establish  direct  relations  for  the  settle- 
ment of  local  questions  of  a  non-political  char- 
acter. The  British  Government  engages  not  to 
interfere  in  the  internal  administration  of  the 
country,  provided  that  the  Ameer  fulfills  the 
treaty  engagements  already  contracted  by  him 
toward  the  British  Government.  Both  countries 
affirmed  their  adherence  to  the  principle  of  equal- 
ity of  commercial  opportunity  in  Afghanistan. 
For  whatever  diplomatic  intercourse  is  required 
between  .Afghanistan  and  British  India  the  Indian 
Government  has  political  agents  at  Kabul  and 
Kandahar,  who,  in  accordance  with  treaty  regu- 
lations, must  always  be  Mohammedans,  while  the 
.■\fghan  Government,  on  its  part,  maintains  an 
agent  at  the  capital  of  India.  Interesting  evidence 
as  to  the  awakening  of  the  closed  country  of  Af- 
ghanistan to  modern  progressive  ideals  of  civiliza- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  important  construction 
works  now  being  carried  out  under  circumstances 
of  great  difficulty,  especially  those  connected  with 
costly  and  difficult  transport  of  needed  machinery 
and  other  material.  The  most  interesting  develop- 
ment of  this  sort  is  a  project  now  under  way  for 
transmitting  44,000  volts  of  electrical  energy  from 
a  waterfall  about  120  feet  high  to  Kabul,  the 
capital,  situated  about  40  miles  away.  .  .  .  This 
hydroelectric  scheme  will  cost  between  $500,000 
and  $600,000  when  completed,  about  5;300,ooo  be- 
ing for  machinery  and  materials.  The  water 
power  will  be  used  for  distributing  cheap  electrical 
energy  to  the  pun  factory,  shoe  factory,  projected 
woolen  mill,  and  other  industries  at  Kabul,  under 
control  of  the  Government  of  the  .Ameer;  also  for 
electric  lighting  of  the  royal  palace,  other  resi- 
dences. Government  offices  and  street  lighting 
The  machinery  and  material,  including  switches, 
generators,  steel  towers,  and  copper-covered  steel 
wires,  arc  being  imported  chiefly  from  the  United 
States.  The  development  should  particularly  bene- 
fit the  industries  of  Kabul,  which  have  been  handi- 
capped by  the  excessive  cost  of  fuel.  There  are 
no  coal  mines  in  the  country,  and  wood  is  scarce; 
for  factories  at  Kabul  wood  has  to  be  carried 
many  miles  on  hacks  of  camels.  .  .  .  The  difficulty 
of  transporting  the  machinery  and  ironwork 
through  Khyber  Pass  and  over  almost  impassable 
roads  to  Kabul  is  delaying  the  project,  which  may 
require  several  years  to  complete.  The  attempt 
to  use  motor  lorries  imported  for  this  purpose 
failed,  owing  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  road 
to  Kabul,  and  it  is  only  by  use  of  elephants 
that  the  heavy  and  bulky  articles  required  can 
reach  Kabul." — H.  D.  Baker,  British  India,  pp.  543- 

.■;44- 

1915-1916. — Maintenance  of  neutrality  during 
the  war. — "The  .Amir  of  .Afghanistan  m.iintained 
his  neutrality  in  the  great  war,  and  the  principal- 
ity did  not  become  involved  in  the  troubles  of 
Persia.  At  the  end  of  iqi6  information  was  pub- 
lished concerning  a  German  mission  sent  to  .Af- 
ghanistan in  the  previous  year.  It  appears  that 
the  Emperor  William  had  sent  a  German  officer, 
Lieutenant    von    Hentig,    accompanied    by   certain 


Indian  revolutionaries  who  had  resided  in  Berliii, 
on  a  mis.-ion  to  the  Amir,  with  the  object  of  in- 
ducing him  to  attack  India.  The  members  of  the 
mission  had  succeeded  in  making  their  way 
through  Persia,  by  breaking  up  into  small  parties, 
and  they  had  remained  in  .Afghanistan  nearly  a 
year.  Nevertheless,  the  Amir  had  refused  the 
Turko-German  proposals,  and  after  the  mission 
left  Afghanistan  in  May,  1916,  some  of  the 
members  were  captured  by  the  Russians  and 
British  as  they  were  trying  to  get  back  to 
Turkey. 

"On  November  29  an  interesting  statement  was 
made  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  on  the  failure  of  a  Ger- 
man mission  to  .Afghanistan.  The  mission,  he 
said,  consisted  of  two  Indian  anarchists,  a  party 
of  German  officers  and  some  Turks.  The  prin- 
cipal German  Officer  was  the  bearer  of  a  letter 
from  the  German  Chancellor  to  the  Amir,  in 
which  the  latter  was  invited  to  advise  how  best 
India  might  be  liberated  from  British  tyranny. 
The  party  were  arrested  on  their  arrival  in  Af- 
ghanistan and  eventually  conducted  to  Kabul 
where  the  Amir  and  his  people  quickly  appraised 
them  at  their  true  value.  .At  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  .Amir  had  given  the  Viceroy  the  most 
solemn  assurances  of  his  intention  to  preserve 
neutrality,  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  acknowledged 
with  great  satisfaction  the  loyalty  he  had  shown 
to  his  pledged  word." — Annual  Register,  igio,  pp. 

200,    192. 

1919. — Assassination  of  the  Amir. — Accession 
of  his  son. — Attack  on  India. — On  February  20, 
iQio,  Habibullah  Khan,  .Amir  of  Afghanistan, 
otherwise  known  as  Siraj-ul-Millat-Wad-din,  WuS 
assassinated  in  his  camp  in  the  Jelallabad  district. 
.As  soon  as  this  became  known,  Nasrullah  Khan, 
brother  of  Habibullah.  had  himself  proclaimed 
■Amir,  after  forcing  the  submission  of  the  late 
monarch's  two  older  sons.  His  reign  was  exceed- 
ingly brief,  however,  for  .Amanullah  Khan  (born 
1892),  third  son  of  Habibullah,  who  had  man 
aged  to  get  control  of  the  treasury  and  of  the 
military  supplies  immediately  after  his  father's 
assassination,  won  over  to  his  cause  the  nobles 
and  the  soldiers,  and  thus  simply  secured  the 
throne  for  himself.  For  complicity  in  the  death 
of  Habibullah,  Nasrullah  was  condemned  to  life 
imprisonment,  the  actual  murderer.  Colonel  Shah 
.Ali  Raza  being  put  to  death,  while  a  third  person 
said  to  be  implicated  shared  the  fate  of  Nasrullah. 
The  new  amir  found  his  jiosition  very  insecure 
and  sought  to  gain  popularity  at  home  by  em- 
barking on  a  war  of  aggression  upon  India.  Hos- 
tilities broke  out  early  in  May  and  ended  with 
a  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Rawalpindi  on  .August 
8.  By  this  war  all  former  treaties  between  Af- 
ghanistan and  Great  Britain  were  cancelled  and 
the  subsidy  paid  to  former  amirs  was  declared  for- 
feited, but  the  internal  and  external  independence 
of  -Afghanistan  was  formally  recognized  by  Great 
Britain. 

1920  (April-July). — Discussions  were  held  at 
Mussoorie,  India,  between  British  and  Afghan 
delegates  with  a  view  to  a  permanent  treaty  of 
friendship. 

1921. — Alliance  with  Russia.— Shortly  after  the 
accession  of  .Amanullah  an  .Afghan  mis.sion  was 
sent  to  Moscow  to  establish  relations  with  Soviet 
Russia.  The  negotiations  developed  into  a  treaty 
of  .Alliance  concluded  Feb.  28,  1021.  A  few  days 
later  a  solemn  reception  was  held  at  the  Afghan 
embassy  in  Moscow  to  celebrate  the  anniversary 
of  Afghan  independence.  Two  representatives  of 
the  People's  Commissariat  for  Foreign  Affairs  were 
present,  also  a  delegation  of  the  Turkish  National 


84 


APRANIUS 


AFRICA 


Assembly  and  members  of  the  regular  Turkish 
Delegation,  representatives  of  the  Persian  embassy, 
the  Khiva  and  Bokhara  missions,  and  representa- 
tives of  Esthonia,  Latvia,  Finland,  etc. 

AFRANIUS,    Lucius,   Roman   general.     Lived 


about  the  period  of  the  third  Mithridatic  War 
(74-61  B.C.).  Consul  in  60  B.C.;  governor  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul  in  59  B.  C.  Assisted  Pompey 
against  Csesar,  sustaining  a  severe  defeat  at  Ilerda 
(49  B.C.). 


AFRICA 


The  name  Africa  was  originally  applied  by  the 
Romans  to  part  of  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  in  the  vicinity  of  Carthage,  but 
later  extended  to  include  the  entire  continental 
mass  e.ttending  southwest  from  Eurasia;  the 
second  largest  of  the  world's  great  land  divisions, 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  which  lies  within  the 
tropics.     See  Libyans. 

GEOGRAPHIC  DESCRIPTION 

General  features. — "The  comparative  uniform- 
ity of  the  Continent  of  Africa,  and  the  fact  of  its 
having  been  so  repellent  to  the  intervention  of 
white  races  reared  in  temperate  latitudes,  can  to 
a  large  extent  be  accounted  for  by  comparing  the 
lie  of  Africa  with  that  of  the  other  continents.  It 
lies  almost  evenly  balanced  on  each  side  of  the 
equator,  between  about  40^  north  and  40°  south. 
The  equinoctial  line  which  passes  through  its 
centre  does  not  touch  the  Euro-Asiatic  continent. 
.  .  .  While  the  climate  of  the  southern  shores  of 
Europe  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast  of  Africa,  and  while  the  southern  pen- 
insulas of  Asia  are  purely  tropical,  every  variety 
of  climate  is  found  between  that  and  the  ice- 
bound shores  of  Siberia.  In  the  other  hemisphere, 
while  the  feet  of  the  North  American  continent 
are  laved  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
its  head  is  almost  within  hail  of  the  North  Pole. 
.  .  .  Africa,  then,  is  the  tropical  continent  par 
excellence.  Of  its  total  area  some  two-thirds,  al- 
most 8,000,000  square  miles,  lie  between  the  trop- 
ics, and  have  the  sun  vertical  twice  a  year,  while 
the  rest  of  the  Continent  is  more  or  less  sub- 
tropical; so  that,  so  far  as  climate  goes,  the 
popular  conception  is  not  far  wrong  Even  of 
America  only  about  one-third  of  the  land  is  within 
the  tropics.  .  .  .  But  there  are  other  geographical 
factors  to  be  taken  into  account,  which  modify  the 
general  effects  of  latitude,  partly  mitigating,  partly 
intensifying  them.  We  have  seen  how  Africa  lies 
compared  with  the  situation  of  other  continents. 
What  about  its  relation  to  the  great  water-mass  of 
the  globe  ?  We  lind  its  southern  shores  looking 
out  upon  the  Antarctic,  a  long  way  off;  from  its 
western  shores  the  broad  Atlantic  bears  away 
without  obstruction,  and  nothing  intervenes  be- 
tween its  eastern  coast  and  the  genial  influence  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  The  northern  and  north-east- 
ern coasts  of  the  Continent  are  much  less  fortu- 
nately situated,  only  the  narrow  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea  separate  Africa 
from  the  vast  land-mass  of  Europe  and  Asia." — 
J.  S.  Keltic,  Partition  of  Africa,  p.  460. 

Coastline. — "Though  Africa  is  more  than  three 
times  the  size  of  Europe,  and  although  it  is  prac- 
tically an  island  while  Europe  has  an  extensive 
land  frontier,  the  coast-line  of  Africa  measures 
only  about  15,000  miles  in  length,  while  that  of 
Europe  is  iq.ooo  miles.  A  glance  at  a  map  of  the 
world  will  show  how  this  marked  difference  arises. 
There  is  not  a  single  indentation  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  worthy  of  the  name;  the  coast-line  all 
round  looks  like  a  barrier  to  keep  back  the  benefi- 
cent  advances   of   the   ocean.  .  .  .  There    is   noth- 


ing in  the  whole  round  of  the  African  coast  to 
compare  on  the  one  hand  with  the  gieat  sea-arms 
and  magnificent  natural  harbours  that  mark  the 
west  coast  of  Europe,  nor  with  the  richly  broken 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  on  the  other. 
There  is  only  one  estuary  of  real  magnitude  on 
the  whole  continent,  that  of  the  Congo;  hence 
partly  the  great  hopes  entertained  of  the  future 
of  that  river.  Such  second-rate  harbours  as  those 
of  Delagoa  Bay  and  Mombasa  are  reckoned  valu- 
able possessions  in  Africa,  for  which  nations 
struggle.  This  monotonous  outline  of  the  African 
coast  acts  disadvantageously  in  two  ways  from 
the  point  of  view  of  European  enterprise.  In  the 
first  place,  the  lack  of  deep  oceanic  indentations 
deprives  the  great  bulk  of  the  Continent  of  the 
beneficent  influences  which  contiguity  to  the  sea 
brings  with  it;  and  in  the  second  place,  it  de- 
prives the  enterprising  navigator  and  trader  of 
ready  highways  to  the  interior.  Thus  the  mere 
character  of  the  contour  of  the  coast  has  con- 
tributed to  retard  the  development  of  the  Conti- 
nent. At  the  same  time,  let  us  recall  the  fact  that 
the  spread  of  railways  over  the  Continent  would 
tend  greatly  to  counteract  the  commercial  disad- 
vantages arising  from  the  lack  of  deep  arms  of 
the  sea,  navigable  rivers,  and  natural  harbours. 
Railways  are  the  great  levellers,  shattering  old 
geographical  traditions,  and  tending  to  place  all 
continents  on  an  equal  footing,  so  far  as  communi- 
cations are  concerned." — Ibid.,  pp.  463-464. 

Mountains  and  plateaus. — "Passing  from  the 
contour  of  the  coast-line  to  the  configuration  of 
the  surface  of  the  Continent,  we  find  here  again 
certain  characteristics  which  distinguish  Africa 
from  all  the  other  continents,  except  perhaps  Aus- 
tralia, which  might  have  been  as  far  behind  in 
civilisation  as  Africa  had  its  latitude  been  different. 
The  surface  of  Africa  is  nearly  as  monotonous  as 
its  outline.  There  is  only  one  mountain  range 
worthy  of  the  name,  that  of  the  Atlas,  which  ex- 
tends along  the  northern  rim  of  the  Continent 
from  Tunis  to  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco.  .  .  . 
But  when  all  is  put  together  the  really  mountain- 
ous regions  of  Africa  amount  to  little  compared 
with  the  great  size  of  the  Continent.  We  have 
nothing  in  Africa  that  can  compare  in  compara- 
tive mass  and  extent  with  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Apennines,  the  Carpathians,  the  Scandinavian 
ranges,  in  Europe,  not  to  mention  the  Himalayas, 
the  stupendous  ranges  of  Central  .\sia.  .  .  .  This 
lack  of  great  mountain  ranges  upon  the  African 
Continent  must  be  regarded  as  another  serious 
drawback  to  its  economical  development,  since  it 
markedly  affects  its  rainfall  and  the  distribution 
of  its  water  supply.  ...  In  a  general  way  the 
composition  of  the  soil  of  Africa  is  favourable 
enough  to  the  varied  requirements  of  humanity; 
its  great  want  is  water. 

"It  is  a  striking  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the 
paucity  of  great  mountain  ranges  in  .Africa  as  com- 
pared with  Europe  and  Asia,  the  general  mean 
elevation  of  the  former  is  greater  than  in  either 
of  the  latter.  .  .  .  This  reveals  to  us  the  great 
characteristic  feature  of  the  surface  of  Africa,  that 
of  a   high   plateau,  descending   almost   everywhere 


85 


AFRICA 


Climate 
Early  Races 


AFRICA 


in  terraces  to  the  coast.  ...  All  round  the  coast 
is  seen  a  strip  varying  in  breadth,  but  generally 
comparatively  narrow,  of  not  more  than  500  feet 
in  height.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  Continent  is 
a  plateau  of  from  500  to  2000  feet,  much  nearer 
to  the  latter  than  the  former.  ...  In  Africa,  in 
short,  the  relief  of  the  land,  instead  of  being  con- 
centrated in  one  or  two  enormous  mountain 
ranges,  has  been  spread  over  the  Continent  with 
wonderful  equality.  The  practical  importance  of 
the  plateau  character  of  the  surface  of  .'\frica  will 
be  apparent  when  the  influence  of  latitude  in 
modifying  temperature  is  i:ept  in  view.  .  .  .  The 
mean  annual  isotherm  of  80°  is  in  the  north  al- 
most coincident  with  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and 
on  the  south  enters  at  the  Guinea  Coast,  but 
sweeps  so  abruptly  south  as  to  include  the  bulk 
of  Africa  south  of  the  equator.  These  are  enor- 
mous average  temperatures  to  embrace  a  conti- 
nent; no  other  land-mass  has  anything  like  them. 
.  .  .  More  trying  even  than  this,  according  to 
many  reliable  authorities,  is  the  excessive  varia- 
tion of  temperature  between  day  and  night.  The 
difference  between  summer  and  winter  tempera- 
ture in  some  parts  of  Africa  is  very  great.  .  .  . 
Such  a  difference  can  be  provided  for.  But  when 
there  is  a  sudden  lowering  of  the  temperature  at 
sundown  in  a  tropical  or  subtropical  moisture- 
laden  atmosphere  it  is  apt  to  tell  severely  on  the 
European  constitution.  .  .  .  These  are  a  few  of 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  plateau 
character  of  Tropical  .-Vfrica,  so  far  as  concerns 
the  influence  of  the  climate  on  the  European  con- 
stitution. It  entails,  however,  still  another  ob- 
stacle to  free  commercial  enterprise.  The  plateau, 
which  prevails  almost  everywhere,  slopes  down 
in  terraces  more  or  less  rapidly  to  the  coast,  and 
down  these  terraces  the  rivers  from  the  interior 
must  make  their  way  with  the  result  that  we  fmd 
the  courses  of  the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Congo,  the 
Zambezi,  more  or  less  interrupted  by  cataracts. 
These  are  a  serious  obstacle  to  navigation.  For 
tunately  on  the  Niger  the  break  occurs  far  up  the 
river,  leaving  a  long,  clear  waterway,  but  on  the 
Congo  we  meet  with  some  200  miles  of  unnavi- 
gable  cataracts,  beginning  at  about  150  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  so  cutting  off  from  direct  ac- 
cess the  1000  miles  of  splendid  waterway  above, 
which  leads  into  the  heart  of  .Africa.  Had  it  not 
been  for  this  we  cannot  doubt  that  the  Congo 
would  have  been  traced  from  below  long  before 
Stanley's  brilliant  achievement  from  above.  At 
the  same  time,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
these  geographical  disadvantages  can  be  almost 
nullified  by  the  construction  of  railways.  No 
doubt  both  in  Europe  and  .America  river-naviga- 
tion is  of  importance  but  it  is  insignificant  com- 
pared with  the  importance  of  railway  communica- 
tion. In  fact,  the  judicious  introduction  of  rail- 
ways would  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the 
African  waterway." — J.  S.  Keltie,  Partition  of 
Africa,  pp.  464-468. 

Climate. — "Prevailing  winds  have  much  to  do 
with  temperature,  and  still  more  perhaps  with 
rainfall;  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  here  we  touch 
upon  one  of  the  weakest  of  Africa's  many  weak 
points.  On  the  east  coast  the  prevailing  winds 
are  towards  the  Continent,  bringing  with  them  a 
fair  supply  of  moisture,  while  farther  south  the 
cold  Benguela  current  will  tend  to  diminish  the 
supply.  The  north-east  trades  just  skirt  the  Sa- 
hara coast,  and  do  it  little  good,  while  the  winds 
that  cross  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea  have 
already  parted  with  most  of  their  moisture  to 
the  Euro-Asiatic  land-mass,  and  what  little  re- 
mains   is,    levied    by    the    coast-lands.  .  .  .  Thus, 


then,  except  in  the  centre  of  the  Continent,  ,in 
Tropical  Africa  the  rainfall  is  almost  everywhere 
inadequate  for  industrial  operations;  so  that 
where  Europeans  might  settle,  so  far  as  tempera- 
ture goes,  the  water-supply  is  defective.  Even, 
however,  in  the  central  belt,  especially  in  East 
.Africa,  there  are  considerable  areas  of  desert  met 
with,  where  the  water-supply  is  almost  nil.  .  .  . 
It  is  not  surprising,  then,  to  lind  that  the  rivers 
of  Africa,  with  one  exception,  draw  their  supplies 
from  the  centre  of  the  Continent.  .  .  .  But  as  a 
general  rule,  outside  the  tropical  area,  permanently 
flowing  water  is  rare.  .  .  .  Between  the  north  of 
the  central  belt  and  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and 
also  over  most  of  the  northeast  horn  of  Africa,  is 
found  an  area  cither  absolutely  desert,  or  the 
next  stage  to  it — poor  steppe,  scrub,  or  other  land 
of  a  like  nature.  This  area  covers  something  like 
4,000,000  square  miles — one-third  of  the  Conti- 
nent. Of  this  about  one-half  is  pure  desert,  the 
veritable  sandy  Sahara.  ...  On  the  other  side  of 
.Africa  we  find  a  strip  of  true  desert  along  the 
west  coast  from  the  Coanza  to  the  Orange  River. 
This  spreads  out  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi. 
Over  about  two-thirds  of  South  Africa,  and  ex- 
tending well  to  the  south  of  the  Orange  River, 
we  have  the  scrub  or  steppe  characteristics  known 
in  the  Cape  region  as  the  Karroo." — J.  S.  Keltie, 
Partition  of  Africa,  pp.  475-476. 

RACES  OF  AFRICA 

Prehistoric  peoples. — "There  is  no  exact  data 
on  the  origin  of  the  people  of  North  Africa.  The 
men  of  the  Stone  Age  have  left  numerous  traces 
in  the  country,  and  one  finds  everywhere,  in 
caves,  a  few  arms  and  implements  of  flint.  Many 
stone  implements  and  arms  of  various  paleolithic 
types,  as  well  as  neolithic  hatchets  have  been 
found  in  North  .Africa,  in  Algeria  (at  TIemcen), 
in  south  .Algeria  (at  El-Golea),  up  to  Timbuctu. 
Finally  there  is  in  Tunis  (at  Gafsa  and  in  gen- 
eral west  of  the  Gulf  of  Gabes)  a  series  of  paleo- 
lithic implements  resembling  very  closely  those  of 
Europe.  The  country  bordering  on  the  oasis  of 
Gafsa,  at  one  time  wooded,  is  now  completelv 
denuded  and  unfertile,  and  the  desert  plain  and 
mountains  reveal  the  ancient  flints  level  with  the 
ground.  To  the  east  of  the  oasis  considerable 
heaps  of  debris  and  stone  chips  can  be  seen  at 
intervals.  These  first  inhabitants  belong  without 
doubt  to  a  race  which  came  from  the  south,  after 
having  been  expelled  from  the  desert.  On  the 
other  hand,  everything  conduces  to  the  behef  that 
at  that  ancient  time,  North  Africa  was  connected 
to  Europe  by  two  large  Iberian  and  Italian  isth- 
muses or  peninsulas,  and  it  is  possible  that  all  the 
banks  of  the  Mediterranean  were  inhabited  by 
the  same  race. 

"  'Two  human  groups,'  says  Tissot,  'have,  then, 
at  the  most  remote  period,  peopled  the  Atlantic 
massif;  one  coming  up  from  the  Sahara  toward 
the  north,  the  other  descending  from  southern 
Europe  towards  the  south.  Such  seems  to  us  to 
be  the  first  groundwork  of  the  Berber  race,  and 
since  that  time  we  distinguish  by  this  the  two 
ethnic  elements  of  which  trace  is  found  in  the 
traditions  of  the  following  ages,  and  also  as  found 
in  African  anthropology,  a  brown  European  race, 
and  a  brown  Saharan  race,  fundamentally  dis- 
tinct from  the  black  race.'  To  this  foundation 
the  blond  men  were  afterward  added,  who  came 
originally  from  the  north  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
Iberians.  The  date  of  the  invasion  of  the  fair- 
headed  men  is  uncertain  We  can  only  say  that 
it  is  previous  to  the  loth  Egyptian  dynasty.     Be- 


86 


AFRICA 


Early  Races 


AFRICA 


fore  the  igth  dynasty,  in  fact,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  west  were  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments only  by  brown  men,  and  after  that  time, 
blond  men  are  figured  among  them.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  blond  race  was  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  all  the  Barbary  coast.  Even  today  one 
discovers  numerous  types  of  blonds  in  Tunis  and 
in  Algeria;  in  Morocco,  about  one-third  of  the 
population  is  blond;  the  tribes  which  inhabit  the 
high  regions  of  the  Atlas  are  exclusively  blond. 
The  Iberians  penetrated  into  .'Africa  at  about  the 
same  time.  Tissot  puts  the  invasion  of  the  Iber- 
ians after  the  European  immigration,  while  re- 
marking at  the  same  time  that  in  this  matter  it  is 
impossible  to  be  certain,  and  that  the  question  is 
connected  with  that  of  the  origin  of  the  Iberians. 
It  is  to  them,  according  to  the  same  author,  that 
we  must  attribute  the  state  of  civilisation  as  ad- 
vanced as  Egyptian  documents  establish,  in  the 
north  of  Libya,  at  a  time  previous  to  the  lirst 
known  oriental  invasions. 

"The  principal  thing  to  remember  is  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  north  side  of  the  Atlas  alone 
seem  to  have  been  intermingled  with  new  ar- 
rivals: one  can  see  them  modify  themselves 
little  by  little  at  their  contact,  while  the 
inhabitants  of  the  southern  side  of  the  high 
plateaux  remain  unchanged  and  just  as  one 
finds  them  today.  Among  the  people  of  the  first 
race,  one  must  range,  in  going  from  west  to  east, 
the  Moors,  the  Numidians,  and  the  Libyans.  The 
people  of  the  second  race  have  received  the  name 
of  Gaetulians  and  gave  rise  to  the  Zcnete  and 
Sanhadja  Berbers,  as  well  as  to  various  Tuareg 
tribes.  Finally,  the  influence  of  peoples  inhabiting 
eastern  Egypt  and  Africa  on  the  population  of 
Barbary  was  without  doubt  considerable,  although 
not  well  defined.  The  Nefzaoua — inhabiting  the 
oasis  of  Djerid — have  saved  in  their  traditions  the 
memory  of  the  Kouschite  invasion,  and  the  history 
of  Egypt,  at  that  time,  is  intimately  connected 
with  that  of  Barbary.  Traces  have  been  found 
in  Egyptian  documents,  of  numerous  expeditions 
when  cutlasses  of  bronze  were  taken  from  the 
Libyans,  as  well  as  money,  gold,  silver,  bows, 
javelins  and  chariots. 

"One  may  conclude,  that  since  the  14th  century 
before  Christ  the  Libyans  had  a  civilisation  and 
industry.  They  already  had  hereditary  kings  and 
had  concluded  alliances  with  the  people  of  the 
islands  and  with  the  Tyrians  in  particular.  At 
the  other  extremity  of  North  Africa  the  Maure- 
tanians  appear  to  have  arrived,  at  the  same  time, 
at  a  certain  degree  of  civilisation.  We  have  no 
exact  data  on  the  first  inhabitants  of  North 
Africa.  .  .  .  Herodotus,  who  has  left  us  the  first 
historic  data  on  North  Africa,  speaks  only  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  eastern  part.  The  Latin  and 
Greek  historians  have  left  us  some  references  to 
these  people.  The  Libyans  are  represented  as 
vigorous  men  and  long-lived.  They  had  white 
skin,  blue  eyes,  blond  or  chestnut  hair  and 
beard,  which  were  carefully  curled  in  the 
manner  still  used  by  the  Amazigh  of  the  Rif. 
The  headdress  of  the  chiefs  was  surmounted  by 
two  ostrich  plumes.  The  costume  of  the  Libyans 
consisted  of  a  piece  of  cloth  or  of  cotton  girding 
the  loins  and  of  a  dress  of  wool  open  the  whole 
length,  the  upper  ends  of  which  were  simply 
knotted  on  the  left  shoulder.  They  carried  on 
their  heads  a  sort  of  round  cap  with  a  necker- 
chief, like  those  still  worn  by  women  of  certain 
Tripolitan  tribes  today."— Tr.  from  V.  Piquet, 
Les  civilisations  de  I'Ajrique  du  nord,  pp.  1-6. — 
See  also  Hamites:   Hamitic  languages;  Uganda. 

"They   lived   in   huts   formed   of   stakes   holding 


up  woven  rushes  or  stems  of  the  asphodel.  'The 
chiefs  of  the  Libyans,'  said  Diodorus  of  Sicily, 
'had  no  cities,  but  only,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  springs,  towers  in  which  they  concealed  their 
riches.'  Polybius  represents  them  as  leading  a 
most  miserable  existence  across  their  woods  and 
plains.  Those  of  the  fertile  regions  lived  on  agri- 
culture and  obeyed  their  kings;  the  others  lived 
on  brigandage  and  established  themselves  nowhere. 
Their  arms  were  sometimes  a  shield  with  two 
sides,  an  axe,  bows  and  arrows,  sometimes  a 
round  shield,  three  javelins  and  stones  kept  in  a 
leather  bag.  All  these  peoples  sacrificed  victims 
to  the  sun  or  to  the  moon.  They  also  worshipped 
the  old  sovereigns,  the  guardian  angels  of  the 
cities.  Each  people  had  in  addition,  its  particu- 
lar god:  it  was  Sinifere  or  Mastiman,  Ifri  or 
Ifru,  god  of  the  caves,  or  Gurzil  to  whom  human 
sacrifices  were  made.  Certain  peoples  offer  in- 
teresting peculiarities.  The  Mauretanians  were 
the  most  advanced.  They  dressed  their  hair  with 
care  and  carried  jewels;  they  fought  on  horseback 
with  a  long  lance  and  swords,  the  infantry  carry- 
ing shields  of   elephant  skin. 

"The  Nasamonians  married  several  women,  who 
were  not,  however,  held  to  fidelity.  This  people 
honored  the  memory  of  the  men  who  were  dis- 
tinguished by  their  justice  and  their  valor.  The 
Nasamonians  knew  no  other  divinities  than  the 
souls  of  the  dead,  swore  by  them  and  consulted 
them  like  oracles.  To  that  purpose  they  slept  on 
the  tombs  of  their  ancestors  and  regulated  their 
conduct  according  to  the  dreams  that  were  sent 
them.  Certain  Barbary  tribes  of  the  Sahara  have 
kept  this  custom.  They  sheltered  themselves 
among  the  rocks,  and  the  first  caves  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  Matmata  were  excavated  by  them. 
Like  the  Nasamonians  the  Garamantes  went  about 
almost  nude,  protected  only  by  a  shield  of  skin 
and  by  long  javelins.  The  Anceans  distinguished 
themselves  by  the  arrangement  of  their  hair,  of 
which  one  still  finds  examples  among  the  Amazigh 
of  the  Rif.  Their  women  wore,  besides  their 
tunic,  an  undergarment  of  goatskin,  decorated  with 
a  fringe.  To  the  east  of  Cyrene,  finally,  the 
tribes  took  the  Egyptian  customs.  The  Gaetu- 
lians, who  lived  on  the  south  side  of  the  high 
plateaux,  remained  sheltered  from  contact  with  the 
people  who  invaded  the  neighboring  regions  at 
different  times.  The  origin  of  their  name — from 
which  might  be  derived  the  name  of  certain 
Berber  tribes,  the  Guezzoula,  for  example — is  not 
known.  Grouped  in  families,  they  wandered  with- 
out covering,  in  the  train  of  their  troops,  wearing 
nothing  but  a  floating  tunic  and  a  cloak  of  skins 
attached  by  a  clasp. 

"The  question  of  the  sepulchres  of  these  people 
is  particularly  interesting,  and  has  given  rise  to 
numerous  works.  One  meets  with  tumuli,  or 
redjem,  masses  of  stones,  covering  in  general  a 
rudimentary  sarcophagus  formed  of  large  slabs 
of  marble;  dolmens,  resembling  those  of  other 
Mediterranean  regions  and  forming  a  funeral 
chamber  of  variable  size;  and  finally,  some  round 
tombs  which  are  called  clwuclieis.  The  tumuli 
are  particularly  numerous  in  Oran  and  in  the 
Hodna,  the  dolmens  on  the  contrary,  in  the  east 
(ancient  Numidia)  ;  they  are  unknown  in  the 
Sahara.  Nevertheless,  one  can  conclude  nothing 
from  the  presence  of  these  monuments  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  populations,  one  cannot  even  date 
them.  It  is  certain  only  that  some  of  them  are 
relatively  recent,  and  that  their  structure  was 
maintained  in  Africa  longer  than  the  others." — 
Tr.  from  V.  Piquet,  Les  civilisations  de  I'Ajrique 
du  nord,  pp.  1-6. — "The  ancient  world  had  really 


87 


AFRICA 


Modern  Peoples 


AFRICA 


very  little  knowledge  of  the  Dark  Continent. 
These  facts  about  Africa  they  did  know,  however; 
they  had  an  almost  correct  idea  of  the  bulk  of 
Africa,  they  knew  lower  and  middle  Egypt,  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  shores,  Cyrenaica  to 
Cape  Jubi,  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean 
to  Mozambique.  But  beyond  some  military  pene- 
tration of  the  desert  and  the  marshes  of  the  Nile, 
they  were  never  in  direct  touch  with  the  black 
races  properly  speaking.  However,  the  Sahara 
offers  only  a  slight  obstacle  to  relations  between 
the  peoples  who  live  on  its  borders.  The  entire 
Sudan  was  thus  open  to  the  penetration,  although 
indirect,  of  the  inventions  and  ideas  inherited  by 
the  Ethiopians  through  their  contacts  with  the 
Egyptians." — Tr.  from  O.  Meynier,  L'Afrique 
noire,  p.  69. — See  also  Mythology:  African  myth- 
ology. 

Modern  peoples. — "Africa  contains  infinitely 
diversified  populations  which  could  not  be  assimi- 
lated, less  because  of  different  origin  than  because 
of  dissimilarity  of  social  life  and  customs.  Inter- 
breeding is  not  rare,  however,  and  one  can  even 
foresee  in  the  distant  future  the  formation  of  a 
purely  African  race,  having  well  defined  charac- 
teristics, some  of  which  one  can  almost  predict 
even  now.  But  for  the  present  it  is  still  easy  to 
distinguish  them  from  one  another  and  to  make 
a  very  clear  classification.  According  to  a  divi- 
sion generally  admitted  (and  one  which  does  not 
include  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Nile,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians),  the 
people  of  Africa  may  be  divided  into  six  great 
classes:  (i)  The  Berbers,  (2)  Arabs,  (3)  Fulas, 
(4)  Negroes,  properly  speaking,  (5)  Hottentots 
and  Bushmen,  and   (6)    Europeans. 

"Scientific  research  up  to  our  day  has  not  been 
able  to  establish  exactly  whether  the  Berbers  were 
aboriginal  inhabitants  or  whether  the  source  of 
their  migration  might  not  be  referred  to  one  of 
those  historic  movements  which,  like  the  exodus  of 
the  famous  Hyksos  (18th  century  B.  C.)  would 
have  led  them  from  the  centre  of  Asia  to  the 
north  of  .\frica,  passing  through  Egypt.  The 
Berbers  inhabit  the  largest  part  of  the  regions 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  west  of  Egypt. 
In  the  desert  they  form  the  principal  element  of  a 
rather  thin  but  very  virile  population.  Finally 
they  meet  and  combine  with  the  black  element 
on  the  southern  border  of  the  Sahara,  from  .Abys- 
sinia to  Senegal.  Individuals  of  pure  Berber  types 
are  quite  exceptional.  In  the  north  of  the  conti- 
nent they  were  subjected  to  the  influence  of  all 
the  invasions  that  succeeded  one  another  in  that 
region,  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Van- 
dals have  left  on  the  Berbers  visible  traces  of 
their  blood.  But  the  deepest  influence  has  been 
exercised  by  the  Arabs,  who  gave  a  great  part  of 
their  religion,  their  art,  and  in  many  cases,  their 
language  itself  to  the  Berbers  The  Moorish 
tribes  of  the  desert,  above  all  the  Tuaregs,  seem, 
as  far  as  one  can  tell,  to  have  better  preserved 
their  individuality.  The  very  constitution  of  a 
nomad  tribe,  the  spirit  of  independence  which 
animates  it  seem,  in  fact,  to  have  enabled  the 
Berbers  to  protect  themselves  from  foreign  in- 
fluences more  easily  than  the  non-migratory  or- 
ganizations of  the  north  However,  the  Arabs 
were  still  able  to  establish  their  influence,  to  give 
their  language  as  well  as  their  religion  to  most  of 
the  Moorish  tribes  of  the  west.  In  the  south  of 
the  Sahara,  fre(|uent  inter-breeding  with  the  black 
race  occurred.  Without  counting  the  .  .  .  rather 
more  mongrel  types,  combinations  of  Moors, 
Tuaregs  and  negroes,  there  are  peoples  either 
black  or  red,  who   by  their  type,  sometimes  even 


by  their  name  (Berberi,  Berabras,  etc.),  have  very 
probably  a  Berber  origin. 

"There  is  much  more  knowledge  on  the  origin 
of  the  Arabs  than  on  that  of  the  Berbers.  His- 
tory and  tradition  show  the  Arabs,  even  before 
the  Hegira,  crossing  the  same  waters  their  sail- 
ing vessels  travel  over  in  our  day,  and  coming  to 
establish  flourishing  sultanates  on  the  coast  of 
Zanzibar  and  of  Mozambique.  .After  the  death  of 
Mohammed,  the  Arabs,  fired  with  the  enthusiasm 
of  their  faith,  made  a  definite  invasion  of  Africa. 
At  two  different  resumptions  of  the  attack  their 
warlike  tribes,  issuing  from  Egypt,  where  one  of 
their  most  powerful  empires  was  established, 
spilled  upon  the  African  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. .  .  .  The  number  of  the  conquerors  was 
relatively  small,  nevertheless  the  influence  that 
they  exercised  upon  the  original  inhabitants  was 
considerable.  The  Berbers  borrowed  their  civiliza- 
tion, their  art,  their  religion.  Many  of  them  even 
renounced  their  own  language  for  that  of  their 
conquerors,  and  even  today  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish between  pure  Arabs  and  Arabic  Berbers, 
as  Moslems  everywhere  have  a  strong  tendency 
to  claim  direct  descent  from  the  prophet  or  his 
family.  The  .Arabs  have  found,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  another  route  for  their  migrations. 
Some  of  their  tribes  ascended  to  the  sources  of 
the  Nile  planting  their  colonies  on  its  banks ; 
meeting  near  the  great  lakes  the  tribes  from  the 
littoral  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Others  finally  pene- 
trated the  west,  following  the  course  of  the  Bahr- 
el-Ghazal  toward  the  Ouadai  and  the  Bagirmi. 
These  last  were  crossed  like  the  Berbers  with  the 
original  black  population  and  of  this  mixture  of 
blood  resulted  the  Chuas,  who  are  found  in  great 
numbers  in  Central  Africa,  showing  by  more  deli- 
cate features  and  slightly  corrupted  language  their 
Semitic  origin. 

"Of  all  the  races  of  Africa,  the  Fulas  have  the 
most  uncertain  and  most  controverted  derivation. 
The  physical  type,  characterized  by  graceful  struc- 
ture and  fine  features,  yellow  or  red  skin,  a  lan- 
guage altogether  different  and  admirably  homoge- 
neous wherever  spoken — all  these  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  scholars.  .  .  .  [There  are  several  ex- 
[jlanations  of  their  origin,  but  none  of  them  is 
verifiable.]  The  Fulas  are  found  in  all  Sudan 
from  rthe]  Senegal  to  the  Ouadai.  They  are,  in 
general,  shepherds  with  little  settlements  here  and 
there.  One  finds  some  of  them  interested  in  let- 
ters, some  even  scholars.  They  have  produced, 
particularly  in  the  last  century,  a  whole  line  of 
distinguished  statesmen  and  warriors.  A  remark- 
able faculty  for  adapting  themselves  as  easily  as 
possible  to  whatever  conditions  of  climate,  food, 
and  surroundings  their  travels  and  wars  might 
expose  them  to,  has  made  the  Fulas  an  object  of 
wonder.  They  frequently  allied  themselves  with 
the  original  black  population ;  the  results  of  these 
crosses  have  been  new  races  which  have  all  played 
an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Africa,  and 
which  have  preserved,  for  the  most  part,  the  lan- 
guage and  pastoral  habits  of  the  mother  race. 

"Considerations  mainly  of  a  philological  nature 
have  induced  geographers  to  refer  back  the  whole 
of  the  black  population  to  a  single  type,  which 
would  be  the  Banlii  race.  Unquestionably  the 
pure  negroes  of  the  Sudan,  those  of  the  equatorial 
regions,  and  of  eastern  and  southern  Africa,  pre- 
sent among  themselves  some  remarkable  likenesses 
in  the  matter  of  physique,  and  even  of  character, 
institutions,  customs  and  language.  .  .  .  But  the 
black  race  has  not  everywhere  remained  pure.  In 
particular  on  the  southern  border  of  the  desert 
(Sahara],    Berbers,   Arabs   and    Fulas   are    crossed 


88 


AFRICA 


Ancient   Civilization 


AFRICA 


with  them.  Because  ot  a  great  power  of  absorp- 
tion due  to  superior  numbers,  the  negro  has  seemed 
sometimes  to  efface  the  principal  traits  of  the  other 
elements  of  the  crossing.  In  reality,  the  superior 
races  have  left  their  mark.  Not  only  has  the 
physical  type  been  modified,  but  their  ciualities 
of  intelligence  and  of  character  have  been  influ- 
enced by  these  accumulated  inheritances.  .  .  .  The 
primitive  negro  race  lives,  however,  in  many  places. 
The  equatorial  forests  conceal  in  their  depths  some 
miserable  beings  who,  without  material  or  moral 
needs,  live  in  a  state  of  complete  brutality.  But 
even  numerically  they  form  the  exception  and 
French  Senegalese  aborigines  speak  of  them  con- 
temptuously as  'savages.'  The  negroes  are  uni- 
formly settled  and  mostly  agricultural.  There- 
fore they  are  only  met  with  in  the  desert  oases. 
Outside  of  the  desert,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tan- 
giers,  especially,  they  are  found  up  to  the  present 
only  in  a  state  of  slavery.  When  the  Europeans, 
after  having  rounded  the  coast  of  Africa,  came 
to  establish  colonies  in  Southern  Africa,  they 
found  there,  settled  alongside  of  the  blacks,  Kafirs 
and  Zulus,  populations  of  a  lighter  color,  yellow 
or  brown,  of  gentle  and  peaceable  customs,  cul- 
tivating the  land  and  raising  flocks.  They  were 
the  HolteiUols.  Departing  soon  to  explore  new 
lands  or  fleeing  in  their  ox-wagons  before  the  at- 
tacks of  the  English,  the  descendants  of  the  Dutch 
and  French  colonists,  the  Boers,  advanced  fur- 
ther north  where  they  met  tribes  of  hunters, 
Bushmen,  living  in  the  great  plateaus  of  the  north 
and  the  extended  deserts  of  Kalahari,  on  the  un- 
certain products  of  the  chase — antelopes,  giraffes 
and  ostriches.  Today  it  is  believed  that  the  Hot- 
tentots and  Bushmen  belong  to  a  common  family, 
and  a  Malay-Polynesian  origin  is  attributed  to 
them.  To  speak  truly,  this  hypothesis  rests  on 
very  weak  proofs,  and  the  fact,  reported  by  Prc- 
ville,  that  the  Hottentots  claim  to  have  descended 
from  individuals  who  had  come  from  the  East  by 
the  sea,  in  'great  baskets,'  constitutes  but  a  feeble 
argument  in  its  favor." — Tr.  from  O.  Meynier, 
L'Ajrique  noire,  pp.  3q-4S. — Extensive  European 
settlements  are  in  the  main  confined  to  Algeria 
and  South  Africa,  with  beginnings  in  Brit- 
ish East  Africa.  In  most  parts  of  the  continent, 
officials  and  traders  form  practically  the  only 
European  element. — See   also  Abyssinia. 

ANCIENT    AND    MEDIEVAL 
CIVILIZATION 

Development  of  Egyptian  civilization. — "In 
Africa,  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  was  born  and 
developed  the  most  ancient  civili/.ation  of  the  west- 
ern world.  The  Egyptians,  who  may  have  been 
of  African  origin,  were  established  at  first  in  the 
delta  of  the  river,  but  moved  later  towards  its 
source,  obeying  the  law  imposed  by  nature  on  all 
the  masters  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Nile. 
Under  the  Memphite  emperors,  Egyptian  power 
grew  constantly  and  the  city  of  Elephantine,  on 
the  island  of  the  same  name,  became  the  head- 
quarters of  trade  with  the  Sudan.  The  Nubian 
tribes  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Pharaoh: 
visited  by  official  missions  in  the  time  of  Papi  I, 
they  were  colonized,  and  later  under  the  first 
Theban  kings  assimilated  by  the  rest  of  Egypt. 
The  rapids  of  Wadi  Haifa  formed  henceforth  the 
frontier  of  the  empire.  Commercial  expeditions 
attacked  Barbary  and  under  the  eighteenth  The- 
ban dynasty,  Ethiopia  was  conquered  to  Egyptian 
customs.  In  the  fourteenth  century  B.  C,  Egypt 
extended  her  dominion  south  of  the  conjunction 
of   the  White  Nile   and   the   Blue   Nile,   and   over 


the  whole  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  great  queen 
Hatsheput  even  sent  a  commercial  expedition  to 
obtain  incense  in  the  fabulous  country  of  Pouanit 
(probably  the  coast  of  SomaLiland).  Egyptian 
dominion  was  not  to  progress  any  further.  The 
old  empire  exhausted  itself  in  opposing  attacks 
from  Asia.  Egypt  was  conquered  first  by  the 
Assyrians,  then  by  the  Persians.  She  sent  fewer 
vessels  to  the  islands  of  the  /Egean  Sea,  but  re- 
ceived at  her  ports  those  of  the  Phoenicians  and 
the  Greeks.  The  Greeks  established  themselves 
in  the  cities  of  the  Delta.  Certain  of  the  cities, 
Miletus  in  particular,  founded  sizable  colonies 
there.  In  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  Greek  in- 
fantry fought  on  the  side  of  Psammetichus  I  for 
the  liberty  of  Egypt,  and  from  that  time  on  the 
merchants  from  the  North  exercised  a  considerable 
growing  influence  on  the  ancient  empire  of  the 
Pharaohs  without  ever  being  either  loved  or  un- 
derstood. They  respected,  however,  the  glory  of 
her  past,  attested  by  her  magnificent  monuments, 
and  the  mysterious  science  of  her  priests.  Alex- 
ander never  took  the  trouble  to  conquer  P^gypt 
and  make  her  adore  him.  As  the  situations  of 
Thebes,  Sais,  and  Memphis  did  not  satisfy  actual 
commercial  needs,  he  established,  opposite  the 
Island  of  Pharos,  at  the  town  of  Rakottis,  a  city 
to  which  he  gave  his  name  (332  B  C).  At  the 
death  of  the  conqueror,  Egypt,  with  Lybia  and 
Arabia,  was  willed  to  Ptolemy  Soter.  This  was  a 
period  of  remarkable  prosperity.  'Alexander  was 
the  centre  of  the  world's  commerce  and  Egyptian 
vessels  went  from  the  coasts  of  India  and  of 
Ethiopia  to  Italy  and  Spain  and  into  the  sea.'  " — 
Tr.  from  R.  Ronze,  La  question  d'Afrique. — See 
also  Carthage;  Egypt;  Libyans;  Numidians, 

Carthaginian  empire. — Since  about  813  B.C. 
another  empire  had  grown  up  on  the  coast  of 
Africa.  The  great  Phoenician  colony  of  Car- 
thage had  established  its  authority  over  a  great 
territory,  occupying  part  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 
And,  in  her  turn,  she  had  established  her  colonics 
on  the  edge  of  the  Mediterranean.  Overcoming 
the  distance  which  separated  her  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, she  had  sent  her  vessels  to  trade  with  the 
Canaries  and  the  coast  of  Morocco.  The  pros- 
perity of  African  Carthage,  her  maritime  triumph 
and  her  conquests  which  led  her  to  the  gates  of 
Rome  caused  her  downfall.  There  was  no  room 
in  the  ancient  world  for  two  powerful  cities." — 
Tr.  from  R.  Ronze,  La  question  d'Afrique. — See 
also  Carthage, 

Carthage  after  Justinian's  conquest.  See 
Carthage:    534-558. 

Roman  occupation. — "The  feeling  in  Rome  that 
Carthage  had  to  be  destroyed  led  in  146  B.  C.  to 
the  capture  and  destruction  of  the  great  Punic 
city   by   Scipio.     The   Carthaginian   territory   was 

reduced  to  a  Roman   province Beyond  that, 

extended  the  territories  of  Mauretania  and  Nu- 
midia,  which  Scipio  was  careful  to  separate  from 
the  province  directly  under  the  supervision  of 
Rome.  After  the  battle  of  Thapsus  (46  B.  C), 
Cjesar  extended  the  limits  of  Roman  Africa  by 
including  Numidia.  ...  In  the  year  30  B.  C.  at 
the  death  of  Cleopatra,  the  race  of  Lagides  being 
extinct,  Egypt  was  reduced  to  the  position  of  a 
province.  [Sec  also  Egypt:  30  B.  C.l.  Finally 
Mauretania,  given  by  Augustus  to  Juba  11,  was 
retaken  in  40  A.  D.  by  Caligula  from  the  son  of 
that  prince  and  incorporated  in  the  Empire.  Latin 
civilisation  penetrated  largely  into  the  Roman 
provinces  of  Africa:  Egypt,  Cyrenaica,  Numidia 
and  Mauretania,  that  is  to  say  in  all  of  northern 
Africa  save  in  Morocco,  where  it  was  halted  by 
the  desert  of  Malva.     The  Arabs  themselves  were 


89 


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AFRICA 


struck  by  the  size  and  the  number  of  the  ruins, 
and  they  said  when  showing  them  to  those  they 
called  the  Rourais  (from  Rome,  properly  Roman- 
Arab  name  for  Christian)  'Vour  ancestors  be- 
lieved then  that  they  would  never  die!'  The  role 
that  Roman  Africa  played  in  the  Empire  was 
great.  She  was  not  only  Italy's  granary,  but  she 
also  furnished  the  Empire  with  raw  army  recruits 
as  well  as  with  the  emperors:  Septimus-Severus, 
Albinus,  and  Macrinus.  From  Hadrumetum 
came  the  great  jurist  Salvus  Julianus  who  under 
Hadrian  revised  the  law  of  the  provinces ;  and 
the  church  of  Africa  can  pride  itself  on  the  great 
names  of  Tertullian,  Minutius  Felix,  Saint  Cyprian, 
Arnobus,  Finnianus,  Lactantius  and  Saint  Augus- 
tine. 'The  Roman  Empire  fell  in  420  under  the 
attack  of  the  X'andals.  During  a  century  from 
42g  to  520,  the  barbarian  vandal  submerged  Af- 
rica. Reconquered  by  Belisarius  and  the  patriarch 
Solomon,  'from  TripoUtania  to  the  confines  of 
CcBsarian  Mauretania,  from  the  sea  to  the  region 
of  the  lakes  of  Algeria  and  from  Tunis  to  the 
mountains  of  Aurcs  and  the  plateaux  of  Hodna, 
the  ancient  province  of  Africa  recognised  (in  5,50) 
the  dominion  of  the  very  pious  emperor  Jus- 
tinian.'"— Tr. '  from  R.  Ronze,  La  question 
d'Ajrique. — See  also  Carthage;   Founding  of. 

"Inscriptions  innumerable  bear  ample  testimony 
to  the  condition  of  the  .\frican  population  at  this 
period,  and  monumental  remains,  which  still  greet 
the  traveller  in  some  of  the  less  trodden  parts  of 
this  fair  land,  bear  ample  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  large  communities  enjoying  the  full  bene- 
fits of  civilised  life.  If  we  turn  to  inscriptions 
relating  to  municipal  life,  we  find  that  obedience 
to  ruling  authority  and  loyalty  to  the  Emperor 
are  seldom  wanting.  The  discipline  which  was 
maintained  in  Rome  till  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire  was  equally  potent  in  the  provinces.  We 
find  the  same  degrees  of  magistracy,  the  same 
laws  so  adjusted  as  not  to  press  too  heavily  on 
the  old-world  traditions  of  native  races,  the  same 
gods  and  ranks  of  priesthood,  and  the  same  public- 
minded  spirit  which  prompted  Roman  citizens  in 
all  parts  of  the  Empire  to  ennoble  the  country  of 
their  adoption  by  works  of  munificence  or  general 
utility.  .  .  . 

"Allusion  has  been  made  to  Carthage  and  Cirta 
as  the  great  centres  of  scholarship,  proving  as  at- 
tractive to  students  in  literature  and  philosophy 
as  the  university  towns  of  our  own  day  in  Great 
Britain  or  other  European  countries.  A  long  roll 
of  names,  mostly  bearing  the  stamp  of  Italian 
origin,  has  been  transmitted  to  us  by  various  con- 
temporary writers.  Some  of  these  distinguished 
African  scholars  were  descendants  of  settlers  in 
the  early  days  of  colonisation,  and  may  fairly  lay 
claim  to  be  classed  as  Africans;  while  others  were 
of  a  rambling  order,  passing  from  Athens  or 
Corinth,  Alexandria  or  Rome,  to  take  part  in  some 
educational  movement,  or  to  exhibit  their  skill  in 
some  school  of  rhetoric  or  philosophy.  The  inti- 
mate commercial  relations  between  Carthaginians 
and  Greeks,  prior  to  the  Roman  occupation,  tended 
to  the  spread  of  Hellenism  in  the  coast  tou'ns  of 
North  Africa ;  while  the  establishment  of  Greek 
merchants  in  the  chief  cities  of  Numidia  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  general  use  of  Greek  among  the 
better  educated  classes.  ...  At  a  still  later  period, 
under  the  .Antonines,  Greek  was  the  accepted  lan- 
guage of  the  coast  towns.  Latin  had  made  little 
progress,  and  the  Punic  tongue  largely  prevailed 
among  the  peasantry  and  labouring  classes.  .  .  . 
"The  stamp  of  originality  impressed  upon  so 
many  literary  creations  in  North  Africa  is  con- 
spicuous by  its  absence  in  all  that  relates  to  the 


artistic  products  of  the  country.  .  .  .  The  reason 
for  this  absence  of  artistic  proclivities  is  not  far 
to  seek.  The  line  arts  never  flourished  at  Car- 
thage, and  certainly  every  exploration,  either  on 
the  site  of  the  city  itself  or  the  numerous  emporia 
on  the  coast,  favours  this  statement.  As  a  tributary 
of  Egypt  for  a  long  period  the  Carthaginians,  in 
spite  of  their  wealth  and  power,  were  satisfied 
with  borrowing  from  their  master  the  skilled  prod- 
ucts of  a  neighbouring  country.  And  in  later 
years,  when  Carthage  had  to  contend  with  Greeks 
in  the  fair  island  of  Sicily,  resplendent  with 
temples  and  palaces,  embellished  with  sculpture  of 
the  best .  period  of  Greek  art,  and  rich  in  works 
of  jewellery  and  specimens  of  the  plastic  art, 
Hellenism  exercised  an  irresistible  attraction,  tes- 
tified in  a  measure  by  Carthaginian  coins  which 
have  been  transmitted  to  us  almost  as  perfect  as 
on  the  day  when  they  were  minted.  "These  two 
consecutive  influences,  Egyptian  and  Greek,  have 
left  their  mark  on  the  numerous  remains  which 
may  still  be  studied  in  the  galleries  of  the  Louvre 
or  in  the  museum  on  Carthage  hill,  where  deco- 
rative forms  associated  with  Egyptian  and  Hel- 
lenic art  may  be  seen  side  by  side.  .  .  . 

"The  difficulties  which  beset  the  Romans  in  their 
career  of  conquest,  at  the  close  of  the  second 
Punic  war,  arose  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
general  configuration  of  the  country,  which  seemed 
fatal  also  to  the  native  races  in  their  attempts  to 
expel  the  invader.  The  three  zones  of  the  country, 
separated  by  high  mountains,  never  impassable, 
but  presenting  natural  difficulties  in  the  transport 
of  large  bodies  of  disciplined  troops,  may  be  said 
to  represent  three  distinct  regions.  On  the  north 
was  the  broad  stretch  of  sea — the  Mare  saevum 
which,  for  so  many  generations,  proved  an  in- 
superable barrier  to  Roman  advancement,  and  on 
the  south  the  sea  of  sand — the  mysterious  desert 
stretching  across  the  equator,  and  unfit  for  habi- 
tation by  European  races.  To  these  peculiar  fea- 
tures of  North  Africa  may  be  attributed  the  par- 
tial success  which  attended  the  rising  of  frontier 
and  desert  tribes  at  all  periods  of  the  Roman 
occupation,  fully  sufficient  to  account  for  diffi- 
culties experienced  by  the  Roman  legions  in  sup- 
pressing a  long  series  of  tribal  revolts.  Till  the 
time  of  Trajan,  colonisation  by  the  Latin  race 
was  confined  mostly  to  the  towns  already  peopled 
by  Carthaginians  or  the  descendants  of  old  Phoe- 
nician traders.  The  accession  of  this  princely 
ruler  marks  a  starting-point  in  the  history  of 
Roman  .Africa.  Under  the  twelve  Caesars  prog- 
ress had  been  checked  by  the  almost  insuperable 
difficulties  attending  the  invasion  of  an  unknown 
country,  peopled  by  races  whose  habits  of  life 
and  methods  of  warfare  had  nothing  in  common 
with  the  more  advanced  civilisation  of  the  people 
of  Italy,  and  the  islands  under  Roman  domina- 
tion. Trajan  seems  to  have  been  born  at  the 
right  time.  His  noble  bearing  and  distinguished 
generalship,  coupled  with  administrative  abilities 
of  a  high  order,  roused  the  enthusiasm  of  his  sub- 
jects to  a  degree  unknown  since  the  days  of 
.Augustus.  The  African  provinces  reaped  a  full 
share  of  benefits  from  the  career  of  such  a  ruler. 
Colonisation  was  attended  with  marked  success. 
Cities  and  towns  sprang  up  at  the  Emperor's  bid- 
ding. Native  tribesmen  found  themselves  un- 
molested, their  forms  of  religion  and  habits  of 
life  undisturbed,  and  encouragement  given  to  a 
free  interchange  of  commercial  products.  Under 
the  Antonincs  the  good  work  still  progressing,  was 
checked  for  a  time  under  the  strong  hand  of 
Septimius  Severus. 
"It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  from  the  latest  Latin 


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AFRICA 


authors,  or  from  Byzantine  and  Arab  writers, 
whether  the  boundaries  of  Roman  administration 
were  definitely  tixea,  and  whether  the  subjugation 
of  the  country  was  ever  regarded  as  complete. 
Fortunately,  archaeology  comes  to  our  aid.  .  .  . 
The  remains  of  a  clearly  defined  line  of  fortresses 
and  military  posts  stretching  across  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  Tell,  and  along  the  desert  frontier 
from  Cyrene  to  the  confines  of  Western  Maure- 
tania,  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  nature  of  the 
defensive  measures  adopted  by  the  Romans  against 
invasion  from  the  west  and  south,  and  to  a  feel- 
ing of  insecurity  in  the  presence  of  native  races  so 
little  desirous  of  cultivating  more  civilised  ways 
of  life.  Till  the  close  of  the  Empire  these  fron- 
tier strongholds  were  mostly  occupied  by  veterans, 
whose  services  to  the  State  in  limes  of  raid  or  in- 
surrection are  recorded  in  several  inscriptions  still 
extant.  From  the  time,  of  their  lirst  encounter 
with  the  Berbers  of  the  hill  country  or  the  rude 
warriors  from  the  desert,  the  Romans  must  have 
recognised  the  almost  insuperable  difficulties  in 
waging  irregular  warfare  with  unorganised  tribes, 
having  no  seat  of  government  and  no  settled  habi- 
tations— here  to-day  and  gone  to-morrow,  the  hills- 
man  secure  in  some  inaccessible  mountain  retreat, 
the  man  of  the  desert  lost  to  sight  in  a  whirlwind 
of  sand  as  he  scampered  across  his  trackless  do- 
main. This  sense  of  insecurity  seems  to  have 
been  never  absent  from  the  Roman  mind,  and 
was  particularly  apparent  at  a  late  period  of  the 
Empire,  when  Diocletian  attached  the  province  of 
Muritania  Tingitana  to  the  diocese  of  Spain,  as 
a  means  of  checking  the  piratical  raids  of  Moorish 
corsairs  on  both  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  It 
was  also  indicated  by  the  unusual  authority  given 
to  the  commander  of  the  legion  in  Africa,  who, 
from  the  time  of  Caligula,  received  his  orders  di- 
rect from  the  Emperor,  and  exercised  more  power 
than  the  governor  of  the  province.  Exceptional 
circumstances  demanded  exceptional  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, and  the  defensive  measures  found  neces- 
sary for  the  protection  of  large  communities  en- 
joying all  the  privileges  of  civilised  life  redound 
to  the  credit  of  the  Roman  world;  yet,  looking 
back  at  the  six  centuries  of  work  accomplished  by 
the  Romans  in  their  attempt  to  make  North 
Africa  a  prolongation  of  Italy,  one  is  forced  to 
admit  that  the  subjugation  of  the  country  was 
never  complete,  and  that  the  native  races  were 
never  conquered 

"The  climatic  condition  and  the  general  aspect. 
of  the  country  in  the  early  days  of  Roman  occu- 
pation were  much  as  they  are  in  our  own  time, 
except,  perhaps,  on  the  southern  frontiers  over- 
looking the  great  desert.  But  with  the  develop- 
ment of  Roman  civilisation  a  new  order  of  things 
changed  the  face  of  the  land.  Recognising  the 
value  of  natural  resources,  and  bending  the  ele- 
ments to  his  indomitable  will  in  the  service  of 
mankind,  the  Roman  colonist  controlled  the  water- 
courses, constructed  gigantic  reservoirs  to  meet 
the  necessities  of  a  thirsty  soil,  encouraged  for- 
estry, and  converted  a  region  of  desolation  into 
a  garden  of  cultivation.  And  this  is  amply  borne 
out  in  the  statements  of  Arab  authors  of  the 
seventh  century,  who  are  profuse  in  their  praise 
of  the  fair  land  which  had  fallen  into  their  hands. 
From  Carthage  to  Tangier,  stretching  a  thousand 
miles  from  east  to  west,  the  whole  country  was 
clothed  with  timber,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
south,  olive  woods  were  so  dense  that  you  could 
travel  from  village  to  village  under  a  roof  of 
foliage.  It  may  be  asserted,  with  an  equal  show 
of  truth,  that  the  condition  of  North  Africa  as  a 
colony  in  the  present  day,  and  in  full  recognition 


of  the  enlightened  policy  of  the  French,  as  masters 
of  the  larger  portion,  bears  a  strong  resemblance 
to  that  which  prevailed  under  the  broad  but 
sterner  rule  of  the  Roman  Emperors.  We  hear 
of  the  same  occasional  disturbances  on  the  fron- 
tiers, the  same  forced  submission  of  the  hill  tribes, 
the  same  difficulties  in  guarding  the  outposts  from 
the  dangers  of  tribal  revolt,  and  the  same  racial 
antagonism  to  the  methods  and  habits  of  civilisa- 
tion. The  Libyan  gave  place  to  the  Phoenician  as 
a  commercial  necessity,  and  surrendered  the  com- 
mand of  the  coast  without  appeal  to  arms  or  the 
sacrifice  of  human  life.  The  Carthaginian,  in  his 
turn,  converted  the  factories  and  storehouses  of 
his  ancestors  into  temples  and  palaces,  and  a  coun- 
try of  traders  became  the  most  formidable  nation 
of  the  old  world." — A.  Graham,  Roman  Africa, 
pp.  207-307. 

Arab  occupation. — Relations  with  Europe. — 
Effects  of  Arab  influence. — "During  the  great 
offensive  movement  of  Islam  at  the  beginning  of 
the  7th  century,  the  Arabs  penetrated  into  Egypt 
(638)  ;  and  she  succumbed  in  641.  A  first  assault 
upon  the  Byzantine  province  permitted  the  Mus- 
sulman cavalry  to  ravage  Byzacene  after  having 
conquered  and  killed  the  patriarch  Gregory,  who 
had  himself  proclaimed  emperor  of  Carthage  be- 
fore he  fled  from  the  invaders  About  665,  the 
conquest  was  repeated.  A  great  battle  before 
Tiaret  gave  the  Arabs  the  chance  to  break  the 
resistance  of  the  Berbers,  and  to  penetrate  to  the 
Atlantic  Carthage,  taken  for  the  first  time  in 
bpS;  delivered  in  6g7  by  the  patriarch  John,  was 
lost  forever  in  6q8.  In  7oq  Count  Julian  handed 
over  Septem  Fratrcs  (Ccuta),  the  last  Byzantine 
citadel,  to  the  Arabs.  [See  also  Caliphate:  647- 
709.]  The  Arabs  did  not  stop  at  the  sea.  Under 
.  .  .  Barbar  Tarik,  lieutenant  to  ,  Mussa-ben- 
Noceir,  they  crossed  over  near  the  place  where  Gib- 
raltar stancis  (Djcbel  Tarik)  and  conquered  Spain 
In  718  they  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  penetrated 
into  Gaul.  The  victory  of  Charles  Martel  at  Poi- 
tiers (732)  stopped  their  progress.  They  returned 
over  the  Pyrenees,  but  kept  Spain.  Separated 
from  Europe,  Mohammedan  Spain  went  on  re- 
ceiving African  rulers  at  different  intervals  dur- 
ing four  centuries.  While  the  Christian  redemp- 
tion (reconquicta)  was  being  carried  out,  the 
great  sovereigns  ot  Morocco  were  often  called  to 
the  aid  of  the  Spanish  Mohammedans  attacked  by 
the  infidels,  Vousscf-bcn-Tachfin,  founder  of  the 
d\nasty  of  the  .Mmohadcs,  defeated  Alphonse  VI, 
king  of  Castille  and  Leon  at  Zailarca  in  1086  and 
subdued  Spain  .Abd-el-Moumen  (1130-1163) 
reigned  over  southern  Spain  and  over  all  of  North 
.Africa  from  Tangiers  to  Barka.  He  drove  from 
Africa  those  Sicilian  Normans  who  under  the 
leadership  of  Roger  II,  had  from  1143  to  1148 
conquered  all  the  country  which  extends  from 
Tripoli  to  the  neighborhood  of  Tunis  and  from  the 
sea  to  Kairwan  (1160).  His  grandson,  Yacoub- 
el-Mansour  (1184-1108)  took  Madrid.  But  in  the 
13th  century,  the  decadence  began.  The  Almohad 
Empire  fell  and  from  its  ruins  the  three  kingdoms 
of  Fez,  of  TIemcen  and  of  Tunis,  were  born.  The 
African  offensive  on  Europe  was  stopped,  and 
during  nearly  a  century,  friendly  relations  were 
established  between  the  commercial  towns  of  south- 
ern France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Northern  Africa. 
Even  in  the  time  of  the  Almohades,  Marseilles, 
Pisa,  and  Genoa  had  signed  treaties  of  commerce 
by  which,  by  paying  certain  customs  duties 
(about  lo'/'^),  the  Christians  could  unload  their 
merchandise  in  certain  ports  where  a  strip  of 
land  outside  the  walls  was  conceded  to  them,  a 
strip  known  to  them  as  the  factory  on  which  they 


91 


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European    Occupation 


AFRICA 


could  build  their  warehouses  and  a  chapel  near 
which  they  buried  their  dead.  From  the  12  th  to 
the  14th  centuries,  Venice,  Florence,  Majorca  and 
Barcelona  came  to  the  same  arrangements  with 
the  three  old  commercial  cities.  At  the  foot  of 
the  eastern  Mediterranean,  Alexandria  in  Egypt 
was  then,  as  in  ancient  times,  a  great  port,  a  link 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  Whatever  hor- 
ror may  have  been  inspired  by  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  the  Christians  lived  in  peace  with  him 
ever  since  they  had  felt  the  power  of  his  arms  in 
the  Holy  Land,  and  since  Louis  IX,  after  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  Mansural  (February,  1250; 
had  had  to  pay  him  ransom.  .  .  .  The  other  pow- 
ers continued  their  peaceful  commerce  with 
Africa.  But  they  were  not  slow  to  realize  the 
effect  of  the  decadence  of  the  empires  of  Northern 
Africa.  As  the  kings  were  in  no  position  to  police 
the  seas,  the  Barbary  pirates  began  their  fruitful 
operations,  and  soon  they  were  dreaded  by  all 
sailors.  Captive  Christians  could  be  found  in 
great  numbers  in  all  the  cities.  .  .  .  The  coasts  of 
North  Africa  had  then  not  ceased  to  be  frequented 
by  Europeans  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Intercourse 
between  Mohammedan  rulers  of  Africa  and  Euro- 
pean kings  had  been  frequent,  often  warlike,  but 
now  and  then  friendly.  But  although  North 
Africa  was  rather  well  known,  as  maps  would 
testify,  on  the  other  hand  Europe  was  ignorant  of 
almost  all  of  dark  Africa  at  least  until  the  end  of 
the  ijth  century." — Ibid.,  pp.  307-308. — "I^et  us 
recapitulate  .  .  .  the  exposition  ...  of  the  Ara- 
bian attempts  at  colonization  in  black  Africa. 
We  have  seen,  on  one  hand,  real  colonies,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  founded  by  organized 
states,  Morocco  or  .Arabia,  for  the  well  determined 
purpose  of  exploiting  the  gold  of  the  Niger,  or 
the  ivory  of  eastern  Africa.  For  a  certain  time, 
these  colonies  enjoyed  a  certain  prosperity.  As 
long  as  the  relations  with  the  central  government 
limited  the  authority  of  the  governors  and  the 
first  colonists  were  fortified  by  the  arrival  of  new 
blood,  the  enterprise  was,  although  with  difficulty, 
kept  up.  But,  as  soon  as  the  colonies  gained  their 
independence  through  the  decadence  of  the  mother 
country,  when  the  merchants  and  soldiers  who 
were  the  support  of  the  administration  no  longer 
felt  any  check  upon  their  cupidity  or  their  thirst 
for  blood,  the  whole  edifice  of  civilization  was 
upset.  Social  disorganization  followed  political 
anarchy.  The  civilization  of  the  day  before  pre- 
ceded a  return  to  barbarism.  The  dominant  race 
itself  had  been  slowly  but  surely  absorbed  by  the 
greater  virility  and  numbers  of  the  aborigines; 
who  also,  in  spite  of  the  general  work  of  destruc- 
tion resulting  from  these  crises,  were  unable  to 
return  to  their  former  depths  of  barbarity.  Else- 
where, .Arab  tribes,  or  at  least  tribes  that  had  been 
arabized  (Ouled-Sliman),  nomads  of  the  western 
Sahara,  .^rabs  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  had  tried 
to  establish  their  authority  over  the  settled  people 
who  were  their  neiehbors.  But,  lacking  any  strong 
base  of  operations,  and  induced  by  thqir  spirit  of 
independence  to  oppose  any  degree  of  centraliza- 
tion, their  work,  based  on  force,  could  lead  only 
to  destruction  and  anarchy  Before  centralized 
states  (Bornu,  Bagirmi,  Ouadai)  Ihey  were  help- 
less. At  times  they  have  been  subjucatrd,  re- 
duced to  vassalage;  finally  in  all  probability  they 
were  absorbed  by  the  Sudanese.  .  .  .  But,  before 
states  in  the  process  of  formation,  or  even  of  de- 
composition, these  tribes  could  exercise  all  the  re- 
sources of  their  warlike  and  destructive  spirit 
The  Kanem,  cradle  of  ancient  societies,  had  been 
ruined.  The  rich  countries  of  the  Senegal  were 
sacked  by  their  Moorish  invaders.     Sometimes  we 


see  that  direct  contacts  of  the  .\rab  race  with  the 
Sudanese  were  followed  with  disastrous  effects. 
It  would  be  unjust,  however,  to  generalize  beyond 
measure  and  to  say  that  the  arrival  of  the  Arabs 
was  an  evil  for  Africa.  Besides  the  benefits  which 
their  civilization  had  brought,  the  traces  of  Sem- 
itic blood  which  were  introduced  by  them  (as  well 
as  by  the  Berber  strain)  into  the  Sudan,  will  give 
to  the  future  populations  of  Africa  distinctive 
traits  characteristic  of  a  higher  civilization." — 
Tr.  from  O.  Meynier,  L'Ajrique  noire,  pp.  126-128 
— "The  achievements  of  the  Romans  are  a  land- 
mark in  the  history  of  mankind,  and  can  never 
be  ignored.  Then  came  the  destructive  Vandals 
(sec  also  X'andals:  42g-439;  431-533],  followed 
by  the  hybrid  Byzantines,  and  with  their  final 
expulsion  by  .\rabs  the  history  of  antiquity 
may  be  said  to  have  come  to  a  close.  Today  is 
but  the  yesterday  of  sixteen  hundred  years  ago. 
'The  .^rab  has  replaced  the  Phoenician,'  (as  M. 
Paul  Monccaus  has  observed),  'and  the  Frenchman 
has  replaced  the  Roman.  But  that  is  all.'  The 
primitive  races — the  ancient  Berbers  of  the  Desert 
or  the  mountain  ranges,  are  still  in  possession, 
preserving  their  old  traditions  of  tribal  and  social 
life,  and  speaking  almost  the  same  tongue  as  their 
ancestors  did  some  three  thousand  years  ago.  The 
Numidian,  the  Moor,  and  the  Getulian  are  there 
also,  cultivating  their  olives  in  the  land  of  their 
forefathers,  tending  their  sheep  on  the  broad 
plains  of  the  Metidja  or  Chelif,  or  moving  si- 
lently from  place  to  place,  like  true  sons  of  the 
Desert." — A.  Graham,  Roman  Africa,  p.  308. 

MODERN  EUROPEAN  OCCUPATION 

Beginnings    of    European    exploration. — "The 

Genoese  were  the  first  to  set  out  on  the  discovery 
of  the  oceanic  coasts  of  Africa.  At  about  the  end 
of  the  13th  century,  they  knew  the  Canary  Islands. 
In  1202,  one  of  the  galleys  of  the  expedition  of 
the  brothers  X'ivaldi  reached  the  mouth  of  a  river 
which  their  maps  call  Gohou  and  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  Senegal.  In  the  middle  of  the 
14th  ccntun.-  they  knew  Madeira  and  the  coast 
opposite,  of  which  the  Medician  map  of  1351  gives 
an  almost  correct  drawing.  About  1365  the  first 
Frenchmen,  Normans,  were  established  in  Africa; 
traders  from  Dieppe  and  Rouen  having  associated 
themselves  in  1364  for  commerce  on  the  coast  of 
western  .Africa  built  some  warehouses  at  the  out- 
let of  the  Senegal,  in  Gambia,  on  the  coasts  of 
Sierra-Leone  and  of  Malaguettc.  In  1402,  the 
Norman  Jean  de  Bethcncourt  arrived  at  the  Ca- 
naries from  La  Rochelle  with  53  companions  and 
took  possession  of  the  islands  in  the  name  of  the 
queen  of  Castile.  So  vigorous  was  this  commer- 
cial movement  between  France  and  western  Af- 
rica that  it  was  not  halted  despite  the  wars  in 
which  France  was  engaging  and  the  invasion  of 
Normandy  by  the  English.  However  the  Normans 
pushed  their  expeditions  no  further,  and  it  is  to 
the  Portuguese  that  the  honor  of  discovering  the 
coasts  of  Africa  is  due." — Tr.  from  R  Ronze,  La 
question  d'Afriqiie. — See  also  Caliphate:  640-646, 
647-700,  008-1171;  Barbarv  states:   i';43-t;6o. 

Chronology  of  European  exploration,  mis- 
sionary settlement,  colonization  and  occupation. 

1415.— Conquest  of  Ceuta  by  the  Portuguese 

1434-1461. — Portuguese  explorations  down  the 
western  coast,  from  cape  Bojador  to  cape  Mesu- 
rado,  in  Liberia,  under  the  direction  of  Prince 
Henrv,   cal'ed   the   Navigator. 

1442. — First  .\frican  slaves  brought  into  Europe 
by   one  nf   the  ship?   of  Prince  Henry. 

1463-1498. — Portucuese    explorations    by    Prince 


02 


AFRICA,  1471-1482 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1831 


Henry,  the  Navigator.     See  Portugal:   1463-1498. 

1471-1482. — Portuguese  explorations  carried  be- 
yond the  Guinea  Coast,  and  to  the  Gold  Coast, 
where   the   first   settlement   was   established. 

1482. — Discovery  of  the  mouth  of  the  Zaire 
or  Conco  by  the  Portuguese  explorer,  Diogo  Cam 

1485-1596. — Establishment  of  Roman  Catholic 
missions  on  the  western  coast. 

1486. — Unconscious  rounding  of  the  Cape  of 
Good   Hope   by  Bartholomew   Diaz. 

1490-1527.^Visit  to  Abyssinia  of  Pero  Covilham, 
the  Portugue.se  explorer. 

1497. — Voyage  of  Vasco  da  Gama  round  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  India. 

1505-1508. — Portuguese  settlements  and  fortified 
stations  established  on  the  eastern  coast. 

1506. — Discovery  of  Madagascar  by  the  Portu- 
guese. 

1552-1553. — Beginning  of  English  voyages  to  the 
Guinea  and   Gold   Coasts 

1560. — French  trading  to  the  Senegal  and  Gam- 
bia begun. 

1562. — First  slave-trading  voyage  of  Sir  John 
Hawkins  to  the  Guinea  Coast. 

1578. — Founding  of  St  Paul  de  Loando,  Portu- 
guese capital  on  the  west  coast. 

1582  (about). — Founding  of  the  French  post,  St. 
Louis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal. 

1595. — Opening  of  trade  on  the  western  coast  by 
the  Dutch. 

17th  century. — Settlements  in  West  Africa  by 
British.  See  British  empire:  Expansion:  17th 
century:    .'\frica:   West   Africa. 

1618-1621.^Exploration  of  the  river  Gambia  for 
the  Royal  Niger  company  of  England 

1644. — Fort  Dauphin  founded  by  the  French  in 
the  island  of  Madagascar 

1652. — Dutch  settlement  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

1672. — Africa  company  chartered  See  British 
empire:  Expansion:  17th  centurj  :  Africa:  West 
Africa:   1672 

1694-1724. — Exploration  of  the  river  Senegal  for 
the  Royal  Senegal  company. 

18th  century:  British  acquire  Sierra  Leone. 
See  British  empire:  Expansion:  iSth  century: 
.Africa:  West  Africa. 

1723. — Exploration  of  the  Gambia  for  the  Eng- 
glish  Royal  African  company 

1736. — Moravian  mission  on  the  Gold  Coast. 

1737. — Beginning  of  missionary  work.  See  Mis- 
sions, Christian:  Near  East.  Moravian  mission 
planted  by  George  Schmidt  among  the  Hotten- 
tots. 

1754. — Substantial  beginning  of  the  domination 
in  Madagascar  of  the  Hovas. 

1761-1762. — Dutch  expedition  from  Cape  Colony 
beyond  the  Orange   river. 

1768-1773. — Journey  of  James  Bruce  to  the  foun- 
tains of  the  Blue  Nile  in  Abyssinia. 

1774. — Founding  of  a  French  colony  in  Mada- 
gascar bv   Count   Bcnvowskv. 

1781-l'785.— Travels  of  M.le  Vaillant  among  the 
Hottentots  and   Kaffirs. 

1787. — Founding  of  the  English  settlement  for 
freed  slaves  at  Sierra  Leone. 

1788. — Formation  of  the  African  association  in 
England,   for   systematic   exploration. 

1795. — The  Cape  Colony  taken  from  the  Dutch 
by   the   English. 

1795-1797. — The  first  exploring  journey  of  Mungo 
Park,  in  the  service  of  the  African  association, 
from  tht  Gambia. 

1798. — Mission  of  Dr.  John  Vanderkemp  to  the 
Kaffirs,   for   the   London   Missionary  society. 

1798. — Journey   of   the   Portuguese   Dr.   Lacerda 


from  the  Lower  Zambezi  to  the  kingdom  of 
Cazembe,  on  lake  Moero. 

1802-1806.— Restoration  of  Cape  Colony  to  the 
Dutch   and  its  reconquest  by  the  English. 

1802-1811. — Journey  of  the  Pombeiros  (Negroes) 
across  the  continent  from  Angola  to  Tetc. 

1804. — Founding  of  the  Church  of  England  mis- 
sion in  Sierra  Leone. 

1805. — Second  expedition  of  Mungo  Park  from 
the  Gambia  to  the  Niger,  from  which  he  never 
returned. 

1805. — Travels  of  Dr.  Lichtenstein  in  Bechuana- 
land. 

1808. — Beginning  of  missionary  efforts  in  colo- 
nizing Liberia.     See  Liberia:   Early  history. 

1810. — Missions  in  Great  Namaqualand  and 
Damaraland  begun  by  the  London  Missionary 
society. 

1812. — Exploration  of  the  Orange  river  and  the 
Limpopo  by  Campbell,  the  missionary. 

1812-1815.— Journey  of  Burckhardt  under  the 
auspices  of  the  African  association,  up  the  Nile, 
through  Nubia,  to  Berbera,  Shendi,  and  Suakin; 
thence  through  Jidda  to  Mecca,  in  the  character 
of  a   Mussulman. 

1816-1818.— Fatal  and  fruitless  attempts  to  ex- 
plore the  lower  course  of  the  Niger, 

1818. — Mission  in  Madagascar  undertaken  by  the 
London  Missionary  society. 

1818. — Beginning;,  on  the  Orange  river,  of  the 
missionary  labors  of  Robert  Moffat  in  South 
Africa. 

1818. — Exploration  of  the  sources  of  the  Gambia 
by  Gaspard  Mollien,  from  Fort  St.  Louis,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal. 

1818-1820. — Exploration  of  Fezzan  to  its  south- 
ern limit,  from  Tripoli,  by  Captain  Lyon. 

1820. — First  Wesleyan  mission  founded  in  Kaffir- 
land, 

1820. — Treaty  abolishing  the  slave-trade  in  Mad- 
agascar. 

1821. — Mission-work  in  Kaffraria  undertaken  by 
the  Glasgow  Missionary  society. 

1822. — Founding  of  the  republic  of  Liberia.  See 
Slavery,  Negro:   1816-1847 

1822. — Official  journey  of  Lieutenant  Laing 
from  Sierra  Leone  in  the  "Timannee,  Kooranko 
and  Soolima"  countries, 

1822-1825. — Expedition  of  Captain  Clapperton, 
Dr.  Oudney,  and  Colonel  Denham,  from  Trip- 
oli to  lake  Chad  and  beyond. 

1825-1826. — Expedition  of  Major  Laing,  in  the 
service  of  the  British  Government,  from  Tripoli, 
through  the  desert,  to  Timbuktu,  which  he 
reached,  and  where  he  remained  for  a  month. 
Two  days  after  le-iving  the  city  he  was  mur- 
dered. 

1825-1827. — Expedition  of  Captain  Clapperton 
from  the  bight  of  Benin  to  Sokoto. 

1827. — Moravian  mission  settled  in  the  Tam- 
bookie  territory.  South  Africa. 

1827. — Journey  of  Linant  de  Bellefonds,  for  the 
African  Association,  up  the  White  Nile  to  13°  6' 
north  latitude. 

1827-1828. — Journey  of  Caille  from  a  point  on 
the  west  coast,  between  Sierra  Leone  and  the 
Gambia,  to  Jenne  and  Timbuktu;  thence  to  Fez 
and  Tangier. 

1828. — Undertakings  of  the  Basle  Missionary  so- 
ciety on  the  Gold  Coast. 

1830-1831. — Exploration  of  the  Niger  to  the  sea 
by  Richard  and  John  Lander,  solving  the  question 
as  to  its  mouth. 

1830-1846. — French  conquest  and  subjugation  of 
Algiers. 

1831. — Portuguese    mission    of    Major   Monteiro 


93 


AFRICA,  1831 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1855 


and    Captain    Gamitto    to    the    court    of    Muata 

Cazembe.  •  .■       u 

1831.— Absorption  of  the  African  association  Dy 
the  Royal  Geographical  society  of  London 

1832-1834.— First  commercial  exploration  of  the 
lower  Niger,  from  its  mouth,  by  Macgregor  Laird, 
with  two  steamers.  ,_,....      .v, 

1833.— Mission  in  Basutoland  established  by  tne 
Evangelical  Missionary  society  of  Paris. 

1834. Beginning  of  missionary  labors  under  the 

American  Board  of  Missions  in  South  .\frica. 

1834— Mission  founded  at  cape  Palmas  on  the 
western  coast,  by  the  American  Board  of  Foreign 

Missions.  „      .    t.  t     _ 

1834— The  great  trek  of  the  Dutch  Boers  from 

Cape   Colony   and   their  founding   of   the   republic 

of  Natal.  „  .  u,.  u  J 

1835.— Mission   among   the   Zulus  established   cy 

the   American    Board   of    Foreign    Missions. 

1835.— Founding  of  Senussia  sect.    See  Senussia. 


DR.   DAVID   LIVINGSTONE 


1835-1849.— Persecution  of  Christians  in  Mada- 

^'' 1836-1837.— Explorations  of  Captain  Sir  James 
E  Alexander  in  the  countries  of  the  Great  Nama- 
quas,  the  Bushmen  and  the  Hill  Damaras. 

1839-1841.— Egyptian  expeditions  sent  by^Me- 
hemet  Ali  up  the  White  Nile  to  latitude  6  35 
N.;  accompanied  and  narrated  in  part  by  Ferdi- 
nand Werne.  t    T^      i'  o„f 

1839-1843.— Missionary  residence  of  Ur.  Krapi 
in  the  kingdom  of  Shoa,  in  the  Ethiopian  high- 
lands. .  •       c     *v. 

1840.— Arrival     of     Dr.    Livingstone     in    t)0uth 

Africa  as  a  missionary.  ,   .,,   , 

1841.— Expedition  of  Captains  Trotter  and  .\llen, 
sent  by  the  British  government  to  treat  with 
tribes  on  the  Niger  for  the  opening  of  commerce 
and  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 

1842.— Travels  of  Dr.  Charles  Johnston  in  south- 
ern Abyssinia. 

1842  —Gaboon  mission,  on  the  western  coast  near 
the  equator,  founded  by  the  American  Board  ot 
Foreign   Missions. 


1842— The  Rhenish  mission  established  by  Ger- 
man missionaries  at   Bethany  in  Namaqualand. 
1842.— Wesleyan  and  Norwegian  missions  opened 

in  Natal 

1842-1862.— French  occupation  of  territory  on 
the  Gaboon  and  the  Ogowe. 

1843.— British  annexation  of  Natal,  and  nugra- 
tioii  ul  the  Boers  to  found  the  Orange  Free 
State.  ,  ,      . 

1843.— Exploration  of  the  Senegal  and  the 
Faleme  bv   Huard-Bessinieres  and   Raffenel. 

1843-1845.— Travels  and  residence  of  Mr.  Par- 
kvns  in  Abyssinia.  ,   „      ,        r^ 

1843-1848.— Hunting  journeys  of  Gordon  Lum- 
ming  in  South  Africa. 

1844.— Mission  founded  by  Dr.  Krapf  at  Mom- 
basa, on  the   Zanzibar  coast. 

1845.— Duncan's  journey  for  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical   societv    from    Whydah,    via    Abome,    to 

Adofudia  .  ,.  .    j  u 

1845.— Mission  to  the  Cameroons  established  by 
the   Baptist  Missionary  society  of  England. 

1846.— Unsuccessful  attempt  of  Raffenel  to  cross 
Africa  from  Senegal  to  the  Nile,  through  the 
Sudan. 

1846.— Mission  of  Samuel  Crowther  (afterwards 
Bishop  of  the  Niger),  a  native  and  a  liberated 
slave,  to  the  Yoruba  country. 

1846.— Mission  on  Old  Calabar  river  founded  by 
the   United  Presbyterian  Church  in  Jamaica 

1847-1849. — Interior  explorations  of  the  German 
missionaries  Dr.  Krapf  and  Mr.  Rebmann,  from 
Mombasa   on   the   Zanzibar   coast. 

1843.— Founding    of    the   Transvaal   republic    by 

the  Boers  .  .  .  •   ■ 

1849.— Missionary  journey  of  David  Livingstone 

northward    from    the    country    of    the    Bechuanas, 

and  his  discovery  of  Lake  Ngami. 

1849-1851.— Journey     of    Laszlo    Magyar    from 

Benguela  to  the  kingdoms  of  Bihe  and  Molua  on 

the  interior  table-land,  and   across  the  upper  end 

of   the   Zambezi   Valley  .... 

1850.— Sale   of    Danish   forts  at   Kwitta,  .\ddah, 

and   Fingo,  on   the   western  coast,   to   threat   Brit- 

1850-1851.— Travels  of  Andersson  and  Gallon 
from  VValfish  bay  to  Ovampoland  and  lake 
Ngami,  ,     ,  „  .      ,. 

1850-1855  —Travels  of  Dr.  Barth  from  Tripoli 
to  lake  Chad,  Sokoto  and  the  Upper  Niger  to 
Timbuktu,     where     he     was     detained     for     nine 

months  .     .  ,      _      ... 

1851.— Discovery  of  the  Zambezi  by  Dr.  Living- 
stone. ,.         .  , 

1852-1863.— Hunting  and  trading  journeys  ot 
Mr  Chapman  in  South  Africa,  between  Natal 
and    Walfish    bay    and    to    lake    Ngami    and    the 

1853 —Founding  of  the  diocese  of  Natal  by  the 
English  Church  and  appointment  of  Dr.  Colenso 
to  be  its  bishop.  .  .   .      ,  i 

1853-1856.— Journey  of  Dr.  Livingstone  from 
Linyante,  the  Makololo  capital,  up  the  Zambezi 
and  across  to  the  western  coast,  at  St.  Paul  de 
Loando,  thence  returning  entirely  across  the  con- 
tinent, down  the  Zambezi  to  Quilimane  at  its 
mouth,     discovering     the     Victoria     falls     on     his 


^^853-1858.- Ivory-seeking  expeditions  of  John 
Petherick,   up  the    Bahr-el-Ghazal 

1853-1859.— Roman  Catholic  mission  established 
at  Gondokoro,  on  the  Upper  Nile. 

1854 —Exploration  of  the  Somali  country— the 
"eastern    horn    of    Africa"-by    Captains    Burton 

''"l85^5'?-Beginnin  •  of  attempts  by  the  French  gov- 


94 


AFRICA,  1856-1859 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1873-1875 


ernor  of  Senegal,  General  Faidherbe,  to  carry  the 
flag  of  France  into  the  western  Sudan. 

1856-1859.— Journeys  of  Du  Chaillu  in  the  west- 
ern equatorial  regions,  on  the  Gaboon  and  the 
Ogobai. 

1857-1858. — Expedition  of  Captains  Burton  and 
Speke,  from  Zanzibar,  through  Uzaramo,  Usagara, 
Ugogo,  and  Unyamwezi,  to  Ujiji,  on  lake  Tan- 
ganyika— making  the  first  European  discovery  of 
the  lake;  returning  to  Kaze,  and  thence  continued 
by  Speke  alone,  during  Burton's  illness,  to  the 
discovery   of   lake   Victoria  Nyanza. 

1858. — Journey  of  Andersson  from  Walfish  bay 
to   the   Okavango   river. 

1858. — English  mission  station  founded  at  Vic- 
toria on  the  Cameroons  coast. 

1858-1863. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  in 
the  service  of  the  British  government,  exploring 
the  Shire  and  the  Rovuma,  and  discovering  and 
exploring  lake  Nyasa — said,  however,  to  have  been 
known   previously  to   the   Portuguese. 

1860-1861. — Journey  of  Baron  von  Decken  from 
Mombasa  on  the  Zanzibar  coast,  to  Mt  Kiliman- 
jaro 

1860-1862. — Return  of  Speke,  with  Captain 
Grant,  from  Zanzibar  to  lake  Victoria  Nyanza, 
visiting  Karagwe,  and  Uganda,  and  reaching  the 
outlet  of  the  Nile ;  thence  through  Unyoro  to 
Gondokoro,  and  homeward  by  the  Nile. 

1861. — Establishment  of  the  Universities  mission 
by  Bishop  Mackenzie  on  the  Upper  Shire. 

1861-1862. — English  acquisition  of  the  town  and 
kingdom  of  Lagos  on  the  bight  of  Benin  by  ces- 
sion  from   the    native    ruler. 

1861-1862. — Sir  Samuel  Baker's  exploration  of 
the  .^b\s?inian  tributaries  of  the  Nile 

1861-1862. — Journey  of  Captain  Burton  from 
Lagos,  on  the  western  coast,  to  .-Mjeokuta,  the 
capital  of  the  Akus.  in  Voruba.  and  to  the  Cam- 
aroons   mountains, 

1861-1862. — Journey  of  Mr  Baincs  from  Wal- 
fish bay  to  lake  Ngami  and  Victoria  falls. 

1862. — Resumption  of  the  Christian  mission  in 
Madagascar,   long   suppressed. 

1862-1867.— Travels  of  Dr  Rohlfs  in  Morocco, 
Algeria  and  Tunis,  and  exjjloring  journey  from 
the  gulf  of  the  Syrtes  to  the  gulf  of  Guinea 

1863. — Travels  of  Winwood  Reade  on  the  west- 
ern coast. 

1863. — Incorporation  of  a  large  part  of  Kaffraria 
with  Cape  Colony. 

1863. — -Second  visit  of  Du  Chaillu  to  the  west- 
ern equatorial  region  and  journey  to  Ashango- 
Land. 

1863-1864. — Official  mission  of  Captain  Burton 
to  the  king  of  Dahomey. 

1863-1864.— Exploration  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
from  Khartoum  by  the  wealthy  Dutch  heiress, 
Miss  Tinne,  and  her  party. 

1863-1865. — Expedition  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker  and 
his  wife  up  the  White  Nile  from  Khartum,  re- 
sulting in  the  discovery  of  lake  Albert  Nyanza, 
as  one  of  its  sources. 

1864. — Mission  of  Lieutenant  Mage  and  Dr. 
Quintin,  sent  by  General  Faidherbe  from  Senegal 
to  the  king  of  Segu,  in  the  Sudan. 

1866. — Founding  of  a  Norwegian  mission  in 
Madagascar. 

1866-1873. — Last  journey  of  Dr.  Livingstone, 
from  the  Rovuma  river,  on  the  eastern  coast,  to 
lake  Nyassa;  thence  to  lake  Tanganyika,  lake 
Mweru,  lake  Bangweolo,  and  the  Lualaba  river, 
which  he  suspected  of  flowing  into  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  being  the  ultimate  fountain  head 
of  the  Nile,  'n  November,  1.S71,  Livingstone  was 
found    at    Ujiji,    on    lake   Tanganyika,   by    Henry 


M.  Stanley,  leader  of  an  expedition  sent  in  search 
of  him  Declining  to  quit  the  country  with 
Stanley,  and  pursuing  his  exploration  of  the  Lu- 
alaba, Livingstone  died  May  i,  1873,  on  lake  Bang- 
weolo. 

1867. — Mission  founded  in  Madagascar  by  the 
Society  of   Friends. 

1867-1868. — British  expedition  to  Abyssinia  for 
the  rescue  of  captives;  overthrow  and  death  of 
King   Theodore. 

1868. — British  annexation  of  Basutoland  in  South 
Africa. 

1869. — Christianity  established  as  the  state  re- 
ligion  in   Madagascar. 

1869. — Fatal  expedition  of  Miss  Tinne  from 
Tripoli  into  the  desert,  where  she  was  murdered 
by  her  own  escort. 

1869-1871.— Explorations  of  Dr.  Schweinfurth 
between  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and  the  Upper  Con- 
go, discovering   the   Welle   river. 

1869-1873.— Expedition  of  Dr.  Nachtigal  from 
Tripoli  through  Kuka,  Tibesti,  Borku,  Wadai, 
D.irfur,  and  Kordofan,  to  the  Nile. 


SIR    HENRY    M.    STANLEY 

1870-1873. — Official  expedition  of  Sir  Samuel 
Baker,  in  the  service  of  the  khedive  of  Egypt, 
Ismail  Pasha,  to  annex  Gondokoro,  then  named 
Ismailia,  and  to  suppress  the  slave-trade  in  the 
Egyptian   Sudan,   or   Equatoria. 

1871. — Transfer  of  the  rights  of  Holland  on  the 
Gold   Coast   to  Great   Britain. 

1871. — Annexation  of  Griqualand  West  to  Cape 
(\)lony. 

1871. — Scientific  tour  of  Sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker 
and  Mr.   Ball  in  Morocco  and  the  Great  Atlas. 

1871.— Missionary  journey  of  Mr.  Charles  New 
in  the  Masai  country  and  ascent  of  Mt.  Kiliman- 
jaro. 

1871-1880. — Hunting  journeys  of  Mr.  Selous  in 
South    .'\frica,   beyond   the   Zambezi. 

1872-1875. — Travels  of  the  naturalist,  Reinhold 
Buchholz,  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

1872-1879. — Travels  of  Dr.  Holub  between  the 
South  African  diamond  fields  and  the  Zambezi. 

1873-1875. — Expedition  of  Captain  V.  L.  Cam- 
eron,   from    Zanzibar    to    lake    Tanganyika,    and 


95 


AFRICA,  1873-1875 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1880-1886 


exploration  of  the  lake;  thence  to  Nyangwe  on  the 
Lualaba,  and  thence  across  the  continent,  through 
Ulundi,  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  at  Benguela, 
on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

1873-1875.— Travels  of  the  naturalist,  Frank 
Gates,  from  Cape   Colony   to   the  Victoria  falls. 

1873-1876. — Explorations  of  GiissfeJdt,  Falken- 
stein  and  Pechuel-Loesche,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  German  African  association,  from  the  Loango 
coast,  north  of  the  Congo. 

1874. — British  expedition  against  the  Ashantees, 
destroying  their  principal  town  Kumasi. 

1874. — Mission  of  Colonel  Chaille-Lon^  from 
General  Gordon,  at  Gondokoro,  on  the  Nile,  to 
M'tese,  king  of  Uganda,  discovering  lake  Ibrahim 
on  his  return,  and  completing  the  work  of  Speke 
and  Baker,  in  the  continuous  tracing  of  the 
course  of  the  Nile  from  the  Victoria  Nvanza. 

1874-1875.— Expedition  of  Colonel  C.  Chaillf- 
Long  to  lake  Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  Makraka 
Niam-Niam   country,   in   the   Egyptian   service. 

1874-1876. — First  administration  of  General  Gor- 
don, commissioned  by  the  khedive  as  governor 
of   Equatoria. 

1874-1876. — Occupation  and  exploration  of  Dar- 
fur  and  Kordofan  by  the  Egyptians,  under  Colo- 
nels Purdy,  Mason,  Prout  and  Colston. 

1874-1877.— Expedition  of  Henry  M.  Stanley, 
fitted  out  by  the  proprietors  of  the  New  York 
Herald  and  the  London  Daily  Telegraph,  which 
crossed  the  continent  from  Zanzibar  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo  river;  making  a  prolonged  stay  in 
the  empire  of  Uganda  and  acquiring  much  knowl- 
edge of  it ;  circumnavigating  lakes  X'ictoria  and 
Tanganyika,  and  exploring  the  then  mysterious 
great  Congo  river  throughout  its  length. 

1874-1877.— Explorations  of  Dr.  Junker  in  Upper 
Nubia  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal. 

1875. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Pogge,  for  the  German 
African  association,  from  the  west  coast,  south 
of  the  Congo,  in  the  Congo  basin,  penetrating  to 
Kawende,  beyond  the  Ruru  or  Lulua  river,  capital 
of  the  Muata  Vanvo,  who  rules  a  kingdom  as 
large  as  Germany. 

1875. — Expedition  of  Colonel  Chaille-Long  into 
the  country   of  the  Makraka  Niam-Niams. 

1875. — Founding  by  Scottish  subscribers  of  the 
mission  station  called  Livingstonia,  at  cape  Mac- 
lear,  on  the  southern  shores  of  lake  Nyasa;  head- 
quarters of  the  mission  removed  in  i88i  to 
Bandawe,  on  the  same  lake. 

1875. — Mission  founded  at  Blantyre,  in  the  high- 
lands above  the  Shire,  by  the  Established  Church 
of  Scotland. 

1875-1876. — Seizure  of  Berbera  and  the  region 
of  the  Juba  river,  on  the  Somali  coast,  by  Colonel 
Chaille-Long,  for  the  khedive  of  Egypt,  and  their 
speedy  evacuation,  on  the  remonstrance  of  Eng- 
land. 

1876. — Conference  at  Brussels  and  formation  of 
the  International  African  association,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  for  the 
exploration  and  civilization   of  Africa. 

1876. — Voyage  of  Romolo  Gcssi  around  lake  Al- 
bert Nyanza. 

1876.— Mission  in  Uganda  established  by  the 
Church  Missionary  society  of  England. 

1876-1878.  —  Scientific  explorations  of  Dr. 
Schweinfurth  in  the  .Arabian  desert  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Red  sea 

1876-1880. — Explorations  and  French  annexa- 
tions by  Savorgnan  de  Brazza  between  the  Ogow^ 
and  the  Congo 

1876-1890. — Congo  region  explored.  See  Belgian 
Congo:   1876-18QO. 

1877. — The     Livingstone     Inland     mission,     for 


Christian  work  in  the  Congo  Valley,  established 
by  the  East  London  Institute  for  Home  and 
Foreign   Missions. 

1877-1879. — Second  administration  of  General 
Gordon,  as  governor-general  of  the  Sudan,  Darfur 
and   the  equatorial   provinces. 

1877-1879.— War  of  the  British  in  South  Africa 
with  the  Zulus,  and  practical  subjugation  of  that 
nation. 

1877-1879. — Journey  of  Serpa  Pinto  across  the 
continent  from  Benguela  via  the  Zambezi. 

1877-1880. — Explorations  of  the  Portuguese  offi- 
cers, Capello  and  Ivens,  in  western  and  central 
Africa,  from  Benguela  to  the  territory  of  Yacca, 
for  the  survey  of  the  river  Cuango  in  its  relations 
to  the  hydrographic  basins  of  the  Congo  and  the 
Zambezi. 

1878. — Founding  in  Glasgow  of  the  African 
Lakes  company,  or  "The  Livingstone  Central  Af- 
rica company,"  for  trade  on  lakes  Nyasa  and 
Tanganyika ;  by  which  company  the  "Stevenson 
road"  was  subsequently  built  between  the  two 
lakes  above  named. 

1878. — Walfish  bay  and  fifteen  miles  around  it 
(on  the  western  coast,  in  Namaqualand)  declared 
British   territory. 

1878. — Journey  of  Paul  Soleillet  from  Saint 
Louis  to  Segu. 

1878-1880. — Royal  Geographical  society's  East 
Central  African  expedition,  under  Joseph  Thom- 
son, to  the  Central  African  lakes,  Tanganyika, 
Nyasa  and   Leopold,   from   Zanzibar. 

1879. — Establishment,  by  the  Belgian  Interna- 
tional society,  of  a  station  at  Karema,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  lake  Tanganyika. 

1879. — Formation  of  the  International  Con^o 
association  and  the  engagement  of  Mr.  Stanley  in 
its  service. 

1879. — Missionary  expeditions  to  the  Upper 
Congo  region  by  the  Livingstone  Inland  mission 
and   the   Baptist   Missionary   society. 

1879. — Journey  of  Mr.  Stewart,  of  the  Living- 
stonia mission,  on  lake  Nyasa,  from  that  lake  to 
lake  Tanganyika. 

1879. — Discovery  of  the  sources  of  the  Niger,  in 
the  hills  about  200  miles  east  of  Freetown,  the 
capital  of  Sierra  Leone,  by  the  French  explorers, 
Zweifel  and  Moustier. 

1879-1880. — Journey  of  Dr.  Oskar  Lenz,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  German  African  society,  from 
Morocco  to  Timbuktu,  and  thence  to  the  .Atlantic 
coast  in  Senegambia.  The  fact  that  the  Sahara  is 
generally  above  the  sea-level,  and  cannot  there- 
fore be  flooded,  was  determined  by  Dr.  Lenz. 

1879-1881. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Buchner  from 
Loanda  to  Kawende  and  the  kingdom  of  the 
Muata  Yanvo.  where  six  months  were  spent  in 
vain  efforts  to  procure  permission  to  proceed 
further  into  the  interior, 

1880. — Mission  established  by  the  American 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  in  "the  region  of  Bih^ 
and  the  Kwanza,"  or  Quanza,  south  of  the  Congo. 

1880-1881.— War  of  the  British  with  the  Boers 
of  the  Transvaal. 

1880-1881. — Official  mission  of  the  German  ex- 
plorer, Gerhard  Rohlfs,  accompanied  by  Dr. 
Stecker,  to  .Abyssinia. 

1880-1884. — Campaigns  in  Upper  Senegal,  ex- 
tending French  supremacy  to  the  Niger 

1880-1884. — German  East  African  expedition  to 
explore,  in  the  Congo  basin,  the  region  between 
the  Lualaba  and  the  Luapula. 

1880-1886. — Explorations  of  Dr.  Junker  in  the 
country  of  the  Niam-Niam,  and  his  journey  from 
the  equatorial  province,  through  Unyoro  and 
Uganda,   to  Zanzibar. 


96 


AFRICA,  1880-1889 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1885-1889 


1880-1889. — Journey  of  Captain  Casati,  as  cor- 
respondent of  tfie  Italian  geograpfiical  review, 
"L'Exploratore,"  from  Suakin,  on  the  Red  sea,  into 
the  district  of  the  Mangbettu,  west  of  lake  Albert, 
and  the  country  of  the  Niam-Niam ;  in  which 
travels  he  was  arrested  by  the  revolt  of  the  Mahdi 
and  forced  to  remain  with  Erain  Pasha  until 
rescued   with   the   latter   by   Stanley,  in    iSSg. 

1881. — French  protectorate  over  Tunis. 

1881. — Portuguese  expedition  of  Captain  An- 
drada  from  Senna  on  the  Zambezi  river  to  the 
old  gold  mines  of  Manica. 

1881. — Journey  of  F.  L.  and  W.  D.  James  from 
Suakin,  on  the  Red  sea,  through  the  Base  country, 
in  the  Egyptian  Sudan. 

1881. — Founding  of  a  mission  on  the  Congo,  at 
Stanley  Pool,  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  society 
of  England. 

1881-1884. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Pogge  and  Lieu- 
tenant Wissraann  to  Nyangwe  on  the  Lualaba, 
from  which  point  Lieutenant  Wissmann  pursued 
the  journey  to  Zanzibar  crossing  the  continent. 

1881-1885.— Revolt  of  the  Mahdi  in  the  Sudan; 
the  mission  of  General  Gordon ;  the  unsuccessful 
expedition  from  England  to  rescue  him;  the  fall 
of  the  city  and  his  death.  , 

1881-1887. — French  protectorate  established  on 
the  Upper  Niger  and  Upper  Senegal. 

1882. — Italian  occupation  of  Abyssinian  territory 
on  the  bay  of  Assab. 

1882-1883. — German  scientific  expedition,  under 
Dr.  Bohm  and  Herr  Reichard,  to  lakes  Tanganyika 
and  Mweru. 

1882-1883. — Journey  of  Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  on 
the  Congo. 
.1883. — Delagoa    bay    arbitration.      See    Delagoa 

BAY    ARBITRATlbN. 

1883. — German  acquisition  of  territory  on  Angra 
Pequeria  bay,  in  Great  Namaqualand. 

1883. — Exploration  of  Masailand  by  Dr.  Fischer, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Hamburg  Geographical 
society. 

1883. — Explorations  of  Lieutenant  Giraud  in  East 
Central  Africa,  descending  for  some  distance  the 
Luapula. 

1883. — Scientific  investigation  of  the  basins  of 
lakes  Nyasa  and  Tanganyika,  by  Mr.  Henry 
Drummond,   for   the   African   Lakes   company. 

1883. — Journey  of  M.  Revoil  in  the  south  Somali 
country  to   the  Upper  Juba. 

1883-1884.— Explorations  of  Mr.  Joseph  Thom- 
son from  Mombasa,  through  Masailand,  to  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  society. 

1883-1885.— War  of  the  French  with  the  Hovas 
of  Madagascar,  resulting  in  the  establishment  of  a 
French   protectorate  over  the   island. 

1883-1885. — Exploration  of  Lieutenant  Giraud  in 
the  lake  region. 

1883-1886. — Austrian  expedition,  under  Dr.  Ho- 
lub,  from  Cape  Colony,  through  the  Boer  states, 
Bechuanaland  and  Matabeleland  to  the  Zambezi, 
and  beyond. 

1884. — Annexation  by  Germany  of  the  whole 
western  coast  (e.xcept  Walfish  bay)  between  the 
Portuguese  possessions  and  those  of  the  British 
in   South   Africa. 

1884. — German  occupation  of  territory  on  the 
Cameroon  River,  under  treaties  with  the  native 
chiefs.  English  treaties  securing  contiguous  terri- 
tory to  and  including  ihe  delta  of  the  Ni  'er.  See 
Cameroons:   Occupation  by  Germany. 

1884.- — German  protectorate  over  Togoland  on 
the  Gold  Coast  declared.     See  Togoland. 

1884. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Peters,  representing  the 
Society  of  German  Colonization,  to   the  coast  re- 


gion of  Zanzibar,  and  his  negotation  of  treaties 
with  ten  native  chiefs,  ceding  the  sovereignty  of 
their  dominions.  See  Tanganyika  territory: 
German  colonization. 

1884. — Crown  colony  of  British  Bechuanaland 
acquired  from   the  South  African   republic. 

1884. — Portuguese  government  expedition,  under 
Major  Carvalho,  from  Loanda  to  the  Central  Af- 
rican  potentate   called   the   Muata  Yanvo. 

1884. — Exploration  of  the  Benue  and  the  Adam- 
awa,  by  Herr  Flegel. 

1884. — Scientific  expedition  of  Mr.  H.  H.  John- 
ston to  Mt.  Kilimanjaro. 

1884. — Discovery  of  the  M'bangi  or  Ubanghi 
River  (afterwards  identified  with  the  Welle),  by 
Captain  Hansens  and  Lieutenant  Van  Gele. 

1884. — Exploration  of  Reichard  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the   Congo  State. 

1884-1885. — The  Berlin  Conference  of  Powers, 
held  to  determine  the  limits  of  territory  conceded 
to  the  International  Congo  association,  to  estab- 
lish freedom  of  trade  within  that  territory,  and 
to  formulate  rules  for  regulating  in  future  the 
acquisition  of  .African  territory.     See  Berlin  Act. 

1884-1885.— Journey  of  Mr.  Walter  M.  Kerr 
from  Cape  Colony,  across  the  Zambezi,  to  Lake 
Nyasa,  and  down  the  Shire  river   to  the  coast. 

1884-1885.— Travels  of  Mr.  F.  L.  James  and 
party  in  the  Somali  country. 

1884-1887. — Exploration  by  Dr.  Schinz  of  the 
newly    acquired    German    territories   in    Africa. 

1884-1893. — England,  France  and  Germany  on 
the  Niger  coast.  Settlement  of  the  boundary  of 
Sudan  and  Sahara  sphere.  See  Nigeria,  Protector- 
ate of:  1882-1899. 

1885. — Transfer  of  the  rights  of  the  Society  of 
German  Colonization  to  the  German  East  Africa 
company,  and  extension  of  imperial  protection  to 
the  territories  claimed  by  the  company.  German 
acquisition    of   Witu,   north   of   Zanzibar. 

1885. — Agreement  between  Germany  and  France, 
defining  their  respective  spheres  of  influence  on 
the  bight  of  Biafra,  on  the  slave  coast  and  in 
Senegambia. 

1885. — Transformation  of  the  Congo  association 
into  the  independent  state  of  the  Congo,  with 
King  Leopold  of  Belgium  as  its  sovereign. 

1885. — British  protectorate  extended  to  the  Zam- 
bezi, over  the  country  west  of  the  Portuguese 
province  of  Sofala,  to  the  20th  degree  of  east 
longitude. 

1885. — British  protectorate  extended  over  the 
remainder  of  Bechuanaland. 

1885. — Italian  occupation  of  Massawa,  on  the 
Red  sea. 

1885. — Mission  of  Mr,  Joseph  Thomson,  for  the 
National  African  company,  up  the  Niger,  to  Sokoto 
and  Gando,  securing  treaties  with  the  sultans 
under  which  the  company  acquired  paramount 
rights. 

1885-1888. — Mission  of  M.  Eorelli  to  the  king- 
dom of  Shoa  (southern  Ethiopia)  and  south  of  it. 

1885-1889.— When,  after  the  fall  of  Khartum 
and  the  death  of  General  Gordon,  in  1885,  the 
Sudan  was  abandoned  to  the  Mahdi  and  the  fa- 
natical Mohammedans  of  the  interior,  Dr.  Eduard 
Schnitzer,  better  known  as  Emin  Pasha,  who  had 
been  in  command,  under  Gordon,  of  the  province 
of  the  equator,  extending  up  to  lake  Albert,  was 
cut  off  for  six  years  from  communication  with  the 
civilized  world.  In  1887  an  expedition  to  rescue 
him  and  his  command  was  sent  out  under  Henry 
M.  Stanley.  It  entered  the  continent  from  the 
west,  made  its  way  up  the  Congo  and  the  Aruwimi 
to  Yambuya ;  thence  through  the  unexplored  region 
to   lake   Albert   Nyanza   and   into   communication 


97 


AFRICA,  1886 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1890-1891 


with  Emin  Pasha;  then  returning  to  Yambuya  for 
the  rearguard  which  had  been  left  there ;  again 
traversing  the  savage  land  to  lake  Albert,  and 
passing  from  there,  with  Emin  and  his  companions, 
by  way  of  lake  Albert  Edward  Xyanza  (then 
ascertained  to  be  the  ultimate  reservoir  of  the 
Nile  system)  around  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  \ictoria  Xyanza,  to  Zanzibar,  which  was 
reached  at  the  end  of   1889. 

1886.— Settlement  between  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  of  the  coast  territory  to  be  left  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  and 
of  the  "spheres  of  influence"  to  be  appropriated 
respectively  by  themselves,  between  the  lakes  and 
the  eastern  coast,  north  of  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions. 

1886.— Agreement  between  France  and  Portugal 
defining  limits  of  territory  in  Senegambia  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Congo. 

1886. — Transformation  of  the  National  African 
company  into  the  British  Royal  Niger  company, 
with  a  charter  giving  powers  of  administration 
over  a  large  domain  on  the  river  Niger. 

1886. — Mission  station  founded  by  Mr.  Arnot  at 
Bunkeya,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Congo 
State.  ' 

1886-1887. — Journey  of  Lieutenant  Wissmann 
across  the  continent,  from  Luluaburg.  a  station  of 
the  Congo  association,  in  the  dominion  of  Muata 
Yanvo.  to  Nyangwe,  on  the  Lualaba,  and  thence 
to  Zanzibar. 

1886-1889. — Expeditions  of  Dr.  Zintgraff  in  the 
Cameroons  interior  and  to  the  Benue,  for  the 
bringing   of   the   country   under   German  influence. 

1887. — .Annexation  of  Zululand.  partly  to  the 
Transvaal,  or  South  .African  republic,  and  the  re- 
mainder to   the   British   possessions. 

1887. — French  gunboats  launched  on  the  Upper 
Niger,  making  a  reconnoissance  nearly  to  Tim- 
buktu. 

1887.— Identity  of  the  Welle  river  with  the 
M'bangi  or  Ubanghi  established  by  Captain  Van 
Gele  and   Lieutenant  Lienart. 

1887. — First  ascent  of  Kilimanjaro  by  Dr.  Hans 
Meyer. 

1887-1889. — Exploration  by  Captain  Binger  of 
the  region  between  the  great  bend  of  the  Niger 
and  the  countries  of  the  Gold  Coast 

1887-1890.— Expedition  of  Count  Teleki  through 
Masailand,  having  for  its  most  important  result 
the  discovery  of  the  Basso-Narok.  or  Black  lake. 
to  which  the  discoverer  gave  the  name  of  lake 
Rudolf,  and  lake  Stefanie. 

1888. — Chartering  of  the  Imperial  British  East 
.Africa  company,  under  concessions  granted  by  the 
sultan  of  Zanzibar  and  by  native  chiefs,  with 
powers  of  administration  over  a  region  defined 
ultimately  as  extending  from  the  river  Umba 
northward  to  the  river  Juba.  and  inland  to  and 
across  lake  Victoria  near  its  middle  to  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

1888. — British  supremacy  over  Matabeleland  se- 
cured by  treaty  with  its  King  Lobengula. 

1888. — British  protectorate  extended  over  .Ama- 
tongaland. 

1888. — Ascent  of  Mt  Kilimanjaro  by  Mr.  Ehlers 
and  Dr.  .Abbott ;  also  by   Dr.  Hans  Meyer. 

1888. — Travels  of  Joseph  Thomson  in  the  .Atlas 
and  southern  Morocco. 

1889. — Royal  charter  granted  to  the  British 
South  Africa  company,  with  rights  and  powers 
in  the  region  called  Zambezia  north  of  British 
Bechuanaland  and  the  South  .African  republic,  and 
between  the  Portuguese  territory  on  the  east  and 
the   German   territory   on   the  west. 

1889. — Will   of   King   Leopold,   making   Belgium 


heir  to  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Congo  Free 
State. 

1889. — Protectorate  of  Italy  over  Abyssinia  ac- 
knowledged by   the   Negus. 

1889. — Portuguese  Roman  Catholic  mission  es- 
tablished on  the  south  shore  of  lake  Nyasa.  Por- 
tuguese exploration  under  Serpa  Pinto  in  the  lake 
Nyasa  region,  with  designs  of  occupancy  frus- 
trated by  the  British. 

1889. — Journey  of  M.  Crampel  from  the  Ogowe 
to  the  Likuala  tributary  of  the  Congo,  and  return 
directly  westward  to  the  coast. 

1889. — Di.  Wolf's  exploration  of  the  southeast 
Niger  basin,   where   he   met   his  death. 

1889. — Major  Macdonald's  exploration  of  the 
Benue,  sometimes  called  the  Tchadda  (a  branch 
ot   the  Niger),  and  of  its  tributary  the  Kebbi. 

1889. — Journey  of  Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  north  of 
lake  Nyasa  and  to  lake  Leopold. 

1889. — Journey  of  Mr.  Sharpe  through  the  coun- 
try  lying  between  the  Shire  and  Loangwa  rivers. 

1889. — Mr.  Pigott's  journey  to  the  Upper  Tana, 
in  the  service  of  the  Imperial  British  East  Africa 
company. 

1889-1890.— British  protectorate  declared  over 
Nyasaland  and  the  Shire  highlands. 

1889-1890. — Italian  protectorate  established  over 
territory  on  the  eastern  (oceanic)  Somali  coast, 
from  the  gulf  of  Aden  to  the  Juba  river. 

1889-1890.— Imperial  British  East  .Africa  com- 
pany's expedition,  under  Jackson  and  Gedge,  for 
the  exploring  of  a  new  road  to  the  Victoria  Ny- 
anza  and  Uganda. 

1889-1890. — Captain  Lugard's  exploration  of  the 
river  Sabaki  for  the  Imperial  British  East  Africa 
company. 

1889-1890. — Journey  of  Lieutenant  ilorgen  from 
the  Cameroons.  on  the  western  coast  to  the  Benue. 

1889-1890. — French  explorations  in  Madagascar 
by  Dr.  Catat  and  MM.  Maistre  and  Foucart. 

1890. — .Anglo-German  convention,  defmin;  bound- 
aries of  the  territories  and  "spheres  of  influence" 
respectively  claimed  by  the  two  powers;  Germany 
withdrawing  from  Wiiu,  and  from  all  the  eastern 
mainland  coast  north  of  the  river  Tana,  and  con- 
ceding a  British  protectorate  over  Zanzibar,  in 
exchange  for  the  island  of  Heligoland  in  the  North 
sea. 

1890. — French  "sphere  of  influence"  extending 
over  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan,  from  Algeria  to 
lake  Chad  and  to  Say  on  the  Niger,  recognized 
by  Great  Britain. 

1890. — Exploration  of  the  river  Sangha,  an  im- 
portant northern  tributarv  of  the  Congo,  by 
M.  Cholet. 

1890. — Exploring  journey  of  M.  Hodislcr,  agent 
of  the  Upper  Congo  company,  up  the  Lomami 
river  and  across  country  to  the  Lualaba,  at 
N\angwe. 

1890. — Journey  of  Mr.  Garrett  in  the  interior 
of  Sierra  Leone  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Niger. 

1890. — Journey  of  Dr.  Fleck  from  the  western 
coast  across  the  Kalihuri  to  lake  Ngami. 

1890-1891. — Italian  possessions  in  the  Red  sea 
united  in  the  colony  of  Eritrea. 

1890-1891. — Mission  of  Captain  Lugard  to 
Uganda  and  signature  of  a  treaty  by  its  king 
acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  British  East 
Africa  company. 

1890-1891. — Exploration  by  M.  Paul  Crampel  of 
the  central  region  between  the  French  territories 
on  the  Congo  and  Lake  Chad,  ending  in  the  mur- 
der of  M.  Crampel  and  several  of  his  companions. 

1890-1891. — Journey  of  Mr.  Sharpe  from  Man- 
dala,  in  the  Shire  highlands,  to  Garenganze,  the 
empire  founded  by  an  .African  adventurer,  Msidi, 


98 


AFRICA,  1890-1891 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1893-1894 


in  the  Katanga  copper  country,  between  lake 
Mweru  and  the  Luapula  river  on  the  east,  and 
the  Lualaba   on   the  west. 

1890-1891. — Journey  of  Lieutenant  Mizon  from 
the  Niger  to  the  Congo. 

1890-1891. — Journey  of  Captain  Becker  from 
Vambuya,  on  the  Aruwimi,  north-northwest  to 
the  Welle. 

1890-1892. — Italian  explorations  in  the  Somali 
countries  by  Signor  Robecchi,  Lieutenant  Baudi 
di  Vesme,  Prince  Ruspoli,  and  Captains  Bottego 
and   Grixoni. 

1890-1893. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Stuhlmann,  with 
Emin  Pasha,  from  Bagamoyo,  via  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  and  the  Albert  Edward,  to  the  plateau 
west  of  the  Albert  Nyanza.  From  this  point  Dr. 
Stuhlmann  returned,  while  Emin  pursued  his  way, 
intending,  it  is  said,  to  reach  Kibonge,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Congo,  south  of  Stanley  falls.  He 
was  murdered  at  Kinena,  150  miles  northeast  of 
Kibonge,  by  the  order  of  an  Arab  chief. 

1891. — E-xtension  of  the  British  protectorate  of 
Lagos  over  the  neighboring  districts  of  Addo, 
Igbessa,  and  Ilaro,  which  form  the  western  bound- 
ary  of   Yoruba. 

1891. — Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Portu- 
gal defining  their  possessions ;  conceding  to  the 
former  an  interior  extension  of  her  South  .'\frican 
dominion  up  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Congo  Free  State,  and  securing  to  the  latter  de- 
fined territories  on  the  Lower  Zambezi,  the  Lower 
Shire,  and  the  Nyasa,  as  well  as  the  large  block 
of  her  possessions   on   the   western   coast. 

1891. — Convention  between  Portugal  and  the 
Congo  Free  State  for  the  division  of  the  disputed 
district  of  Lunda. 

1891. — Convention  of  the  Congo  Free  State  with 
the  Katanga  company,  an  international  syndicate, 
giving  the  company  preferential  rights  over  re- 
puted mines  in  Katanga  and  Urua,  with  a  third 
of  the  public  domain,  provided  it  established  an 
effective  occupation  within  three  years. 

1891. — French  annexation  of  the  Gold  Coast  be- 
tween   I^iberia    and    the    Grand    Bassam. 

1891. — Opening  of  the  Royal  Trans-African  rail- 
way, in  West  Africa,  from  Loanda  to  Ambaca,  1^0 
miles. 

1891. — Survey  of  a  railway  route  from  the  east- 
ern coast  to  Victoria  lake  by  the  Imperial  British 
East   Africa   company. 

1891. — Exploration  of  the  Juba  river,  in  the 
Somali   country,   by    Commander   Dundas. 

1891. — Exploration  by  Captain  Dundas,  from  the 
eastern  coast,  up  the  river  Tana  to  Mount  Kenia 

1891. — Mr.  Bent's  exploration  of  the  ruined  cities 
of  Mashonaland. 

1891. — Journey  of  M.  Maistre  from  the  Congo 
to  the  Shari. 

1891.^ — Journeys  of  Captain  Gallwey  in  the  Benin 
country.  West  Africa. 

1891. — Mission  established  by  the  Berlin  Mission- 
ary Society  in  the  Konde  country,  at  the  northern 
end  of  lake  Nyasa. 

1891-1892. — Incorporation  of  the  African  Lakes 
company  with  the  British  South  .Africa  company. 
Organization  of  the  administration  of  northern 
Zambezia  and  Nyasaland. 

1891-1892. — Expedition  of  the  Katanga  company, 
under  Captain  Stairs,  from  Bagamoyo  to  lake 
Tankanyika,  thence  through  the  country  at  the 
head  of  the  most  southern  affluents  of  the  Congo, 
the  Lualaba  and  the  Luapula. 

1891-1892. — Belgian  expeditions  under  Captain 
Bia  and  others  to  explore  the  southea^^tem  por- 
tion of  the  Congo  basin,  on  behalf  of  the  Katanga 
company,    resulting    in    the    determination    of    the 


fact  that  the  Lukuga  river  is  an  outlet  of  Lake 
Tanganyika. 

1891-1892.— Journey  of  Dr.  James  Johnston 
across  the  continent,  from  Benguela  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Zambezi,  through  Bihe,  Ganguela,  Barotse, 
the  Kalihari  desert,  Mashonaland,  Manica,  Goron- 
goza,  Nyasa,  and  the  Shire  highlands. 

1891-1892.— Expedition  of  Mr.  Joseph  Thomson, 
for  the  British  South  .Africa  company,  from  Kili- 
manc  or  Quillimane  on  the  eastern  coast  to  lake 
Bangweolo. 

1891-1892. — Journey  of  Captain  Monteil  from 
the  Niger  to  lake  Chad  and  to  Tripoli. 

1891-1892.— Exploration  by  Lieutenant  Chaltin 
of  the  river  Lulu,  and  the  country  between  the 
Aruwimi  and  the  Welle  Makua  rivers,  in  the 
Congo  State. 

1891-1893. — Journey  of  Dr.  Oscar  Baumann 
from  Tanga,  on  the  eastern  coast;  passing  to  the 
south  of  Kilimanjaro,  discovering  two  lakes  be- 
tween that  mountain  and  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 

1891-1894. — Expedition  under  the  command  of 
Captain  Van  Kerckhoven  and  M.  de  la  KethuUe 
de  Ryhove,  fitted  out  by  the  Congo  Free  State, 
for  the  subjugation  of  the  Arabs,  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  exploration  of  the 
country,  throughout  the  region  of  the  Welle  or 
Ubanghi  Welle  and  to  the  Nile. 

1892. — Decision  of  the  Imperial  British  East 
.'\frica  company  to  withdraw  from  Uganda. 

1892. — Practical  conquest  of  Dahomey  by  the 
French, 

1892. — Journey  of  M.  Mery  in  the  Sahara  to 
the  south  of  Wargla,  resulting  in  a  report  favor- 
able to  the  construction  of  a  railway  to  tap  the 
Central  Sudan. 

1892. — French  expedition  under  Captain  Binger 
to  explore  the  southern  Sudan,  and  to  act  con- 
jointly with  British  officials  in  determining  the 
boundary  between  French  and  English  yjossessions. 

1892. — Journey  of  Mr.  Sharpe  from  the  Shire 
river  to  lake  Mweru  and  the  Upper  Luapula. 

1892-1893. — Construction  of  a  line  of  telegraph, 
by  the  British  South  ."Xfrican  company,  from 
Cape  Colony,  through  Ma.shonaland,  to  Fort  Salis- 
bury, with  projected  extension  across  the  Zambezi 
and  -by  the  side  of  lakes  Nyasa  and  Tanganyika  to 
Uganda, — and  ultimately  down  the  valley  of  the 
Nile. 

1892-1893. — French  scientific  mission,  under  M. 
Decle,  from  Cape  Town  to  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 

1892-1893. — Italian  explorations,  under  Captain 
Bottego  and  Prince  Ruspoli,  in  the  upper  basin  of 
the   river   Juba. 

1893. — Brussels  antislavery  conference,  ratified  in 
its  action  by  the  Powers. 

1893. — Official  mission  of  Sir  Gerald  Porter  to 
L'ganda,  sent  by  the  British  government  to  report 
-  as  to  the  expediency  of  the  withdrawal  of  British 
authority  from  that  country. 

1893. — Scientific  expedition  of  Mr.  Scott-Elliot 
to   Uganda. 

1893. — Scientific  expedition  of  Dr.  Gregory,  of 
the  British  Museum,  from  Mombasa,  on  the  east- 
ern coast,  through  Masailand  to  Mt.  Kenia. 

1893. — Journey  of  Mr.  Bent  to  .^ksum,  in  Abys- 
sinia, the  ancient  capit.al  and  sacred  city  of  the 
Ethiopi.ms. 

1893-1894. — German  scientific  survey  of  Mt.  Kili- 
manjaro,  under   Drs.   Lent   and  Volken.s. 

1893-1894. — Expedition  of  Mr.  .\stor  Chanler 
and  Lieutenant  von  Hiilincl  from  Witu,  on  the 
eastern  coast,  to  the  Jombini  range  and  among 
the  Rendile 

1893-1894. — Explorations  of  Baron  von  Uechtritz 
and  Dr.  Passarge  on  the  Beniie. 


99 


AFRICA,  1893-1894 


Exploration 
Settlement 


AFRICA,  1897 


1893-1894. — Journey  of  Baron  von  Scheie  from 
the  eastern  coast  to  lake  Nyasa,  and  thence  by  a 
direct  route  to  Kihsa. 

1893-1894. — Journey  of  Count  von  Gotzen  across 
the  continent,  from  Dar-es-Salaam,  on  the  eastern 
coast,  to  the  Lower  Congo. 

1894. — Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Congo  Free  State,  securing  to  the  former  a  strip 
of  land  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile  between  the 
Albert  Xyanza  and  io°  north  latitude,  and  to  the 
latter  the  large  Bahr-el-Ghazal  region,  westward. 
This  convention  gave  offense  to  France,  and  that 
country  immediately  exacted  from  the  Congo  Free 
State  a  treaty  stipulating  that  the  latter  shall  not 
occupy  or  exercise  political  influence  in  a  region 
which  covers  most  of  the  territory  assigned  to  it 
by  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain. 

1894. — Franco-German  treaty,  determining  the 
boundary  line  of  the  Cameroons,  or  Kamerun. 

1894. — Treaty  concluded  by  Captain  Lugard, 
November  lo,  at  Nikki,  in  Borgu,  confirming  the 
rights  claimed  by  the  Royal  Niger  company  over 
Borgu,  and  placing  that  country  under  British 
protection. 

1894. — AL'reement  between  the  British  South 
Africa  company  and  the  government  of  Great 
Britain,  signed  November  24,  1894,  transferring 
to  the  direct  administration  of  the  company  the 
protectorate  of  Nyasaland,  thereby  extending  its 
domain  to  the  south  end  of  lake  Tanganyika. 

1894.— Renewed  war  of  France  with  the  Hovas 
of  Madagascar. 

1894. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Donaldson  Smith  from 
the  Somali  coast,  stopped  and  turned  back  by  the 
.\byssinians,   in   December. 

1894. — Completed  conquest  of  Dahomey  by  the 
French;  capture  of  the  deposed  king,  January  25, 
and  his  deportation  to  exile  in  Martinique.  De- 
cree of  the  French  government,  June  22,  directing 
the  administrative  organization  of  the  "colony  of 
Dahomey    and    dependencies." 

1894. — Occupation  of  Timbuktu  by  a  French 
force. 

1894. — Journey  of  Count  von  Gotzen  across  the 
continent,  from  the  eastern  coast,  through  Ruanda 
and  the  great  forest  to  and  along  the  Lowa,  an 
eastern  tributary  of  the  Congo. 

1894. — Exploration  of  the  Upper  Congo  and  the 
Lukuga  by  Mr.  R.  Dorsey  Mohun,  .American  agent 
on  the  Congo,  and  Dr.  Hinde. 

1894. — Scientific  expedition  of  Mr.  Coryndon 
from  the  Cape  to  the  Zambezi  and  lake  Tan- 
ganyika. 

1894-1895. — War  of  the  Italians  in  their  colony 
of  Eritrea  with  both  the  .•\byssinians  and  the 
Mahdists.  Italian  occupation  of  Kassala.  See 
Italy:   1805-1896. 

1895. — Franco-British  agreement,  signed  January 
21,  1805,  respecting  the  "hinterland"  of  Sierra 
Leone,  which  secures  to  France  the  Upper  Niger 
basin. 

1895. — Convention  between  Belgium  and  France 
signed  Februar>'  s,  recognizing  a  right  of  preemp- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  latter,  with  regard  to  the 
Congo  State,  in  case  Belgium  should  at  any  time 
renounce  the  sovereignty  which  King  Leopold 
transferred  to  it. 

1895. — Several  Bechuana  chiefs  visited  England 
to  urge  that  their  country  should  not  be  absorbed 
by  Cape  Colony  or  the  British  South  .\frica  com- 
pany. An  agreement  was  made  with  them  which 
reserved  certain  territories  to  each,  but  yielded 
the  remainder  to  the  administration  of  the  British 
South   .Africa  company. 

1895. — The  territories  previously  administered  by 
the  Imperial  British  East  Africa  company  (except- 


ing the  Uganda  protectorate,  which  had  been  trans- 
ferred in  1804)  were  finally  transferred  to  the 
British  government  on  July  i.  At  the  same  time, 
the  dominion  of  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  on  the 
mainland  came  under  the  administrative  control 
of  the  British  consul-general  at  Zanzibar. 

1895. — Proceedings  for  the  annexation  of  British 
Bechuanaland  to  Cape  Colony  were  adopted  by 
the  Cape  parliament  in  August. 

1895. — In  June,  M.  Chaudie  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general of  French  West  Africa,  his  jurisdic- 
tion extending  over  Senegal,  the  Sudan  possessions 
of  France,  French  Guinea,  Dahomey,  and  other 
French  possessions  in  the  gulf  of  Benin. 

1895. — A  resolution  making  overtures  for  a  fed- 
eral union  with  the  Transvaal  was  passed  by  the 
Volksraad  of  the  Orange  Free  State  in  June. 

1895. — By  a  proclamation  in  February,  the 
Transvaal  government  assumed  the  administration 
of  Swaziland  and  installed  King  Buna  as  para- 
mount chief. 

1895. — A  strip  of  territory  west  of  Amatonga- 
land,  along  the  Pondoland  river  to  the  Maputa 
was  formally  added  to  Zululand  in  May,  the  South 
.African    republic   protesting. 

1895-1896. — The  Portuguese  were  involved  in 
war  with  Gungunhana,  king  of  Gazaland,  which 
lasted  from  September,  1805,  until  the  following 
spring,  when  Gungunhana  was  captured  and  car- 
ried a  prisoner,  with  his  wives  and  son,  to  Lisbon. 

1895-1897.— Creation  of  British  East  Africa.  See 
British  East  Africa:   1805-1897. 

1896. — British  protectorate  over  Sierra  Leone; 
hut  tax;  insurrection  of  natives.  See  Sierra  Leone: 
1896. 

1896. — On  the  sudden  death  (supposed  to  be 
from  poison)  of  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  .August 
25,  his  cousin.  Said  Khalid,  seized  the  palace  and 
proclaimed  himself  sultan.  Zanzibar  being  an 
acknowledged  protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  the 
usurper  was  summoned  by  the  British  consul  to 
surrender.  He  refused,  and  the  palace  was  bom- 
barded by  war  vessels  in  the  harbor,  with  such 
effect  that  the  palace  was  speedily  destroyed  and 
about  500  of  its  inmates  killed.  Khalid  fled  to  the 
German  consul,  who  protected  him  and  had  him 
conveyed  to  German  territory.  A  new  sultan. 
Said  Hamud-bin-Mahomed,  was  at  once  pro- 
claimed. 

1897. — The  Congo  troops  of  an  expedition  led 
by  Baron  Dhanis  mutinied  and  murdered  a  num- 
ber of  Belgian  officers.  Subsequently  they  were 
attacked  in  the  neighborhood  of  lake  .Albert  Ed- 
ward Nyanza  and  mostly  destroyed. 

1897. — By  a  convention  concluded  in  July  be- 
tween Germany  and  France,  the  boundary  between 
German  possessions  in  Togoland  and  those  of 
France  in  Dahomey  and  the  Sudan  was  defined. 

1897. — In  January  and  February,  the  forces  of 
the  Royal  Niger  company  successfully  invaded  the 
strong  Fula  states  of  Nupe  and  Ilorin,  from  which 
slave  raiding  in  the  territor*'  under  British  pro- 
tection was  carried  on.  Bida,  the  Nupe  capital, 
was  entered  on  January  27,  after  a  battle  in  which 
800  Hausa  troops,  led  by  European  officers,  and 
using  heavy  artillery,  drove  from  the  field  an  army 
of  cavalry  and  foot  estimated  at  30,000  in  num- 
ber. The  emir  of  Nupe  was  deposed,  another  set 
up  in  his  place,  and  a  treaty  signed  which  es- 
tablished British  rule.  The  emir  of  Ilorin  sub- 
mitted after  his  town  had  been  bombarded,  and 
bowed  himself  to  British  authority  in  his  govern- 
ment. .At  the  <;ame  time,  a  treaty  settled  the 
Lagos  frontier.  Later  in  the  year,  the  stronghold 
at  Kifti  of  another  slave-raider,  Arku,  was 
stormed  and  burned 


TOO 


AFRICA,  lf)TH  CENTURY 


European 
Possessions 


AFRICA,  19T11  CENTURY 


1897. — Under  pressure  from  the  British  govern- 
ment, the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  issued  a  decree,  on 
April  6,  i8g7,  terminating  the  legal  status  of  slav- 
ery, with  compensation  to  be  awarded  on  proof 
of  consequent  loss. 

1897. — By  act  of  the  Natal  parliament  in  De- 
cember, i8q7,  Zululand  (with  Amatongaland  al- 
ready joined  to  it)  was  annexed  to  Natal  Colony, 
and  Dinizulu,  son  of  the  last  Zulu  king,  was 
brought  from  captivity  in  St.  Helena  and  rein- 
stated. 

1899-1902.— Boer  War. 

1901. — British  control  over  Somaliland.  See 
British  East  .'\frica:    iqoo-iqoi. 

1904. — Anglo-French  agreement  concerning  Egypt 
and  Morocco. 

1905. — Railroads.     See  Cape  to  Cairo  railway. 

1906. — Algeciras  conference. 

1909. — Establishment  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.     See  Sou"th  Africa,  Union  of. 

1911. — Franco-German  agreement  concerning 
Morocco. 

1911. — Accjuisition  of  part  of  French  Congo.  See 
Germany:  igii:  Acquisition  of  part  of  French 
Congo. 

1911. — Italian  occupation  of  Tripoli.    See  Italy: 

IQII. 

1913. — German  colonies. — Anglo-German  agree- 
ments. See  World  War:  Diplomatic  background: 
71,  xii. 

1918. — Campaigns  in  East  Africa  during  World 
War.  See  World  War:  igiS:  VII.  East  African 
theater:  a. 

1919. — Repartition  of  Africa  in  consequence  of 
the  World  War.  Nationalist  movements  in  Egypt 
and  Union  of  South  Africa.  See  Egypt:  igig; 
and  South  Africa,  Union  or:  igig. 

1920. — Organization  of  German  East  Africa  un- 
der British  rule.    See  Tanganyika  territory. 

1921. — British  East  Africa  re-named  Kenya  ter- 
ritory (q.  v.)  Cape-to-Cairo  aerial  mail  route  es- 
tablished.   See  Aviation:   1021. 

Early  19th  century:  European  possessions  In 
Africa. — In  the  year  1815  "the  eleven  and  one- 
half  million  square  miles  of  Africa  formed  no  part 
of  the  great  world  settlement  after  the  Napoleonic 
wars.  The  European  State  had  scarcely  pene- 
trated anywhere  into  the  Continent.  On  the  whole 
northern  coast  Europe  had  no  footing  at  all,  for 
Turkey  is  not  a  part  of  Europe.  The  whole  of 
the  west  coast  was  'independent'  except  for  the 
following  minute  European  claims  or  encroach- 
ments: I,  France  possessed  the  Senegal  coast  from 
Cape  Blanco  to  the  Gambia,  but  had  nowhere 
penetrated  inland  except  for  a  short  distance  along 
the  Senegal  River;  2,  Britain  had  possession  of 
small  patches  of  territory  on  the  Gambia,  and  the 
Gold  Coast  and  in  Sierra  Leone;  3,  Portugal 
claimed  territory  stretching  from  what  is  now 
the  southern  boundary  of  French  Congo  down 
to  Cape  Frio,  but  she  actually  occupied  only  a 
few  places  on  the  coast  in  what  is  now  Angola. 
She  also  possessed  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and 
a  small  extent  of  territory  in  Portuguese  Guinea ; 
4,  Spain  held  Fernando  Po,  and  Denmark  and 
Holland  a  few  stations  on  the  coast. 

"In  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  Africa  there  were 
only  two  places  where  the  European  State  had 
set  foot.  In  the  south  Britain  occupied  120,000 
square  miles  of  territory  in  her  Cape  Colony,  and 
on  the  east  coast  Portugal  had  an  undefined  claim 
to  a  strip  of  the  coast  between  Lourenqo  Marques 
and  Cape  Delgado.  Thus  in  1815  Europe's  claims 
to  African  territory  amounted  to  considerably  less 
than  500,000  square  miles.  .  .  .  But  we  must  re- 
turn to  the  period  1815-80.     The  increase  in  the 


territory  dominated  by  the  European  State  was 
due  entirely  to  the  French  conquest  of  Algeria 
in  the  north,  and  to  the  extension  of  the  British 
colony  in  the  south.  There  was  no  change  upon 
the  western  and  eastern  coasts  of  Africa." — L. 
Woolf,  Empire  and  commerce  in  Ajrica,  pp.  55-Sg. 

Later  19th  century:  Partitioning  of  Africa 
among  European  powers. — "For  centuries,  col- 
onisation in  Africa  was  confined  to  the  coast. 
Though  the  Portuguese  traversed  the  continent 
from  Angola  and  Mozambique,  their  occupation 
of  the  interior  was  never  effective,  and  even  on 
the  coast  their  claims  were  ill-defined.  Africa 
possessed  few  attractions.  It  had  been  drawn 
into  the  life  of  Europe  only  because  it  offered  har- 
bours on  the  route  to  India,  a  source  of  supply 
for  the  rough  labour  needed  in  tropical  colonies, 
and  a  scanty  trade  in  such  commodities  as  palm- 
oil  and  gold-dust.  During  the  middle  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  France  was  active  and  ambi- 
tious in  Africa.  She  established  her  power  in  Al- 
geria, and,  extending  her  influence  also  along  the 
Senegal  to  the  source  of  the  Niger,  planned  the 
union  of  these  dependencies  in  a  great  West  Afri- 
can empire.  In  South  Africa  England  had  strong 
colonies;  but,  with  a  dominion  vaster  than  public 
sentiment  approved,  she  refused  to  extend  her 
dominion  northwards  where  Dutch  exiles  were 
planting  new  States.  In  her  West  African  settle- 
ments she  took  little  interest.  .  .  .  Gambia,  Sierra 
Leone,  the  Gold  Coast,  and  Lagos,  which  was 
acquired  in  1861,  formed  the  group;  from  all  of 
which,  save  Sierra  Leone,  England  trusted  ulti- 
mately to  withdraw.  But  destiny  was  too  strong 
for  her.  First  the  Danes  (1850),  and  then  the 
Dutch  (1871),  handed  over  their  forts,  and  thus 
left  her  for  the  time  the  only  Power  established 
on  the  historic  Guinea  coast.  As  the  trade  in 
tropical  commodities  increased,  the  English  de- 
veloped commercial  interests  on  the  Niger  mouth, 
in  the  Cameroons,  and  in  Zanzibar,  which  in- 
terests German  merchants  came  to  share.  [See 
also  British  empire:  Expansion:  igth  century: 
Africa.] 

"Meanwhile,  a  generation  of  great  explorers  was 
opening  the  way  for  the  rapid  occupation  of  Af- 
rica. When  Livingstone  died  in  1873,  the  chief 
problems  of  African  geography  were  near  to  their 
solution.  Stanley,  De  Brazza,  Thomson,  and  other 
bold  travellers,  completed  the  work.  The  courses 
of  the  Niger,  the  Nile,  and  the  Congo  were  made 
known,  and  the  commercial  value  of  the  interior 
regions  of  a  neglected  continent  was  revealed. 
Signs  of  a  new  period  dawning  followed  each 
other  quickly.  The  English  changed  their  policy 
in  South  Africa;  the  French  increased  their  ac- 
tivity in  West  Africa.  In  i87g.  King  Leopold  of 
Belgium  formed  the  Brussels  International  Asso- 
ciation for  the  exploration  of  Central  Africa. 
This  body  divided  itself  into  national  committees, 
of  which  the  Belgian  concentrated  itself  on  the 
Congo  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  Congo  State. 
In  1882  England  commenced  that  fateful  inter- 
vention in  Egypt  which  led  on  to  a  protectorate, 
to  the  conquest  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  and  the 
control  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Nile.  Most 
significant  of  all  was  the  entrance  of  Germany 
into  the  colonial  field.  ...  In  1878  the  German 
African  Society,  and  in  1882  the  German  Colonial 
Society,  were  formed.  The  arguments  of  mer- 
chants with  substantial  interests  in  Africa,  the 
commercial  needs  of  a  great  empire,  the  course 
of  events  in  Africa,  at  last  convinced  Bismarck 
that  the  time  had  come  for  action.  In  Damara- 
land  and  N'amaqualand  German  missionaries  had 
taught,  and  German   merchants  traded,  for  forty 


lOI 


AFRICA,  lO.'.Il  CliNTUKT 


European 
Possessions 


AFRICA,  I'Jl'H  CENTURY 


years;  and,  since  Great  Britain  hesitated  to  under- 
take the  responsibihties  of  government  outside  of 
Walfisch  Bay,  a  German  protectorate  was  in  18S4 
proclaimed  over  the  remainder  of  the  coast.  To- 
goland  and  the  Cameroons  also  were  immediately 
afterwards  annexed;  and  Great  Britain,  thus  antic- 
ipated in  several  quarters,  now  hastened  to  ex- 
tend her  sovereignty  over  the  mouths  of  the  Niger 
and  the  Oil  rivers.  It  was  in  these  circumstances 
that  in  1SS4  an  international  Conference  assembled 
at  Berlin  to  con.sider  certain  African  questions. 
The  main  interest  was  concentrated  on  the  Congo. 
The  State  which  King  Leopold  had  created  re- 
ceived recognition,  and  the  Congo  basin  was  de- 
clared open  to  the  trade  and  navigation  of  all 
nations.  All  the  Powers  concerned  bound  them- 
selves to  suppress  the  slave  trade.  They  declared 
occupation  of  territory  to  be  valid  only  when 
effective,  and  they  defined  a  'sphere  of  influence' 
as  an  area  within  which  some  one  Power  possessed 
a  priority  of  claim.  This  preliminary  agreement 
facilitated  very  much  the  peaceful  settlement  of 
the  subsequent  territorial  controversies. 

"Africa  is  not  divided  into  very  clearly  marked 
geographical  areas,  but  the  problems  of  partition 
have  had  certain  defniite  centres  and  are  capable 
of  being  grouped.  West  Africa,  the  western  Sudan, 
and  the  Niger  basin  formed  one  sphere  of  opera- 
tions; the  Congo  Basin  another;  the  upper  Nile 
and  the  region  of  the  great  lakes  a  third;  Africa 
south  of  the  Congo  and  the  lakes  a  fourth.  Out- 
side of  these  there  remain  Morocco,  the  Mediter- 
ranean littoral,  Abyssinia,  Somaliland,  and  the 
surrounding  islands." — Cambridge  modern  history, 
V.  12,  pp.  257-25g. — See  also  Slavery:  Negro; 
South  Africa,  Union  or;  Sudan. 

West  Africa,  western  Sudan  and  Niger  basin. 
— "In  West  Africa,  the  French,  extending  along 
the  Senegal  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Niger, 
broke  the  power  of  the  independent  native  states, 
once  part  of  a  great  Moslem  empire  in  Central 
.■\frira  which  barred  the  way,  and  in  1S81  estab- 
lished a  protectorate  over  the  left  bank  of  the 
upper  Niger.  They  occupied  points  on  the  coast 
between  the  existing  settlements  of  the  English 
and  Portuguese,  which  they  linked  up  with  their 
acquisitions  in  the  interior.  They  overthrew  the 
kingdom  of  Dahomey  in  1892-4,  and  in  1803  en- 
tered Timbuktu.  Tlius,  by  their  earlier  and  su- 
perior energy,  they  secured  the  upper  Niger  and 
much  of  the  country  within  its  great  bend;  while 
closing  the  door  on  the  expansion  of  the  English 
and  Portuguese  settlements,  whose  natural  hin- 
terland this  would  have  been.  On  the  lower  Niger 
the  course  of  events  was  different.  The  English 
merchants  established  there  united  in  1879  to  form 
a  single  company,  which,  after  a  severe  struggle, 
defeated  and  bought  out  a  rivah  French  institution. 
By  Treaties  with  the  Sultans  of  Sokoto  and 
Gando  (1885),  it  secured  access  to  the  Benuo  and 
Lake  Chad,  which  the  Germans,  operating  from 
the  Cameroons,  were  preparing  to  close.  In  1886 
it  received  a  charter  of  incorporation  as  the  Royal 
Niger  Company,  and  untlertook  the  task  of  pene- 
trating and  administering  an  immense  country. 
A  triple  contest  had  now  begun  for  the  trade  of 
the  central  Sudan.  The  French  from  the  west,  the 
English  up  the  Niger  and  Benuc,  the  Germans 
from  the  Cameroons,  all  pressed  towards  Lake 
Chad,  where  they  met,  and,  by  a  series  of  agree- 
ments between  i886  and  igo6,  divided  their 
spheres  of  influence.  England  left  to  Germany 
the  area  between  the  Cameroons  and  British  East 
Africa,  which  Germany  divided  with  Fraace,  re- 
signing to  her  the  territory  east  of  the  Shari  and 
making    her   England's   neighbour    in    Darfur    and 


Bahr-el-Gazal.  France  (hus  gained  the  oppor- 
tunity of  extending  her  North  African  empire  to 
the  Nile  and  the  Congo;  but,  while  she  linked  up 
the  French  Congo  with  her  other  possessions,  her 
advance  to  the  Nile  was  frustrated  by  the  simul- 
taneous approach  of  the  English  southwards  from 
Egypt. 

"Thus  has  North-western  Africa  been  divided 
up  [1919].  In  the  northern  corner  lies  the  un- 
tamed empire  of  Morocco  whose  trade  and  sea- 
ports have  proved  a  dangerous  cause  of  dispute 
amongst  the  Powers.  Then  Spain  holds  Tiris,  and 
the  English  the  river  Gambia,  though  its  trade  is 
now  largely  in  French  hands;  while,  between 
Cape  Roxo  and  the  river  Cajet,  Portugal  retains 
a  last  foothold  on  the  coast  which  her  navigators 
first  explored.  Save  for  these  two  places,  the 
French  hold  all  the  coast  from  Cape  Blanco  to  the 
English  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  now  an  important 
commercial  emporium  through  which  much  trade 
with  the  interior  passes.  Liberia,  a  Negro  republic, 
adjoins  it,  while  on  the  historic  Ivory  Coast  the 
French  again  are  established.  The  Gold  Coast 
retains  its  ancient  name,  though  it  has  added  a 
considerable  hinterland.  It  still  yields  gold  with 
other  more  valuable  products,  but  suffers  from 
want  of  means  of  communication.  In  Togoland, 
as  in  the  Cameroons,  the  Germans  have  made  con- 
siderable progress.  To  the  east  lies  the  territory 
subjugaterl  by  the  French  in  1892-4,  and  east  of 
that  the  colony  of  Lagos,  now  included  in  Nigeria. 
In  iQoo,  the  Royal  Niger  Company,  after  con- 
quering the  Sultan  of  Nupe  in  1897,  surrendered 
its  political  privileges  to  the  Crown;  and  the  vast 
areas  which  it  had  governed,  together  with  Lagos 
and  the  Oil  rivers,  were  formed  into  the  two  pro- 
tectorates of  Northern  and  Southern  Nigeria. 
Shortlived  as  it  was,  it  takes  a  place  amongst  the 
great  commercial  companies  which  have  extended 
and  upheld  imperial  as  well  as  trading  interests  in 
distant  and  difficult  lands,  in  the  face  of  severe 
rivalries  and  great  financial  difficulties.  Envelop- 
ing Nigeria  and  the  Cameroons  as  well  as  the 
older  and  smaller  settlements,  and  stretching  from 
the  Mediterranean  in  the  north  and  the  Atlantic  in 
the  west  to  Darfur  and  the  Congo  east  and 
south,  sweeps  the  great  dominion  of  the  French, 
to  whom  has  fallen  the  interior,  immense  in  area 
though  often  of  little  value.  In  igo2,  it  was 
divided  into  five  administrative  territories,  with 
a  Governor-General  resident  at  Dakar." — Cam- 
bridge  modern   history,  v.   12. 

Upper  Nile  and  region  of  tue  great  lakes. — 
"Between  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Mozam- 
bique in  the  south  and  Somaliland  in  the  north, 
the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  ruled,  having  control  of 
the  coast  and  vague  claims  over  the  interior.  The 
commerce  of  his  kingdom  was  largely  in  the 
hands  of  English  and  Indian  merchants,  and  its 
administration  was  in  1878,  and  again  in  1881, 
offered  to  the  British  Government.  In  the  par- 
tition of  Africa,  his  territories  have  been  divided 
between  England  and  Germany.  Though  England 
and  France  had  agreed  in  1862  to  recognise  the  in- 
dependence of  Zanzibar,  German  emissaries  in 
1884,  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the 
Sultan's  position  in  the  interior,  negotiated  trea- 
ties with  some  of  the  inland  tribes,  and,  in  1885, 
a  German  East  Africa  Company  was  formed  to 
develop  the  territop.-  thus  acquired.  About  the 
same  time  a  British  East  Africa  Company  was 
formed,  and  the  two  associations  were  soon  in 
competition.  An  Anglo-German  agreement  in 
1886  made  the  first  delimitation  of  their  respective 
spheres,  and  confined  the  Sultan's  territory  to  a 
narrow  strip  of  coast  ...  on  parts  of  which  both 


102 


AFRICA,  1884-1899 


European 
Agreements 


AFRICA,  1884-1899 


Powers  speedily  obtained  leases,  lasting  for  two 
years  (1888-9)."  The  result  was  the  supersession 
of  the  company  by  the  Imperial  German  Gov- 
ernment and  the  purchase  from  the  sultan  of  the 
leased  territory  (1890).  "The  claims  which  the 
Germans  had  acquired  on  various  parts  of  the 
coast  and  in  the  interior  placed  them  in  a  posi- 
tion to  circumvent  the  English  on  the  north  and 
west,  and  to  gain  access  to  the  upper  Nile.  '  By 
an  important  agreement  in  iSgo,  which  settled 
many  difficulties,  their  sphere  was  more  expressly 
delimited.  They  surrendered  their  claims  on  the 
coast  between  VVitu  and  the  river  Jub.  The 
northern  boundary  of  their  territory  was  carried 
from  the  Victoria  Nyanza  to  the  Congo  State, 
excluding  them  from  the  upper  Nile ;  and  a  Hne 
was  drawn  on  the  south  from  Lake  Nyasa  to  Lake 
Tanganyika  dividing  their  possessions  from  British 
Central  Africa.  The  British  Government  declared 
a  protectorate  over  the  islands  of  Pemba  and 
Zanzibar,  and  the  dominions  of  the  Sultan  were 
thus  finally  partitioned.  While  Germany  thus 
withdrew  from  the  contest  for  the  upper  Nile, 
France  and  the  Congo  State  remained  as  rivals 
of  Great  Britain.  In  1890,  the  British  East  Africa 
Company,  which  had  received  a  charter  in  1888, 
asserted  its  authority  in  Uganda — a  country  di- 
vided at  the  time  by  fierce  feuds  of  a  mixed  re- 
ligious and  political  character.  The  resources  of 
the  Company  proved  unequal  to  the  task,  and 
two  years  later  it  withdrew;  but  its  action  resulted 
in  the  proclamation  of  a  British  protectorate  in 
1894.  In  the  following  year,  the  Company,  which 
had  remained  in  control  of  the  coast,  sold  its 
assets  to  the  State,  and  the  British  East  Africa 
Protectorate  was  formed.  To  this  Company  the 
British  owe  their  position  in  East  Africa,  for, 
though  it  never  prospered,  it  carried  British  in- 
fluence into  the  interior,  and,  when  it  failed, 
stronger  hands  took  up  its  work.  England  thus 
secured  her  position  on  the  upper  Nile,  and,  by 
leasing  the  Lado  enclave  to  King  Leopold,  en- 
abled him  also  to  attain  an  end  which  he  had 
sought  since  1SS4.  But  the  arrangement  which 
had  been  made  by  the  two  Powers  in  1S94 — 
that  King  Leopold  should  have  the  Bahr-el-Gazal 
basin  and  Great  Britain  a  strip  of  territory  be- 
tween the  Albert  Nyanza  and  Tanganyika,  link- 
ing up  her  East  and  Central  African  possessions — 
was  rescinded,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
of  France  and  Germany.  The  attempt  of  the 
French  to  reach  the  Nile  at  Fashoda  was  foiled 
by  the  English  conquest  of  the  Sudan  (1898). 
Experience  has  shown  that  East  Africa  is  of  more 
commercial  value  than  Uganda,  and,  owing  to  its 
altitude,  capable  in  part  of  European  settlement. 
In  189S,  the  construction  of  a  railway  was  begun 
from  Mombasa  to  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  it 
reached  in  1902.  The  possession  of  Uganda  is 
of  great  political  importance,  since  it  both  secures 
the  command  of  the  upper  Nile  and  offers  to  the 
spread  of  Islamic  movements  the  barrier  of  a 
Christian  native  State." — Cambridge  modern  his- 
tory, V.   12. 

Congo  basin. — "In  the  Congo  basin,  an  inter- 
national .  .  .  undertaking  issued  in  the  formation 
of  an  independent  State,  which,  in  the  process  of 
time,  has  become  a  Belgian  dependency.  The 
labours  of  English  and  American  explorers  pre- 
pared the  way  for  its  foundation ;  but  the  State 
itself  was  organised  by  King  Leopold,  who?e  posi- 
tion as  its  sovereign  was  recognised  by  the  Berlin 
Conference  and  the  Great  Powers.  By  successful 
war  and  more  successful  diplomacy,  he  enlarged 
its  territories  and  raised  its  status.  .  .  .  The  Congo 
State  was  in  1908  transferred  to  Belgium,  and  its 


rulers  have  thus  become  responsible  to  the  public 
opinion  of  a  nation." — Cambridge  modern  history, 

V.   12. 

Southern  Africa. — "Africa  south  of  the  Congo 
State  and  the  great  lakes  has  been  divided  be- 
tween the  Portuguese  operating  from  their  his- 
toric settlements,  the  English  advancing  north- 
wards from  Cape  Colony,  and  the  Germans.  The 
ambition  which  the  Portuguese  cnerished  to  unite 
Angola  and  Mozambique  in  a  transcontinental  do- 
minion was  frustrated  by  the  activity  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  Central  Africa.  Since  1878,  English  mis- 
sionaries and  traders  had  established  interests  in 
the  region  between  Lakes  Nyassa,  Tanganyika, 
and  Bangweolo.  This  region  the  Portuguese  en- 
deavored to  secure,  and  an  important  expedition 
was  dispatched  under  Major  Serpa  Pinto  to  extend 
their  claims  in  the  Zambesi  basin  (1889).  In 
1S91,  an  Anglo-Portuguese  agreement  divided  the 
disputed  territory.  Mashonaland  was  secured  to 
the  British  South  Africa  Company,  and  a  British 
protectorate  was  formed  in  Central  Africa,  a  large 
part  of  which  was  in  1894  added  to  the  Com- 
pany's sphere  of  operations.  The  share  which 
Portugal  has  thus  obtained  in  the  partition  of 
Africa,  though  not  commensurate  with  her  his- 
torical place  in  its  occupation,  has  been  more  than 
commensurate  with  her  capacity  to  develop  its 
resources.  .  .  .  The  Anglo-German  agreements  of 
1885  and  1890,  and  a  German-Portuguese  agree- 
ment in  1 886,  fixed  its  boundaries,  bringing  it  at 
one  point  to  the  Zambesi.  But  the  colony  has 
proved  expensive  and  disappointing.  Namaqualand 
is  dry  and  barren,  though  Damaraland  is  capable 
of  development  and,  possibly,  of  European  settle- 
ment. In  1904  a  serious  revolt  of  the  Hottentots 
and  Hereros  arrested  their  progress,  and  has  only 
recently  been  suppressed." — Cambridge  modern  his- 
tory, V.  12. 

Eastern  area. — "In  the  eastern  horn  of  Africa 
Italy  marked  out  for  herself  a  sphere  of  expan- 
sion. Occupying  first  the  bay  of  Assab  in  1870, 
she  secured  her  hold  in  18S2,  and  extended  her 
influence  along  the  Red  Sea  coast  to  Obok,  where 
the  French  had  established  themselves  in  1862. 
The  dependency  of  Eretrea  thus  created  proved 
expensive;  but  the  Italians  intended  to  use  it  as 
a  base  from  which  to  penetrate  Abyssinia.  That 
mountain  kingdom  lay  aloof  and  independent. 
In  1868  it  had  been  involved  in  war  with  England. 
When  the  proud  warrior  king,  Theodore,  offended 
by  the  action  of  the  British  Government,  threw 
the  British  consul  and  other  European  residents 
into  prison,  Abyssinia  was  invaded  and  Magdala 
stormed;  but  no  lasting  intervention  followed. 
Italy  was  less  happy.  Near  Adowah,  in  1896,  her 
forces  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  and  her  inten- 
tion was  foiled.  Meanwhile,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  horn  she  established  a  protectorate  over 
a  large  part  of  Somaliland,  where  she  found  a 
rival  in  Great  Britain,  with  whom  the  country 
was  divided.  The  prosperity  of  British  Somali- 
land  was  disturbed  by  a  destructive  war,  which 
broke  out  in  zqoi"— Cambridge  modern  history, 
I,  12. — For  European  occupation  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean area,  see  Morocco;  Algeria;  Tunis; 
Libya;  Egypt. 

1884-1899. — Agreements  among  European 
powers  on  the  partitioning  of  the  interior. — 
"The  partition  of  .\irica  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  Beriin  Conference  of  1884-85.  Prior  to  that 
Conference  the  question  of  inland  boundaries  was 
scarcely  considered.  .  .  .  The  founding  of  the 
Congo  Independent  State  was  probably  the  most 
important  result  of  the  Conference.  .  .  .  Two 
months    after    the    Conference    had   concluded   its 


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AFRICA,  1884-1899 


labours,  Great  Britain  and  Germany  had  a  serious 
dispute  in  regard  to  their  respective  spheres  of  in- 
fluence on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  .  .  .  The  com- 
promise .  .  .  arrived  at  placed  the  Mission  Sta- 
tion of  Victoria  within  the  German  sphere  of  in- 
fluence." The  frontier  between  the  two  spheres 
of  ijifluence  on  the  Bight  of  Biafra  was  subse- 
quently defined  by  a  line  drawn,  in  iS86,  from 
the  coast  to  Yola,  on  the  Benue.  The  Royal  Niger 
Company,  constituted  by  a  royal  charter,  "was 
given  administrative  powers  over  territories  cov- 
ered by  its  treaties.  The  regions  thereby  placed 
under  British  protection  .  .  .  apart  from  the  Oil 
Rivers  District,  which  is  directly  administered  by 
the  Crown,  embrace  the  coastal  lands  between 
Lagos  and  the  northern  frontier  of  Camarons,  the 
Lower  Niger  (including  territories  of  Sokoto, 
Gandu  and  Borgo),  and  the  Benue  from  Yola  to 
its  confluence."  By  a  protocol  signed  December 
24,  1S85,  Germany  and  France  "defined  their  re- 
spective spheres  of  influence  and  action  on  the 
Bight  of  Biafra,  and  also  on  the  Slave  Coast  and 
in  Senegambia."  This  "fi.xed  the  inland  exten- 
sion of  the  German  sphere  of  influence  (Camarons) 
at  is°  E.  longitude,  Greenwich.  ...  At  present 
it  allows  the  French  Congo  territories  to  expand 
along  the  western  bank  of  the  M'bangi  .  .  .  pro- 
vided no  other  tributary  of  the  M'bangi-Congo  is 
found  to  the  west,  in  which  case,  according  to 
the  Berlin  Treaty  of  1884-85,  the  conventional 
basin  of  the  Congo  would  gain  an  extension." 
On  May  12,  1880,  France  and  Portugal  signed 
a  convention  by  which  France  "secured  the  ex- 
clusive control  of  both  banks  of  the  Casaraanza 
(in  Senegambia),  and  the  Portuguese  frontier  in 
the  south  was  advanced  approximately  to  the 
southern  limit  of  the  basin  of  the  Casini.  On  the 
Congo,  Portugal  retained  the  Massabi  district,  to 
which  France  had  laid  claim,  but  both  banks  of 
the  Loango  were  left  to  France."  In  1884  three 
representatives  of  the  Society  for  German  Coloni- 
zation— Dr.  Peters,  Dr.  Jiihlke,  and  Count  Pfeil — 
quietly  concluded  treaties  with  the  chiefs  of  Use- 
guha,  Ukami,  Nguru,  and  Usagara,  by  which  those 
territories  were  conveyed  to  the  society  in  ques- 
tion. "Dr.  Peters  .  .  .  armed  with  his  treaties, 
returned  to  Berlin  in  February,  1885.  On  the 
27th  February,  the  day  following  the  signature  of 
the  General  Act  of  the  Berlin  Conference  [See 
Berlin  .^ct],  an  Imperial  Schutzbrief,  or  Charter 
of  Protection,  secured  to  the  Society  for  German 
Colonization  the  territories  .  .  .  acquired  for  them 
through  Dr.  Peters'  treaties:  in  other  words,  a 
German  Protectorate  was  proclaimed.  When  it 
became  known  that  Germany  had  seized  upon  the 
Zanzibar  mainland,  the  indignation  in  colonial 
circles  knew  no  bounds.  .  .  .  Prior  to  1S84,  the 
continental  lands  facinc  Zanzibar  were  almost  ex- 
clusively under  British  influence.  The  principal 
traders  were  British  subjects,  and  the  Sultan's  Gov- 
ernment was  administered  under  the  advice  of  the 
British  Resident.  The  entire  region  between  the 
Coast  and  the  Lakes  was  regarded  as  being  under 
the  nominal  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  .  .  .  Still, 
Great  Britain  had  no  territorial  claims  on  the 
dominions  of  the  Sultan."  The  sultan  formally 
protested  and  Great  Britain  championed  his  cause; 
but  to  no  effect.  In  the  end  the  sultan  of  Zan- 
zibar yielded  the  German  protectorate  over  the 
four  inland  provinces  and  over  Witu,  and  the 
British  and  German  Governments  arranged  ques- 
tions between  them,  provisionally,  by  the  .■\nglo- 
German  Convention  of  1886,  which  was  after- 
wards superseded  by  the  more  definite  Convention 
of  July  1800,  which  will  be  spoken  of  below. 
In  April   1887,  the  rights  of  the  Society  for  Ger- 


man Colonization  were  transferred  to  the  Ger- 
man East  Africa  Association,  with  Dr.  Peters  at 
its  head.  The  British  East  Africa  Company  took 
over  concessions  that  had  been  granted  by  the 
sultan  of  Zanzibar  to  Sir  WiUiam  Mackinnon, 
and  received  a  royal  charter  in  September  1888. 
In  South-west  .Africa,  "an  enterprising  Bremen 
merchant,  Herr  Liideritz,  and  subsequently  the 
German  Consul-General,  Dr.  Nachtigal,  concluded 
a  series  of  political  and  commercial  treaties  with 
native  chiefs,  whereby  a  claim  was  instituted  over 
Angra  Pequeiia,  and  over  vast  districts  in  the  In- 
terior between  the  Orange  River  and  Cape  Frio.  ' 
...  It  was  useless  for  the  Cape  colonists  to  pro- 
test. On  the  13th  October  1884  Germany  for- 
mally notified  to  the  Powers  her  Protectorate  over 
South-VVest  Africa.  ...  On  3rd  August  1885  the 
German  Colonial  Company  for  South-West  Africa 
was  founded,  and  .  .  .  received  the  Imperial  sanc- 
tion for  its  incorporation.  But  in  August  1886 
a  new  Association  was  formed — the  German  West- 
Africa  Company — and  the  administration  of  its 
territories  was  placed  under  an  Imperial  Commis- 
sioner. .  .  .  The  intrusion  of  Germany  into  South- 
west Africa  acted  as  a  check  upon,  no  less  than 
a  spur  to,  the  extension  of  British  influence  north- 
wards to  the  Zambezi.  Another  obstacle  to  this 
extension  arose  from  the  Boer  insurrection."  The 
Transvaal,  with  increased  independence  had 
adopted  the  title  of  South  African  Republic. 
"Zulu-land,  having  lost  its  independence,  was  par- 
titioned; a  third  of  its  territories,  over  which  a 
republic  had  been  proclaimed,  was  absorbed  (Oc- 
tober 1SS7)  by  the  Transvaal;  the  remainder  was 
added  (14th  May  1887)  to  the  British  possessions 
Amatonga-land  was  in  1888  also  taken  under 
British  protection.  By  a  convention  with  the 
South  African  republic,  Britain  acquired  in  1884 
the  Crown  colony  of  Bechuana-land;  and  in  the 
early  part  of  1885  a  British  Protectorate  was  pro- 
claimed over  the  remaining  portion  of  Bechuana- 
land."  Furthermore,  "a  British  Protectorate  was 
instituted  [1885]  over  the  country  bounded  by  the 
Zambezi  in  the  north,  the  British  possessions  in 
the  south,  'the  Portuguese  province  of  Sofala'  in 
the  east,  and  the  20th  degree  of  east  longitude  in 
the  west.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Mr.  Cecil 
Rhodes  came  forward,  and,  having  obtained  cer- 
tain concessions  from  Lobengula,  founded  the 
British  South  Africa  Company.  ...  On  the  2Qth 
October  i8Sg,  the  British  South  Africa  Company 
was  granted  a  royal  charter.  It  was  declared  in 
this  charter  that  'the  principal  field  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  British  South  African  Company  shall 
be  the  region  of  South  Africa  lying  immediately 
to  the  north  of  British  Bechuanaland,  and  to  the 
north  and  west  of  the  South  African  Republic, 
and  to  the  west  Of  the  Portuguese  dominions.' " 
No  northern  limit  was  given,  and  the  other  bound- 
aries were  vaguely  defined.  The  position  of 
Swaziland  was  definitely  settled  in  1800  by  an 
arrangement  between  Great  Britain  and  the  South 
African  repubUc,  which  provides  for  the  continued 
independence  of  Swaziland  and  a  joint  control 
over  the  white  settlers.  .\  British  Protectorate  was 
proclaimed  over  Nyasa-land  and  the  Shire  High- 
lands in  i88g-QO.  To  return  now  to  the  proceed- 
ings of  other  Powers  in  Africa:  "Italy  took  formal 
possession,  in  July  1882,  of  the  bay  and  territory 
of  Assab.  The  Italian  coast-line  on  the  Red  Sea 
was  extended  from  Ras  Kasar  (18°  2'  N.  Lat.) 
to  the  southern  boundary  of  Raheita,  towards 
Obok.  During  i8Sq,  shortly  after  the  death  of 
King  Johannes,  Keren  and  Asmara  were  occupied 
by  Italian  troops.  Menelik  of  Shoa,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Abyssinia  after  subjugat- 


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AFRICA,  1884-1899 


ing  all  the  Abyssinian  provinces,  except  Tigre,  dis- 
patclied  an  embassy  to  King  Humbert,  the  result 
of  which  was  that  the  new  Negus  acknowledged 
(2gth  September,  1889)  the  Protectorate  of  Italy 
over  Abyssinia,  and  its  sovereignty  over  the  ter- 
ritories of  Massawa,  Keren  and  Asmara."  By  the 
protocols  of  March  24  and  April  15,  i8gi,  Italy 
and  Great  Britain  define  their  respective  spheres  of 
influence  in  East  Africa.  "But  since  then  Italy 
has  practically  withdrawn  from  her  position.  She 
has  absolutely  no  hold  over  Abyssinia.  .  .  .  Italy 
has  also  succeeded  in  establishing  herself  on  the 
Somal  Coast."  By  treaties  concluded  in  iS8g, 
"the  coastal  lands  between  Cape  Warsheikh  (about 
2°  30'  N.  lat.),  and  Cape  Bedwin  (8  3'  N.  lat.)  — 
a  distance  of  450  miles — were  placed  under  Itahan 
protection.  Italy  subsequently  extended  (1890) 
her  Protectorate  over  the  Somal  Coast  to  the  Jub 
river.  .  .  .  The  British  Protectorate  on  the  Somal 
Coast  facing  Aden,  now  extends  from  the  Italian 
frontier  at  Ras  Hafiin  to  Ras  Jibute  (43°  15'  E. 
long.).  .  .  .  The  activity  of  France  in  her  Sene- 
gambian  province,  .  .  .  during  the  last  hundred 
years  .  .  .  has  finally  resulted  in  a  considerable 
expansion  of  her  territory.  .  .  .  The  French  have 
established  a  claim  over  the  country  intervening 
between  our  Gold  Coast  Colony  and  Liberia.  A 
more  precise  delimitation  of  the  frontier  between 
Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  resulted  from  the  treaties 
signed  at  Monrovia  on  the  nth  November  1887. 
In  1888  Portugal  withdrew  all  rights  over  Da- 
home.  .  .  .  Recently,  a  French  sphere  of  in- 
fluence has  been  instituted  over  the  whole  of  the 
Saharan  regions  between  Algeria  and  Senegambia. 
.  .  .  Declarations  were  exchanged  (sth  August 
1890)  [between  France  and  Great  Britain!  with 
the  following  results:  France  became  a  consenting 
party  to  the  Anglo-German  Convention  of  ist  July 
i8qo.  (2)  Great  Britain  recognised  a  French 
sphere  of  influence  over  Madagascar.  .  .  .  And 
(3)  Great  Britain  recognised  the  sphere  of  in- 
fluence of  France  to  the  south  of  her  Mediter- 
ranean possessions,  up  to  a  line  from  Say  on  the 
Niger  to  Barrua  on  Lake  Tsad,  drawn  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  comprise  in  the  sphere  of  action 
of  the  British  Niger  Company  all  that  fairly  be- 
longs to  the  kingdom  of  Sokoto."  The  Anglo- 
German  convention  of  July,  1890,  already  referred 
to,  established  by  its  main  provisions  the  following 
definitions  of  territory:  "(i.)  The  Anglo-German 
frontier  in  East  Africa,  which,  by  the  Convention 
of  1886,  ended  at  a  point  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Victoria  Nyanza  was  continued  on  the  same 
latitude  across  the  lake  to  the  confines  of  the 
Congo  Independent  State ;  but,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  lake,  this  frontier  was,  if  necessary,  to 
be  deflected  to  the  south,  in  order  to  include 
Mount  M'fumbiro  within  the  British  sphere.  .  .  . 
Treaties  in  that  district  were  made  on  behalf  of 
the  British  East  Africa  Company  by  Mr.  Stanley, 
on  his  return  (May  i88q)  from  the  relief  of 
Emin  Pasha.  .  .  .  (2.)  The  southern  boundary  of 
the  German  sphere  of  influence  in  East  Africa  was 
recognised  as  that  originally  drawn  to  a  point  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa,  whence  it  was 
continued  by  the  eastern,  northern,  and  western 
shores  of  the  lake  to  the  northern  bank  of  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Songwe.  From  this  point  the 
Anglo-German  frontier  was  continued  to  Lake 
Tanganika,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  the 
Stevenson  Road  within  the  British  sphere.  (3.) 
The  Northern  frontier  of  British  East  Africa  was 
defined  by  the  Jub  River  and  the  conterminous 
boundary  of  the  Italian  sphere  of  influence  in 
Galla-land  and  Abyssinia  up  to  the  confines  of 
Egypt;  in  the  west,  by  the  Congo  State  and  the 


Congo-Nile  watershed.  (4.)  Germany  withdrew,  in 
favor  of  Britain,  her  Protectorate  over  Vitu  and 
her  claims  to  all  territories  on  the  mainland  to 
the  north  of  the  River  Tana,  as  also  over  the 
islands  of  Patta  and  Manda.  (5.)  In  South-West 
Africa,  the  Anglo-German  frontier,  originally  fixed 
up  to  22  south  latitude,  was  confirmed;  but  from 
this  point  the  boundary-line  was  drawn  in  such  a 
manner  eastward  and  northward  as  to  give  Ger- 
many free  access  to  the  Zambezi  by  the  Chobe 
River.  (6.)  The  Anglo-German  frontier  between 
Togo  and  Gold  Coast  Colony  was  fixed,  and  that 
between  the  Camarons  and  the  British  Niger  Ter- 
ritories was  provisionally  adjusted.  (7.)  The  Free- 
trade  zone,  defined  by  the  Act  of  Berlin  (1885) 
was  recognised  as  applicable  to  the  present  ar- 
rangement between  Britain  and  Germany.  (8.)  A 
British  Protectorate  was  recognised  over  the  do- 
minions of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  within  the 
British  coastal  zone  and  over  the  islands  of  Zan- 
zibar and  Pemba.  Britain,  however,  undertook 
to  use  her  influence  to  secure  (what  have  since 
been  acquired)  corresponding  advantages  for  Ger- 
many within  the  German  coastal  zone  and  over 
the  island  of  Mafia.  Finally  (9.),  the  island  of 
Heligoland,  in  the  North  Sea,  was  ceded  by  Britain 
to  Germany."  By  a  treaty  concluded  in  June, 
1891,  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  "Great 
Britain  acquired  a  broad  central  sphere  of  in- 
fluence for  the  expansion  of  her  possessions  In 
South  Africa  northward  to  and  beyond  the  Zam- 
bezi, along  a  path  which  provides  for  the  unin- 
terrupted passage  of  British  goods  and  British 
enterprise,  up  to  the  confines  of  the  Congo  Inde- 
pendent State  and  German  East  Africa.  .  .  .  Por- 
tugal, on  the  East  Coast  secured  the  Lower  Zam- 
bezi from  Zumbo,  and  the  Lower  Shire  from  the 
Ruo  Confluence,  the  entire  Hinterland  of  Mosam- 
bique  up  to  Lake  Nyasa  and  the  Hinterland  of 
Sofala  to  the  confines  of  the  South  African  Re- 
public and  the  Matabele  kingdom.  On  the  West 
Coast,  Portugal  received  the  entire  Hinterland  be- 
hind her  provinces  in  Lower  Guinea,  up  to  the 
confines  of  the  Congo  Independent  State,  and  the 
upper  course  of  the  Zambezi.  ...  On  May  25th 
1891  a  Convention  was  signed  at  Lisbon,  which 
has  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  between  Portugal 
and  the  Congo  Independent  State  as  to  the  pos- 
session of  Lunda.  Roughly  speaking,  the  coun- 
try was  equally  divided  between  the  disputants. 
.  .  .  Lord  Salisbury,  in  his  negotiations  with  Ger- 
many and  Portugal,  very  wisely  upheld  the  prin- 
ciple of  free-trade  which  was  laid  down  by  the 
Act  of  Berlin,  1885,  in  regard  to  the  free  transit 
of  goods  through  territories  in  which  two  or  more 
powers  are  indirectly  interested.  Thus,  by  the 
Anglo-German  compact,  the  contracting  powers 
reserved  for  their  respective  subjects  a  'right  of 
way,'  so  to  speak,  along  the  main  channels  or 
routes  of  communication.  Through  the  applica- 
tion of  the  same  principle  in  the  recent  Anglo- 
Portuguese  Convention,  Portugal  obtains  not  only 
a  'right  of  way'  across  the  British  Zambesi  zone, 
but  also  the  privilege  of  constructing  railways  and 
telegraphs.  She  thereby  secures  free  and  unin- 
terrupted connection  between  her  possessions  on 
the  East  Coast  and  those  on  the  West  Coast.  A 
similar  concession  is  made  to  Britain  in  the  Zam- 
besi basin,  within  the  Portuguese  sphere.  Finally, 
the  Zambesi  itself  has  been  declared  free  to 
the  flags  of  all  nations.  Britain  has  stipulated 
for  the  right  of  preemption  in  the  event  of  Por- 
tugal wishing  to  dispose  of  territories  south  of 
the  Zambesi."— A.  S.  White,  Development  of 
Africa,  2d.  e(f.— See  also  Delagoa  bay  arbitra- 
tion. 


105 


AFRICA,  1890-1906 


Distribution   of 
European   Sovereignty 


AFRICA,  1914 


1890-1906.  —  Agreements  among  European 
powers  on  the  regulation  of  the  slave  trade  and 
the  liquor  traffic. — On  July  2,  1S90,  a  convention 
relative  to  the  .African  slave  trade  was  framed  at 
a  conference  of  the  representatives  of  European, 
.\merican,  African,  and  .\siatic  states,  at  Brussels. 
The  treaty,  known  as  the  General  .\ct  of  Brussels, 
was  signed  July  2,  iSgo,  but  did  not  come  into 
force  until  .^pril  2,  1804.  The  text  of  it  may  be 
found  in  (U.  S.)  House  Doc.  No.  2-0,  sbth  Con- 
gress, 3d  Sess.  It  put  an  end  to  the  slave  trade 
(See  Slavery:  1860-1803)  and  either  forbade  en- 
tirely or  greatly  restricted  traffic  in  arms  or  liquors 
in  specified  regions.  Without  interfering  with 
European  settlements  in  the  North  and  South,  the 
.■\ct  was  designed  to  protect  the  native  races.  In 
June,  iSqo,  representatives  of  the  governments  of 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  Belgium,  Spain,  the 
Congo  State,  France,  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  Por- 
tugal, Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Turkey, 
assembled  at  Brussels,  with  due  authorization, 
and  there  concluded  an  international  convention 
resf)ecting  the  liquor  traffic  in  Africa.  Subse- 
quently the  governments  of  Austria-Hungary,  the 
United  States  of  .\merica,  Liberia  and  Persia,  gave 
their  adhesion  to  the  convention,  and  ratifications 
were  deposited  at  Brussels  in  June,  1900.  The 
convention  was,  in  a  measure,  supplemental  to  the 
General  Act  of  Brussels.  It  provided;  "Article 
I.  From  the  coming  into  force  of  the  present 
Convention,  the  import  duty  on  spirituous  liquors, 
as  that  duty  is  regulated  by  the  General  Act  of 
Brussels,  shall  be  raised  throughout  the  zone  where 
there  does  not  exist  the  system  of  total  prohibition 
provided  by  Article  XCI.  of  the  said  General  Act, 
to  the  rate  of  70  fr.  the  hectolitre  at  50  degrees 
centigrade,  for  a  period  of  six  years.  It  may,  ex- 
ceptionally, be  at  the  rate  of  60  fr.  only  the 
hectolitre  at  50  degrees  centigrade  in  the  Colony 
of  Togo  and  in  that  of  Dahomey.  The  import 
duty  shall  be  augmented  proportionally  for  each 
degree  above  50  degrees  centigrade ;  it  may  be 
diminished  proportionally  for  each  degree  below 
50  degrees  centigrade.  .\t  the  end  of  the  above- 
mentioned  period  of  six  years,  the  import  duty 
shall  be  submitted  to  revision,  taking  as  a  basis 
the  results  produced  by  the  preceding  rate.  The 
Powers  retain  the  right  of  maintaining  and  increas- 
ing the  duty  beyond  the  minimum  fixed  by  the 
present  Article  in  the  regions  where  they  now 
possess  that  right.  .Article  II.  In  accordance  with 
.Article  XCIII.  of  the  General  .Kat  of  Brussels, 
distilled  drinks  made  in  the  regions  mentioned  in 
Article  XCII.  of  the  said  General  .\ct.  and  intended 
for  consumption,  shall  pay  an  excise  duty.  This 
excise  duty,  the  collection  of  which  the  Powers 
undertake  to  insure  as  far  as  possible,  shall  not 
be  lower  than  the  minimum  import  duty  fixed  by 
Article  I.  of  the  present  Convention.  Article  III. 
It  is  understood  that  the  Powers  who  signed  the 
General  Act  of  Brussels,  or  who  have  acceded  to 
it,  and  who  are  not  represented  at  the  present 
Conference,  preserve  the  right  of  acceding  to  the 
present  Convention." — Great  Britain,  Parliamen- 
tarv  publications  {Papers  by  command:  Treaty 
series,  no.  13,  iqoo). — A  later  conference  at  Brus- 
sels in  iqo6  again  increased  the  duties  on  liquors, 
and  as  we  shall  see  below,  the  World  War  settle- 
ments secured  still  greater  protection  for  the 
African   native. 

1890-1914. — Extension  of  e.^isting  European 
possessions. — "The  period  1800-1014  again  shows 
a  change  in  the  nature  of  Europe's  penetration 
into  Africa.  On  the  east  and  west  coasts  the 
claims  of  po,sterify  had  been  fully  pegged  out  by 
the  different  States.     The  increase  in  territory  ap- 


propriated was  therefore  caused  by  extension  of 
existing  possessions  on  the  coast  into  the  hinter- 
lands. In  fact  in  these  regions  the  States  were 
occupied  not  in  acquiring  new  possessions,  but  in 
rounding  off  their  previous  conquests,  and  in  con- 
verting spheres  of  interest  into  full  colonial  do- 
minion. .\nd,  since  in  tropical  Africa  there  was 
nothing  left  for  Europe  to  do  but  attempt  to  di- 
gest what  she  had  swallowed,  those  who  still  had 
cravings  for  'expansion'  and  for  economic  imperi- 
alism had  to  turn  once  more  to  the  only  remain- 
ing places  where  it  was  possible  to  expand,  the 
north  and  the  south.  Consequently  the  history  of 
our  last  period,  1890-1014,  reverts  to  that  of  our 
first,  1S15-80,  the  penetration  of  France  into  the 
north  by  the  acquisition  of  Tunis  and  Morocco, 
and  the  penetration  of  the  south  by  Britain 
through  the  conquest  or  absorption  of  Rhodesia, 
the  Transvaal,  and  the  Orange  Free  State." — L. 
Woolf,  Empire  and  commerce  in  Africa  (1915), 
pp.  58-50. 

1914. — Distribution  of  European  sovereignty 
in  Africa. — "The  following  European  Powers  pos- 
sessed sovereign  rights  in  .Africa  before  the  war: 
— Britain,  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  Portugal, 
Italy,  and  Spain.  In  addition,  and  as  the  result 
of  the  Boer  War,  the  various  British  Colonies  in 
South  Africa  had  been  welded  together  and 
formed,  with  the  newly-annexed  Boer  Republics, 
a  self-governing  British  Dominion,  a  State  in 
.\frica  controlled  by,  and  in  part  composed  of, 
men  of  European  blood,  but  .\frican-born,  known 
as  The  Union  of  South  Africa,  and  stretching  from 
Capetown  to  the  Zambesi.  The  only  part  of 
Africa  enjoying  its  own  native  government  was 
.\byssinia.  For  although  a  certain  area  on  the 
Kru  Coast,  together  with  its  hinterland,  known 
as  Liberia,  supposedly  constitutes  a  'government' 
.  .  .  and  is  recognised  as  an  Independent  State, 
its  'government'  consists  of  a  few  thousand  de- 
scendants of  repatriated  .American  blacks,  who  en- 
joy no  authority  outside  the  confines  of  their  set- 
tlements on  the  coast  line.  Egypt  was  virtually, 
although  not  then  nominally,  a  British  dependency. 
I  give  below  the  African  dependencies  of  the 
various  European  government?  with  their  area  and 
population,  ...  as  they  existed  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war. 

BRITISH   AFRICA 

{.\:   Controlled  by  the  Colonial  Office) 

.Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Nigeria     336,080  1 7,100,000 

British   East  .Africa    246,822  4,038,000 

Uganda 121,437  2,803,494 

Sierra   Leone    31.000  1,400,000 

Nyasaland     39,801  i  ,000,000 

Gold    Coast     24.33s  853,766 

.Ashanti    24,800  287,814 

Northern   Territories    ....  31.100  361,806 

Basutoland     11.716  405.Q1.? 

Somaliland     68,000  310,000 

Gambia     4.S00  146,100 

Bechuanaland     275,000  125,35° 

Swaziland     6.536  9P.«59 

(B:     Controlled     by     the     British     South     Africa 
Company) 

.Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Rhodesia     4.^8.575         i.772,S" 


106 


AFRICA,  IQH 

(C:  Set j -governing    Dominion) 


Distribution   of 
European   Sovereignty 


AFRICA,  1914 


Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 
The  Union  of  South  Africa 
comprising  the  prov- 
inces of  the  Cape, 
Natal,  Transvaal,  and 
Oranse   Free   State 473, loo         5.073.394 

To  this  list  must  now  be  added  as  definiti'ly 
British:  — 

Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Egypt     400,000       11,287,300 

The    Sudan     984,520        3,000,000 

"The  total  of  British  Africa  covers,  therefore 
(exclusive  of  German  African  territory  conquered 
since  the  war)  an  area  of  3,517,322  square  miles 
with  an  estimated  population  of  51,055,407.  Of 
this  total  population  about  I'/j  millions  are  Euro- 
[jeans  or  half-breeds;  and  of  the  i^-j  millions, 
more  than  i'^  millions  reside  in  the  territories  of 
riie   South   African    Union.     This    leaves    250,000 


Europeans  for  the  remainder  of  the  gigantic  area 
affected,  and  Egypt  accounts  for  more  than  half 
of  these.  It  will  be  well  to  bear  this  fact  care- 
fully in  mind  when,  later  on,  we  pass  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  African  problem  in  its  funda- 
mental aspects. 

FKENCII    AFRICA 

-Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Ateeria     343.500  S.563,828 

Tunis     50,000  1,780,527 

West  Africa   1,478,000  10,465,072 

French    Congo    669,280  9,000,000 

Saharan    region    1,544,000  800,000 

Somali    Coast     5. 790  208,000 

Madagascar     228,000  3,104,881 

Morocco     219,000  5,000,000 

"The  total  of  French  Africa  embracefl,  there- 
fore, before  the  war  an  area  of  4,537,570  square 
miles  with  an  estimated  population  of  35,922,308. 
-'Mgeria  is  looked  upon  as  an  extension  of  France. 
The    total    European    population — chiefly    French, 


AFRICA  IN   1914 
107 


AFRICA,  1914 


Summary  of 
Eufopcan   Occupation 


AFRICA,  1914 


Italian  and  Spanish — in  igii  was  752,043.  The 
census  of  igii  showed  a  European  and  mixed 
European  population  in  Tunis  of  126,265,  of  whom 
46,044  were  French  (exclusive  of  the  army  of 
occupation)  ;  in  Madagascar  12,000,  of  whom  some 
10,000  were  French;  in  West  Africa  7,104,  of 
whom  6,377  were  French.  Before  the  war  there 
were  a  considerable  number  of  French  troops  and 
French  colored  troops  in  Morocco,  and  a  few 
hundred  French  and  other  European  residents. 
In  1Q14  the  European  population  of  French  Af- 
rica, apart  from  the  white  troops  in  Algeria, 
Morocco,  and  Tunis,  was  slightly  in  excess  of  a 
million. 

GERMAN   AFRICA 

"When  the  war  broke  out  Germany  possessed 
three  considerable  dependencies  in  .Africa,  and  one 
small  dependency.     These  were: 

Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Karaerun        (the       Came- 

roons)     281,950  3,720,000 

German   East  .Africa    384,000  7,651,106 

German  South-Wtst  Af- 
rica       322'.450  94,386 

Togo    33,700  1,031,078 

".\  total  of  1,022,100  square  miles  with  a  popu- 
lation  of    12,497,470. 

'The  European  population,  mostly  German, 
numbered  under  20,000. 

BELGIAN    AFRICA 

"In  October,  1008,  Belgium  annexed  the  Congo 
Free  State  founded,  under  Treaty  stipulations,  by 
King  Leopold  11  in  1S84-5,  and  thereby  became  an 
.\frican  Power.  The  area  of  the  Belgian  Congo  is 
just  under  one  million  square  miles  with  a  native 
population  enormously  reduced  from  the  Stanleyan 
period.  In  igoS  the  British  Consular  staff,  basing 
its  calculations  on  the  taxable  returns,  estimated 
the  population  at  some  eight  millions.  There  were 
4,000  Europeans  in  the  territory,  a  little  over  one- 
half  of  this  number  being  Belgians. 

PORTUGUESE    AFRICA 

Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Angola    (and  Kabinda)...  480,000  5,000.000 

Portuguese   East   .Africa...  300.000  3,200,000 

Portuguese    Guinea    13.Q40  820,000 

The    Cocoa    Islands    (San 

Thome   and    Principe)..  442  45,ooo 

ITALIAN    AFRICA 

Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Tripoli     406,000  523,176 

Italian  Somaliland    130,430  400,000 

Eritrea     45,800  450,000 

SPANISH    AFRICA 

-Area  in 
Square  Miles  Population 

Rio  de  Oro  73,000  12.000 

Spanish    Guinea    12,000  200,000 

Various  enclaves  north  of 
the  Congo  and  the  Is- 
land  of  Fernando  Po..  814  23,844 


A  narrow  strip  of  territory  on  the  Mediterranen 
coastline  of  Morocco  and  a  small  'Enclave'  on  the 
.Atlantic  coast-line  of  Morocco." — E.  D.  Morel, 
Africa  and  the  peace  of  Europe,  pp.  11-15. 

Summary  of  European  occupation. — "Such,  in 
brief  outline,  is  the  process  by  which  Africa  has 
been  conquered  and  partitioned.  Africa  has  been 
an  eas>-  prey  because  of  its  divisions,  its  military 
weakness,  and  its  low  civilisations.  Though  no 
one  of  the  incoming  Powers  has  established  its 
position  without  a  struggle,  only  in  Morocco  and 
Abyssinia  has  the  native  opposition  proved  really 
formidable.  More  serious  difficulties  have  been 
encountered  in  the  settlement  of  rival  claims. 
England  and  Portugal  came  to  the  brink  of  war 
over  Central  Africa  in  1891,  as  did  England  and 
France  over  the  Sudan  in  1898,  and  France  and 
Germany  over  Morocco  in  1904.  The  wide  field 
of  enterprise  which  has  given  scope  to  the  ambi- 
tions of  every  colonising  Power,  a  spirit  of  reason- 
ableness, and  the  definite  principles  previously 
agreed  upon  for  the  decision  of  doubtful  questions, 
have  made  it  possible  hitherto  to  reach  a  peace- 
ful settlement  of  all  disputes.  The  political  di- 
visions have  not  been  formed  according  to  geo- 
graphical divisions — no  one  of  the  great  river 
basins  belongs  exclusively  to  a  single  Power — 
but  exhibit  a  strange  diversity,  being,  in  each 
sphere,  a  resultant  of  the  forces  which  historic 
position  and,  later,  energy  and  foresight,  gave  to 
the  competing  Powers.  England  owes  much  to  the 
happy  possession  of  points  of  access  to  the  interior 
from  south  and  north,  much  also  to  the  energy  of 
private  persons  acting  singly  or  through  Compa- 
nies, and  to  the  far-reaching  conceptions  of  a  few 
great  leaders ;  as  usual,  she  owes  least  of  any 
Power  to  the  direct  intervention  of  Government 
France,  too,  has  expanded  her  rule  from  historic 
settlements,  and  owes  her  great  dominion  to  the 
imagination  which  outlined,  and  the  steadfastness 
which  pursued,  a  vast  ambition.  The  pertinacity 
with  which  the  Germans  discovered  weak  points 
in  existing  claims,  the  swiftness  of  their  action, 
their  unyielding  diplomacy,  .  .  .  enabled  them, 
while  starting  without  advantages,  to  secure  ex- 
tensive possessions.  [See  also  Germany;  1906- 
1907.]  Belgium  owes  her  share  to  the  activity  of 
her  late  sovereign,  who  by  benevolent  profession 
rescued  a  mighty  domain  from  the  international 
scramble  to  transform  it  into  an  estate  for  private 
gain.  The  Portuguese  hold,  much  diminished,  the 
heritage  bequeathed  them  from  a  distant  past.  .  .  . 
The  work  of  conquest  and  poUtical  organiza- 
tion is  too  recent  for  us  to  estimate  its  effects  on 
the  peoples  of  .Africa,  and  that  of  economic  organi- 
zation is  but  beginning.  One  general  end  the  Pow- 
ers have  had  in  view — the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade  at  its  sources — now  practically  achieved 
after  a  century  of  effort.  Domestic  slavery — an 
ancient  African  institution — is  a  different  problem, 
but  it  has  been  discouraged  in  lands  under  direct 
British  government.  Tribal  life  continues  and  is 
deliberately  preserved.  The  transformation  of  the 
native  economy  has  not  been  attempted.  Whether 
desirable  or  not,  it  is  beyond  the  strength  of  any 
Government  yet  established  in  tropical  Africa. 
Economic  development  in  most  cases  proceeds  but 
slowly.  Governments  are  poor,  for  their  subject? 
are  poor;  and  the  problem  of  adapting  taxation 
to  the  organization  of  primitive  peoples,  though 
varying  in  difficulty,  has  nowhere  been  found 
easy.  The  immense  task  of  associating  the  native 
in  the  development  of  the  country  on  European 
lines  requires  so  considerable  a  change  in  his  ideas 
and  life  that  it  may  take  a  long  time  to  carry 
out,  save  where   it   is  attempted   by   methods  of 

108 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


Obstacles: 
Climate 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


compulsion  which  public  opinion  more  and  more 
decisively  condemns.  Yet,  without  the  aid  of  the 
native,  the  value  of  these  tropical  regions  to  their 
European  conquerors  is  much  diminished.  In 
Europe,  the  occupation  of  Africa  has  increased 
wealth  and  trade,  and  cheapened  some  of  the 
comforts  of  life ;  what  it  will  mean  for  Africa  can- 
not yet  be  judged." — E.  A.  Bcnians,  European 
colonies  {Cambridge  modern  history,  pp.  057-666). 

1914-1920. — Obstacles  to  European  occupa- 
tion.— There  are  many  obstacles  to  the  white  race 
from  Europe  overrunning  and  colonizing  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa  as  it  has  overrun  and  colonized  the 
two  .'\mcricas  and  Australasia.  One  is  the  insalu- 
brity of  the  well-watered  regions  and  the  unin- 
habitability  of  the  desert  tracts,  that  is,  the  cli- 
matic conditions.  Another  is  the  opposition  of 
strong  indigenous  races  influenced  by  successful 
Moslem  occupation  and  proselytizing.  A  third  ob- 
stacle is  the  lack  of  adequate  railway  communica- 
tion, although,  as  we  shall  see,  efforts  have  been 
made  to  build  many  new  lines.  Another  obstacle 
is  the  labor  problem,  and  still  another  is  a  body 
of  adverse  public  opinion  at  home,  based  largely 
on  the  fact  that  many  of  the  colonies  are  not 
self-supporting,  but  a  source  of  expense. 

(i)  Climatic  conditions  and  topographical 
FEATURES. — "Deserts,  to  be  made  habitable  and  cul- 
tivable, only  need  irrigation,  and  apparently  there 
is  a  subterranean  water  supply  underlying  most 
African  deserts  which  can  be  tapped  by  artesian 
wells.  The  extreme  unhealthiness  of  the  well- 
watered  parts  of  Africa  is  due  not  so  much  to 
climate  as  to  the  presence  of  malaria  in  the  sys- 
tems of  the  Negro  inhabitants.  This  malaria  is 
conveyed  from  the  black  man  to  the  white  man 
by  certain  gnats  of  the  genus  .Anopheles — possibly 
by  other  agencies.  But  the  draining  of  marshes 
and  the  sterilisation  of  pools,  together  with  other 
measures,  may  gradually  bring  about  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  mosquito ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  as  though  the  drug  (Cassia  Beareana)  ob- 
tained from  the  roots  of  a  cassia  bush  may  act  as 
a  complete  cure  for  malarial  fever.  .  .  . 

"For  practical  purposes  the  only  areas  south 
of  the  Sahara  Desert  which  at  the  present  time 
are  favourable  to  white  colonisation  arc  the  fol- 
lowing. In  West  Africa  there  can  be  no  while 
colonisation  under  existing  conditions;  the  white 
man  can  only  remain  there  for  a  portion  of  his 
working  life  as  an  educator  and  administrator. 
...  In  North-East  Africa,  .^byssinia  and  Eritrea 
will  suggest  themselves  as  white  man's  countries — 
presenting,  that  is  to  say,  some  of  the  conditions 
favourable  to  European  colonisation.  The  actual 
coast  of  Eritrea  is  extremely  hot,  almost  the  hot- 
test country  in  the  world,  but  it  is  not  necessarily 
very  unhealthy  The  heat,  however,  apart  from 
the  existence  of  a  fairly  abundant  native  popula- 
tion, almost  precludes  the  idea  of  a  European  set- 
tlement. But  on  the  mountains  of  the  hinterland 
which  are  still  within  Italian  territory  there  are 
said  to  be  a  few  small  areas  suited  at  any  rate 
to  settlement  by  Italians,  who,  by-the-by,  seem 
to  be  getting  on  very  well  with  the  natives  in  that 
part  of  Africa.  But  a  European  colonisation  of 
Abyssinia,  possible  as  it  might  be  climatically,  is 
out  of  the  question  in  view  of  the  relatively  abun- 
dant and  warlike  population  indigenous  to  the 
Ethiopian    Empire.  .  .  . 

"Then  comes  Central  Africa,  which  may  be 
taken  to  range  from  the  northern  limits  of  the 
Congo  basin  and  the  Great  Lakes  on  the  north 
to  the  Cunene  River  and  the  Zambesi  on  the  south. 
British  East  Africa  and  Uganda  offer  probably 
the  largest  continuous  area  of  white  man's  countn,' 


in  the  central  section  of  the  continent.  The 
Ankole  country  in  the  southwest  of  the  Uganda 
Protectorate  and  the  highlands  north  of  Tangan- 
yika, together  with  the  slopes  of  the  Ruwenzori 
range,  offer  small  tracts  of  land  thoroughly  suited 
to  occupation  by  a  white  race  so  far  as  climate  and 
fertility  are  concerned;  but  these  countries  have 
already  been  occupied,  to  a  great  extent,  by  some 
of  the  earliest  forerunners  of  the  Caucasian  (the 
Bahima),  as  well  as  by  sturdy  Negro  tribes  who 
have  become  inured  to  the  cold.  To  the  northeast 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  however,  there  is  an 
area  which  has  as  its  outposts  the  southwest  coast 
of  Lake  Rudolf,  the  great  mountains  of  Debasien 
and  Elgon,  and  the  snow-clad  extinct  volcanoes  of 
Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro.  This  land  of  plateaux 
and  rift  valleys  is  not  far  short  of  70,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  and  so  far  as  climate  and  other 
physical  conditions  are  concerned  is  as  well  suited 
for  occupation  by  British  settlers  as  Queensland 
or  New  South  Wales.  But  nearly  50,000  square 
miles  of  this  East  African  territory  is  more  or 
less  in  the  occupation  of  sturdy  Negro  or  Negroid 
races  whom  it  would  be  neither  just  nor  easy  to 
expel.  ... 

"The  only  portion  of  German  East  Africa  which 
is  at  all  suited  to  European  settlement  lies  along 
the  edge  of  the  Nyasa-Tanganyika  Plateau.  Here 
is  a  district  of  a  little  more  than  a  thousand  square 
miles  which  is  not  only  elevated  and  healthy,  but 
very  sparsely  populated  by  Negroes.  A  lew 
patches  in  the  Katanga  district  and  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  the  Congo  Free  State  offer  simi- 
lar conditions. 

"In  British  Central  Africa  we  have  perhaps  6,000 
square  miles  of  elevated,  sparsely  populated,  fer- 
tile country  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Nyasa  and 
along  the  road  to  Tanganyika.  There  is  also  land 
of  this  description  in  the  North-East  Rhodesian 
province  of  British  Central  Africa,  in  Manikaland, 
and  along  the  water-parting  between  the  Congo 
and  the  Zambesi  systems.  Then  in  the  southern- 
most prolongation  of  British  Central  .\lnc3.  are 
the  celebrated  Shire  Highlands,  which,  together 
with  a  few  outlying  mountain  districts  to  the 
southwest  of  Lake  Nyasa,  may  offer  a  total  area 
of  about  5,000  square  miles  suitable  to  European 
colonisation.  A  small  portiorf  of  the  Mozambique 
province,  in  the  interior  of  the  .\ngoche  coast, 
might  answer  to  the  same  description.  Then 
again,  far  away  to  the  west,  under  the  same  lati- 
tudes, we  have,  at  the  back  of  Mossamedes  and 
Benguela,  other  patches  of  white  man's  country 
in  the  mountains  of  Bailundo  and  Sheila. 

"In  South  Africa,  beyond  the  latitudes  of  the 
Zambesi,  we  come  to  lands  which  are  increasingly 
suited  to  the  white  man's  occupation  the  further 
we  proceed  south.  Nearly  all  German  South- 
west Africa  is  arid  desert,  but  inland  there  arc 
plateaux  and  mountains  which  sometimes  exceed 
8,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  which  have  a  sufficient 
rainfall  to  make  European  agriculture  possible. 
.  .  .  About  two-thirds  of  the  Transvaal,  a  third 
of  Rhodesia,  a  small  portion  of  southern  Bechuana- 
land,  two-thirds  of  the  Orange  River  Colony,  four- 
fifths  of  Cape  Colony,  and  a  third  of  Natal  sum 
up  the  areas  attributed  to  the  white  man  in  South 
Africa.  The  remainder  of  this  part  of  the  con- 
tinent must  be  considered  mainly  as  a  reserve 
for  the  black  man,  and  to  a  much  smaller  degree 
(in  South-East  Africa)  as  a  field  for  Asiatic  colo- 
nisation, preferentially  on  the  part  of  British  In- 
dians. 

"Counting  the  white-skinned  Berbers  and  Arabs 
of  North  Africa,  and  the  more  or  less  pure- 
blooded,   light-skinned    Egyptians,   as   white   men. 


109 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


Obstacles: 
Moslem   Occupation 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


and  the  land  tlicy  occupy  as  part  of  the  white 
man's  share  of  the  Dark  Continent,  we  may  then 
by  a  rough  calculation  arrive  (by  adding  to  white 
North  Africa  the  other  areas  enumerated  in  the 
rest  of  the  continent)  at  the  following  estimate: 
that  about  070,000  square  miles  of  the  whole  Af- 
rican continent  may  be  attributed  to  the  while 
man  as  his  legitimate  share.  If,  however,  we  are 
merely  to  consider  the  territory  that  lies  open  to 
European  colonisation,  then  we  must  considerably 
reduce  our  North  African  estimate." — H.  H.  John- 
ston, White  man's  place  in  Africa  (Nineteenth 
Century,  June,   1904). 

"What  is  Europe  going  to  do  with  Africa?  It 
seems  to  me  there  are  three  courses  to  be  pursued, 
corresponding  with  the  three  classes  of  territory 
into  which  Africa  falls  when  considered  geographi- 
cally. There  is,  to  begin  with,  that  much  restricted 
.  .  .  area,  lying  outside  the  tropics  (or  in  very  rare 
cases,  at  great  altitudes  inside  the  tropics),  where 
the  climate  is  healthy  and  Europeans  can  not  only 
support  existence  under  much  the  same  conditions 
as  in  their  own  lands  and  freely  rear  children 
to  form  in  time  a  native  European  race,  but  where 
at  the  same  time  there- is  no  dense  native  popula- 
tion to  dispute  by  force  or  by  an  appeal  to  com- 
mon .fairness  the  possession  of  the  soil.  Such 
lands  as  these  are  of  relatively  small  extent  com- 
pared to  the  mass  of  Africa.  They  are  confined 
to  the  districts  south  of  the  Zambezi  (with  the 
exception  of  the  neighborhood  of  the  Zambezi  and 
the  eastern  coast-belt)  ;  a  few  square  miles  on 
the  mountain  plateaux  of  North  and  South  Nyasa- 
land;  the  northern  half  of  Tunisia,  a  few  dis- 
tricts of  North-east  and  North-west  Algeria  and 
the  Cyrenaica  (northern  projection  of  Barka)  ; 
perhaps  also  the  northernmost  portion  of  Morocco. 
The  second  category  consists  of  countries  like 
much  of  Morocco,  .Mgeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli; 
Barka,  Egypt,  .\byssinia  and  parts  of  Somaliland; 
where  climatic  conditions  and  soil  are  not  wholly 
opposed  to  the  healthful  settlement  of  Europeans, 
but  where  the  competition  or  numerical  strength 
or  martial  spirit  of  the  natives  already  in  posses- 
sion are  factors  opposed  to  the  substitution  of  a 
large  European  population  for  the  present  own- 
ers of  the  soil.  The  third  category  consists  of  all 
that  is  left  of  .\frisa,  mainly  tropical,  where  the 
climatic  conditions  make  it  impossible  for  Euro- 
peans to  cultivate  the  soil  with  their  own  hands, 
to  settle  for  many  years,  or  to  bring  up  healthy 
families.  Countries  lying  under  the  first  category 
I  should  characterize  as  being  suitable  for  Euro- 
pean colonies,  a  conclusion  somewhat  belated, 
since  they  have  nearly  all  become  such.  The  second 
description  of  territory  I  should  qualify  as  'tribu- 
tary states,'  countries  where  good  and  settled 
government  cannot  be  maintained  by  the  natives 
without  the  control  of  a  European  power,  the 
European  power  retaining  in  return  for  the  ex- 
pense and  trouble  of  such  control  the  gratification 
of  performing  a  good  and  interesting  work,  and  a 
field  of  employment  for  a  few  of  her  choicer  sons 
and  daughters.  The  third  category  consists  of 
'plantation  colonies' — vast  territories  to  be  gov- 
erned as  India  is  governed,  despotically  but  wisely, 
and  with  the  first  aim  of  securing  good  govern- 
ment and  a  reasonable  degree  of  civilization  to  a 
large  population  of  races  inferior  to  the  European." 
Here,  however,  the  Europeans  may  come  in  small 
numbers  with  their  capital,  their  energy,  and  their 
knowledge  to  develop  a  most  lucrative  commerce, 
and  obtain  products  necessary  to  the  use  of  their 
advanced  civilization. — H.  H.  Johnston,  Coloniza- 
tion of  Africa,  pp.  278-279. 

(2)  Moslem  occupation. — Another  great  obsta- 


cle in  the  way  of  European  colonization  is  the  op- 
position offered  to  Christian  nations  by  the  rapid 
spread   af   the   Moslem   faith. 

"The  reasons  for  the  great  strides  that  Moham- 
medanism has  made  among  the  primitive,  pagan 
tribes  of  Africa  are  not  far  to  seek.  Before  an 
aggressive,  coordinating  faith  like  Islam,  the  in- 
ferior civilization  of  the  negro  kingdoms  and  states 
in  the  interior  practising  polytheism  and  fetichism, 
continually  at  war  with  each  other  and  thus  in  a 
perpetual  state  of  trade  stagnation,  must  inevit- 
ably give  way."  Through  the  ubiquitous  Arab 
traders,  all  of  whom  are  potential  missionaries, 
the  new,  simple,  quasi-political  doctrine  is  pecu- 
liarly attractive.  "And  it  has  progressed  in  the 
same  ratio  as  European  nations  have  penetrated 
to  the  interior,  and  pushed  their  hinterlands 
against  the  savage  negro  societies,  leaving  them 
exposed  to  the  fierce  light  of  civilization.  Thus,  in 
Islam,  these  kingdoms  and  principalities  of  back- 
ward races  are  finding  a  ready  and  effective 
method  of  centralization  and  government.  Pagan 
tribes  like  the  Gallas  and  Shoans  of  Ethiopia,  un- 
der centuries  of  fierce  and  perpetual  persecution 
from  their  Abyssinian  rulers,  successfully  resisted 
Christianity ;  yet  they  have  easily  fallen  under  the 
sway  of  Islam.  Even  so  in  the  interior  of  .'Xfrica 
and  along  the  coast,  wherever  Christian  mission- 
aries have  .  .  .  [come  in]  contact  with  them,  the 
savage  tribes  have  proved  impervious  to  all  Chris- 
tian advances,  but  have  readily  turned  to  Islam, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  for  centuries  they  were 
cruelly  exploited  by  the  Moslem  Arab  slave- 
dealers,  before  the  European  nations  stamped  out 
the  trade.  The  virtue  of  such  wholesale  conver- 
sions lies  in  the  ease  with  which  Islam,  like  Hin- 
duism in  India,  has  adopted  the  customs  and  tra- 
ditions of  its  rude  adherents.  The  community  life 
of  these  savages  is  allowed  to  continue.  Rigid 
though  Islam  is  on  the  subject  of  liquor,  yet  many 
of  these  tribes  still  retain  their  native  habits  of 
intemperance:  likewise  it  must  be  said  that  those 
tribes  on  the  coast  that  have  suffered  from  the 
early  European  drink  traffic,  being  of  a  higher 
order  of  intelligence  and  orthodoxy,  have  re- 
nounced liquor  with  their  conversion  to  Islam 
The  cannibalism  of  British  Ashantee,  of  French 
Dahomey,  the  fetichism  and  idolatry  of  the  rest 
of  Africa,  have  passed  away  in  the  wake  of  Islam, 
degenerating  though  the  new  influences  may  be  in 
the  eyes  of  the  orthodox  Islamic  pundits  of  .-M- 
.\zhar  in  Cairo.  Too  much,  however,  cannot  be 
made  of  the  reforming  influence  of  Islam  among 
the  savage  Africans.  .  .  .  The  .•\siatic,  and  like- 
wise the  African,  finds  himself  forlorn  and  isolated 
in  Christianity,  and  no  amount  of  official  protec- 
tion can  save  him  from  the  social  and  economic 
tyranny  to  which  all  such  converts  are  subjected 
In  Africa,  the  pagan  negro  races  find  themselves 
welcome  in  Islam  with  all  their  native  customs. 
They  are  allowed  to  practise  their  polygamy,  and 
their  family  or  home  unit  is  emphasized — a  factor 
of  prime  importance  in  .Asiatic  psychology  from 
China  to  Turkey.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much 
must  not  be  made  of  the  fact  that  Islam  encour- 
ages lust  and  easy  divorce.  Accurate  observers 
report  that  this  offers  no  particular  attraction  to 
savage  converts,  especially  when  such  vices  have 
long  been  endemic  among  African,  and  some 
.\siatic  tribes.  Not  the  least  picturesque  feature 
of  the  conversions  to  Islam  in  Asia  and  Africa  is 
the  important  part  played  by  women,  particularly 
when  we  consider  that  the  Prophet  degraded 
women  and  barred  them  from  the  rewards  of  a 
future  [life].  In  an  unconscious  way,  Islam  has 
spread   through   their  efforts.     Among   the   raiding 


no 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


Obstacles: 
Lack  of  Railroads 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


nations  of  Asia,  like  the  Mongols,  and  in  India, 
under  the  early  dynasties  and  later  under  the 
Mughals,  the  propagation  of  Islam  went  apace. 
When  a  raid  was  made  into  Moslem  territory  the 
women  were  carried  off  and  helped  to  convert  the 
pagan  tribe,  or  when  a  mercenary  Moslem  army 
lent  aid  to  a  foreign  kingdom,  as  in  the  case  of 
China,  and  was  invited  to  settle,  the  Mohamme- 
dans took  to  wife  the  women  of  the  country,  and 
thus  formed   another   outpost   of   Islam. 

"In  India  the  Mughal  consorts  founded  mad- 
rasahs or  endowed  schools,  which,  together  with 
libraries,  were  attached  to  their  tombs  and 
mosques.  In  the  course  of  the  many  ruthless  in- 
vasions that  have  swept  India,  when  devastation 
was  invariably  practised,  these  scmi-religiou?  foun- 
dations have  alone  survived  as  examples  of  their 
culture,  and  they  must  have  exerted  an  enormous 
influence  from  decade  to  decade.  In  Africa  the 
fanatical  Scnussei  sect  opened  schools  for  girls  in 
the  region  north  of  Lake  Chad.  This  form  of 
feminine  proselytism  has  also  been  most  active  in 
Africa,  especially  on  the  east  coast.  In  the  Sudan, 
Islam  has  spread  through  the  Egyptian  army — 
every  fellah  recruit  being  circumcised  at  enlist- 
ment and  given  a  rudimentary  education.  On  the 
expiration  of  his  term  of  service,  he  goes  back  to 
his  pagan  village  to  be  an  ardent  proselytiser 
through  his  wife.  In  German  East  Africa  the 
negroes  recruited  from  railway  and  plantation 
work  form  temporary  unions  with  the  Moslem 
women,  and  since  these  women  insist  upon  the 
Moslem  rite  of  circumcision,  the  men  are  thus 
converted  to  Islam,  and  eventually  take  the  new 
creed  back  to  their  villages.  Perhaps  the  strong- 
est reason  for  the  success  and  appeal  of  Islam 
throughout  the  Orient  and  Africa  is  the  .  .  .  insti- 
tution of  concubinage  and  marriage.  A  Moslem 
will  cherish  a  son  by  his  negro  wife  or  slave,  while 
he  readily  offers  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  a 
Moslem  negro.  Many  a  sultan  and  pasha,  many 
an  imam  and  saint,  has  not  considered  it  a  dis- 
grace to  acknowledge  the  negro  blood  in  his 
veins.  Thus,  in  Africa,  the  lack  of  any  social  dis- 
crimination or  ostracism,  together  with  a  com- 
pensating social  rise,  makes  admission  into  the 
Islamic  brotherhood   attractive. 

"Another  appeal  lies  in  the  chance  the  religion 
gives  warlike  tribes  to  continue  in  the  profession 
of  arms,  since  the  Faith  countenances  conversion 
through  conquest.  Wherever  such  races  in  Asia 
or  Africa  have  been  prevented  by  twentieth  cen- 
tury laws  and  order,  by  the  press  of  western  in- 
fluence or  domination,  from  indulging  in  their 
hereditary  pursuit  (excepting  a  few  military 
Hindu  tribes  like  the  Sikhs,  Gurkhas  and  Rajputs 
in  India)  they  will  be  found  to  flourish  under  the 
semi-military  caste  of  Islam.  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  the  Turko-Teuton  regime  seized 
upon  the  Moslem  idea  of  jihad  as  a  vehicle  for 
galvanizing   the  warlike  spirit  of  Islam.  .  .  . 

"In  Africa,  as  I  have  endeavored  to  show,  Islam 
is  rapidly  expanding  in  its  pristine  eighth-cen- 
tury character,  appealing  to  the  dark  world  of 
witchcraft  and  cannibalism  that  has  for  centuries 
made  the  African  a  problem  to  civilization.  Writ- 
ing in  1887  Bosworth  Smith  said:  'It  is  hardly 
too  much  to  say  that  half  of  the  whole  of  Africa 
is  already  dominated  by  Islam,  while,  of  the  re- 
maining half,  a  quarter  is  leavened  and  another 
threatened  by  it.'  In  this  great  Asiatic  religion  the 
African  negro  is  finding  a  facile  medium  of  com- 
munication and  expression ;  and  the  future  of 
Africa's  destiny  would  seem  to  lie  with  Islam." — 
W.  G.  Tinckom-Fernandez,  Asia  in  Africa  (.Asia, 
Nov.,  igi7.) — See  also  Wahhabis. 


(3)  Lack  of  railway  and  industrial  develop- 
ment IN  Africa. — Negotiations  for  the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  railway. — A  third  obstacle  to  European  col- 
onization lies  in  the  lack  of  adequate  railway 
facilities.  "Africa  is  a  big  continent — about  as 
large  as  the  United  States  of  America,  Mexico, 
Australia,  and  the  Continent  of  Europe  put  to- 
gether— and  as  late  as  1876  the  whole  of  this  vast 
area  possessed  less  than  400  miles  of  railway. 
It  has  been  the  last  of  the  great  areas  of  this 
world  to  become  civilized,  and  as  Livingstone — 
greatest  and  best  and  wisest  of  all  explorers — ■ 
predicted,  Africa's  salvation  is  coming  through 
its  industrial  development.  When  I  first  sailed  for 
Africa  in  1881  the  railway  had  only  been  extended 
to  Beaufort  West,  joo  miles  north  of  Cape  Town, 
where  I  took  the  coach  to  Kimberley.  In  1885 
the  railway  reached  Kimberley.  The  main  line 
was  next  pushed  north  to  the  Rand — the  greatest 
goldfield  in  the  world — and  the  shorter  'economic' 
lines  were  built  to  connect  with  Delagoa  Bay  and 
Natal.  The  Rand  was  discovered  by  the  British, 
and  the  people  of  this  country  put  millions  into 
its  development.  It  was  not  long,  however,  be- 
fore financiers  of  German  extraction  became  to  a 
large  extent  masters  of  the  Rand,  as  they  had 
become   of   Kimberley. 

"Rhodesia  was  the  next  big  mineral  develop- 
ment, and  therefore  the  next  of  Africa's  milestones 
on  the  road  to  civilization.  At  that  date,  iSgo, 
the  terminus  of  the  main  line  was  at  Vryburg,  and 
it  reached  Bulawayo  in  1807.  Rhodes  wanted  me 
to  report  on  the  mineral  prospects  of  Rhodesia. 
I  started  in  March,  1891,  and  reported  to  Rhodes 
that  the  minerals  were  there  all  right,  but  that 
he  must  have  a  shorter  economic  railway  from 
Beira  to  make  them  pay.  That  line  was  com- 
pleted to  Bulawajo  in  1Q02.  Rhodes  had  a  des- 
perate strug'j;le  with  the  finance  of  the  Rhodesian 
railways.  He  had  asked  the  British  Government 
to  guarantee  the  interest,  and  .  .  .  that  Govern- 
ment refused.  .  .  .  Rhodes's  friend  Pauling,  the  fa- 
mous railway  contractor,  and  the  Messrs.  Erianger,' 
bankers  of  this  city,  came  to  the  rescue — they,  too, 
greatly  aided  the  development  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, for  they  raised  about  £10,000,000  sterling  to 
finance  African  railways.  .  .  .  The  next  great  min- 
eral milestone  stands  1,000  miles  further  north,  in 
the  very  heart  of  Africa,  namely,  Katanga.  In 
1805  Rhodes  was  anxious  to  find  mineral  wealth 
in  Northern  Rhodesia,  and  I  sent  up  one  or  two 
of  my  best  men  with  instructions  to  examine  an 
area  several  hundred  miles  south  of  Katanga, 
where  gold  had  been  reported  to  exist.  As  my 
men  found  nothing  of  value.  I  stopped  operations 
there  and  did  nothing  further  until  iSqS,  when, 
once  again  at  Rhodes's  request,  I  agreed  to  make 
another  effort,  as  Rhodes  was  most  anxious  to 
find  minerals  that  would  help  his  railway  forward. 
But  as  my  services  at  that  time  were  exclusively 
bound  to  the  Zambesia  Exploring  Company, 
Rhodes  granted  certain  rights  in  which  that  com- 
pany should  have  a  large  interest.  This  grant 
included  the  right  to  locate  a  2,000  square  mile 
mineral  area  anywhere  in  Northern  Rhodesia,  to- 
gether with  a  township  and  pier  at  the  bottom 
uid  of  Lake  Tanganyika  which  was  intended  to 
be  the  terminus  in  Chartered  Territory  of  the 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railway.  I  organized  a  prospect- 
ing expedition,  and  appointed  the  late  Mr.  George 
Grey  (Viscount  Grey's  brother)  as  leader,  with 
instructions  to  search  for  minerals  as  close  up  to 
the  Congo  State  frontier  as  possible.  He  and 
his  party  discovered  the  Kansanshi  copper  mine 
in  Rhodesia,  12  miles  south  of  the  Belgian  Congo 
frontier. 


Ill 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


Obstacles: 
Lack  of  Railroads 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


"Meantime,  I  approached  King  Leopold,  and 
succeeded  in  making  an  agreement  with  him  which 
gave  the  Tanganyika  Company  the  sole  pros- 
pecting rights  for  minerals  over  60,000  square 
miles  of  the  Katanga  district  of  the  Congo  State, 
adjoining  Northern  Rhodesia.  The  King  did  not 
believe  I  should  prove  mineral  wealth  to  exist  in 
his  country,  as  Professor  Cornet,  the  well-known 
Belgian  geologist,  had  been  sent  out  by  him  to 
examine  certain  old  native  workings  which  had 
been  the  subject  of  comment  by  Livingstone, 
Cameron,  Stanley,  and  others.  The  report  by 
Professor  Cornet  (which  had  never  been  published) 
had  been  so  unfavourable  that  the  Belgians  made 
no  further  effort  for  eight  years.  George  Grey 
and  his  staff,  in  a  very  short  time  located  these 
mines,  probablj'  the  greatest  in  all  the  world, 
extending  over  about  250  miles  of  country — in 
short,  a  copper  Rand — and  many  other  deposits, 
including  gold,  tin,  and  diamonds.  Katanga  is 
now  giving  tangible  proof  of  its  mineral  resources. 
The  smelting  works  there  have  already  yielded  a 
total  value  of  over  £6,000,000  sterling,  although 
they  only  started  to  produce  on  a  small  scale  in 
1 91 2.  They  are  at  the  present  moment  produc- 
ing at  the  rate  of  30,000  tons  of  copper  per  an- 
num, of  a  value  of  about  £4,000,000,  and  this 
output  will  go  on  increasing  steadily  year  by  year. 
The  railway  developments  which  have  also  re- 
sulted from  the  opening  up  of  this  latest  mineral 
zone  will,  when  completed,  be  probably  the  great- 
est in  all  Africa.  Railways  are  now  coming  from 
the  north,  south,  east,  and  west  towards  this 
great  mineral  and  future  industrial  centre.  Thus 
are  minerals  once  again  proving  themselves  verit- 
able milestones  in  the  progress  of  African  civiliza- 
tion. 

"At  the  date  when  these  discoveries  were  made, 
it  was  Rhodes's  intention  to  take  his  Cape-to- 
Cairo  Railway  to  the  southern  end  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  to  utilize  the  400-mile  waterway 
as  part  of  the  route  towards  the  north.  But  Ger- 
many thwarted  his  scheme  by  refusing  to  recog- 
nize the  cession  of  the  strip  of  Congo  territory 
between  Lake  Tanganyika  and  Kivu,  granted  by 
King  Leopold  to  JEngland  to  enable  Rhodes  to 
carry  forward  this  railway.  The  reason  we  all 
now  know.  Germany  had  already  fixed  her  eyes 
on  the  Congo.  Rhodes  would  have  liked  to  run 
his  line  through  the  Congo  State,  and  he  tried  to 
negotiate  this  with  King  Leopold,  but  had  failed, 
and  he  suggested  I  should  approach  the  King 
with  a  view  to  securing  the  right  to  build  the 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railway  through  the  Congo  State 
to  the  Nile.  .  .  .  The  scheme  fell  through.  I  saw 
I  was  stone-walled,  and  I  therefore  studied  the 
map  of  Africa  to  find  an  alternative  route.  I  saw 
that  the  shortest  route  to  the  sea  was  along  the 
same  great  divide  between  the  Congo  and  Zam- 
besi Rivers,  as  that  on  which  we  had  discovered 
the  minerals.  It  led  from  Katanga  in  an  almost 
straight  line  westward  to  the  old  Portuguese  town 
of  Benguella.  I  saw  instinctively  that  the  eco- 
nomic route  from  Katanga  to  the  coast  lay  along 
the  old  slave-road,  and  moreover  that  this  route, 
with  Lobito  Bay  as  its  terminus,  was  nearer  by 
about  3,000  miles  to  England.  I  pointed  this  out 
to  King  Leopold,  and.  having  got  his  approval 
and  promise  of  cooperation.  I  went  to  Lisbon 
and  without  the  knowledge  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment secured  from  the  Portuguese  Government 
the  right  to  construct  the  Benguella  Railway.  But 
Germany  had  already  grasped  the  value  of  this 
route;  had  already  seen  the  future  agricultural  and 
trade  prospects  of  Angola,  and  realized  the  mag- 
nificent   advantages    of    the    natural    harbour    of 


Lobito  Bay,  how  valuable  it  would  be  as  the 
Western  port  to  her  Central  African  Empire. 
Four  years  before  Portugal  granted  me  the  Ben- 
guella Railway  Concession  Germany  had  induced 
the  British  Government  to  enter  into  a  secret 
agreement,  under  which  our  Government  had 
pledged  itself  not  to  interfere  with  Germany's 
political  efforts  in  Angola — the  very  country  in 
which  I  had  secured  the  right  to  build  a  trunk 
railway." 

"Mr.  Williams'  continued  efforts  to  .^iecure  British 
backing  for  the  completion  of  the  Cape-to-Caifo 
railway  were  also  futile.  He  went  to  London  to 
ask  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain  about  obtaining  the 
support  of  the  Government,  but  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's interest  in  the  project  was  not  of  a  mate- 
rial nature  and  the  Government  was  unwilling  to 
guarantee  the  interest  on  a  loan  to  the  railway. 
"I  again  met  King  Leopold,  and  we  resolved  upon 
a  great  cooperative  railway  scheme,  comprising 
over  3,000  miles  of  railway.  We  agreed  to  build 
the  Katanga  Railway  jointly,  in  order  to  link  up 
the  Rhodesian  Railway  with  the  navigable  Congo 
River  at  Bukama.  The  King  undertook  to  con- 
struct a  railway  from  Leopoldville  to  Bukama; 
also  the  section  that  would  connect  the  Benguella 
Railway  with  the  Katanga  Railway  and  the  cop- 
per belt,  and  the  earnings  of  all  these  railways 
were  to  be  'pooled.' 

"The  last  link  in  this  international  chain  of 
railways  proved  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  pro- 
vide for,  although  it  was  only  132  miles  in 
length  and  lay  in  British  territory.  It  was  the 
little  bit  between  Broken  Hill  in  Rhodesia  and 
the  Congo  frontier.  There  the  railway  stood 
literally  dying  for  want  of  traffic,  unwilling 
to  extend  itself  to  serve  British  or  Belgium 
interests.  I  saw  that  if  it  was  to  be  done,  I  must 
do  it  myself,  and  I  wrote  to  Dr.  Jameson  telling 
him  I  would  arrange  the  finance  for  the  Rhodesian 
section  on  certain  conditions,  with  which  I  need 
not  trouble  you.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  with  the 
assistance  of  Mr.  George  Pauling,  the  great  Af- 
rican railway  contractor,  and  the  Messrs.  Erlangef, 
bankers  of  this  city,  I  surmounted  the  difficulty. 
The  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway  was  arranged  for  at 
last."^R.  Williams,  Railway  developments  in  Cen- 
tral Africa  (The  Times  [London]  May  11,  igi?)- 
— See  also  R.\ilro.\ds:  1805. 

"Railroad  development  in  Africa  has  been  rapid 
in  the  past  few  years  and  seems  but  the  beginning 
of  a  great  system  which  must  contribute  to  the 
rapid  development,  civilization,  and  enlightenment 
of  the  Dark  Continent.  .Already  [in  i8qo]  rail- 
roads run  northwardly  from  Cape  Colony  about 
1,400  miles,  and  southwardly  from  Cairo  about 
1,100  miles,  thus  making  2,500  miles  of  the  'Cape- 
to-Cairo'  railroad  complete,  while  the  interme- 
diate distance  is  about  3,000  miles.  ...  .A  line 
has  already  been  constructed  from  Natal  on  the 
southeast  coast;  another  from  Louren(;o  Mar- 
quez  in  Portuguese  territory  and  the  gold  and  dia- 
mond fields;  another  from  Beira,  also  in  Portu- 
guese territory,  but  considerably  farther  north, 
and  destined  to  extend  to  Salisbury  in  Rhodesia; 
.  .  .  still  another  is  projected  from  Zanzibar  to 
Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  to  connect,  probably,  at 
Tabora,  with  the  transcontinental  line;  another  line 
is  under  actual  construction  westward  from  Pan- 
gani  just  north  of  Zanzibar,  both  of  these  being  in 
German  East  Africa;  another  line  is  being  con- 
structed northwestwardly  from  Mombasa,  in  Brit- 
ish territory,  toward  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
is  completed  more  than  half  the  distance,  while  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea  a  road  is  projected 
westwardly    into    .\byssinia,    and    is    expected    to 


112 


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Obstacles: 
Lack  of  Railroads 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


pass  farther  toward  the  west  and  connect  with 
the  main  Une.  At  Suakim,  fronting  on  the  Red 
Sea,  a  road  is  projected  to  Berber,  the  present 
terminus  of  the  line  running  southwardly  from 
Cairo.  On  the  west  of  Africa  lines  have  begun  to 
penetrate  inward,  a  short  line  in  the  French  Sudan 
running  from  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Sene- 
gal eastwardly  toward  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  Niger,  with  the  ultimate  purpose  of  connecting 
navigation  on  these  two  streams.  In  the  Kongo 
Free  State  a  railway  connects  the  Upper  Kongo 
with  the  Lower  Kongo  around  Livingstone  Falls; 
in   Portuguese   Angola   a  road   extends  eastwardly 


these  branches  connecting  it  with  either  coast. 
Another  magnificent  railway  project,  which  was 
some  years  ago  suggested  by  M.  Leroy  Beaulieu, 
has  been  recently  revived,  being  no  less  than  an 
cast  and  west  transcontinental  line  through  the 
Sudan  region,  connecting  the  Senegal  and  Niger 
countries  on  the  west  with  the  Nile  Valley  and 
Red  Sea  on  the  east  and  penetrating  a  densely 
populated  and  extremely  productive  region  of 
which  less  is  now  known,  perhaps,  than  of  any 
other  part  of  Africa.  At  the  north  numerous 
lines  skirt  the  Mediterranean  coast,  especially  in  the 
French  territory  of  Algeria  and  in  Tunis,  where  the 


MODERN   RAILROAD   LINES   IN   AFRICA 


from  Loanda,  the  capital,  a  considerable  distance, 
and  others  are  projected  from  Benguela  and  Mos- 
samedes  with  the  ultimate  purpose  of  connecting 
with  the  'Cape-to-Cairo'  road  and  joining  with  the 
lines  from  Portuguese  East  Africa,  which  also 
touch  that  road,  thus  making  a  transcontinental 
line  from  east  to  west,  with  Portuguese  territory 
at  either  terminus.  Farther  south  on  the  west- 
ern coast  the  Germans  have  projected  a  road 
from  Walfisch  Bay  to  Windhoek,  the  capital  of 
German  Southwest  Africa,  and  this  will  probably 
be  extended  eastwardly  until  it  connects  with  the 
great  transcontinental  line  from  'Cape-to-Cairo,' 
which  is  to  form  the  great  nerve  center  of  the 
system,   to   be   contributed   to   and   supported   by 


length  of  railway  is,  in  round  numbers,  2,250  miles 
while  the  Egyptian  railroads  are,  including  those 
now  under  construction,  about  i,soo  miles  in 
length.  Those  of  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  are  near- 
ly 3,000  miles,  and  those  of  Portuguese  East  Africa 
and  the  South  African  Republic  another  thousand. 
Taking  into  consideration  all  of  the  roads  now 
constructed,  or  under  actual  construction,  their 
total  length  reaches  nearly  10,000  miles,  while 
there  seems  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  great 
through  system  connecting  the  rapidly  develop- 
ing mining  regions  of  South  Africa  with  the  north 
of  the  continent  and  with  Europe  will  soon  be 
pushed  to  completion.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
railways  thus  far  constructed  are   owned  by   the 


113 


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Obstacles: 
Labor   Problems 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


several  colonics  or  States  which  they  traverse, 
about  2,000  miles  of  the  Cape  Colony  system 
belonging  to  the  Government,  while  nearly  all 
that  of  Egypt  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  State." 
— U.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Monthly  summary, 
August,    1899. — See   also    Cape-to-Cairo    railway. 

No  transcontinental  line  has  as  yet  (1921)  been 
completed,  but  in  the  years  preceding  the  World 
War  much  of  the  abov-e  mentioned  mileage  was 
constructed.  The  Cape  was  connected  with  the 
navigable  Congo  at  Bukama.  When  fmances  per- 
mit, it  is  intended  to  construct  the  main  line 
northward  through  Tanganyika  Territory  (for- 
merly German  East  Africa)  to  connect  with  the 
Egyptian  system,  thus  realizing  the  plan  of  Cecil 
Rhodes.  From  Dakar  at  Cape  Verde,  connection 
was  made  with  the  upper  Niger.  On  the  east  the 
road  from  Jibuti,  French  Somalilaiid,  was  extended 
to  the  Abyssinian  capital.  .Algerian  lines  were 
carried  farther.  No  early  day,  however,  can  be 
set  for  the  completion  of  a  through  East  and 
West  road,  a  trans-Sahara  route  or  even  a  Cape- 
to-Cairo  Railway. 

(4)  Labor  problems. — A  fourth  obstacle  to 
European  colonization  and  the  most  difficult 
"problem  of  trade  facing  the  administration  in 
Africa  is  that  of  labour.  The  question  is  com- 
plicated by  the  absence  of  certain  factors  which 
minimise  the  difficulty  of  the  labour  problem  in 
the  West.  Machinery  has  not  been  extensively 
introduced.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  absence  01 
railways,  a  fact  which  also  influences  the  problem 
when  the  difficulty  of  transporting  native  labour 
has  to  be  considered.  White  labour,  whether 
skilled  or  unskilled,  can  be  obtained  only  in  very 
small  quantities.  The  vast  mining  concerns  of 
South  Africa,  the  great  rubber  and  cocoa  planta- 
tions of  West  Africa,  the  growing  cotton  indus- 
try of  Uganda,  together  with  the  palm-oil  trade 
which  spreads  right  across  the  continent,  are  de- 
pendent upon  native  labour,  or,  failing  that,  upon 
some  substitute  which  will  be  equally  cheap.  The 
problem  of  the  industrial  companies  of  .Africa  is 
to  obtain  cheap  labour.  White  labour  is  too 
highly  paid  to  make  possible  any  large  demand 
for  white  labourers  in  those  classes  of  work  where 
muscle  rather  than  brain  is  required.  Cheap  la- 
bour may  be  bad  labour,  but  white  labour  is  often 
impossible  where  a  considerable  margin  of  profit 
is  essential.  In  course  of  time  it  may  be  possible 
to  secure  better  labour  by  the  payment  of  higher 
wages.  But  the  wages  offered  can  never  be  so 
high  as  those  demanded  by  white  men  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries.  Therefore  the  bulk 
of  the  labour  demand  will  continue  to  be  supplied 
by  natives.  The  increase  in  wages  will  be  met  by 
better  production  Therein  lies  another  difficulty 
which  should  only  be  transient!  The  native,  at 
present,  is  only  capable  of  performing  work  of  a 
certain  low  standard.  Higher  wages  will  not  im- 
mediately, and  ipso  facto,  coax  from  him  better 
work.  He  is  incapable  of  it  until  education,  civi- 
lisation and  Christianity  have  removed  certain 
deficiencies  from  his  character.  At  the  present 
time  the  .\frican  native  is  too  unstable,  too  apt 
to  abandon  his  work  under  slight  provocation,  too 
thriftless  in  the  use  to  which  he  puts  his  money, 
and  consequently  thriftless  of  his  efficiency  as  a 
worker,  to  make  it  desirable,  or  even  profitable, 
to  pay  him  higher  wages.  These  deficiencies 
sometimes  arise  from  the  conditions  of  his  work, 
and  from  the  treatment  meted  out  to  him  by  over- 
seers and  paymasters,  though  more  frequently  they 
are  due  to  weaknesses  inherent  in  the  native  char- 
acter. But — it  is  a  fact  to  be  emphasised — the 
development    of    the   natives,   in    many    individual 


cases,  proves  that  he  is  capable  of  overcoming 
these  faults,  and  promises  a  time  when  he  will 
justifiably  demand  a  higher  wage,  and  when  the 
increased  return  made  by  his  work  will  enable  the 
employer  to  meet  the  demand.  The  Kibour  prob- 
lem in  Africa  is  most  acute  on  the  Rand.  It  is 
said  that  the  white  man  cannot  work  on  the 
deep  levels  in  the  subtropical  climate  of  South 
Africa.  But  Cornish  miners  are  able  to  work  on 
the  deep  levels  of  the  Comstock  mine  in  Nevada. 
.  .  .  The  real  objection  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
white  man  is  ashamed  to  work  in  the  presence  of 
black  men.  He  becomes  an  autocrat  of  the  worst 
type.  He  shirks  work  because  physical  exertion 
'looks  bad.'  But  apart  from  these  considerations, 
two  insurmountable  difficulties  lie  in  the  way  of 
employing  white  labour  for  unskilled  work  in  the 
mines:  the  white  population  is  small;  it  is  not 
possible  to  pay  wages  sufficiently  high  to  attract 
men  in  large  numbers  from  the  West.  The  prob- 
lem has  not  been  completely  solved  by  resorting 
to  black  labour.  Fresh  difficulties  have  been 
created,  while  some  of  those  attached  to  the  sup- 
ply of  white  labour  have  not  been  overcome. 
Black  labour  in  South  .Africa  is  not  sufficient  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  mines.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  only  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  demand 
can  be  supplied  by  the  native  races  which  dwell 
south  of  the  Zambesi,  in  spite  of  large  sums  of 
money   spent    in    recruiting. 

"While  the  native  races  of  South  Africa  have 
long  since  abandoned  those  warlike  and  migratory 
habits  which  made  concentration  upon  settled 
labour  an  impossibility,  they  have  not  yet  become 
wearied  by  the  habits  of  an  agricultural  and 
pastoral  life,  nor  have  their  numbers  increased 
.sufficiently  to  necessitate  a  periodical  movement 
towards  the  centres  of  urban  industry,  such  as 
takes  place  in  the  older  agricultural  communities 
of  the  West.  Provided  they  can  obtain  a  satis- 
factor\'  settlement  on  the  land,  together  with  the 
ownership  of  a  certain  number  of  cattle,  they 
have  little  spontaneous  inducement  to  send  them 
to  the  mines.  The  wants  of  the  native  are  few. 
They  are  easily  satisfied  by  a  slight  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  and  by  the  cattle  which  he  allows  to  roam 
at  random  over  the  veldt.  Moreover,  these  wants 
are  supplied  by  a  ver>-  limited  amount  of  per- 
sonal activity.  His  occupations  on  the  .  .  .  veldt 
afford  him  an  easy  means  of  livelihood  at  the  cost 
of  a  small  amount  of  labour.  It  is  a  simple, 
though  not  an  idle  life,  suited  to  his  somewhat 
indolent  and  unenterprising  habits.  The  South 
.African  native  is  now  a  home-loving  creature. 
His  social  insticts  are  largely  developed.  Like  the 
Jew.  his  great  ambition  is  to  found  a  family. 
Until  the  time  arrives  when,  by  the  process  of 
'labola,'  he  is  able  to  make  an  arrangement  with 
the  father  of  his  selected  wife,  he  is  content  to 
remain  in  close  touch  with  his  own  father's  kraal. 
Since  the  cessation  of  intertribal  w'ars,  the  native 
has  swung  over  to  an  opposite  extreme  so  far  as 
his  migratory  habits  are  concerned.  He  fears  lone 
journeys,  especially  when  the  goal  will  bring  him 
into  a  sphere  of  activity  unknown  to  his  past  and 
present  experience.  Moreover,  when  the  allure- 
ments of  the  labour  agent,  supported  by  his  own 
desire  to  hasten  the  day  when  he  may  be  .ible  to 
take  to  himself  a  wife,  have  .it  last  brought  him 
to  the  mines,  he  does  not  often  remain  at  work 
for  any  length  of  time.  From  three  to  six  months 
is  the  average  period  during  which  the  native 
stays  on  the  Rand,  with  the  result  that  the  whole 
labour  personnel  of  the  mines  changes  every  two 
years.  His  temperament  is  too  uncertain,  his 
moods  too  changeable,   he  is   too  prone   to   take 


114 


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Obstacles: 
Adverse  Opinion 


AFRICA,  1914-1920 


offence  under  slight  provocation,  to  make  possible 
a  sojourn  at  the  mines  which  would  be  more 
profitable  to  production.  To  these  causes,  which 
belong  to  the  native  himself,  and  which  can  only 
be  removed  by  the  processes  of  civilisation,  others 
have  to  be  added.  They  are  created  by  the  ad- 
ministration of  labour,  and  are,  therefore,  a  matter 
for  the  attention  of  the  white  man.  The  treat- 
ment offered  to  the  natives  in  the  mines  is  not 
always  equitable.  It  is  sometimes  even  harsh. 
The  white  overseers  arc  often  impatient  of  at- 
tempting to  understand  the  native  mind  and  the 
difficulties  which  new  work  under  strange  condi- 
tions presents.  .  .  .  Labour  agents  and  paymasters 
have  not  always  fulfilled  the  promises  made  to  the 
native  recruit.  Pay  has  been  held  back  or  dimin- 
ished by  the  compulsory  purchase  of  goods,  sold 
by  interested  persons  on  or  near  the  mine  com- 
pounds. The  accommodation  offered  has  some- 
times afforded  a  poor  substitute  for  the  kraals 
on  the  open  veldt.  Overcrowded  quarters,  in- 
sanitar>'  conditions,  surrounded  by  moral  tempta- 
tions, have  impaired  his  physical  fitness,  so  that 
the  arduous  labour  of  the  mines  has  become  in 
itself  a  cause  of  discontent.  At  the  end  of  his 
contract  the  native  labourer  often  finds  himself 
at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  return  to  his  kraal. 
Little  advice  is  forthcoming  from  railway  officials. 
If  any  of  the  proceeds  of  his  labour  remain  to 
him,  he  is  tempted  to  dispose  of  them  in  an  un- 
worthy manner,  and  at  once  becomes  a  member 
of  the  community  of  low-class  blacks  and  whites 
who  surround  the  mining  towns,  or  attempts  to 
reach  his  own  country  by  vagrant  methods. 
Perhaps  the  chief  influences  which  make  the 
native'  a  bad  labourer  are  not  due  to  the  na- 
tive himself,  or  to  his  upbringing.  They  are  due 
to  the  aforementioned  causes,  or  to  others  of  a 
similar  nature.  That  is  to  say,  they  arc  the  con- 
cern of  the  white  man  and  his  organisation.  .  .  . 
Men  of  varied  experience  in  different  parts  of 
Africa  have  testified  to  the  efficiency  and  assiduity 
of  the  native  labourer  when  adequate  supervision 
and  fair  treatment  are  meted  out  to  him.  The 
whole  procedure,  from  the  action  of  the  labour 
agent  to  the  attitude  of  the  repatriation  officials, 
needs  to  be  revised.  The  recruiting  of  native  la- 
bour should  be  transferred  from  the  control  of 
monopolist  labour  associations,  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  mining  syndicates,  to  the  native 
affairs  department,  every  care  being  taken  that  it 
does  not  come  within  the  duties  of  any  revenue 
official.  The  native  should  be  transported  to  the 
mines  without  being  subjected  to  annoyance  from 
railway  or  mining  ofticials,  and,  if  necessary,  his 
ticket  should  be  advanced  and  debited  to  the  first 
instalment  of  his  wages.  Such  a  system  has  been 
introduced  into  the  organisation  of  contract  la- 
bour in  Portuguese  West  .Africa. 

"Under  the  Portuguese  regulations  of  January 
20,  iqo3,  powers  were  conferred  upon  a  central 
committee  for  labour  and  emigration  to  appoint 
and  control  labour  agents,  or  their  substitutes,  for 
the  purpose  of  recruiting  native  labour.  Funds 
were  to  be  supplied  to  the  agents  by  applicants 
for  labour,  and  these  payments  were  to  be  charge- 
able upon  the  wages  of  the  natives.  The  agents 
were  to  co-operate  with  native  chieftains  in  secur- 
ing labourers.  The  native  recruits  were  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  centres  of  industry  by  the  prin- 
cipal railroads  in  the  colony.  They  were  to  be 
accompanied  by  the  recruiting  agents,  who  were 
to  supply  them  with  proper  food  during  the  jour- 
ney, whether  by  road  or  rail.  During  halts  on 
the  journey  the  natives  were  to  be  lodged  by  the 
agents  In  suitable  depots  where  the  sanitary  con- 


ditions were  free  from  objection.  When  the  la- 
bourer had  reached  the  centre  of  industry,  he 
v/ould  be  handed  over  to  the  master  to  whom  he 
had  been  assigned,  and  who  was  responsible  for 
the  regular  payment  of  his  wages  in  coin.  The 
native  labourers  were  to  be  suitably  housed  by 
the  masters  in  accommodations  which  resembled  , 
as  nearly  as  possible  tfie  native  huts.  Proper  food 
and  clothing,  with  adequate  medical  treatment, 
was  also  to  be  supplied  by  the  masters.  The  regu- 
lations insisted  that  every  master  employing  over 
fifty  labourers  should  maintain  a  separate  in- 
firmary for  members  of  either  sex.  On  planta- 
tions where  one  thousand  or  more  labourers  were 
employed,  the  doctors  were  required  to  pay  a  visit 
every  day ;  where  the  number  employed  was  less 
than  a  thousand,  but  not  less  than  six  hundred, 
the  doctor  must  visit  twice  a  week;  in  all  other 
cases  once  a  week.  The  doctors  were  to  be  men 
qualified  at  Lisbon,  Oporto,  or  Coimbra.  Simi- 
lar regulations  for  the  care  of  women  and  chil- 
dren, especially  in  maternity  cases,  were  drawn 
up.  At  the  close  of  the  period  of  contract,  the 
labourers  were  to  be  returned  to  their  own  vil- 
lages by  the  repatriation  agents  at  the  expense 
of  the  masters.  But  they  were  free  to  engage  for 
a  further  contract.  On  the  return  journey  simi- 
lar care  was  to  be  taken  with  regard  to  accommo- 
dation and  food.  The  royal  regulations  of  Janu- 
ary 29,  1903,  were  revised  by  the  Provisional 
Republican  Government  on  May  13,  1911.  In 
principle  they  remained  the  same.  The  whole 
scheme  received  the  congratulation  of  the  British 
Foreign  Office  and  colonial  officials.  But  later  on 
heavy  criticism  was  directed  against  the  Portu- 
guese Government  to  the  effect  that  the  regula- 
tions were  not  loyally  carried  out  in  West  Africa, 
and  in  particular  [that]  the  option  given  to  the 
native  to  re-engage  was  abused  by  methods  which 
made  re-engagement  almost  compulsory.  The  im- 
portant lesson  to  be  drawn  from  the  Portuguese 
regulations  is  the  method  employed  in  attempting 
to  secure  that  the  recruiting,  payment,  accommo- 
dation, and  repatriation  of  native  labour  should 
be  conducted  by  responsible  authority.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Congo,  and  of  the  more  recent  Put- 
umayo  atrocities  in  South  America,  apart  from 
the  past  record  of  some  British  trading  concerns 
in  West  Africa,  prove  that  trading  companies  are 
not  capable  of  restraining  commercial  enterprise 
in  the  interest  of  the  native,  even  where  moral 
and  physical  claims  are  clearly  manifest.  But 
where  these  matters  are  placed  in  the  hands  of 
an  authority  which  has  no  commercial  or  even 
administrative  interest,  some  of  the  difficulties 
which  make  native  labour  on  the  Rand,  and  else- 
where, so  wasteful  and  inefficient  will  be  removed. 
Recommendations  similar  to  the  regulations  of  the 
Portuguese  Government,  but  only  general  in  char- 
acter, were  made  by  the  South  African  Commis- 
sion of  1003-5,  and  also  by  the  Natal  Commis- 
sion of  1906-7.  The  practicability  of  reforms  of 
this  nature  is  made  apparent  by  the  fact  that  for 
some  considerable  time  the  housing,  sanitation, 
and  medical  treatment  of  the  native  labourers  at 
Cape  Town,  Kimberley,  and  Johannesburg  have 
been  organised  along  these  lines.  The  Commission 
of  IQ03-S  drew  attention  to  the  conditions  in 
these  towns.  But  there  is  need  for  extension  and 
room  for  improvement." — A.  J.  MacDonald,  Trade 
politics  and  Christianity  in  Africa  and  the  East 
pp.  11-20. 

(5)  Growth  of  adverse  opinion. — Another  ob- 
stacle to  European  colonisation  is  the  rapid  growth 
in  recent  years  of  a  markedly  adverse  public  opin- 
ion.    Owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  African 


115 


AFRICA,  1914-1916 


Effects  of 
World  War 


AFRICA,  1918-1920 


colonies  at  present  cost  more  to  administer  than 
their  trade  Ls  worth,  there  is  in  each  European 
countrj-  owning  them  a  considerable  group  indif- 
ferent or  opposed  to  colonial  undertakings.  "Not 
all  the  expectations  of  the  enthusiastic  advocates 
of  expansion  were  realized.  The  colonial  trade 
of  Germany  was  insignificant,  though  the  expense 
of  maintaining  the  colonies  was  very  great.  France 
has  been  more  successful ;  but  she,  too,  has  had 
to  make  u[>  annually  a  large  colonial  deficit. 
England  has  more  to  justify  her  imperialism  than 
any  other  country,  for  she  has  a  large  and  grow- 
ing colonial  trade;  but  her  important  customers 
are  Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States,  and 
not  Canada,  Australia,  or  South  Africa.  The 
colonies  have  not  proved  successful  in  drawing 
off  the  surplus  population  of  the  mother  countries. 
Because  they  were  not  attractive  to  white  settle- 
ment, very  few  Germans  went  to  the  German 
colonies  But  many  went  to  the  British  posses- 
sions and  to  the  United  States.  French  colonies, 
although  near  the  mother  country,  contain  few 
Frenchmen  besides  military  and  civil  officials. 
The  migration  of  Italians  to  Libya  has  hardly 
justified  Italy's  'war  for  a  desert.'  Even  Great 
Britain,  with  a  large  surplus  population  and  colo- 
nies in  every  climate,  has  failed  to  people  the 
Empire  with  her  children.  During  1870-1905,  a 
generation  which  saw  the  high  tide  of  imperial- 
ism, six  and  a  half  million  emigrated  from  the 
United  Kingdom;  of  these,  only  two  million  set- 
tled in  the  colonies,  whereas  four  miUion  went  to 
America  and  half  a  million  to  other  places.  So 
reluctant  are  the  English  masses  to  go  to  the 
colonies  that  societies  have  been  organized  to 
encourage  them  to  emigrate  there." — J.  S.  Scha- 
piro,  Modern  and  contemporary  European  history, 
p.  682. 

1914-1916. — Part  played  by  German  colonies, 
Seuthwest  Africa,  and  East  Africa  in  the  World 
War.  See  World  War:  1914:  VI.  Africa;  loi,?; 
VIII.  Africa;  1016:  VII.  African  theatre:  a. 

1918-1920.— Effects  of  the  World  War  upon 
European  occupation. — While  it  is  as  yet  too 
early  to  be  certain  of  the  results  of  the  World 
War  on  Africa,  this  much  may  be  confidently 
asserted.  (1)  A  firmer  hold  upon  their  African 
possessions  has  been  secured  by  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Italy.  (2)  Africa  seems  destined  to 
be  for  a  long  time  to  come  less  and  less  a  field 
for  European  rivalry  and  conflict.  (3)  Under 
the  new  mandatary  system  there  is  a  recognition 
before  the  world  of  a  stewardship  of  the  Great 
Powers  for  their  .\frican  territories.  (4)  The  ex- 
cellent service  of  the  Negro  as  a  worker  behind 
the  lines  and  as  a  soldier  on  the  battlefields  of 
France  has  not  only  been  accorded  grateful  rec- 
ognition but  has  doubtless  deepened  the  black 
man's  self-respect  and  consciousness  of  his  rights 
as  a  human  being.  One  of  the  manifestations  of 
this  new  attitude  on  the  part  of  both  white  and 
black  races  is  to  be  seen  in  the  recent  (iqiq)  Con- 
vention of  the  Powers  regarding  the  liquor  traffic 
in  Africa.  The  British  government  has  made 
public  (Treaty  series  loio.  No.  lo)  a  parliamen- 
t3r>'  paper  disclosing  that  on  September  iq,  loio, 
the  United  States  and  .\ssociated  Powers  entered 
into  a  convention  intended  to  safeguard  .^frican 
races  from  alcohol  and  displacing  for  that  purpose 
the  Brussels  Convention  This  convention  super- 
sedes, recodifies  and  amplifies  "former  interna- 
tional conventions"  dealing  with  the  same  sub- 
ject. Thus  come  to  an  end  the  old  liquor  clauses 
of  the  Brussels  General  .»\ct  (1800I  which  with 
their  general  revisions  at  periodical  conferences 
of    the    Powers    (1890-1006)    have    regulated    the 

1 


Central  African  spirit  traffic.  The  area  of  the 
present  convention  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  the  Brussels  Act,  though  political  areas  are 
substituted  for  arbitrary  geographical  boundaries. 
Thus  .\lgiers,  Tunis,  Morocco,  Libya,  Egypt  and 
the  Union  of  South  .Africa  are  excepted  from  the 
agreement,  and  the  islands  lying  within  100  nau- 
tical miles  of  the  coast  are  included  in  it.  The 
objects  of  the  convention  as  set  forth  in  the  pre- 
amble are  to  prohibit  "the  importation,  distribu- 
tion, sale  and  possession  of  trade  spirits,  absinthe," 
and  of  other  "distilled  beverages"  containing  es- 
sential oils  or  chemical  products  which  are  rec- 
ognized as  injurious  to  the  health.  Other  forms 
of  spirits  are  to  be  subjected  to  a  minimum  duty 
of  800  francs  per  hectolitre  of  pure  alcohol,  which 
amounts  to  about  36  francs  per  gallon  of  pure 
alcohol.  By  a  further  provision  it  is  understood 
that  the  existing  areas  of  prohibition  of  all  spirits 
for  the  natives  of  these  areas  will  be  maintained. 
This  is  the  only  mention  of  any  race  distinction 
except  in  the  preamble  already  quoted,  reliance 
being  placed  upon  the  exclusion  of  all  cheap  and 
specially  noxious  distilled  liquors.  Exceptions  are 
allowed  for  distillation  for  scientific  or  pharmaceu- 
tical purposes,  or  of  industrial  alcohol,  but  other- 
wise distillation  is  not  allowed.  Italy  is  the  only 
one  of  the  signatory  powers  which  has  claimed 
any  concession  on  certain  of  the  conditions  of  the 
convention.  There  is  to  be  a  Central  Interna- 
tional Office,  in  connection  with  the  League  of 
Nations,  for  recording  the  statistics  and  regula- 
tions put  in  force  by  each  of  the  contracting  par- 
ties and  the  adhesion  to  the  convention  of  the 
other  states  exercising  authority  over  the  terri- 
tories of  the  African  continent  will  be  Sought. 
The  convention  is  to  come  into  force  "for  each 
signatory  power  from  the  date  of  the  deposit  of 
its  ratifications,"  which  ratifications  will  be  de- 
posited in  the  archives  of  the  French  government. 
Signatories: — The  United  States  of  America,  Bel- 
gium, Great  Britain,  Canada,  Australia,  South 
.Africa,    France,   Italy,   Japan,   Portugal. 

TeRRITORIAI,   ACQUISITION'S    OF   FRANCE   AND    GREAT 

Britain. — Under  the  mandate  provisions  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles,  in  effect  January  to,  1920, 
German  Southwest  .Africa  and  German  East  .Af- 
rica became  practically  British  possessions.  A  dis- 
trict in  the  extreme  northwest  of  the  latter  colony 
was  assigned  to  the  Belgian  Congo.  Cameroon 
and  Togo,  the  other  two  former  German  colonies 
in  .Africa,  were  divided  between  Great  Britain  and 
France.  The  latter  country  received  the  entire 
coast  and  rather  more  than  half  of  Togo  and  about 
nine-tenths  of  Cameroon,  incidentally  regaining 
the  large  districts  which  France  had  ceded  to  Ger- 
many in  191 1  as  a  result  of  the  .Agadir  crisis  in 
Morocco.  -A  strip  of  varying  width  along  the 
northwest  boundary  of  Cameroon  was  given  to 
Great  Britain  and  added  to  the  British  colony  of 
Nigeria  This  strip  includes  the  great  Cameroon 
Mountain  near  the  sea,  and  adds  to  the  Bornu 
district  near  Lake  Chad  the  part  of  that  ancient 
sultanate  formerly  held  by  Germany.  The  port 
of  Duala  and  the  main  routes  to  the  interior  are 
in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

Italy's  territorial  .\couisitions. — In  accordance 
with  provisions  included  in  the  Treaty  of  London, 
which  was  followed  by  Italy's  entrance  into  the 
World  War,  negotiations  were  begun  early  in  1920 
to  carry  out  the  promises  made  Italy  by  Great 
Britain  and  France  in  1915,  by  adding  generously 
to  Italy's  possessions  in  Africa.  The  provision  in 
question,  article  XIII,  stipulated  that,  in  the  event 
that  France  and  England  should  increase  their 
colonial   possessions   in    Africa   as   a    result   of   the 

16 


AFRICA,  BRITISH  CENTRAL 


AFRICAN  SQUADRON 


World  War,  Italy  too  must  be  compensated  in  an 
equitable  manner,  particularly  in  the  extension 
of  the  frontiers  of  her  colonies  of  Eritrea,  Ital- 
ian Somaliland   and   Tripoli   (Libia  Italiana). 

France  offered  to  cede  the  territory  lying  east  of 
the  line  running  north  and  south  between  the 
oases  Ghadames  and  Ghat.  This  offer  the  Italian 
government  was  ready  to  accept  but  is  still  mak- 
ing efforts  to  have  the  Tibesti  and  Borku  oases, 
south  of  the  Libyan  desert,  included  in  the  grant. 
The  British  government  offered  to  cede  Italy  the 
Egyptian  oasis  of  Jarabub.  This  has  been  prac- 
tically accepted  by  the  Italian  government.  Great 
Britain  also  offered  to  cede  to  Italian  Somaliland 
extensive  territory  along  the  Juba  river.  This 
would  give  Italy  the  port  of  Kismayu,  which  has 
a  better  harbor  than  any  port  along  the  1,200  mile 
coast  line  of  Somaliland.  Mindful  of  the  value 
of  this  accession  Italy  accepted  Great  Britain's 
offer,  which  greatly  increases  the  value  of  Italian 
Somaliland.  The  border  with  British  Somaliland 
at  the  north  has  also  been  rectified  in  Italy's  favor. 
Italy  further  sought  to  obtain  part  of  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  bordering  on  her  colony  of  Eritrea. 
The  concessions  secured  by  Italy  a.ssure  her  of 
better  facilities  for  developing  her  large  colonies 
ill  Africa. 

Africa  under  the  League  of  Nations. — "In 
addition  to  these  territories  which  are  to  be 
emancipated  under  the  protection  of  stronger 
states,  there  are  the  former  colonies  of  Germany, 
some  of  which  are  to  be  administered  by  a  man- 
datary under  a  separate  form  of  government  and 
others  to  be  administered  as  integral  portions  of 
the  territory  of  the  mandatary.  In  both  cases 
provision  is  made  in  the  covenant  and  in  the  body 
of  the  treaty  that  the  administration  shall  be  con-  ' 
ducted  under  conditions  approved  by  the  league, 
by  which  equal  opportunity  for  trade  will  be  al- 
lowed to  all  members  of  the  league,  and  certain 
abuses,  such  as  the  trade  in  slaves,  arms,  and 
liquor,  will  be  prohibited;  and  the  requirement  is 
laid  down  that  the  mandatary  shall  render  to  the 
council  of  the  league  an  annual  report  in  reference 
to  the  territory  committed  to  its  charge.  The 
value  of  these  provisions,  if  it  is  not  too  much 
to  assume  their  observance,  lies  not  only  in  the 
fact  that  they  attempt  to  protect  the  backward 
peoples  of  Africa  against  possible  exploitation,  but 
that  they  introduce  a  new  principle  of  interna- 
tional responsibility  into  the  relations  of  nations, 
in  that  they  recognize  that  the  development  of 
such  peoples  forms  'a  sacred  trust  of  civilization.' 
If  the  league  can  secure  the  fulfillment  of  the 
promises  thus  made,  a  strong  impetus  will  be 
given  to  the  further  development  of  international 
administrative  law.  At  the  present  moment  the 
functions  of  the  permanent  mandates  commission, 
which  is  to  receive  the  reports  of  the  several 
mandataries,  have  been  outlined  and  the  person- 
nel of  the  commission  is  about  to  be  appointed." 
— American  Political  Science  Review,  Aug.,  ig20, 
p.  487. 

AFRICA,    British    Central.      See    Nyasaland 

PROTECTORATE. 

AFRICA,  East.     See  Ken'\'A  colony. 

AFRICA,  East  Central.     See  Darfur. 

AFRICA,  Masonic  societies  in.  See  Masonic 
societies:  Africa. 

AFRICA,  Northwest.  See  Nigeria  protectorate. 

AFRICA,  Portuguese  East.  See  Portugitese 
East  Africa. 

AFRICA,  South.    See  South  Africa,  Union  of. 

AFRICA,  West.    See  Dahomey. 

AFRICAN  ASSOCIATION  IN  ENGLAND, 
Formation  of  (1788).    See  Africa:  Modern  Euro- 


pean occupation:  Chronology  of  European  explor- 
ation. 

AFRICAN  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH.     See  Methodists;   Colored. 

AFRICAN  SQUADRON.— Although  the  Con- 
gress (United  States)  in  1808  passed  an  act  pro- 
hibiting the  importation  of  slaves,  a  good  many 
were  smuggled  in.  The  rather  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  suppress  this  illicit  trade  is  shown  in  the 
following  articles  of  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treats , 
1842: 

"Art.  VIIL— The  parties  [United  States  and 
Great  Britain]  mutually  stipulate  that  each  shall 
prepare,  equip,  and  maintain  in  service  on  the  coast 
of  Africa  a  sufficient  and  adequate  squadron  or 
naval  force  of  vessels  of  suitable  numbers  and 
descriptions,  to  carry  in  all  not  less  than  eighty 
guns,  to  enforce,  separately  and  respectively,  the 
laws,  rights,  and  obligations  of  each  of  the  two 
countries  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade, 
the  said  squadrons  to  be  independent  of  each 
other,  but  the  two  Governments  stipulating, 
nevertheless,  to  give  such  orders  to  the  officers 
commanding  their  respective  forces  as  shall  enable 
them  most  effectually  to  act  in  concert  and  co- 
operation, upon  mutual  consultation,  as  exigencies 
may  arise,  for  the  attainment  of  the  true  object 
of  this  article,  copies  of  all  such  orders  to  be 
communicated  by  each  Government  to  the  other, 
respectively. 

",^rt.  IX. — Whereas,  notwithstanding  all  ef- 
forts which  may  be  made  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
for  suppressing  the  slave-trade,  the  facilities  for 
carrying  on  that  traffic  and  avoiding  the  vigilance 
of  cruisers,  by  the  fraudulent  use  of  flags  and 
other  means,  are  so  great,  and  the  temptations  for 
pursuing  it,  while  a  market  can  be  found  for 
slaves,  so  strong,  that  the  desired  result  may 
be  long  delayed  unless  all  markets  be  shut  against 
the  purchase  of  African  negroes,  the  parties  to 
this  treaty  agree  that  they  will  unite  in  all  be- 
coming representations  and  remonstrances  with 
any  and  all  Powers  within  whose  dominions  such 
markets  are  allowed  to  exist,  and  that  they  will 
urge  upon  all  such  Powers  the  propriety  and  .duty 
of  closing  such  markets  effectually,  at  once  and 
forever." — W.  Macdonald,  Select  documents  illus- 
trative of  history  of  United  States,  pp.  341-342. 

"By  the  cruising  convention  clause  [of  the  Web- 
ster-Ashburton Treaty],  which  the  President  him- 
self bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  arranging,  the  deli- 
cate point  of  'right  of  search'  was  avoided;  for 
instead  of  trusting  Great  Britain  as  the  police  of 
other  nations  for  suppressing  the  African  slave- 
trade,  each  nation  bound  itself  to  do  its  full  duty 
by  keeping  up  a  sufficient  squadron  on  the  Afri- 
can coast.  It  so  happened  that  Great  Britain, 
by  softening  the  old  phrase  'right  of  search'  into 
'right  of  visitation,'  had  been  inducing  other  na- 
tions to  guarantee  this  police  inspection  of  sus- 
pected slave  vessels.  In  December,  1841,  am- 
bassadors of  the  five  great  European  powers  ar- 
ranged in  London  a  quintuple  league  of  this  char- 
acter. But  France,  hesitating  to  confirm  such  an 
arrangement,  rejected  that  league  when  the  Ash- 
burton  treaty  was  promulgated,  and  hastened  to 
negotiate  in  its  place  a  cruising  convention  simi- 
lar to  ours  on  the  slave-trade  suppression;  nor 
was  the  right  of  search,  against  which  America 
had  fought  in  the  war  of  1812,  ever  again  invoked, 
even  as  a  mutual  principle,  until  by  1S62  the 
United  States  had  grown  as  sincere  as  Great  Brit- 
ain herself  in  wishing  to  crush  out  the  last  remnant 
of  the  .African  traffic.  This  cruising  convention, 
however,  left  the  abstract  question  of  search  un- 
touched,  and   in    that   light   Sir    Robert    Peel   de- 


117 


AFRIDIS 


AGER  PUBLICUS 


fended  himself  in  Parliament." — Schouler,  History 
of  the  United  States,  v.  iv,  pp.  401-402. 

AFRIDIS,  a  powerful  warlike  Afghan  or 
Pathan  tribe  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  the 
Peshawar  border  of  the  north-west  frontier  of 
India;  are  said  to  have  Israelite  blood  in  their 
veins,  and  a  Semitic  cast  of  features. 

AFRIKANDER  BUND.  See  South  Africa, 
Union-  of:  1877-1870;  1881-1888;  1898;  i8q8 
(March-October). 

AFRIKANDER  CONGRESS.  See  South 
.•Xfrica,  Union  of:   1900  (December). 

AFRIKANDERS:  Relations  with  the  Boers. 
See  South  .\frica,  Union  of:  1S99  (October- 
November)    and   1000    (May). 

AFZELIUS,  Adam  (1750-1837),  Swedish  bot- 
anist. He  founded  the  Linnaean  Institute  at  Up- 
sala,  1S02,  and  subseijuently  wrote  the  standard 
biography  of  Linnaeus,  1823. 

AGA,  or  Agha,  a  word  supposedly  of  Tartar 
origin,  meaning  lord  or  excellency,  applied  in 
Turkey  to  military  commanders  and  other  high 
officials;  also  used  as  a  general  term  of  respect  in 
addressing   person?  of   the  wealthv   leisure  class. 

AGA  KHAN  I,  His  Highness  the  (1800-1881), 
the  title  accorded  to  Hasan  .'\ii  Shah  by  the  Brit- 
ish government.  Was  governor  of  Kerman  for 
Persia  until,  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  ruler, 
he  fled  to  Bombay ;  assisted  his  protectors  in  deal- 
ing with  the  natives  over  whom  he  held  religious 
sway  as  leader  of  the  Ismailiah  sect  of  Moham- 
medans. 

AGA  KHAN  III,  Aga  Sultan  Mohammed 
Shah  (1S77-  ).  In  1885,  succeeded  his  father, 
.\ga  Khan  II,  to  the  leadership  of  the  Ismailiah 
Mohammedans.  In  World  War  he  brought  his 
support  to  the  side  of  the  .'\llies.  See  Arabu: 
1916. 

AGADE.     See  .^kk.^d. 

AGADIR,  a  small  seaport  on  the  south-western 
coast  of  Morocco,  formerly  of  some  commercial 
importance.  .Acquired  international  fame  in  1911 
when  the  German  gunboat  Pantlur  entered  the 
harbor  to  maintain  imperial  economic  interests. 
This,  event,  known  as  the  ".■\gadir  incident"  pre- 
cipitated the  second  and  most  acute  Moroccan 
crisis. — See  also  Fr.\ncf.:    1910-1014;   Italy:    ioii. 

AGAGIA,  Egypt:  defeat  of  Senussi  (1916). 
See  World  War:   iqi6:  VI.  Turkish  theater:   b,  1. 

AGAMEMNON,  a  Greek  hero  of  the  Homeric 
age;  son  of  .Atreus  and  brother  of  Menelaus. 
Ruled  at  Mycenae;  leader  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
Trojan   War. 

AGAMEMNON,  British  warship  at  the  Dar- 
danelles^ See  World  War:  1915:  VI.  Turkey:  a,  1. 

AGANA,  a  fortified  town,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  .American  inland  of  Guam,  formerly  the 
Spanish  capital  of  the  Ladrone 'Islands.  It  has 
several  schools,  convents,  and  government  build- 
ings.   Sec  Guam:  i 900-1 921 ;  U.  S.  .A.:  1S9S  (June). 

AGAPETUS  I,  pope  S35-536;  collaborated 
with  Cassiodorus  in  founding  a  library  of 
ecclesiastical  authors  at  Rome;  in  536  was  sent 
by  King  Theodahad  on  an  embassy  to  Constan- 
tinople and  there  deposed  Anthimus  from  the 
patriarchal  see  of  Con.stantinople.     He  died  there. 

Agapetus  II,  pope  946-955,  a  Roman  by  birth; 
established  political  rule  over  the  churches  of  the 
Empire;  also  invoked  aid  of  Otto  I  against  Ber- 
enger  II.  king  of  Italy,  who  proved  troublesome 
to   the   pontifical   state, 

AGAS.  Outer  and  inner.     See  Sublimf  Porte. 

AGASSIZ,  Alexander  Emanuel  (1835-igio), 
American  scientist.  Only  son  of  Louis  .Agassiz; 
specialized  in  marine  ichthyology ;  acquired  a  for- 
tune  in   mining,   es[)ecially   from   the  famous   Cal- 


umet and  Hecla  copper  mine,  Michigan;  gave 
large  sums  and  much  time  to  biological  research. 

AGASSIZ,  Jean  Louis  Rodolphe  (1S07-1873), 
American  scientist.  Born  in  Switzerland,  coming 
to  America  in  1846;  Harvard  professor  and  an 
enthusiastic  and  effective  teacher;  made  extensive 
researches  in  ichthyology  and  palaeontology ;  en- 
joyed a  world-wide  reputation  as  a  biologist, 
writer  and   lecturer. 

AGATHO,  pope  678-781,  one  of  the  most  cour- 
ageous pontifls  who  ever  occupied  the  papal  chair; 
compelled  St.  Wilfrid  to  restore  the  bishopric  at 
York  (679)  and  established  a  precedent  by  refus- 
ing to  pay  tribute  on  election  to  the  emperor  at 
Constantinople. 

AGATHOCLES  (361-289  B.  C),  the  son  of  a 
potter  who  became  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  .After 
putting  thousands  of  his  enemies  to  death 
.Agathocles  succeeded  in  taking  Syracuse,  which 
he  subsequently  lost.  He  ruled  over  Sicily  towards 
the  close  of  his  life.     See  Syracuse:  B.  C   317-289 

AGATHYRSI,  a  people  of  Thracian  origin  who 
once  occupied  the  plain  of  Moris  in  the  region  of 
Transylvania ;  had  luxurious  habits,  tattooed  their 
bodies,  had  wives  in  common,  and  like  Gallic 
Druids,  recited  their  laws  in  sing-song  to  prevent 
their  being  forgotten ;  were  later  driven  further 
north  and  were  unknown  to  the  Romans  in  their 
original   home. 

AGBATANA.     See  Ecbatana. 

AGE  OF  STONE,  AGE  OF  BRONZE,  etc. 
See  /tcEAN  civiLiz.\TioN;  .Africa:  Races  of  Africa: 
Prehistoric  peoples;  Europe:  Prehistoric  period; 
Stone  age. 

AGED,   Care  of.     See  Charities. 

AGELA. — The  youths  and  young  men  of  an- 
cient Crete  were  publicly  trained  and  disciplined 
in  divisions  or  companies,  each  of  which  was  called 
an  .Agela,  and  its  leader  or  director  the  .Agelatas. 

AGELATAS.     See  Acela. 

AGEMA,  the  royal  escort  of  .Alexander  the 
Great. 

AGENAIS,  or  Agenois,  a  former  province  of 
France  in  what  is  now  the  department  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne.  The  district  was  purchased  in  1038 
by  the  dukes  of  .Aquitaine.  Thus,  with  the  mar- 
riage of  Eleanor  of  .Aquitaine  to  Henry  Plantag- 
enet  (1152)  the  province  was  brought  under  Eng- 
lish control.  Subsequently,  it  was  returned  to 
French  rule  (1271)  with  the  marriage  of  Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion's  sister  to  Raymund  VI,  count  of 
Toulouse,  but  restored  once  more  to  England  in 
1279.  During  the  wars  between  the  French  and 
English  (fourteenth  fifteenth  centuries),  the  prov- 
ince again  passed  through  a  number  of  similar 
changes.  With  the  retreat  of  the  English  in 
1453  -Agenais  linally  found  itself  peaceably  pos- 
sessed by   the   French. 

AGENDICUM,   or  Agedincum.     See  Senones. 

AGER  PUBLICUS.— "Rome  was  always  mak- 
ing fresh  acquisitions  of  territory  in  her  tarly 
history.  .  .  .  Large  tracts  of  country  became  Ro- 
man land,  the  property  of  the  Roman  state,  or 
public  domain  (ager  publicus),  as  the  Romans 
called  it.  The  condition  of  this  land,  the  use  to 
which  it  was  applied,  and  the  disputes  which  it 
caused  between  the  two  orders  at  Rome,  are 
among  the  most  curious  and  perplexing  questions 
in  Roman  history.  .  .  .  That  part  of  newly-ac- 
quired territory  which  was  neither  sold  nor  given 
remained  public  property,  and  it  was  occupied, 
according  to  the  Roman  term,  by  private  persons, 
in  whose  hands  it  was  a  Possessio.  Hyginus  and 
Siculus  Flaccus  represent  this  occupation  as  being 
made  without  any  order.  Every  Roman  took 
what  he  could,  and  more  than  he  could  use  profit- 


118 


AGER  ROMANUS 


AGNOSTICISM 


ably.  .  .  .  We  should  be  more  inclined  to  believe 
that  this  public  land  was  occupied  under  some 
regulations,  in  order  to  prevent  disputes;  but  if 
such  regulations  existed  we  know  nothing  about 
them.  There  was  no  survey  made  of  the  public 
land  which  was  from  time  to  time  acquired,  but 
there  were  certainly  general  boundaries  fixed  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  what  had  become  pub- 
lic property.  The  lands  which  were  sold  and 
given  were  of  necessity  surveyed  and  fixed  by 
boundaries.  .  .  .  There  is  no  direct  evidence  that 
any  payments  to  the  state  were  originally  made 
by  the  Possessors.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  at 
some  early  time  such  payments  were  made,  or, 
at  least,  were  due  to  the  state." — G,  Long,  De- 
cline oj  the  Roman  republic,  ch.  ii. — See  also 
AcF.ARiAN  laws;  Land  titles:  Roman  titles; 
Rome:   Republic:   P..  C.  133-121. 

AGER  ROMANUS.  See  Land  titles:  Roman 
colonial  titles. 

AGESILAUS  II,  king  of  Sparta,  401-361  B.  C; 
helped  the  ."Xsiatic  Greeks  when  attacked  by  the 
Persians  (306  B.  C),  defeating  the  Satraps,  Tis- 
saphernes  and  Pharnabazus.  When  recalled  to 
Greece  to  defend  Sparta  against  the  combined 
forces  of  Athens,  Thebes,  Corinth  and  Argos,  Ages- 
ilaus  defeated  the  allied  armies  indecisively  at 
the  battle  of  Coronea,  Boeotia  (304).  Various 
small  expeditions  followed.  Agesilaus  spent  the 
last  two  years  of  his  life  in  Egypt  trying  to  raise 
sufficient  money  to  bring  Sparta  to  her  former 
supremacy  and  died  on  his  way  home  {361)  at  the 
age  of  84. — See  also  Greece:  B.  C.  4th  century, 
399-387- 

AGGER.    See  Castra. 

AGHA  MOHAMMED  KHAN,  Shah  of  Per- 
sia, 1705-1707. 

AGHLABITE  DYNASTY.  See  Caliphate: 
715-750;  Sicily:   S27-878. 

AGHRIM,  or  Aughrim,  Battle  of  (i6qi).  See 
Ireland;     i68o-i6qi. 

AGHYL  BAIR.— Attacked  by  British  (iqi5). 
See  World  War:    1015:   VI.  Turkey:   a,  4,  x.xvii. 

AGHYL  DERE.— Attacked  by  British  (1015). 
.See  World  War:   1015:  VI.  Turkev:  a,  4,  xxvi. 

AGILULPHUS,  King  of  the  Lombards,  soo- 
616. 

AGINCOURT  (Azincourt),  a  village  of  north- 
ern France  in  the  department  of  Pas  de  Calais, 
twenty-nine  miles  southeast  of  Boulogne;  made 
famous  by  the  victory  of  Henry  V  of  England 
over  the  French  under  Constable  d'.'Vlbret,  October 
25,  1415.     See  France:    141 5. 

AGIS  I,  king  of  Sparta  about  1032  B.  C.  Tra- 
dition says  the  maritime  city  of  Helos  fell  under 
his  attack. 

Agis  II,  king  of  the  Spartans  about  427  B.  C; 
led  his  forces  to  victory  at  Mantineia  (41S  B.  C.) 
and  helped  to  blockade  Athens  (405  B.  C). 

Agis  III,  king  of  Sparta,  338-331  B,  C;  re- 
volted against  Macedonia  (333  B.  C.)  with  the 
aid  of  the  Persians  but  failed;  slain  in  the  de- 
ciding battle    (331    B.   C). 

Agis  IV,  succeeded  his  father,  Eudamidas  II, 
as  king  of  Sparta  at  the  age  of  twenty.  .\  note- 
worthy figure  in  Spartan  history  who  tried  to  stay 
the  ruin  of  the  state. 

AGITATORS,  Council  of,  the  name  given  to  a 
body  of  representatives  elected  in  1647  by  regi- 
ments of  the  English  Parliamentary  army.  They 
prevented  the  disbanding  of  the  army  in  April 
and  again  in  June,  1647.  A  council  composed  of 
officers  and  agitators  refused  the  offers  of  Par- 
liament and  demanded  a  march  on  London.  See 
England:    1647   (April-August). 

AGLIPAY,      Gregorio      (i860-         ),     Roman 


Catholic  archbishop;  seceded  1902;  founded  the 
sect  of  the  Independent  Catholics.  See  Philippine 
Islands:   1002. 

AGNADELLO,  Battle  of  (1500).  See  Venice: 
1508-1500. 

AGNATI.     See  Gens:   Gentes:   Gentiles. 

AGNES,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of  voung  girls. 
Martyred  in  Rome  by  order  of  Diocletian  at  the 
age  of  thirteen.  Her  feast  day  is  January  21, 
and  her  svmbol   the  lamb. 

AGNES  OF  MERAN  (d.  1201),  queen  of 
France,  daughter  of  Bertold  IV,  duke  of  Meran, 
Tyrol.  In  iig6  became  second  wife  of  Philip  II, 
after  his  repudiation  of  his  first  queen.  Papal 
opposition,  culminating  in  an  interdict,  forced  a 
separation   in    1200. 

AGNES  OF  POITIERS  (i025?-i077),  em- 
press of  Germany,  daughter  of  William  V  of 
Aquitaine.  In  1043  became  second  wife  of  Henry 
III  of  Germany.  Regent  for  her  son,  Henry  IV, 
1056-1062;  her  weak  rule  was  finally  overthrown 
by   powerful   nobles  and  she  fled   to   Italy. 

AGNIERS. — Among  several  names  which  the 
Mohawks  (sec  Iroquois)  bore  in  early  colonial  his- 
tory was  that  of  the  Agniers. — F.  Parkman,  Con- 
spiracy of  Pontiac,  v.  i,  p.  o,  foot-note. 

AGNOSTICISM,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no 
certain  knowledge  as  to  the  existence  of  God,  a 
future  life  or  the  essential  nature  of  things.  Con- 
trary to  Atheism  (q.v.),  .^gnosticism  makes  no  de- 
nials, and  affirms  nothing  but  present  ignorance 
with  reference  to  ultimate  realities.  It  does  not 
even  assert  that  knowledge  may  not  at  some  fu- 
ture time  become  possible.  The  term  was  coined 
in  i86q  by  Professor  Huxley;  but  the  doctrine  is 
extremely  old,  being  essentially  contained  in  the 
teaching  of  Protagoras,  Pyrrho  and  the  entire 
skeptical  school  of  Greek  philosophers.  (See 
Christianity:  100-300:  Church  in  Alexandria.  The 
majority  of  modern  Freethinkers  may  properly  be 
classed  as  .^Kgnostics,  rather  than  Atheists.  The 
late  Col.  Robert  G.  Ingcrsoll  was  perhaps  the 
most  notable  among  the  aggressive  champions  of 
.^gnosticism,  although  Charles  Darwin,  Herbert 
Spencer,  Thomas  Huxley,  and  other  prominent 
scientists  and  men  of  letters  in  England  and 
.'\merica  may  be  cited  as  adherents  of  this  doctrine, 
.Agnosticism  was,  therefore,  historically  in  vogue  in 
the  latter  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when 
it  denoted  (a)  a  form  of  the  philosophic  revolt 
against  the  prevalent  mid-Victorian  theology,  and 
(b)  more  broadly  a  form  of  philosophic  doubt  in 
the  minds  particularly  of  "Darwinian"  scientists 
arid  the  "sensationalist"  school  of  thinkers  as  to 
accepting  the  reality  of  many  current  forms  of 
human  knowledge  in  general.  In  fact  they  de- 
nied the  validity  of  any  transcendental  or  extra- 
empirical  tenets.  The  term  "agnostic,"  invented 
by  Huxley,  is  unfortunately  correlative  to  the 
term  "Gnostics"  of  early  Christian  history.  Ag- 
nostics were  engaged  in  combating  latter-day 
church-men  and  others  in  their  bigoted  opposi- 
tion to  the  tenets  of  modern  "Darwinian"  science 
and  pushed  them  hard  from  many  prevalent 
"Christian"  notions.  But  unfortunately  for  ag- 
nosticism intellectual  people — whether  churchmen 
or  not — cannot  rest  in  suspension  of  judgment, 
still  less  be  content  with  assertions  of  unknow- 
ableness.  Not  merely  idealists,  but  pracmatists 
and  neo-realists  "carry  on"  and  agnosticism  is 
simply  outgrown.  "What  Strabo  said  nineteen 
centuries  ago  still  holds  true.  'It  is  impossible,' 
said  the  old  Greek,  'to  conduct  women  and  the 
gross  multitude,  and  to  render  them  holv,  pious, 
and  upright  by  the  precepts  of  reason  and  phi- 
losophy ;    superstition    or    the    fear    of    the    gods 


119 


AGNOSTICISM 


AGNOSTICISM 


must  be  called  in  aid,  the  influence  of  which  is 
founded  on  fiction  or  prodigies.  For  the  thunder 
of  Jupiter,  the  aegis  of  Minerva,  the  trident  of 
Neptune,  the  torches  and  snakes  of  the  Furies, 
the  spears  of  the  gods  adorned  with  ivy,  and  the 
whole  ancient  theology  are  all  fables  which  the 
legislators  who  formed  the  political  constitution 
of  states  employ  as  bugbears  to  overawe  the 
credulous  and  simple." — J.  Burroughs,  LiglU  of 
day,  pp.  iob-107. — "The  name  .\gnostic,  originally 
coined  by  Professor  Huxley  about  i86g,  has 
gained  general  acceptance."  It  is  sometimes  used 
to  indicate  the  philosophical  theory  which  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer,  as  he  tells  us,  developed  from 
the  doctrine  of  Hamilton  and  Mansel.  Upon  that 
theory  I  express  no  opinion.  I  take  the  word  in 
a  vaguer  sense,  and  am  glad  to  believe  that  its 
use  indicates  an  advance  in  the  courtesies  of  con- 
troversy. The  old  theological  phrase  for  an  in- 
tellectual opponent  was  Atheist — a  name  which 
still  retains  a  certain  flavour  as  of  the  stake  in 
this  world  and  hell-fire  in  the  next,  and  which, 
moreover,  implies  an  inaccuracy  of  some  impor- 
tance. Dogmatic  Atheism — the  doctrine  that  there 
is  no  God,  whatever  may  be  meant  by  God — is, 
to  say  the  least,  a  rare  phase  of  opinion.  The 
word  Agnosticism,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to 
imply  a  fairly  accurate  appreciation  of  a  form  of 
creed  already  common  and  daily  spreading.  The 
Agnostic  is  one  who  asserts — what  no  one  denies 
— that  there  are  limits  to  the  sphere  of  human 
intelligence.  He  asserts,  further,  what  many  theo- 
logians have  e.xpressly  maintained,  that  those  limits 
are  such  as  to  exclude  at  least  what  Lewes  called 
'metempirical'  knowledge.  But  he  goes  further, 
and  asserts,  in  opposition  to  theologians,  that 
theology  lies  within  this  forbidden  sphere.  This 
last  assertion  raises  the  important  issue;  and, 
though  I  have  no  pretension  to  invent  an  opposi- 
tion nick-name,  I  may  venture,  for  the  purposes 
of  this  article,  to  describe  the  rival  school  as 
Gnostics.  The  Gnostic  holds  that  our  reason  can, 
in  some  sense,  transcend  the  narrow  limits  of  ex- 
perience. He  holds  that  we  can  attain  truths 
not  capable  of  verification,  and  not  needing  veri- 
fication, by  actual  experiment  or  observation.  He 
holds,  further,  that  a  knowledge  of  those  truths 
is  essential  to  the  highest  interests  of  mankind,  and 
enables  us  in  some  sort  of  way  to  solve  the  dark 
riddle  of  the  universe.  A  complete  solution,  as 
everyone  admits,  is  beyond  our  power.  But  some 
answer  may  be  given  to  the  doubts  which  harass 
and  perplex  us  when  we  try  to  frame  any  adequate 
conception  of  the  vast  order  of  which  we  form 
an  insignificant  portion.  We  cannot  say  why  this 
or  that  arrangement  is  what  it  is ;  we  can  say, 
though  obscurely,  that  some  answer  exists,  and 
would  be  satisfactory,  if  we  could  only  find  it. 
Overpowered,  as  every  honest  and  serious  thinker 
is  at  times  overpowered,  by  the  sight  of  pain, 
folly,  and  helplessness,  by  the  jarring  discords 
which  run  through  the  vast  harmony  of  the  uni- 
verse, we  are  yet  enabled  to  hear  at  times  a  whis- 
per that  all  is  well,  to  trust  to  it  as  coming  from 
the  most  authentic  source,  and  to  know  that  only 
the  temporary  bars  of  sense  prevent  us  from  rec- 
ognising with  certainty  that  the  harmony  beneath 
the  discords  is  a  reality  and  not  a  dream.  This 
knowledge  is  embodied  in  the  central  dogma  of 
theology.  God  is  the  name  of  the  harmony;  and 
God  is  knowable.  Who  would  not  be  happy  in 
accepting  this  belief,  if  he  could  accept  it  honestly? 
Who  would  not  be  glad  if  he  could  sav  with  con- 
fidence, the  evil  is  transitory,  the  good  eternal: 
our  doubts  are  due  to  limitations  destined  to  be 
abolished,  and  the  world  is  really  an  embodiment 


of  love  and  wisdom,  however  dark  it  may  appear 
to  our  faculties?  And  yet,  if  the  so-called  knowl- 
edge be  illusory,  are  we  not  bound  by  the  most 
sacred  obligations  to  recognise  the  facts?  Our 
brief  path  is  dark  enough  on  any  hypothesis.  We 
cannot  afford  to  turn  aside  after  every  ignis  jatuus 
without  asking  whether  it  leads  to  sounder  footing 
or  to  hopeless  quagmires.  Dreams  may  be  pleas- 
anter  for  the  moment  than  realities;  but  happiness 
must  be  won  by  adapting  our  lives  to  the  reali- 
ties. And  who,  that  has  felt  the  burden  of  ex- 
istence, and  suffered  under  well-meant  efforts  at 
consolation,  will  deny  that  such  consolations  are 
the  bitterest  of  mockeries?  Pain  is  not  an  evil; 
death  is  not  a  separation;  sickness  is  but  a  bless- 
ing in  disguise.  Have  the  gloomiest  speculations 
of  avowed  pessimists  ever  tortured  sufferers  hke 
those  kindly  platitudes?  Is  there  a  more  cutting 
piece  of  satire  in  the  language  than  the  reference 
in  our  funeral  service  to  the  'sure  and  certain  hope 
of  a  blessed  resurrection'?  To  dispel  genuine  hopes 
might  be  painful,  however  salutary.  To  suppress 
these  spasmodic  eftorts  to  fly  in  the  face  of  facts 
would  be  some  comfort,  even  in  the  distress  which 
they  are  meant  to  alleviate.  Besides  the  impor- 
tant question  whether  the  Gnostic  can  prove  his 
dogmas,  there  is,  therefore,  the  further  question 
whether  the  dogmas,  if  granted,  have  any  mean- 
ing. Do  they  answer  our  doubts,  or  mock  us 
with  the  appearance  of  an  answer?  The  Gnostics 
rejoice  in  their  knowledge.  Have  they  anything 
to  tell  us?  They  rebuke  what  they  call  the  'pride 
of  reason'  in  the  name  of  a  still  more  exalted 
pride.  The  scientific  reasoner  is  arrogant  because 
he  sets  limits  to  the  faculty  in  which  he  trusts, 
and  denies  the  existence  of  any  other  faculty. 
They  are  humble  because  they  dare  to  tread  in 
the  regions  which  he  declares  to  be  inaccessible. 
But  without  bandying  such  accusations,  or  ask- 
ing which  pride  is  the  greatest,  the  Gnostics  are 
at  least  bound  to  show  some  ostensible  justifi- 
cation for  their  complacency.  Have  they  discov- 
ered a  firm  resting-place  from  which  they  are 
entitled  to  look  down  in  compassion  or  contempt 
upon  those  who  hold  it  to  be  a  mere  edifice  of 
moonshine?  If  they  have  diminished  by  a  scruple 
the  weight  of  one  passing  doubt,  we  should  be 
grateful:  perhaps  we  should  be  converts.  If  not, 
why  condemn  Agnosticism?  I  have  said  that  our 
knowledge  is  in  any  case  limited.  I  may  add 
that,  on  any  showing,  there  is  a  danger  in  failing 
to  recognise  the  limits  of  possible  knowledge.  The 
word  Gnostic  has  some  awkward  associations.  It 
once  described  certain  heretics  who  got  into 
trouble  from  fancying  that  men  could  frame 
theories  of  the  Divine  mode  of  existence.  The 
sects  have  been  dead  for  many  centuries.  Their 
fundamental  assumptions  can  hardly  be  quite  ex- 
tinct. .  .  ." — L.  Stephen,  An  agnostic's  apology 
and  other  essays,  pp.  1-5. — "  'The  great  uncertainty 
I  found  in  metaphysical  reasonings,'  writes  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  referring  to  his  youthful  specula- 
tions, 'disgusted  me,  and  I  quitted  that  kind  of 
reading  and  study  for  others  more  satisfactory.' 
Are  we  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  future 
statesman,  once  having  ceased  applying  himself  to 
metaphysics,  was  thenceforth  emancipated  from 
the  intellectual  attitude  which  had  previously  ac- 
counted for  the  practice?  .Apparently  yes.  but  in 
reality  no;  for  to  the  end  of  his  long  life — albeit 
he  was  not  primarily  a  metaphysicist — Franklin 
remained,  in  spite  of  himself,  indelibly  stamped 
with  a  metaphysical  cast  of  mind  The  mental 
experience  of  the  celebrated  American  philosopher, 
far  from  bemg  unique  or  even  markedly  out  of 
the   ordinary,  might  be  paralleled  in   the  lives  of 


120 


AGODE 


AGRAM  TRIALS 


countless  other  thinkers,  both  professional  and 
amateur.  Whether  or  not  the  phenomenon  be 
traceable  to  temperamental  factors  of  a  basic  and 
ineradicable  nature,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  cer- 
tain persons,  once  blessed  or  cursed — let  the  reader 
take  his  choice — with  the  desire  to  probe  the  cos- 
mos to  its  very  bottom,  persist  therein  even  after 
they  have  become  convinced  of  the  utter  futility 
of  such  investigation.  Like  Tantalus  of  the  myth, 
they  must  needs  make  the  effort  to  drink  time  and 
time  again,  though  time  and  time  again  they  fail 
to  quench  (heir  thirst.  Can  it  be  that  they  are, 
after  all,  never  qiiile  convinced  that  the  quest  of 
ultimate  truth  is  a  barren  one?  Can  it  be  that 
in  an  ever-recurring  doubt  must  be  sought  the 
reason  for  the  constant  renewal  of  a  search  which 
th".  mind  repeatedly  renounces  as  hopeless?  It 
is  not  the  search  for  deity  with  which  I  am  here 
concerned:  I  as.sume  that  the  majority  of  us  are 
agreed  in  rejecting  such  doctrines  as  posit  or  pro- 
fess to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  personal 
God,  and  in  maintaining  a  defmitely  Agnostic  at- 
titude with  regard  to  other  more  or  less  attenuated 
phases  of  Theism.  What  I  have  reference  to  is 
the  fact  that  many  thinking  men  and  women,  in- 
cluding not  a  few  whose  Negativism  and  Agnos- 
ticism in  the  realm  of  theology  are  unequivocal, 
seem  to  fmd  it  possible  to  take  a  positive  mental 
stand  as  respects  the  field  of  general  metaphysics — 
to  give  assent,  that  is,  to  what  sometimes  is  aptly 
designated  as  a  'philosophical  creed.'  Yet  there 
can  be  no  more  justification,  intellectually  speak- 
ing, for  assuming  a  positive  position  in  the  one 
case  than  in  the  other,  since  in  both  spheres  the 
natural  limitations  of  the  human  mind  are  equally 
pronounced.  .  .  .  \nA  what  Sir  Leslie  Stephen,  in 
An  Agnostic's  Apology,  asserts  of  natural  theology 
is  applicable  to  the  entire  field  of  metaphysics — 
namely,  that  'there  is  not  a  single  proof  ...  of 
which  the  negative  has  not  been  maintained  as 
vigorously  as  the  affirmative.'  " — A.  Kadeson, 
Through  agnostic  spectacles,  pp.  16-IQ. — "Science 
deals  entirely  with  phenomena,  and  has  nothing 
to  say  as  to  the  nature  of  the  ultimate  reality 
which  may  lie  behind  phenomena.  There  are  four 
possible  attitudes  to  this  ultimate  reality.  There 
is  the  attitude  of  the  metaphysician  and  theolo- 
gian, who  are  convinced  not  only  that  it  exists 
but  that  it  can  be  at  least  partly  known.  There 
is  the  attitude  of  the  man  who  denies  that  it 
exists;  but  he  must  be  also  a  metaphysician,  for 
its  existence  can  only  be  disproved  by  metaphysi- 
cal arguments.  Then  there  are  those  who  assert 
that  it  exists  but  deny  that  we  can  know  anything 
about  it.  And  finally  there  are  those  who  say 
that  we  cannot  know  whether  it  exists  or  not. 
These  last  are  'agnostics'  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  men  who  profess  not  to  know.  The  third 
class  go  beyond  phenomena  in  so  far  as  they 
assert  that  there  is  an  ultimate  though  unknow- 
able reality  beneath  phenomena.  But  agnostic  is 
commonly  used  in  a  wide  sense  so  as  to  include 
the  third  as  well  as  the  fourth  class — those  who 
assume  an  unknowable,  as  well  as  those  who  do 
not  know  whether  there  is  an  unknowable  or 
not.  Comte  and  Spencer,  for  instance,  who  be- 
lieved in  an  unknowable,  are  counted  as  agnos- 
tics."— J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  the  freedom  of 
thought,  pp.   213-214. 

AGODE.  See  Babylonia:  Early  Chaldean  mon- 
archy. 

AGOGE,  the  public  discipline  enforced  in  an- 
cient Sparta ;  the  ordinances  attributed  to  Lycur- 
gus,  for  the  training  of  the  young  and  for  the 
regulating  of  the  lives  of  citizens. — G.  Schomann, 
Antiquity  of  Greece:  the  Stale,  pi.  3,  ch.  i. 


AGOMAH.— Burned  by  the  British  (1916). 
See  World  War:  igi6:  V.  Balkan  theater:  b,  2,  ii. 

AGONCILLA,  F.,  foreign  agent  and  high 
commissioner  of  Philippines.  Suggested  negotia- 
tions with  United  States,  but  his  proposition  was 
refused.     See   U.  S.  A.:    1897    (November). 

AGORA.— The  market-place  of  an  ancient 
Greek  city  was,  also,  the  center  of  its  political 
life.  "Like  the  gymnasium,  and  even  earlier  than 
this,  it  grew  into  architectural  splendor  with  the 
increasing  culture  .of  the  Greeks.  In  maritime  cities 
it  generally  lay  near  the  sea;  in  inland  places  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  which  carried  the  old  feudal 
castle.  Being  the  oldest  part  of  the  city,  it  natur- 
ally became  the  focus  not  only  of  commercial, 
but  also  of  religious  and  political  life.  Here  even 
in  Homer's  time  the  citizens  assembled  in  consul- 
tation, for  which  purpose  it  was  supplied  with 
seats;  here  were  the  oldest  sanctuaries;  here  were 
celebrated  the  first  festive  games;  here  centred  the 
roads  on  which  the  intercommunication,  both  re- 
ligious and  commercial,  with  neighbouring  cities 
and  states  was  carried  on ;  from  here  started  the 
processions  which  continually  passed  between  holy 
places  of  kindred  origin,  though  locally  separated. 
Although  originally  all  public  transactions  were 
carried  on  in  these  market-places,  special  local  ar- 
rangements for  contracting  public  business  soon 
became  necessary  in  large  cities.  At  Athens,  for 
instance,  the  gently  rising  ground  of  the  Philo- 
pappos  hill,  called  Pnyx,  touching  the  Agora,  was 
used  for  political  consultations,  while  most  likely, 
about  the  time  of  the  Pisistratides,  the  market  of 
Kerameikos,  the  oldest  seat  of  Attic  industry  (ly- 
ing between  the  foot  of  the  Akropolis,  the  Areopa- 
gos  and  (he  hill  of  Theseus),  became  the  agora 
proper,  i.  e.,  the  centre  of  Athenian  commerce. 
.  .  .  The  description  by  Vitruvius  of  an  agora  evi- 
dently refers  to  the  splendid  structures  of  post- 
Ale.xandrine  times.  According  to  him  it  was  quad- 
rangular in  size  [  ?  shape]  and  surrounded  by  wide 
double  colonades.  The  numerous  columns  carried 
architraves  of  common  stone  or  of  marble,  and  on 
the  roofs  of  the  porticoes  were  galleries  for  walk- 
ing purposes.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to 
all  market-places,  even  of  later  date;  but,  upon 
the  whole,  the  remaining  specimens  agree  with 
the  description  of  Vitruvius." — E.  Guhl  and  W. 
Koner,  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  pt.  i,  sect. 
26. — In  the  Homeric  time,  the  general  assembly 
of  freemen  was  called  the  Agora. — G.  Grote,  His- 
tory of  Greece,  pt.  i,  ch.  20. — See  also  Athens: 
B.C.  .161-431:   General  aspect  of  Periclean  Athens 

AGORANOMI,  magistrates  in  the  Greek  re- 
publics, similar  to  the  aediles  in  Rome.  They 
maintained  order  in  the  markets,  settled  disputes, 
collected  harbor  dues,  and  inspected  goods  offered 
for  sale. 

AGRA,  an  ancient  city  of  northern  India,  cap- 
ital of  a  district  and  of  a  division  of  the  same 
name  in  the  United  Provinces;  principally  famous 
for  the  Taj  Mahal,  the  supremely  beautiful  mau- 
soleum built  in  1632  by  the  Mogul  emperor  Shah 
Jahan,  for  the  remains  of  his  favorite  wife;  also 
noted  for  the  Pearl  Mosque  and  other  fine  speci- 
mens of  architecture;  at  one  time  capital  of  the 
Mogul  empire;  under  British  rule  since  1803,  and 
today  a  prosperous  railroad,  manufacturing  and 
commercial  center. — See  also  India:  1798-1805,  and 
Map. 

AGRAM,  in  Slavic,  ZSgrSb,  capital  of  Croatia 
and  Slavonia,  an  old  but  thoroughly  modernized 
town,  with  handsome  public  buildings,  churches, 
and    monuments,    higher    colleges    and    academies. 

AGRAM  TRIALS.  See  Austria-Hungary: 
1 908- 1 909. 


T2I 


AGRARIAN  LAWS 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES 


AGRARIAN  LAWS  (of  ancient  Rome)  (Lat. 
ager,  land),  laws  which  dealt  with  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  public  land,  since  it  was  unconstitu- 
tional to  gratuitously  dispose  of  the  state's  prop- 
erty without  the  consent  of  the  people.  Such 
land  was  the  property  of  the  Roman  state  by 
virtue  of  the  conquests,  and  was  used  by  the 
Republic  as  a  means  of  defrayinR  in  part  the 
expenses  of  administration,  cither  throueh  a  direct 
sale,  or  through  the  leasing  of  it  to  private  citi- 
zens. Often  another  object  was  achieved  by  means 
of  this  propcrt\' — the  satisfaction  of  the  poorer 
citizens.  In  such  cases,  contrary  to  instances  when 
property  was  leased  out,  the  state  henceforth 
ceased  to  have  any  right  in  the  land.  The  state 
availed  itself  of  still  another  method  of  disposing 
of  its  surplus  properties,  that  is  through  a  gratui- 
tous assignment  to  an  organization  a  colony,  or  a 
settlement.  In  such  cases  the  ownership  passed 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  assignee.  In  232 
B.  C,  C.  Flaminius  enacted  a  law  by  means  of 
which  tracts  of  land  held  by  large  landowners 
were  redistributed  in  smaller  allotments  to  the 
poorer  people.  Still  a  third  method  for  providing 
land  for  unpropertied  people  was  attempted.  In 
63  B.  C.  Servilius  Rullus  tried  to  have  a  law  en- 
acted which  would  have  allowed  the  sale  of  foreign 
lands  gained  through  conquests  and  the  purchase 
of  land  in  Italy  with  that  money,  and  finally  the 
allotment  of  this  land  to  the  citizens.  Cicero's 
opposition  to  the  bill  caused  its  withdrawal. — 
"Great  mistakes  formerly  prevailed  on  the  nature 
of  the  Roman  laws  familiarly  termed  .Agrarian. 
It  was  supposed  that  by  these  laws  all  land  w'as 
declared  common  property,  and  that  at  certain 
intervals  of  time  the  state  resumed  possession  and 
made  a  fresh  distribution  to  all  citizens,  rich  and 
poor.  It  is  needless  to  make  any  remarks  on  the 
nature  and  consequences  of  such  a  law;  sufficient 
it  will  be  to  say.  what  is  now  known  to  all,  that 
at  Rome  such  laws  never  existed,  never  were 
thought  of.  The  lands  which  were  to  be  distrib- 
uted by  Agrarian  laws  were  not  private  property, 
but  the  property  of  the  state.  They  were,  origi- 
nally, those  public  lands  which  had  been  the  do- 
main of  the  kings,  and  which  were  increased 
whenever  any  city  or  people  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans;  because  it  was  an  Italian  practice  to 
confiscate  the  lands  of  the  conquered,  in  whole 
or  in  part." — H.  G.  Liddell.  History  of  Rome,  bk. 
2,  ch.  8. — ^Sec  also  Rome:  Republic:  B  C.  133-121; 
.V.RicuLxrRF.:  Modern  period:  United  States:  1833- 
1860;  Ireland:  1858-1860;  Russu:  iqoq  (April) 
and  1Q16:  Condition  of  peasantry;  Yucatan:  igii- 

IQlS. 

AGRARIAN  LEAGUE.    See  German\-:  1890- 

1804:   i8o!;-i8q8. 
AGRARIAN     MOVEMENT.      See    AcRictn.- 

TURE. 

AGRARIAN  PARTY.  Sec  .\x'Stria:  1006- 
1000;   Finland:    iq20. 

AGRARIAN  REFORM:  Rumania.  See  Ru- 
MANU:    Break  up  of  large  estates. 

AGREEMENTS,  International:  Copyrights, 
Extradition,  etc.  See  .American  republics,  Ixter- 
national  union  of:  iqoi-1002;  .Arbitration,  In- 
ternational;  also  under  specific   articles 

AGRI  DECUMATES.— "Between  the  Rhine 
and  the  Upper  Danube  there  intervenes  a  triangu- 
lar tract  of  land,  the  apex  of  which  touches  the 
confines  of  Switzerland  at  Basel ;  thus  separating, 
as  with  an  enormous  wedge,  the  provinces  of  Gaul 
and  Vindelicia,  and  presenting  at  its  base  no  nat- 
ural line  of  defence  from  one  river  to  the  other 
This  tract  w-as.  however,  occupied,  for  the  most 
part,  by   forests,  and   if  it   broke   the  line  of  the 


Roman  defences,  it  might  at  least  be  considered 
impenetrable  to  an  enemy.  Abandoned  by  the 
warlike  and  predatory  tribes  of  Germany,,  it  was 
seized  by  wandering  immigrants  from  Gaul,  many 
of  them  Roman  adventurers,  before  whom  the 
original  inhabitants,  the  Marcomanni,  or  men  of 
the  frontier,  seem  to  have  retreated  eastward  be- 
yond the  Hercynian  forest.  The  intruders  claimed 
or  solicited  Roman  protection,  and  offered  in  re- 
turn a  tribute  from  the  produce  of  the  soil,  whence 
the  district  itself  came  to  be  known  by  the  title 
of  the  -Agri  Decumates,  or  Tithed  Land.  It  was 
not,  however,  officially  connected  with  any  prov- 
ince of  the  Empire,  nor  was  any  attempt  madt- 
to  provide  for  its  permanent  security,  till  a  period 
much  later  than  that  on  which  we  are  now  en- 
gaged [the  period  of  .Augustus]." — C.  Merivale, 
History  of  the  Romans  under  the  empire,  ch.  36. — 
"Wurtcmburg,  Baden  and  Hohenzollern  coincide 
with  the  .Agri  Decumates  of  the  Roman  writers.  ' 
— R.    G.    Latham,   Ethnology    of   Europe,   ch.   8. 

AGRICOLA,  Georg  (1400-155.0,  founder  of 
modern  metallurgy.  See  Science:  Middle  Ages  and 
the   Renaissance. 

AGRICOLA,  Gnaeus  Julius  (AD.  37-92), 
Roman  general  and  statesman;  held  various  posts; 
commanded  a  legion  in  Britain,  70-73;  governor  of 
.Aquitania,  74-7S;  of  Britain,  78-85;  built  a  wall 
from  the  Frith  of  Forth,  to  the  Frith  of  Clyde. 
See  Britain:  A.D.  7S-S4, 

AGRICULTURAL  AGENCIES,  need  of  co- 
operation. See  .Agriculture:  Modern  period: 
United  States:   Rural  policv. 

AGRICULTURAL  BANKS.  See  Rur.al 
credit. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  See 
Chemistry.  .Agricultltral. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES.  See  Educa- 
tion.   .ACRlrULTl'RAL. 

AGRICULTURAL     COOPERATION.       See 

Cooperation:   Belgium. 
AGRICULTURAL     CREDIT.       See     Rural 

CREDIT 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION.  See  Edu- 
cation,  .AGRICl'LTURiL. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPANSION  IN 
UNITED  STATES.  See  Agriculture:  Modern 
period:  United  States:  1860-18S8:  Expansion  after 
the  Civil  War. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STA- 
TIONS. See  Education,  .Agricultural:  United 
States. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  WORK. 
See  Education,  .Agricultural:  United  States:  Sta- 
tistics  of   agricultural   colleges. 

AGRICULTURAL      IMPLEMENTS,      Im 
provement  of.    See  .AcRicirLTURE :  Modern  period: 
United  States:  i860- 1888:  Expansion  after  the  Civil 
War. 

AGRICULTURAL  LAND  BILL.  See  Eng- 
land:  iSofi. 

AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS.  See  Educa- 
tion, .AC.RICULTUR.\L. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES,  associations 
for  the  promotion  of  agricultural  science  and 
knowledge,  composed  of  farmers  and  other  inter- 
ested persons.  .Agricultural  associations  were  first 
formed  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
some  of  the  most  important  now  in  existence  dat- 
ing from  that  time.  In  recent  years  the  tendency 
has  been  to  form  agricultural  associations  not  only 
for  purposes  of  education  and  research,  but  also 
in  order  to  assist  the  farmer  directly  through  co- 
operation. 

A  list  of  the  most  important  agricultural  so- 
cieties is  appended: 


1 22 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


1.  Denmark: 

Royal   Danish   ARiicultiiral  Society. 

2.  France: 

Society    of   Auricullurista   of   France. 
National  Society   of  Agriculture. 

3.  Germany: 

German   ."VRricultural  Society. 

4.  United   Kingdom: 

Bath     and     West     of     England     Society 

(1774)- 
Highland    and    Agricultural    Society     of 

Scotland   (17S4). 
Roval    Agricultural   Socictv    of    ICngland 


Agricultural    Organization    Society,    Eng- 
land and  Wales — cooperative  (igoi). 
Royal  Dublin  Society   (1749). 
S-  United  States: 

Farmers'  Alliance. 

Patrons   of   Husbandry    (the   Grange). 
Farmers'    Educational    and    Cooperative 
Union. 

AGRICULTURAL  SYSTEM:  Relation  to 
slavery.  See  .\griculture:  .\ncient  period:  De- 
velopment of  the  servile  system  among  the  Ro- 
mans; Sl.werv;   United  States. 


AGRICULTURE 


"So  bountiful  has  been  the  earth  and  so  se- 
curely have  we  drawn  from  it  our  substance,  that 
wc  have  taken  it  all  for  granted  as  if  it  were  only 
a  gift,  and  with  little  care  or  conscious  thought  of 
the  consequences  of  our  use  of  it;  nor  have  we 
very  much  considered  the  essential  relation  that 
we  bear  to  it  as  living  parts  in  the  vast  creation. 
Wc  may  distinguish  three  stages  in  our  relation 
to  the  planet, — the  collecting  stage,  the  mining 
stage,  and  the  producing  stage.  These  overlap  and 
perhaps  are  nowhere  distinct,  and  yet  it  serves 
a  purpose  to  contrast  them.  At  first  man  sweeps 
the  earth  to  see  what  he  may  gather, — game,  wood, 
fruits,  fish,  fur,  feathers,  shells  on  the  shore.  A 
certain  social  and  moral  life  arises  out  of  this 
relation,  seen  well  in  the  woodsmen  and  the  fish- 
ers— in  whom  it  best  persists  to  Vai  present  day — 
strong,  dogmatic,  superstitious  folk.  Then  man 
begins  to  go  beneath  the  surface  to  see  what  he 
can  fmd, — iron  and  precious  stones,  the  gold  of 
Ophir,  coal,  and  many  curious  treasures.  This 
develops  the  exploiting  faculties,  and  leads  men 
into  the  uttermost  parts.  In  both  these  stages 
the  elements  of  waste  and  disregard  have  been 
heavy.  Finally,  we  begin  to  enter  the  productive 
stage,  whereby  we  secure  supplies  by  controlling 
the  conditions  under  which  they  grow,  wasting 
little,  harming  not.  Farming  has  been  very  much 
a  mining  process,  the  utilizing  of  fertility  easily 
at  hand  and  the  moving-on  to  lands  unspoiled  of 
quick  potash  and  nitrogen.  Now  it  begins  to  be 
really  productive  and  constructive,  with  a  range 
of  responsible  and  permanent  morals.  .  .  .  Neces- 
sarily, the  proportion  of  farmers  will  decrease. 
Not  so  many  arc  needed,  relatively,  to  produce  the 
requisite  supplies  from  the  earth.  Agriculture 
makes  a  great  contribution  to  human  progress  by 
releasing  men  for  the  manufactures  and  the  trades. 
In  proportion  as  the  ratio  of  farmers  decreases  it 
is  important  that  wc  provide  them  the  best  of 
opportunities  and  encouragement:  they  must  be 
better  and  better  men.  .And  if  we  are  to  secure 
our  moral  connection  with  the  planet  to  a  large 
e.xtent  through  them,  we  can  see  that  they  bear  a 
relation  to  society  in  general  that  we  have  over- 
looked. ...  If  the  older  stages  were  strongly  ex- 
pressed in  the  character  of  the  people,  so  will  this 
new  stage  be  expressed ;  and  so  it  is  that  we  are 
escaping  the  primitive  and  should  be  coming  into 
a  new  character.  We  shall  find  our  rootage  in 
the  soil." — L.  H.  Bailey,  Holy  earth,  pp.  22-24.— 
See  also  Europe:   Stone  h%c. 

"The  history  of  our  Domestic  Animals  and  Cul- 
tivated Plants  is  a  subject  of  absorbing  interest  to 
the  educated  man,  and  (if  he  knew  it)  to  the  un- 
educated man  too.  It  forms  no  small  part  of  the 
history  of  Man  himself  and  his  slow  advance  to 
civilization.  .  .  .  .\nd   who   can   state   the   sum   of 


our  obliguliuub  to  the  shccii,  the  pig,  the  camel, 
the  dog,  and  even  poor  mou.sing  Puss?  Or  why 
should  Chanticleer  and  his  family,  with  other 
bipeds  of  the  poultry-yard,  be  forgotten?  .And 
much  the  same  may  be  said  of  Cultivated  Plants 
—the  grains,  the  potherbs,  garden-flowers,  fruit- 
trees,  timber,  and  even  ornamental  trees.  Now 
the  history  of  the  Plants  and  .\nimal5  of  Europe— 
of  their  reclamation  from  a  wild  state  to  the 
service  of  man,  and  their  distribution  in  their 
present  locale— is  susceptible  of  two  or  three  dif- 
ferent methods  of  investigation,  which  sometimes 
clash,  and  lead  to  opposite  conclusions.  It  is 
certain  that  some  of  them  are  not  natives  of  the 
countries  where  we  find  them;  that  they  have 
been  imported  from  abroad.  But  which  of  them? 
whence,  and  along  what  route?  how  early,  and  by 
whom?  Our  answers  to  these  questions  will  be 
different,  accordingly  as  wc  lean  chiefly  on  Natural 
Science,  or  on  Ancient  History,  Literature,  and 
even  Language.  .  .  .  That  the  animal  and  vege- 
table worlds— that  is  to  say,  the  whole  physiog- 
nomy of  life,  labour,  and  landscape  in  a  country 
— may,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  be  changed 
under  the  hand  of  Man  is  an  ex-perimental  fact 
that,  especially  since  the  discovery  of  America, 
cannot  be  contradicted.  During  the  last  three 
centuries — in  a  purely  historical  period,  since  the 
invention  of  printing,  and  in  full  view  of  the 
civilized  world— the  native  animals  and  plants  in 
newly  discovered  islands  and  in  the  colonized 
countries  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  have  been 
supplanted  b>-  tho.se  of  Europe,  or  by  a  flora  and 
fauna  collected  from  all  parts  of  the  globe." — 
V.  Hehn,  Citllivated  plants  and  domestic  ani- 
mals, pp.  vii-viii,  17. 

ANCIENT  PERIOD 

Beginnings  of  plant  cultivation. — "In  the 
progress  of  civilization  the  beginnings  are  usually 
feeble,  obscure,  and  limited.  There  are  reasons 
why  this  should  be  the  case  with  the  first  attempts 
at  agriculture  and  horticulture.  Between  the  cus- 
tom of  gathering  wild  fruits,  grain,  and  roots  and 
that  of  the  regular  cultivation  of  the  plants  v.-hich 
produce  them  there  are  several  steps.  .  .  .  Cer- 
tain trees  may  exist  near  a  dwelling  without  our 
knowing  whether  they  were  planted,  or  whether 
the  hut  was  built  beside  them  in  order  to  profit 
by  them.  War  and  the  chase  often  interrupt  at- 
tempts at  cultivation.  Rivalry  and  mistrust  cause 
the  imitation  of  one  tribe  by  another  to  make  but 
slow  progress.  If  some  great  personage  command 
the  cultivation  of  a  plant,  and  institute  some  cere- 
mony to  show  its  utility,  it  is  probably  because 
obscure  and  unknown  men  have  previously  spoken 
of  it,  and  that  successful  experiments  have  already 


123 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


Plant 
CuUivation 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


been  made.  A  longer  or  shorter  succession  of  local 
and  short-lived  ejiperiments  must  have  occurred 
before  such  a  display,  which  is  calculated  to  im- 
press an  already  numerous  public.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  that  there  must  have  been  determin- 
ing causes  to  excite  these  attempts,  to  renew  them, 
to  make  them  successful.  The  first  cause  is  that 
such  or  such  a  plant,  offering  some  of  those  ad- 
vantages which  all  men  seek,  must  be  within 
reach.  The  lowest  savages  know  the  plants  of 
their  country ;  but  the  example  of  the  Austra- 
lians and  Patagonians  shows  that  if  they  do  not 
consider  them  productive  and  easy  to  rear,  they 
do  not  entertain  the  idea  of  cultivating  them. 
Other  conditions  are  sufficiently  evident:  a  not 
too  rigorous  climate ;  in  hot  countries,  the  moder- 
ate duration  of  drought ;  some  degree  of  security 
and  settlement;  lastly,  a  pressing  necessity,  due 
to  insufficient  resources  in  fishing,  hunting,  or  in 
the  production  of  indigenous  and  nutritious  plants, 
such  as  the  chestnut,  the  datepalm,  the  banana, 
or  the  bread  fruit  tree.  When  men  can  live  with- 
out work  it  is  what  they  like  best.  Besides,  the 
element  of  hazard  in  hunting  and  fishing  attracts 
primitive,  and  sometimes  civilized,  man  more  than 
the  rude  and  regular  labor  of  cultivation.  .  .  .  The 
various  causes  which  favor  or  obstruct  the  begin- 
nings of  .agriculture  explain  why  certain  regions 
have  been  for  thousands  of  years  peopled  by  hus- 
bandmen, while  others  are  still  inhabited  by  no- 
madic tribes.  It  is  clear  that,  owing  to  their  well- 
known  qualities  and  to  the  favorable  conditions  of 
climate,  it  was  at  an  early  period  found  easy  to 
cultivate  rice  and  several  leguminous  plants  in 
Southern  Asia,  barley  and  wheat  in  Mesopotamia 
and  in  Egypt,  several  species  of  Panicum  [millet 
and  other  grains]  in  Africa,  maize,  the  potato, 
the  sweet  potato,  and  manioc  in  America.  Centers 
were  thus  formed  whence  the  most  useful  species 
were  diffused.  In  the  north  of  Asia,  of  Europe, 
and  of  America  the  climate  is  unfavorable  and 
the  indigenous  plants  are  unproductive ;  but  as 
hunting  and  fishing  offered  their  resources,  agri- 
culture must  have  been  introduced  there  late,  and 
it  was  possible  to  dispense  with  the  good  species  of 
the  south  without  great  suffering.  It  was  differ- 
ent in  .Australia,  Patagonia,  and  even  in  the  south 
of  .Africa.  They  were  out  of  reach  of  the  plants 
of  the  temperate  region  in  our  hemisphere,  and 
the  indigenous  species  were  very  poor.  It  is  not 
merely  the  want  of  intelligence  or  security  that 
has  prevented  the  inhabitants  from  cultivating 
them.  Europeans  established  in  these  countries 
for  a  hundred  years  have  cultivated  only  a  single 
species,  and  that  an  insignificant  green  vegetable. 
"The  ancient  Egyptians  and  the  Phtrnicians 
propagated  many  plants  in  the  region  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  .'\ryan  nations,' whose  migrations 
toward  Europe  began  about  2500,  or  at  latest 
2000  B.  C,  carried  with  them  several  species  al- 
ready cultivated  in  Western  Asia.  Some  plants 
were  probably  cultivated  in  Europe  and  in  the 
north  of  -Africa  prior  to  the  .Aryan  migration. 
This  is  shown  by  names  in  languages  more  ancient 
than  the  .Aryan  tongues;  for  instance,  Finn, 
Ba.sque,  Berber,  and  the  speech  of  the  Guanches 
of  the  Canary  Isles.  However,  the  remains,  called 
kitchen  middens,  of  ancient  Danish  dwellings  have 
hitherto  furnished  no  proof  of  cultivation  or  any 
indication  of  the  possession  of  metal.  This  ab- 
sence of  metals  does  not  in  these  northern  coun- 
tries argue  a  greater  antiquity  than  the  age  of 
Pericles,  or  even  the  palmy  days  of  the  Roman 
republic  Later,  when  bronze  was  known  in  Swe- 
den— a  region  far  removed  from  the  then  civilized 
countries — agriculture   had    at   length    been    intro- 


duced. .Among  the  remains  of  that  epoch  was 
found  a  carving  of  a  cart  drawn  by  two  oxen  and 
driven  by  a  man.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Eastern  Switzerland,  at  a  time  when  they  pos- 
sessed instruments  of  polished  stone  and  no  metals, 
cultivated  several  plants,  some  of  which  were  of 
.Asiatic  origin.  The  remains  of  the  Lake-dwellers 
of  .Austria  prove  likewise  a  completely  primitive 
agriculture:  no  cereals  have  been  found  at  Laibach 
and  only  a  single  grain  of  wheat  at  the  Mondsce. 
The  backward  condition  of  agriculture  in  this  east- 
ern part  of  Europe  is  contrary  to  the  hypothesis, 
based  on  a  few  words  used  by  ancient  historians, 
that  the  .\ryans  sojourned  first  in  the  region  of  the 
Danube.  In  spite  of  this  example,  agriculture  ap- 
pears in  general  to  have  been  more  ancient  in  the 
temperate  parts  of  Europe  than  we  should  be 
inclined  to  believe  from  the  Greeks,  who  were  dis- 
posed to  attribute  the  origin  of  all  progress  10 
their  own   nation. 

"In  .\merica  agriculture  is  perhaps  not  quite  so 
ancient  as  in  .Asia  and  Egypt,  if  we  are  to  judge 
from  the  civilization  of  jlexico  and  Peru,  which 
does  not  date  even  from  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  [See  Peru:  Empire  of  the  Incas; 
1200-1527.]  However,  the  widespread  cultiva- 
tion of  certain  plants,  such  as  maize,  tobacco, 
and  the  sweet  potato,  argues  a  considerable  an- 
tiquity, perhaps  two  thousand  years  or  there- 
abouts. History  is  at  fault  in  this  matter  and  we 
can  only  Jiope  to  be  enlightened  by  the  discov- 
eries of  archseology  and  geology.  Men  have  not 
discovered  and  cultivated  within  the  last  two 
thousand  years  a  single  species  which  can  rival 
maize,  rice,  the  sweet  potato,  the  potato,  the 
breadfruit,  the  date,  cereals,  millets,  sorghums,  the 
banana,  soy.  These  date  from  three,  four,  or  five 
thousand  years,  perhaps  even  in  some  cases  six 
thousand  years.  The  species  first  cultivated  dur- 
ing the  Grsco-Roman  civilization  and  later  .  . 
nearly  all  answer  to  more  varied  or  more  refined 
needs.  \  great  dispersion  of  the  ancient  species 
from  one  country  to  another  took  place,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  selection  of  the  best  varieties  de- 
veloped in  each  species.  .  .  .  The  peoples  of  South- 
ern and  Western  .^sia  innovated  in  a  certain  de- 
gree by  cultivating  the  buckwheats,  several  cu- 
curbitacea?  [cucumbers,  melons,  etc.],  a  few  al- 
liums [garlic,  chives,  leek],  etc.  In  Europe,  the 
Romans  and  several  peoples  in  the  Middle  Ages 
introduced  the  cultivation  of  a  few  vegetables  and 
fruits,  and  that  of  several  fodders.  In  .Africa,  a 
few  species  were  then  first  cultivated  separately. 
.After  the  voyages  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  of 
Columbus  a  rapid  diffusion  took  place  of  the 
species  already  cultivated  in  either  hemisphere. 
These  transports  continued  during  three  centuries 
without  any  introduction  of  new  species  into  cul- 
tivation. We  must  come  to  the  middle  of  the 
present  [10]  century  t^  find  new  cultures  of  any 
value  from  the  utilit.-.rian  point  of  view,  such  as 
the  Eiicalyplus  globulus  of  .Australia  and  the  Cin- 
chonas of  South  .America." — .A.  P.  De  Candolle. 
Beginnings  of  plant  cjiUivation  (E.  G.  Nourse, 
Agricultural   economics,    pp.    2,^-27). 

Tree  and  vine  culture. — "WTierever  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  three  .  .  .  plants— the  vine,  the  fii;, 
and  the  olive — was  prosecuted  on  a  large  scale, 
there  the  face  of  the  country  and  the  habits  and 
manners  of  the  people  were  of  necessity  changed. 
Tree-culture  was  one  step  more  on  the  path  to 
settled  habitations;  with  and  by  it  men  first  be- 
came permanently  domiciled.  The  transition  from 
a  nomadic  to  a  settled  life  has  nowhere  been  sud- 
den ;  it  was  always  accomplished  in  many  inter- 
mediate stages,  at  each  one  of  which  the  shepherd 


124 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT     £,ome//if  "imma/s     AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


hastily  sows  a  piece  of  ground,  from  which  he  as 
hastily  gathers  the  ensuing  harvest ;  next  spring 
he  chooses  another  and  iresh  piece,  which  is  no 
sooner  stripped  ol  its  spoils  than  he  neglects  it 
in  turn.  When  a  tribe  has  settled  on  some  es- 
pecially fertile  spot,  building  fragile  huts,  there  too 
the  soil  is  exhausted  in  a  few  years;  the  tribe 
breaks  up  its  quarters,  loads  its  animals  and  wag- 
gons with  its  movable  goods,  and  goes  on  to  new 
ground.  Even  when  such  a  settlement  has  be- 
come more  permanent,  the  idea  of  individual  right 
to  the  ground  is  not  yet  realized.  The  cultivated 
land,  of  which  there  is  an  abundance  in  compari- 
son to  the  scanty  population,  is  common  prop- 
erty like  the  pastures,  and  is  divided  anew  among 
the  people  every  year.  Such  was  the  condition  of 
the  Germans  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  and  this  is 
the  plain  meaning  of  that  historian's  words,  which 
have  been  carefully  explained  in  a  contrary  and 
more  welcome  sense  by  patriotic  commentators. 
The  communistic,  half-nomadic  form  of  civiliza- 
tion, which  was  closely  connected  with  ancient 
patriarchal  life,  still  prevails  in  many  parts  of 
Russia,  among  the  Tartars,  Bedouins,  and  other 
races.  During  this  first  stage  of  agriculture,  cattle- 
breeding  is  still  the  principal  occupation,  milk  and 
flesh  are  the  staple  food,  roving  and  plunder  the 
ruling  passion.  The  huts  or  houses  are  lightly 
built  of  wood,  and  easily  take  lire;  the  plough  is 
nothing  but  a  pointed  branch  guided  by  slaves 
taken  in  war,  and  only  slightly  scratches  the 
ground ;  the  foresight  of  the  community  is  very 
short,  extending  only  from  spring  to  autumn.  The 
sowing  of  seed  in  winter  is  a  considerable  ad- 
vance, but  the  decisive  step  is  taken  when  the 
Culture  of  Trees  commences.  Then  only  arises  the 
feeling  of  a  settled  home  and  the  idea  of  property. 
For  a  tree  requires  nursing  and  watering  for  many 
years  before  it  will  bear  fruit,  after  which  it  yields 
a  harvest  every  year,  while  the  covenant  with  the 
annual  'grass'  which  Demeter  taught  men  to  sow 
is  at  an  end  the  moment  the  grain  is  gathered. 
A  hedge,  the  sign  of  complete  possession,  is  raised 
to  protect  the  vineyard  or  the  orchard;  for  the 
mere  husbandman  a  boundary  stone  had  been  suf- 
ficient. The  sown  field  must  wait  for  dew  and 
rain,  but  the  tree-planter  teaches  the  mountain 
rivulet  to  wind  round  his  orchards,  and  in  so  doing 
gets  involved  in  questions  of  law  and  property 
with  his  neighbours — questions  that  can  only  be 
solved  by  a  fixed  political  organization.  One  of 
the  oldest  political  documents  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  the  treaty  sworn  to  by  the  Delphic 
Amphictyons,  contains  a  decree  that  'running  water 
shall  not  be  cut  off  from  any  of  the  allied  cities 
either  in  peace  or  in  war.'  " — V.  Hehn,  Cultivated 
plants  and  domestic   animals. 

Domestic  animals. — "In  the  East  and  around 
the  Mediterranean,  wherever  the  summers  are  rain- 
less, vegetation  was  threatened  with  destruction  by 
drought  during  the  three  or  four  hot  months  of 
every  year.  In  these  countries,  therefore,  from  the 
earliest  times,  the  art  of  irrigation,  the  banking 
and  diverting  of  streams,  their  horizontal  distribu- 
tion, the  digging  of  canals,  the  making  of  dams 
and  bores,  of  water-wheels  and  wells,  were  prac- 
tised. So  necessary  was  all  this  labour  under  the 
sunny  skies,  that  it  was  continued  from  generation 
to  generation  until  it  became  a  second  nature  and 
innate  skill.  And  as  the  art  of  irrigation  was 
originally  a  sign  of  awakening  reason,  it  also  be- 
came a  powerful  stimulant  to  further  mental  de- 
velopment. It  bound  man  to  man,  not  by  the 
stupid  natural  gregariousness  common  to  beasts, 
but  by  free  reciprocity,  the  first  germ  of  all  com- 
munities  and   states.  .  .  .  When    the   great   Aryan 


Migration  brought  the  first  inhabitants  of  a  higher 
race,  that  we  are  historically  acquainted  with,  into 
the  two  peninsulas  which  afterwards  became  the 
scene  of  classic  culture,  those  lands  (we  may 
imagine)  were  covered  with  thick,  impenetrable 
forests  of  dark  firs  and  evergreen  ilexes,  or  decidu- 
ous oaks  .  .  .  interspersed  in  the  river  valleys 
with  more  open  stretches  of  meadow  land,  grazed 
by  the  herds  of  the  newcomers,  and  with  many  a 
naked  or  grass-grown  precipice,  climbed  by  the 
nibbling  sheep,  from  whose  summits  here  and 
there  could  be  seen  the  waste,  unfruitful  sea.  The 
swine  found  plenteous  nourishment  in  the  abun- 
dant acorns,  the  dog  guarded  the  flocks,  wild 
honey-combs  furnished  wax  and  honey,  wild  apple, 
pear,  and  sloe  trees  afforded  a  hard,  sour  fruit; 
at  the  stag  and  boar,  wild  ox  and  ravening  wolf 
the  arrow  sped  from  the  bow,  or  the  sharp,  stone- 
tipped  spear  was  hurled.  Game  and  domestic  ani- 
mals furnished  all  that  was  needed:  skins  for 
clothing,  horns  for  drinking  vessels,  sinews  and 
entrails  for  bow-strings,  bones  for  tools  and  their 
handles.  Raw  hides  were  the  principal  material, 
and  needles  of  bone  or  horn  served  to  stitch  them 
together.  The  osier  boat  was  covered  with  hide, 
and  the  leathern  coat  was  sewed  together  with  the 
sinews  of  bulls.  .  ,  .  From  the  bark  of  trees,  es- 
pecially of  the  lime  tree,  and  from  the  fibres  of 
the  stalks  of  many  plants,  principally  of  the  nettle 
kind,  the  women  plaited  (plaiting  is  a  very  an- 
cient art,  the  forerunner  of  weaving,  which  it 
nearly  resembles)  mats  and  web-like  stuffs,  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  nets.  Milk  and  flesh  were  the 
staple  food,  and  salt  a  favourite  condiment,  but 
difficult  to  procure,  and  sought  for  on  the  sea- 
shore and  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  The  farther 
south  the  easier  it  became  to  winter  the  cattle, 
which  up  in  the  north  found  but  scanty  nourish- 
ment beneath  the  snow,  and  in  severe  seasons  must 
have  perished  wholesale ;  for  the  sheltering  of 
cattle  and  the  storing  of  dried  grass  against  the 
winter  are  inventions  of  later  origin,  that  followed 
in  the  wake  of  a  somewhat  advanced  husbandry. 
The  domestic  animals  were  of  poor  breed.  The 
pig,  for  example,  was  the  small  so-called  peat- 
pig  (torf-swine),  far  inferior  to  the  animal  now 
improved  by  cultivation  and  commerce.  In  winter 
the  human  dwelling-place  was  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  artificially  dug,  and  roofed  over  with  turf 
or  dung;  in  summ&r  it  was  the  waggon  itself,  or, 
in  the  woods,  a  light  tent-like  hut,  made  of 
branches  and  wicker  work.  .  .  .  The  noble  horse, 
the  darling  and  companion  of  the  hero,  the  de- 
light of  poets  (witness  the  splendid  descriptions 
in  the  Book  of  Job  and  in  Homer's  Iliad) — that 
glossy,  proud,  aristocratic,  quivering,  nervous  ani- 
mal, with  its  rhythmic  action — has  his  home  never- 
theless in  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  inhospitable 
regions  of  the  world — the  steppes  and  pasture- 
lands  of  Central  Asia,  the  realm  of  storms.  There, 
we  are  assured,  the  wild  horse  still  roams  under 
the  name  of  Tarpan,  which  tarpan  cannot  always 
be  distinguished  from  the  only  half-wild  Musin, 
or  fugitive  from  tame  or  half-tame  herds.  It 
grazes  in  troops,  under  a  wary  leader,  always 
moving  against  the  wind,  nostrils  and  ears  alert 
to  every  danger,  and  not  seldom  struck  by  a  wild 
panic  which  drives  it  full  speed  across  the  im- 
measurable plain.  During  the  terrible  winter  of 
the  steppes,  it  scrapes  the  snow  away  with  its 
hoofs,  and  scantily  feeds  on  the  dead  grasses  and 
leaves  which  it  finds  beneath.  It  has  a  thick, 
flowing  mane  and  bushy  tail,  and  when  the  winter 
cold  commences,  the  hair  all  over  its  body  grows 
into  a  kind  of  thin  fur.  And  in  this  very  region 
lived  the  first  equestrian  races  of  whom  we  have 


125 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT     Domestic  Animals    AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


any  knowledge — in  the  east  the  Mongols,  in  the 
west  the  Turks;  taking  those  names  in  their  wid- 
est sense.  .  .  .  That  the  horse  in  its  original  wild- 
ness  also  roamed  westward  of  Turkestan,  over 
the  steppes  of  the  present  South-eastern  and 
Southern  Russia,  and  to  the  foot  of  the  Carpathi- 
ans, seems  likely  enough;  not  so  likely  that  even 
the  forest  region  of  Central  Europe  once  abounded 
in  troops  of  that  animal.  .\nd  yet  much  his- 
torical testimony  seems  to  put  the  fact  beyond  a 
doubt.  Varro  speaks  of  Spanish  wild  horses; 
and  Strabo  writes,  'In  Iberia  there  are  many  deer 
and  wild  horses.'  Wild  horses  as  well  as  wild 
bulls  lived  among  the  Alps,  as  we  learn  again 
from  Strabo ;  and  Pliny  tells  us,  not  only  in  the 
Alps  but  in  the  north  generally.  Nor  are  ihe 
Middle  Ages  wanting  in  proofs  of  the  existence 
ul  wild  horses  in  Germany  and  the  countries  east 
of  Germany.  At  the  time  of  Venantius  Fortunatus 
the  onager — under  which  name  may  be  understood 
the  wild  horse — was  hunted  in  the  Ardennes,  as 
well  as  bears,  stags,  and  wild  boars.  In  Italy 
wild  horses  were  seen  for  the  first  time  during 
the  rule  of  the  Longobards,  under  King  Agilulf. 
...  If  wild  horses  were  thus  found  in  the  culti- 
vated west  and  south  of  Germany,  they  must  have 
existed  still  longer  in  the  wild  country  on  the 
Baltic,  in  Poland  and  Russia.  In  fact,  we  find 
innumerable  proofs  of  this  down  to  modern  times. 
At  the  time  of  Bishop  Otto  of  Bamberg,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  Pomerania  was 
rich  in  all  kinds  of  game,  including  wild  oxen  and 
horses.  At  the  same  period  wild  horses  are  men- 
tioned as  extant  in  Silesia,  whence  Duke  Sobeslaus 
in  1 132  'carried  away  many  captives,  and  herds 
of  wild  marcs  not  a  few.'  It  is  known,  and  is 
confirmed  by  many  literary  allusions,  that  till  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  and  even  later,  the 
woods  of  Prussia  were  inhabited  by  wild  horses. 
.  .  .  Turning  from  the  European  chase  to  the 
steppes  of  Asia,  the  true  home  of  the  wild  horse, 
we  meet  with  the  important  fact,  that  the  farther 
a  country  lies  from  this  point  of  departure,  the 
later  is  the  appearance  of  the  horse  and  its  his- 
torical mention  in  that  country,  and  the  more 
clearly  are  the  modes  of  breeding  the  animal  seen 
to  be  derived  from  neighbouring  nations  to  the 
east  and  north-east  of  it.  In  Egypt,  to  begin  with 
the  remotest  member,  no  figure  of  a  horse  or  of  a 
war-chariot  has  ever  been  found  under  the  so- 
called  'old  kingdom.'  It  is  only  when  the  period 
of  the  Shepherd  Kings  is  over,  and  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  with  its  campaigns  has  commenced  (about 
1800  B.  C),  that  we  find  both  pictorial  repre- 
sentations and  the  first  mention  in  the  papyri  (so 
far  as  they  have  been  deciphered)  of  the  horse 
and  of  war-chariots  equipped  in,  Asiatic  fashion. 
...  As  to  the  time  when  the  horse  became  known 
to  the  Semites  of  Western  .'Vsia,  we  are  limited  to 
the  evidence  of  the  Old  Testament — the  Penta- 
teuch, the  Book  of  Joshua,  etc.;  but  when  were 
these  books  written?  There  is  not  a  i)iece  in  this 
collection  that  does  not  consist  of  different  parts, 
or  that  has  not  passed  through  the  hands  of  suc- 
cessive revisers.  .  .  .  Descriptions  of  the  horse  are 
not  wanting  in  the  so-called  books  of  Moses,  nor 
in  the  historical  books.  .  .  .  But  in  these  descrip- 
tions the  horse  is  never  mentioned  as  a  domesti- 
cated animal;  it  has  nn  share  in  the  wanderings 
and  battles  of  the  Children  of  Israel ;  it  is  the  war- 
like .servant  of  their  neichbours  and  enemies, 
prancing  and  stamping  before  the  war-chariot  or 
beneath  the  rider  As  a  war-horse,  and  as  such 
only,  it  is  also  celebrated  in  the  fitic  description  in 
the  Book  of  Job.  In  the  household  its  place  is 
taken   by   the   ass.    'Thou   shalt   not   covet,'   says 


the  Decalogue,  the  commands  of  which  were  de- 
rived from  a  relatively  very  ancient  period,  'thy 
neighbour's  wife,  .  .  .  nor  his  ox,  nor  his  ass, 
nor  anything  that  is  his.'  The  horse,  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  rapine  among  mounted  nomads,  is  here,  very 
signihcantly,  never  mentioned.  .  .  .  We  are  told 
later  that  King  Josiah  abolished,  among  other 
heathen  abominations,  the  horses  and  chariots  that 
were  sacred  to  the  sun — this  was  a  feature  of  the 
Iranian  worship  of  the  sun  introduced  from 
Media.  .  .  .  Nowhere  in  the  Old  Testament  do  we 
find  horses  accompanying  the  shepherds  of  the  Ara- 
bian desert ;  those  people  travel  only  with  camels 
and  asses,  and  the  mode  of  warfare  in  the  despotic 
kingdoms  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Nile  is  unknown 
to  them.  Quite  in  agreement  with  the  above  is 
the  fact  that  the  Arabs  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  rode 
only  on  camels.  Herodotus  writes,  'The  .\rabs 
were  all  mounted  on  camels,  which  yielded  not  to 
horses  in  swiftness.'  And  Strabo  informs  us  that 
in  Arabia  FelLx  there  were  neither  horses  nor 
mules:  'There  is  a  superfluity  of  domestic  ani- 
mals and  herds,  with  the  exception  of  horses, 
mules,  and  swine.'  " — V.  Hehn,  Cultivated  plants 
and  domestic  animals,  pp.  26,  30-32,  35,  37-38, 
40-42. 

"If  we  take  all  the  above  data  together,  we 
find  that  nowhere  in  Europe,  neither  among  the 
classic  nations  of  the  south,  nor  the  North-Euro- 
pean nations  from  the  (relts  in  the  west  to  the 
Slavs  in  the  east,  is  the  high  antiquity  of  the  horse 
and  of  its  subjugation  to  man  betrayed  by  any 
clear  traces  or  undoubted  evidence.  Many  facts, 
indeed,  seem  positively  to  exclude  any  acquaint- 
ance with  the  animal  in  early  times;  for  instance, 
the  fact  of  the  Homeric  Greeks  not  riding,  as  they 
must  have  dune  had  they  possessed  the  animal 
from  the  first,  but  only  driving,  as  they  had  seen 
the  .Asiatics  do.  We  have  therefore  no  ground 
for  imagining  the  Indo-Germans  (.\ryans)  in  their 
earliest  migrations  as  a  horse-riding  people,  gal- 
loping over  Europe  with  loose  rein,  and  catching 
men  and  animals  with  horse-hair  lasso.  But  if 
the  horse  did  not  then  accompany  them  on  their 
great  march  through  the  world,  it  must  have  been 
the  Iranian  branch,  which  remained  near  the 
original  point  of  departure,  that  learnt  the  art  of 
riding  later;  and  from  whom  did  they  learn  it  if 
not  from  Ihe  Turks,  who  dwell  next  behind  them, 
and  in  course  of  time'  drew  nearer  and  nearer? 
Contemporaneous  with  the  adoption  of  the  novel 
culture,  because  closely  connected  with  it,  were 
the  introduction  of  the  Ass,  the  breeding  of  .Kfutes, 
and  the  propagation  of  the  Goat.  The  patient, 
hardworking,  and  intelligent  Ass,  which  obediently 
fulfilled  many  domestic  duties — driving  the  mill 
and  the  draw-well;  carrying  baskets  full  of  earth 
to  the  hills ;  and  accompanying  its  master  to 
market  and  feast,  loaded  with  the  produce  of  the 
soil — had  no  need  of  fat  meadows,  shady  trees, 
and  ample  space  like  the  ox ;  it  was  content  with 
what  c.'une  first,  the  way-side  herb,  the  refuse  of 
the  table,  with  straw,  twigs,  thistles,  and  brambles. 
That  the  ass  came  to  Greece  from  Semitic  .'\sia 
Minor  and  Syria^though  its  original  home  may 
have  been  .•\frica,  where  its  relations  still  live — 
is  taught  us  by  the  history  of  language,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  oldest  known  conditions  of  nations 
and  culture.  In  the  epic  time,  when  cattle-breed- 
ing and  agriculture  were  the  chief  occupations,  the 
ass  had  not  yet  become  a  common  domestic  ani- 
mal; it  is  only  mentioned  cure  in  the  lli:id.  and 
that  only  in  a  simile  invented  and  inserted  by  a 
poet  who  was  prejuilked  against  the  S  dam'nians 
and  .Athenians;  the  simile  is  paradoxical  and  awk- 
wardly   paired    with    the    one    preceding.      In    the 


126 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT     Domesfic  Animals     AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


Odyssey,  the  second  part  of  which  afforded  plenty 
of  opportunity  for  noticing  such  an  animal,  the 
ass  is  never  named  at  all ;  nor  is  it  spoken  of  by 
Hesiod.  As  the  Latin  word  asinus  has  an  archaic 
form  which  seems  to  reach  back  to  a  period  pre- 
ceding the  Greek  colonization,  the  animal  must 
have  come  into  Italy  overland  through  the  lUyrian 
tribes;  or  must  we  suppose  that  the  people  of 
Cumas,  wher)  they  founded  their  first  city  on  the 
present  Isle  of  Ischia,  still  said  asiiosr'  Later  on, 
in  Italy  the  ass,  besides  being  valued  for  the  do- 
mestic duties  he  performed,  was  of  great  use  in 
facilitating  import  and  export  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  peninsula.  Oil  and  wine  and  even 
corn  were  carried  on  donkey-back  from  the  in- 
terior to  the  sea ;  Varro  tells  us  that  merchants 
kept  herds  of  asses  expressly  for  that  purpose. 
The  ass,  and  with  it  its  name,  accompanied  the 
progress  of  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  olive  to 
the  north,  not  crossing  the  limits  of  that  culture. 
In  proportion  as  the  ure-ox,  the  bison,  and  the 
elk  died  out,  the  long-eared  foreign  beast  became 
domesticated  in  Gaul,  receiving  various  names, 
and  living  in  the  customs,  jokes,  proverbs,  and 
fables  of  the  people.  Germany,  however,  proved 
too  cold  for  the  animal.  The  Mule,  already  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  Homer,  came  from  Pontic 
Asia  Minor,  or,  as  Homer  expressly  says,  from 
the  Henetians,  a  Paphlagonian  people. 

"The  Mulus,  or  mule,  was  brought  to  Italy,  as 
the  name  proves,  from  Greece.  The  Latin  name 
was  afterwards  used  by  all  the  nations  which 
adopted  the  animal.  In  V'arro's  time,  just  as  now, 
cars  were  drawn  along  the  high-roads  by  mules, 
which  were  not  only  strong,  but  pleased  the  eye 
by  their  handsome  appearance.  The  Greeks  were 
equally  delighted  with  the  animal,  and  Nausicaa's 
car  is  drawn  to  the  sea-shore  and  back  by  mules. 
The  Goat  was  used  as  a  domestic  animal  in  the 
mountainous  districts  of  the  south,  where  culti- 
vation more  resembled  that  of  gardens  than  of 
fields.  It  feeds  on  the  spicy  herbs  that  grow  on 
sun-heated  cliffs,  is  content  with  tough  shrubs, 
and  yields  aromatic  milk.  Stony  Attica,  which 
was  rich  in  figs  and  olives,  also  nourished  in- 
numerable goats;  and  one  of  the  four  old  Attic 
phylae  was  named  after  the  goat.  Even  if  the 
animal  came  into  Europe  with  the  first  Aryan 
immigrants,,  and  accordingly  the  Hellenes  and  Ital- 
ians had  not  to  make  its  acquaintance  after  reach- 
ing their  new  home,  yet  it  was  only  there,  and 
under  the  Semitic  mode  of  cultivation  there 
adopted,  that  it  found  its  proper  place  and  true 
use.  It  is  obvious,  too,  that  the  keeping  of  Bees 
could  only  have  been  adopted  after  the  rise  of 
tree-culture.  The  man  who  planted  his  owrt 
olives,  for  the  fruit  of  which  he  had  to  wait  for 
years,  could  easily  keep  beehives  within  his  en- 
closed ground,  nursing  the  bees  through  the  winter, 
increasing  their  number  by  colonies  derived  from 
the  parent-stock,  and  in  due  season  receiving  the 
reward  of  his  exertions  in  the  shape  of  honey 
and  wax.  Aristasus,  the  inventor  of  oil,  also  in- 
vented apiculture,  and  Autuchos,  i,  e.,  the  self- 
possessing,  is  named  as  his  brother.  Homer  knows 
nothing  of  beehives;  the  simile  of  the  Achaeans 
gathering  together  'like  bees  flying  out  of  a  cleft 
in  the  rock.'  is  derived  from  the  swarming  of 
wild  bees.  We  first  meet  with  an  artificial  bee- 
hive in  a  not  very  old  passage  in  Hesiod's  The- 
ogony ;  in  it  the  working-bees  are  distinguished 
from  the  drones,  which  latter  are  compared  to 
women  I  In  those  days  the  shepherd  robbed  the 
wild  honeycombs  which  he  found  in  the  forest, 
and  if  the  spoil  was  abundant  be  made  mead  of 
the   honey ;    the   husbandman    fermented   his   flour 


into  a  kind  of  raw  beer;  the  vintner  often  mixed 
the  honey  from  his  hives  with  his  wine,  which  he 
then  called  muhum,  and  believed  that  the  enjoy- 
ment of  this  beverage  would  lengthen  his  days. 
.  .  .  The  domestic  joid  made  its  appearance  in 
Western  .'Vsia  and  in  Europe  much  later  than  one 
would  imagine.  The  civilized  Semitic  races  can- 
not have  been  acquainted  with  the  fowl,  for  it  is 
nowhere  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is 
never  seen  on  Egyptian  monuments  otherwise  so 
lull  of  the  details  of  ancient  housekeeping  on  the 
Nile.  There  we  see  tlocks  of  tame  geese  being 
driven  home  from  the  pasture,  we  see  them  and 
their  eggs  being  carefully  counted,  but  nowhere 
cocks  and  henS;  and  when  Aristotle  and  Diodorus 
say  that  eggs  were  artificially  hatched  in  Egypt 
by  burying  them  in  dung,  they  must  mean  the 
eggs  of  geese  and  ducks,  or  refer  to  a  period  later 
than  the  Persian  conquest,  which  Diodorus  seems 
to  hint,  for  lie  commences  his  account  of  the 
tiatcliing  ovens  with  the  words:  'The  Egyptians 
inherited  many  customs  relating  to  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  animals  from  their  fore-fathers, 
but  other  things  they  have  invented,  among  which 
the  most  wonderful  is  the  artificial  hatching  ot 
eggs.'  The  domestic  fowl  is  aboriginal  in  India, 
where  its  supposed  parent  species,  the  Bankiva 
fowl,  still  exists  from  Further  India  and  the 
Indian  islands  to  Cashmere.  The  domestic  fowl 
first  migrated  to  the  West  with  the  Medo-Per- 
sian  invaders.  In  a  work  on  the  Temple  of  the 
Samian  Hera,  Herodotus  says  that  as  the  cock 
spread  from  Persis,  so  the  sacred  pe.icuck  spread 
from  the  Temple  of  Hera  to  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts. In  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  the  dog  and 
the  cock  were  sacred  animals;  the  first  as  the 
faithful  guardian  of  house  and  flocks,  the  second 
as  the  herald  of  dawn  and  the  symbol  of  light  and 
the  sun,  ,  .  ,  Soon  after  the  appearance  of  cocks 
and  hens  in  Greece,  whole  families  of  these  fowls 
must  have  been  transported  to  Sicily  and  South 
Italy,  and  there,  as  in  Greece,  spread  from  house 
to  house.  That  the  Sybarites  would  suffer  no 
cocks  near  them  for  fear  of  being  disturbed  in 
their  sleep  is  one  of  those  late-invented  anecdotes 
by  which  people  proved  their  wit.  Sybaris  was 
destroyed  in  510  B,  C.,  when  the  cock  was  un- 
known in  Italy,  or  only  just  introduced.  The 
figure  of  a  cock  may  be  seen  on  coins  of  Himera 
in  Sicily,  and  sometimes  the  figure  of  a  hen  on 
the  reverse  side,  perhaps  as  an  attribute  of  .'\sk- 
lepios,  the  genius  of  the  healing  springs  of  the 
lilace.  The  oldest  representations  of  the  cock  on 
coins  and  vases  in  Greece,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  never 
go  beyond  the  date  we  have  given,  namely,  the 
second  half  of  the  sixth  century  B,  C,  The 
Romans,  to  whom  the  bird  was  brought  either 
directly  or  indirectly  from  one  of  these  Greek 
towns,  made  use  of  it  with  truly  Roman  religious 
craft  as  a  means  of  prophecy  in  war.  .  .  .  There 
is  no  direct  historical  testimony  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  domestic  fowls  were  introduced  into 
Central  and  Southern  Europe.  They  may  have 
come  straight  from  Asia  to  the  kindred  nations 
of  the  South  Russian  steppes  and  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  whose  religion 
agreed  with  that  of  the  other  Iranian  races,  and 
some  of  whom  already  practised  agriculture  in 
the  time  of  Herodotus;  or  by  way  of  the  Greek 
colonies  on  the  Black  Sea,  the  influence  of  which, 
as  is  well  known,  spread  far  and  wide;  or  from 
Thrace  to  the  tribes  on  the  Danube;  or  from 
Italy  by  way  of  the  ancient  commercial  roads 
across  the  Alps;  or  through  Massilia  to  the  regions 
of  the  Rhone  and  Rhine;  or,  finally,  by  several 
of    these   ways  at   once.     The   more   a   people   of 


127 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


%7men/plZd"    AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


nomadic  habits  accustomed  themselves  to  a  set- 
tled mode  of  life,  the.  more  easily  would  the  do- 
mestic fowl  find  shelter  and  acceptance  among 
them.  In  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.  C. 
Caesar  found  fowls  among  the  Britons,  though 
perhaps  only  among  those  who  tilled  the  ground 
near  the  south  coast  and  had  adopted  the  cul- 
ture of  the  Gauls.  .  .  .  While  the  number  of  mam- 
malia that  man  has  tamed  and  made  companions 
of  has  only  slightly  increased  in  historical  times,  the 
farms  and  settlements  of  men  have  become  en- 
riched, at  a  comparatively  late  period,  with  va- 
rious tame  birds,  among  which  the  domestic  fowl  is 
the  most  important.  Bird  and  cattle-breeding  are 
to  a  certain  extent  opposed  to  one  another.  It 
is  not  where  wide  plains  fertilized  by  copious 
droppings  stretch  in  immeasurable  corn-fields  and 
green  meadows,  and  are  bordered  by  thick  forests, 
but  in  the  sunny  districts  of  more  restricted  horti- 
culture, where  farm  stands  close  to  farm,  and 
hedge  succeeds  to  hedge — it  is  here  that  the  winged 
tribe  peck  and  flutter  about  the  human  habita- 
tion, forming  a  not-to-be-undervalued  source  of 
sustenance  and  income  in  the  system  of  the  house- 
hold. Thus  in  Europe  the  Romance  nations  are, 
in  accordance  with  tfieir  habitat  and  tradition,  the 
bird-breeding,  bird-eating  peoples:  the  Germans, 
on  the  contrary,  feed  principally  on  the  flesh  and 
milk  of  their  cattle.  France,  at  a  moderate  cal- 
culation, possesses  above  a  hundred  million  fowls, 
and  exports  to  England  yearly  above  four  hun- 
dred million  eggs.  In  southern  countries  the  only 
meat  that  the  traveller  tastes,  often  for  months 
together,  and  that  the  native  peasant  regales  him- 
self with  on  feast-days,  is  a  fowl  roasted  or  boiled 
with  polenta.  The  taming  of  the  Goose  and  the 
Dtick  is  far  more  ancient  than  that  of  the  birds 
hitherto  mentioned;  and,  what  is  more,  they  were 
not  introduced  from  Asia,  but  have  been  re- 
claimed from  the  wild  native  species.  ...  By  the 
Greeks  the  goose  was  considered  a  graceful  bird, 
admired  for  its  beauty,  and  an  elegant  present  for 
favoured  friends.  In  the  Odyssey,  Penelope  has  a 
little  flock  of  twenty  geese,  in  which  she  takes 
much  pleasure,  as  we  learn  from  the  beautiful 
passage  in  which  she  relates  her  dream  to  her  dis- 
guised husband.  Here  the  geese  appear  as  do- 
mestic animals,  kept  more  for  the  pleasure  the 
sight  of  them  affords  than  for  any  profit  they 
might  bring.  So,  in  the  Edda,  Gudrun  keeps 
geese,  which  scream  when  their  mistress  laments 
over  the  corpse  of  Sigurd.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Greeks  valued  geese  as  careful  guardians  of  the 
house ;  on  the  grave  of  a  good  housewife  was 
placed  the  figure  of  a  goose  as  a  tender  tribute 
to  her  quality  of — vigilance !  Among  the  Romans 
perfectly  white  geese  were  carefully  selected  and 
used  for  breeding,  so  that  in  course  of  time  a 
white  and  lamer  species  was  produced,  which 
differed  considerably  from  the  grey  wild  goose  and 
its  direct  descendants.  In  ancient  as  in  modern 
Italy  the  goose  was  not  so  commonly  found  on 
small  farms  as  in  the  North,  partly  because  the 
necessary  water  was  scarce,  and  partly  because 
of  the  damage  she  caused  to  the  young  vegeta- 
tion. But  numerous  flocks  of  this  bird  cackled 
in  the  huge  goose-pens  of  breeders  and  proprietors 
of  villas;  there  the  enormous  liver  that  made  the 
mouth  of  the  gourmand  water  was  produced  by 
forced  fattening — an  artificial  disease  which  was 
poor  thanks  for  their  saving  of  the  Capitol.  The 
use  of  goose  feathers  for  stuffing  beds  or  cushions 
was  foreign  to  early  antiquity ;  the  later  Romans 
first  learned  the  practice  from  the  Celts  and  Ger- 
mans. .  .  . 
"It  was  also  in  consequence  of  the  Migration  of 

I 


Nations  that  the  Bos  family — that  first  friend  of 
man  when  emerging  out  of  barbarism — was  en- 
riched by  the  addition  of  a  kinsman  from  the 
South,  endowed  with  tremendous  pulling  power, 
the  black  and  scowling  Buffalo.  He  now  lives  in 
the  moist,  hot  malaria  plains  of  Italy,  enjoying 
their  slime,  and  defying  their  venomous  vapours; 
the  maremmas  of  Tuscany,  the  bottomlands  about 
the  Tiber's  mouth,  the  Pontine  marshes,  the 
swamps  of  Psstum,  the  Basilicata;  also  in  the 
landes  of  Gascony,  in  many  parts  of  Hungary, 
etc.  The  Pontine  buffaloes  wallow  like  immense 
swine  in  the  high  reeds  of  the  swamps,  standing 
still  at  the  sound  of  a  carriage  on  the  high  road, 
and  stupidly  staring  at  the  traveller;  or,  when 
teased  by  gad-flies,  hiding  up  to  the  muzzle  in 
the  water.  The  buffalo  is  employed,  like  the  ox, 
in  dragging  the  heavy  plough,  or  the  loaded  har- 
vest waggon;  its  milk  is  made  into  highly  valued 
cheese  (called  in  Naples  muzzarello),  and,  after 
death,  its  thick,  heavy  skin  forms  the  strongest 
leather.  .  .  .  While  progressive  culture  has  almost 
exterminated  those  savage,  obstinate,  and  kingly 
inhabitants  of  the  European  forests,  the  ure-ox 
and  the  bison,  the  buffalo  was  brought  by  immi- 
grating nations  from  the  borders  of  India  to  the 
southern  coasts  of  Italy.  Aristotle  describes  a 
wild  ox  living  in  Arachosia,  near  modern  Kabool, 
which  can  be  no  other  than  our  present  buffalo. 
During  the  succeeding  centuries  that  animal  must 
have  migrated  farther  west.  It  was  first  seen  in 
Italy  about  the  year  600  A.  D.,  in  the  reign  of 
the  Longobardian  king,  Agilulf — Paul.  Diac.  4, 
11:  'Then  for  the  first  time  wild  horses  and  buf- 
faloes were  brought  to  Italy,  and  regarded  as 
wonders  by  the  Italian  people.'  We  must  be 
grateful  to  the  Longobardian  monk  for  this  re- 
port, for  how  seldom  do  the  historians,  who  have 
enough  to  do  with  questions  of  war  and  govern- 
ment, throw  us  a  crumb  of  what  relates  to  cul- 
ture; but  we  should  have  liked  something  still 
more  exact." — V.  Hehn,  Cultivated  plants  and  do- 
mestic animals,  pp.  59,  et  seg. 

Pastoral  life  of  the  Homeric  period. — The 
early  Greeks,  "as  they  come  before  us  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  are  rather  a  pastoral  than  an 
agricultural  race.  It  is  in  their  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine,  rather  than  in  the  produce  of 
their  lands,  that  the  wealth  of  the  heroic  kings 
consisted.  It  was  cattle  which  furnished  them 
with  a  measure  of  value;  and  cattle,  together  with 
slaves,  were  the  most  valuable  spoil  which  they 
secured  in  their  military  and  piratical  expedi- 
tions. Thucydides  traces  the  same  lines  as  Homer. 
In  early  times,  he  tells  us,  the  insecurity  of  prop- 
erty was  too  great  to  allow  of  the  planting  of 
trees,  which  would  of  course  lie  at  the  mercy  of 
an  invading  enemy.  .And  although  men  tilled  the 
ground,  the  harvest  would  very  often  fall  to  the 
foe,  whereas  cattle  could  on  an  alarm  be  driven 
to  a  place  of  safety. "^ — P.  Gardner  and  F.  B. 
Jones,  .igricultural  development  of  ancient  na- 
tions (E.  G.  Nourse,  .igricultural  economics,  pp. 
20-30) . — "Cattle  raising  seems  to  have  been  more 
important  in  the  Homeric  age  than  afterwards, 
when  the  needs  of  the  population  could  not  be 
satisfied  by  the  home  growth,  and  importation  of 
foreign  cattle  from  the  Black  Sea  and  from  Africa 
was  necessary.  The  small  number  of  herds  of 
cattle  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  in  Greek 
antiquity  very  little  cow's  milk  was  drunk,  but, 
chiefly  goat's  milk.  Sheep-rearing,  however,  was 
very  general,  and  brought  to  great  perfection, 
since  they  not  only  used  the  flesh  and  milk  of 
the  sheep  for  food,  but  in  particular  required  their 
skin   and   wool   for  clothing.  .  .  .  Excellent  quali- 

28 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


Homeric  Period 
Roman  System 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


ties  [of  sheep's  wool]  were  produced  by  Hellas 
proper,  as  well  as  by  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Lower  Italy,  and  a  great  deal  of  it 
was  exported  to  foreign  countries.  .  .  .  The  goat's 
hair  was  woven  into  stuff,  not  in  Greece  itself, 
but  probably  in  Northern  Africa  and  Cilicia, 
where  a  kind  of  coarse  cloth  was  manufactured 
of  it,  which,  however,  was  not  often  used  for 
clothing.  The  facility  of  goat-rearing,  which  re- 
quired no  special  care,  and  could  be  carried  on 
even  on  rocky  ground,  where  but  little  grass 
grew,  enabled  it  to  become  very  extensive,  and 
we  find  it,  in  fact,  throughout  almost  the  whole 
of  Greece  in  ancient  times.  The  labor  of  slaves 
being  very  cheap  and  ineffective,  shepherds  and 
goatherds  were  very  numerous  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  animals  they  tended, — at  least  one 
to  every  hundred,  more  often  one  to  fifty. 
Swine-rearing,  on  the  other  hand,  played  a  very 
small  part,  for  it  was  not  sufficiently  remuner- 
ative. Although  the  flesh  was  used  for  food,  yet 
in  the  historic  period  it  was  not  so  popular  a 
dish  as  in  the  age  of  Homer,  and  they  did  not 
understand  how  to  draw  a  profit  in  other  ways 
from  swine.  "In  its  technical  aspects,  ancient 
agriculture  remained  in  much  the  same  state 
throughout  the  whole  of  antiquity  as  it  occupied 
in  the  heroic  age,  and  probably  this  was  the  com- 
mon inheritance  of  the  Indo-Germanic  race.  In 
Homer,  we  find  the  custom,  which  always  pre- 
vailed afterwards,  of  alternating  only  between  har- 
vest and  fallow;  even  the  succeeding  ages  seem 
to  have  known  nothing  of  the  rotation  of  crops. 
The  implements  used  for  necessary  farming  occu- 
pations were  of  the  simplest  kind,  in  particular 
the  primitive  plough,  which  was  not  sufficient  to 
tear  up  the  earth,  so  that  they  had  to  use  the 
mattock  in  addition ;  they  had  no  harrow  or 
.scythe,  in  place  of  which  they  used  the  sickle, 
and  their  threshing  arrangements  were  most  un- 
satisfactory, since  they  simply  drove  oxen,  horses, 
or  mules  over  the  threshing  floor,  and  beat  out 
the  ears  with  their  hoofs,  by  which  means  a  great 
part  of  the  harvest  was  lost.  It  was  only  the 
large  number  of  labourers  at  the  disposal  of  the 
farmers  (in  consequence  of  the  numerous  slaves, 
to  which  at  times,  when  there  was  a  press  of 
work,  they  added  hired  labourers),  and  the  great 
care  taken  in  manuring  and  improving  the  ground, 
etc.,  that  enabled  them  to  earn  a  living  at  all. 
Great  wealth  was  never  attained  in  ancient  Greece 
by  agriculture,  certainly  not  by  growing  corn; 
vines  and  olives  supplied  better  profits,  though 
here  too  the  instruments  used  were  of  the  sim- 
plest, but  the  ground  was  especially  favourable  to 
their  cultivation.  Oil  in  particular,  could  be  sup- 
plied by  Greece  to  foreign  countries,  but  corn  did 
not  grow  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  provide  their 
own  population,  and  consequently  they  had  to 
import  a  great  deal  from  foreign  countries,  es- 
pecially from  the  Black  Sea,  and  afterwards  too 
from  Egypt." — A.  E.  Zimmern,  Home  life  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  pp.  4Q.';-4q7. — "It  is  probable  that 
the  downfall  of  the  Achaean  race  was  followed  by 
a  time  of  greater  simplicity,  when  the  aristocracy 
of  the  Greek  tribes  lived  on  their  estates  in  the 
midst  of  slaves  and  retainers,  as  did  the  wealthy 
inhabitants  of  Elis  even  in  the  time  of  the 
Acheean  League.  But  Greek  civic  life  began  to 
develop  with  irresistible  attraction.  The  rich 
thronged  into  cities,  and  left  the  work  of  their 
farms  to  bailiffs  and  slaves.  There  were  in  par- 
ticular two  states  wherein  the  country  life  fell 
into  the  background — Athens  and  Sparta.  But 
even  at  Athens,  although  the  witty  and  luxurious 
citizens  ridiculed  the  yeoman  as  a  lout,  they  could 


not  deny  his  solid  virtues.  As  a  whole,  Greece 
is  a  country  by  no  means  favorable  to  agriculture. 
The  country  is  mostly  rocky,  barren,  and  uneven, 
especially  unsuited  for  large  farms.  The  system 
of  farming  was  that  adapted  to  peasant  proprie- 
tors or  yeomen.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  ag- 
riculture in  Attica  suffered  more  and  more  as 
time  went  on,  though  to  a  less  degree  than  that 
of  Italy  in  imperial  times,  from  the  competition 
of  richer  soils.  Great  cargoes  of  corn  from  Egypt 
and  Sicily  and  the  Black  Sea  constantly  arrived 
in  the  Piraeus,  and  the  people  of  Athens  learned 
the  fatal  lesson  that  it  was  easier  to  buy  agri- 
cultural produce  with  money  wrung  from  the 
allies  or  extracted  from  the  mines  of  Laurium  than 
to  grow  it  on  the  rugged  soil  around  Athens." — 
P.  Gardner  and  F.  B.  Jevons,  Agriailtttral  de- 
velopment of  ancient  nations  (E.  G.  Nourse,  Agri- 
cultural economics,  pp.  29-31). 

Development  of  the  servile  system  among  the 
Romans. — The  spread  of  slavery  among  ancient 
peoples  was  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
change  in  agrarian  organization.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  "the  farm  was  the  only 
■place  where  slaves  were  employed.  The  fact  that 
most  of  the  Romans  were  farmers  and  that  they 
and  their  free  laborers  were  constantly  called 
from  the  fields  to  fight  the  battles  of  their  coun- 
try led  to  a  gradual  increase  in  the  number  of 
slaves,  until  they  were  far  more  numerous  than 
the  free  laborers  who  worked  for  hire.  ...  In 
the  last  century  of  the  Republic  all  manual  labor, 
almost  all  trades,  and  certain  of  what  we  now  call 
professions  were  in  the  hands  of  slaves.  .  .  .  The 
small  farms  were  gradually  absorbed  in  the  vast 
estates  of  the  rich,  the  sturdy  yeomanry  of  Rome 
disappeared,  and  by  the  time  of  Augustus  the 
freeborn  citizens  of  Italy  who  were  not  soldiers 
were  either  slave  holders  themselves  or  the  idle 
proletariate  of  the  cities.  .  .  .  The  slaves  that  were 
employed  upon  the  vast  estates  were  known  as 
familia  rustica;  that  very  name  implies  that  the 
estate  was  no  longer  the  only  home  of  the  master. 
He  had  become  a  landlord,  living  in  the  capital 
and  visiting  his  lands  only  occasionally  for  pleas- 
ure or  for  business.  The  estates  may,  therfore, 
be  divided  into  two  classes:  country  seats  for 
pleasure  and  farms  or  ranches  for  profit.  The 
former  were  selected  with  great  care,  the  pur- 
chaser having  regard  to  their  proximity  to  the 
city  or  other  resorts  of  fashion,  their  healthful- 
ness,  and  the  natural  beauty  of  their  scenery. 
They  were  maintained  upon  the  most  extravagant 
scale.  There  were  villas  and  pleasure  grounds, 
parks,  game  preserves,  fish  ponds  and  artificial 
lakes,  everything  that  ministered  to  open  air  lux- 
ury. Great  numbers  of  slaves  were  required  to 
keep  these  places  in  order,  and  many  of  them 
were  slaves  of  the  highest  class:  landscape  garden- 
ers, experts  in  the  culture  of  fruits  and  flowers, 
experts  even  in  the  breeding  and  keeping  of  the 
birds,  game,  and  fish,  of  which  the  Romans  were 
inordinately  fond.  These  had  under  them  assist- 
ants and  laborers  of  every  sort,  and  all  were  sub- 
ject to  the  authority  of  a  supermtendent  or  stew- 
ard (.vilicus),  who  had  been  put  in  charge  of  the 
estate  by  the  master.  But  the  name  familia  rus- 
tica is  more  characteristically  used  of  the  drudges 
upon  the  farms,  because  the  slaves  employed  upon 
the  country  seats  were  more  directly  in  the  per- 
sonal .service  of  the  master  and  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  been  kept  for  profit.  The  raising  of 
grain  for  the  market  had  long  ceased  to  be  profit- 
able, but  various  industries  had  taken  its  place 
upon  the  farms.  Wine  and  oil  had  become  the 
most  important  products  of  the  soil,  and  vineyards 


129 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


Roman  System 
Fall  of  Empire 


AGRICULTURE,  ANCIENT 


and  olive  orchards  were  found  wherever  climate 
and  other  conditions  were  favorable.  Cattle  and 
swine  were  raised  in  countless  numbers,  the  for- 
mer more  for  draft  purposes  and  the  products  of 
the  dairy  than  for  beef.  Sheep  were  kept  for  the 
wool,  and  woolen  garments  were  worn  by  the  rich 
and  poor  alike.  Cheese  was  made  in  large  quan- 
tities, all  the  larger  because  butter  was  unknown. 
The  keeping  of  bees  was  an  important  industry, 
because  honey  served,  so  far  as  it  could,  the  pur- 
poses for  which  sugar  is  used  in  modern  times. 
Besides  these  things  that  we  are  even  now  accus- 
tomed to  associate  with  farming,  there  were  others 
that  are  now  looked  upon  as  distinct  and  separate 
businesses.  Of  these  the  most  important,  perhaps, 
as  it  was  undoubtedly  the  most  laborious,  was  the 
quarrying  of  stone;  another  was  the  cutting  of 
timber  and  working  it  up  into  rough  lumber,  and 
finally  the  preparing  of  sand  for  the  use  of  the 
builder.  This  last  was  of  much  greater  importance 
relatively  then  than  now,  on  account  of  the  ex- 
tensive use  of  concrete  at  Rome.  In  some  of 
these  tasks  intelligence  and  skill  were  required  as 
they  are  to-day,  but  in  many  of  them  the  most 
necessary  qualifications  were  strength  and  endur- 
ance, as  the  slaves  took  the  place  of  much  of  the 
machinery  of  modern  times.  This  was  especially 
true  of  the  men  employed  in  the  quarries,  who 
were  usually  of  the  rudest  and  most  ungovernable 
class,  and  were  worked  in  chains  by  day  and 
housed  in  dungeons  by  night,  as  convicts  have 
been  housed  and  worked  in  much  later  times.  The 
management  of  such  an  estate  was  also  intrusted 
to  a  vilicus,  who  was  proverbially  a  hard  task- 
master, simply  because  his  hopes  of  freedom  de- 
pended upon  the  amount  of  profits  he  could  turn 
into  his  master's  coffers  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
His  task  was  no  easy  one.  Besides  planning  for 
and  overseeing  the  gangs  of  slaves  already  men- 
tioned, he  had  under  his  charge  another  body  of 
slaves  only  less  numerous,  employed  in  providing 
for  the  wants  of  the  others.  Everything  neces- 
sary for  the  farm  was  produced  or  manufactured 
on  the  farm.  Enough  grain  was  raised  for  food, 
and  this  grain  was  ground  in  the  farm  mills  and 
baked  in  the  farm  ovens  by  millers  and  bakers 
who  were  slaves  on  the  farm.  The  task  of  turn- 
ing the  mill  was  usually  given  to  a  horse  or  mule, 
but  slaves  were  often  made  to  do  the  grinding  as 
a  punishment.  Wool  was  carded,  spun,  and  woven 
into  cloth,  and  this  cloth  was  made  into  clothes 
by  the  female  slaves  under  the  eye  of  the  steward's 
consort,  the  vilka.  Buildings  were  erected,  and 
the  tools  and  implements  necessary  for  the  work 
of  the  farm  were  made  and  repaired.  These  things 
required  a  number  of  carpenters,  smiths,  and 
masons,  though  they  were  not  riecessarily  work- 
men of  the  highest  class.  It  was  the  touchstone 
of  a  good  vilicus  to  keep  his  men  always  busy, 
and  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  slaves  were 
alternately  plowmen  and  reapers,  vinedressers  and 
treaders  of  the  grapes,  perhaps  even  quarrymen 
and  lumbermen,  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year  and  the  place  of  their  toiling." — H.  W.  John- 
ston, Private  life  of  the  Romans,  pp.  87,  05-08. 

"Meanwhile  out  in  the  country  we  can  perceive 
the  farm,  with  its  hedges  of  quick-set,  its  stone 
walls,  or  its  bank  and  ditch.  The  rather  primi- 
tive plough — though  not  always  so  primitive  as  it 
was  a  generation  or  so  ago  in  Italy — is  being 
drawn  by  oxen,  while,  for  the  rest,  there  are  in 
use  nearly  all  the  implements  which  were  em- 
ployed before  the  quite  modern  invention  of  ma- 
chinery. It  may  be  remarked  at  this  point  that 
the  rotation  of  crops  was  well  understood  and 
regularly   practised.     Then    there   are   the   pasture- 


lands,  on  the  plains  in  the  winter,  but  in  summer 
on  the  hills,  to  which  the  herdsmen  drive  their 
cattle  along  certain  drove-roads  till  they  reach 
the  unfenced  domains  belonging  to  the  state.  .  .  . 
It  is  probable,  doubtless,  that  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  slave  body  were  employed  as  domestic 
servants.  But  many  others  tilled  the  lands  of  the 
larger  proprietors.  Others  laboured  under  the 
contractors  who  constructed  the  public  works. 
Others  were  used  as  assistants  in  shops  and  fac- 
tories. It  is  obvious  that  such  competition  re- 
duced the  field  of  free  labour,  when  it  did  not 
close  it  entirely,  and  the  free  labour  must  have 
been  unduly  cheapened.  But  to  suppose  that  all 
the  Roman  work,  whether  in  town  or  country, 
was  done  by  slaves  is  to  be  grossly  in  the  wrong. 
Romans  were  to  be  found  acting  as  ploughmen 
and  herdsmen,  workers  in  vineyards,  carpenters, 
masons,  potters,  shoemakers,  tanners,  bakers, 
butchers,  fullers,  metalworkers,  glass-workers, 
clothiers,  greengrocers,  shopkeepers  of  all  kinds. 
There  were  Roman  porters,  carters,  and  wharf- 
labourers,  as  well  as  Roman  confectioners  and 
sausage-sellers.  To  these  private  occupations 
must  be  added  many  positions  in  the  lower  public 
or  civil  service.  There  was,  for  example,  abundant 
call  for  attendants  of  the  magistrates,  criers,  mes- 
sengers, and  clerks.  Unfortunately  our  informa- 
tion concerning  all  this  class  is  very  inadequate. 
The  Roman  writers — historians,  philosophers,  rhet- 
oricians, and  poets — have  extremely  little  to  say 
about  the  humble  persons  who  apparently  did 
nothing  to  make  history  or  thought  " — T.  li. 
Tucker,  Life  in  the  Roman  ivorld  of  Nero  and  St. 
Patil,  pp.  246-247,  252-253. 

Discouragement  of  agriculture  in  Europe 
after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire. — "The  state 
of  Europe  during  and  alter  the  period  of  the  bar- 
barian invasions  was  not  conducive  to  the  best 
cultivation  of  either  urban  or  rural  lands.  The 
confusion  was  not  so  great,  however,  as  to  blinil 
the  invading  chieftains  to  the  value  of  the  terri- 
tory under  their  dominion,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  all  the  land  occupied  by  these  people  was 
gathered  together  under  the  proprietorship  of  a 
small  number  of  the  barbarian  leaders.  The  huge 
estates  so  created  escaped  division,  first,  by  the 
establishment  of  the  law  of  primogeniture,  and 
second,  by  the  introduction  of  entails.  From  these 
great  proprietors  nothing  could  be  expected  in  the 
way  of  improved  methods  of  agriculture.  Prima- 
rily fighting  men,  these  landowners  at  first  had  no 
time,  and  later  no  taste  for  devotion  to  agricul- 
tural pursuits,  a  profession  that  requires  great 
care,  a  certain  amount  of  frugality,  and  an  exact 
consideration  of  small  advantages  to  be  gained 
from  plodding  work.  If  little  improvement  was 
to  be  expected  from  such  great  proprietors,  still 
less  was  to  be  hoped  for  from  those  who  occupied 
the  land  under  them.  In  the  ancient  state  of 
Europe,  the  occupiers  of  land  were  all  tenants  at 
will.  They  were  all,  or  almost  all,  slaves,  but 
their  slavery  was  of  a  milder  kind  than  that 
known  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  or 
even  in  our  West  Indian  colonies.  They  were 
supposed  to  belong  more  directly  to  the  land 
than  to  their  master.  . »  .  Whatever  cultivation 
and  improvement  could  be  carried  on  by  means  of 
such  slaves  was  properly  carried  on  by  their 
ma.ster.  It  was  at  his  expense  The  seed,  the 
cattle,  and  the  instruments  of  husbandry  were  all 
his.  It  was  for  his  benefit.  Such  slaves  could 
acquire  nothing  but  their  daily  maintenance.  It 
was  properly  the  proprietor  himself,  therefore, 
that  occupied  his  own  lands  and  cultivated  them 
by  his  own  bondmen 


130 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


Manorial 
Syatem 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


"The  experience  of  all  ages  and  nations,  I  be- 
lieve, demonstrates  that  the  work  done  by  slaves, 
though  it  appears  to  cost  only  their  maintenance, 
is  in  the  end  the  dearest  of  any.  .  ,  ,  Under  all 
these  discouragements,  little  improvement  could  be 
expected  from  the  occupiers  of  land.  The  ancient 
policy  of  Europe  was,  over  and  above  all  this, 
unfavourable  to  the  improvement  and  cultivation 
of  land,  whether  carried  on  by  the  proprietor  or 
by  the  farmer;  first,  by  the  general  prohibition  of 
the  exportation  of  corn,  without  a  special  license, 
which  seems  to  have  been  a  very  universal  regu- 
lation; and,  secondly,  by  the  restraints  that  were 
laid  upon  the  inland  commerce,  not  only  of  corn, 
but  of  almost  every  other  part  of  the  produce  of 
the  farm,  by  the  absurd  laws  against  engrossers, 
forestallers,  and  regraters,  and  by  the  privileges 
of  fairs  and  markets." — T.  N.  Carver,  Middle 
Ages  (E.  G.  Nourse,  Agricultural  economics,  pp. 
36-38). 

Bibliography:  Of  contemporary  works  on  an- 
cient agriculture,  Hesiod,  Works  and  days,  will 
serve  for  Greek  rural  life;  while  Cato,  De  re  rus- 
lica,  and  Varro,  Rerum  rusticarum,  are  the  stand- 
ard works  on  Roman  agriculture.  However,  a 
great  many  distinguished  men  of  letters  in  Rome 
took  up  farming  as  a  hobby,  with  the  result  that 
whole  volumes,  as  well  as  many  less  direct  and 
comprehensive  discussions  of  farming  are  to  be 
found  among  the  works  of  such  men  as  Pliny, 
Vergil  and  Cicero.  Some  recent  treatments  of  the 
subject  are  contained  in  Glover's  From  Pericles 
to  Philip,  cli.  9-11,  Charles  Daubeny,  Lectures  on 
Roman  husbandry,  and  in  Vladimir  G.  Simk- 
hovitch's  Rome's  jail  reconsidered  {Polilical 
Science  Quarterly,  June,  1916).  Ancient  and  prim- 
itive agriculture  in  other  parts  of  the  world  is 
handled — for  China  and  Japan,  by  Franklin  H. 
King,  Farmers  of  forty  centuries  (Madison,  Wis., 
iQii);  in  Peru,  by  O.  F.  Cook,  Staircase  farms  of 
tile  ancients  (Sational  Geographic  Magazine,  May, 
1Q16)  ;  in  the  tropics,  by  J.  C.  Willis,  Agriculture 
in  the  tropics,  ch.  viii;  and  in  France,  by  .'\lbert 
Babeau,  La  vie  rurale  dans  Vancienne  France. 
Other  material  on  primitive  agriculture  may  be 
found  in  the  Scientific  .American  for  March  16, 
IQ18:  Masterpieces  of  primitive  engineering;  Max 
Ringelmann,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  du  genie  rural 
{.Annates  de  I'Institule  Rationale  Agronomique, 
deuxieme  serie,  v.  ii-i.x),  and  Le  travail  dans 
Vantiquite,  by  Rene  Menard  and  Claude  Sauva- 
geot, 

MEDIEVAL  PERIOD 

Manorial  system. — "The  history  of  agrarian  or- 
ganisation in  western  Europe  since  the  opening  of 
the  Christian  era  falls  into  three  great  stages,  which 
may  be  designated  the  servile,  the  manorial,  and 
the  contractual.  Exact  chronological  delimitation 
is  impossible,  for  even  within  the  bounds  of  a 
single  country  these  stages  overlap  by  very  wide 
margins.  Speaking  broadly,  however,  the  servile 
stage  comprises  the  era  of  the  Roman  Empire 
and  is  marked  by  a  rural  economy  involving  own- 
ership of  the  soil  by  great  proprietors  and  culti- 
vation mainly  by  slaves;  the  manorial  stage  in- 
cludes large  portions  of  the  Middle  .Ages  and  is 
distinguished  by  a  quasi-feudal  type  of  agrarian 
organisation,  involving  ownership  by  feudal  lords 
and  cultivation  by  persons  neither  slave  nor  free 
but  of  status  varying  widely  between  the  two 
conditions  TSee  also  Slavery:  6oo-gool ;  and  the 
contractual  stage  comprises  the  modern  era,  char- 
acterised in  a  degree  by  the  increased  number  of 
proprietors   but   mainly   by   the   full   establishment 


of  agrarian  relationships  upon  the  basis  of  volun- 
tary contract.     [See  also  Feudalism.]     [The  first 
of  these  three  stages,  the  servile,  has  already  been 
described  in  the  preceding  section.]     The  methods 
of  agriculture   and   the   conditions  of   the  agricul- 
tural  population   in   all   western   countries   at   the 
present  day   have   been  determined  fundamentally 
by  the  changes  involved  in  the  transition  from  the 
second  to  the  third  of  these  stages,  i.  e..,  by  the 
break-up  of  the  manorial  system.  .  .  .  The  manor, 
which   was  the  economic  unit  and   the  social  cell 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  an  estate  owned  by  a  lord 
and  occupied  by  a  community   of  dependent  cul- 
tivators.    The  proprietorship  of  the  lord  was  ac- 
quired by   feudal  grant,  by   purchase,  by   usurpa- 
tion,  by   commendation,   or   in   some   other   way ; 
while  the  tenants  were  the  descendants  of  owners 
or  occupiers  of  lands  drawn  under  the  lord's  con- 
trol, of  persons  who  had  become  permanently  in- 
debted to  the  lord,  or  of  settlers  who  had  sought 
the    lord's    favour    and    protection.      Throughout 
the  Middle  Ages  practically   all  lands  belonged  to 
some   manor,  and  until   after  commerce,  industry, 
and   town    life   had   acquired   fresh   importance  in 
the  1 2th  and   13th  centuries,  almost  the  whole  of 
the    population    was    manorial.      [See    Manors.] 
Speaking    broadly,    the    cardinal    features    of    the 
manor  were  everywhere  and  at  all  times  the  same. 
The  inhabitants  dwelt,  not  apart  in  isolated  farm- 
houses, but   in  a  'nucleated'  village,  consisting   of 
huts   grouped   about    the    parish    church    and    the 
manor-house   of   the  proprietor.     Attached  to  the 
manor-house,  which  might  be  occupied  by  the  pro- 
prietor  himself   or   by   a   steward,    was   usually   a 
courtyard,    surrounded   by    buildings   for    brewing, 
cooking,  and  general  farm  purposes;  and  at  some 
distance,  situated  if  possible  on  a  stream,   was  a 
mill.     The  houses  of  the  tenants  were  likely  to  be 
thatch-roofed,    one-roomed,   cheerless,   and   closely 
adjoined  by  stables  and  granaries.    From  the  village 
stretched    in    all    directions    the    open    fields,    the 
cultivated   portions  lying  nearest,  with   the  mead- 
ows  and    waste-land   beyond.     The   most   charac- 
teristic feature  of  agriculture  in  the  Middle  .^ges, 
and  one  which  persisted  in  some  regions  until  the 
nineteenth    century,    was    the    open-field    system. 
Not  only  were  the  holdings  of  different  persons  on 
the  manor  not  fenced  off  one  from  another;  there 
were  no  durable  enclosures  at  all.     Growing  crops 
were  protected  by   rudely  constructed  barriers,  as 
were  the  meadows  during  the  weeks  while  the  hay 
was  maturing.     But  after  harvest  the  hedges  were 
removed,  the  cattle  were  turned  in  to  graze,  and 
the  arable  land  was  treated  as  common  waste  or 
pasture.     In  the  lack  of  scientific  schemes  of  crop 
rotation  and  of  fertilisation  it  was  not  feasible  to 
cultivate   a   piece   of   ground   uninterruptedly   year 
after   year.     Hence  there   had   been   devised,   very 
early,  the  'two-field'  and  the  'three-field'  systems. 
Under  the  two-field  system  the  arable  land  of  the 
manor    was    divided    into    two    large    tracts,    each 
to    be    cultivated    in    alternate    years.      Under    the 
three-field  system  the  arable  land  was  divided  into 
three    parts,    two    being    cultivated    and    one    lying 
fallow  every  year.     Of  the  cultivated  fields  under 
the    latter    arrangement,    one    was    planted    ordi- 
narily  with   wheat,   rye,   or  other  crops  sowed  in 
the   fall   and   harvested   the  next  summer  and  the 
other    with    oats,    barley,    peas,    or    other    crops 
planted   in   the   spring   and   harvested   in   the   fall. 
By    rotating   the   three   fields,   each   was   given   an 
opportunity   every   third  year   to   recuperate.     Al- 
though   not   so    widely   prevalent    as  at   one   time 
was  supposed,  the  three-field  system  was  probably 
the   more   common,      A    further   important    feature 
of  the  open-field  system  was  the  division   of   the 


131 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


Manorial 
Syatern 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


cultivated  plots  into  strips  lor  assignment  to  the 
tenants.  To  every  land-holding  inhabitant  of  the 
manor  was  assigned  a  number  of  the  strips,  not 
contiguous,  but  lying  in  different  fields,  and  fre- 
quently in  different  parts  of  the  same  field.  .  .  . 
The  origins  of  this  practice  are  obscure,  and  sev- 
eral conflicting  theories .  respecting  them  have  been 
advanced.  There  is  no  need  to  assume  that  they 
were  everywhere  the  same.  The  basis  of  the  strip 
system  seems  very  generally  to  have  been,  how- 
ever, the  desire  to  ensure  equity  uf  allotment.  Fields 
were  likely  not  to  be  uniform  in  fertility  and  ease 


tem  was  universal.  An  arable  lield  was  thus 
made  up  of  any  number  of  blocks  of  strips  set  at 
right  angles  or  inclined  one  to  another,  presenting 
the  checkered  and  variegated  appearance  of  a 
patchwork  quilt.  On  every  manor  were  meadows 
sufficient  to  produce  the  supply  of  hay  required 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  live-stock  through  the 
winter  months.  Sometimes  these  lay  in  a  block; 
sometimes  they  comprised  two  or  more  tracts  in- 
terspersed with  the  cultivated  fields." — F.  A.  Ogg, 
Economic  drvelopmenl  of  modirn  Europe,  pp. 
18-22. — See  also  Fertilisers:   Origin. 


Ir'low  used  hy  Ancient 

ancient  Husba-ndnnen  CH 


E^yptia.fL 
Plow 


Plov^  o/^ Ancient  Greece 


TKe  New 
plow   o 

1797^ 


Ea.rly  6erma.n.  plow 


16"^!:!  CenlviFy  ^S^xon. 


TYPKS  OK  EARLY  AGKICULTUUAI,  IMI'LKMEXTS 


of  cultivation,  and  their  minute  division  into  strips 
was  calculated  to  prevent  the  more  desirable  areas 
from  being  monopolised  by  favoured  or  fortunate 
persons.  In  large  portions  of  England  the  strips 
were  arranged  to  be  forty  rods,  or  a  furlong  (i.  e., 
a  'furrow-long,'  or  the  normal  length  of  a  fur- 
row), in  length  and  four  rods  in  width,  giving  an 
area  of  one  acre.  Strips  two  rods  wide  contained 
a  half-acre  and  one  rod  wide  a  'rood,'  or  quarter- 
acre.  The  strips  were  separated  by  narrow  belts 
of  unploughed  turf,  or  simply  by  little  ridges, 
which  might  be  marked  also  with  stones.  The 
ridged  surface  of  the  fields  in  many  districts  to-day 
bears  testimony  to  the  employment  of  these  primi- 
tive division  lines,  or  'balks'  On  the  continent 
arrangements  varied   in   detail,    bnl    (lie   strip  sys- 


"VV'hile  the  manorial  type  of  rural  organization 
as  a  method  of  land  tenure  was  undoubtedly  a 
great  advance  upon  the  servile  system,  farm  im- 
plements and  methods  of  tillage  on  the  other 
hand  showed  but  little  improvement  upon  those 
in  use  in  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Plough- 
ing was  still  done  by  oxen,  usually  three  times  a 
year,  in  the  autumn,  in  April  and  in  midsummer; 
the  furrows  were  a  foot  apart  and  the  plough 
went  no  more  than  two  inches  deep.  Seed  was 
still  scattered  by  hand,  grain  harvested  by  sickle 
and  threshed  by  flail  or  oxen.  Crops  were  conse- 
quently not  only  uncertain  and  uneven,  but  piti- 
fully small.  "The  amount  of  wheat,  rye,  beans, 
and  peas  usually  sown  to  the  acre  was  only  two 
bushels;    and    of    oats   and,  strangely   enough,   of 


13-2 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


Manorial 
System 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


barley,  four  bushels.  The  yield  of  wheat  rarely 
exceeded  fivefold,  or  ten  bushels  to  the  acre ;  that 
of  leguminous  crops  ranged  from  three  to  sixfold, 
or  from  six  to  twelve  bushels  to  the  acre;  that  of 
oats  and  barley  varied  from  three  to  fourfold,  or 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  bushels  to  the  acre.  Con- 
siderable care  was  exercised  in  the  choice  and 
change  of  the  seed-corn,  which  was  often  one  of 
the  produce-rents  of  the  tenants.  Wheat  rarely 
followed  a  spring  grain  crop.  The  most  important 
crops  of  the  farm  were  the  corn,  crops  of  wheat, 
rye,  and  barley,  which  were  raised  for  human 
food  and  drink.  For  such  ready  money  as  he 
needed,  the  lord  looked  mainly  to  the  produce  of 
his  live  stock.  For  their  consumption  were  grown 
the  remaining  crops — the  hay,  beans,  peas,  and 
oats;  though  oats  were  not  only  used  for  human 
food,  but  in  some  districts  were  brewed  into  in- 
ferior beer.  Horse-farms  appear  in  some  estate 
accounts;  but  they  probably  supplied  the  'great 
horse'  used  for  military  purposes.  As  a  rule, 
oxen  were  preferred  to  horses  for  farm  work. 
Though  horses  worked  more  quickly  when  the 
ploughman  allowed  them  to  do  so,  they  pulled 
less  steadily,  and  sudden  strams  severely  tested 
the  primitive  ploughgcar.  On  hard  ground  they 
did  less  work,  and  only  when  the  land  was  stony 
had  they  any  advantage.  Economical  reasons 
further  explain  the  preference  for  oxen.  .  .  .  The 
winter-keep  of  horses  was  about  four  times  that 
of  oxen.  In  addition  to  this,  the  more  delicate 
construction  of  horses  required  careful  attendance 
and  greater  expense  than  did  the  stolid  and  less 
susceptible  oxen.  Then  again  the  ox,  when  no 
longer  available  for  work,  made  excellent  food, 
while  the  horse  at  that  time  was  only  worth  his 
hide.  Lack  of  feeding  stuff  for  live  stock  made 
fresh  butchers'  meat  a  rarity,  as  the  common 
pasturage  ground  supplied  no  more  food  for  the 
cattle  than  was  sufficient  to  keep  the  animals  ali^e, 
never  enough  to  fatten  them.  .  .  .  The  dairy  pro- 
duce was  a  greater  source  of  money  revenue, 
though  the  home  consumption  of  cheese  must 
have  been  very  large.  But  the  management  was 
necessarily  controlled,  like  the  management  of  the 
stock,  by  the  winter  scarcity.  The  yield  of  a 
cow  during  the  twenty-four  weeks  from  the  middle 
of  April  to  Michaelmas  was  estimated  at  four- 
fifths  of  her  total  annual  yield.  Sheep  were  the 
sheet  anchor  of  farming.  But  it  was  not  for  their 
mutton,  or  their  milk,  or  even  for  their  skins, 
that  they  were  chiefly  valued.  Already  the  me- 
diaival  agriculturist  took  his  scat  on  the  wool-sack. 
.■Xs  a  marketable  commodity,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  English  long  wool  always  commanded  a 
price.  It  was  less  perishable  than  corn,  and  more 
easily  transported  even  on  the  worst  of  roads. 
From  Martinmas  to  Easter  sheep  were  kept  in 
houses,  or  in  movable  folds  of  wooden  hurdles, 
thatched  at  the  sides  and  tops.  During  these 
months  they  were  fed  on  coarse  hay  or  peas- 
haulm,  mixed  with  whcaten  or  oaten  straw.  For 
the  rest  of  the  year  they  browsed  on  the  land  for 
fallows,  in  woodland  pastures,  or  on  the  sheep- 
commons.  Diseases  made  sheep-farming,  in  spite 
of  its  profits,  a  risky  venture.  Swine  were  the 
almost  universal  live  stock  of  rich  and  poor.  As 
consumers  of  refuse  and  scavengers  of  the  vil- 
lage, they  would,  on  sanitarv  grounds,  have  re- 
paid their  keepers.  But  mediaeval  pigs  profited 
their  owners  much,  and  cost  them  little.  A  pig 
was  more  profitable  than  a  cow.  For  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  pigs  were  expected  to  pick  up 
their  own  living.  When  the  wastes  and  woodlands 
of  a  manor  were  extensive,  they  were,  except  dur- 
ing   three    months    of    the    year,    self-supporting. 


They  developed  the  qualities  necessary  for  taking 
care  of  themselves.  The  ordinary  pigs  of  (be 
Middle  Ages  were  long,  fiat-sided,  coarse-boned, 
lop-eared,  omniverous  animals,  whose  agility  was 
more  valuable  than  their  early  maturity.  .  .  ,. 
[The  keeping  of  poultry,  too,  was  at  the  time  uni- 
versal, so  much  so  that,  when  sold,  they  were 
almost  absurdly  cheap.  The  keeping  of  fowls, 
ducks,  and  geese  must,  however,  have  materially 
helped  the  peasant  in  eking  out  his  food  supply, 
or  in  paying  that  portion  of  his  rent  which  was 
paid  in  kind.]  On  the  outskirts  of  the  arable 
fields  nearest  to  -the  village  lay  one  or  more 
'hams'  or  stinted  pastures,  in  which  a  regulated 
number  of  live  stock  might  graze,  and  which 
therefore  supplied  superior  feed.  Besides  the  open 
arable  fields,  the  meadows,  and  the  stinted  hams, 
there  were  the  common  pastures,  fringed  by  the 
untilled  wastes  which  were  left  in  their  native 
wildness.  These  wastes  provided  fern  and  heather 
for  litter,  bedding,  or  thatching;  small  wood  for 
hurdles;  tree-loppings  for  winter  browse  of  live 
stock ;  furze  and  turves  for  fuel ;  large  timber  for 
fencing,  implements,  and  building;  mast,  acorns, 
and  other  food  for  the  swine.  Most  of  these 
smaller  rights  were  made  the  subject  of  fixed  an- 
nual payments  to  the  manorial  lord;  but  the 
right  of  cutting  fuel  was  generally  attached  to  the 
occupation,  not  only  of  arable  land,  but  of  cot- 
tages. The  most  important  part  of  these  lands 
were  the  common  pastures,  which  were  often  the 
only  grass  that  farmers  could  command  for  their 
live  stock.  They  therefore  formed  an  integral 
and  essential  part  of  the  village  farm.  No  rights 
were  exercised  upon  them  by  the  general  public. 
On  the  contrary,  the  commons  were  most  jealously 
guarded  by  the  privileged  commoners  against  the 
intrusion  or  encroachments  of  strangers." — R.  E. 
Prothero,  Manorial  husbandry  (E.  G.  Nourse, 
Agricultural   economics,  pp.  38-43). 

The  medieval  manor  was  thus  from  one  point 
of  view  "a  compactly  organized,  economically  self- 
sufficing,  and  socially  independent  unit.  Defects, 
however,  are  obvious.  The  acquisition  of  land  by 
small  proprietors  was  rendered  difficult.  The  deal- 
ings of  the  lord,  or  of  his  steward  or  bailiff,  with 
the  tenants  were  likely  to  be  arbitrary  and  harsh. 
The  scattered  character  of  the  holdings  involved 
waste  of  the  cultivator's  time  and  effort.  The 
lack  of  permanent  fences  tempted  to  trespassing 
and  produced  much  quarrelling.  The  rotation  of 
crops,  the  time  of  ploughing  and  sowing,  the  use 
of  meadow  and  pasture,  the  erection  and  removal 
of  hedges,  and  the  maintenance  of  roads  and  paths 
were  determined  entirely  by  the  community,  on 
the  basis  usually  of  rigid  custom,  and  the  individ- 
ual enjoyed  little  or  no  freedom  or  initiative. 
Experimentation  was  almost  impossible.  In  con- 
sequence, largely,  of  the  restraints  which  have 
been  mentioned,  agriculture  continued  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages  to  be  extremely  crude.  It  is 
doubtful,  indeed,  whether  prior  to  the  eighteenth 
century  the  soil  was  cultivated  again  in  any  con- 
siderable portions  of  Europe  with  either  the 
science  or  the  practical  skill  which  were  common 
in  rural  husbandry  in  the  best  days  of  the  Roman 
Empire." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic  development  of 
modern   Europe,  pp.   24-25. 

14th-17th  centuries. — Displacement  of  serfdom 
by  free  tenantry. — Growth  of  enclosures  for 
pasturage. — Beginnings  of  the  contractual  sys- 
tem.— By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  in 
England,  a  remarkable  change  had  begun  to  affect 
the  condition  of  the  serfs  or  villeins  under  the 
manorial  system,  a  change  not  effected  on  the 
Continent  till  three  centuries  later,  "by  which  the 


133 


AGRICULTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


14th-nth 
Centuries 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


villeins  became  free  tenants,  subject  to  a  fixed 
money  rent  for  their  holdings.  This  rent  was 
rapidly  becoming  a  payment  in  money  and  not  in 
labour,  for  the  lords  of  the  manors  were  frequently 
in  want  of  cash,  and  were  ready  to  sell  many  of 
their  privileges.  The  change  was  at  first  gradual, 
but  by  the  time  of  the  Great  Plague  (1348)  [see 
also  England:  1348-1349:  Black  Death],  money 
rents  were  becoming  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception, and  though  labour  rents  were  not  at  all 
obsolete,  it  was  the  ill-advised  attempt  to  insist 
upon  them  unduly  that  was  the  prime  cause  of 
Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  (1381).  [See  also  Eng- 
land: 1381:  Wat  Tyler's  Insurrection.]  Before 
the  Plague,  in  fact,  villeinage  in  the  old  sense 
was  becoming  almost  extinct,  and  the  peasants, 
both  great  and  small,  had  achieved  a  large  measure 
of  freedom.  The  richer  villeins  had  developed  into 
small  farmers,  while  the  poorer  villeins,  and  es- 
pecially the  cottars,  had  formed  a  separate  class 
of  agricultural  labourers,  not  indeed  entirely  with- 
out land,  but  depending  for  their  livelihood  upon 
being  paid  for  helping  to  cultivate  the  land  of 
others.  .  .  .  .^t  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
we  can  trace  three  classes  of  tenants — (i)  Those 
who  had  entirely  commuted  their  services  for  a 
fixed  money  rent;  (2)  those  who  gave  services 
or  paid  money  according  as  their  lord  preferred; 
and  (3)  those  who  still  paid  entirely,  or  almost 
entirely,  in  services.  Throughout  the  whole  of 
this  period  the  yast  majority  of  the  population 
were  continuously  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits, 
and  this  was  rendered  necessary  owing  to  the  very 
low  rate  of  production  consequent  upon  the  primi- 
tive methods  of  agriculture.  [In  England  the 
displacement  of  serfdom  by  free  tenantr>'  bore  a 
very  close  relation  to  the  great  increase  of  sheep- 
farming  which  took  place  after  the  Great  Plague 
(1348)].  This  from  two  causes.  The  rapid  in- 
crease of  woolen  manufacturers,  promoted  by 
Edward  III,  rendered  wool-growing  more  profit- 
able, while  at  the  same  time  the  scarcity  of  la- 
bour, occasioned  by  the  ravages  of  the  Black 
Death  and  the  consequent  higher  wages  demanded, 
naturally  attracted  the  farmer  to  an  industry 
which  was  at  once  very  profitable,  and  required 
but  little  paid  labour.  So,  after  the  Plague,  we 
find  a  tendency  among  large  agriculturists  to 
turn  ploughed  fields  into  permanent  pasture  .  .  .  , 
instead  of  turning  portions  of  the  'waste'  into 
arable  land.  Consequently  from  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  we  notice  that  the  agricul- 
tural population  decreases  in  proportion  as  sheep- 
farming  increases.  .  .  .  One  consequence  of  this 
more  extensive  sheep-farming  was  the  great  in- 
crease in  enclosures  made  by  the  landlords  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  So  great  were  those  encroach- 
ments and  enclosures  in  north-east  England,  that 
they  led,  in  154Q,  to  a  rebellion  against  the  en- 
closing system,  headed  by  Ket ;  but  though  more 
marked  perhaps  in  Henry  VIII's  reign,  the  prac- 
tice of  sheep-farming  had  been  growing  steadily 
in  the  previous  century.  ...  In  fact,  it  is  very 
clear  that  at  this  time  a  great  change  was  passing 
over  English  agriculture,  and  the  old  agricultural 
system  was  becoming  seriously  disorganised."^ 
H.  De  B.  Gibbins,  Industry  in  England,  pp.  iii- 
110. — The  second  great  stage  in  western  European 
agriculture,  the  medieval  manorial  system,  was 
fast  giving  way  before  the  encroachments  of  its 
successor,  the  modern  contractual  type  of  agrarian 
organization.  "During  the  changes  that  had  been 
taking  place  the  villein  had  finally  disappeared 
He  was  now  in  many  cases  a  copyholder,  and  like 
his  neighbour,  the  yeoman,  held  his  own  estate  of 
from  JO   to    ISC  acres,   and   in   the  smaller   farms 


worked  it  mainly  by  the  help  of  his  family.  The 
yeomanry,  who  formed  something  like  one-sixth 
of  the  population,  found  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury their  golden  age.  Their  estates  varied  con- 
siderably in  size  and  importance ;  the  best  of  them 
were  scarcely  inferior  in  status  to  the  country 
gentry.  To  be  counted  a  yeoman,  a  man  had  to 
possess  an  income  of  at  least  forty  shillings  a 
year  derived  from  his  own  freehold  land.  An  act 
of  Parliament  of  1430  had  made  this  the  quali- 
fication for  the  parliamentary  vote  in  the  county 
areas,  and  the  yeomen  were  proud  of  this  privi- 
lege and  showed  their  independence  in  the  e.xer- 
cise  of  it.  The  tenant  farmers  were  also  pros- 
perous and  occupied  a  good  position,  though  their 
social  status  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  yeomanry. 
As  for  the  labourers,  if  they  were  poorly  paid 
they  were  in  most  cases  well  fed,  and,  as  we  have 
already  pointed  out,  they  still  had  domestic  in- 
dustries and  small  holdings  of  land  to  help  them. 
Unmarried  servants  of  both  sexes  lived  in  the 
houses  of  the  farms  on  which  they  worked,  and 
shared  in  the  food  of  the  household.  Married 
labourers  supplemented  their  wages  by  domestic 
industries,  and  could  obtain  a  postion  of  their 
food  from  the  little  plots  of  five  or  six  acres  at- 
tached to  many  cottages,  and  from  the  possession 
of  a  cow  which  they  could  graze  upon  the  com- 
mon lands.  Their  wives  and  children  shared  in 
this  work  and  also  in  agricultural  work  generally. 
One  of  the  worst  hindrances  of  the  labourer  was 
the  Act  of  Settlement  of  ib62.  This  prevented 
his  movement  from  one  district  to  another  in 
search  of  higher  wages  and  better  employment, 
and  might  mean  his  having  to  journey  a  consider- 
able distance  to  his  work  owing  to  the  action  of 
landlords  who  kept  out  the  undesirable  poor  by 
forbidding  the  erection  of  cottages  upon  their 
estates." — F.  W.  Tickner,  Social  and  industrial 
history  of  England,  pp.  336-330. 

During  this  period  from  the  fourteenth  century 
to  the  seventeenth,  as  wc  have  seen,  there  hafi 
begun  in  England  a  gradual  disintegration  of  the 
manorial  system  which  was  destined  to  be  com 
pleted  only  throuKh  the  tremendous  forces  of  the 
agricultural  revolution  of  the  later  eighteenth 
century.  In  the  meantime,  however,  two  oppos- 
ing tendencies  were  noticeable:  on  the  one  hand 
the  displacement  of  serfdom  by  free  tenantry 
with  its  accompanying  development  of  small  hold- 
ings and  a  self-sufficing  yeomanry ;  on  the  other 
the  transformation  of  arable  manor  land  and  com- 
mons into  sheep-farms  for  the  production  of  raw 
wool  for  continental  markets  The  growth  of  en 
closures  for  pasturage  reached  its  climax,  how- 
ever, during  the  sixteenth  century,  while  the  num- 
ber of  small  holdincs  continued  to  increase  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  centuries, 
when  new  methods  and  new  forces  introduced  the 
modern   period   of   agricultural   development. 

MODERN  PERIOD 

General  survey.  —  .Agricultural  progress  in 
modern  times  has  been  profoundly  affected  by 
the  great  revolutions  which  have  occurred  in  the 
last  two  hundred  years,  particularly  those  in  science, 
mechanical  devices,  and  transportation  .Mthough, 
unlike  the  European  and  .\merican  countries,  Asia 
has  maintained  the  use  of  rude  implements,  her 
agriculture  has  not  been  untouched  by  the  deep- 
rooted  changes  of  modern  times  During  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  economic  forces 
were  at  work  both  in  England  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent which  were  destined  to  change  the  entire 
system  of  agrarian  organization  as  it  had  existed 


134 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


General 
Survey 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  in  England  that 
these  forces  first  became  apparent,  and  there,  too, 
that  the  resultng  changes  were  soonest  effected; 
but  the  movement  spread  rapidly  during  the  early 
nineteenth  century  to  France,  Prussia  and  other 
continental  nations,  and  while  it  presented  in  each 
country  slightly  differing  phases  due  to  local  eco- 
nomic and  social  conditions,  the  directing  forces 
and  the  changes  wrought,  with  some  noteworthy 
exceptions,  parallel  very  closely  those  to  be  ob- 
served in  England. 

"A  principle  woven  deeply  into  the  American 
national  system  at  its  beginning  is  that  of  full 
and  free  industrial  opportunity.  For  an  Ameri- 
can, therefore,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  com- 
pletely the  agriculture,  the  manufactures,  and  the 
trade  of  France,  Germany,  and  other  continental 
European  countries  were  shacliled  but  four  or  five 
generations  ago  by  status,  by  custom,  and  by  con- 
tractual arrangements.  The  guild,  the  manor,  the 
state,  and  even  the  Church,  imposed  each  its  pe- 
culiar restrictions,  and  the  industrial  status  and 
prospect  of  the  individual  were  determined  quite 
as  largely  by  agencies  beyond  his  power  to  con- 
trol as  by  his  own  habits  of  enterprise  and  thrift. 
It  is  only  within  decades  comparatively  recent  that 
the  mass  of  men  in  Europe  have  acquired  substan- 
tial freedom  of  industrial  initiative  and  achieve- 
ment. If  the  key-note  of  the  economic  history 
of  the  United  States  since  1780  has  been  expan- 
sion, that  of  the  economic  development  of  con- 
tinental Europe  during  the  same  period  has  been 
liberation.  Speaking  broadly,  one  may  say  that 
the  first  great  advance  in  the  direction  of  libera- 
tion was  accomplished  by  the  Revolution  in 
France  in  1789-1704  [see  P'ood  rf.gulatio.n":  1793- 
1794];  that  a  second  was  realized  under  Na- 
poleon, though  accompanied  by  a  certain  amount 
of  retrogression;  that  the  period  1815-1845  wit- 
nessed small  progress,  except  on  the  side  of  in- 
dustrial technique;  but  that  after  1S45-1850  the 
triumph  of  the  liberalizing  principle  was  rapid 
and  thoroughgoing.  The  transformations  by  means 
of  which  liberation  has  been  wrought  took  place 
within  all  of  the  three  principal  tields  of  eco- 
nomic activity, — agriculture,  manufacturing,  and 
trade;  and  in  any  attempt  to  measure  the  pro- 
gress of  the  average  man  during  the  period  in 
hand  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  changes  in  these 
three  fields  must  continually  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. 

"Since  1789  the  acreage  of  land  cultivated  in 
most  continental  countries  has  been  enormously 
extended  and  new  appliances  and  methods  have 
been  introduced,  with  the  result  of  an  increase  that 
is  remarkable  in  the  yield  both  of  foodstuffs  and 
of  materials  for  manufacture.  Even  more  im- 
portant, however,  has  been  the  sweeping  read- 
justment of  the  position  occupied  by  the  tillers  of 
the  soil  themselves.  Emancipated  from  oppres- 
sive dues  and  services  to  landlord  and  state,  and 
enabled  to  acquire  land  of  their  own,  the  rural 
inhabitants  of  almost  every  continental  country 
have  been  brought  up  to  a  status  vastly  superior 
to  that  which  their  ancestors  occupied  a  century 
and  a  half  ago.  The  first  nation  within  which  the 
agricultural  liberation  took  place  was  France.  As 
has  been  indicated,  one  of  the  earliest  decisive 
achievements  of  the  Revolution  in  France  was  the 
abolition  of  all  survivals  of  feudalism  and  serf- 
dom; and  this  reform  was  accompanied  by  the 
conversion  of  numerous  tenants,  dependent  cul- 
tivators, and  ordinary  laborers  into  independent, 
self-sustaining  landholders.  It  used  to  be  supposed 
that  the  multiplicity  of  little  proprietorships  which 
lends  distinction   to   France   to-day   was   wholly   a 


consequence  of  the  Revolution.  Research  has 
shown  that  this  is  not  true — that,  in  fact,  the 
breaking  up  of  the  agricultural  lands  of  France 
into  petty  holdings  was  already  under  way  long 
before  1789.  Some  students  of  the  subject  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  maintain,  indeed,  that  the  num- 
ber of  landed  proprietorships  in  France  was 
scarcely  smaller  prior  to  1789  than  it  is  to-day. 
There  can  be  no  question,  however,  that  during 
the  Revolution  the  growth  of  little  holdings  was 
greatly  accelerated,  notably  through  the  sale  of  es- 
tates confiscated  from  the  crown,  the  nobility,  and 
the  Church;  nor  that  the  general  effect  of  the  Rev- 
olution was  to  enhance  the  agricultural  prosperity 
of  France.  .  .  .  Throughout  modern  times  France 
has  been  preeminently  an  agricultural  country, 
and  to  this  day  the  nation's  enormous  wealth  is 
derived  principally  from  the  products  of  the  soil 
rather  than  from  manufactures  and  trade.  Nearly 
one-half  of  the  population  of  the  republic  to-day 
is  employed  upon  the  land,  whereas  in  England 
and  Wales  the  proportion  is  but  one-tenth.  No 
bu.siness  has  come  to  be  better  understood  than 
husbandry,  and  the  nation  not  only  is  entirely 
.self-supporting  in  the  matter  of  foodstuffs,  such 
as  cereals,  meat,  and  dairy  produce,  but  exports 
these  articles  heavily  to  other  portions  of  the 
world.  The  great  mass  of  cultivators  are  pro- 
prietors of  little  estates  ranging  in  area  from  five 
to  fifty  acres.  Three  million  proprietors  occupy 
holdings  of  less  than  twenty-five  acres  apiece.  Of 
waste  land  very  little  remains. 

"In  considerable  portions  of  Germany  agricul- 
tural advance  in  the  earlier  nineteenth  century  fol- 
lowed a  course  roughly  analogous  to  that  observed 
in  France,  although  the  remarkable  expansion  in 
Germany  since  187 1  of  industry  and  of  trade  has 
brought  that  nation  into  an  economic  position 
fundamentally  unlike  that  which  France  now 
occupies.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Hast]  century 
Germany  was  even  more  purely  agricultural  than 
was  France.  In  1804,  73  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Pru.ssia  was  rural,  and  throughout  Ger- 
many as  a  whole  the  proportion  of  the  popula- 
tion engaged  in  agriculture  was  not  less  than  80 
per  cent.  The  natural  resources  of  the  country 
were  then,  as  they  are  now,  less  favorable  for  ag- 
riculture than  those  of  France,  and  agricultural 
methods  were  very  poorly  developed,  with  the  con- 
sequence that  the  product  was  inferior  and  agri- 
cultural wealth  meagre.  Advance  in  technique, 
even  past  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  distinctly  slower  than  in  France,  but  the 
changes  wrought  in  the  status  of  the  agricultural 
laborer  were  in  no  small  measure  the  same.  The 
Napoleonic  era  became  in  Prussia  a  period  of 
economic  transformation,  involving  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  Throughout  other  portions  of  Ger- 
many serfdom  had  all  but  disappeared  prior  to  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  serfs  having 
obtained  their  freedom  in  some  instances  by  pur- 
chase, but  more  frequently  through  the  simple 
evaporation  by  imperceptible  degrees  of  the  tradi- 
tional seigncurial  rights.  The  non-existence  of 
serfdom  was  recognized  In  all  of  the  states,  by 
1820.  In  Germany,  as  in  France,  the  beginnings  of 
petty  peasant  holdings  antedate  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  by  the  rise  of  the  agricultural  popu- 
lation from  dependency  to  freedom  the  tendency 
toward  the  multiplication  of  these  holdings  was 
greatly  accentuated.  Just  as  in  France,  however, 
the  small-holding  idea  did  not  work  out  every- 
where alike,  so  that  the  holdings  of  the  northwest 
became,  on  the  average,  considerably  larger  than 
those  of  the  .south,  so  in  Germany  the  principle 
was  very  variously  applied,  and,  in  truth,  in  some 


13s 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


Auslralia 
British  Isles 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


important  portion  of  the  countr>-  was  not  applied 
at  all.  In  the  northeast,  beyond  the  Elbe,  the 
same  thing  happened  that  happened  in  the  England 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  namely,  the  concentra- 
tion of  land  in  estates  even  larger  than  those 
which  had  prevailed  in  earlier  'days.  But  in  both 
the  northwest  and  southwest  the  number  of  hold- 
ings was  increased  and  their  average  size  decreased, 
the  principal  difference  being  that  in  the  north 
the  holdings  were  as  a  rule  larger  than  in  the 
south.  In  the  northeast,  especially  in  Mecklen- 
burg and  Silesia,  such  small  holders  as  there  were 
fell  pretty  generally,  by  1S50,  to  the  status  of 
landless  agricultural  laborers,  and  their  holdings 
were  absorbed  in  the  large  estates,  the  consequence 
being  that  sharp  diffentiation  of  landlords  and 
rural  wage-earners  which  to  the  present  day  has 
comprised  one  of  the  principal  problems  of  the 
east  Prussian  provinces.  Agricultural  development 
in  Germany  during  the  course  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  notably  inferior  to  that  which  took 
place  in  France,  and  the  state  of  German  agricul- 
ture to-day  is  by  no  means  wholly  satisfactory. 
Between  1816  and  18S7  the  acreage  under  tillage 
was  increased  from  23,000,000  to  44,000,000,  and 
in  the  same  period  the  production  of  grain  was 
more  than  doubled.  The  three  decades  from  1840 
to  1870  were,  on  the  whole,  an  era  of  rural  pros- 
perity, marked  by  an  increased  price  of  products 
and  a  decreased  cost  of  production,  arising  prin- 
cipally from  the  introduction  of  agricultural  ma- 
chinery and  of  scientific  methods  of  cultivation. 
About  1874-75,  however,  there  set  in,  as  at  the 
same  time  in  England,  a  pronounced  agricultural 
depression,  from  which  there  has  never  as  yet 
been  any  considerable  recovery.  The  fundamental 
cause  of  depression,  as  also  largely  in  England, 
was  the  decline  in  the  price  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts arising  from  the  competition  of  American 
grains  and  meats.  Despite  tariffs  designed  to 
counteract  competition,  the  price  of  wheat  and  of 
rye  fell  between  1876  and  iSq8  by  14  per  cent  and 
that  of  barley  by  11.  Other  contributing  causes, 
however,  have  been  the  scarcity  and  irregularity 
of  labor,  the  necessity  of  paying  increased  wages, 
the  heavy  mortgages  which  to-day  encumber  half 
of  the  agricultural  land  of  the  country,  and  the 
unbusinesslike  methods  which  long  operated  to 
impede  the  conduct  of  agricultural  operations. 
Through  the  spread  of  education  among  the  agra- 
rian classes  and  the  estaWishment  of  cooperative 
societies,  the  state  of  agriculture  is  tending  some- 
what to  be  improved,  but  it  is  still  by  no  means 
favorable.  In  iqoo  only  47.6  per  cent  of  the  area 
of  the  country  was  under  cultivation,  as  com- 
pared with  upwards  of  80  per  cent  in  France.  In 
respect  to  foodstuffs  the  nation  is  not  self-sufficing, 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  its  de- 
pendence upon  supplies  obtained  from  the  out- 
lying world  will  tend  steadily  to  be  increased. 
Since  1000  the  importation  of  cereals  alone  has 
averaged  from  4,500,000  to  6,000.000  tons  a  year." 
— F.  A.  Ogg,  Social  progress  in  contemporary 
Europe,   pp.   08-106. 

Australia.  See  Australia:  Agriculture;  New 
South  Wales:  1855-1803 ;  South  Australia:  i8q6. 

Baltic  Provinces.     See  B.\ltic  provinces:   1020. 

Belgium:  1918. — Reconstruction.  See  World 
War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliar.-  services:  XII.  Recon- 
struction, b,  1. 

Bosnia-Herzegovina:  Land  tenure.  See  Bos- 
nia-Herzegovina:  1878-1008. 

British  Isles:  16th-18th  centuries. — Capitalis- 
tic enterprises.  See  Capitalism:  i6th-i8th  cen- 
turies: .^!Irirulfure  in  Enclish  capitalism. 

British  Isles:    17th-18th  centuries. — Adoption 


of  root  crops  and  improved  methods  of  farming. 
— Growth  of  the  domestic  system  of  industry. — 
Its  effects  upon  agrarian  organization. — Dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  century  in  En-'land  "several 
improvements  were  made  under  the  influence 
of  foreign  refugees.  .  .  .  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Low  Countries  .  .  .  now  introduced  into  England 
the  cultivation  of  winter  roots.  .  .  .  The  introduc- 
tion of  hops  also  was  of  great  importance.  .  .  . 
As  the  use  of  winter  roots  had  been  the  special 
feature  of  the  seventeenth  century,  so  the  feature 
of  the  eighteenth  was  the  extension  of  artificial 
pasture  and  the  increased  use  of  clover,  sainfoin, 
and  rye-grass;  not  of  course,  that  these  had  been 
hitherto  unknown,  but  now  their  seeds  were  regu- 
larly bought  and  used  by  any  farmer  who  knew 
his  business.  At  first,  like  all  other  processes  of 
agriculture,  the  development  was  ver>-  slow  and 
gradual,  but  it  went  on  steadily  nevertheless." — 
H.  De  B.  Gibbins,  Industry  in  England,  pp.  206- 
270. — "Many  new  crops  were  introduced  from 
Holland,  where  the  advantages  of  turnips  and  such 
artificial  grasses  as  clover,  sainfoin,  and  lucerne 
were  well  known.  Potatoes,  too,  began  to  be  an 
important  field  crop  after  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  though  they  had  not  become  a 
common  food  but  remained  rather  a  delicacy  even 
at  its  close.  .  .  .  Attention  was  also  paid  to  the 
implements  employed,  and  the  older  crude  and 
clumsy  tools  began  to  be  replaced  by  better  ones. 
The  plough  was  improved,  and  drills  for  sowing 
began  to  be  employed.  The  Dutch  also  taught 
the  importance  of  the  use  of  the  spade.  .  .  .  Im- 
provements were  also  effected  in  the  use  of  ma- 
nures. Liming  and  marling  were  renewed,  and 
new  forms  of  manuring  were  adopted.  The  use 
of  sand,  seaweed,  oyster  shells,  and  fish  as  manures 
was  now  known,  and  these  were  employed  wher- 
ever the  situation  of  the  land  made  their  use 
possible.  The  newly  formed  Royal  Society  paid 
much  attention  to  the  question  of  agriculture, 
and  made  many  useful  and  profitable  suggestions. 
But  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  way  of  improve- 
ment was  the  innate  conservatism  of  the  farmers, 
who  objected  to  new  crops  and  new  methods  and 
tried  to  retain  the  customs  of  their  forefathers. 
Where  the  land  was  still  open-field  progress  was 
well-nigh  impossible;  on  the  enclosed  farms  there 
were  enlightened  agriculturists  who  were  leading 
the  way  along  better  lines." — F.  W.  Tickner,  So- 
cial and  industrial  history  of  England,  pp.  337- 
3iS. — "The  pioneers  of  this  improved  agriculture 
came  from  Xorlolk,  among  the  first  being  Lord 
Townshend  and  Mr.  Coke,  the  descendant  of  the 
great  Chief  Justice.  The  former  introduced  into 
Norfolk  the  growth  of  turnips  and  artificial 
grasses,  and  was  laughed  at  by  his  contemporaries 
as  Turnip  Townshend;  the  latter  was  the  prac- 
tical exponent  of  .\rthur  Voung's  theories  as  to 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  large  farms  and 
capitalist  farmers.  With  improvements  in  culti- 
vation, and  the  increase  both  of  assiduity  and 
skill,  came  a  corresponding  improvement  in  the 
live  stock.  The  general  adoption  of  root  crops 
in  place  of  bare  fallows,  and  the  extended  cultiva- 
tion of  artificial  grasses,  supplied  the  farmer  with 
a  great  increase  of  winter  feed,  the  quality  and 
nutritive  powers  of  which  were  greatly  improved. 
Hence  with  abundance  of  fodder  came  abundance 
of  stock,  while  at  the  same  time  great  improve- 
ments took  place  in  breeding.  This  was  mainly 
due  to  Bakewell  (1760-1785),  who  has  been  aptly 
described  as  'the  founder  of  the  graziers'  art.' 
'He  was  the  first  scientific  breeder  of  sheep  and 
cattle,  and  the  methods  which  he  adopted  with 
his  Leicester  sheep  and  longhorns  applied  through- 


136 


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British  Isles 
lSth-19th  Centuries 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


out  the  country  by  other  breeders  to  their  own 
animals.'  The  growth  of  population  also  caused 
a  new  impetus  to  be  given  to  the  careful  rearing 
and  breeding  of  cattle  for  the  sake  of  food,  while 
the  sheep  especially  became  even  more  useful  than 
before,  since,  in  addition  to  the  value  of  its  fleece, 
its  carcase  now  was  more  in  demand  than  ever  for 
meat.  In  various  ways,  therefore,  the  improve- 
ments in  agriculture  mark  a  very  important  ad- 
vance, and  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  changes  in  the  field  as  great  in  their 
way  as  those  in  the  factory." — H.  De  B.  Gib- 
bins,  Industry  in  England,  pp.  429-430. 

"In  order  to  understand  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  changes  wrought  by  the  agricultural-in- 
dustrial revolution  [of  the  late  eighteenth  and 
early  nineteenth  centuries]  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind  certain  facts  regarding  the  economic  situa- 
tion in  England  before  the  transformation  came 
about.  In  the  first  place,  England  was  still  pre- 
dominantly an  agricultural  country.  Not  until 
1792  did  the  production. of  British  grain  fall  below 
the  volume  of  home  consumption,  so  that  it  began 
to  be  necessary  for  the  nation  to  rely  regularly 
in  some  degree  upon  imported  foodstuffs.  Long 
past  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  till- 
ing of  the  soil  was  the  standard  occupation  of  the 
laboring  masses.  Cities  were  few  and  small,  and 
city  life  played  a  minor  part  in  the  economy  of 
the  nation.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  conditions  of  land  tenure  were  still 
largely  mediaeval.  In  portions,  of  the  country 
where  the  manorial  system  had  never  been  estab- 
lished, land  was  possessed  outright  by  individual 
proprietors,  but  in  more  than  half  of  the  kingdom 
at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  forms 
of  tenure  were  governed  by  survivals  of  the  man- 
orial regime.  ...  It  was  the  proprietor  who 
owned  the  land ;  the  tenants  were  owners  only  of 
certain  'rights'  and  'interests'  which  the  proprietor 
vested  in  them.  On  the  manors  generally  the  an- 
cient methods  of  administration  .  .  .  still  pre- 
vailed. The  third  point  of  importance  is  the 
inseparable  association  in  the  eighteenth  century 
of  the  cultivation  of  land  and  the  domestic  sys- 
tem of  industry.  The  ordinary  rural  family  de- 
rived its  support  at  the  same  time  from  agricul- 
ture and  manufacture.  The  industrial  output  of 
England  in  the  earlier  eighteenth  century  was 
large,  but  it  was  the  output,  not  of  factories,  but 
of  the  numerous  and  widely  scattered  'little  in- 
dustries' of  the  kingdom.  And  these  little  indus- 
tries were,  in  the  main,  not  urban,  but  rural.  .  .  . 
In  days  when  the  processes  of  manufacture  in- 
volved simple  handicraft,  not  the  use  of  com- 
plicated and  costly  machines,  this  was  perfectly 
practicable.  One  of  the  most  widespread  forms 
of  domestic  industry  was  the  making  of  woolen 
cloth.  In  the  manufacture  of  this  commodity 
virtually  every  process  involved  could  be,  and 
was,  carried  on  under  the  roof  of  the  humblest 
cottager.  .  .  .  Woolen  fabrics  commanded  a  ready 
sale,  usually  at  a  good  price,  and  the  petty  agri- 
culturist who  would  have  found  it  difficult  enough 
to  support  his  family  solely  from  the  product  of 
his  bits  of  ground  had  in  the  woolen  and  other 
industries  a  welcome  opportunity  to  supplement 
his  scant  means  of  livelihood.  ...  In  his  'Tour 
through  Great  Britain,'  written  at  the  end  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Daniel 
Defoe  affords  an  interesting  gUmpse  of  domestic 
manufacturing  as  he  found  it  in  the  region  of 
Halifax,  in  Yorkshire.  'The  land,'  he  says,  'was 
divided  into  small  enclosures  from  two  acres  to 
six  or  seven  each,  seldom  more,  every  three  or 
four  pieces  of  land   having   a  house  belonging  to 


them;  hardly  a  house  standing  out  of  speaking 
distance  with  another.  At  every  considerable 
house  there  was  a  manufactory.  Every  clothier 
keeps  one  horse  at  least  to  carry  his  manufactures 
to  the  market;  and  every  one  generally  keeps  a 
cow  or  two,  or  more,  for  his  family.  By  this 
means  the  small  pieces  of  enclosed  land  about  each 
house  are  occupied  for  they  scarce  sow  corn  enough 
to  feed  their  poultry.  The  houses  are  full  of 
lusty  fellows,  some  at  [the]  dye-vat,  some  at 
the  looms,  others  dressing  the  cloths,  the  women 
and  children  carding  or  spinning ;  being  all  em- 
ployed, from  the  youngest  to  the   oldest.' 

"It  is  but  fair  to  observe  that  the  conditions  of 
domestic  manufacture  varied  widely  in  different 
regions.  .  .  .  Even  where  the  measure  of  indus- 
trial independence  was  largest,  the  domestic  sys- 
tem operated  unquestionably  in  the  eighteenth 
century  to  the  deterioration  at  some  points  of  the 
working  population.  Competition  grew  keener; 
wages  fell ;  child  labor  became  more  common ; 
workmen  were  led  to  dispose  of  their  lands  be- 
cause they  had  ceased  to  be  able  to  find  time  to 
cultivate  them." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Social  progress  in 
contemporary   Europe,   pp.   63-67, 

British  Isles:  Late  18th  to  early  19th  cen- 
turies.— Agricultural  revolution.— "During  the 
later  eighteenth  century  and  the  earlier  nineteenth 
England  underwent  a  social  and  economic  read- 
justment .  ,  ,  essentially  industrial  and  social.  For 
present  purposes  .  .  .  [these  changes]  may  be 
grouped  with  convenience  under  two  heads:  (i)  the 
transformation  of  agriculture,  and  (2)  the  revolu- 
tion in  industry.  .  .  .  Properly  considered,  the  in- 
dustrial revolution  was  the  transformation  which 
came  about  in  the  process  and  conditions  of  manu- 
facture in  consequence  of  the  invention  of  ma- 
chinery, especially  machinery  which  involved  the 
application  of  steam-power.  ,  ,  .  The  'agricultural 
revolution'  meant  different  things  in  different  parts 
of  Europe,  ,  ,  ,  What  it  meant  in  England  was, 
in  brief,  the  concentration  of  the  ownership  and 
control  of  land  in  the  hands  of  a  decreasing  body 
of  proprietors,  the  enclosure  of  the  common  lands 
upon  the  use  of  which  the  cottager  class  had  been 
largely  dependent,  the  reduction  of  many  men  to 
the  status  of  wage-earning  agricultural  laborers, 
and  the  driving  of  many  from  agricultural  em- 
ployment altogether.  It  began  toward  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  and  had  run  its  course 
practically  by  1845," — F,  A,  Ogg,  Social  Progress 
in  contemporary  Europe,  pp.  62-63. — See  also  In- 
dustrial revolution:  France;  Industrial  revolu- 
tion: Germany;  Industrial  revolution:  United 
States. 

"The  formative  period  of  the  factory  system 
was  the  period  also  in  England  of  the  beginnings 
of  the  revolutionizing  of  agriculture.  Of  the  two 
things  each  served  in  part  both  as  cause  and  as 
effect.  The  rise  of  the  factory  was  facilitated  by 
the  dislodgement  of  large  numbers  of  people  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  live  by  agriculture  and 
domestic  manufacturing  conjointly.  Conversely, 
the  alteration  of  agricultural  economy  was  stimu- 
lated by  the  drawing  off  to  the  towns  of  the  sur- 
plus rural  population  and  by  the  greatly  increased 
demand  for  foodstuffs  for  the  support  of  the  in- 
dustrial and  trading  classes.  .  .  .  The  revolution  in 
agriculture  worked  itself  out  in  a  variety  of  di- 
rections, but  the  principal  elements  in  it  were  (i) 
a  marked  improvement  in  the  technique  of  hus- 
bandry; (2)  a  greatly  increased  application  of 
capital  to  agricultural  operations;  (3)  the  concen- 
tration of  land  in  great  estates  owned  by  a  small 
body  of  aristocratic  proprietors  and  operated  un- 
der the   immediate  direction   of   capitalistic   entre- 


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AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


preneurs  known  technically  as  'farmers';  and  (4) 
the  virtual  disappearance  of  the  cottager  class  by 
which  formerly  the  tilling  of  the  soil  had  been 
carried  on  in  connection  with  domestic  industry. 
The  stimulus  came  originally  from  the  steady  rise 
after  1760  in  the  price  of  agricultural  produce, 
occasioned  by  the  increase  of  population  and  of 
wealth  derived  from  manufactures  and  commerce. 
With  the  growth,  especially  alter  1775,  of  the  fac- 
tory system  great  industrial  centres  appeared, 
whence  came  ever  increasing  demand  fur  food, 
and  it  was  in  no  small  measure  to  meet  this  de- 
mand that  farms,  instead  of  continuing  small  self- 
sufficing  holdings,  were  enlarged  and  converted 
into  manufactories  of  grain  and  meat.  Within  the 
domain  of  agriculture,  as  in  that  of  industry, 
science  and  skill  were  brought  to  bear,  to  the  end 
that  the  product  might  be  greater  and  the  cost 
of  production  less.  Rational  schemes  of  crop- 
ping replaced  antiquated  ones,  the  art  of  cattle- 
breeding  was  given  fresh  attention,  and  agricul- 
tural machinery,  which  called  for  considerable  ini- 
tial outlays,  was  widely  introduced.  The  hus- 
bandry of  the  new  type  involved  the  employment 
of  capital  and  the  carrying  on  of  farming  opera- 
tions upon  a  large  scale.  The  average  English 
husbandman  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however, 
possessed  no  capital  and  had  very  little  land. 
With  the  capitalistic  agriculturists  of  the  later 
decades  he  found  it  more  and  more  difficult  to 
compete,  and  the  consequence  was  that  gradually 
but  inevitably  he  was  forced  into  an  entirely 
novel  economic  position.  Through  the  revival  of 
enclosures  he  lost  his  rights  in  the  common  lands 
of  his  parish ;  the  land  which  he  had  owned  or 
held  individually  he  was  compelled  to  sell  or  other- 
wise alienate;  while  he  himself  either  went  off  to 
become  a  workman  in  a  factory  town  or  sank  to 
the  status  of  a  wage-earning  agricultural  laborer. 
"Gradually  from  the  readjustment  emerged  the 
three  great  classes  of  men  concerned  in  the  Eng- 
lish agriculture  of  later  times,  and  of  to-day:  (i) 
the  landed  proprietors,  who  let  out  their  land  in 
large  quantities  to  farmers  in  return  for  as  con- 
siderable a  rental  as  they  can  obtain;  (2)  the 
farmers,  who,  possessing  no  proprietary  interest  in 
the  soil  and  no  direct  community  of  interest  with 
either  landlords  or  laborers,  carry  on  agricultural 
operations  upon  these  rented  lands  as  capitalistic, 
profit-making  enterprises;  (3)  the  agricultural  la- 
borers who  neither  own  land  nor  manage  it,  but 
simply  work  under  orders  for  weekly  wages,  as 
do  the  operatives  in  the  factories.  It  is  in  conse- 
quence of  this  great  transformation  that  it  has 
been  brought  about  that  among  western  European 
nations  to-day  it  is  Great  Britain  which  has  the 
largest  average  holding,  the  smallest  projjortion  of 
cultivators  who  own  their  holdings,  and  the  small- 
est acreage  owned  by  its  cultivators.  In  1876 
there  was  published  in  England  a  body  of  land 
statistics  commonly  designated  the  New  Domesday 
Book.  By  this  return  it  was  shown  that  the  ag- 
gregate number  of  landowners  in  England  (out- 
side London)  was  q66,:75,  of  which  number  only 
262,886  possessed  more  than  one  acre,  .^t  the 
same  time  France,  with  a  population  only  a  third 
larger,  had  some  5.600,000  landed  proprietors,  and 
Belgium,  with  a  population  of  but  7,000.000,  had 
as  many  as  1,000,000.  From  the  return  it  further 
appeared  that  28  English  dukes  held  estates  ag- 
gregating nearly  4,000,000  acres;  ,^3  marquises 
i,Soo,ooo  acres;  104  earls,  5,862.000  acres;  and 
270  viscounts  and  barons,  3,785,000  acres.  Nearly 
one-half  of  the  enclosed  land  of  England  and 
Wales  was  owned  by  2250  persons;  while  at  the 
same  time  nine-tenths  of  Scotland  was  owned  bv 


1700,  and  two-thirds  of  Ireland  by  1942.  The 
divorce  of  the  agricultural  laborer  from  proprie- 
tary interest  in  the  soil,  which  was  the  outcome 
of  the  capitalistic,  concentrating  transformation  of 
agriculture  between  1775  and  1850,  is  above  all 
other  things  the  distinctive  feature  of  British  ag- 
ricultural economy  in   the  last   two  generations. 

"By  the  break-up  of  the  domestic  system  of  in- 
dustry, occasioned  by  the  development  of  large- 
scale  manufacturing  and  of  factory  methods,  the 
position  of  the  small-farming  population  must  in 
any  case  have  been  altered  profoundly  for  the 
worse.  The  process  was  vastly  accelerated,  how- 
ever, by  the  widespread  revival  in  the  later  eight- 
eenth and  earlier  nineteenth  centuries  of  the  en- 
closure of  common  lands.  To  'enclose'  a  parish 
meant  to  redistribute  its  open  fields,  its  waste- 
land, and  its  meadows  among  all  those  who  pos- 
sessed land  rights  within  the  parish  in  such  man- 
ner that  each  of  these  persons  should  obtain  one 
continuous  and  enclosed  holding  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  his  former  scattered  holdings  in  the 
open  fields  plus  the  rights  in  meadow  and  waste 
appurtenant  to  these  holdings.  The  processes  by 
which  enclosure  was  effected  were  various.  Where 
it  was  possible  to  secure  the  unanimous  consent 
of  the  holders  of  rights  and  interests  of  all  kinds 
within  the  parish,  the  change  might  be  carried 
through  by  the  authorities  of  the  parish  them- 
selves. Unanimous  consent,  however,  was  not 
likely  to  be  obtained  and  in  practice  the  process 
was  pretty  certain  to  involve  two  stages — first, 
the  procuring  of  the  assent  of  the  possessors  of 
four-fifths  of  the  aggregate  value  of  the  land  in- 
volved and,  second,  the  passage  of  a  special  act 
by  Parliament  authorizing  the  enclosure  and  com- 
pelling the  dissenting  minority  to  acquiesce.  .\s 
a  rule  enclosure  measures,  in  which  were  stipu- 
lated the  necessary  arrangements  for  surveys,  com- 
pensation, and  redistribution,  were  actually  drawn 
by  the  large  landholders  and  other  persons  of  in- 
fluence in  the  parishes  concerned.  In  1801  a 
statute  was  enacted  to  make  easier  the  passage  of 
private  bills  for  enclosure.  An  act  of  1836  went 
further  and  made  it  possible,  with  the  consent  of 
two-thirds  of  the  persons  interested  to  enclose 
certain  kinds  of  common  lands  'without  specific 
authorization  of  Parliament.  .And  a  general  en- 
closure act  of  1845  created  a  board  of  Enclosure 
Commissioners  authorized  to  decide  upon  the  ex- 
pediency of  projected  enclosures  and  to  carry 
them  into  execution   if  approved. 

"The  number  of  enclosure  acts  passed  by  Par- 
liament* between  1700  and  1S50  and  the  approxi- 
mate area  of  the  lands  enclosed  were  as  follows: 

No.  of  En-  Acres 

closure  .^cts  Enclosed 

1700-sq                             244  337,877 

1760-60                             385  704,550 

1770-70                             660  1,207,800 

1780-81)                             246  450,180 

1700-00                             46Q  858,270 

i8oo-oq                               847  1,550,010 

1810-19                               853  1,560,000 

i820-2g                             20s  375.150 

1830-39                             136  248,880 

1840-49                               66  394,747 

"During  the  period  1760-1S30  enclosures  were 
especially  numerous,  and  after  1850  little  open 
land  remained.  The  lands  enclosed,  unlike  those 
enclosed  in  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  were  intended  for  cultivation,  and  care 
was  taken,  as  a  rule,  furthermore,  that  every 
possessor  be  compensated,  either  in  land  or  in 
money,  for  all  of  the  common  rights  of  which  he 


138 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


British  Isles 
1815-1875 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


was  deprived.  None  the  less,  the  effects  of  en- 
closure upon  the  average  small  holder  were  likely 
to  be  disadvantageous.  Heretofore  the  tenant  had 
been  accustomed  to  utilize  his  own  allotments  of 
land  entirely  for  the  growing  of  crops.  His  cow, 
his  donkey,  his  flock  of  geese,  found  such  sus- 
tenance as  they  could  on  the  common  lands  of 
the  parish.  Now  the  common  lands  disappeared 
and  the  cottager  must  not  only  grow  loudstuffs  for 
his  family  upon  his  bit  of  ground,  but  must  ulso 
provide  upon  it  pasturage  and  meadow  for  his 
live  stock.  To  share  in  the  use  of  an  open  com- 
mon might  be,  and  generally  was,  more  desirable 
than  to  occupy  exclusively  a  petty  enclosed  hold- 
ing. Not  infrequently  the  compensation  which 
the  individual  cottager  obtained  for  the  common 
rights  which  he  yielder],  took  the  form  of  money. 
Such  sums,  however,  were  easily  expended,  and  the 
cottager  was  apt  to  find  himself  without  anything 
to  show  for  the  valuable  rights  which  once  he  had 
possessed.  To  his  difficulties  was  added  the  fact 
that  the  application  of  capital  to  agriculture  on 
the  part  of  the  large  landholders,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  methods  of  cultivation  which  were  fur 
him  impracticable,  placed  him  at  a  distinct  disad- 
vantage in  the  growing  of  marketable  produce  " — • 
F.  A.  Ogg,  Social  progress  in  conlempurary  Eu- 
rope, pp.  62-63,  70-78. 

"That  the  changes  induced  by  the  new  system 
have  been  beneficial  to  agriculture  no  one  will  at- 
tempt to  deny,  just  as  no  one  can  dispute  the 
benefits  conferred  upon  industry  by  the  use  of  ma- 
chinery ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  one  cannot  be 
bhnd  to  the  fact  that  these  great  industrial 
changes,  both  in  manufactures  and  agriculture, 
brought  a  great  amount  of  misery  with  them,  both 
to  the  smaller  employers  and  the  mass  of  the  em- 
ployed. The  change  in  agriculture  brought  with 
it  a  new  agricultural  and  social  crisis  more  severe 
than  that  of  the  Tudor  period.  The  jeighteenth] 
century  closed  with  the  miseries  that  resulted  from 
enclosures,  consolidation  of  holdings,  and  the  re- 
duction of  thousands  of  small  farmers  to  the 
ranks  of  wage-dependent  labourers.  The  result 
of  the  crisis  was  to  consolidate  large  estates,  ex- 
tinguish the  yeomanry  and  peasant  proprietary,  to 
turn  the  small  farmers  into  hired  labourers,  and 
to  sever  the  connection  of  the  labourer  from  the 
soil.  In  a  comparatively  short  time  the  face  of 
rural  England  was  completely  changed;  the  com- 
mon fields,  those  quaint  relics  of  primitive  times, 
were  almost  entirely  swept  away,  and  the  large 
enclosed  fields  of  to-day,  with  their  neat  hedge- 
rows and  clearly-marked  limits,  had  taken  their 
places.  The  improvements  in  agriculture,  the  en- 
closures, the  consolidation  of  small  into  large 
farms,  and  the  appearance  of  the  capitalist  farm- 
er are,  then,  the  chief  signs  of  the  Agricultural 
Revolution.  They  form  an  almost  exact  parallel 
to  the  inventions  of  machinery,  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  workers  in  factories,  the  consolidation 
of  small  by-occupations  into  larger  and  more  defi- 
nite trades,  and  the  appearance  of  the  capitalist 
millowner  in  the  realm  of  manufacturing  indus- 
try."— H.  De  B.  Gibbins,  Lidustry  in  England,  pp. 
431-432. — See  also  Absenteeism. 

British  Isles:  1815-1875.— Prosperity.— "In  the 
history  of  agriculture  in  the  British  Isles  during  the 
past  hundred  years  there  are  to  be  distinguished 
two  general  stages.  The  first,  extending  from  the 
close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  to  about  1875,  was 
a  period  of  intermittent,  but  on  the  whole  sub- 
stantial, prosperity.  The  second,  extending  from 
1875  or  1880  to  the  present  day,  has  been  an 
epoch  of  almost  unrelieved  depression.  The  prin- 
cipal  facts   concerning    the    first   of   these    periods 

T 


can  be  stated  briefly.  At  the  outset  it  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind  that  there  went  on  steadily,  from 
beginning  to  end,  and  without  longer  occasioning 
much  comment,  the  extension  of  the  large  farm 
system  which  had  set  in  during  the  preceding 
century.  The  enclosing  of  waste  and  other  com- 
mon land  continued,  the  number  of  enclosure  acts 
passed  between  1815  and  1845  being  244  and  the 
area  enclosed  being  199,300  acres;  and  wherever 
small  farms  were  given  up  they  were  practically 
certain  to  be  added  to  larger  holdings.  Consoli- 
dation proceeded  with  equal  rapidity  in  arable 
and  grazing  districts.  The  first  half  of  the  period, 
furthermore,  witnessed  the  almost  tt)tal  disappear- 
ance of  the  yeomanry.  The  greater  part  of  this 
once  important  element  in  the  country's  popula- 
tion had  vanished  prior  to  1815.  Between  that 
date  and  the  middle  of  the  century  the  remainder 
largely  succumbed,  and  to-day  the  class  is  rep- 
resented by  only  scant  survivors  in  Westmoreland, 
Somersetshire,  and  a  few  other  remoter  counties. 
In  legislation  of  i8iq  and  1832  attempt  was  made 
to  offset  the  tendencies  of  the  time  by  provisions 
under  which  local  authorities  should  acquire  land 
and  allot  it  to  poor  and  industrious  persons;  but 
the  effect  was  negligible.  Whereas  in  i8n  the 
agricultural  population  comprised  thirty-four  per 
cent,  of  the  whole,  in  182 1  it  comprised  but  thirty- 
two  per  cent.;  in  1831,  twenty-eight  per  cent.;  in 
1841,  twenty-two  per  cent.;  in  1851,  sixteen  per 
cent.;  and  in  1861,  ten  per  cent.  The  social  dis- 
tress occasioned  by  this  continued  readjustment 
was  at  times  scarcely  less  severe  than  in  earlier 
decades.  To  such  elements  as  were  in  a  position 
to  profit  from  the  new  conditions,  however,  the 
period  brought  a  large  measure  of  prosperity.  Pri- 
marily these  were,  of  course,  the  greater  land- 
owners. In  the  first  place,  the  prices  of  agricul- 
tural products,  while  subject  to  much  fluctuation, 
•continued  as  a  rule  to  be  high.  Prior  to  1846 
they  were  supported,  or  were  supposed  to  be,  by 
the  Corn  Laws;  although,  contrary  to  all  expecta- 
tion, the  repeal  of  those  measures  was  followed 
by  no  serious  fall  in  the  price  of  wheat  and  other 
grains  during  a  period  of  thirty  years.  Until  the 
last  quarter  of  the  century,  the  British  producers 
held  their  own  against  the  vast  grain-yielding 
areas  of  Russia,  America,  Egypt,  and  India,  and 
it  was  only  when,  through  the  improvement  and 
extension  of  steamship  and  railway  lines,  the  trans- 
portation of  bulky  commodities  to  great  dis- 
tances had  been  made  convenient,  speedy,  and 
cheap  that  the  force  of  foreign  competition  became 
sufficient  to  involve  the  British  corn-growers  in 
disaster.  Until  that  time  production  did  not 
decline,  and  home-grown  grain  was  only  supple- 
mented, not  displaced,  by  the  imported  com- 
modity. Between  1853  and  1873  the  seasons,  with 
(miy  two  or  three  exceptions,  were  favourable,  and 
it  is  commonly  regarded  that  for  the  agricultural 
interests  these  decades  were  the  most  prosperous 
of  the  century.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the 
second  and  the  third  quarters  of  the  century, 
moreover,  agricultural  technique  was  undergoing 
steady  improvement.  The  studied  application  of 
science  to  agriculture  really  began  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  the  chemical  composition  of  soils 
was  first  determined  carefully,  and  the  means  of 
its  restoration  made  a  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge and  use.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  guano  were 
employed  from  about  1835  on;  and  superphos- 
phate of  lime,  first  recommended  by  the  German 
chemist  Litbig,  was  introduced  into  England  by 
Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  who  obtained  this  by  dissolving 
bone-dust  in  sulphuric  acid  The  gradual  intro- 
duction  of   phosphates   and   ammoniacal   manures, 


AGRICULTURE,  MOHERN 


British  Isles 
1875-19UU 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


the  increased  attention  paid  to  the  cultivation  of 
artificial  grasses  and  the  selection  of  seeds,  the 
use  of  superior  machines  for  agricultural  purposes — 
the  sub-soil  plough,  Meilde's  threshing-machine, 
drilling  and  reaping  machines — all  these  operated 
to  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  agricultural 
classes.  "The  list  of  field  crops  was  extended  by 
the  addition  of  Italian  rye-grass,  winter  beans, 
Belgian  carrots,  and  alsike  clover.  Stock-breeding 
was  given  increased  attention,  and  the  better 
breeds  were  disseminated  more  widely  through  the 
country.  An  interest  in  agricultural  science  was 
promoted  by  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Ag- 
ricultural Socie^  in  1838  and  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural College  at  Cirencester  and  the  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry  -Association  in  1842.  In  1S04  the 
government  began  the  systematic  collection  and 
publication  of  agricultural  statistics.  Finally  may 
be  mentioned  the  fact  that,  whereas  throughout 
most  of  the  period  arable  farming  strongly  pre- 
dominated, after  about  1865  there  was  a  notable 
extension  of  pasture-farming,  so  that  the  two  were 
carried  on  more  generally  together,  and  with  in- 
creased profit." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic  development 
of  modern  Europe,  pp.  159-161. — See  also  Tarut: 
1815-1828. 

British  Isles:  1875-1900. — Decline. — "As  a 
great  department  of  economic  activity,  agriculture 
had  long  since  been  eclipsed,  in  point  of  numbers  and 
of  value  of  output,  by  manufacturing.  Under  con- 
ditions thus  fundamentally  altered,  however,  the 
agriculture  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  prosperous,  and  its  well-being  was 
prolonged  almost  unimpaired  until  the  immediate 
eve  of  the  great  era  of  depression.  ...  In  1876 
and  1877  poor  harvests,  cattle-plague,  and  sheep- 
rot  involved  the  agricultural  classes  in  dire  dis- 
aster. In  18S2  a  government  commission  testified 
mournfully  to  the  'great  extent  and  intensity  of 
the  distress  which  has  fallen  upon  the  agricultural 
community.'  And  as  time  went  on  it  began  to 
appear  that,  far  from  being  merely  ephemeral,  the 
adverse  conditions  which  had  arisen  were  perma- 
nent and  perhaps  largely  irremediable.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  depression  which  had  thus  settled  upon 
the  agrarian  portion  of  the  country  has  continued 
with  only  a  modicum  of  relief  to  the  present  day. 
The  statistics  of  the  decline  of  agricultural  pros-' 
perity  are  easier  to  ascertain  than  are  the  causes 
involved;  and  the  causes  are  less  difficult  to  de- 
termine than  are  the  remedies.  The  first  matter 
to  be  observed  is  the  sharp  reduction  since  1875  of 
the  amount  of  land  under  cultivation  and  the  con- 
siderable increase  of  the  amount  utilized  for  graz- 
ing. .  .  .The  total  area  devoted  to  wheat  fell 
from  about  3,700,000  acres  in  1870  to  3,100,000 
acres  in  1880;  2,500.000  in  iSoo,' and  1,700,000  in 
iQoo.  In  iQii  it  was  about  1,900,000  acres.  The 
decline  in  acreage  has  been  heaviest  in  the  case 
of  wheat ;  but  it  has  appeared  in  some  measure 
in  all  corn  crops  grown  in  the  United  Kingdom 
except  oats.  Taking  corn  crops  as  a  whole,  the 
area  cultivated  was  diminished  by  three  million 
acres,  or  almost  forty  per  cent.,  in  the  three  dec- 
ades 1876-1006.  TDuring  the  Great  War  there  was 
a  marked  increase.  The  acreage  of  wheat  was 
2,221,000  in  iQiq.J  From  these  facts  it  follows 
that  there  has  been  a  large  falling  off  in  the  out- 
put of  agricultural  product.  The  production  of 
wheat  in  the  United  Kingdom,  which  in  the  years 
1841-1845  was  sufficient  for  24,000,000  persons, 
or  almost  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  population,  has 
declined  until  home-grown  wheat  in  1006  fed  but 
4,500,000  persons,  or  10.6  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  area  under  grass  increased  by  almost 
one-third  in  1876-IQ06;  yet  the  quantity  of  meat 


produced  from  home-fed  stock  was  increased  by 
only  five  per  cent.  From  this  situation  it  arises 
that  the  British  people  have  become  dependent 
in  a  fairly  astounding  degree  upon  foodstuffs  im- 
ported from  abroad.  In  1S75  ^^^  value  of  im- 
ported food  supplies  of  all  kinds  was  £124,000,000; 
in  IQ05  it  was  £205,000,000.  On  their  face  these 
figures,  however,  convey  no  adequate  impression 
of  the  magnitude  of  the  change.  .  .  .  This  factor 
taken  into  consideration,  it  appears  that  the  volume 
of  food  imports  was  increased  during  the  period  by 
130  per  cent.,  or  almost  four  times  the  increase  in 
population." — Ibid.,  pp.  101-162. 

British  Isles:  20ih  century. — Development. —  1 
"Speaking  generally  the  British  Isles  are  inten- 
sively cultivated,  the  amount  of  land  available 
being  small  and  the  agricultural  population  high- 
ly skilled  in  their  industry.  .\t  the  same  time 
the  proximity  of  valuable  industries  with  a  high 
rate  of  wages  has  drawn  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion off  all  land  that  does  not  yield  a  high  return 
to  the  cultivator,  and  in  consequence  there  are  in 
the  British  Isles  many  comparatively  large  areas 
which  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  farmed  at  all, 
though  they  pay  a  trifling  return  per  acre  on  an 
inconsiderable  expenditure  for  labour.  The  den- 
sity of  the  agricultural  population  in  England 
averages  about  125  per  square  mile,  in  Ireland 
about  iqo,  both  very  high  figures  as  compared 
with  America  and  other  new  countries,  but  far 
below  those  which  prevail  in  India,  China,  and 
Japan.  They  are  also  exceeded  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  in  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Denmark, 
though  not  to  any  marked  degree.  The  average 
yield  per  acre  is  only  exceeded  in  Belgium,  Hol- 
land, and  Denmark.  .  .  . 

"The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  agricul- 
ture of  Great  Britain  is  [that]  the  greater  part 
of  the  land  is  farmed  by  comparatively  large 
tenant  farmers  holding  from  200  to  500  acres  of 
land  and  possessed  of  both  a  considerable  amount 
of  capital  and  a  high  standard  of  cultivation.  On 
less  than  12  per  cent,  of  the  land  are  the  occu- 
piers owners,  and  the  occupier-owners  have  stead- 
ily decreased  of  late  years.  .  .  .  The  British  sys- 
tem of  land  tenure  with  its  comparatively 
large  holdings  is  in  the  main  the '  outcome 
of  the  enclosures  of  the  old  common  fields  which 
took  place  most  markedly  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  a  few  districts  the  land 
has  not  been  enclosed  but  is  still  held  in  narrow 
strips  of  one-acre  and  half-acre  pieces.  ...  In  the 
British  system  of  tenant  farming  the  owner  not 
only  provides  the  land  and  buildings  but  is  also 
responsible  for  all  the  permanent  improvements 
upon  the  farm,  and  continues  to  supply  material 
for  gates,  fences,  drains,  and  repairs  to  the  fabric. 
He  thus  becomes  a  very  considerable  partner  in 
the  farming  enterprise,  and  it  has  been  shown 
that  on  many  of  the  large  estates  the  rent  does 
not  represent  a  commercial  interest  on  the  capital 
that  has  been  expended  on  the  land  during  the 
last  century,  without  allowing  any  value  to  the 
land  itself.  The  development  of  British  farming 
and  the  comparatively  advan.ced  stage  it  has 
reached  have  been  due  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  tenant's  capital  has  thus  been  free  for  the 
purposes  of  his  business;  he  has  been  tempted  to 
embark  his  capital  freely  by  possessing  a  prac- 
tical security  of  tenure  and  yet  no  obligation  to 
remain  if  the  business  became  unprofitable.  The 
majority  of  the  farms  in  Great  Britain  are  held 
on  yearly  tenure,  long  leases  being  very  uncom- 
mon The  effectiveness  of  the  system  may  be 
judged  not  only  from  the  comparatively  high 
\ields   per   acre   but   also   from    the  improvement 


140 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


British  Isles 
20ih  Century 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


that  has  been  effected  in  the  breeds  of  live  stock, 
chiefly  by  tenant  farmers.  The  conscious  forma- 
tion of  specific  breeds  of  live  stock  began  in  Eng- 
land in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  in  no  other  country  has  attained  to  such  a 
degree  of  perfection.  As  a  consequence  the  newer 
countries  which  have  been  so  largely  opened  up 
during  the  nineteenth  century  have  been  peopled 
almost  exclusively  with  British  breeds  of  live 
stock.  The  great  cattle  ranches  of  America,  Ar- 
gentina, and  Austraha  are  exclusively  occupied 
by  British  stock,  chiefly  Shorthorns  and  Herefords, 
and  certain  British  races  of  sheep  have  an  equally 
wide  distribution ;  in  fact  the  only  continental 
races  that  have  been  developed  out  of  their  own 
districts  are  the  Holstein-Friesian  dairy  cattle  and 
the  Merino  sheep.  At  the  present  time  Great  Brit- 
ain is  still  resorted  to  by  the  breeders  of  all  coun- 
tries for  sires  whereby  to  improve  their  country 
stock  and  a  valuable  export  trade  in  pedigree  ani- 
mals is  carried  on.  One  of  the  most  marked  fea- 
tures of  English  farming  is  the  number  of  sheep 
that  are  carried  .  .  .  and  though  the  British  num- 
bers are  exceeded  in  Australia,  .  .  .  Argentina  .  .  . 
and  the  United  States  ...  the  density  of  the 
sheep  in  Great  Britain  is  far  greater  than  in  any 
other  country.  In  England  also  the  sheep  are 
almost  as  abundant  on  arable  land  as  on  the 
grass,  because  of  the  practice  prevailing  on  all  the 
lighter  soils  of  consuming  turnips  and  other  green 
crops  by  sheep  folded  on  the  arable  land.  ...  It 
is  difficult  to  trace  any  general  causes  at  work  in 
the  distribution  of  large  or  small  holdings.  Poor 
land  that  is  still  fit  for  arable  farming  is  generally 
divided  into  extensive  farms,  as  for  example,  the 
land  lying  on  the  chalk,  where  the  holdings  are 
very  often  of  800  acres  and  upwards.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  poorest  land  in  the  country  is 
often  cut  up  into  comparatively  small  farms  be- 
cause it  has  never  been  sufficiently  tempting  to 
the  large  capitalist  farmer.  .  .  .  Light  soils  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  good  markets  arc  generally  oc- 
cupied by  small  holders  engaged  in  market-garden- 
ing, milk  production  and  other  intensive  forms  of 
agriculture  demanding  a  good  deal  of  labour.  .  .  . 
In  Ireland,  in  Wales,  and  in  Scotland  away  from 
the  rich  arable  land  in  the  eastern  straths,  we  find 
the  land  divided  into  small  grazing  farms  occu- 
pied by  comparatively  poor  men  employing  little 
or  no  additional  labour  and  content  to  work  for 
a  small  pecuniary  return.  Finally,  on  the  extreme 
western  seaboard  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  where 
both  the  land  and  the  climate  are  unfavourable 
to  agriculture  we  have  a  population  of  crofters 
tilling  very  small  areas  for  a  bare  subsistence,  far 
below  the  usual  economic  level  prevailing  in  the 
British  Isles.  [For  statistics  of  production  see 
England:    iqoi.] 

"The  cultivated  land  in  Scotland  is  confined  to 
the  fringe  of  lowlands  on  the  eastern  coast,  the 
broad  river  valleys  and  straths  and  the  western 
seaboard  of  the  lowland  counties  below  the  eleva- 
tion of  600  feet  or  so.  Of  the  cultivated  land  the 
greater  proportion  is  under  arable  cultivation,  but 
a  large  proportion  of  this  is  occupied  by  tempo- 
rary grass  which  is  left  down  for  two  or  three 
years  before  coming  into  crop  again.  .  .  .  Scot- 
tish farming  generally  is  distinguished  by  a  very 
high  level  of  skill,  culminating  in  the  Lothians, 
where  the  most  highly  developed  arable  farming 
in  the  world  may  be  seen.  The  statistics  of  pro- 
duction bear  evidence  of  the  general  excellence  of 
Scottish  agriculture.  [See  ScoTL.xNn:  T75o-ig2i.] 
.  .  .  The  holdings  in  Wales  are  .  .  .  small,  and  be- 
cause of  the  elevnted  .  .  country  and  the  high 
rainfall  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  land  is  un- 


der arable  cultivation,  except  on  some  of  the  allu- 
vial soils  in  the  valleys  and  in  Anglesey.  The  up- 
lands are  chiefly  occupied  by  sheep,  of  which  two 
races  may  be  distinguished — the  true  mountain 
sheep  and  the  forest  sheep,  which  more  properly 
belong  to  the  march  countries,  Radnor  and  Mont- 
gomery. From  the  latter  stock  one  or  two  distinct 
breeds  have  been  segregated;  indeed  the  widely 
distributed  Shropshire  breed  has  originated  from  it 
through  a  certain  infusion  of  South  Down  blood. 
.  .  .  Speaking  generally  Welsh  farms  are  small  and 
the  land  not  rich,  but  even  in  the  favourable  dis- 
tricts, as  in  the  island  of  .Anglesey,  the  agriculture  is 
backward  and  undeveloped. 

"In  many  respects  it  is  difficult  to  compare  the 
farming  of  Ireland  with  that  of  the  rest  of  Great 
Britain,  so  entirely  different  has  been  the  sys- 
tem of  land  tenure.  In  Ireland  the  landlord  has 
never  carried  out  the  improvements,  but  merely 
allowed  his  tenants  the  use  of  the  land.  [See 
also  Absenteeism.]  The  absence  of  any  compet- 
ing industries,  to  draw  the  sons  of  the  farmers  off. 
the  land,  also  resulted  in  continued  subdivision, 
until  the  average  size  of  the  holding  has  become 
very  small — 28  acres,  as  compared  with  63  acres 
in  Great  Britain.  Having  to  such  an  extent  made 
their  farms,  the  tenants  acquired,  first  by  custom 
and  then  by  law,  a  tenant-right  in  their  improve- 
ments, which  within  the  last  few  years  has  de- 
veloped into  a  system  of  State-aided  purchase, 
which  will  eventually  make  the  tenants  owners  of 
their  own  farms.  Owing  to  the  comparatively 
high  rainfall,  the  indifferent  drainage  of  the  river 
valleys  in  the  central  plain,  and  the  equable  tem- 
perature, Ireland  as  a  whole  is  a  country  more 
suited  to  the  growth  of  grass  than  to  corn,  and 
over  a  large  part  of  the  country  very  little  arable 
farming  is  to  be  found.  By  temperament  also 
the  Irishman  seems  to  be  rather  a  grazier  than  a 
farmer.  .  .  .  With  this  restriction  of  arable  farm- 
ing to  the  better  lands,  and  the  equable  climate 
and  rainfall,  the  yields  per  acre  of  corn  and  es- 
pecially of  roots  in  Ireland  are  comparatively 
high.  The  area  under  tillage,  however,  is  only 
just  beginning  to  show  signs  of  increase,  though 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  holdings  of  the  Irish 
size  can  be  economically  profitable,  except  under 
intensive  arable  cultivation.  The  most  strongly- 
marked  farming  district  in  Ireland  lies  in  the  east- 
ern side  of  Ulster  and  comprises  County  Down 
and  other  counties  abutting  on  Lough  Neagh. 
These  are  arable  counties,  except  where  the  eleva- 
tion is  too  great  or  the  land  too  boggy ;  the  land 
is  mostly  divided  into  small  farms,  not  exceeding 
50  acres,  occupied  by  men  of  Scottish  origin. 
Very  fine  farming  is  to  be  found  in  Ulster;  par- 
ticularly the  crops  of  potatoes  and  roots  are 
often  very  large.  Little  wheat  is  grown,  but  on 
the  coast  of  County  Down,  especially  in  the  Ards 
peninsula,  barley  becomes  an  important  crop; 
everywhere  else  oats  form  the  chief  and  almost 
only  cereal.  Flax-growing  forms  an  important 
feature  in  the  Ulster  farming;  except  on  a  small 
recently  revived  area  in  Cork,  flax  is  now  confined 
to  Ulster,  where  the  acreage  undergoes  rapid  fluc- 
tuations from  year  to  year  according  to  the  de- 
mand for  fibre.  Another  characteristic  crop  of  the 
district  is  grass  seed.  Cattle  are  extensively  bred, 
there  being  a  number  of  pedigree  Shorthorn  herds 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lough  Neagh ;  but  sheep 
are  unimportant.  This  district  has  an  export 
trade  in  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay  with  Glasgow  and 
Liverpool.  Going  southivard  the  arable  land  does 
not  extend  much  past  Dundalk,  but  in  the  South 
of  Louth,  Meath,  and  northern  Kildare  passes  into 
a  great  area  of  rich  grassland — a  thinly  populated 


141 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


British  Isles 
20ih  Centurv 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


country  given  over  to  the  summer  grazing  of  bul- 
locks and  commanding  lor  that  purpose  excep- 
tional rents  up  to  £3  an  acre  or  more.  These  fa- 
mous Meath  grazings  are  largely  let  on  terms  of 
eleven  months  only,  so  as  to  prevent  the  occupier 
acquiring  any  tenant-right  by  a  continuous  ten- 
ancy. Below  the  central  grazing  district  will  be 
found  a  few  areas  of  arable  farming  in  south  Kil- 
dare,  Queen's  County,  Tipperary,  and  Kilkenny; 
similar  areas  occur  in  Wexford  and  again  in  Cork, 
though  the  farming  in  the  centre  and  south  of 
Ireland  rarely  reaches  the  general  high  pitch  of 
Ulster.  The  Shannon  counties,  and  particularly 
Limerick,  form  the  great  dairying  district  of  Ire- 
land,   and    here    also    are    raised    the    store   cattle 


British  Isles:  Ireland. — Wyndham  Act.  Sec 
Ireland:   1903. 

Also  in:  Journals  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
and  Fisheries  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
(London). — Journal  of  Agricultural  Science,  igo5 
seq. — C.  E.  Green  and  D.  Young,  Encyclopedia  of 
agriculture. — Sir  H.  R.  Haggard,  Rural  England. 
— F.  G.  Heath,  British  rural  life  and  labour. — R 
Wallace,  Farm  live  stock  of  Great  Britain. — R. 
Wallace  and  E.  Brown,  British  breeds  of  live 
slock.— Sir  A.  Fitzherbert,  Boke  of  husbandrie 
(1523). — J.  Tull,  Horse-shoring  husbandry  (1733). 
■ — A.  Young,  Annals  of  agriculture. — Vinogradoff, 
Growth  of  the  manor. — R.  M.  Gamier,  History  of 
the  English  landed  interest. — W.  Hasbach,  History 


LEVELLING   A    FAR-EASTERN    RICE    FIELD    FOR    SOWING 
Rice    is   one    of    the    most    important    cereal    foods    in    the    world 


©  Elmendorf 
Frniu  E.  Galloway 


which  cross  the  Channel  in  such  large  numbers 
to  be  fattened  by  the  English  graziers.  Lastly, 
on  the  western  seaboard  in  Clare,  Galway,  Mayo, 
and  Donegal  come  the  congested  districts,  where 
an  impoverished  population  wring  a  bare  suste- 
nance out  of  entirely  inadequate  patches  of  land 
that  have  been  reclaimed  from  the  mountain  and 
bog.— A.  D.  Hall.  Oxford  survey  of  the  British 
empire,  pp.  148- 171. —See  also  Conservation  or 
NATURAL  resources:  Great  Britain;  Ireland:  1881- 
1882. 

British  Isles:  Ireland. — Land  Act.  See  Ire- 
land:  1870;  1882. 

British  Isles:  Ireland. — Land  Commission. 
See  Ireland:  1885-1Q03. 

British  Isles:  Ireland. — Land  League.  See 
Ireland:   1873-1870. 

British  Isles:  Ireland. — Land  Purchase  Acts. 
See  Ireland:   1000-1911. 


of  the  English  agricultural  laborer. — W.  MacDon- 
ald.  Makers  of  modern  agriculture. — H.  Bradley, 
Enclosures  in  England. — VV.  Somerville,  Agricul- 
tural progress  in  the  nineteenth  century  (Journal 
of  the  Bath  and  West  and  Southern  Counties  So- 
ciety, 1001-1002). — W.  H.  R.  Curtlcr,  Short  history 
of  English  agriculture. — M.  Fordham,  Short  his- 
tory of  English  rural  life. — R.  E.  Prothero,  Eng- 
lish farming  past  and  present. — J.  E.  T.  Rogers.  His- 
tory of  agriculture  and  prices. — Traill,  Social  Eng- 
land.— W.  Cunningham,  Growth  of  English  indus- 
try and  commerce  during  the  Middle  Ages;  Growth 
of  English  industry  and  commerce  in  modern  times. 

Canada.    See  Canada:  .^griculture. 

China.     See  China:  .Agriculture 

France:  Development  since  the  Revolution. — 
Small  holdings. — "The  continental  country  in 
which  the  liberation  of  agriculture  first  took  place 
upon  a  considerable  scale  was  France.     There,  as 


142 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


France 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


elsewhere,  the  development  presents  three  prin- 
cipal phases:  (i)  the  emancipation  of  the  rural 
labourer  in  respect  to  his  person;  (2)  the  release 
of  agricultural  technique  from  the  fetters  imposed 
by  law  and  custom;  and  (3)  the  liberation  of  the 
land,  similarly,  from  ancient  legal  and  customary 
fetters,  and  the  opening  of  it  to  the  possession 
of  large  numbers  of  people.  One  of  the  capital 
achievements  of  the  Revolution  was  the  aboHtion 
of  all  survivals  of  feudalism  and  serfdom.  The 
number  of  serfs  remaining  to  be  set  free  in  178Q 
was  not  large.  None  the  less,  the  liberation  of 
such  as  there  were,  together  with  the  cancellation 
of  an  intricate  mass  of  surviving  feudal  and  mano- 
rial obligations,  was  a  step  necessary  to  be  taken 
before  the  French  agricultural  classes  could  be  put 
in  the  way  of  the  largest  prosperity.  By  it  the 
French  people  were  guaranteed  for  the  first  time 
a  universal  status  of  personal  legal  freedom.  The 
liberation  of  technique,  involving  especially  the 
abandonment  of  the  threc-tield  system  and  the 
introduction  of  machinery  and  of  new  methods 
of  cultivation,  came  gradually  and  did  not  reach 
full  fruition  before  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  some  of  its  aspects,  at  least, 
it  was  promoted,  as  well  as  accompanied,  by  a 
development  which  must  be  considered  much  the 
most  important  of  all,  i.  c.,  the  conversion  of 
tenants,  dependent  cultivators,  and  ordinary  la- 
bourers into  independent,  self-sustaining  landhold- 
ers; and  attention  must  first  be  directed  in  some 
detail  to  this  fundamental  matter.  Formerly  it 
was  supposed  that  the  multiplicity  of  small  pro- 
prietorships which  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
rural  France  to-day  was  wholly  a  consequence  of 
the  Revolution.  Research  has  shown  that  this  is 
not  true — that,  on  the  contrary,  the  breaking  up 
of  the  agricultural  lands  of  France  into  little  hold- 
ings was  already  under  way  long  before  1789.  .  .  . 
Throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies impoverished  seigneurs  in  increasing  num- 
bers had  been  obliged  to  sell  land  to  their  tenants; 
while  the  number  of  small  holdings  had  been  in- 
creased steadily  by  the  redemption  of  waste  land 
and  by  the  enclosure  and  division  of  common  land. 
No  reliable  statistics  of  French  landholding  prior 
to  1789  exist.  Arthur  Young,  however,  says  that 
in  1787  a  third  of  the  land  was  tilled  by  peasant 
owners;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution  the  total  number  of  pro- 
prietors was  about  three  millions,  of  whom  three- 
fifths  would  be  classified  to-day  as  small  proprie- 
tors. .  .  .  After  full  allowance  has  been  made  for 
the  growth  of  small  holdings  before  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  fact  remains  that  the  development  was 
much  accelerated  by  the  Revolution  itself.  In  the 
first  place,  the  improvement  of  the  conditions  of 
landholding,  through  the  suppression  of  manorial 
obligations,  stimulated  the  desire  of  larger  num- 
bers of  men  to  become  proprietors.  In  the  second 
place,  the  Revolution  emphasised  the  principle — 
and  Napoleon  sought  to  enforce  it  in  the  Code — 
of  egalitarian  inheritance,  in  accordance  with 
which  the  bulk  of  a  testator's  property  was  re- 
quired to  he  divided  equally  among  all  of  his 
children,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex.  .  .  . 
More  important  than  these  influences,  however, 
was  the  extensive  sale  of  lands  confiscated  from 
the  crown,  from  the  emigres,  and  from  the 
Church.  Through  the  years  1790-1705  large  areas 
were  placed  upon  the  market.  Prices  were  low, 
payment  was  spread  over  a  period  of  twelve  or 
more  years,  a  clear  title  was  given,  and  no  com- 
plicating obligations  were  imposed.  The  law  of 
May  14,  1700.  specifically  enjoined  that  the  lands 
should  be  sold  in  small  portions,  the  large  estates 


being  broken  up  for  the  purpose,  to  the  end  that 
the  number  of  'happy  proprietors'  might  be  in- 
creased. Until  1793,  when  the  practice  was  pro- 
hibited, peasants  frequently  combined  to  purchase 
large  tracts  which  they  forthwith  divided  among 
themselves." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic  development  of 
modern  Europe,  pp.  188-190. 

France:  Land  tenure  in  recent  times.^ — "From 
the  Revolution  to  the  present  day  France  has  re- 
mained a  land  of  numerous  and  small  holdings. 
The  law  of  partible  inheritance  has  been,  however, 
the  theme  of  heated  controversy.  .  .  .  Statistics* 
prepared  in  1862  showed  that  in  that  year  56.29 
per  cent,  of  all  holdings  in  the  country  had  an 
area  of  five  hectares  {a  little  less  than  twelve 
and  one-half  acres)  or  less;  30.47  per  cent.,  an 
area  of  between  five  and  twenty  hectares;  8.47 
per  cent.,  an  area  of  between  twenty  and  forty 
hectares;  and  only  4.77  per  cent.,  an  area  of 
more   than   forty  hectares.  .  .  . 

"At  the  present  day  there  are  somewhat  more 
than  three  million  proprietors  whose  holdings  are 
under  ten  hectares  in  extent,  and  these  holdings 
aggregate  upwards  of  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 
total  arable  area  of  the  country.  The  remainder 
is  owned  by  some  750,000  proprietors — half  of  it 
by  150,000  whose  holdings  exceed  one  hundred 
and  sixty  hectares,  the  other  half  by  600,000  whose 
holdings  fall  between  ten  and  one  hundred  and 
sixty  hectares.  About  eighty  per  cent,  of  all  hold- 
ings to-day  are  cultivated  by  their  owners.  Of 
the  remainder,  thirteen  per  cent,  are  leased  and 
seven  per  cent,  are  worked  under  the  system 
known  as  metayage,  involving  the  division  of  the 
produce,  on  some  designated  percentage  basis. 
between  proprietor  and  cultivator.  The  number 
of  small  holders  continues  to  increase.  .  .  .  The 
French  peasant  still  displays  a  deep  attachment 
for  the  soil.  The  ground  is  not  so  rich  or  well- 
favoured  that  hard  work  is  not  required  for  its 
tillage,  but  it  repays  the  husbandmen's  effort  to 
his  reasonable  satisfaction." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic 
development  of  modern  Europe,  pp.   190-194. 

France:  Century  of  agricultural  development. 
— "While  Great  Britain  was  becoming  distinctly 
an  industrial  and  commercial  nation  and  Ger- 
many, at  a  later  period,  was  tending  strongly  in 
the  same  direction,  France  remained  a  predomi- 
nantly agricultural  country.  And  such  she  still 
is.  .  .  .  Throughout  the  past  hundred  years  ag- 
ricultural progress  has  been  more  steady  and  sub- 
stantial than  in  any  [other]  country  of  Europe, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Belgium  and  Den- 
mark. In  the  Napoleonic  period  Flemish  and 
English  systems  of  crop  rotation  were  introduced 
and  the  cultivation  of  many  products — dyes,  chic- 
ory, flax,  hemp,  and  beet-root — was  begun  or 
extended;  although  it  must  be  added  that  after 
the  restoration  of  normal  trade  relations  in  1814- 
15  some  of  the  newer  forms  of  cultivation  (c  g., 
that  of  beet-root)  which  had  been  undertaken  as 
a  means  of  providing  substitutes  for  commodities 
cut  off  by  the  war  languished.  The  period  181S- 
47  was,  in  general,  a  time  of  rapid  agricultural 
advance  and  of  great  rural  prosperity.  The  coun- 
try was  at  peace  externally,  and  the  people,  al- 
though at  times  agitated  by  political  questions, 
were  in  the  main  profitably  employed  and  con- 
tented. After  1848  advance  was  somewhat  re- 
tarded. The  political  unsettlement  incident  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  Orleanist  monarchy  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Second  Empire,  the  Crimean 
War  and  the  war  with  Austria  in  1859.  outbreaks 
of  the  cholera,  and  the  poor  har\'ests  of  1853  and 
r855  operated,  along  with  other  circumstances, 
to  withdraw  men  from  the  land  and  to  jeopardize 


143 


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United  States 
Beginnings 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


agriculture  interests.  At  no  time  during  the  second 
half  of  the  century  did  these  interests  quite  re- 
gain their  former  prosperity.  After  i860,  how- 
ever, the  reclamation  of  waste  land  set  in  upon 
a  large  scale,  and  likewise  the  introduction  of 
agricultural  machinery.  .  .  .  Scientific  methods  of 
rotation,  soil-preparation,  and  fertilization  were 
introduced,  and  between  1818  and  i88q  the  aver- 
age yield  of  wheat  per  acre  was  raised  from  eleven 
to  seventeen  and  one-half  bushels,  and  between 
1S25  and  1S75  that  of  barley  was  increased  by 
•eight  bushels,  ajid  that  of  oats  by  ten  bushels. 
...  In  the  matter  of  foodstuffs  France  today  is 
practically  self-supporting,  and  her  exports  of  ag- 
ricultural products  are  extensive.  A  main  char- 
acteristic of  the  agriculture  of  the  country  is  the 
diversity  of  its  products.  Wheat  and  wine  are 
the  staples,  but  there  is  a  heavy  output  of  rye, 
barley,  buckwheat,  oats,  maize,  fruits  and  dairy 
produce.  Almost  one-third  of  the  cultivated  land 
is  devoted  to  cereals.  ...  Of  a  total  of  105,000 
square  miles  of  arable  land,  171,000  square  miles, 
or  eighty-eight  per  cent.,  are  steadily  under  cul- 
tivation."— F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic  development  of 
modern  Europe,  pp.  i88-iq4. 

"The  agricultural  interests  in  France  receive  the 
assistance  of  the  government  mainly  through  the 
imposition  of  duties  on  imported  agricultural 
commodities,  a  policy  which  reached  its  culmina- 
tion in  the  decade  1881-1800  and  has  been  en- 
forced to  this  day  bj'  successive  tariff  legislation. 
The  Ministry  of  Agriculture  maintained  by  the 
state  is  a  thoroughly  modern  and  well-equipped 
institution,  with  an  advisory  council  of  politicians 
and  agricultural  experts,  and  a  body  of  inspectors 
who  travel  ov-er  the  country  and  indicate  direc- 
tions for  state  assistance  to  the  farmer.  One  of 
the  most  important  respects  in  which  agriculture 
has  been  liberated  by  the  state  is  the  freedom  of 
association,  which  was  not  granted  in  France  until 
1884.  Before  that  time,  agricultural  societies  were 
mainly  of  a  scientific  nature,  although  quite 
among  the  best  of  their  kind  in  Europe.  The 
great  need  for  and  impulse  toward  association  is 
shown  by  the  rapid  growth  of  agricultural  so- 
cieties, of  which  there  were  648  in  1800,  with 
234,234  members,  and  6,178  in  IQ13,  with  q76,i57 
members.  Membership  is  limited  by  region  and 
by  class,  but  there  are  small  unions  of  the  various 
local  societies  as  well  as  the  Union  Centrale  des 
Syndicats  Agricoles,  an  association  of  about  2500 
of  the  local  societies.  The  purpose  of  these  or- 
ganizations is  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  ag- 
ricultural class  through  governmental  interposi- 
tion, through  instruction  of  the  farmer  in  the  bet- 
terment of  his  own  situation,  and  through  secur- 
ing the  benefits  of  cooperation.":— /hjrf. — See  also 
AcRictiLnTRF.:  Modern  period:  General  survey; 
Cooperation:   France. 

France:  1914-1918. — Damages  from  war.  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  XI. 
Devastation,  b,  2. 

France:  1918. — Reconstruction  work  follow- 
ing war.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary 
services:   XII.  Reconstruction,  a,  4. 

Germany:  19th-20th  centuries. — Agricultural 
development.     See  above  under  General  survey. 

Germany:  Food  policy  during  the  World 
War.  See  Food  reguxation:  iqi4-iqi8:  German 
food   policy. 

Germany:  Illicit  trade  during  World  War. 
See   Food  regulation:    iqi4-iqi8:    Rationing. 

India.    See  India:  Agriculture. 

Japan.     See  Japan:  Agriculture. 

Korea.    See  Korea:  Agriculture. 

Mexico.     See  Latin- America:   Agriculture. 


Poland.  See  Poland:  iq2i. 
Russia.  See  Russia:  igoq;  1916:  Condition  of 
peasantry;  1917-1920;  Land  distribution  by  the 
Bolsheviki. — See  also  Baltic  provinces:  1920. 
Siam.  See  Siam;  Agriculture. 
South  America.  See  Latin- America  :  Agricul- 
ture. 
Spain:  Canal  irrigation.  See  Spain:  1759-1788. 
United  States:  Beginnings  of  American  ag- 
riculture.— "The  agricultural  as  well  as  the  polit- 
ical history  of  the  United  States  is  divided  into 
two  eras.  The  first  is  the  colonial  era,  lasting 
from  1607  to  1770.  The  second  is  the  era  of 
national  development,  lasting  from  1776  to  the 
present  time.  This  era  of  national  development, 
ho%vever,  is  divisible  into  four  distinct  periods; 
first,  from  1776  to  1833;  second,  from  1833  to 
1864;  third,  from  1864  to  1888;  fourth,  from  1888 
to  the  present  time.  The  first  era,  being  con- 
temporaneous with  the  colonial  era  of  our  politi- 
cal history,  may  be  called  the  era  of  establish- 
ment. It  was  the  time  during  which  the  colonists 
transplanted  European  methods  of  agriculture  to 
American  soil  and  readaptcd  them  to  the  new  con- 
ditions. This  readaptation  consisted  in  learning 
how  to  live  a  wilderness  life,  and  to  clear  wild 
land  of  trees,  stumps,  and  stones.  It  consisted 
also  in  learning  by  experiment  what  crops  were 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  what  methods 
of  cultivation  were  best  calculated  to  insure  satis- 
factory returns.  The  first  European  settlers  in 
America  .  .  .  learned  many  of  their  first  and,  as 
it  proved,  most  valuable  lessons  directly  from  the 
Indians.  .  .  .  They  taught  our  ancestors  how  to 
grow  two  crops  which  were  destined  to  play  a 
large  part  in  our  national  economy.  The.se  crops 
were  tobacco  and  Indian  corn,  or  maize.  The 
former  was  the  most  important  money  crop  in 
the  southern  colonies  during  the  entire  colonial 
period,  and  remained  in  the  lead  until  1801,  when 
it  was  outstripped  by  cotton.  During  our  entire 
history  corn  has  been  the  leading  agricultural  prod- 
uct of  the  country  as  a  whole,  and  still  retains 
that  position  with  no  other  crop  even,  a  close 
second.  The  history  of  land  tenure  in  colonial 
times  was  one  that  was  natural  to  the  circum- 
stances of  a  new  country,  sparsely  settled  under 
conditions  of  great  hardship.  In  the  first  place, 
all  titles  were  derived  ultimately  from  the  British 
Crown,  which  made  grants  to  various  companies, 
which  in  turn  made  grants  to  individuals.  This 
was  true  of  Virginia,  after  a  period  of  unsuccess- 
ful communal  ownership,  but  in  New  England  the 
system  was  somewhat  different.  There  grants  were 
made  to  groups  of  individuals  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  settlement  or  town.  The  middle 
colonies  had  several  forms  of  land  tenure — New 
York  under  the  Dutch  having  the  semi-feudal 
patroon  system,  while  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey 
and  Delaware  were  under  the  proprietary  system, 
upon  which  their  government  was  based.  It  was 
not  many  years  after  settlement  that  speculation, 
which  has  been  a  characteristic  of  American  ex- 
pansion westward  almost  up  to  our  own  time, 
became  a  common  practice.  In  colonial  times  it 
took  this  form: — that  an  individual  or  a  group 
of  persons  would  obtatin  a  grant  for  a  large  tract 
of  land,  organize  settlers  on  part  of  it,  and  hold 
the  remainder  of  the  tract  until  a  high  price  could 
be  demanded  for  it.  While  the  early  colonists 
learned  their  first  lessons  in  successful  agriculture 
from  the  Indians,  and  began  growing  corn  or  to- 
bacco after  the  manner  of  their  teachers,  they 
were  naturally  unwilling  to  follow  the  Indian  type 
of  agriculture  exclusively.  Accordingly  a  great 
many  experiments  were  tried.     In  Virginia  especi- 


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1776-1833 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


ally  these  experiments  were  numerous.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  develop  the  silk  industry  be- 
cause mulberry  trees  were  found  growing  wild, 
and  to  develop  grape  culture  and  wine  making  be- 
cause wild  grapes  were  found;  and  attempts  were 
also  made  to  grow  the  fig,  the  olive,  and  other 
semi-tropical  fruits.  .  .  .  But  after  all  their  ex- 
perimenting the  Southern  colonists  fell  back  upon 
corn  and  tobacco  as  their  leading  field  crops, 
though  European  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits 
were  also  introduced.  Indigo  and  rice  also  be- 
came important  crops  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  In  the  middle  colonies  wheat  became  the 
staple  crop,  though  corn  was  always  grown,  and 
European  fruits  and  vegetables  were  cultivated  in 
considerable  quantities.  There  grew  up  a  consider- 
able export  trade  in  wheat  to  the  West  Indies. 
In  New  England  there  were  no  great  staple  crops 
produced  for  export.  Farming  was  of  a  more 
general  sort,  and  products  were  grown  mainly  for 
the   local   markets. 

"One  of  the  most  interesting  phases  of  our 
colonial  agricultural  history  is  the  live  stock  in- 
dustry. All  the  domestic  animals  and  fowls  now 
grown  in  the  United  States,  except  the  turkey, 
were  first  brought  from  Europe.  Everywhere  the 
hog  flourished,  running  half  wild  in  the  woods, 
living  upon  mast  and  roots,  and  multiplying  rap- 
idly in  spite  of  the  depredations  of  wolves,  bears 
and  marauding  Indians.  Early  in  our  colonial  era 
Virginia  hams  and  bacon  acquired  high  reputa- 
tion. Goats  flourished  also,  being  better  able  than 
sheep  to  protect  themselves  against  wolves.  Later, 
however,  as  the  country  became  more  settled, 
sheep  displaced  goats  as  a  form  of  live  stock. 
Sheep  were  grown  in  all  the  colonies  where  condi- 
tions were  sufficiently  settled  to  furnish  protec- 
tion from  wolves.  Cattle  were  naturally  better 
fitted  than  sheep  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
savage  denizens  of  the  woods,  and  have  been  bred 
in  considerable  numbers  on  the  frontier  ever  since 
the  earliest  settlement.  In  Virginia  and  the  Caro- 
linas  a  flourishing  cattle  business,  resembling  mod- 
ern cattle  ranching,  grew  up.  .  .  .  The  first  [Euro- 
pean animals]  to  reach  the  New  World  were 
brought  by  Columbus  to  the  West  Indies  on  his 
second  voyage  in  1403.  Horses,  cattle,  hogs,  goats, 
sheep,  asses,  chickens,  ducks,  and  geese  were  known 
to  have  been  brought  at  that  time.  During  the 
colonial  period  there  was  considerable  trade  be- 
tween our  own  colonies  and  the  West  Indies,  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  specimens  of  all  these 
Spanish  varieties  may  have  found  their  way  to 
our  shore.  This  is  known  to  have  been  the  case 
with  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep.  Dutch  cattle 
were  brought  to  New  York  and  Danish  cattle  to 
New  Hampshire.  In  general,  however,  our  farm 
animals  came  from  the  British  Isles." — T.  N 
Carver,  Principles   of  rural   economics,   pp.   63-72. 

United  States:  1776-1833. — National  develop- 
ment.— Public  land  policy. — Cotton  industry. — 
Westward  migration. — Live  stock. — "The  War 
of  Independence  marks  an  era  in  our  agricul- 
tural as  well  as  in  our  political  history.  Shortly 
after  this  event  a  series  of  epoch-making  changes 
began  in  agriculture.  In  the  first  place,  the  fron- 
tier moved  rapidly  westward  into  the  great  in- 
terior valley.  The  life  of  the  pioneers  on  our 
frontier,  wherever  that  frontier  may  happen  to 
have  been,  has  always  retained  certain  of  the 
essential  features  which  it  possessed  in  the  colonial 
era.  The  next  great  epoch-making  event  was  the 
establishment  of  the  public-land  policy  of  the 
federal  government.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion the  land  was  all  regarded  as  the  property  of 
the  various  states.    By  a  series  of  acts  the  greater 


part  of  the  unoccupied  or  unsold  lands  were  ceded 
to  the  central  government,  which  then  began  to 
devise  plans  for  their  sale  to  private  individuals. 
No  other  poUcy  than  that  of  turning  the  public 
domain  as  rapidly  as  possible  into  private  prop- 
erty for  individual  farmers  ever  seems  to  have 
been  seriously  considered.  At  first  the  policy  was 
to  sell  the  lands  for  the  benefit  of  the  national 
Treasury  and  the  extinction  of  the  national  debt. 
By  a  scries  of  changes  the  financial  motive  was 
abandoned  altogether,  and  a  policy  was  adopted 
which  aimed  to  put  the  land  in  the  hands  of  ac- 
tual settlers  without  any  direct  profit  to  the 
national   Treasury   whatever.  .  .  . 

"The  next  epochal  change  in  the  agricultural 
history  of  this  period  was  the  rise  of  cotton  to 
the  first  place  among  Southern  products.  During 
the  colonial  era,  and  down  to  1803,  tobacco  held 
first  place,  but  at  this  date  cotton  began  to  out- 
strip it  and  soon  left  it  far  behind.  This  rise  of 
cotton  to  a  position  of  predominance  came  about 
as  a  result  of  several  factors  working  together. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  had  been  a  remarkable  series  of  inventions, 
mainly  in  England,  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 
These  had  greatly  increased  the  demand  for 
cotton  on  the  markets  of  the  world.  In  1786  the 
long-staple  or  sea-island  cotton  was  introduced 
and  proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  low  lands 
of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  But  more  im- 
portant than  all  other  factors  was  the  invention 
of  the  saw  gin  in  1703.  This  was  the  first  suc- 
cessful device  for  separating  the  seed  from  the 
short-staple  or  upland  cotton.  This  is  the  kind 
of  cotton  from  which  the  great  bulk  of  the  cotton 
fabrics  of  the  world  are  manufactured,  and  the 
saw  gin  made  its  production  profitable  in  this 
country  where  labor  was  scarce  and  land  abun- 
dant. One  of  the  unpleasant  results  of  this  rise 
of  the  cotton  industry,  however,  was  to  give  slav- 
ery a  new  lease  of  life.  .  .  .  The  almost  complete 
exclusion  of  white  labor  from  cotton  growing  was 
by  far  the  most  importont  effect  of  slavery  upon 
.American  agriculture.  Three  other  effects  are 
commonly  attributed  to  it.  First,  it  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  process  of  'land  killing,'  by 
which  is  meant  the  practice  of  growing  a  few 
crops  from  a  piece  of  land  until  its  original  virgin 
fertility  was  partially  exhausted  and  then  aban- 
doning it  for  a  new  and  unexhausted  tract.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  this  practice  was  due 
more  to  slavery  than  to  the  presence  of  indefinite 
supplies  of  new  land.  .  .  .  Second,  slavery  tended 
to  concentrate  cotton  growing  in  large  plantations 
worked  by  gangs  of  slaves  under  supervision.  .  .  . 
Third,  the  tools  and  implements  used  in  Southern 
agriculture  remained  crude  and  heavy  long  after 
improvements  had  been  introduced  in  the  North. 
Tobacco,  live  stock,  and  general  farming  con- 
tinued in  the  northern  belt  of  slave  states,  that 
is,  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  Missouri;  but  through  the 
institution  of  slavery  these  found  their  interests 
to  be  with  the  cotton  states  to  the  south  of  them 
rather  than  with  the  free  states  of  the  North.  The 
cotton  states  furnished  a  market  for  slaves  and 
also  for  the  horses,  mules,  cattle,  hogs,  hay,  and 
grain  produced  by  these  border  states.  .  .  .  [See 
Maryland:    1660-1776.] 

"The  opening  up  of  the  Northwest  Territory 
under  the  ordinances  of  1785  and  1787  stimulated 
a  rapid  migration  westward  to  this  new  territory. 
Inasmuch  as  the  government  at  this  period  sold 
land  to  speculators  as  well  as  to  settlers,  this 
westward  migration  was  made  up  of  very  diverse 
elements,  though  then,  as  well  as  later,  the  home 


145 


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1833-1860 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


seeker  predominated.  The  land  sought  during  this 
early  period  all  lay  in  the  continuous  stretch  of 
forest  which  extended  westward  from  the  coast 
to  the  present  state  of  Indiana.  Therefore  the 
pioneering  of  this  period  differed,  in  some  re- 
spects, from  that  which  we  have  known  later  in 
the  prairie  states,  though  resembling  that  of  the 
colonial  period  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  After 
locating  his  land  and  building  a  shelter,  the  first 
task  of  the  settler  was  to  clear  his  land  of  timber. 
The  work  of  destroying  the  forest  was  prosecuted 
with  such  vigor  and  ingenuity  as  have  probably 
never  been  equaled  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

"There  were  few  changes  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments until  after  1833.  The  plow  and  harrow 
were  almost  the  only  tools  not  driven  by  human 
muscle.  The  wooden  plow  with  an  iron  share  was 
still  in  use,  through  sometimes  the  wooden  mold- 
board  was  protected  b.\-  .strips  of  iron.  In  1798 
Thomas  Jefferson  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  proper 
form  of  a  moldboard  of  a  plow.  A  year  earlier 
Charles  Newbold  of  New  Jersey  had  invented  a 
cast-iron  plow  having  the  share,  moldboard,  and 
land  side  all  in  one  piece.  It  did  not  come  into 
general  use  at  once  because  some  one  invented  the 
absurd  doctrine,  which  farmers  seem  to  have  be- 
lieved, that  the  cast-iron  plow  poisoned  the  land 
so  that  crops  would  not  grow.  Jethro  Wood  of 
New  York,  a  correspondent  of  Jefferson,  took 
out  patents  for  cast-iron  plows  in  1814  and  1810. 
He  had  designed  a  moldboard  resembling  some- 
what those  now  in  use.  Though  there  were  few 
significant  inventionsi  of  agricultural  implements 
during  the  period  from  1776  to  1833,  there  was 
the  beginning  of  an  interest  in  agricultural  im- 
provement which  promised  well  for  the  future. 
Agricultural  societies  were  founded  in  South  Caro- 
lina in  1784,  in  Pennsylvania  in  1785,  in  New 
York  in  1701,  in  Massachusetts  in  1792.  In  18 10 
an  exhibition  of  agricultural  products  was  held  in 
Georgetown,  D.  C,  and  another  in  Pittsfield, 
Massachusetts.  In  1816  a  somewhat  larger  ex- 
hibition was  held  in  Brighton,  Massachusetts. 
These  were  the  forerunners  of  the  agricultural  fairs 
which  have  since  had  such  a  large  development. 
During  this  period  there  were  new  importations 
of  improved  live  stock,  particularly  Shorthorn 
and  Hereford  cattle,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts, 
and  New  York  taking  the  lead.  .  .  .  One  of  the 
most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  .Ameri- 
can husbandry  relates  to  the  general  introduction 
of  the  Merino  sheep.  The  first  animals  of  this 
breed  were  imported  in  1773,  but  the  industry 
was  not  yet  in  a  flourishing  condition.  With  the 
restrictions  upon  trade  growing  out  of  the  Na- 
poleonic disturbances  in  Europe,  there  grew  up  a 
necessity  for  a  domestic  supply  of  wool.  At  the 
same  time  the  Peninsular  War  created  such  con- 
ditions in  Spain  that  the  herds  of  Merinos,  which 
up  to  that  time  had  been  guarded  as  a  quasi- 
national  monopoly,  were  broken  up  and  offered 
for  sale.  Enterprising  American  farmers  began 
buying  them,  and  by  iSoo  there  were  said  to  be 
5000  in  the  country.  The  price  of  Merino  wool 
soared,  and  the  prices  of  sheep  soared  still  higher. 
There  grew  up  a  speculative  craze  in  Merinos, 
and  some  fabulous  prices  were  paid.  Hogs  have 
always  been  an  important  agricultural  product  in 
the  United  States.  The  earliest  settlers  in  all  the 
co-'l^tTO.had  found  hogs  very  adaptable,  multi- 
plyflur'Tapidly  and  flourishing  on  the  food  found 
in  the  forest.  .  .  .  During  the  period  we  are  now 
studying,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee 
were  the  principal  hog-growing  states,  and  Cin- 
cinnati, the  center  of  this  region,  soon  became 
famous  as  the  center  of  a  large  pork-packing  in- 


dustry, a  position  which  she  held  until  surpassed 
by  Chicago  many  years  later.  In  1805  fat  cattle 
began  to  be  driven  across  the  .Alleghcnies  to  the 
eastern  seaport  cities,  but  a  good  part  of  the 
produce  of  the  Ohio  valley  found  its  way  south- 
ward, first  to  New  Orleans  and  later  to  supply 
the  cotton  states.  In  1825  the  Erie  Canal,  con- 
necting the  Great  Lakes  with  the  .\tlantic,  was 
opened.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  out- 
let for  the  products  of  the  great  interior,  es- 
pecially the  northern  belt  of  that  interior.  Wheat 
became  the  leading  export  from  the  Northwest, 
but  corn,  beef,  and  pork  remained  the  leading 
products  of  the  Ohio  River  region." — T.  N.  Car- 
ver, Principles  of  rural  ecomimics,  pp.  74-84. 

United  States:  1833-1860.— Transformation.— 
Cattle  raising. — "Beginning  with  1833;  there  oc- 
curred on  American  soil  during  the  next  lhirt\' 
years  one  of  the  most  remarkable  agricultural 
transformations  ever  known  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  In  1S33  practically  all  the  work  of  the 
farm  e.xcept  plowing  and  harrowing  was  done  by 
hand.  Though  there  had  been  minor  improve- 
ments in  hand  tools,  and  considerable  improve- 
ment in  livestock  and  crops,  particularly  in 
Europe,  yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that  so  far  as  the 
general  character  of  the  work  actually  performed 
by  the  farmer  was  concerned,  there  had  been 
practically  no  change  for  4000  years.  Small  grain 
was  still  sown  broadcast,  and  reaped  either  with  a 
cradle  or  the  still  more  primitive  sickle.  The 
cradle,  however,  was  a  relatively  new  invention, 
being  a  modification  of  the  scythe,  which  had  been 
used  for  centuries  in  mowing  grass.  The  addition 
of  the  frame  and  'fingers'  to  the  old-fashioned 
scythe,  together  with  a  few  changes  in  the  handle 
to  restore  the  balance,  made  it  into  a  so-called 
cradle  and  adapted  it  to  the  reaping  of  grain 
But  the  sickle  or  reaping  hook  had  been  in  use 
for  thousands  of  years.  ...  It  is  still  in  use  in 
oriental  countries  and  in  some  parts  of  Europe 
Grain  was  still  threshed  with  a  flail  in  1833,  or 
trodden  out  by  horses  and  oxen,  as  it  had  been  in 
ancient  Egypt  or  Babylonia.  Hay  was  mown  with 
a  scythe  and  raked  and  pitched  by  hand.  Corn 
was  planted  and  covered  b_\'  hand  and  cultivated 
with  a  hoe.  By  1806  every  one  of  these  opera- 
tions U'as  done  by  macliinery  driven  by  horse 
power,  except  in  the  more  backward  sections  of 
the  country.  The  increased  use  of  farm  machin- 
ery also  helped  the  horse  to  displace  the  ox  as  a 
draft  animal,  the  former  being  much  better  suited 
than  the  latter  to  the  drawing  of  these  improved 
implements.  .  .  .  The  transformation  which  took 
place  in  the  agriculture  of  the  North  was  due  to 
several  causes,  any  one  of  which  might  be  called 
epoch  making.  The  first  was  the  railroad.  At 
the  beginning  of  this  period  there  were  none.  By 
i860  there  were  30,000  miles  in  operation  and 
they  had  penetrated  every  state  east  of  the  Mis- 
souri River.  While  the  markets  of  the  world  were 
brought  nearer  to  the  Western  farms  by  the  build- 
ing of  the  railroads,  the  markets  themselves  were 
growing  larger.  The  building  of  the  factory  towns 
of  New  England  called  for  larger  supplies  of  food. 
In  1846  the  English  Corn  Laws  were  repealed, 
though  the  repeal  did  not  go  into  effect  until 
1840,  when  American  foodstuffs  began  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  that  country  free  of  duty.  The  great 
Irish  potato  famine  began  in  1846.  The  continent 
of  Europe  was  disturbed  by  the  revolutions  of 
1848  and  by  the  Crimean  War  of  1854,  .  .  .  An- 
other set  of  causes  was  at  work  in  the  form  of  a 
more  liberal  land  policv.  .  .  .  Another  factor  of 
great  importance  was  the  development  of  prairie 
farming.    At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  van- 


146 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


Unifed  States 
1833-1860 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


guard  of  the  westward-movinR  army  of  settlers 
was  just  emerging  from  the  great  primeval  forest, 
which  covered  the  entire  eastern  third  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  was  beginning  to  settle  in  the  great 
natural  meadows  of  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley. 
In  this  new  region  the  settler  was  saved  the  enor- 
mous task  of  clearing  his  land  of  timber.  .  .  . 
But  the  most  important  factor  of  all  was  the  series 
of  inventions  of  agricultural  machinery  by  means 
of  which  horse  power  was  substituted  for  human 
muscles  as  a  motor  force.  In  1831  William  Man- 
ning of  New  Jersey  was  granted  a  patent  for  a 
mowing  machine.  In  1833  and  1S34  Obed  Hussey 
of  Baltimore  and  Cyrus  McCormick  were  each 
granted  patents  for  reaping  machines.  After  1840, 
when  these  machines  had  been  improved  and  their 
practicability  demonstrated,  they  began  to  come 
into  general  use.  About  the  same  time  the  thresh- 
ing machine  began  to  be  widely  used,  and  very 
soon  displaced  the  old  primitive  methods.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  about  1850  that  the  'thresher' 
and  the  'separator,'  that  is,  the  machine  for  beat- 
ing out  the  grain  and  the  machine  for  separating  it 


only  those  sections  suitable  for  dairying,  stock 
raising,  and  market  gardening  continued  to  pros- 
per. The  competition  of  the  Eastern  farmer  with 
the  farmer  of  the  Western  prairies  might  have 
been  foreseen  to  be  a  helpless  one.  .  .  .  Sometimes 
it  was  not  even  necessary  to  plow  the  prairie  land 
before  the  crop  could  be  raised.  Furrows  were 
plowed  across  the  sod  and  the  corn  was  planted 
in  the  bottom  of  these  and  covered  with  a  hoe. 
The  soil  was  so  very  rich  and  there  were  so  few 
pests  that  a  fair  crop  could  be  grown  the  first 
year  with  practically  no  cultivation.  Another 
method  of  growing  the  tirst  crop,  however,  was 
to  plow  the  land  and  plant  the  corn  in  the  up- 
turned sod  by  means  of  an  ax  or  mattock.  ...  It 
was  the  smoothness  of  this  prairie  land  as  much 
as  anything  else  which  led  to  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  farm  machinery  during  this  period  when 
the  prairie  states  were  being  settled.  When  these 
states  began  to  be  cultivated  by  means  of  ef- 
fective modern  machinery,  and  when  the  railroads 
began  to  transport  the  products  of  these  states  to 
the  eastern  seaboard,  it  became  impossible  for  the 


COMBINED   RKAPER   ANO   THRESHER.    DRAWN    BV   A  TR^VCTOR 


from  the  straw  and  chaff,  were  combined.  These 
machines  were  usually  run  by  horse  power,  though 
a  steam  thresher  was  beginning  to  be  used  before 
1864.  John  Deere  made  his  first  steel  plow  from 
an  old  saw  blade  in  1837.  Scarcely  less  important 
than  the  mower,  the  reaper,  and  the  thresher  were 
the  corn  planter  and  the  two-horse  cultivator, 
which  came  into  use  during  this  period.  (See  also 
Inventions:  igth  century:  Reapers.]  .  .  .  Every 
part  of  the  work  of  growing  corn,  except  that  of 
husking  the  crop,  was  done  by  horse  power  be- 
fore 1864,  e.xcept  in  certain  sections  where  corn 
is  a  minor  crop.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  corn 
is  and  always  has  been  our  principal  crop,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  grain-harvesting  machinery 
effected  a  greater  saving  of  labor  than  did  these 
improvements  in  the  implements  for  corn  produc- 
tion, by  means  of  which  horse  power  was  sub- 
stituted for  man  power.  ...  It  was  during  this 
period  also,  and  as  a  result  of  the  changes  already 
described,  that  the  agricultural  decHne  in  New 
England  began.  As  early  as  1S40  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  hill  farms  began  to  attract  attention. 
General  farming  on  these  rocky  hills  in  compe- 
tition with  the  prairie  farms  and  machine  culti- 
vation of   the  West  was  no  longer  possible,  and 


farmer  on  the  hilly  lands  of  the  Appalachian  slopes 
to  hold  his  own  in  competition  with  them." — T. 
N.  Carver,  Principles  of  rural  economics,  pp.  84-00. 
"During  the  period  now  under  discussion  the 
cattle  industry  in  the  Far  West  underwent  a  most 
interesting  and  spectacular  development.  Cattle 
ranching  has  always  been  associated  with  our  fron- 
tier life,  particularly  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas. 
After  the  acquisition  of  Texas  the  American  cattle- 
man who  had  already  penetrated  that  Territory 
took  over  the  ranching  business  and  reorganized  it. 
The  descendants  of  the  Spanish  cattle  brought 
over  by  Cortes  and  his  followers  had  multiplied 
rapidly  in  the  mild  climate  of  Mc^iico,  which  then 
included  Texas,  where  they  had  run  wild  for  more 
than  two  hundred  years.  .  .  .  Under  American 
dominion,  however,  American  cattlemen  made  vari- 
ous attempts  to  open  up  a  market  for  Texas  beef. 
As  early  as  1857  a  few  Texas  cattle  were  driven  to 
the  cornfields  of  Illinois,  but  they  did  not  become 
popular.  During  the  Civil  War  the  outlet  for 
Texas  cattle  was  cut  off  and  yet  the  cattle  con- 
tinued to  multiply.  Consequently  the  ranges  were 
ready  to  swarm  in  the  late  sixties.  The  quality  of 
the  grass  in  the  northern  plains  is  somewhat  better 
than   that   in   the   Texas   ranges,   and  it   was   dis- 


147 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


United   States 
1860-1888 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


covered  that  the  Texas  cattle  gained  in  weight  more 
rapidly  in  the  north  than  on  their  native  ground. 
.  .  .  From  1870  to  the  close  of  the  period  we  are 
now  considering,  the  great  cattle  trail  was  pretty 
well  marked  as  the  route  over  which  vast  num- 
bers of  cattle  drifted  north  from  the  great  breed- 
ing grounds  of  Texas.  The  migrating  cattle  were 
mainly  young  steers,  besides  some  heifers  taken 
north  for  the  stocking  of  the  northern  ranges. 
Inasmuch  as  cattle  seemed  to  multiply  more  rap- 
idly in  Texas,  because  apparently  cows  were  more 
prolific  in  the  milder  climate  of  that  state,  and 
inasmuch  as  young  cattle  grew  more  rapidly  after 
being  moved  north,  a  territorial  division  of  labor 
grew  up.  The  ranches  of  the  south  supplied  the 
young  and  immature  cattle,  and  those  of  the  north 
matured  them  and  prepared  them  for  beef.  .  .  . 
After  1885  the  importance  of  the  great  cattle  trail 
began  to  decline.  The  westward  advance  of  the 
line  of  settlements  tended  to  cut  off  this  line  of 
march,  but  the  chief  factor  of  the  decline  was  the 
competition  of  the  railroads,  which  were  built  into 
the  heart  of  the  cattle  country  and  which  trans- 


row  and  planting  the  corn  in  the  bottom  by  means 
of  an  automatic  seeder.  .  .  .  This  method  of 
planting  .  .  .  has  certain  advantages,  chief  of 
which  is  that  the  deeper  planting  of  the  seed  en- 
ables the  crop  to  withstand  drouth  somewhat  more 
successfully  than  does  the  shallower  planting  prac- 
ticed farther  east.  Though  the  expansion  of  agri- 
culture during  the  period  immediately  preceding 
the  Civil  War  had  been  marvelously  rapid,  it  was 
even  more  rapid  during  the  period  immediately 
following.  The  Civil  War  scarcely  imposed  even 
a  temporary  check  upon  the  development  of  agri- 
culture in  the  North,  though  it  completely  dis- 
organized the  cotton  industry  of  the  South  and 
involved  it  in  temporary  ruin.  [See  also  North 
Carolina;  1870-1892.]  During  the  preceding 
period  agriculture  had  .  .  .  passed  into  the  com- 
mercial stage,  where  farmers  were  living  upon  the 
profits  of  farming  rather  than  on  the  products  of 
the  farm  itself,  and  it  was  now  ready  to  respond  to 
the  new  opportunities  .  .  .  created  by  the  railroads, 
the  inventions  of  farm  machinery,  the  opening 
of  the  prairie  states,  and  the  development  of  the 


VVALLli.    1K.'VC1\)K    rl  l.LliNl,   (.ASK   DISC    I'LOW    A.M)   HARROW 


ported  the  cattle  more  quickly  and  almost  as 
cheaply  as  they  could  be  driven  overland." — 
T.  N.  Carver,  Principles  of  rural  economics,  pp. 
101-104. 

United  States:  1860-1888.^Expansion  after 
the  Civil  War. — "The  invention  of  the  twine 
binder,  by  increasin.;  the  amount  which  a  farmer 
could  harvest,  increased  .  .  .  the  quantity  which 
he  could  profitably  grow.  In  other  words,  it  was 
the  twine  binder  more  than  any  other  single  ma- 
chine or  implement  that  enabled  the  country  to 
increase  its  production  of  grain,  especially  wheat, 
during  this  period.  .  .  .  Among  the  improved 
articles  of  machinery  used  in  growing  corn  was 
the  'check  rower.'  This  device  attached  to  a 
corn  planter  enabled  one  man  to  do  work  which 
had  formerly  required  two.  It  automatically 
drops  the  seed  in  rows  running  across  the  field  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  planter 
is  being  driven,  thus  planting  the  rows  in  two 
directions  and  permitting  of  cross  cultivation.  In 
the  somewhat  drier  regions  west  of  the  Missouri 
corn  came  to  be  planted  by  means  of  the  'lister,' — 
a  double-moldboard   plow,   throwing   a   deep   fur- 


county  fairs  There  followed,  therefore,  such  an 
expansion  of  agricultural  enterprise  as  the  world 
had  never  seen  before,  so  far  as  we  have  any  record, 
and  such  as  it  may  never  see  again.  The  chief 
factors  in  stimulating  this  remarkable  expension 
were  the  Homestead  Laws  of  1862  and  1864,  the 
disbanding  of  the  armies,  the  invention  of  the 
twine  binder,  the  roller  process  of  manufacturing 
flour,  the  building  of  the  transcontinental  rail- 
roads, the  permeation  of  every  nook  and  corner  of 
the  Mississippi  \allcy  by  the  so-called  'granger 
roads,'  and  the  development  of  the  immense  cattle 
ranches  of  the  Far  West.  [See  U,  S.  A  :  1866-1877.] 
While  this  tremendous  expansion  was  going  on  in 
the  North  and  West  the  cotton  industry  was  under- 
going a  complete  transformation  in  the  South  and 
getting  ready  for  the  expansion  ...  to  come  later. 
This  transformation  .  .  .  was  made  necessary  by 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  Durine  the  next  decade, 
however,  that  is,  from  1870  to  1880,  over  207,000 
square  miles,  a  territory  equal  in  extent  to  Great 
Britain  and  France  combined,  were  added  to  the 
cultivated  area  of  the  United  States.  This  in- 
crease in   the  cultivated   area   was   due  partly   to 


148 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


United   States 
1880-1916 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


the  increased  effectiveness  of  labor  when  it  was 
equipped  with  the  improved  machinery  which  had 
come  into  use,  partly  to  the  westward  migration 
of  our  native  population,  and  partly  to  the  enor- 
mous immigration  of  that  decade.  .  .  . 

"The  following  figures  from  the  United  States 
census  will  show  the  increase  in  the  principal  grain 
crops  since  the  census  of  1840. 

Corn  Wheat  Oats 

(bushels)  (bushels)      (bushels) 

iSsQ  377,531,875  84,823,272  123,071,341 

1849  592,071,104  100,485,944  146,584,179 

1859  838,792,742  173,104,924  172,643,185 

1869  760,944,549  287,745,626  282,107,157 

1879  i,7S4,59i,676  459.483,137  407.858,999 

1889  2,122,327,547  468,373,968  809,250,666 

1899  2,666,440,279  658,534,252  943,389,375 

I9I9* 2,900,000,000       918,000,000  1,220,000,000 

*  In  round  numbers.      [Last  figures  obtained. — Ed.] 


heaviest  work,  such  as  breaking  the  sod,  the  latter 
seem  to  have  been  preferred.  Since  this  time  oxen 
have  continued  to  be  used  in  small  numbers  and 
in  backward  sections,  but  this  date  may  be  fixed 
upon  as  the  turning  point  in  the  transition  from 
the  ox  to  the  horse  as  the  typical  draft  animal. 
.  .  .  Among  the  more  important  inventions  of 
agricultural  machinery  during  this  period  the 
twine  binder  stands  preeminent." — T.  N.  Carver, 
Principtts  oj  rural  economics,  pp.  92-95.  See  also 
Black  Belt;  U.  S.  A.:   1919. 

United  States:  1880-1916.— New  problems. — 
"Thirty  years  ago  this  country  was  in  ...  a  period 
of  agricultural  depression ;  those  were  'hard  times' 
for  farmers.  .  .  .  Railroads  were  being  built  into 
the  West ;  population  was  advancing  rapidly  upon 
the  new,  rich  soil ;  crops  increased  faster  than  the 
demand  for  the  products;  prices  were  low  and 
falling  lower.  Before  the  year  1900,  a  new  era 
of  prosperity  for  farmers  began,  which  we  still 
enjoy.  The  supply  of  land  ready  for  cultivation 
approached   exhaustion,    and   immigration    poured 


IkRICATION  TRENCHES   IN   SOUTHERN   CALIFORNIA 


"One  result  of  this  enormous  increase  in  our  agri- 
cultural productivity  was  the  increase  in  the  ex- 
portation of  breadstuffs.  This  did  not  begin  on  a 
large  scale  until  after  1S60,  but  after  that  date  it 
increased  by  leaps  and  bounds  until  within  twenty 
years,  that  is,  by  1880,  this  country  had  become 
the  world's  greatest  exporter  of  wheat.  Only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  corn  crop  has  ever  been  ex- 
ported in  the  form  of  corn,  a  greater  part  being  fed 
to  live  stock;  our  exports  of  corn,  therefore,  have 
been  mostly  in  the  form  of  animals  and  animal 
products.  .  .  .  Before  this  period  [1860-1888!  both 
horses  and  o.\en  were  used,  but  for  much  of  the 


in  from  foreign  countries;  hence  population  caught 
up  with  the  production  of  foods,  causing  the 
prices  of  agricultural  products  to  advance.  .  .  . 
In  the  decade  1900-1910,  the  population  of  cities 
increased  three  times  as  fast  as  rural  population. 
The  effect  of  these  new  conditions  is  also  seen  in 
the  increased  value  of  farm  land,  which  more 
than  doubled  the  same  years.  In  1900  the  aver- 
age value  of  a  farm  was  $3,563.  In  1910  this 
value  had  increased  to  $6,444.  These  figures  in- 
clude not  only  the  land  itself,  but  also  the  build- 
ings, machinery,  improvements,  and  stock.  Mr. 
James  Wilson,  who  was  Secretary  of  Agriculture 


149 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


United   States 
JS86-19J0 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


from  1891-1913,  called  attention  to  the  remark- 
able agricultural  advance  of  the  country  during 
that  time.  When  Mr.  Wilson  took  office,  the 
farm  products  of  each  year  were  worth  $4,000,- 
000,000.  When  he  retired  they  were  worth  more 
than  double  that  amount,  $0,500,000,000  being 
the  figure  for  1012.  Only  a  part  of  this  increase 
is  accounted  for  by  larger  crops,  since  there  has 
also  been  a  great  increase  in  the  prices  ol  farm 
products.  Besides  increased  crops  and  greater 
values,  many  other  changes  have  come  about  in 
our  agriculture.  .  .  .  One  of  the  greatest  of  these 
is  seen  in  the  increased  use  of  mixed  farm- 
ing. .  .  .  Where  once  were  seen  wheat  fields,  em- 
bracing thousands  of  acres,  there  now  are  seen 
much  smaller  fields  producing  a  variety  of  grains; 
and  these  are  interspersed  with  orchards,  pastures, 
and  crops  of  clover  and  alfalfa.  (See  South  D.4- 
kota:  1913.]  Where  once  a  crop  failure  meant 
ruin,  we  now  find  the  farmers  secure  from  such 
disaster,  because  their  capital  is  invested  in  a 
dozen  crops  instead  of  one.  The  growth  of  stock 
and  dairy  interests  is  adding  still  greater  security 
to  intelligent  farming.  For  those  who  wish  to 
continue  the  old  methods  of  extensive  farming, 
with  single  crops  and  speculation  in  land  values, 
the  door  to  western  Canada  is  wide  open,  and 
thousands  of  farmers  from  the  Middle  States  have 
gone  there.  .  .  .  Fruit  growing  (see  also  Califor- 
nia: 1900)  is  a  phase  of  agriculture  that  de- 
serves treatment  by  itself.  The  spread  of  this 
industry  has  been  made  possible,  not  only  by 
scientific  discoveries,  but  also  by  improvements  in 
transportation  and  by  the  use  of  refrigeration. 
Refrigeration  in  the  shipment  of  perishable  crops 
was  first  tried  about  the  year  1866,  the  fruit  being 
packed  with  ice  in  chests.  Soon  afterwards  the 
idea  of  refrigerator  cars  was  worked  out,  and  by 
1872  this  method  had  proved  successful.  Refrig- 
eration made  possible  the  rapid  development  of 
truck  farming — one  of  the  remarkable  features  of 
recent  agriculture.  Truck  farming  on  a  large 
scale  had  its  beginnings  in  the  decade  between 
1840  and  1850,  in  the  region  about  Norfolk,  \'ir- 
ginia.  ...  At  present,  -many  special  districts  in 
the  South  have  been  developed,  where  particular 
crops  are  raised,  such  as  watermelons  in  Georgia, 
and  sweet  potatoes  in  eastern  Maryland.  In  ad- 
dition, all  the  common  vegetables  and  small  fruits 
are  produced  in  immense  quantities  throughout 
the  year  for  Northern  markets.  Consequently, 
dwellers  in  cities  and  the  larger  towns  may  enjoy 
fresh  fruits  and  vegetables  all  through  the  winter 
months.  This  means  much  for  the  general  health 
of  the  people. 

"With  the  changes  in  this  great  era  of  pros- 
perity there  have  come  many  problems.  .  .  .  One 
of  these  is  the  question  of  tenantry.  To-day, 
more  than  one-third  of  our  six  million  farmers 
rent  their  farms  instead  of  owning  them.  In 
1880,  but  one-fourth  were  tenants;  so  the  num- 
ber of  tenants  is  increasing  faster  than  the  num- 
ber of  farmers.  One  reason  for  this  condition  is 
found  in  the  great  rise  of  land  values  within  re- 
cent years.  A  laborer  now  must  have  consider- 
able capital  before  he  can  buy  a  farm ;  so  he  is 
often  obliged  to  become  a  tenant,  if  he  would  be 
a  farmer  at  all.  In  the  Middle  West,  a-  great 
many  farmers  whose  lands  have  become  valuable 
move  to  town  and  live  upon  the  income  received 
from  renting  their  farms.  Besides,  the  increase 
in  land  values  has  caused  many  city  dwellers  to 
purchase  farms,  hoping  to  sell  later  at  a  profit :  in 
the  meantime  thev  rent  their  farms  to  tenants. 
...  A  more  serious  problem  faces  the  .American 
farmer  to-day -that  of  the  scarcity  of  labor     This 


is  one  reason  why  many  farmers  have  preferred 
to  rent  their  farms,  and  why  others  have  sold  out 
and  moved  to  town.  It  is  not  a  new  problem, 
for  back  in  colonial  times  it  was  impossible  to 
keep  farm  hands;  they  went  off  to  get  land  for 
themselves,  and  only  those  who  were  in  compul- 
sory service  (indentured  servants  and  slaves)  could 
be  held  for  any  considerable  time.  But  in  recent 
years  the  problem  has  become  more  acute.  The 
growth  of  cities  has  emphasised  the  differences 
between  rural  and  urban  life.  The  farm  has 
come  to  seem  relatively  less  attractive;  the  growth 
of  manufactures  has  enticed  laborers  from  the 
farms  by  offers  of  higher  wages.  These  are  not 
necessaril>'  bad  signs,  for  the>'  may  represent  the 
striving  of  individuals  for  a  higher  standard  of 
living.  The  conclusion  follows  that,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  supply  of  the  best  farm  laborers^  farm- 
ers must  offer  inducements  that  equal  those  of 
city  life.  In  recent  years  farm  wages  have  risen; 
but  this  is  not  a  complete  remedy.  Social  life  on 
the  farm  must  be  made  more  attractive  if  the 
laborers  are  to  be  held  The  increased  use  ol 
machinery  and  the  keeping  of  fine  stock  call  for 
a  type  of  skilled  laborers  for  farm  work.  This 
demand  will  best  be  met  when  homes  are  pro- 
vided on  farms  where  married  men  may  live  com- 
fortably as  hired  workers.  This  is  the  condition 
under  which  workmen  prove  to  be  most  satisfac- 
tory in  city  employments — why  not  on  the  farm?" 
— .\.  H.  Sanford,  Story  oj  agriculture  in  the  United 
Slates,  pp.  .378-3S3. 

United  States:  1886-1910. — Dry  farming  in 
the  West. — The  Campbell  system. — For  twenty 
consecutive  years,  in  scores  of  places  from  the 
James  river  to  the  .Arkansas,  H.  W.  Campbell,  of 
Lincoln,  Nebraska,  the  pioneer  "dry  farmer"  of  arid 
■America,  "has  been  uniformly  successful  in  pro- 
ducing without  irrigation  the  same  results  that  are 
expected  with  irrigation,  with  comparatively  little 
additional  expense,  but  not  without  a  great  deal 
more  watchfulness  and  labor.  UTiat  Western 
people  have  become  accustomed  to  calling  the 
'Campbell  system  of  dry  farming'  consists  simply 
in  the  exercise  of  intelligence,  care,  patience,  and 
tireless  industry.  It  differs  in  details  from  the 
'good-farming'  methods  practised  and  taught  at  the 
various  agricultural  experiment  stations;  but  the 
underlying  principles   are   the  same. 

"These  principles  are  two  in  number.  First  to 
keep  the  surface  of  the  land  under  cultivation 
loose  and  finely  pulverized.  This  forms  a  soil 
mulch  that  permits  the  rains  and  melting  snows 
to  percolate  readily  through  to  the  compacted 
soil  beneath;  and  that  at  the  same  time  prevents 
the  moisture  stored  in  the  ground  from  being 
brought  to  the  surface  by  capillary  attraction,  to 
be  absorbed  by  the  hot,  dry  air.  The  second  is  to 
keep  the  sub-soil  finely  pulverized  firmly  com- 
pacted, increasing  its  water-holding  capacity  and 
its  capillary  attraction  and  placing  it  in  the  best 
possible  physical  condition  for  the  germination  of 
seed  and  the  development  of  plant  roots.  The 
'dry  farmer'  thus  stores  water  not  in  dams  and 
artificial  reservoirs,  but  right  where  it  can  be 
reached  by   the  roots  of  growing  crops. 

"Through  these  principles,  a  rainfall  of  twelve 
inches  can  be  conserved  so  effectively  that  it  will 
produce  better  results  than  :>re  usually  expected 
of  an  annual  precipitation  of  twenty-four  inches 
in  humid  .America.  The  aiscoverer  and  demon- 
strator of  the.se  principles  deserves  to  rank  among 
the  greatest  of  national  benefactors." — John  L. 
Cowan,  Dry  jarming,  the  hope  oj  the  West  (Cen- 
tury Magazine.  July.  looft! — "Just  as  the  sheep- 
men,   by    determination    and    plodding    methods, 


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AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


have  all  but  driven  the  cattlemen  from  the  range 
— those  that  remain  are  dying  hard — another  in- 
dustry is  slowly  arising,  which  appears  destined, 
within  ten  years,  to  put  an  end  to  the  sheepman 
as  he  conducts  his  business  to-day.  This  menace 
to  the  free  and  open  range  is  the  dry  farmer. 
Within  the  past  two  years  thousands  of  soil  tillers 
have  settled  upon  the  prairies  of  Wyoming  and 
Montana.  Agriculturalists  are  beginning  to  learn 
that  farm  produce  will  grow,  luxuriantly,  profit- 
ably, in  these  high  areas  where  the  annual  [rain] 
precipitation  is  fifteen  inches  and  less,  if  a  man 
knows  how  to  cultivate.  The  state  of  Wyoming 
has  taken  official  cognizance  of  dry  farming,  and 
is  doing  all  that  can  be  done  to  encourage  it.  An 
expert.  Dr.  V.  T.  Cooke,  of  Oregon,  has  been  em- 
ployed at  a  salary  of  $2,000  a  year  to  show  farm- 
ers how  to  succeed  without  irrigation.  The  office 
(if  state  dry  farmer  was  created  two  years  ago,  at 
which  time  an  appropriation  barely  sufficient  to 
pay  Dr.  Cooke  was  grudgingly  made.  The  legis- 
lature of  iQOQ,  convinced  and  enlightened  by  the 
success  of  the  several  experimental  farms,  made  an 
appropriation  of  .$10,000  to  carry  on  this  work. 
The  State  .Agricultural  College  of  Wyoming  also 
is  doing  a  great  deal  along  this  lead,  issuing  bulle- 
tins of  information  to  farmers,  encouraging  the 
movement  in  every  way.  It  is  well  known  that 
increased  cultivation  will  be  followed  by  increased 
rainfall.  This  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  great 
wheat  belt  of  Kansas,  once  almost  as  arid  as  the 
plateaus  of  the  West.  But  there  is  no  quarrel 
between  the  farmer  and  the  sheepman.  Home- 
steading  the  range  means  smaller  flocks,  the  sheep- 
men admit,  and  [will  put]  an  end  to  promiscuous 
grazing.  It  will  necessitate,  however,  the  feeding 
of  flocks  in  winter,  at  once  disposing  of  the  farm- 
er's output  and  saving  the  percentage  of  loss  now 
suffered  through  starvation.  Dr.  Cooke,  Wyo- 
ming's expert  at  dry  farming,  speaking  of  the  in- 
dustry, said:  'Dry  farming  is  already  established 
in  the  semi-arid  West.  Some  parts  of  California, 
with  an  annual  precipitation  of  ten  inches,  have 
been  dry  farming  for  over  forty  years,  eastern 
Oregon  and  eastern  Washington  for  over  twenty- 
five  years,  with  an  annual  precipitation  as  low  as 
eight  inches,  and  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Montana  have 
been  dry  farming  for  years.  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
and  western  Nebraska  have  also  been  dry  farm- 
ing for  several  years,  but  only  in  the  last  two  or 
three  years  has  it  been  brought  intelligently  to 
the  front.  Many  early  settlers  failed — and  will 
continue  to  do  so — principally  through  ignorance 
of  how  to  do  their  work  properly,  through  mis- 
information, and  through  having  too  good  an 
opinion  of  what  they  know.  A  man  must  be 
ready  to  take  the  advice  of  those  that  know  in 
this  business.  The  effect  of  dry  farming  in  Wyo- 
ming to  the  stockmen  will  be  that  instead 
of  losing  vast  numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle 
during  the  winter  and  early  spring  through  neglect 
of  providing  feed  for  them,  they  will  be  able  to 
buy  feed  from  the  farmer  and  save  the  stock 
from  starvation.  The  ranges  have  been  over- 
stocked. The  government  has  made  stockmen 
take  their  fences  from  immense  areas  of  public 
land,  thereby  preventing  them  from  holding 
pastures  for  the  winter.  The  average  stockman 
never  has  pretended  to  feed  his  stock  at  all,  so, 
the  range  being  overstocked,  with  no  fenced  winter 
pastures,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  dry 
farmer  is  really  a  necessity,  a  benefit,  rather  than 
an  ill,  as  some  of  the  stockmen  believed  at  first.' 
Dr.  Cooke  says  that  most  of  the  grains,  except 
corn,  will  grow  in  Wyoming  under  the  dry  method, 
and  that  the  secret  of  dry  farming  is  'the  use  of 


brains  and  muscle,  deep  plowing,  cultivation  at 
the  proper  time,  the  use  of  labor-saving  machin- 
ery and  seeds  that  are  adapted  to  the  climate.'  So 
a  few  more  years  will  see  this  last  romantic  phase 
of  Western  range  life  pass  away.  The  sheep- 
herder  will  go  as  the  cowboy  has  gone,  the  flock- 
master  will  turn  his  attention  to  the  soil,  and 
where  immense  flocks  now  roam  in  the  owner- 
ship of  one  man  scores  of  smaller  bands  will  feed 
in  comfort  upon  the  new  farms  of  the  semi-arid 
West.  With  the  old  order  of  romance  and  pic- 
luresqueness  will  vanish  the  hardship  and  cruelty 
to  flocks  and  herders  alike;  and  the  West,  under 
Ihe  coming  conditions,  will  yield  more  and  better 
sheep  than  in  the  past." — G.  W.  Ogden,  Dry  farm- 
ing in   Wyoming   (Evervbod\'s,  Sept.,   igio). 

United  States:  Effects  of  the  World  War. 
— War  gardens. — Relation  of  agriculture  to 
cost  of  living. — Farmers'  associations. — County 
agents. — "In  nearly  all  important  respects  with 
regard  to  foodstuffs  .America  has  been  not  only 
substantially  self-sufficing  but  a  country  of  sur- 
plus. This  has  been  true  for  many  years,  both 
before  and  during  the  war.  Incidentally  we  were 
dependent  upon  our  neighbors  for  certain  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  and  the  difficulties  attendant 
upon  getting  along  without  them  or  getting  them 
elsewhere  are  very  great.  However,  America  has 
been  and  is  a  land  of  surplus  food.  While  this  is 
true  beyond  all  controversy,  it  is  just  as  true  and 
nu  doubt  a  good  deal  more  astonishing  to  notice 
that  the  amount  of  the  surplus  has  for  some  years 
been  steadily  on  the  decline.  The  occasion  for  this 
lessening  surplus  is  not  mysterious.  Of  course  if 
all  the  land  in  use  were  to  be  used  to  its  fullest 
extent  by  the  entire  population,  that  is,  if  the 
country  produced  the  minimum  amount  of  other 
goods  and  utilities,  devoting  itself  exclusively  or 
mainly  to  agriculture,  there  would  be  an  enormous 
surplus  of  food  products.  But  since  the  normal 
course  is  to  produce  that  which  society  wants  most 
rather  than  that  for  which  it  will  pay  relatively 
little,  we  have  no  cause  for  complaint  on  account 
of  the  failure  to  make  the  land  produce  to  its 
physical  and  biological  maximum.  Farmers,  both 
consciously  and  unconsciously,  limit  their  efforts  in 
accordance  with  economic  returns,  instead  of  in 
accordance  with  the  limits  set  by  the  laws  of 
physics  and  biology.  ...  In  1880  the  population 
of  the  country  was  70.5  per  cent  rural.  In  iqio 
it  was  s,v7  per  cent  rural.  Thus  the  proportion 
of  producers  to  eaters  has  been  undergoing  a  rapid 
change.  Actually  on  farms  the  proportion  is  by 
no  means  S,v7  per  cent,  since  in  this  classification 
there  were  included  in  rural  population  all  villages 
and  towns  of  less  than  2,500  inhabitants.  The 
farm  population  therefore  was  in  loio,  as  nearly 
as  can  well  be  estimated,  about  one-third  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  country.  This  is  a  rapidly 
decreasing  proportion,  yet  it  is  still  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  very  small  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation of  England  and  Wales  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture, where  there  are  but  8  per  cent  so  reported. 
On  the  other  hand  it  coincides  rather  closely  with 
the  German  situation  where  20,000,000  people  out 
of  70,000,000  are  getting  their  living  by,  or  im- 
mediately  out  of,  agriculture.  .  .  . 

"In  normal  times  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Italy  import  about  313,000,000  bushels  of  wheat. 
This  supply  comes  largely,  but  by  no  means  ex- 
clusively, from  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Under  the  conditions  existing  since  the  beginning 
of  the  war  in  1Q14  the  supply  has  come  more  and 
more  from  these  two  sources.  Ordinarily  the 
United  States  and  Canada  furnish  for  export  about 
two-thirds  as  much  wheat  as  the  three  European 


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Allies  import.  Under  war  conditions  the  produc- 
tion of  wheat  by  the  Allies  has  been  greatly  re- 
duced, notwithstanding  the  slight  increase  in 
Great  Britain.  On  account  of  bad  weather  the 
supply  of  American  wheat  has  been  hardly  above 
the  amount  required  at  home  for  normal  con- 
sumption during  the  two  years  igi6  and  igi?- 
The  United  States  wheat  crop  of  1014  was  the 
heaviest  ever  known  and  constituted  almost  one- 
fourth  of  the  world's  crop.  Following  as  it  did 
rather  heavy  crops  for  the  two  years  preceding, 
the  amount  of  wheat  on  hand  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  was  by  far  greater  than  normal.  .  .  . 
[See  Food  regul.^tion:    1SS5-1Q14.] 

"From  the  standpoint  of  world  production  the 
United  States  occupies  the  predominating  position 
with  respect  to  corn,  producing  from  two-thirds  to 
three-fourths  of  the  world  supply.  In  1914  the 
world  production  was,  according  to  the  reports, 
3,878,000,000  bushels,  of  which  the  United  States 
produced  2,673,000  bushels  or  6q  per  cent.  The 
production  of  oats  in  the  United  States,  in  terms 
of  bushels,  ranks  next  to  corn.  In  value  oats 
rank  normally  below  wheat.  The  acreage  of  oats 
has  increased  more,  relatively,  during  the  past 
forty  years  than  have  the  acreages  of  either  corn 
or  wheat.  In  1014  the  world  crop  was  4035,- 
000,000  bushels,  of  which  the  United  States  pro- 
duced 1,141,000,000  bushels,  or  28  per  cent.  The 
importance  of  the  oat  crop  is  largely  indirect  so 
far  as  food  is  concerned  since  no  considerable  part 
is  eaten.  However,  as  a  war  commodity  oats  play 
an  important  role  as  feed  for  horses.  .  .  .  None 
of  the  other  cereals  enter  greatly  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  into  the  food  supply  of  the  United 
States.  As  a  barley  producing  nation  the  United 
States  ranks  second  only  to  Russia,  but  even  so 
the  production  in  this  country  is  normally  under 
200,000,000  bushels  per  year,  or  only  about  a 
quarter  that  of  wheat,  and  not  a  tenth  that  of 
corn.  Barley  does  not  enter  greatly  into  the  food 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States  nor  of  the 
European  Allies.  One  of  the  most  important  food 
crops  other  than  the  cereals  is  the  potato.  The 
normal  potato  crop  of  the  countn,'  ranges  from 
300,000,000  to  400,000,000  bushels,  it  being  a  crop 
which  varies  widely  according  to  weather  condi- 
tion. To  this  may  be  added  the  sweet  potato 
crop  of  60,000,000  to  75,000,000  bushels.  .  .  . 
Compared  with  that  of  other  countries  the  potato 
crop  of  the  United  States  is  not  large.  The  world 
crop  is  over  5,000.000,000  bushels,  of  which  the 
United  States  produces  but  about  7  per  cent.  .  .  . 
No  doubt  the  most  important  crop  other  than  the 
cereals  is  sugar.  The  United  States,  including 
island  possessions,  produces  from  two  to  two  and 
a  half  million  tons,  or  four  to  fi\'e  billion  pounds, 
annually  This  is  about  half  of  the  amount  con- 
sumed, the  additional  amount  coming  mainly  from 
Cuba.  .  .  .  With  the  European  supply  mainly  cut 
off  the  Allies  are  obliged  to  get  their  sugar  in  large 
part  from  Cuba,  which  is  also  the  source  of  the 
.American  importations.  In  this  roundabout  man- 
ner the  supply  of  sugar  for  .American  use  is  seri- 
ously reduced.  .  .  .  The  production  of  beet  sugar 
was  begun  in  earnest  about  1800.  In  1006  the 
beet  sugar  production  exceeded  the  cane  sugar  pro- 
duction [See  also  Loutsian.^:  1014-1016.!  .  .  . 
The  cotton  crop  is  sometimes  second  and  sometimes 
third  in  value  of  all  crops,  it  being  exceeded  uni- 
formly by  corn  and  part  of  the  time  by  hay. 
Cotton  is  the  most  important  commercial  crop  of 
the  countn.',  outranking  corn  in  this  respect  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  substantially  all  cotton  is 
sold  as  such  by  the  producer,  while  corn  has 
many    uses,    and    is    turned    into    other    products 


without  leaving  the  farm.  Three-fifths  of  the 
world's  supply  of  cotton  is  grown  in  the  United 
States.  The  yield  ranges  from  10,000,000  to  16,- 
000,000  bales  per  year  varying  greatly  with 
weather  conditions.  .  .  .  While  there  is  almost 
without  fail  a  reduction  in  the  cotton  acreage  fol- 
lowing an  unusually  heavy  yield  with  its  attendant 
lower  price  it  so  happened  that  for  the  two  years 
preceding  the  war  the  acreage  and  yield  were  both 
above  normal,  with  the  result  that  an  unprece- 
dented supply  of  cotton  was  on  hand  when  hos- 
tilities began  in  Europe  in  IQ14.  .  .  .  An  idea  of 
the  growth  of  the  Cotton  industry  may  be  had 
from  the  fact  that  the  acreage  increased  from 
13,000,000  in  18S0  to  37,000,000  in  1913.  And 
the  importance  of  the  supply  on  hand  in  1914 
may  be  gathered  from  the  figures  showing  an 
average  yield  from  iqo6  to  igog  of  11,000,000 
bales  per  year,  while  from  loio  to  1014  this  aver- 
age was  14,000,000  bales."— B.  H.  Hibbard,  Effects 
of  the  war  upon  agriculture  (Department  of  Agri- 
culture  Yearbook,  pp.  3-12). 

It  has  been  conservatively  estimated  that  the 
gardens  throughout  the  countr>'  trebled  in  area 
in  IQ17  when  a  concerted  effort  was  made  to  in- 
crease the  food  supply  in  the  United  States.  In 
practically  every  city,  suburb  and  village  home 
gardens  were  enlarged.  Many  thousands  of  acres 
of  idle  land,  which  heretofore  had  been  wastefuUy 
neglected,  were  utilized  during  the  World  War, 
by  individuals,  municipalities  and  corporations,  in 
the  production  of  such  staples  as  corn,  potatoes, 
cabbage,  turnips,  onions,  etc.,  as  well  as  other 
perishable  vegetables.  Factors  which  gave  in- 
valuable aid  to  the  spirit  of  utilizing  gardens  for 
food  production  were  the  extension  services  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as 
well  as  of  the  various  State  departments,  the  ag- 
ricultural and  the  general  press.  All  these  agen- 
cies actively  cooperated  in  furnishing  assistance 
and  information  dealing  both  with  the  culture  and 
consecvation  of  vegetables.  Where  no  garden 
space  was  available,  the  practice  in  the  homes  was 
to  can  and  dry  large  quantities  of  vegetables. 
Although  the  season  was  unfavorable  for  suc- 
cessful cultivation  in  many  localities,  especially  in 
cases  of  amateur  gardening,  the  net  result  was  an 
important  addition  to  the  countr\''s  supply  of 
fresh,  dried  and  canned  vegetables,  which  brought 
about  the  release  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
food  td  the  soldiers  and  sailors  of  our  army  and 
nav>'  and  those  of  our  allies. 

"It  is  customar>'  to  attribute  the  high  cost  of 
living  to  lessened  production  due  to  a  supposed  de- 
cline of  agriculture,  and  to  advise,  therefore,  that 
more  persons  engaiie  in  farming  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  product.  This  position  is  met  by  an 
editorial  of  the  Nexv  York  Tribune,  which  holds 
that  intermediary  trading  combinations  are  respon- 
sible: 'It  is  true  that  the  raising  of  cattle  for  the 
market  has  almost  ceased  in  the  East  and  that  agri- 
culture generally  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  demand 
for  food  products.  Yet  it  is  hard  to  believe  that 
agriculture  in  any  part  of  the  Union  would 
steadily  decline  in  the  face  of  an  enormous  ap- 
preciation of  the  cost  to  the  consumer  of  all  farm 
products,  were  there  not  some  powerful  disturb- 
ing factor  operating  to  deny  the  farmer  the  bene- 
fits of  that  appreciation.  If  the  Eastern  farmer 
could  have  reaped  a  legitimate  share  of  the  in- 
crease in  the  price  of  farm  produce  which  has 
taken  place  in  the  last  twenty  years,  he  would  cer- 
tainly be  in  a  position  to  command  all  the  labor 
he  needs  and  to  develop  resources  now  neglected 
because  it  does  not  pay  to  develop  them.  'Yet 
economic  law  has  not  operated  to  stimulate  agri- 


152 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


United   States 
Rural  Policy 


AGRICULTURE,  MODERN 


culture,  because  the  returns  from  steadily  mount- 
ing prices  have  not  really  reached  the  producer. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  fattening  of  steers  for  the 
local  markets  was  common  in  the  East.  But  when 
the  vast  Western  ranges  were  opened,  and  the 
great  packing  houses  were  established,  the  cheap- 
ness of  range  beef,  refrigerated  and  delivered  in 
Eastern  cities,  was  used  as  a  weapon  to  kill  off 
the  cattle  industry  of  the  East.  When  the  Eastern 
cattleman  was  driven  out  of  business,  the  price  of 
beef  rose,  but  virtually  all  the  increase  has  gone 
to  the  packing  combinations,  which  fix  their  own 
price  to  the  Western  range  man  and  their  own 
price  to  the  consumer  and  artificially  control  the 
supply  so  as  to  discourage  increased  production 
in  the  West  and  to  prevent  a  revival  of  produc- 
tion in  the  East.  The  country  is  growing  in  popu- 
lation at  the  rate  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  per 
cent  each  decade.  But  Secretary  Wilson  has 
shown  that  the  supply  of  food  animals  is  not 
being  maintained  in  proportion  to  population.  In 
the  last  decade  cattle  have  remained  about  sta- 
tionary in  numbers,  swine  are  actually  decreasing, 
and,  while  more  sheep  are  available,  the  supply 
has  diminished  relatively  to  population.'  " — L.  H. 
Bailey,  Country-li^e  movement  in  the  United 
States,  pp.  153-155. — See  also  Conservation  of 
j^ATURAL  resources:   United  States. 

Two  associations  of  farmers  have  recently  been 
formed  and  are  at  work  in  the  United  States  to 
improve  the  conditions  of  farming  and  of  farm- 
ers. One,  the  American  Farm  Bureau  Federation, 
had  been  encouraging  cooperative  action  on  the 
part  of  farmers  in  order  to  lessen  the  profits  of 
middlemen;  while  the  other,  the  National  Board 
of  Farmers'  Organizations  was  formed  during  the 
war  to  unify  the  agricultural  interests  and  bring 
their  cause  before  the  people.  Its  activities  con- 
tinued after  the  war,  and  recently  it  announced 
the  intention  of  building  a  "temple  of  agriculture" 
at  Washington  to  act  as  headquarters  for  the  or- 
ganized farmers  of  the  United  States.  Another 
agency  for  improving  agricultural  conditions  has 
been  employed  in  some  of  the  States,  notably  in 
New  York,  namely,  the  farm  county  agents.  On 
July  I,  igiS,  there  were  over  6,200  farm  county 
agents  employed  in  this  country.  Farmers  are 
coming  to  demand  a  larger  share  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government,  claiming  that  theirs  is 
the  largest  single  industry  in  America  and  repre- 
sents the  largest  investment.  The  presidential 
candidates  of  both  great  parties  in  iq20  acknowl- 
edged the  justice  of  these  claims  and  pledged  to 
the  farmers  more  representation  on  government 
boards.  (See  U.  S.  A.:  1020:  Democratic  platform. 
Republican  platform).  The  junior  agricultural 
movement  in  the  country  schools  has  developed 
rapidly  in  recent  years,  and  the  accomplishments 
of  children  in  the  schools  along  these  lines  form 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  exhibits  at  country 
fairs.  (See  U.  S.  Bovs  working  re.serve.)  The 
bitterest  feelings  have  been  engendered  in  the 
rural  districts  by  the  attempt  to  prolong  the 
daylight  saving  laws  and  the  farmers  were 
mainly  instrumental  in  effecting  their  repeal. — 
See  also  Agricultural  education  ;  Agricultural 
societies;  California:  1917  (Breed  bill)  ;  Day- 
light SAVING  movement:  1Q19;  Food  regulation: 
1920. 

United  States:  Rural  policy. — Information. — 
"A  policy  may  be  simply  that  which  actually  hap- 
pens through  a  series  of  years,  but  a  policy  for  the 
New  Day,  a  real  policy,  implies  adequate  knowledge, 
definite  plans,  correlation  of  effort.  So  in  our 
governmental  affairs,  whatever  is  done  or  advo- 
cated by  departments,  boards  or  bureaus,   should 


be  the  result  of  a  well-founded  and  well-rounded 
policy.  Probably  there  is  in  these  agencies  no 
lack  of  definite  knowledge,  and  it  should  be  easy 
for  them  to  make  plans.  But  it  is  more  difficult 
to  secure  their  cooperation.  Within  the  state,  for 
example,  how  may  we  adjust  the  administrative 
functions  of  a  department  of  agriculture  and  the 
educational  functions  of  a  college  of  agriculture? 
We  find  in  Washington  half  a  dozen  or  more 
bureaus  or  boards  dealing  with  matters  of  agricul- 
tural education.  If  these  cannot  be  consolidated, 
at  least  they  ought  to  be  forced  to  cooperate  in- 
timately and  freely  and  unreservedly.  Perhaps  an 
agricultural  development  committee  in  each  state 
and  in  Washington  might  be  a  means  of  grace  in 
this  connection.  The  British  .Agricultural  Develop- 
ment Committee  is  virtually  an  advisory  commit- 
tee to  Parliament.  It  has  no  direct  authority,  but 
its  recommendations  as  to  appropriations  and  as 
to  the  work  of  the  different  governmental  agencies, 
both  national  and  local,  carry  far  in  Parliament. 
[See  Food  regulation:  1914-iqiS:  Legislative 
enactments  in  Great  Britain]  Some  such  group 
authorized  by  law,  and  composed  of  representatives 
of  the  public  agencies  involved,  with  additional 
members  appointed  by  the  President  and  in  the 
state  by  governors,  might  be  able  to  secure  the 
necessary  cooperation  of  governmental  agencies.  It 
is  not  too  strong  a  statement  to  say  that  we  are 
on  the  verge  of  chaos  with  reference  to  the  inter- 
relationships of  public  boards,  departments  and 
bureaus.  It  is  a  serious  situation  and  there  is  only 
one  way  out.  There  must  be  cooperation,  if  not 
voluntary,  then  compulsory. 

"Whatever  our  conclusions  as  to  the  place 
of  the  government  dealing  with  agricultural 
matters,  there  is  clearly  one  task  that  it 
can  perform  better  than  any  other  agency  and 
which  is  evidently  its  duty.  That  is  the  task  of 
discovering  and  disseminating  information.  This 
function  embraces  the  necessity  for  accurate  in- 
vestigations, for  wise  and  clear  interpretation  of 
these  investigations,  for  well  planned  and  numer- 
ous demonstrations  of  the  applicability  of  the 
principles  worked  out  as  the  result  of  investiga- 
tion, and  for  widespread  publicity  that  will  reach 
the  masses  of  farmers  with  understandable  expert 
advice.  Government,  both  state  and  national, 
should  gather  and  distribute  the  fullest  possible 
information  on  all  of  the  different  aspects  of 
the  rural  problem.  Its  duty  does  not  stop 
with  information  about  production,  but  in- 
cludes the  field  of  distribution  of  farm  products 
and  the  welfare  or  country  life  phase  of  the  farm- 
ers' interests.  This  information  should  not  only 
be  made  available  to  all  the  farmers,  but  they 
must  be  all  but  compelled  to  listen  if  they  arc 
unresponsive." — K.  L.  Buttcrfield,  Farmer  and 
the  new  day,  pp.  193-195. — See  also  Agriculture, 
Department  of  (United  States). 

United  States:  Railroad  problem. — The  prog- 
ress of  agriculture  and  the  welfare  of  the  farmer 
have  been  continuously  bound  up  with  the  railroad 
question,  and  many  states  have  seriously  under- 
taken to  bring  closer  cooperation  between  agricul- 
tural interests  and  the  railroads. — See  also  Minne- 
sota: 1916;  North  Dakota:  1880-1916;  1892-1896. 

See  also  Alaska:  1919-1920;  Indians,  American: 
1920:  Review  of  agricultural  development;  Philip- 
pine Islands:  1917-1918;  U.  S.  A.::  Economic  map. 

Also  in:  Annah  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Socio}  Science,  March,  1912. — J.  M. 
Gillette,  Conditions  and  needs  of  country  life. — 
K.  L.  Buttcrfield,  Rural  sociology  as  a  college  dis- 
cipline.— F.  B.  Mumford,  Education  for  agricul- 
ture.— T.    N.    Carver,    Economic    significance     of 


153 


AGRICULTURE,  DEPARTMENT  OF 


AGRICULTURE,  INSTITUTE  OF 


changes  in  country  population. — L.  C.  Gray,  South- 
ern agriculture. — G.  F.  Wells,  Rural  church. — H,  W. 
Fought,  Country  school. — S.  G.  Dixon,  Rural 
home. — J.  Hamilton,  Influences  exerted  by  agri- 
cultural fairs. — R,  B.  Watrous,  Civic  arts  and 
country  lije. — J.  C.  Marquis,  Social  significance  of 
the  agriciilturai  press. — M.  T.  Scudder,  Rural  rec- 
creation,  a  socializing  factor. — Cyclopedia  of 
American  agriculture,  4  v.,  edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey, 
New  York,  1917. — K.  L.  Butterlield,  Chapters  in 
rural  progress,  Chicago,  igoS. — G.  W.  James,  Re- 
claiming the  arid  West. — Scientific  American,  .\pril 
27,  IQ18. — .igricultural  revolution  in  the  South. 
— C.  Turnor,  Land  probletns  and  national  welfare. 
— J.  Wilson  and  H.  Wallace,  .igricultural  conditions 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

AGRICULTURE,  Biology  as  applied  to.  See 
BioLOGv ;    Applications. 

AGRICULTURE,  Department  of  (United 
States),  had  its  origin  in  one  of  Ihc  early  duties 
of  the  Patent  Bureau,  that  of  the  distribution  of 
seeds  and  plants  to  farmers.  In  1802  a  bureau  of 
agriculture  was  created  and  in  i8Sg  it  w»s  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  an  executive  department,  with 
a  secretary  having  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  The 
weather  bureau  has  charge  of  weather  forecasts, 
including  warnings  of  storms,  cold  waves,  frosts 
and  floods;  it  also  reports  temperature  and  rain- 
fall conditions  for  agricultural  staples.  The  bureau 
of  animal  industry  conducts  the  inspection  of  ani- 
mals slaujhtercd  for  food.  The  bureau  of  plant 
industry  takes  charge  of  the  scientilic  investiga- 
tion of  plant  life  and  the  distribution,  through 
members  of  Congress,  of  flower  and  garden  seeds. 
The  bureau  of  statistics  prepares  crop  reports. 
The  bureau  of  chemistry  takes  charge  of  the  en- 
forcement of  the  Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act.  The 
forest  service  has  charge  of  the  national  forest  re- 
serves and  cooperates  with  state  governments  and 
private  owners  of  forests.  The  bureau  of  ento- 
mology investigates  injurious  insects  affecting  crops, 
fruits  and  forests.  The  bureau  of  biological  sur- 
vey enforces  federal  laws  for  the  protection  of 
birds  and  game,  has  charge  of  the  bison  range  and 
the  protection  of  migratory  birds.  The  bureau  of 
soils,  the  division  of  publications,  the  office  of 
experiment  stations  and  the  office  of  public  roads 
have  duties  such  as  their  titles  suggest. 

The  work  of  the  department  as  a  whole  "is  cov- 
ered in  three  general  classes:  (i)  Research  work, 
which  includes  the  scientific  study  of  the  funda- 
mental problems  of  agriculture.  (2)  Educational 
or  extension  work,  which  aims  to  make  available 
to  the  rural  population  the  results  of  the  depart- 
ment's experiments  and  discoveries.  (3)  Regulatory 
work  which  includes  the  enforcement  of  statues  re- 
lating to  meat  inspection,  animal  and  plant  quar- 
antine, foods  and  drugs,  game  -and  migratory  birds, 
seed  adulteration,  insecticides  and  fungicides,  the 
manufacture  of  vaccines  and  viruses,  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  national  forests.  There  stands 
to  the  credit  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  the 
eradication  of  the  cattle  tick  from  204,000  square 
miles  of  territory  in  ten  years,  the  suppression  of 
the  foot-and-mouth  disease  in  all  the  country  from 
Massachusetts  to  Montana,  the  saving  of  the  citrus 
industry  of  California,  and  a  score  of  other  in- 
valuable services  protecting  the  orchards  and  fields 
and  forests  from  destruction  by  insect  and  fungus 
pests.  In  addition,  new  farm  products  to  the 
value  of  $270,000,000  have  been  promoted  by  the 
introduction  and  development  of  new  crops,  and 
one-third  of  the  total  area  of  the  United  States 
has  been  covered  by  the  soil  surveys  conducted 
by  this  Department." — J.  C.  Hemphill,  ,4  great 
farmer,  David  Franklin  Houston  (North  American 


Review,  June,  1917). — "The  federal  and  state  gov- 
ernments at  present  do  little  directly  to  aid  in 
preserving  and  improving  the  fertility  of  the  soil ; 
but  the  experiments  in  advanced  methods  of  cul- 
tivation carried  on  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  Experiment  Stations,  and  state  agricul- 
tural colleges,  are  doing  much  to  show  the  farm- 
ers how  to  make  the  best  use  of  their  land  and 
at  the  same  time  to  conserve  it  for  the  use  of 
posterity.  Science  will  become  the  servant  of 
agriculture  as  well  as  of  industry." — C.  A.  Beard, 
.\merican  government  and  politics,  p.  408. — See 
also  Food  regulation:  1917-1918:  Food  control  in 
the   United  States. 

AGRICULTURE,  International  Institute  of. 
— The  idea  of  an  international  organization  for 
systematizmg  the  agricultural  production  of  the 
world  and  regulating  the  markets  of  food  prod- 
ucts, by  constant  and  authentic  knowledge  ol 
crops  and  conditions,  was  conceived  some  years 
ago  by  Mr.  David  Lubin,  of  California.  It  was 
first  expressed  by  him  publicly  at  Budapest  in  i8gft, 
but  was  the  growth  of  thirteen  years  of  thought 
preceding  that  date.  As  the  result  of  Mr.  Lubin's 
efforts  to  interest  governments  and  peoples  in  the 
project.  King  Victor  Emmanuel  III,  of  Italy,  be- 
came its  hearty  patron  in  1903,  and  took  the  initial 
step  toward  effecting  an  organization  as  wide  as  the 
civilized  world,  by  inviting  all  nations  to  take 
part  in  a  convention  of  delegates  for  the  purpose, 
at  Rome,  in  May,  1905.  The  invitation,  as  ad 
dressed  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
by  the  Italian  ambassador  at  Washington,  on  Feb- 
ruary 26,  igos,  was  in  these  words:  "By  order 
of  my  government,  I  have  the  honor  to  inform 
your  excellency  that  His  Majesty  the  King,  my 
august  sovereign,  has  taken  the  initiative  in  the 
formation  of  an  international  institute  of  agricul- 
ture to  be  composed  of  representatives  of  the  great 
agricultural  societies  of  the  various  countries  and 
of  delegates  from  the  several  governments.  This 
institute,  being  devoid  of  any  political  intent, 
should  tend  to  brinff  about  a  community  of  inter- 
ests among  agriculturists  and  to  protect  these  in- 
terests in  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  will  study 
agricultural  conditions  in  the  different  countries, 
periodically  indicating  the  supply  and  the  quality 
of  products  with  accuracy  and  care,  so  as  to  pro- 
portion production  to  demand,  increase  and  dis- 
tribute the  various  crops  according  to  the  rate  of 
consumption,  render  the  commerce  of  agricultural 
products  less  costly  and  more  expeditious,  and  suit- 
ably determine  the  prices  thereof.  Acting  in 
unison  with  the  various  national  bureaus  already 
existing,  it  will  furnish  accurate  information  on 
conditions  regarding  agricultural  labor  in  various 
localities,  and  will  regulate  and  direct  the  cur- 
rents of  emigration  It  will  favor  the  institution 
of  agricultural  exchanges  and  labor  bureaus.  It 
will  protect  both  producers  and  consumers  against 
the  excesses  of  transportation  and  forestalling  syn- 
dicates, keeping  a  watch  on  middlemen,  pointing 
out  their  abuses,  and  acquainting  the  public  with 
the  true  conditions  of  the  market.  It  will  foster 
agreements  for  common  defense  against  the  dis- 
eases of  plants  and  live  stock,  against  which  in- 
dividual defense  is  less  effectual.  It  will  help  to 
develop  rural  cooperation,  agricultural  insurance, 
and  agrarian  credit.  It  will  study  and  propose 
measures  of  general  interest,  preparing  interna- 
tional agreements  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture 
and  the  agriculturil  classes  Carrving  out  the  in- 
tention of  His  Majesty,  the  Italian  Government 
appeals  to  all  friendly  nations,  each  of  which 
ought  to  have  its  own  representatives  in  the  in- 
stitute, appointed  to  act  as  the  exponents  of  their 


154 


AGRICULTURE,  INSTITUTE  OF 


AGRICULTURE,  INSTITUTE  OF 


respective  governments,  as  organs  of  mutual  rela- 
tions, and  as  mediums  of  reciprocal  influence  and 
information.  It  accordingly  now  invites  them  to 
participate  through  their  delegates  in  the  lirst  con- 
vention, which  is  to  be  held  at  Rome  next  May 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  rules  for  the  new 
institute.  The  king's  government  trusts  that  the 
United  States  will  be  vrtlling  to  cooperate  in  the 
enterprise,  the  first  inspiration  of  which  is  due 
an  American  citizen,  and  that,  accepting  the  invi- 
tation to  the  conference  at  Rome,  it  will  send 
thither  a  delegation  commensurate  with  its  im- 
portance as  the  foremost  agricultural  nation  in  the 
world." 

1905. — Conference  at  Rome. — Gratifying  re- 
sponses to  the  invitation  were  made  by  most,  if 
not  all,  of  the  governments  addressed,  and  a  royal 
proclamation  was  issued  calling  an  international 
conference  at  Rome  to  which  thirty-eight  powers 
responded.  It  concluded  its  sessions  on  June  7, 
iQOS,  by  adopting  a  final  act  embodying  the  reso- 
lutions upon  which  they  had  agreed.  The  text 
of  the  act  follows: 

"Article  i.  There  is  hereby  created  a  perma- 
nent international  institute  of  agriculture,  having 
its  seat  at  Rome. 

"Article  2.  The  international  institute  of  agri- 
culture is  to  be  a  government  institution,  in  which 
each  adhering  power  shall  be  represented  by  dele- 
gates of  its  choice.  The  institute  shall  be  com- 
posed of  a  general  assembly  and  a  permanent  com- 
mittee, the  composition  and  duties  of  which 
arc  defined  in   the  ensuing  articles. 

"Article  3.  The  general  assembly  of  the  insti- 
tute shall  be  composed  of  the  representatives  of 
the  adhering  governments.  Each  nation,  what- 
ever be  the  number  of  its  delegates  shall  be  en- 
titled to  a  number  of  votes  in  the  assembly 
which  shall  be  determined  according  to  the  group 
to  which  it  belongs,  and  to  which  reference  will 
be  made  in  article  10. 

"Article  4.  The  general  assembly  shall  elect  for 
each  session  from  among  its  members  a  president 
and  two  vice-presidents.  The  sessions  shall  take 
place  on  dates  fixed  by  the  last  general  assembly 
and  according  to  a  programme  proposed  by  the 
permanent  committee  and  adopted  by  the  adher- 
ing governments. 

"Article  .$.  The  general  assembly  shall  exercise 
supreme  control  over  the  international  institute  of 
agriculture.  It  shall  approve  the  'projects  prepared 
by  the  permanent  committee  regarding  the  or- 
ganization and  internal  workings  of  the  institute. 
It  shall  fix  the  total  amount  of  expenditures  and 
audit  and  approve  the  accounts.  It  shall  submit 
to  the  approval  of  the  adhering  governments  modi- 
fications of  any  nature  involving  an  increase  in 
expenditure  or  an  enlargement  of  the  functions  of 
the  institute.  It  shall  set  the  date  for  holding  the 
sessions.  It  shall  prepare  its  regulations.  The 
presence  at  the  general  assemblies  of  delegates  rep- 
resenting two-thirds  of  the  adhering  nations  shall 
be  required  in  order  to  render  the  deliberations 
valid. 

"Article  6.  The  executive  power  of  the  insti- 
tute is  intrusted  to  the  permanent  committee, 
which,  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly,  shall  carry  out  the  decisions  of 
the  latter  and  prepare  propositions  to  submit  to 
it. 

"Article  7.  The  permanent  committee  shall  be 
composed  of  members  designated  by  the  respective 
governments.  Each  adhering  nation  shall  be  rep- 
resented in  the  permanent  committee  by  one  mem- 
ber. However,  the  representation  of  one  nation 
may  be  intrusted  to  a  delegate  of  another  adher- 


ing nation,  provided  that  the  actual  number  of 
members  shall  not  be  less  than  fifteen.  The  con- 
ditions of  voting  in  the  permanent  committee  shall 
be  the  same  as  those  indicated  in  article  3  for  the 
general  assemblies. 

".Article  8.  The  permanent  committee  shall  elect 
from  among  its  members  for  a  period  of  three 
years  a  president  and  a  vice-president,  who  may 
be  reelected.  It  shall  prepare  its  internal  regula- 
tions, vote  the  budget  of  the  institute  within  the 
limits  of  the  funds  placed  at  its  disposal  by  the 
general  assembly,  and  appoint  and  remove  the  of- 
ficials and  employees  of  its  office.  The  general 
secretary  of  the  permanent  committee  shall  act  as 
secretary  of  the  assembly. 

".Article  0.  The  institute,  confining  its  opera- 
tions within  an  international  sphere,  shall — 

"(a)  Collect,  study,  and  publish  as  promptly  as 
possible  statistical,  technical,  or  economic  informa- 
tion concerning  farming,  both  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal products,  the  commerce  in  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, and  th£  prices  prevailing  in  the  various 
markets; 

"(h)  Communicate  to  parties  interested,  also  as 
promptly  as  possible,  all  the  information  just  re- 
ferred to ; 

"(c)   Indicate  the  wages  paid  for  farm  work; 

"(d)Mdkc  known  the  new  diseases  of  vegetables 
which  may  appear  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
showing  the  territories  infected,  the  progress  of 
the  disease,  and,  if  possible,  the  remedies  which 
are  effective  in  combating  them ; 

"(e)  Study  questions  concerning  agricultural 
cooperation,  insurance,  and  credit  in  all  their  as- 
pects; collect  and  publish  information  which  might 
be  useful  in  the  various  countries  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  works  connected  with  agricultural  coop- 
eration, insurance,  and  credit ; 

"(/)  Submit  to  the  approval  of  the  govern- 
ments, if  there  is  occasion  for  it,  measures  for  the 
protection  of  the  common  interests  of  farmers  and 
for  the  improvement  of  their  condition,  after  hav- 
ing utilized  all  the  necessary  sources  of  informa- 
tion, such  as  the  wishes  expressed  by  international 
or  other  agricultural  congresses  or  congresses  of 
sciences  applied  to  agriculture,  agricultural  socie- 
ties, academies,   learned  bodies,  etc. 

"All  questions  concerning  the  economic  inter- 
ests, the  legislation,  and  the  administration  of  a 
particular  nation  shall  be  excluded  from  the  con- 
sideration  of  the   institute. 

"Article  10.  The  nations  adhering  to  the  insti- 
tute shall  be  classed  in  five  groups,  according  to 
the  place  which  each  of  them  thinks  it  ought  to 
occupy.  The  number  of  votes  which  each  nation 
shall  have  and  the  number  of  units  of  assessment 
shall  be  established  according  to  the  following 
gradations: 


Groups  of 
nations 

Numbers 
of  votes 

Units  of 
assessment 

I 

II 

Ill 

s 

4 

3 

16 
8 

4 
2 

I 

IV 

V 

2 

I 

"In  any  event  the  contribution  due  per  unit  of 
assessment  shall  never  exceed  a  maximum  of  2,500  ■ 
francs.  As  a  temporary  provision  the  assessment 
for  the  first  two  years  shall  not  exceed  1,500 
francs  per  unit.  Colonies  may,  at  the  request  of 
the  nations  to  which  they  belong,  be  admitted  to 
form  part  of  the  institute  on  the  same  condi- 
tions as  the  independent  nations. 


155 


AGRIGENTUM 


AHMAD  SHAH 


"Article  ii.  The  present  convention  shall  be 
ratified  and  the  ratifications  shall  be  exchanged  as 
soon  as  possible  by  depositing  them  with  the  Ital- 
ian Government." 

On  March  27,  iqo6,  the  Italian  ambassador  at 
Washington  was  able  to  announce  that  "the  States 
which  were  represented  at  the  conference  of  last 
year  at  Rome  .  .  .  have  now  all  sanctioned  by  the 
signature  of  their  plenipotentiaries,  the  Conven- 
tion drafted  at  that  Conference,"  As  appears  from 
a  copy  transmitted,  the  convention  had  been  signed 
by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  forty  nations,  includ- 
ing twelve  .\merican  republics  besides  the  United 
States.  At  the  second  general  meeting  of  the  in- 
stitute at  Rome,  Dec.  12,  iqog,  at  which  more 
than  one  hundred  foreign  delegates  were  present, 
Victor  Emmanuel  III  of  Italy  bestowed  upon  it  a 
yearly  allowance  of  300,000  lire.  This  generous 
grant  was  used  in  the  construction  of  a  palace, 
which  the  institute  now  occupies.  The  organiza- 
tion carried  on  its  work  throughout  the  duration 
of  the  World  War,  supplying  the  data  upon  which 
all  food  commissions  based  their  plans  for  con- 
servation. Today  (1021)  fifty-eight  nations  are 
members  of  the  institute  and  until  his  recent  death 
David  Lubin  had  a  goodly  share  in  its  fine  work. 
Upon  learning  that  Belgium,  Germany  and  Italy 
were  far  better  organized  for  farm  credit  than  the 
United  States,  he  urged  the  United  States  to  ap- 
point a  commission  to  study  cooperation  in  rural 
credit  and  finance.  This  they  did,  and  partly  as 
a  result  of  the  work  of  this  commission  we  have 
the  establishment  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  banks 
in  1Q16. 

AGRIGENTUM  (Acragas),  one  of  the  young- 
est of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily,  founded  about 
582  B.  C.  by  the  older  colony  of  Gela,  became  in 
the  fifth  century  B.  C.  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  splendid  cities  of  the  age,  as  is  testified  by 
its  ruins.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  notorious 
tyranny  of  Phalaris,  as  well  as  that  of  Theron. 
Agrigentum  was  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginians, 
405  B.  C,  and  rebuilt  by  Timoleon,  but  never 
recovered  its  former  importance  and  grandeur. 
— E.  Curtius,  History  oj  Greece,  bk.  4,  cli.  3. 
See  Sicily:  B.C.  400-405. — It  was  the  scene  of  a 
great  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  by  the  Romans, 
in  262  B.  C.     See  Punic  W.\rs:  First. 

AGRIPPA,  Baths  of.  Among  the  principal  Ro- 
man baths  said  to  have  been  built  21  B.  C.  im- 
mediately    behind     the     Pantheon.       See    Baths. 

AGRIPPA,  Herod,  I.  (c.  B  C.  lo-A.  D.  44), 
king  of  Judea,  the  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great; 
was  a  great  favorite  with  Gains  fCaUgula)  who 
gave  him  jurisdiction  over  Batansa  and  Tracho- 
nitis,  later  adding  the  tetrarchy  of  Herod  Anti- 
pas  (A.  D.  39),  whose,  banishment  he  procured. — 
See  also  Jews:  B.  C.  40-A.  D.  44;  Christianity: 
.'\.  D.  ^■^-^o. 

AGRIPPA,  Herod,  II  (A.D.  27-100),  the  last  of 
the  descendants  of  Herod  the  Great;  king  of 
Judea,  following  his  father  Agrippa  I;  deprived 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Chalcis  by  Claudius  in  A.  D. 
53. — See  also  Jews:   B.  C.  40-.^.  D.  44. 

AGRIPPA,  Marcus  Vipsanius  (63-12  B.  C), 
Roman  general  and  statesman ;  advisor  to  the  em- 
peror Augustus  who  succeeded  Julius  Caesar  (44 
B.  C.)  ;  carried  on  successful  expeditions  against 
the  Aquitanians  and  the  Germans  38  B.  C;  was 
made  consul  in  37  B.  C;  defeated  Pompeius  at 
Mylae,  36  B.  C,  and  was  responsible  for  the  vic- 
tory at  .Actium   (^i  B.  C). 

AGRIPPINA,' the  "younger"  (A.  D.  16-50), 
daughter  of  Agrippina  the  elder  and  sister  of  Gaius 
fCaligula).  She  was  (he  mother  of  Nero  whom 
she  placed  upon  the  throne  through  intrigue.    Nero 


had  her  put  to  death. — See  also  Rome:  A.  D.  47- 
'54:   and  A.   D.  54-64. 

AGUESSEAU,  Henri  Francois  d'  (166S- 
1751),  illustrious  chancellor  of  France;  at  twenty- 
one  was  appointed  advocate-general  to  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  and  procurator-general  in  1700. 

AGUILA,  Don  Juan  de:  Commander  of  Span- 
ish fleet  sent  to  aid  Ulster.    See  Ulster:  1585-1608. 

AGUILAR  Y  CORREA,  Antonio,  Marques  de 
la  \'ega  de  .^rmijo  (1824-1000),  Spanish  states- 
man. Associated  with  the  Union  Liberal  party, 
1855-1866;  in  1873  became  ambassador  to  France; 
played  a  prominent  part  in  frustrating  the  plans 
of  the  Carlists.  Held  many  ministerial  positions 
in  Spain,  among  others,  minister  of  state. 

AGUINALDO,  Emilio  (1S70-  ),  a  Filipino 
mestizo  of  Chinese  and  Tagolog  parentage,  and 
the  leader  first  of  the  revolt  against  Spain,  and 
then  of  the  insurrection  against  the  United  States 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  San  Juan  de 
Letran  and  at  the  University  of  St,  Thomas  in 
Manila.  He  became  mayor  of  Cavite  Viejo. 
While  still  a  very  young  man,  he  became  inter- 
ested in  the  liberal  movement  in  the  Philippines. 
When  the  insurrection  of  i8q6  was  suppressed,  he 
was  the  chief  of  the  revolutionary  leaders  exiled 
by  Spain  to  Hongkong.  (See  Philippine  Islands: 
1806-1808).  With  Hongkong  as  a  center,  Agui- 
naldo  contrived  to  continue  his  machinations 
against  Spain  until  they  culminated  in  the  insur- 
rections of  i8q8,  when  he  returned  to  Manila  to 
aid  the  United  States  against  Spain.  (See  U.  S.  A.: 
i8q8  (April-May):  Philippines).  Aguinaldo  ar- 
rived in  Manila  May  lo,  iSgS,  and  proceeded  to 
organize  the  insurgent  forces.  Although  Aguinal- 
do's  first  attitude  towards  the  United  States  in  the 
Philippines  was  one  of  welcome  and  cooperation,  he 
gradually  became  antagonistic  toward  the  Ameri- 
can army,  and  with  him  also  many  of  the  more 
notable  Filipinos.  (See  U.  S.  A.:  1898  (July- 
August):  Philippines).  When  the  manifesto  es- 
tablishing a  protectorate  over  the  Philippines  was 
issued,  Aguinaldo,  who  had  proclaimed  himself 
president  of  the  Philippine  Republic  (see  U.  S.  A.: 
i8qS  (July-September)),  met  it  with  a  counter- 
proclamation  asserting  the  independence  of  the 
islands,  saying,  "The  United  States  did  not  take 
me  out  of  Hongkong  to  make  war  for  their  own 
benefit."  (See  Philippint;  Islands:  i8q8-i8qq: 
December-January).  This  manifesto  he  followed 
with  an  armed  insurrection  against  the  llnited 
States  forces.  After  three  years'  fighting  Aguinaldo 
was  forced  to  flee  to  the  mountains  of  Luzon.  (Sec 
Pun^iPPiNE  Islanos:  i8qq:  Armed  opposition  to 
establishment  of  American  government.)  He  was 
finally  captured  in  iqoi  by  Brigadier-General  Fun- 
ston  at  Palawan,  Luzon,  and  capitulated  with  some 
grace  by  issuing  an  address  to  his  countrymen  ask- 
ing them  to  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States.  (See  Philippine  Islands:  iqoi:  Es- 
tablishment of  civil  government).  He  retired  from 
public  life. 

A.  H.  (Anno  hejirae).  See  Chronology: 
Era  of  the  hcgira. 

AHENOBARBUS  ("brazen-bearded"),  a  ple- 
beian family  of  Rome,  the  name  being  derived  from 
the  peculiar  fact  that  most  of  the  members  of  the 
family  had  red  hair  or  beards.  Some  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  family  were:  Gnaeus  Domitius  Aheno- 
barbus,  tribune  (104  B.  C),  Lucius  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  consul  in  54  B.  C,  and  Gnsus 
Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  son  of  the  above,  consul 
in  the  year  32  B.  C.  and  supporter  of  Octavius 
against   .\ntnnv. 

AHMAD  SHAH  (1724-1773'.  the  founder  of 
the  Durani  dynasty  in  Afghanistan ;  led  a  revolt  of 


156 


AHMADIYA 


AIRCRAFT 


the  Afghanistan  tribes  in  1747  and  was  crowned 
sovereign  in  October  of  that  year.  He  was  the 
possessor  cA  the  famous  Koh-i-noor  diamond; 
gained  control  of  the  Punjab  in  1751,  subdued 
Kashmir  the  following  year  and  pillaged  Delhi  in 
1756.  Ahmad  inflicted  a  serious  defeat  upon  the 
Mahrattas  who  essayed  to  take  possession  of  the 
Punjab  (1758),  which  he  later  lost  to  the  Sikhs. — 
See    also    India:     1747-1761;    Afghanistan;    330- 

1747- 

AHMADIYA. — "A  sect  which  claims  to  have 
500,000  members  in  various  parts  of  India  is  the 
Ahmadiya.  It  was  founded  in  iSSq  by  Mirza 
Ghulam  Ahmad,  who  was  born  at  Quadian  near 
Batala  about  fifty  years  earlier.  He  claimed  to 
be  the  promised  Mahdi  of  the  Moslems,  the  Mes- 
siah of  the  Christians,  and  the  Avatar  of  the 
Hindus;  and  taught  that  Mohammed  revealed  the 
same  great  truths  as  are  contained  in  other  re- 
ligions and  embodied  them  in  the  Koran.  Mr. 
O'Malley  writes  of  the  cult  in  the  Census  Re- 
port : 

"  'One  significant  feature  of  the  cult  is  its  op- 
position to  Christianity.  According  to  Mussalman 
belief,  when  the  end  of  the  world  approaches^ 
Dajjal  (Anti-Christ)  will  rule,  and  the  powers  of 
evil  will  reign  till  Christ  reappears,  and,  with  the 
help  of  Mahdi,  overthrows  Dajjal  and  converts 
the  whole  world  to  Islam.  The  Ahmadiya  re- 
jects this  doctrine  and  identifies  Dajjal  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Christian  Church,  such  as  the 
atonement  and  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  In 
fact,  he  holds  that  the  prophecy  of  the  advent 
of  Dajjal  has  been  fulfilled  by  the  spread  of 
Christian  missionaries.' " — S.  M.  Zwemer,  Disin- 
tegration, of  Islam,  p.  loi. 

AHMAR,  Mahomet  Ibn-Al  (Mohammed  I, 
of  Granada) :  Founder  of  the  Alhambra.  See 
SrAiN:   1238-1273.  , 

AHMED  I  (158Q-1617),  Turkish  sultan. 

Ahmed  II  (1643-1605),  Turkish  sultan. 

Ahmed  III.  (1637-1736),  Turkish  sultan.  Shel- 
tered Charles  XII  of  Sweden,  after  the  battle  of 
Poltava.  Fought  a  successful  war  with  Russia, 
but  was  defeated  in  other  contests.  Deposed  by 
the  Janissaries,  and  died  in  prison. 

Struggle  with  Hungarians.  See  Hungary: 
i6Qg-i7i8. 

AHMED  (Al  Mostanser  Billah),  last  caliph 
of  Bagdad.     See  Bagdad:   12 58. 

AHMED  ARABI  (Arabi  Pasha)  (c.  183Q-  ), 
Egyptian  revolutionary  leader.  See  Egypt:  1875- 
1882. 

AHMED  MIRZA  (i8q8-  ),  shah  of  Persia, 
succeeding  his  deposed  father  in  igoq,  in  the  midst 
of  unsettled  conditions.     See  Persia:    igoS-igog. 

AHMED  VEFIK,  Pasha  (1819-1801),  Turkish 
statesman  and  man  of  letters.  Furthered  the 
spread  of  French  culture  by  translations;  editor 
of  the  first  official  annual  of  his  country ;  am- 
bassador to  Persia,  1851-1855;  president  of  the 
Turkish  parliament  in  1877;  prime  minister  in 
1878  and  1S82.  As  vali  of  Brusa  (1878-1882)  in- 
augurated many  internal  reforms. 

AHMEDABAD,  British  India,  scene  of  a  re- 
beUion  in   iqiS.     See  Indi^:   igig. 

AHMEDNAGAR,  or  Ahmadnagar,  city  and 
district  of  British  India  in  the  central  division  of 
Bombay.  The  city,  founded  1494,  was  the  seat 
of  a  monarchy  until  1636;  in  1803  captured  by 
the  British  (see  India:  1708-1805),  who  obtained 
possession  of  it  bv  the  Treaty  of  Poona,  181 7. 

AHTENA  INDIANS.  See  Indians,  Ameri- 
can: Mackenzie  .^rea. 

AHURAMAZDA,  Zoroastrian  deity.  See  ZoRO- 
ASTKiANs:   Magians:  Parsees. 


AHVAZ,  Persia.— 1914.— Held  by  Turks.  See 
World  War:  igi4:  IV.   Turkey:  i. 

1915. — Turks  driven  from  it.  See  World  War: 
igiS:   VI.  Turkey:   c,  1. 

AIBAK,  ruler  in  India.     See  India:  977-i2go. 

AIDAN,  or  Aedan  (d.  651),  first  bishop  of 
Lindisfarne  (about  634)  ;  helped  in  the  restoration 
of  Christianity  in  Northumbria  See  Christian- 
ity: 5g7-8oo:  Lindisfarne:  635-664. 

AIDIN,  a  town  in  the  former  Turkish  vilayet 
of  the  same  name,  situated  near  the  river  Men- 
dere,  about  seventy  miles  southeast  of  Smyrna, 
the  capital.  It  is  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Tralles 
and  contains  numerous  fine  bazaars,  Greek  relig- 
ious edifices  and  several  Turkish  mosques.  In  i8gg 
the  town  was  greatly  damaged  by  an  earthquake. 
After  the  World  War  the  greater  part  of  the  vila- 
yet, including  the  city  of  Smyrna,  was  placed 
under  the  mandate  of   Greece. 

AIGINA.     See  ^gina. 

AIGUILLON,  Emmanuel  Armand  de  Wigne- 
rod  du  Plessis  de  Richelieu,  Due  d'  (1720-1782), 
French  statesman  and  nephew  of  the  Marechal  de 
Richelieu ;  took  part  in  the  campaign  against  Italy 
and  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession;  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Brittany,  1753. 

AIGUILLON,  Siege  of,  a  notable  siege  in  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  1346.  An  English  garrison 
under  the  famous  knight,  Sir  Walter  Manny,  held 
the  great  fortress  of  Aiguillon,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Garonne  and  the  Lot,  against  a  formidable 
French  army. — J.  Froissart,  Chronicles,  v.  i,  bk.  1, 
ell.   120. 

AILETTE,  a  river  in  France,  flowing  into  the 
Oise;  south  of  St.  Gobain  forest  and  north  of  the 
Chemin  des  Dames;  was  the  scene  of  severe,  fight- 
ing in  the  World  War,  especially  in  1017  and  igi8. 
— See  also  World  War:  1017:  II.  Western  front: 
b,  2,  i;  igi8:  II.  Western  front:  g,  1,  g,  6. 

AILLES,  taken  by  the  French  (1017).  See 
World  War:    1Q17:   II.  Western  front:   f,  3. 

AIN  KOHLEH,  Palestine.— 1917.— British  ob- 
jective. See  World  War:  1917:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:    c,  2,  iii. 

AINCREVILLE,  French  town,  north-west  of 
Verdun,  taken  by  the  Allies  in  igiS.  See  World 
War:    igi8:    II.  Western  front:   x,  4. 

AINOS,  aborigines  of  Japan.  See  Japan:  In- 
habitants and  their  origins. 

AINTAB,  Syrian  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Aleppo 
with  a  large  population  of  Armenians  and  Greek 
Christians.  It  is  the  site  of  the  Central  Turkey 
College,  founded  by  the  American  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions,  and  in  March,  igog,  was  included 
in  the  Adana  massacres,  during  which  15,000  Ar- 
menians were  killed  in  three  days. — See  also  Tur- 
key:   igog. 

Siege  of  Aintab. — French  forced  to  evacuate 
(ig2o).     See  Syria:   igo8-ig2i. 

AIR  BRAKE:  Various  forms.  See  Inven- 
tions:  igth  century:   Railroad  air  brake. 

AIR  NAVIGATION,  Commission  on.  See 
Aviation:  Development  of  airplanes  and  air  ser- 
vice:  igi8-ig2i:  Aerial  law. 

AIR  RAIDS.  See  England:  igi4  (Dec.  16, 
24);  Londos:  igi5-igi7;  Paris:  igi4;  World 
War:  igis:  X.  War  in  the  air;  1918:  VIII.  Avia- 
tion. 

AIR  ROUTES,  Africa,  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Italy,  U.  S.  See  Aviation:  Development  of 
airplanes  and  air  service:  igi8-io2i:  Air  service 
after  World  War;  also  Cape-to-Cairo  railway:  Air 
route  established.  ;; 

AIR  SERVICE,  American.  See  Aviation:  De- 
velopment of  airplanes  and  air  service:   igi4-igi8. 

AIRCRAFT.    See  Aviation. 


157 


AIRCRAFT 


AIRCRAFT:     Military.     See  Aviation:    1896- 
'loio-    1014:    Aviation  in  war. 

AIRCRAFT  PRODUCTION,  Bureau  of.    See 

^A^IRCRAFT   PRODUCTION    INVESTIGA- 

"ATR-E.'^Fr^nfe:^Ca'p\u^re    by     Marlborough 

^^i'^iRr  ^n™cTld'^r-^'navigation 

CANAL.     See  Canals:  Principal  European  canals: 

British  Isles.  ,  „        „a  ^ 

AIREY,  Richard  Airey,  Baron  {1803-1881), 
Bn^ish  general.  Served  in  the  Cnn.ea  governor 
of  Gibraltar,  1865  1870;  presided  over  the  cele 
brated  Airev  commission  on  army  relorms. 

AIRPLANE.  See  Aviation:  Development  ot 
airplanes   and   air   service:    1809-1874;    18S9-1Q00; 

'^AIRSHIPS:  Invention.  See  Aviation:  Devel- 
opment of  balloons  and  dirigibles:   1884-1SP7. 

AIRY  Sir  George  Biddell  (i8oi-i8gi),  Eng- 
lish astronomer.  Conducted  the  astronomical  ob- 
servations preliminary  to  the  boundary  survey  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  mvented 
a  device  to  correct  the  compass  variations  on  war 
ships.     See  Astronomy.  .     ^     ,•  u       >i; 

AISLABIE,  John  (1670-1742),  English  poli- 
tician In  1 7 18  became  chancellor  ol  the  ex- 
chequer; supported  the  P'^P^'^f  f'^' ^^"'^„  ^he 
Company  to  pay  the  national  debt  and  on  he 
collapse   of   that  company   w.as  expelled   from   the 

TlSNE  a  French  river  flowing  through  Soissons, 
tributarv  'to  the  Gise.  Tlie  Germans  occupied 
strong  positions  north  of  the  A.sne  after  their 
retreat  from  the  Marne,  September  12-28  iqi4- 
The  Allied  forces  succeeded  in  partially  dislodg- 
ing the  Germans  from  these  positions  and  some 
of  the  most  bitter  fighting  of  igi"  and  iqi8  took 
place  in  this  vicinity.  The  valley  ol  the  A.sne 
with  its  chief  affluents,  the  Aire  and  the  Vesle, 
constitutes  one  of  the  natural  highways  from  the 
Belgian  frontier  to  the  neighborhood  of  Faris. 
AISNE,  Department  of:  1600.— Cession  to 
France.     See  France:   1599-1610. 

Topography  of  area.     See  World  War:   1Q14: 
I.  Western  front:   s,  1. 

1914.— Scene    of    fighting.     See   World    War. 
IQ14:  I.  Western  front:  p;  p,  3;   and  r 

1914.— First  battle  of.    See  World  War:  1914: 
I    Western  front:  s,  and  3,  4.  ,.     ,  c 

1914 —Weakening  of  German  attacks,  bee 
World  War:   1Q14:  I-  Western  front:  s,  3. 

1914.— Troyon.    See  World  War:  1914:  1-  West- 
ern front:   s,  5.  .^,        »       j     \.„ 
1917— Gained     by     French.— Threatened     by 
Germans.- Offensive    by    French.      See    World 
War:    igi7:   H    Western  front:  b,  1;   b,  1,  1;   and 

b,  2,  iii.  „        .  ca. 

1917— Chemin  des  Dames  offensive.  bee 
World  W.^r:   IQ17:  "    Western  front:  b,  1,  11. 

1917._Second  battle  of.  See  World  War. 
IQI7-  II    Western  front:  f,  and  f,  3. 

1918.— Third  battle  of.  See  World  War:  1918: 
n.  Western  front:  a,  3. 

1918— Aisne  River  reached  and  crossed  by 
Germans.  See  World  War:  igiS:  II.  Western 
front:  f,  1,  and  g,  1. 

1918— Region  of  fighting.  €ee  World  War^ 
igi8:  II.  Western  front:  d,  19;  g,  6;  g,  9,  iv;  and 

'  Devastation  by  the  Germans.  See  World 
War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  XI.  Devas- 
tation:   C.  ,  ,         ,  -A        T„ 

AISTULF,  king  of  the  Lombards,  749-756.  in 
751    seized    Ravenna    and    soon    after    threatened 

I 


AIX-LA-CHAPELtE 

* 

Rome  The  pope  secured  the  aid  of  Pepin,  who 
defeated  Aistulf  at  Pavia  and  forced  him  to  return 
the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  to  the  papacy,  bee 
Italy-   568-800;  Lombards:   754-774- 

AITKEN,  Major-General  John  James  (b. 
1878),  Campaign  against  Tanga.  See  World  War: 
1914:  VI.  .\frica:  c,  1.  ,  „       1,      a., 

AIX,  a  city  in  the  department  of  Bouches-du- 
Rhone,  France,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Aqus 
Sextia?  It  was  founded  as  a  military  colony  in 
,21  B  C.  In  the  vear  102  B.  C.  not  far  from  the 
city  Marius  defeated  the  Teutones  and  their  allies. 
It  was  later  the  capital  of  Provence  and  a  liter- 
arv  center  Before  the  French  Revolution  it  was 
the    seat    of    one    of    the    chief    provincial    parle- 

ments.  .       r 

AIX,   a   small   island   off   the   western  coast   of 
France   between   the   mouth   of   the   Charente   and 
the    Island    of    Oleron.     The    roadstead    near    the 
Wand    affords    the    best    anchoras-.e    between    the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  Loire  and  tlironde.     It  was 
here    in     181S    that    Napoleon    went    aboard    the 
-Bellerophon,"     which     took     him     to     England, 
whence  he  was  sent  to  St.  Helena.        ^     .^  ,        ^ 
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE:        The      Capital      of 
Charlemagne.— The  favorite  residence  and  one  ot 
the    two    capitals    of    Charlemagne    was    the    city 
which  the   Germans  call   Aachen   and   the    French 
have    named    Aix-la-Chapelle.      "He    ravished    the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  world   to  restore   the  monu- 
mental arts.     A  new  Rome  arose  in  the  depths  ol 
the    forests    of    Austrasia— palaces,    gates,    bridges, 
baths,  galleries,  threatres,  churches,— for  the  erec- 
tion   of   which   the   mosaics   and  marbles   ot    Italy 
were  laid  under  tribute,  and  workmen  summoned 
from  all  parts   of  Europe.     It  was  there  that  an 
extensive  library  was  gathered,  there  that  the  schoo 
of    the    palace    was    made    permanent,    there    that 
foreign   envovs   were    pompously    welcomed,   there 
that  the  monarch  perfected  his  plans  lor  the   in- 
troduction of  Roman  letters  and  the  improvement 
of   music."— P;    Godwin,  History    of  France:    .in- 
dent Gaul,  bk.  4,  ch.  17. 

Cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.-A  famous 
cathedral  founded  by  Charlemagne,  the  plan  ol 
which  bears  resemblance  to  San  Vitale  and  simi- 
lar Italian  buildings.  It  consists  of  a  polygonal 
structure  built  in  796  and  a  fourteenth  century 
pointed  choir. 
Treaty  of  803.     See  Venice:    697-810-  . 

Modern  city.-The  city  lies  forty-four  miles 
west  of  Cologne  on  the  great  railway  trunk  line 
Berlin— Brussels— Paris.  Previous  to  1914  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (Aachen)  was  made  a  place  of  great 
miUtary  importance  by  means  of  a  network  ol 
strategic  railwavs.  With  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  it  became  with  Metz  the  prmcipal 
detraining  station  for  the  German  arniies  and 
therefore  the  principal  gateway  trough  which 
thev  poured,  for  the  invasion  ol  Belgium  and 
northern  France.-See  also  Germany:   Map. 

Congresses  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.-Three  con- 
gresses have  been  held  by  the  European  Powers  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  a  city  in  Prussia,  the  lirst  in  1668, 
the  second  in  1748  and  the  third  m  1818. 
■  (I)  The  Treaty  of  .\ix-l.^-Chapelte,  May  2, 
1668  put  an  end  to  the  W'lr  of  Revo  u 
tion  and  closed  the  Treaty  of  St.  Ger- 
ml  which  was  signed  April  15  of  that  year  by 
representatives  of  France  and  the  nations  m  he 
Triple  Alliance  France  gained  '"^''"';''l>'  '^\»'^! 
orovisions  of  the  treaty,  being  permitted  to  hold 
all  heTerritorv  she  conquered  in  Flanders  durmg 
?he    campaign    of    i667.-See    also    Netherlands: 

'^^2)  The   Congress   and   Treaty    which   ended 


58 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Congress  of  174S 
Congress  of  1818 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


THE  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1748). — 
The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  which  raged 
in  Europe,  on  the  ocean,  and  in  India  and  America, 
from  1740  to  1748  (see  Austria:   1718-1738,  1740- 
1741,  and   after),  was  brought   to  an  end   in   the 
latter   year   by   a   congress   of   all   the   belligerents 
which  met  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  April,  and  which 
concluded  its  labors  on  October  18  following.    "The 
influence  of  England  and  Holland  .  .  .  forced  the 
peace    upon    Austria    and    Sardinia,    though    both 
were  bitterly  aggrieved  by  its  conditions.     France 
agreed    to   restore   every   conquest   she    had    made 
during    the    war,    to    abandon    the    cause    of    the 
Stuarts,  and  expel  the  Pretender  from  her  soil ;  to 
demolish,   in   accordance   with   earlier   treaties,  the 
fortifications  of   Dunkirk  on   the  side   of   the   sea, 
while  retaining  those  on  the  side  of  the  land,  and 
to  retire  from  the  conquest  without  acquiring  any 
fresh    territory    or    any    pecuniary    compensation. 
England  in  like  manner  restored  the  few  conquests 
she  had  made  [see  England:  1754-1755!,  and  sub- 
mitted  to  the  somewhat   humiliating  condition   of 
sending   hostages   to    Paris    as   a   security    for   the 
restoration     of     Cape     Breton.  .  .  .  The     disputed 
boundary  between  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia,  which 
had    been    a    source    of    constant    difficulty    with 
France,   was   left   altogether  undefined.      [See   also 
New  England:    1745-1748.I     The   Assiento   treaty 
for  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies  was  confirmed 
for  the  four  years  it  had  still  to  run ;  but  no  real 
compensation  was  obtained  for  a  war  expenditure 
which  is  said  to  have  exceeded  sixty-four  millions, 
and  which   had   raised   the    funded   and   unfunded 
debt  to  more  than  seventy-eight  millions.     Of  the 
other  Powers,  Holland,  Genoa,  and  the  little  state 
of  Modena  retained   their   territory   as  before   the 
war,  and  Genoa  remained  mistress  of  the  Duchy  of 
Finale,  which  had  been  ceded  to  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia by  the  Treaty  of  Worms,  and  which  it  had 
been  a  main  object  of  his  later  policy  to  secure. 
Austria  obtained  a   recognition   of  the  election   of 
the  Emperor,  a  general  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  and  the  restoration  of  everything  she  hud 
lost  in  the  Netherlands,  but   she  gained   no  addi- 
tional territory.    She  was  compelled  to  confirm  the 
cession  of  Silesia  and  Glatz  to  Prussia,  to  abandon 
her  Italian  conquests,  and  even  to  cede  a  consid- 
erable part  of  her  former  Italian  dominions.     To 
the  bitter  indignation  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  Duch- 
ies of   Parma,   Placentia   and   Guastella   passed   to 
Don  Philip  of  Spain,  to  revert,  however,  to  their 
former    possessors    if    Don    Philip    mounted    the 
Spanish  throne,  or  died  without  male  issue.     The 
King  of  Sardinia   also  obtained   from   Austria   the 
territorial    cessions   enumerated    in    the    Treaty    of 
Worms    [see   Italy:    1743;    also    1740-1752],   with 
the     important     excejitions     of     Placentia,     which 
passed   to   Don   Philip,   and   of   Finale,   which    re- 
mained with  the   Genoese.     For  the  loss  of   these 
he    obtained    no    cnm]wnsation.      Frederick     [the 
Great,   of   Prussia]    obtained   a   general    guarantee 
for  the  possession  of  his  newly  acquired  territory, 
and  a  long  list  of  old  treaties  was  formally  con- 
firmed.    Thus  small  were   the  changes  effected  in 
Europe  by  so  much  bloodshed  and  treachery,  by 
nearly  nine  years  of  wasteful  and  desolating  war. 
The  design  of  the  dismemberment   of  Austria   had 
failed,    but   no   vexed   questions    had    been    set    at 
rest.  ...  Of   all   the   ambitious   projects  that   had 
been  conceived  during  the  war,  that   of  Frederick 
alone     was     substantially     realized." — W.     E.     H. 
Lecky,  England  in  the  iS(/i  century,  ch.  3. — "Thus 
ended  the  War  of  the  .Austrian  succession.     In  its 
origin  and  its  motives  one  of  the  most  wicked  of 
all   the   many   conflicts   which   ambition   and   per- 
fidy have  provoked  in  Europe,  it  excites  a  pecul- 


iarly mournful  interest  by  the  gross  inequality  in 
the  rewards  and  penalties  which  fortune  assigned 
to  the  leading  actors.  Prussia,  Spain  and  Sardinia 
were  all  endowed  out  of  the  estates  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg.  But  the  electoral  house  of  Bavaria, 
the  most  sincere  and  the  most  deserving  of  all  the 
claimants  to  that  vast  inheritance,  not  only  re- 
ceived no  increase  of  territory,  but  even  nearly 
lost  its  own  patrimonial  possessions.  .  .  .  The  most 
trying  problem  is  still  that  offered  by  the  mis- 
fortunes of  the  Queen  of  Hungary  [Maria  The- 
resa]. .  .  .  The  verdict  of  history,  as  expressed  by 
the  public  opinion,  and  by  the  vast  majority  of 
writers,  in  every  country  except  Prussia,  upholds 
the  justice  of  the  queen's  cause  and  condemns  the 
coalition  that  was  formed  against  her." — H.  Tuttle, 
History    oj  Prussia,    1745-1756,   ch.    2. 

(3)   Conference  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818). — 
The  negotiations  carried  on  in  1818  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle and  the  subsequent  treaty  had  to  deal  with 
problems  so  akin  to  those  confronting  the  delegates 
to  the  Versailles  Conference  in  iqiq  that  it  has  been 
thought  best  to  treat  them  quite  fully,     "The  great 
problem  that  confronted  the  statesmen  of  the  Res- 
toration   was    how    to    prevent    the    order    estab- 
lished by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  from  being  de- 
stroyed  by   revolutionary   outbreaks.      France,  es- 
pecially, as  the  home  of  revolution,  needed  care- 
ful watching.     A  coalition  of  great  powers  known 
as   the    Quadruple   Alliance,   composed    of    Russia, 
.'\ustria,   Prussia,   and   England,   was   organized,   in 
1815,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  'tranquillity 
of  Europe.'     It  was  to  meet  every  year  to  hold  a 
sort   of  political   inquest  on   the  state   of   Europe, 
to  suppress  rebellions,  and  to  advise  on   the  best 
means    of    preventing    the    spread    of    democratic 
ideas.     The   moving   spirit   of   this   league    to   en- 
force  autocracy  was  the   Austrian   Prince   Metter- 
nich  who   was  firmly  convinced  that  the  only  way 
to  fight  revolutionary  movements  which,  owing  to 
the   French    Revolution,   had   become   international, 
was  by  a  compact  of  the  despots  pledged  to  sup- 
port one  another  in  case  of  an  uprising.     If  revo- 
lution  was  to   be   international,   so   would   be   re- 
pression.     Because    of    this    Metternich    developed 
his  theory  of  'intervention';   namely,  that  Europe 
was  a  social  and  political  unit  with  a  uniform  sys- 
tem of  government  and  society ;   hence  an  attack 
on   any   part   of   it   would   be   fatal   to   the   whole 
unless  defended  by  the  whole.     International  con- 
gresses  were    held    at    .Aix-la-Chapelle    in    1818,    at 
Troppau  in   1820,  and  at  Laibach  in   1821,  where 
the  principle  of  'intervention'  was  adopted  by  the 
Powers." — J.    S.    Schapiro,    Modern    and    contem- 
porary European   history,  pp.  20-21. 

"The  Conference  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  of  which 
the  first  session  was  held  on  September  30th,  was 
attended  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  the 
Emperor  Francis  of  Austria,  and  King  Frederick 
William  of  Prussia  in  person,  while  Cireat  Britain 
uas  represented  by  Wellington  and  Castlereagh. 
The  ministers  of  the  other  Powers  were  Capo 
d'Istria  and  Nesselrode  for  Russia.  Richelieu, 
though  not  admitted  to  the  conferences,  was  pres- 
ent on  behalf  of  France.  The  first  question  dis- 
cussed was  that  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Allied 
army  of  occupation,  and  on  this  there  was  com- 
plete unanimity.  At  the  second  session,  on  Oc- 
tober ist,  the  four  Powers  signed  a  protocol  agree- 
ing to  the  principle  of  the  evacuation  of  France 
at  the  end  of  the  third  year,  or  earlier  if  possible, 
subject  to  satisfactory  arrangements  being  made 
for  the  payment  of  the  instalments  of  the  indem- 
nity still  due,  which  amounted  to  265,000,000 
francs.  In  regard  to  this  latter,  Wellington  had 
been  empowered  to  make  an  arrangement  with  the 


159 


;>IX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Congress  of  1818 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


financial  houses  of  Hope,  of  Amsterdam,  and  Bar- 
ing, by  which  these  agreed  to  take  over  the  debt  on 
certain  terms,  thus  converting  it  into  an  ordinary 
pubhc  obligation,  which,  to  use  the  language  of  a 
draft  memorandum  laid  before  the  Cabinet,  could 
not  be  repudiated  by  the  French  Government  with- 
out an  act  of  violent  bankruptcy.  The  details  of 
the  negotiation  outstanding  on  September  30th 
were  soon  settled,  and  on  October  qth  a  treaty 
was  signed  by  which  the  Allies  agreed  to  withdraw 
their  troops  from  French  soil  by  November  30th. 
...  In  coming  to  this  decision  there  was  complete 
harmony  among  the  Powers;  there  was,  however, 
no  such  harmony  on  the  question  of  what  further 
consequences  were  to  follow  on  it.  The  Due  de 
Richelieu  argued  that  the  same  reasoning  which 
had  induced  the  Powers  to  put  an  end  to  the 
armed  occupation  should  lead  them,  as  a  logical 
consequence,  to  admit  France  to  the  Alliance  on 
equal  terms.  This  was,  however,  far  from  repre- 
senting the  mind  of  the  .Allies,  whose  policy  of 
evacuation  had  not  been  inspired  by  any  confi- 
dence in  the  improved  temper  of  the  French 
people.  The  autocratic  Powers  especially  were 
seriously  alarmed  by  what  they  considered  the 
weak  attitude  of  the  French  Government  towards 
the  Liberal  Revival,  to  which  recent  elections  had 
borne  disquieting  evidence.  .  .  .  On  the  question 
of  admitting  France  to  the  Alliance  on  the  basis 
of  the  Treaty  of  Chaumont  the  British  Cabinet 
was  at  one  with  the  other  Allies,  for  Castlereagh 
and  his  colleagues  had  a  strong  sense  of  the  pre- 
carious tenure  of  the  restored  monarchy  in  France, 
and  believed  that  the  maintenance  of  the  Quad- 
ruple Alliance  was  essential  to  the  peace  of  Europe; 
they  realized,  too,  the  paradox  involved  in  making 
France  a  party  to  a  treaty  which  was  primarily 
directed  against  herself.  On  the  other  hand,  were 
she  to  be  altogether  excluded,  she  would  inevitably 
become  the  nucleus  of  a  separate  alliance,  and 
everything  that  had  been  gained  by  the  European 
Concert  would  be  placed  in  jeopardy.  .  .  .  The 
problem  of  the  future  relation  of  France  to  the 
Alliance  thus  opened  up  at  .'\ix-la-Chapelle  the 
whole  broader  question  of  the  future  form  of  the 
'Confederation  of  Europe.'  As  to  this,  much  of 
course  depended  upon  the  attitude  of  the  Em- 
peror Alexander.  His  first  care  on  arriving  at 
Aix  had  been  to  place  beyond  doubt  his  own  ab- 
solute loyalty  to  the  European  .Alliance.  In  an 
interview  with  Metternich  on  September  20th  he 
indignantly  repudiated  the  truth  of  the  rumours 
that  he  had  been  meditating  a  breach  with  the 
Alliance  and  a  separate  understanding  with  France. 
...  In  subsequent  interviews  with  Wellington  and 
Castlereagh  he  used  the  same  language,  insisting 
that  his  army  was  the  army  of  Europe,  and  that 
he  could  not  admit  that  it  would  be  otherwise 
employed  than  with  Europe,  to  repress  any  at- 
tempt that  might  be  made  to  shake  the  system  of 
which  his  empire  formed  only  a  part.  .  .  .  Mean- 
while, Castlereagh  had  laid  before  the  Powers  the 
proposal  of  the  British  Government  .  .  .  which 
Metternich  at  once  approved,  while  Hardenberg 
and  Bernstorff  gave  it  a  friendly  but  more  re- 
served reception.  This  formed  the  basis  of  the 
negotiations  that  followed,  and  in  a  couple  of 
days  Castlereagh  reported  home  that  the  probable 
result  of  the  Conference  would  be  (i)  to  adhere 
strictly  to  the  treaties,  especially  those  of  Chau- 
mont and  Paris,  which  constituted  the  Quadruple 
Alliance;  (2)  not  to  admit  France  to  them,  not 
to  replace  them  by  a  Quintuple  Alliance;  (3)  to 
invite  France  to  join  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Powers  under  Article  VI  of  the  Treaty  of  .Alliance 
of   November   2oth,   which,   as   this   article   is   the 

I 


only  one  that  survived  the  war  or  that  would  be 
operative  so  long  as  France  kept  quiet,  would  in 
effect  place  her  in  a  line  with  the  other  Powers 
so  long  as  the  state  of  peace  subsisted;  (4)  in 
order  to  calm  the  alarm  of  the  other  Powers,  to 
issue  a  declaration  to  the  effect  that,  by  these 
regular  assemblies  the  Powers  had  no  intention  of 
arrogating  to  themselves  any  supremacy,  or  of 
interfering  in  the  politics  of  other  states  in  any 
way  not  warranted  by  the  law  of  nations.  .  .  . 
These  proposals,  however,  did  not  go  far  enough 
for  the  P^mperor  Alexander.  On  the  one  hand,  he 
was  eager  to  publish  to  all  the  world  the  renewal 
of  the  disciplinary  Alliance  of  Chaumont,  which 
the  others  were  anxious  to  keep  effective,  but  in 
the  background.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  bent 
on  using  this  opportunity  of  realizing  his  political 
ideal  of  a  confederated  Europe.  The  outcome  of 
this  religious  fervour  was  the  presentation  to  the 
other  -Allies  on  October  Sth  of  a  confidential  mem- 
orandum of  the  Russian  cabinet  drafted  by  Pozzo 
di  Borgo,  stating  the  Tsar's  views  on  the  measures 
to  be  adopted  in  order  to  ])reserve  Europe  from 
a  return  of  revolutions  and  of  the  principle  that 
might  is  right.  Europe,  it  is  said,  had  been  restored 
in  181 5  and  served  till  now  by  the  .Alliance  of  the 
great  states,  unalterable  in  principle,  but  extending 
its  sphere  according  to  circumstances,  and  becom- 
ing thus  the  Alliance  of  all  the  states.  The  re- 
sults thus  far  achieved  had  been  due,  less  to  the 
uncertain  combinations  of  men  than  to  that  Su- 
preme Intelligence  to  which  the  sovereigns  had 
done  homage  by  the  act  of  September  20,  1815. 
The  woes  of  humanity  had  been  caused  by  egoism 
and  partial  combinations  in  politics,  and  the  proof 
of  this  was  the  good  derived  from  the  empire  of 
Christian  morality  and  of  the  Rights  of  Man  which 
had  given  Europe  peace.  The  system  of  Europe 
was  a  general  association,  which  had  for  founda- 
tion the  Treaties  of  Vienna  and  Paris,  for  con- 
servative principle  the  fraternal  union  of  the  Al- 
lied Powers,  for  aim  the  guaranteed  best  interests 
of  the  great  European  family ;  and  it  was  the 
work  not  of  any  man  but  of  Providence.  Its 
moral  support  lay  in  the  Quadruple  .Alhance  and 
the  Holy  .Alliance,  its  material  support  in  the 
armed  occupation  of  France.  .  .  .  The  Emperor 
then  proposed:  (i)  That  the  Quadruple  .Alliance 
should  be  preserved  as  against  danger  from  France; 
(2)  that  a  general  Alliance  should  be  formed,  con- 
sisting of  all  the  signatories  of  the  Treaties  of 
Vienna,  having  as  its  object  the  guarantee  of  the 
state  of  territorial  possession  and  of  sovereignty 
al>  antiquo.  The  first  of  these  objects  was  to  be 
established  by  a  protocol  defining  the  casus 
jcederis  and  the  military  measures  to  be  taken 
should  this  arise,  and  arranging  for  future  meet- 
ings. The  second  was  to  be  accomplished  by  a 
declaration  of  the  Great  Powers  announcing  to 
Europe  the  results  of  their  deliberations  at  .Aix, 
to  which  declaration,  since  the  (Quadruple  .Alliance 
was  not  a  partial  combination  but  the  basis  of  the 
General  Alliance,  all  the  states  which  had  signed 
the  acts  of  1S15  should  be  invited  to  subscribe. 
The  Quadruple  Alliance,  the  memorandum  e.x- 
plained,  was  held  together  as  yet  only  by  the 
sentiment  of  the  parties  to  it ;  but  if  it  formed 
part  of  a  wide  European  association  no  Power 
could  break  away  from  it  without  being  at  once 
isolated.  The  Quadruple  and  General  .Alliance 
would  be  proclaimed  as  a  single  and  indivisible 
system  by  the  signatures  of  the  Powers  to  the 
declaration.  Such  a  svstem  would  guarantee  the 
security  of  Governments  by  putting  the  rights  of 
nations  under  a  guarantee  analogous  to  that  which 
protects   individuals      The  Governments,  for  their 

60 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Congresa  of  18IS 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


parts,  being  relieved  from  fear  of  revolutions  could 
offer  to  their  peoples  Constitutions  of  a  similar 
type  ...  so  that  the  liberties  of  peoples,  wisely 
regulated,  would  arise  without  effort  from  this 
state  of  affairs  once  recognized  and  publicly 
avowed.  .  .  . 

"So  far  as  the  European  Concert  was  concerned, 
then,  the  outcome  of  the  Conference  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  was  a  compromise,  embodied  in  two  in- 
struments signed  on  November  15th.  The  first,  in 
the  form  of  a  secret  protocol,  renewed  the  Quad- 
ruple Alliance  for  the  purpose  of  watching  over 
France  in  case  of  fresh  revolutionary  outbreaks 
menacing  the  peace  of  Europe ;  this  was  com- 
municated in  confidence  to  Richelieu.  The  second, 
to  which  France  was  invited  to  adhere,  was  a  dec- 
laration, which  ran  as  follows:  'The  Convention 
of  October  9,  1818,  which  definitely  regulated  the 
execution  of  the  engagements  agreed  to  in  the 
Treaty  of  Peace  of  November  20,  1815,  is  consid- 
ered by  the  sovereigns  who  concurred  therein  as 
the  accomplishment  of  the  work  of  peace,  and  as 
the  completion  of  the  political  system  destined  to 
secure  its  soHdity.  The  intimate  union  established 
among  the  monarchs,  who  are  joint-parties  to  this 
system,  by  their  own  principles,  no  less  than  by 
the  interests  of  their  people,  offers  to  Europe  the 
most  sacred  pledge  of  its  future  tranquillity.  The 
object  of  the  union  is  as  simple  as  it  is  great  and 
salutary.  It  does  not  tend  to  any  new  political 
combinations — to  any  change  in  the  relations  sanc- 
tioned by  existing  treaties ;  calm  and  consistent 
in  its  proceedings,  it  has  no  other  object  than  the 
maintenance  of  peace,  and  the  guarantee  of  those 
transactions  on  which  the  peace  was  founded  and 
consolidated.  The  sovereigns,  in  forming  this 
august  union,  have  regarded  as  its  fundamental 
basis  their  invariable  resolution  never  to  depart, 
either  among  themselves  or  in  their  relations  with 
other  states,  from  the  strictest  observation  of  the 
principles  of  the  rights  of  nations:  principles, 
which,  in  their  application  to  a  state  of  perma- 
nent peace,  can  alone  effectually  guarantee  the 
independence  of  each  Government,  and  the  stabil- 
ity of  the  general  association.  Faithful  to  these 
principles,  the  sovereigns  will  maintain  them 
equally  in  those  meetings  at  which  they  may  be 
personally  present,  or  in  those  which  shall  take 
place  among  their  ministers;  whether  they  be  for 
the  purpose  of  discussing  in  common  their  own 
interests,  or  whether  they  shall  relate  to  questions 
in  which  other  Governments  shall  formally  claim 
their  interference.  The  same  spirit  which  will 
direct  their  councils  and  reign  in  their  diplomatic 
.  communications  will  preside  also  at  these  meet- 
ings; and  the  repose  of  the  world  will  be  con- 
stantly their  motive  and  their  end.  It  is  with 
these  sentiments  that  the  sovereigns  have  consum- 
mated the  work  to  which  they  were  calle(,i.  They 
will  not  cease  to  labour  for  its  confirmation  and 
perfection.  They  solemnly  acknowledge  that  their 
duties  towards  God  and  the  people  whom  they 
govern  make  it  peremptory  on  them  to  give  to  the 
world,  as  far  as  it  is  in  their  power,  an  example 
of  justice,  of  concord,  and  of  moderation ;  happy 
in  the  power  of  consecrating,  from  henceforth,  all 
their  efforts  to  protect  the  arts  of  peace,  to  in- 
crease the  internal  prosperity  of  their  states,  and 
to  awaken  those  sentiments  of  religion  and  mo- 
rality whose  influence  has  been  but  too  much  en- 
feebled by  the  misfortunes  of  the  times.'  .  .  . 
These  debates,  however,  by  no  means  occupied  the 
whole  time  of  the  Conference,  It  had  been  decided 
to  use  the  occasion  of  its  meeting  to  settle  if  pos- 
sible a  number  of  questions  of  common  interest, 
of  which  the  most  important  were  defined  in  the 


memorandum  of  the  British  Cabinet  already 
quoted.  These  were:  (i)  The  effective  suppres- 
sion of  the  Slave  Trade,  which  had  been  abolished 
in  principle  at  Vienna;  (2)  the  suppression  of  the 
Barbary  pirates;  (3)  the  refusal  of  the  King  of 
Sweden  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty 
of  Kiel;  and  (4 J— the  most  fateful  of  all — the 
proposed  general  mediation  between  Spain  and  her 
revolted  American  colonies. 

"It  is  clear  that  at  this  period  the  Alliance  was 
looked  upon  even  by  British  statesmen  as  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  union  of  the  Great  Pow- 
ers for  preserving  peace  on  the  basis  of  the  trea- 
ties; and  in  effect,  during  its  short  session  the  Con- 
ference acted,  not  only  as  a  European  representa- 
tive body,  but  as  a  sort  of  European  Supreme 
Court,  which  heard  appeals  and  received  peti- 
tions of  all  kinds  from  sovereigns  and  their  sub- 
jects alike.  The  German  mediatized  princes  in- 
voked the  aid  of  the  Powers  against  the  tyranny 
of  their  new  overlords,  and  received  satisfaction. 
The  Elector  of  Hesse  begged  to  be  allowed  to  ex- 
change his  now  meaningless  title  for  that  of  king; 
a  request  which  was  refused  because  it  was  judged 
inexpedient  to  make  the  royal  style  too  common. 
The  mother  of  Napoleon,  in  a  pathetic  letter,  pe- 
titioned for  the  release  of  her  son,  pleading  that 
he  was  now  too  ill  ever  again  to  be  a  menace  to 
Europe,  a  petition  refused  on  the  ostensible  ground 
that  there  was  proof  that  the  letter  was  a  pohtical 
move  and  had  been  concocted  under  Napoleon's 
own  direction.  The  people  of  Monaco  presented 
a  list  of  grievances  against  their  prince.  Questions 
as  various  as  the  settlement  of  the  ranks  of  diplo- 
matic agents,  the  rival  claims  of  Bavaria  and  the 
Hochberg  line  to  the  succession  in  Baden,  a  quarrel 
between  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg  and  Count  Ben- 
tinck  about  the  lordship  of  Kniphaussen,  the  situa- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  Austria  and  Prussia,  were 
brought  under  discussion,  settled  or  postponed.  In 
general,  on  these  minor  matters  it  was  possible  to 
come  to  an  agreement.  It  is,  however,  significant 
that  on  the  greater  issues  discussed  there  was  no 
such  edifying  harmony.  The  Powers  had  already 
agreed  in  principle  to  the  suppression  of  the  Slave 
Trade;  jealousy  of  British  sea-power  prevented 
their  accepting  that  mutual  'right  of  search'  by 
which  alone  it  could  have  been  suppressed.  The 
Barbary  pirates  were  the  scourge  of  the  whole 
continental  sea-board;  they  held  up  trading  ves- 
sels at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  and  in  the  Medi- 
terranean no  vessel  was  safe  that  did  not  sail 
under  the  British  or  the  Ottoman  flag;  yet  it  was 
found  impossible  to  concert  measures  against  them 
because  of  British  jealousy  of  Russian  intervention 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  struggle  between  Spain 
and  her  colonies  was  regarded  as  a  serious  menace 
to  the  peace  of  Europe ;  the  Powers  were  agreed 
as  to  the  principle  of  mediation,  but  could  not 
agree  as  to  its  form.  They  did  agree  in  calling 
the  King  of  Sweden  to  order.  He  obeyed,  but  at 
the  same  time  protested  against  the  'dictatorship' 
arrogated  to  themselves  by  the  Great  Powers,  a 
protest  reinforced  by  an  indignant  letter  from  the 
King  of  VViirttemberg.  ...  Of  the  more  important 
questions  thus  discussed  and  left  unsettled  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  the  most  interesting,  from  our  pres- 
ent point  of  view,  was  that  of  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies, the  debates  on  which  opened  up  the  whole 
question  of  the  relations  of  the  Old  World  and 
the  New,  and  even  foreshadowed  the  idea  of  that 
world-alliance  which  has  been  imperfectly  realized 
in  the  Hague  Conventions." — W.  .\.  Phillips,  Con- 
federation of  Europe,  pp.  163-191. — See  also 
France:  1815-1830. 

Also  in  W.  Russell,  History  of  modern  Europe, 


161 


AIX-LES-BAINS 

pt   2,  letter  30.-W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of 

•""Afx'LES-1irNS;a  watering  place  in  the  de- 
panme^t  ot  Sivoie,  France.  Celebrated  m  Roman 
trr^efunder  the  name  of  Aqux  Grat.an*  he  s.te 
o,  numerous  ancient  «.™-'"^  ^  ^  P°P"^;;'"'^  "" 
'-A^-^l^^yrt^e's^Ldrfcrs'trstatesman 
of  Mvste  Indi:^  promoted  internal  improvement, 
Ld^'purt'^he^tate  La  sound  Jinanaal  footmg^ 
AIZNADIN,  Battle  of  (034) ■    ^^e  lalipha. 

''a?AN,   ancient   name   by   which   the   northeast 

^"llclS^a'fo^tS  Xe"of  Arabia    on  the 
PMf  nf  Akabah      It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the 

^'iKARNAmANtEAGUE.     See  Acak^aku. 

'''^a'^karNANIANS.     See  Acarnanians. 

IkBAR     Jelfaladin    Mahomn.ed    (i542-x6o5) 

AK-HVNATON      See  Amenophis  iv. 
^^St  AT    Battle  at     See  Turkey:  1063-1073- 
iKlNDJALliTaken  by  the  British   (1916). 
Se^  WoRLO    War:    1Q16:    V.    Balkan    theater:    b, 

^'AkKAD-"The  beginnings  of  the  history  of 
BaSfa^are    shrouded    in    darkness    and    un«r- 

tainty  P-'-'-lJ-^'rdisUnct'^ra-'ce's  occupying 
?riand  S^m'iUc  and  Sumerian.  The  SemUes  oc- 
cupied the  northern  part  of  the  land,  called  Akkad 

Td'the  other  ^^ ^^^  ttS^ 
Scholars   =>f^«=?_''?at   neither    pe  p  ^^^^,^^. 

iTa^e^^rVVv  net-  it'is'htghTp^obable  that 
vallev     is   not   known.  —A.    1.   >.-iay,  /*"     > 

rule  'the  four  quarters   (of  ^e  wor.a  ^^    ^.^ 

still    earlier    kmg    Lugal-zaggisi     in 
authority  in  Sumer,  adopted  the    it       ^^^ 

a  pardonable  one        1-  vv  .^  ^^ 

a«d  Akkad,  pp.  14-15—  •  ■  •  •^°'*"^  -5"" 


ALABAMA 

calculated,  King  Sargon  of  Akkad  carried  his  "fns 
beyond   the   limits    of   Shinar   east    and   west   and 
north  and  south.  .  .  .  He  ^ad  conquered  almost  the 
whole  world  known  to  the  men  «'  Sh"^'' ^^^''""^'^ 
there    was    onlv    barbarian    darkness-except,    01 
course    \n  the  Nile  Valley,  whose  kings,  about  the 
same     ime   as   the   conquests  of   Sargon,  were   an- 
ne™ng  pTlestine  and  Pha-nicia,  and  must  have  had 
dpomatic    relations    with    the    King    «'    ^kkad^ 
Sargon  was  now  "lord  of  the  lour  quarters  o     he 
earth"  for  the  men  of  Shinar  did  not  think  ol  the 
barbarian^  darkness    beyond    'he    ran«e    o|    th 
knowledge   as   worth   reckoning      Th  s  7  'd   t^a 
Sargon  conquered  in  the  middle  of  the  third  mil 
Sum   before   Christ   is   to^ay    a    l^W    for    the 
operations  of  armies  come  in  part  from  the  lana 
orCia,   far   beyond   the   hills   of   Elam   on    the 
east"-E     Bevan,    Land    oj    the    two    rivers     pp. 
ffe  27-See   also   Babylonia:   Earliest   inhabitants; 
Jews:   Early  Semitic  migrations;   Religion:    B.C. 

2000-200;  Semites.  i,a.,f,\        See 

AKKERMAN,    Convention    of     (1826).      see 

AKOMINATOS,     Michael,     metropolitan     ot 
Attnfu'bo),  in  defence  of  Athens.     See  Athens: 

120^-1308. 

aKRAGAS      See  .\crigentum.  

AKROKERAUNIAN   PROMONTORY.     See 

^AKRON,  Ohio.-Housing  problem.  See 
»?.7r  BA^RADAlI-'leader  of  Jacobite  Church. 
'"a^TaDSHrTtTI  (d.  1007),  Spanish  mathe- 
-IrrBAMl-Onrof  the  Southern  States  of  the 
United  States,  bordering  on  the  Gulf  ol  Mexico 
kjpp  TI    S    ■K  •  Economic  map. 

Aboriginal     inhabitants.         See     Cherokees, 
MusKiioGEAN   or  Maskoki   t.amily. 

il29.-Embraced  in  the  Carolina  grant  to  Sir 
Pnhprt  Heath.    See  Ameuica:  1620. 

1663.-Emb;aced    in    the    Carolina    grant    to 
Monk,  Shaftesbury,  and  others.    See  North  Car- 

"  m2  im -French  occupation  and  first  set- 
tlement!-Founding  of   Mobile.-See  Louisiana. 

"'?7i2'r810-Early  settlement  by  Americans.- 
"In  th^  eadv  davs  territorial  Alabama  was  made 
up\ftorLricts,  based  on  the  riv.rs>.tems^^^^^^ 

"rnded  by  the  French  and  later  developed  by  th 
English    -d   Sp..,.r<^s^    Th-  . 

Tbe  and  a;:^und  Mobile  in  Uat  is  "ow  Baldwin 
MobUe  and  Washington  Counties,  even  before  aU 
this  had  become  American  territory.  In  7Q-. 
afer  M6bile  itself,  the  most  PoP"'""*  ."f  thes« 
ttUements  was  that  upon   the  Tensas  River.     It 

carried   on  pack  horses.     ^^"^  ,,  •*  t,,,„,,^:„i,„»  River 
the  American  settlements  on    he  Tomb^^eR..^^ 

I'^h'the' CmbiVe  This  --  -de  -n  I7,7jnd 
i,  believed  to  be  one  of  «»^'^..';^'^  ^^^  The  set- 
;i:;^t^:or:::^r,r;hljMI^^eek  country 

62 


ALABAMA,  1779-1781 


ALABAMA,  1848 


from  Georgia.  .  .  .  From  the  time  that  the  claims 
of  Georgia  to  the  Mississippi  territory  were  ex- 
tinguished (1804),  immigrants  began  to  flock  into 
what  is  now  Alabama.  One  party  left  North  Caro- 
lina, scaled  the  Blue  Ridge  with  their  wagons,  and 
descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee.  At 
Knoxville  they  built  flatboats  and  floated  down 
the  river  to  the  Muscle  Shoals,  where  they  disem- 
barked their  goods,  placed  them  on  pack  horses, 
which  had  been  brought  overland  from  Knoxville, 
and  from  the  Muscle  Shoals  as  a  new  basis,  de- 
parted overland  for  the  English  settlements  on  the 
Tombigbee,  about  St.  Stephens,  in  southern  Ala- 
bama, thus  traversing  in  a  journey  of  120  days 
from  North  Carolina  nearly  the  whole  length  of 
the  state  from  north  to  south. 

"The  northern  section  of  Alabama,  the  Tennessee 
valley  region,  was  settled  mainly  from  Tennessee, 
as  early  as  1787,  and  in  the  earlier  period  filled  up 
more  rapidly  than  some  of  the  other  sections. 
These  immigrants  came  overland  from  the  Cum- 
berland settlements  or  floated  down  the  river  in 
flatboats  from  the  settlements  farther  east.  The 
fourth  district  was  that  along  the  Alabama  River, 
with  centers  near  Claiborne,  in  Monroe  county, 
and  along  the  Alabama  River  from  the  confluence 
of  the  Coosa  and  the  Tallapoosa  rivers  down  to 
and  including  the  present  city  of  Montgomery. 
This  section  was  settled  mainly  by  Georgians  and 
Carolinians,  who  came  in  over  the  government 
road.  From  these  four  centers  population  grew 
and  extended  to  the  intervening  sections." — S.  B. 
Weeks,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  {Bulle- 
tin  12,  1915,  pp.   11-12). 

1779-1781.— Reconquest  of  West  Florida  by 
the  Spaniards.    See  Fi.orid.a:   1770-1781. 

1783. — Mostly  covered  by  the  English  cession 
Jo  the  United  States.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1783  (Sep- 
tember) . 

1783-1787. — Partly  in  dispute  with  Spain.  See 
Florida:   1783-1787. 

1798-1804.— All  but  the  West  Florida  district 
embraced  in  Mississippi  territory.  See  Mis- 
sissippi:  1708-1804. 

1803. — Portion  acquired  by  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase.    See  Louisiana:    1798-1803. 

1804. — Embraced  in  Mississippi  Territory.  See 
Mississippi:    1708-1804. 

1813-1814.— Creek  War.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1813- 
1814   (August- — April). 

1817. — Detached  from  Mississippi  and  made 
territory  of  Alabama.    Sec  Mississippi:   181 7. 

1817-1819. — Organized  as  a  territory. — Con- 
stituted a  state,  and  admitted  to  the  Union. — 
"By  an  act  of  Congress  dated  March  i,  1817,  Mis- 
sissippi Territory  was  divided.  Another  act,  bear- 
ing the  date  March  3,  thereafter,  organized  the 
eastern  portion  into  a  Territory,  to  be  known  as 
Alabama,  and  with  the  boundaries  as  they  now 
exist.  ...  By  an  act  approved  March  2,  i8ig, 
congress  authorized  the  inhabitants  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Alabama  to  form  a  state  constitution, 
'and  that  said  Territory,  when  formed  into  a 
State,  shall  be  admitted  into  the  Union  upon  the 
same  footing  as  the  original  States.'  .  .  .  The  joint 
resolution  of  congress  admitting  Alabama  into  the 
Union  was  approved  by  President  Monroe,  De- 
cember 14,  1810." — W.  Brewer,  Alabama,  ch.  5. 

1830-1833. — Alabama's  first  railroads. — The 
Tuscumbia  Railway  Company,  incorporated  Jan. 
26,  1830,  completed  a  track  of  two  and  one-eighth 
miles  and  celebrated  the  event  by  the  firing  of 
cannon,  and  the  giving  of  a  dinner  and  ball  on 
June  12,  1832.  This  was  the  first  railway  track 
laid  west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  By  the 
4,th  of  July,   1833,  the  Tuscumbia,  Courtland  and 


Decatur  Railroad  Company  (inc.  1832)  had  con- 
structed eight  and  seven-tenths  miles  of  road  from 
Tuscumbia  toward  Decatur.  Among  the  pro- 
moters of  these  railroad  enterprises  were  the  lead- 
ing citizens  and  business  men  of  the  Tennessee 
valley.  The  General  Assembly  was  now  called  on 
at  each  session  to  incorporate  one  or  more  rail- 
road companies. 

1835-1838.— Removal  of  the  Indians.— "And 
now  came  the  end  of  the  Indian  question  in  Ala- 
bama. All  but  a  few  of  the  Creeks  departed  for 
their  new  lands  in  the  west.  The  stronger  race 
had  driven  out  the  weaker;  but  none  of  us  who 
now  possess  the  ancient  home  of  the  Muscogees 
can  fail  to  respect  the  courage  with  which  they 
battled  against  their  fate.  Only  the  Cherokees  re- 
mained, and  the  final  treaty  for  their  removal  was 
already  concluded.  It  was  dated  December  29, 
1835,  and  its  provisions  resembled  those  of  the 
final  treaty  with  the  Creeks.  New  homes  in  the 
west  and  a  large  sum  of  money  were  given  to  the 
Cherokees,  and  in  return  they  gave  up  all  their 
lands  east  of  the  Mississippi.  But  among  them 
also,  as  among  the  Creeks,  there  was  a  strong 
party  that  opposed  the  treaty,  and  threatened  to 
make  trouble.  However,  a  large  force  of  volun- 
teers was  assembled,  including  some  fifteen  hun- 
dred Alabamians,  and  the  Cherokees  were  removed 
in  1838  without  an  outbreak.  There  were  left  in 
Alabama  only  a  few  scattered  families  of  Indians, 
who  for  many  years  used  to  peddle  bows  and 
arrows  and  blow-guns  to  the  children  of  their  con- 
querors."-— W.  G.  Brown,  History  oj  Alabama,  p. 
170. 

1848. — Alabama  platform. — Before  1832  the 
Democratic  party  ruled  the  state  of  Alabama  with- 
out a  rival  for  its  power.  However,  about  that 
time  the  question  of  nullification  caused  a  split  in 
the  ranks,  some  adhering  to  the  Jacksonian  prin- 
ciple, and  others  to  the  State's  Rights,  Calhoun, 
principle.  William  L.  Yancey,  leader  of  the 
State's  Rights  men,  the  minority  party,  neverthe- 
less was  active  and  able  enough  to  impose  upon 
the  whole  Democratic  party  in  the  state  the  most 
radical  views  of  his  faction,  which  he  embodied 
in  a  series  of  resolutions  proposed  to  the  Demo- 
cratic state  convention  of   1848. 

"The  resolutions,  in  principle,  were  the  same  the 
committee  had  reported,  except  that  they  included 
in  their  condemnation  of  unconstitutional  political 
propositions,  the  new  doctrine  of  squatter  sov- 
ereignty ;  and,  in  this,  they  were  in  advance  of 
the  Democratic  party.  They  became  the  historic 
.Alabama  Platform  bearing  no  less  important  rela- 
tion to  the  great  events  of  1861,  in  the  United 
States,  than  the  resolutions  of  Patrick  Henry  bore 
to  the  crisis  of  1776. 

"  'Whereas,  Opinions  have  been  expressed  by 
eminent  members  of  the  Democratic  party  and  by 
a  convention  of  the  party  assembled  in  New 
York  to  appoint  deleeates  to  the  Baltimore  Con- 
vention, that  the  municipal  laws  of  the  Mexican 
territory,  ceded  to  the  United  States,  should  not 
be  changed  and  that  slavery  could  not  be  re-es- 
tablished except  by  authority  of  the  United  States 
or  of  the  Territorial  government,  therefore,  to  the 
end  that  no  doubt  should  be  allowed  to  exist  upon 
a  subject  so  important  and  at  the  same  time  so 
exciting.     Be  it  ...  : 

"  '9.  Resolved,  That  the  treaty  of  cession  should 
contain  a  clause  securing  an  entry  into  those 
Territories  to  all  citizens  of  the  United  States 
together  with  their  property  of  every  description 
and  that  the  same  should  remain  protected  by  the 
United  States  while  the  Territories  are  under  its 
authority.  .  .  . 


163 


ALABAMA,  1860 


ALABAMA,  1861 


"'ii.  Resolved,  That  the  opinion  advanced  or 
maintained  by  some  that  the  people  of  a  Terri- 
tory acquired  by  the  common  toil,  suffering,  blood 
and  treasure  of  the  people  of  all  the  States,  can, 
in  other  event  than  the  forming  of  a  State  Con- 
stitution preparatory  to  admittance  as  a  State  into 
the  Union,  lawfully  or  constitutionally  prevent  any 
citizen  of  any  such  States  from  removing  to  or 
settling  in  such  Territory  with  his  property,  be  it 
slave  property  or  other,  is  a  restriction  as  inde- 
fensible in  principle  as  if  such  restriction  were 
imposed  by  Congress. 

"'i2.  Resolved,  That  the  Democratic  party  is, 
and  should  be,  co-extensive  with  the  Union;  and 
that  while  we  disclaim  all  intention  to  interfere 
in  the  local  divisions  and  controversies  in  any  of 
our  sister  States,  we  deem  it  a  solemn  duty,  which 
we  owe  to  the  Constitution,  to  ourselves  and  to 
that  party,  to  declare  our  unalterable  determina- 
tion, neither  to  recognize  as  Democrats  or  to  hold 
fellowship  or  communion  with  those  who  attempt 
to  denationalize  the  South  and  its  institutions, 
calculated  to  array  one  section  in  feeling  and  senti- 
ment against  the  other;  and  we  hold  the  same  to 
be  alike  treason  to  party  faith  and  to  the  per- 
petuity  of   the  Union   of  these  States. 

"  '13.  Resolved,  That  this  convention  pledge 
itself  to  the  country,  and  the  members  pledge 
themselves  to  each  other  under  no  political  neces- 
sity whatever  to  support  for  the  offices  of  Presi- 
dent and  vice-President  of  the  United  States,  any 
persons  who  shall  not  be  openly  and  unequivocally 
opposed  to  either  of  the  forms  of  excluding  slav- 
ery from  the  Territories  of  the  United  States,  men- 
tioned in  these  resolutions,  as  being  alike  in  viola- 
tion of  the  Constitution  and  of  the  just  and  equal 
rights   of   the   citizens  of   the   slaveholding   States. 

"'14.  Resolved,  That  these  resolutions  be  con- 
sidered as  instructions  to  our  delegates  to  the 
Baltimore  Convention  to  guide  them  in  their  votes 
in  that  body ;  and  that  they  vote  for  no  men  for 
President  and  vice-President  who  will  not  un- 
equivocally avow  themselves  to  be  opposed  to 
either  of  the  forms  of  restricting  slavery  which  are 
described   in   these   resolutions.' 

"The  Alabama  Legislature  endorsed  the  Alabama 
Platform  by  special  resolutions;  the  Legislature 
of  Georgia  endorsed  it.  The  press  of  the  party 
throughout  the  South  repeated  the  praises  of 
Yancey,  confessing  him  to  be  the  leader  of  the 
first  organized  effort  to  resist  revolution." — J.  C. 
DuBose,  Lije  and  times  of  William  L.  Yancey. — 
See  also  U.  S.  A.;  1850  (June). 

I860.— Occupation  of  Fort  Mobile.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
i860  (December-February). 

1861. — Attitude  of  North  Alabama  toward 
secession. — Proposed  state  of  Nickajack. — "To 
the  convention  of  1861  forty-four  members  from 
north  Alabama  were  elected  as  cooperationists, 
that  is,  in  favor  of  a  union  of  the  southern  states, 
within  the  old  Union,  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
their  rights  under  the  Constitution  or  of  securing 
safe  secession.  They  professed  to  be  afraid  of 
separate  state  secession  as  likely  to  lead 
to  disintegration  and  war.  Thirty-one  of 
these  cooperationists  voted  against  the  ordinance 
of  secession,  and  twenty-four  of  them  (mostly 
members  from  the  northern  hill  counties)  refused 
lo  sign  the  ordinance,  though  all  expressed  the  in- 
tention to  submit  to  the  will 'of  the  majority,  and 
to  give  the  state  their  heartiest  support.  When 
war  came  all  espoused  the  Confederate  cause  The 
cooperafionist  party  as  a  whole  supported  the 
Confederacy  faithfully,  though  nearly  always  in  a 
more  or  less  disapproving  spirit  toward  the  ad- 
ministration,  both   state   and   Confederate.     North 


Alabama  differed  from  other  portions  of  the  state 
in  many  ways.  There  was  no  railroad  connect- 
ing the  country  north  of  the  mountains  with  the 
southern  part  of  the  state,  and  from  the  northern 
counties  it  was  a  journey  of  several  days  to  reach 
the  towns  in  central  and  south  Alabama.  Hence 
there  was  little  intercourse  between  the  people  of 
the  two  sections,  though  the  seat  of  government 
was  in  the  central  part  of  the  state;  even  to-day 
the  intimacy  is  not  close.  For  years  it  had  been 
a  favorite  scheme  of  Alabama  statesmen  to  build 
railroads  and  highways  to  connect  more  closely 
the  two  sections.  Geographically,  this  northern 
section  of  the  state  belonged  to  Tennessee.  The 
people  were  felt  to  be  slightly  different  in  char- 
acter and  sympathies  from  those  of  central  and 
south  Alabama,  and  whatever  one  section  favored 
in  public  matters  was  usually  opposed  by  the 
other.  Even  in  the  northern  section  the  population 
was  more  or  less  divided.  The  people  of  the  val- 
ley more  closely  resembled  the  west  Tennesseeans, 
the  great  majority  of  them  being  planters,  having 
little  in  common  with  the  small  farmers  of  the 
hill  and  mountain  country,  who  were  like  the 
east  Tennesseeans.  Of  the  latter  the  extreme  ele- 
ment was  the  class  commonly  known  as  'moun- 
tain whites'  or  'sand-mountain'  people.  These 
were  the  people  who  gave  so  much  trouble  during 
the  war,  as  'Tories'  and  from  whom  the  loyal 
southerners  of  north  Alabama  suffered  greatly 
when  the  country  was  stripped  of  its  men  for  the 
armies.  Yet  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  they  ex- 
ercised much  influence  on  politics  before  the  war. 
Their  only  representative  in  the  convention  of 
1861  was  Charles  Christopher  Sheets,  who  did  not 
speak  on  the  floor  of  the  convention  during  the 
entire  session.  On  the  part  of  all  in  the  northern 
counties  there  was  a  strong  desire  for  delay  in 
secession,  and  they  were  angered  at  the  action  of 
the  convention  in  not  submitting  the  ordinance 
to  a  popular  vote  for  ratification  or  rejection. 
Many  thought  the  course  taken  indicated  a  sus- 
picion of  them  or  fear  of  their  action,  and  this 
they  resented.  Their  leaders  in  the  convention 
expressed  the  belief  that  the  ordinance  would  have 
easily  obtained  a  majority  if  submitted  to  the 
popular  vote.  Much  of  the  opposition  to  the  or- 
dinance of  secession  was  due  to  the  vague  sec- 
tional dislike  between  the  twi  parts  of  the  state. 
It  was  felt  that  the  ordinance  was  a  south  Ala- 
bama measure,  and  this  was  sufficient  reason  for 
opposition  by  the  northern  section.  Throughout 
the  entire  session  a  local  sectional  spirit  dictated 
a  course  of  obstruction.  In  January  and  February 
of  1861  there  was  some  talk  among  the  discon- 
tented people  of  seceding  from  secession,  of  with- 
drawing the  northern  counties  of  Alabama  and 
uniting  with  the  counties  of  east  Tennessee  to 
form  a  new  state,  which  should  be  called  Nick- 
a-Jack,  an  Indian  name  common  in  East  Tennes- 
see. Geographically  this  proceeding  would  have 
been  correct,  since  these  two  parts  of  the  country 
are  closely  connected,  the  people  were  alike  in 
character  and  sentiment,  and  the  means  of  inter- 
course were  better.  The  people  of  the  valley  and 
many  others,  however,  had  no  sympathy  with  this 
scheme.  Lacking  the  support  of  the  politicians 
and  no  leaders  appearing,  the  plan  was  abandoned 
after  the  proclamation  of  Lincoln,  April  10,  1861. 
Had  the  war  been  deferred  a  few  months,  it  is 
almost  certain  that  the  discontented  element  of  the 
population  would  have  taken  positive  steps  to  em- 
barrass the  administration;  many  believed  that 
reconstruction  would  take  place.  Only  after  four 
years  of  war  was  there  after  this  any  appreciable 
number   of  the  jjeople   willing  to   listen  again   to 


164 


ALABAMA,  1861-1865 


ALABAMA,  1866 


such  a  proposition." — W.  L.  Fleming,  Civil  war 
and  reconstruction  in  Alabama,  pp.   loq-iii. 

1861-1865. — Agriculture  in  the  Black  Belt. 
See  Black  belt. 

1861  (January). — Secession  from  the  Union. 
See  U.  S.  A.:  iS6i   (January-February). 

1861  (February). — Convention  of  Confederate 
states  at  Montgomery.  See  U.  S.  A.:  i86i  (Feb- 
ruary) :  Adoption  of  a  constitution  for  "The  Con- 
federate States  of  America." 

1862. — General  Mitchell's  expedition.  See 
U.  S.  A.:    1862    (April-May:    Alabama). 

1864  (August). — The  battle  of  Mobile  bay. — 
Capture  of  Confederate  forts  and  fleet.  See 
U.  S.  A.:    1804   (.August;   Alabama). 

1865  (March— April).— The  fall  of  Mobile.— 
Wilson's  raid. — End  of  the  rebellion.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1805   (April-May). 

1865. — Losses  from  the  Civil  War.— "The  num- 
ber of  soldiers  furnished  by  Alabama  to  the  Confed- 
erate service  will  never  be  known.  The  estimates 
range  from  60,000,  the  number  given  by  Col.  M.  V. 
Morre,  in  the  Louisville  Evening  Post  of  May 
30th,  iQoo,  to  122,000  claimed  by  Governor  Par- 
sons in  his  proclamation  of  July,  1865.  Like- 
wise the  number  of  Alabama  soldiers  who  lost 
their  lives  on  the  battlefield  and  from  wounds,  or 
from  disease  directly  traceable  to  exposure  in  the 
army  during  the  Confederate  war  will  never  be 
known.  We  only  know  that  Alabama  soldiers  were 
buried  in  every  battle-field  of  importance  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  near  every  large  hospital  through 
the  same  extent  of  country,  in  all  cemeteries  of 
the  war  prisons  of  the  North,  and  in  every  grave- 
yard in  this  State.  .  .  .  The  property  losses  of 
the  people  of  Alabama  during  the  war  were  tre- 
mendous. We  can  form  no  just  conception  of 
them,  except  by  comparing  some  items  of  the  cen- 
sus of  T860  with  those  of  1870.  .  .  .  Nearly  all 
the  manufacturing  industries  of  Alabama  were 
burnt  by  the  Federals.  Most  of  the  engines,  cars, 
steam-boats,  warehouses  and  depots  were  de- 
stroyed, a  number  of  railroad  bridges  and  trestles 
were  burnt  and  most  of  the  rails,  which  were  made 
of  iron,  were  worn  out,  50  that  the  transporta- 
tion property  of  the  State  was  worth  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars  less  in  1S65  than  in  i860.  An- 
other heavy  loss,  which  cannot  be  estimated,  was 
the  complete  destruction  of  State  and  Confederate 
scrip  and  bonds,  and  railroad  bonds  and  stocks, 
and  all  banking  capital  and  securities.  The  mer- 
chandise in  the  stores,  usually  amounting  to  many 
millions  of  dollars,  was  all  gone  at  the  close  of 
the  war.  Town  property  had  depreciated  in  value. 
In  the  Tennessee  valley  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  private  residences  and  public 
buildings  were  burnt,  and  the  people  stripped  of 
nearly  everything  that  they  could  not  carry  off  or 
hide  successfully.  The  property  losses  of  the 
people  of  Alabama  could  not  have  been  less  than 
$300,000,000,  besides  the  loss  of  435,000  slaves, 
which  were  worth  $500  each  in  gold  or  a  total  of 
$217,000,000,  making  the  total  property  losses  not 
less  than  $500,000,000  in  Alabama." — L.  D.  Miller, 
History  of  Alabama,  p.  233. — See  also  U.  S.  A.: 
r86s:    Civil  War  losses. 

1865  (December). — Ratification  of  13th  amend- 
ment.— On  December  2,  1865,  the  thirteenth 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  ratified. 

Also  in:   Owen,  Annals  of  Alabama,  ch.  6. 

1865-1868. — Reconstruction.  See  Black  and 
TAN  conventions;  U.  S.  a  :  1865  (May — July),  to 
1868-1870:   Reconstructiim  complete. 

1866. — Rejection  of  14th  amendment. — "In  the 
fall  of  1866  the  proposed  Fourteenth  Amendment 


was  submitted  to  the  legislature.     There  was  no 
longer  any  belief  that  further  yielding  would  do 
any  good ;  the  more  the  people  gave  the  more  was 
asked.     State  Senator  E.  A.  Powell  wrote  to  John 
W.  Forney  that  the  people  would  do  nothing  about 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment  because  they  were  con- 
vinced that  any  action  would  be  useless.     Condi- 
tion  after   condition    had   been   imposed   and   had 
been   absolved ;  slavery  had  been  abolished,  seces- 
sion   acknowledged    a    failure,   and    the    war   debt 
repudiated  by  the  convention ;   the  legislature  had 
ratified    the   Thirteenth   Amendment,    had   secured 
the  negro  in  all  the  rights  of  property  and  person ; 
and  after  all  the  state  was  no  nearer  to  restoration. 
This  was  the  view  of  nearly  all  the  newspapers  of 
the    state,   and    in    this   they    represented    popular 
opinion.     They  were  intensely  irritated  by  the  fact 
that,  although  they  had  made  so  many  concessions, 
still    they    were    excluded    from    representation    in 
Congress,   and    were   heavily   and    unjustly    taxed. 
Moreover,  they   were  opposed  to   the   amendment 
because    it    branded    their    best    men    as    traitors. 
One  newspaper,  alone,  advocated  adoption  of  the 
amendment    as    the    least    of    evils.  ...  By    most 
persons  the  question  of  negro  political  rights  was 
considered  to  belong  to   the  state  and  was  not  a 
matter    for    the    Federal    government    to    regulate. 
'Loyalists'  as  well  as  'rebels'  were  afraid  to  leave 
negro   affairs  to   the   regulation    of   Congress.     In 
his  annual  message  to  the  legislature,  in  November 
1866,  Governor  Patton  advised  the  legislature  not 
to    ratify    the    Fourteenth     Amendment,    on    the 
ground   that   it  could   do   no  good  and  might  do 
harm.     It  involved  the  creation  of  a  penalty  after 
the   act.     On   this   point,   he   said   that   it  was  an 
ex  post  facto  law,  and  contrary  to  the  whole  spirit 
of  modern  civilization ;  that  such  a  mode  of  deal- 
ing   with    citizens    charged    with    offences    against 
government    belonged    only    to    despotic    tyrants; 
that  it  might  accomplish  revengeful  purposes,  but 
that   was   not   the   proper   mode   of   administering 
justice,    that    adoption    would    vacate    nearly    all 
offices   in   most   of  the   unrepresented   states — gov- 
ernors, judges,  legislators,  sheriffs,  justices  of  peace, 
constables — and    the   state   governments   would   be 
completely   broken   up   and   reduced   to   utter  and 
hopeless  anarchy;  that  the  disabilities  imposed  by 
the    test    oath    were   seriously   detrimental   to   the 
interests   of   the   government ;    that   ratification   of 
the  Amendment  could  not  accomplish  any  good  to 
the  country  and  might  bring  upon  it  irretrievable 
disaster.     Under  the  circumstances,  the  legislature 
refused  to  consider  the  Amendment.     But  the  gov- 
ernor during  the  next  few  weeks  was  induced  by 
various  considerations  to  recommend  the  ratifica- 
tion, and  on  December  7,  1866,  he  sent  a  special 
message  stating  that  there  was  a  purpo.se  on   the 
part  of  those  who  controlled  the  national  legisla- 
tion to  enforce  their  own  terms  of  restoration  at 
all   hazards;    and  that   their   measures   would   im- 
measurably  augment   the   distress   already   existing 
and   inaugurate    endless    confusion.     The   cardinal 
principle  of  restoration  seemed  to  be,  he  said,  fav- 
orable    action     on     the    Fourteenth     Amendment. 
Upon  principle  he  was  opposed  to  it.     Yet  neces- 
sity must   rule.     So  now  he  recommended  recon- 
sideration.    If  they  should  ratify  and  restoration 
should  follow,  they  might  trust  to  time  and  their 
representatives  to  mitigate  its  harshness.     If  they 
should  ratify  and  admission  should  be  delayed,  it 
would  serve  as  a  warning  to  other  states  and  thus 
prevent    the    necessary    number    for    ratificalion." 
W.   L.   Fleming,   Cii'i!   war  and   reconstruction   in 
Alabama,  p.  304. — ^See  also   Suffrage,  Manhood: 
U.  S.  A.:  1864-102 1. — In  spite  of  the  governor's  ur- 
gent   recommendation,    the    legislature    refused    to 


165 


ALABAMA,  1867 


ALABAMA,  1886-1907 


ratify  the  amendment,  and  Alabama,  together  with 
nine  other  southern  states,  prevented  the  fourteenth 
amendment  from  becoming  a  Federal  law  As  a 
result,  Alabama  was  put  under  military  government 
by  the  Reconstruction  Act  of  1S67  and  the  state 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  negro  and  the  "carpet- 
bagger." 

1867  (November).— Meeting  of  the  constitu- 
tional convention. — In  the  fall  of  1867  a  con- 
stitution was  framed  for  .Alabama  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  the  Reconstruction  .Act  and 
the  fourteenth  amendment. 

1868  (February).  —  Constitution  ratified.  — 
When  the  constitution  received  a  bare  majority  of 
the  vote  cast,  but  not  a  majority  of  the  registered 
vote.  Congress  declared  the  constitution  in  effect 
by  hurriedly  changing  the  law  which  necessitated  a 
state  constitution  receiving  a  majority  of  the 
registered   vote. 

1868  (June). — Ratification  of  14th  amendment. 
— Readmission  to  the  union. —  In  the  spring  of 
1868  the  fourteenth  amendment  was  adopted  and 
Alabama  was  admitted  to  the  union,  June  25,  iSbS. 

1868  (July  14). — Cessation  of  military  rule.— 
Military  rule  ceased  on  this  date  and  .-Mabama  took 
up  her  own  administration. 

1870  (November  16).— Ratification  of  15th 
amendment. 

1874. — Whites  regain  control  of  the  govern- 
ment.— "By  1874,  the  State  had  become  bankrupt; 
its  credit  was  gone;  city  and  county  indebtedness 
had  grown,  with  few  betterments  to  show  for  the 
expenditures;  and  'more  intolerable  were  the  tur- 
moil and  strife  between  whites  and  blacks  kept 
alive'  for  political  hold  on  the  Negro  vote.  Every 
office  was  to  be  filled  at  a  general  election  in 
November.  .As  early  as  April  2Qth  the  Demo- 
cratic and  Conservative  convention  was  organized 
in  Montgomery.  George  Houston,  the  old  'Bald 
Eagle  of  the  Mountains'  from  north  .Alabama,  was 
chosen  by  acclamation  for  Governor.  Houston, 
many  years  a  member  of  Congress,  and  personally 
opposed  to  secession,  had  taken  no  part  in  the 
war.  He  was  neither  a  full-fledged  Confederate 
nor  an  offensive  Unionist.  Of  the  more  important 
planks  in  the  platform,  the  first  averred  'that  the 
radical  and  dominant  faction  of  the  Republican 
Party  in  this  state  persistently  and  by  fraudulent 
representations  have  inflamed  the  passions  and 
prejudices  of  the  Negroes  as  a  race  against  the 
white  people,  and  have  thereby  made  it  necessary 
for  the  white  people  to  unite  and  act  together  in 
self-defense  and  for  the  preservation  of  white  civi- 
lization.' The  third  plank  denounced  the  so-called 
'Civil  Rights  Bill'  then  pending  in  Congress,  and 
the  fifth  plank  advocated  economy.  The  Republi- 
cans renominated  David  P.  Lewis  for  Governor, 
and  in  section  5  of  their  platform  declared:  'We 
only  ask  equal  advantages  in  matters  of  public 
and  common  right.  This  we  consider  to  be  all 
that  is  embraced  in  the  Civil  Rights  Bill,  and  in 
order  that  we  may  be  understood,  and  no_  false 
charges  made  against  us,  we  hereby  declare  that 
the  Republican  Party  does  not  desire  mixed  schools 
or  mixed  accommodations — we  want  no  social 
equality  enforced  by  law.'  .  ,  .  On  October  igth 
the  Committee  issued  an  appeal  to  the  voters 
urging  them  to  close  their  'several  places  of  busi- 
ness on  the  third  day  of  November,'  and  to  dedi- 
cate 'their  individual  'and  collective  exertion  to 
the  redemption  of  Alabama.'  ...  As  the  end 
of  the  canvass  approached  the  forces  making  for 
good  government  were  in  line  as  never  before  in 
the  history^  of  the  state.  Every  precaution  was 
taken  to  have  the  polls  guarded  on  Nov.  3.  Every 
highway   leading   into   the   state   was   watched   to 


prevent  the  importation  of  voters.  Railroad  com- 
panies for  days  Jjcfore  the  election  reported  every 
negro  that  came  in  and  the  station  where  he  de- 
barked. Victory  was  so  important  to  our  future 
that  thousands  were  prepared  to  leave  the  state 
and  seek  homes  where  the  Negro  did  not  control, 
in  case  the  election  went  against  us — as  many 
thousands  had  already  done  since  March,  1868. 
...  At  the  election  there  wa?  rioting  in  Mobile,  at 
Belmont,  and  at  Gainesville,  and  one  Negro  was 
killed  at  each  of  these  places.  At  Eufaula  oc- 
curred the  most  serious  riot  of  the  Reconstruction 
period.  Both  whites  and  blacks  were  armed. 
While  the  whites  were  trying  to  protect  from  a 
mob  a  colored  Democrat  who  was  offering  to  vote 
a  Negro  fired  a  shot.  Four  Negroes  were  killed 
and  sixty  wounded.  Ten  whites  were  wounded. 
The  whole  Democratic  State  ticket  was  elected  by 
majorities  ranging  more  than  10,000  and  the  Su- 
preme Court  and  both  Houses  of  the  Legislature 
were  ours.  Alabama  was  redeemed," — H.  A.  Her- 
bert, How  we  redeemed  Alabama  {Century,  v.  85, 
pp.  850-862). 

1875  (September-October).  —  Constitutional 
convention. — The  convention  was  held  from  Sep- 
tember 0  to  October  2.  A  new  constitution  was 
adopted,  omitting  the  guaranty  of  the  "carpet- 
baggers' "  constitution  that  no  one  should  be  denied 
suffrage  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  con- 
dition of  servitude.  It  also  forbade  the  state  to 
engage  in  internal  improvements. 

1883  (February). — Establishment  of  a  rail- 
road commission. — A  railroad  commission  was 
established  in  .Alabama  February  26,  1883. 

1886-1887. — Farmers'  Alliance. — The  Farmers' 
.Alliance  of  .Alabama  was  incorporated  by  the  ses- 
sion of  the  legislature  of  1886-1887,  and  was  then 
a  strictly  non-partisan  agricultural  organization. 
It  was  the  forerunner  of  the  Populist  party,  which 
was  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 
politics  of  Alabama. 

1886-1907. — Child  labor  legislation. — "Alabama 
began  agitation  against  the  child  labor  system  in 
1886.  On  page  ninety  of  the  .Acts  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, 1886-7,  will  be  found  the  law  passed  in  this 
state  against  the  employment  of  children  and 
women  in  factories  and  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, except  as  therein  provided.  The  act  was 
crude  and  carried  no  provisions  for  enforcement. 
It  showed,  however,  that  the  public  mind  of  the 
state  had  been  aroused  to  the  necessity  of  pro- 
tecting those  in  need  of  protection.  The  act  of 
1886  remained  on  the  statute  books  until  the  ses- 
sion of  the  legislature  in  1804-5,  when  it  was  re- 
pealed through  the  efforts  oi  a  lobby  sent  to 
Montgomery  by  the  cotton  mills,  headed  by  a 
superintendent  of  one  of  the  New  England  mills 
which  had  lately  been  established  in  the  state. 
There  was  no  more  child  labor  legislation  until 
1903,  when  mainly  through  the  earnest  and  zeal- 
ous work  of  Edgar  Gardner  Murphy,  the  second 
child  labor  law  for  Alabama  was  enacted.  The 
law  of  1Q03  was  by  no  means  satisfactory  to 
those  who  had  been  contending  for  an  effective 
child  labor  law.  The  provisions  of  this  law  made 
the  age  limit  twelve  years,  but  orphans  and  chil- 
dren of  dependent  families  were  exempt.  No  child 
under  ten  years  of  age  was  permitted  to  work 
under  any  circumstances.  No  child  under 
thirteen  years  of  age  could  be  employed  at 
night  work,  and  none  under  twelve  was  allowed 
to  work  more  than  thirty-six  hours  per  week.  In 
IQ07  a  more  acceptable  law  was  enacted.  The  age 
limit  was  placed  at  twelve,  without  exception,  and 
night  work  was  permitted  only  by  children  of  six- 
teen years  of  age  and  over.     Provision  was  also 


166 


ALABAMA,  1897-1898 


ALABAMA,  1916 


made  for  inspection,  the  state  inspector  of  prisons 
and  almshouses  being  empowered  to  inspect  cot- 
ton mills  and  factories.  There  was  general  dis- 
appointment over  the  practical  failure  of  the  in- 
spection feature  of  the  law  of  1007.  Governor 
O'Neal  has  recommended  in  a  message  to  the  leg- 
islature raising  the  age  limit  of  children  working 
in  cotton  mills  to  fourteen  years.  He  has  also 
pointed  out  a  defect  in  our  present  law  which  has 
greatly  weakened  the  statute,  namely  the  pro- 
vision that  the  employer  must  'knowingly  violate' 
the  law  before  any  punishment  can  be  imposed  for 
its  violation." — Dr.  B.  J.  Baldwin  (Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
July,  iQii,  pp.  111-113). — A  law  was  passed  by 
the  Alabama  legislature  which  went  into  effect 
Sept.  I,  191S,  providing  that  no  children  under 
thirteen  should  be  permitted  to  work  and  a  year 
afterward  no  children   under  fourteen. 

1897-1898. — Period  of  great  industrial  depres- 
sion.— During  this  period  the  price  of  cotton 
dropped  to  4V2  cents  per  pound. 

1898. — Part  played  in  Spanish-American  War. 
— Like  every  other  state,  Alabama  responded  loy- 
ally to  the  call  for  troops  in  the  war  with  Spain. 
Members  of  the  national  guard  and  many  other 
citizens  joined  the  colors,  and  Alabama  had  her 
due  representation  in  the  regular  army  and  navy. 
After  the  Civil  War  General  Joseph  Wheeler  of 
the  Confederate  army  settled  in  Alabama,  where 
he  lived  as  farmer,  merchant  and  lawyer.  He  was 
in  1882  elected  to  Congress,  in  which  he  served 
continuously  for  eighteen  years.  In  1898,  Presi- 
dent McKinley  appointed  him  a  major-general  of 
volunteers,  and  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Santiago  campaign.  In  the  navy,  the  most  con- 
spicuous enterprise  of  daring  was  led  by  a  native 
of  Alabama,  Richmond  Pearson  Hobson.  With 
seven  men  he  attempted  to  block  the  channel  of 
Santiago  harbor  and  "bottle  up"  the  fleet  of  Ad- 
miral Cervera.  He  took  the  collier  Merrimac 
into  the  narrow  passage  and  sunk  her,  but  the 
ship  did  not  completely  obstruct  the  channel. 
Although  under  heavy  fire,  the  men  escaped  in- 
jury, and  were  taken  prisoners.  Hobson  after- 
wards represented  his  state  in   Congress. 

1899. — Dispensary  laws. — Acts  applying  the 
South  Carolina  "dispensary"  system  of  regula- 
tion for  the  liquor  traffic  (see  South  Carolina: 
1892-1890)  to  seventeen  counties,  but  not  to  the 
state  at  large,  were  passed  by  the  legislature. 

1901. — Alabama's  new  constitution. — "The  new 
Constitution  in  Alabama  was  adopted  by  a  re- 
ported majority  of  nearly  thirty  thousand.  The 
important  provisions  of  the  new  Constitution  are 
as  follows:  (i)  Disfranchisement  for  crime  or  for 
failure  to  pay  a  voluntary  poll  tax  of  $1.50  a 
year  eight  months  before  the  election.  This  ap- 
plies to  whites  and  blacks  alike.  (2)  Disfranchise- 
ment for  illiteracy,  unless  the  illiterate  has  been  a 
soldier  or  is  descended  from  a  soldier,  or  is  thought 
by  the  registrars  of  election  to  be  of  good  char- 
acter and  to  understand  the  duties  of  citizenship. 
The  enfranchised  illiterate  must  be  enrolled  as  a 
voter  before  1903.  After  that  date  the  illiteracy 
disqualification  applies  to  new  voters  of  both 
races  alike.  (3)  But  after  January  i,  1903,  every 
male  of  age,  white  or  black,  literate  or  illiterate, 
may  register  and  vote  on  his  proving  ownership, 
in  his  own  or  his  wife's  right,  of  property  of  tax- 
able value  of  $300.  (4)  Four-year  terms  for 
Governor  and  Legislature,  the  legislative  session 
to  last  only  fifty  days.  (5)  A  State  tax  of  three 
mills  for  school  purposes,  with  permission  to  lo- 
calities to  levy  an  additional  tax  of  one  mill.  The 
State  tax,  together  with  the  poll  taxes  and  other 

167 


funds,  insures  a  school  revenue  of  $1,100,000  a 
year,  or  one-fifth  more  than  the  revenue  last 
year." — Outlook,  Nov.  23,  1901,  p.  571. 

"In  Alabama — where  a  little  more  than  14  per 
cent  of  the  adult  male  whites  of  American  par- 
entage are  reported  as  illiterate,  while  59.5  per 
cent  of  the  male  negroes  of  voting  age  are  illiter- 
ate,— it  is  declared  that  the  new  constitution  was 
adopted  by  popular  vote  on  November  11,  and 
under  the  operation  of  the  clauses  relating  to  the 
franchise  this  entire  mass  of  negro  illiteracy  will 
be  at  once  excluded  from  the  voting  privilege. 
Most  of  the  white  illiterates  will  probably  be 
able,  under  exceptional  clauses,  to  place  their 
names  on  the  registration  books.  But  after  a 
limited  period  the  system  will  work  with  prac- 
tical equality,  and  every  man  of  whatever  race 
who  knows  enough  to  be  morally  entitled  to  exer- 
cise poHtical  privileges  will  be  allowed  to  register 
and  vote.  These  Southern  franchise  systems, — 
viewed  broadly  in  their  main  features  rather  than 
narrowly  in  their  minor  details, — bid  fair  to  be 
of  advantage  to  both  races.  They  supply  the  most 
powerful  incentive  to  education  and  personal  im- 
provement. They  create  at  once  a  bold  and 
sweeping  division  between  the  enfranchised  and 
the  disenfranchised,  but  they  do  not  erect  an  ar- 
bitrary or  difficult  barrier.  An  object-lesson  in 
the  disadvantages  of  illiteracy  will  be  constantly 
before  the  eyes  of  the  rising  generation  of  both 
races.  The  children  of  native-born  Americans  will 
be  impelled  to  follow  the  example  of  the  Ameri- 
can-born children  of  foreign  parents  and  acquire 
the  rudiments  of  an  ordinary  education." — .Ameri- 
can Review  of  Reviews,  Dec,  iqoi,  p.  650. — See 
also  Suffrage:  Manhood:  United  States:  1804-1921. 

Also  in:  A.  E.  McKinley,  Constitution  of  Ala- 
bama   {Political   Science   Quarterly,  Sept.,   1903). 

1903. — Law  against  boycott.  See  Boycott:  Re- 
cent judicial  decisions. 

1909. — Sixteenth  Federal  amendment  ratified. 
— The  income  tax  amendment  to  the  Federal  con- 
stitution was  ratified  .\ugust  17,  1909. 

1911. — Case  of  Alonzo  Bailey  in  United  States 
Supreme  Court. — This  decision  grew  out  of  the 
case  of  a  Negro,  .Alonzo  Bailey,  who  had  been 
hired  as  a  plantation  hand.  His  wage  was  set  at 
.$12  a  month  and  he  was  paid  in  advance  .$15. 
Before  the  month  was  over  he  left  and  according 
to  the  existing  law  was  considered  guilty  of  fraud- 
ulent intention,  in  not  returning  the  money  ad- 
vanced. He  was  obliged  to  prove  his  innocence 
which  was  not  easy  to  do,  since  he  could  not 
testify  as  to  his  intentions.  He  could  therefore 
according  to  the  state  law  be  convicted  and  forced 
to  work  without  remuneration.  The  decision  was 
rendered  by  Justice  Hughes  who  held  that  the 
state   law  was  contrary   to   the  constitution. 

1911. — Arbitration  board  created.  See  Arbi- 
tration AND  CONCILIATION,  INDUSTRIAL:  United 
States:    1886-1920. 

1912. — Internal  improvements. — By  the  char- 
tering of  the  Interstate  Power  Company  a  large 
plan  of  internal  improvements  was  begun,  to  cost 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $50,000,000  before  com- 
pleted. A  dam  and  lock  on  the  Coosa  river  was 
the  first  piece  of  construction  and  by  this  electric 
power  was  created  for  Birmingham,  Montgomery, 
.\nniston,   Gadsden   and   Huntsville. 

1916. — Educational  revival.  —  Constitution 
amended. — "Alabama,  as  she  herself  fully  admits, 
is  down  close  to  the  bottom  on  the  Hst  of  States 
made  up  according  to  literacy  tests.  Until  re- 
cently Alabama  raised  most  of  her  school  funds 
by  the  State  tax  of  three  mills  on  the  dollar.  This 
gave  her  about  $1,813,000  to  spend  on  her  public 


ALABAMA 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


schools  each  year.  The  Legislature  sometimes 
supplemented  this  fund  by  special  appropriations 
averaging  about  $283,000  yearly.  In  addition, 
some  of  the  counties  voted  a  one-mill  local  tax 
for  their  respective  schools,  one  mill  being  the 
limit  established  by  the  State  Constitution  to 
which  any  county  could  tax  itself  for  public  edu- 
cation. As  a  result  of  this  constitutional  limi- 
tation Alabama  has  had  no  free  school  system 
to  speak  of  except  in  the  cities.  The  rural  dis- 
tricts, the  sources  of  production  and  wealth,  have 
been  miserably  provided  with  schools.  The  little 
one-teacher  school  has  been  open  seventy-five  or 
eighty,  or  possibly  a  hundred,  days  in  the  year. 
Ten  per  cent  of  the  children  were,  according  to 
recent  statistics,  illiterate.  The  total  number  of 
illiterates  in  the  State,  was  360,000.  Of  these 
93,000  were  white,  many  of  them  men  and  women 
of  middle  age.  This  was  the  situation  that  Mr. 
William  F.  Feagin,  State  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, determined  to  alter,  if  possible,  during  the 
recent  Presidential  campaign.  His  idea  was  to 
carry  an  amendment  to  the  State  Constitution 
that  would  give  each  county  and  also  each  school 
district  the  right  to  tax  itself  for  long-term  con- 
solidated schools.  By  a  preliminary  campaign  he 
succeeded  in  having  placed  on  the  ballots  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  enabling  each  county  to 
tax  itself  three  mills  on  the  dollar  for  its  own 
schools,  and  in  addition  enabling  each  district  to 
tax  itself  three  mills — a  tax  right  of  six  mills  in 
all.  .  .  .  Even  those  who  supported  Mr.  Feagin's 
plan  supposed  that  the  people  were  in  no  mood 
to  consider  additional  taxation,  and,  generally 
speaking,  they  are  always  against  constitutional 
amendments.  But,  nothing  daunted.  Superintend- 
ent Feagin  plunged  in  to  organize  the  entire 
State,  county  by  county.  The  people  of  .Alabama 
were  waked  up.  They  were  expecting  an  un- 
eventful election,  with  the  usual  Democratic  ma- 
jority for  the  President  and  Congressmen.  But 
they  found  themselves  in  the  midst  of  a  regular 
old-time  enthusiastic  campaign,  and  for  educa- 
tion per  se.  .  .  .  When  the  votes  were  counted  it 
was  found  that  the  amendment  had  been  carried 
by  more  than  20,000  majority.  The  campaign  and 
amendment  have  given  public  education  an  im- 
petus in  Alabama  which  will  be  very  far-reaching 
in  its  effects." — L.  McClurg,  Educational  revival 
in  Alabama   (Outlook,  Feb.  28,  iqi?). 

1917-1918.— Part  played  in  the  World  War.— 
The  state  furnished  in  all  67,000  soldiers,  and  es- 
tablished two  National  Guard  camps;  Camp  Mc- 
Clelland at  Anniston  and  Camp  Sheridan  at  Mont- 
gomery. 

1919. — Industrial  development  resulting  from 
the  World  War. — The  effect  of  the  war  was  to 
stimulate  the  industrial  development  of  the  state. 
The  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  through  the 
Tennessee  Iron  and  Railroad  Company  initiated 
important  enterprises.  Plate  mills  were  opened  at 
Birmingham  and  a  ship-building  plant  was  estab- 
lished at  Mobile.  The  federal  government  also 
opened  a  nitrocen  plant  at  Sheffield  to  extract 
nitrogen  from  the  air. 

1919  (January). — Eighteenth  Federal  amend- 
ment ratified. — The  prohibition  amendment  to  the 
federal  constitution  was  ratified  on  January  14, 
igiq. 

1919  (September  2). — Nineteenth  amendment 
defeated   (woman  suffrage). 

ALABAMA  (Confederate  cruiser).  See  Ala- 
bama claims:    1862-1864. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS:  1861-1862.— Origin.— 
Earlier  confederate  cruisers. — Precursors  of  the 
Alabama. — The   commissioning   of  privateers,  and 


of  more  officially  commanded  cruisers,  in  the 
.American  Civil  War,  by  the  government  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  was  begun  early  in  the 
progress  of  the  movement  of  rebellion,  pursuant 
to  a  proclamation  issued  by  Jefferson  Davis  on 
.April  17,  1S61.  "Before  the  close  of  July,  i86i, 
more  than  20  of  those  depredators  were  afloat, 
and  had  captured  millions  of  property  belonging 
to  .American  citizens.  The  most  formidable  and 
notorious  of  the  sea-going  ships  of  this  character, 
were  the  Nashville,  Captain  R.  B.  Pegram,  a  Vir- 
ginian, who  had  abandoned  his  flag,  and  the  Sum- 
ter [a  regularly  commissioned  war  vessel],  Cap- 
tain Raphael  Semmes.  The  former  was  a  side- 
wheel  steamer,  carried  a  crew  of  eighty  men,  and 
was  armed  with  two  long  12-pounder  rifled  can- 
non. Her  career  was  short,  but  cjuite  successful. 
She  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Montauk,  Cap- 
tain Worden,  in  the  Ogeechee  River.  The  career 
of  the  Sumter,  which  had  been  a  New  Orleans  and 
Havana  packet  steamer  named  Marquis  de  Ha- 
bana,  was  also  short,  but  much  more  active  and 
destructive.  She  had  a  crew  of  sixty-five  men 
and  twenty-five  marines,  and  was  heavily  armed. 
She  ran  the  blockade  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  on  the  30th  of  June,  and  was  pursued 
some  distance  by  the  Brooklyn.  She  ran  among 
the  West  India  islands  and  on  the  Spanish  Main, 
and  soon  made  prizes  of  many  vessels  bearing  the 
American  flag.  She  was  everywhere  received  in 
British  Colonial  ports  with  great  favor,  and  was 
afforded  every  facility  for  her  piratical  operations. 
She  became  the  terror  of  the  American  merchant 
service,  and  everywhere  eluded  National  vessels 
of  war  sent  out  in  pursuit  of  her.  At  length  she 
crossed  the  ocean,  and  at  the  close  of  1861  was 
compelled  to  seek  shelter  under  British  guns  at 
Gibraltar,  where  she  was  watched  by  the  Tus- 
carora.  Early  in  the  year  1862  she  was  sold,  and 
thus  ended  her  piratical  career.  Encouraged  by 
the  practical  friendship  of  the  British  evinced  for 
these  corsairs,  and  the  substantial  aid  they  were 
receiving  from  British  subjects  in  various  ways, 
especially  through  blockade-runners,  the  conspira- 
tors determined  to  procure  from  those  friends  some 
powerful  piratical  craft,  and  made  arrangements 
for  the  purchase  and  construction  of  vessels  for 
that  purpose.  Mr.  Laird,  a  ship-builder  at  Liver- 
pool and  member  of  the  British  Parliament,  was 
the  largest  contractor  in  the  business,  and,  in  de- 
fiance of  every  obstacle,  succeeded  in  getting  pirate 
ships  to  sea.  The  first  of  these  ships  that  went  to 
sea  was  the  Oreto,  ostensibly  built  for  a  house  in 
Palermo,  Sicily.  Mr.  Adams,  the  .American  min- 
ister in  London,  was  so  well  satisfied  from  infor- 
mation received  that  she  was  designed  for  the 
Confederates,  that  he  called  the  attention  of  the 
British  government  to  the  matter  as  early  as  the 
i8th  of  February,  1862.  But  nothing  effective  was 
done,  and  she  was  completed  and  allowed  to  de- 
part from  British  waters.  She  went  first  to  Nas- 
sau, and  on  the  4th  of  September  suddenly  ap- 
peared off  Mobile  harbor,  flying  the  British  flag 
and  pennants.  The  blockading  squadron  there 
was  in  charge  of  Commander  George  H.  Preble, 
who  had  been  specially  instructed  not  to  give  of- 
fense to  foreign  nations  while  enforcing  the  block- 
ade. He  believed  the  Oreto  to  be  a  British  vessel, 
and  while  deliberating  a  few  minutes  as  to  what 
he  should  do,  she  passed  out  of  range  of  his  guns, 
and  entered  the  harbor  with  a  rich  freight.  For 
his  seeming  remissness  Commander  Preble  was 
summarily  dismissed  from  the  service  without  a 
hearing — an  act  which  subsequent  events  seemed 
to  show  was  cruel  injustice.  Late  in  December, 
the  Oreto  escaped  from  Mobile,  fully  armed  for  a 

68 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


piratical  cruise,  under  the  command  of  John  New- 
land  Maffit.  .  .  .  The  name  of  the  Oreto  was 
changed  to  that  of  Florida," — B.  J.  Lossing,  Pic- 
torial field  book  of  the  Civil  War,  v.  2,  cli.  21. 

Also  in:  J.  Davis,  Rise  and  fall  of  the  confed- 
erate government,  v.  2,  ch.  30-31. 

1862-1864. — The  Alabama,  her  career  and  her 
fate. — "The  Alabama  (the  second  cruiser  built  in 
England  for  the  Confederates]  ...  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Semmes,  her  commander:  'She  was  of 
about  goo  tons  burden,  230  feet  in  length,  32  feet 
in  breadth,  20  feet  in  depth,  and  drew,  when 
provisioned  and  coaled  for  cruise,  15  feet  of  water. 
She  was  barkentine-rigged,  with  long  lower  masts, 
which  enabled  her  to  carry  large  fore  and  aft  sails, 
as  jibs  and  try-sails.  .  .  .  Her  engine  was  of  300 
horse-power,  and  she  had  attached  an  apparatus 
for  condensing  from  the  vapor  of  sea-water  all  the 
fresh  water  that  her  crew  might  require.  .  .  .  Her 
armament  consisted  of  eight  guns.'  .  .  .  The  Ala- 
bama was  built  and,  from  the  outset,  was  'in- 
tended for  a  Confederate  vessel  of  war.'  The 
contract  for  her  construction  was  'signed  by  Cap- 
tain Bullock  on  the  one  part  and  Messrs.  Laird 
on  the  other.'  ...  On  the  15th  of  May  [1862] 
she  was  launched  under  the  name  of  the  2qo.  Her 
officers  were  in  England  awaiting  her  completion, 
and  were  paid  their  salaries  'monthly,  about  the 
first  of  the  month,  at  Eraser,  Trenholm  &  Co.'s 
office  in  Liverpool.'  The  purpose  for  which  this 
vessel  was  being  constructed  was  notorious  in 
Liverpool.  Before  she  was  launched  she  became 
an  object  of  suspicion  with  the  Consul  of  the 
United  States  at  that  port,  and  she  was  the  sub- 
ject of  constant  correspondence  on  his  part 
with  his  Government  and  with  Mr.  Adams.  .  .  . 
Early  in  the  history  of  this  cruiser  the  point  was 
taken  by  the  British  authorities — a  point  main- 
tained throughout  the  struggle — that  they  would 
originate  nothing  themselves  for  the  maintenance 
and  performance  of  their  international  duties,  and 
that  they  would  listen  to  no  representations  from 
the  officials  of  the  United  States  which  did  not 
furnish  technical  evidence  for  a  criminal  prosecu- 
tion under  the  Foreign  Enlistment  .Act.  ...  At 
last  Mr.  Dudley  [the  Consul  of  the  United  States 
at  Liverpool]  succeeded  in  finding  the  desired 
proof.  On  the  21st  day  of  July,  he  laid  it  in  the 
form  of  affidavits  before  the  Collector  at  Liver- 
pool in  compliance  with  the  intimations  which  Mr. 
Adams  had  received  from  Earl  Russell.  These 
affidavits  were  on  the  same  day  transmitted  by  the 
Collector  to  the  Board  of  Customs  at  London, 
with  a  request  for  instructions  by  telegraph,  as 
the  ship  appeared  to  be  ready  for  sea  and  might 
leave  any  hour.  .  .  .  It  .  .  .  appears  that  not- 
withstanding this  official  information  from  the  Col- 
lector, the  papers  were  not  considered  by  the  law 
advisers  until  the  28th,  and  that  the  case  appeared 
to  them  to  be  so  clear  that  they  gave  their  advice 
upon  it  that  evening.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  delay  of  eight  days  after  the  21st  in  the  order 
for  the  detention  of  the  vessel  was,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  United  States,  gross  negligence  on  the  part 
of  Her  Majesty's  Government,  On  the  2Qth  the 
Secretary  of  the  Commission  of  the  Customs  re- 
ceived a  telegram  from  Liverpool  saying  that  'the 
vessel  2qo  came  out  of  dock  last  night,  and  left 
the  port  this  morning.'  .  .  .  After  leaving  the  dock 
she  'proceeded  slowly  down  the  Mersey.'  Both  the 
Lairds  were  on  board,  and  also  Bullock.  .  .  .  The 
2go  slowly  steamed  on  to  Moelfra  Bay,  on  the 
coast  of  Anglesey,  where  she  remained  'all  that 
night,  all  the  next  day,  and  the  next  night  '  No 
effort  was  made  to  seize  her.  .  .  .  When  the  Ala- 
bama left  Moelfra  Bay  her  crew  numbered  about 


90  men.  She  ran  part  way  down  the  Irish  Chan- 
nel, then  round  the  north  coast  of  Ireland,  only 
stopping  near  the  Giant's  Causeway.  She  then 
made  for  Terceira,  one  of  the  Azores,  which  she 
reached  on  the  loth  of  August.  On  i8th  of  August, 
while  she  was  at  Terceira,  a  sail  was  observed  mak- 
ing for  the  anchorage.  It  proved  to  be  the  'Agrip- 
pina  of  London,  Captain  McQueen,  having  on 
board  six  guns,  with  ammunition,  coals,  stores,  etc., 
for  the  Alabama.'  Preparations  were  immediately 
made  to  transfer  this  important  cargo.  On  the 
afternoon  of  the  20th,  while  employed  discharging 
the  bark,  the  screw-steamer  Bahama,  Captain 
Tessier  (the  same  that  had  taken  the  armament 
to  the  Florida,  whose  insurgent  ownership  and 
character  were  well  known  in  Liverpool),  arrived, 
'having  on  board  Commander  Raphael  Semmes 
and  officers  of  the  Confederate  States  steamer  Sum- 
ter.' There  were  also  taken  from  this  steamer  two 
32-pounders  and  some  stores,  which  occupied  all 
the  remainder  of  that  day  and  a  part  of  the  next. 
The  22d  and  23d  of  August  were  taken  up  in 
transferring  coal  from  the  Agrippina  to  the  Ala- 
bama. It  was  not  until  Sunday  (the  24th)  that 
the  insurgents'  flag  was  hoisted.  Bullock  and 
those  who  were  not  going  in  the  2qo  went  back  to 
the  Bahama,  and  the  Alabama,  now  first  known 
under  that  name,  went  off  with  '26  officers  and 
8s  men.'  "—Case  of  the  United  States  before  the 
tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva  (42^  Congress, 
2d  Session,  Senate  Executive  Document,  No.  31, 
146-171). — The  Alabama  "arrived  at  Porto  Praya 
on  the  10th  August.  Shortly  thereafter  Capt. 
Raphael  Semmes  assumed  command.  Hoisting  the 
Confederate  flag,  she  cruised  and  captured  several 
vessels  in  the  vicinity  of  Flores.  Cruising  to  the 
westward,  and  making  several  captures,  she  ap- 
proached within  200  miles  of  New  York;  thence 
going  southward,  arrived,  on  the  iSth  November, 
at  Port  Royal,  Martinique.  On  the  night  of  the 
igth  she  escaped  from  the  harbour  and  the  Fed- 
eral steamer  San  Jacinto,  and  on  the  20th  Novem- 
ber was  at  Blanquilla.  On  the  7th  December  she 
captured  the  steamer  Ariel  in  the  passage  between 
Cuba  and  St.  Domingo.  On  January  11,  1863, 
she  sunk  the  Federal  gunboat  Hatteras  off  Gal- 
veston, and  on  the  joth  arrived  at  Jamaica. 
Cruising  to  the  eastward,  and  making  many  cap- 
tures, she  arrived  on  the  loth  April,  at  Fernando 
de  Noronha,  and  on  the  nth  May  at  Bahia,  where, 
on  the  13th,  she  was  joined  by  the  Confederate 
steamer  Georgia.  Cruising  near  the  line,  thence 
southward  towards  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
numerous  captures  were  made.  On  the  2gth  July 
she  anchored  in  Saldanha  Bay,  South  Africa,  and 
near  there  on  the  sth  August,  was  joined  by  the 
Confederate  bark  Tuscaloosa,  Commander  Low. 
In  September,  1863,  she  was  at  St.  Simon's  Bay, 
and  in  October  was  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  and 
up  to  January  20,  1864,  cruised  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  vicinity,  visiting  Singapore,  and  mak- 
ing a  number  of  very  valuable  captures,  including 
the  Highlander,  Sonora,  etc.  From  this  point  she 
cruised  on  her  homeward  track  via  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  capturing  the  bark  Tycoon  and  ship  Rock- 
ingham, and  arrived  at  Cherbourg,  France,  in 
June,  1864,  where  she  repaired.  A  Federal  steamer, 
the  Kearsarge,  was  lying  off  the  harbour.  Capt. 
Semmes  might  easily  have  evaded  this  enemy; 
the  business  of  his  vessel  was  that  of  a  privateer; 
and  her  value  to  the  Confederacy  was  out  of  all 
comparison  with  a  single  vessel  of  the  enemy.  ,  .  . 
But  Capt,  Semmes  had  been  twitted  with  the  name 
of  'pirate;'  and  he  was  easily  persuaded  to  at- 
tempt an  eclat  for  the  Southern  Confederacy  by 
a   naval   fight   within   sight   of   the   French   coast, 


169 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


which  contest,  it  was  calculated   would  prove  the 

sibly    to    revive    '•°''    4"  ju      g^r^t  motives 

Paris  and  London.    These  ^"<=J°f  p"^    Semmes 
of  the  gratuitous  fight  with  wh.chCapt^  Semmes 

ned  four  broad. me  3     H  ,^   ^^^^   thus 

mie    28-pound    rifle     ,  ^l^^  ,^;°      ^.^nt  ■    and  their 

,bout  equal  ■"-l'^^;;^^?!^  A  Pollard, /--t 
tonnage  was  a^outhse^.^^^^^^^^^^^^.^ 

anise,  p.  549-  }■  >^„^^  i:par-;aree  in  a  report  to 
United  States  f,;^;""  ,,*r^^;  ttl^'on  the  afternoon 
the  Secretary  of  he  Na>  w^"  Alabama,  June 
"'  'iLfU-    '     hav     the  honor  to  inform  the 

Snrcr^n  i.r.  »«■  — -s.-™;;; 

sail  was  made  0,"  ^"  ^^hen  the   object  was 

again  «ach>ng  Cherbourg^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^ 

apparent     he  ^"rsarge  was  ^^^^^^^ 

nf    the    Alabama    lor    a    raKiug    "i^^,  tt_^p. 

«Sil  53"js  ^i^'S 

TheKearsarge;  whom  we  were  tr>-in.  to  m  We     s 

^"■"Ihrthe  DeSu^d  Xarmovi^g^r  I  could 
me  that  tne  uceniuunu  vessel 


prevent   it,   but   continued   to   k^eP    "ur  boaU jj 
ro-s^yXf^tm^:raU:n%TD"erhlp  m| 

^-C^^ro^-^totr^^^ 
!!7n;f  ^i.r  later    report    Captain    VV  nslow    gav. 

I'jtlioSTl  sta^d  shi'discrarged  ..o  or  more 
she  1  and  shot,  was  not  of  serious  damage  to  the 

STan/:^.^ih:u,:n;ro^^1S 

H^^^sSinJten-o^:ir,^ 
fire  of  the  Kearsarge,  although  only  i73  projectile. 

knocked  down."-«ebc/;;o«  record,  v.  9,  PP-  221 

"Lso  in:  J.  R.  Soley,  B/oc^oj/.  a«<i  {'-  ^-^,^« 
(iVoi.v  in  the  Civil  War.  v.  i,  c''-  7).-J-  J^;,  =°'7 ' 
J  McI  Kell  and  J.  M,  Browne.  Conjederalecrus- 
Irs^Banle.  and  leaders,  v.  3>.-R-  «-,fX, 
5 .Xf  i/.^"  "/  ''-  confederate  states  ^n  Europe, 
"■iRfi2''l865 -Other    Confederate    cruisers.-''A 

s'73np» '£::-;*""— 

which  made  10      The  Florida  was  captured  in  the 

Bwrnrnm 

iSU'rJS  .  i.,.  tail,  in  Bri.1.1,  .bipy.rf.'- 
"id   'oncb.,.  .».il  »d"  b„  ».«  »»-     ; 

K;.,'if 'i.  't  S-iribiS'-K-dS-ved . 

s;;:„s^t.r.b=*r.b:?;s3t';;; 

\ii  ^,f   'KioQoooo    and   considering   that   it   oc 
Tred  'tr'months  after  the  Confederacy  had 

•n'ally  passed  out  of  existence    >t  -V  ^^^  /^^  ^ 
acterized  as  the  most  ^^^^^^'i  "^he  e'pta'"  °^ 

he  had  news  o.  th^  « ^  '  ^f  ^o   thrBritish   govern- 
i^tent-^w^hl^hlliv^redTel  1^  the  United  States.- 


70 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


J.  R.  Soley,  Conjederate  cruisers  (Battles  and 
leaders,  v.  4) .  For  statistics  of  the  total  losses 
inflicted  by  the  eleven  Confederate  cruisers  for 
which  Great  Britain  was  held  responsible,  see 
U.  S.  A.:   1865  (May). 

1862-1869. — Definition  of  the  indemnity  claims 
of  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain. — 
First  stages  of  the  negotiation. — Rejected  John- 
son-Clarendon treaty. — "A  review  of  the  history 
of  the  negotiations  between  the  two  Governments 
prior  to  the  correspondence  between  Sir  Edward 
Thornton  and  Mr.  Fish,  will  show  .  .  .  what  was 
intended  by  these  words,  'generically  known  as  the 
Alabama  Claims,'  used  on  each  side  in  that  cor- 
respondence. The  correspondence  between  the  two 
Governments  was  opened  by  Mr.  Adams  on  the 
20th  of  November,  1862  (less  than  four  months 
after  the  escape  of  the  Alabama),  in  a  note  to 
Earl  Russell,  written  under  instructions  from  the 
Government  of  the  United  States.  In  this  note 
Mr.  Adams  submitted  evidence  of  the  acts  of  the 
Alabama,  and  stated:  'I  have  the  honor  to  inform 
Your  Lordship  of  the  directions  which  I  have  re- 
ceived from  my  Government  to  solicit  redress  for 
the  national  and  private  injuries  thus  sustained.' 
.  .  .  Lord  Russell  met  this  notice  on  the  igth  of 
December,  1862,  by  a  denial  of  any  liability  for 
any  injuries  growing  out  of  the  acts  of  the  Ala- 
bama. .  .  »  As  new  losses  from  time  to  time  were 
suffered  by  individuals  during  the  war,  they  were 
brought  to  the  notice  of  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment, and  were  lodged  with  the  national  and  in- 
dividual claims  already  preferred ;  but  argumen- 
tative discussion  on  the  issues  involved  was  by 
common  consent  deferred.  .  .  .  The  fact  that  the 
first  claim  preferred  grew  out  of  the  acts  of  the 
Alabama  explains  how  it  was  that  all  the  claims 
growing  out  of  the  acts  of  all  the  vessels  came 
to  be  'generically  known  as  the  Alabama  claims.' 
On  the  7th  of  April,  1865,  the  war  being  virtually 
over,  Mr.  Adams  renewed  the  discussion.  He 
transmitted  to  Earl  Russell  an  official  report  show- 
ing the  number  and  tonnage  of  American  vessels 
transferred  to  the  British  flag  during  the  war.  He 
said:  'The  United  States  commerce  is  rapidly  van- 
ishing from  the  face  of  the  ocean,  and  that  of 
Great  Britain  is  multiplying  in  nearly  the  same 
ratio.'  'This  process  is  going  on  by  reason  of  the 
action  of  British  subjects  in  cooperation  with  emis- 
saries of  the  insurgents,  who  have  supplied  from 
the  ports  of  Her  Majesty's  Kingdom  all  the  ma- 
terials, such  as  vessels,  armament,  supplies,  and 
men,  indispensable  to  the  effective  prosecution  of 
this  result  on  the  ocean.'  ...  He  stated  that  he 
'was  under  the  painful  necessity  of  announcing 
that  his  Government  cannot  avoid  entailing  upon 
the  Government  of  Great  Britain  the  responsibility 
for  this  damage.'  Lord  Russell  .  .  .  said  in  reply, 
'I  can  never  admit  that  the  duties  of  Great  Britain 
toward  the  United  States  are  to  be  measured  by 
the  losses  which  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
United  States  have  sustained.  .  .  .  Referring  to 
the  offer  of  arbitration,  made  on  the  26th  day  of 
October,  1863,  Lord  Russell,  in  the  same  note, 
said:  'Her  Majesty's  Government  must  decline 
either  to  make  reparation  and  compensation  for 
the  captures  made  by  the  Alabama,  or  to  refer 
the  question  to  any  foreign  State.'  This  termi- 
nated the  first  stage  of  the  negotiations  between 
the  two  Governments.  ...  In  the  summer  of  1866 
a  change  of  Ministry  took  place  in  England,  and 
Lord  Stanley  became  Secretary  of  State  for  For- 
eign Affairs  in  the  place  of  Lord  Clarendon.  He 
took  an  early  opportunity  to  give  an  intimation 
in  the  House  of  Commons  that,  should  the  rejected 
claims  be  revived,  the  new  Cabinet   was  not  pre- 


pared to  say  what  answer  might  be  given  them;  in 
other  words,  that,  should  an  opportunity  be  of- 
fered. Lord  Russell's  refusal  might  possibly  be  re- 
considered. Mr.  Seward  met  these  overtures  by 
instructing  Mr.  Adams,  on  the  27th  of  August, 
1S66,  'to  call  Lord  Stanley's  attention  in  a  respect- 
ful but  earnest  manner,'  to  'a  summary  of  claims 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States,  for  damages  which 
were  suffered  by  them  during  the  period  of  the 
civil  war,'  and  to  say  that  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  while  it  thus  insists  upon  these 
particular  claims,  is  neither  desirous  nor  willing 
to  assume  an  attitude  unkind  and  unconciliatory 
toward  Great  Britain.  .  .  .  Lord  Stanley  met  this 
overture  by  a  communication  to  Sir  Frederick 
Bruce,  in  which  he  denied  the  liability  of  Great 
Britain,  and  assented  to  a  reference,  'provided  that 
a  fitting  Arbitrator  can  be  found,  and  that  an 
agreement  can  be  come  to  as  to  the  points  to 
which  the  arbitration  shall  apply.'  ...  As  the  first 
result  of  these  negotiations,  a  convention  known 
as  the  Stanley-Johnson  convention  was  signed  at 
London  on  the  loth  of  November,  1868.  It  proved 
to  be  unacceptable  to  the  Government  of  the 
United  States.  Negotiations  were  at  once  resumed, 
and  resulted  on  the  14th  of  January,  i86q,  in  the 
Treaty  known  as  the  Johnson-Clarendon  conven- 
tion [having  been  negotiated  by  Mr.  Reverdy 
Johnson,  who  had  succeeded  Mr.  Adams  as  United 
States  Minister  to  Great  Britain].  This  latter 
convention  provided  for  the  organization  of  a 
mixed  commission  with  jurisdiction  over  "all 
claims  on  the  part  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
upon  the  Government  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty, 
including  the  so-called  Alabama  claims,  and  all 
claims  on  the  part  of  subjects  of  Her  Britannic 
Majesty  upon  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
which  may  have  been  presented  to  either  govern- 
ment for  its  interposition  with  the  other  since  the 
26th  July,  1853,  and  which  yet  remain  unsettled.'  " 
— Argument  of  the  United  States  delivered  to  the 
tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva,  June  15,  1872, 
Division  13,  sect,  2. 

"It  came  up  there  [in  the  Senate]  April  13, 
when  Andrew  Johnson  was  no  longer  president, 
and  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  54  to  i.  Sumner 
alone  spoke  against  it.  As  chairman  of  the  sen- 
ate's foreign  committee  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  sum 
up  the  case  for  the  United  States,  and  his  speech 
was  printed  for  the  information  of  the  people. 
Through  his  bold  handling,  our  case  against  Eng- 
land became  far-reaching.  He  demanded  satis- 
faction, first  for  all  the  losses  of  Americans  through 
England's  recognition  of  belligerency  for  the  Con- 
federacy, secondly  for  losses  due  to  the  activity 
of  the  Alabama  and  other  ships  which  England's 
negligence  suffered  to  take  the  sea,  and  thirdly 
for  the  expenses  of  prolonging  the  war  through  the 
hope  of  the  South  that  England  would  assist  her. 
From  the  first  class,  he  said,  the  losses  amounted 
to  $100,000,000,  from  the  second  to  .fi5,ooo,ooo, 
and  from  the  third  the  inference  was — although  he 
wo'uld  name  no  figure — a  loss  of  $2,000,000,000. 
Mr.  Rhodes  pronounces  Sumner's  claim  'outra- 
geous.' It  is  evident  that  Sumner  himself  did  not 
expect  England  to  pay  the  amounts  specified,  but 
stated  them  in  this  way  so  that  England  and  the 
world  migh't  realize  the  vast  wrong  done  us.  But 
it  was  an  unwise  utterance.  It  raised  too  high  the 
expectation  of  the  American  people,  and  if  it  were 
insisted  upon  by  the  government,  it  made  impos- 
sible further  negotiation  by  England.  John  Bright, 
one  of  our  best  friends  in  England,  said  that  either 
Sumner  was  a  fool  or  thought  the  English  people 
were  fools.  No  immediate  action,  however,  fol- 
lowed the  speech,  and  after  a  time  the  passions  it 


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ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


raised  were  cooled  by  sober  thought.  It  was  for 
the  skillful  hand  of  Hamilton  Fish,  Grant's  secre- 
tary of  state,  to  reopen  the  question  in  a  more 
reasonable  spirit  and  carry  it  to  successful  -solu- 
tion."— J.  S.  Bassett,  Short  history  of  the  United 
States,  p.  671. 

1869-1871. —  Renewed  negotiations. —  Appoint- 
ment and  meeting  of  the  joint  high  commission. 
— The  action  of  the  Senate  in  rejectinf;  Ihc  John- 
son-Clarendon treaty  was  taken  in  April,  iSoo,  a 
few  weeks  after  President  Grant  entered  upon  his 
office.  At  this  time  "the  condition  of  Europe 
was  such  as  to  induce  the  British  Ministers  to  take 
into  consideration  the  foreign  relations  of  Great 
Britain;  and,  as  Lord  Granville,  the  British  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs,  has  himself  stated  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  they  saw  cause  to  look  with  solici- 
tude on  the  uneasy  relations  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment with  the  United  States,  and  the  inconvenience 
thereof  in  case  of  possible  complications  in  Europe. 
Thus  impelled,  the  Government  dispatched  to 
Washington  a  gentleman  who  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  both  Cabinets,  Sir  John  Rose,  to  ascer- 
tain wTiether  overtures  for  reopening  negotiations 
would  be  received  by  the  President  in  spirit  and 
terms  acceptable  to  Great  Britain.  ...  Sir  John 
Rose  found  the  United  States  disposed  to  meet 
with  perfect  correspondence  of  good-will  the  ad- 
vances of  the  British  Government.  Accordingly, 
on  the  26th  of  January,  1871,  the  British  Govern- 
ment, through  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  ftnally  pro- 
posed to  the  American  Government  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  joint  High  Commission  to  hold  its  ses- 
sions at  Washington,  and  there  devise  means  to 
settle  the  various  pending  questions  between  the 
two  Governments  affecting  the  British  possessions 
in  North  America.  To  this  overture  Mr.  Fish 
replied  that  the  President  would  with  pleasure  ap- 
point, as  invited.  Commissioners  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States,  provided  the  deliberations  of  the 
Commissioners  should  be  extended  to  other  dif- 
ferences,— that  is  to  say,  to  include  the  differ- 
ences growing  out  of  incidents  of  the  late  Civil 
War.  .  .  .  The  British  Government  promptly  ac- 
cepted this  proposal  for  enlarging  the  sphere  of 
the  negotiation."  The  joint  high  commission  was 
speedily  constituted,  as  proposed,  by  appointment 
of  the  two  governments,  and  the  promptitude  of 
proceeding  was  such  that  the  British  commission- 
ers landed  at  New  York  in  twenty-seven  days  after 
Sir  Edward  Thornton's  suggestion  of  January  26 
was  made.  They  sailed  without  waiting  for  their 
commissions,  which  were  forwarded  to  them  by 
special  messenger.  The  high  commission  was  made 
up  as  follows;  "On  the  part  of  the  United  States 
were  five  persons, — Hamilton  Fish,  Robert  C. 
Schenck,  Samuel  Nelson,  Ebenezer  Ruckwood 
Hoar,  and  George  H.  Williams, — eminently  fit  rep- 
resentatives of  the  diplomacy,  the  bench,  the  bar, 
and  the  legislature  of  the  United  States:  on  the 
part  of  Great  Britain,  Earl  De  Grey  and  Ripon, 
President  of  the  Queen's  Council;  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote,  Ex-Minister  and  actual  Member  of  the 
House  of  Commons;  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  the 
universally  respected  British  Minister  at  Washing- 
ton; Sir  John  [A.]  Macdonald,  the  able  and  elo- 
quent Premier  of  the  Canadian  Dominion;  and,  in 
revival  of  the  good  old  time,  when  learning  was 
equal  to  any  other  title  of  public  honor,  the  Uni- 
versities in  the  person  of  Professor  Montague  Ber- 
nard. ...  In  the  face  of  many  difficulties,  the 
Commissioners,  on  the  8th  of  May,  187  r.  com- 
pleted a  treaty  [known  as  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton], which  received  the  prompt  approval  of  their 
respective  Governments." — C.  Cushing,  Treaty  of 
Washington,   pp.   18-20  and   ii-i.s. 


Also  in:  A.  Lang,  Life,  letters,  and  diaries  of 
Sir  Stafford  Northcote,  first  earl  of  Iddesleigh,  v.  2 
ch.    12. — \.  Badeau,   Grant   in   peace,  ch.  25. 

1871.— Treaty  of  Washington.— The  treaty 
signed  at  Washington  on  May  8,  187 1,  and  the 
ratifications  of  which  were  exchanged  at  London 
on  June  17  following  set  forth  its  principal  agree- 
ment in  the  first  two  articles  as  follows:  "Whereas 
ilifferences  have  arisen  between  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Government  of  Her 
Britannic  Majesty,  and  still  exist,  growing  out  of 
the  acts  committed  by  the  several  vessels  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  claims  generically  known 
as  the  'Alabama  Claims;'  and  whereas  Her  Bri- 
tannic Majesty  has  authorized  Her  High  Com- 
missioners and  Plenipotentiaries  to  express  in  a 
friendly  spirit,  the  regret  felt  by  Her  Majesty's 
Government  for  the  escape,  under  whatever  cir- 
cumstances, of  the  Alabama  and  other  vessels  from 
British  ports,  and  for  the  depredations  committed 
by  those  vessels:  Now,  in  order  to  remove  and 
adjust  all  complaints  and  claims  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States  and  to  provide  for  the  speedy 
settlement  of  such  claims  which  are  not  admitted 
by  Her  Britannic  Majesty's  Government,  the  high 
contracting  parties  agree  that  all  the  said  claims, 
growing  out  of  acts  committed  by  the  aforesaid 
vessels,  and  generically  known  as  the  'Alabama 
Claims,'  shall  be  referred  to  a  tribunal,  of  arbi- 
tration to  be  composed  of  five  Arbitrators,  to  be 
appointed  in  the  following  manner,  that  is  to  say: 
One  shall  be  named  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States;  one  shall  be  named  by  Her  Britannic 
Majesty ;  His  Majesty  the  King  of  Italy  shall  be 
requested  to  name  one;  the  President  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation  shall  be  requested  to  name  one;  and 
His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  shall  be  re- 
quested to  name  one.  .  .  .  The  Arbitrators  shall 
meet  at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland,  at  the  earliest 
convenient  day  after  they  shall  have  been  named, 
and  shall  proceed  impartially  and  carefully  to  ex- 
amine and  decide  all  questions  that  shall  be  laid 
before  them  on  the  part  of  the  Ciovernments  of 
the  Llnited  States  and  Her  Britannic  Majesty  re- 
spectively. .\\\  questions  considered  by  the  tribu- 
nal, including  the  final  award,  shall  be  decided  by 
a  majority  of  all  the  Arbitrators.  Each  of  the 
high  contracting  parties  shall  also  name  one  per- 
son to  attend  the  tribunal  as  its  .Agent  to  represent 
it  generally  in  all  matters  connected  with  the  arbi- 
tration." Articles  3,  4  and  5  of  the  treaty  specify 
the  mode  in  which  each  party  shall  submit  its  case. 
.■\rticle  6  declares  that,  "In  deciding  the  matters 
submitted  to  the  -Arbitrators,  they  shall  be  gov- 
erned by  the  following  three  rules,  which  are 
agreed  upon  by  the  high  contracting  parties  as 
rules  to  be  taken  as  applicable  to  the  case,  and 
by  such  principles  of  international  law  not  incon- 
sistent therewith  as  the  .Arbitrators  shall  determine 
to  have  been  applicable  to  the  case:  A  neutral 
Government  is  bound — First,  to  use  due  diligence 
to  prevent  the  fitting  out,  arming,  or  equipping, 
within  its  jurisdiction,  of  any  vessel  which  it  has 
reasonable  ground  to  believe  is  intended  to  cruise 
or  to  carry  on  war  against  a  Power  with  which 
it  is  at  peace;  and  also  to  use  like  diligence  to 
prevent  the  departure  from  its  jurisdiction  of  any 
vessel  intended  to  cruise  or  carry  on  war  as  above, 
such  vessel  having  been  specially  adapted,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  within  such  jurisdiction,  to  warlike 
use.  Secondly,  not  to  permit  or  suffer  either  bel- 
ligerent to  make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters  as  the 
base  of  naval  operations  against  the  other,  or  for 
the  purpose  of  the  renewal  or  augmentation  of 
military  supplies  or  arms,  or  the  recruitment  of 
men      Thirdly,  to  exercise  due  diligence  in  its  own 


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ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ports  and  waters,  and,  as  to  all  persons  within 
its  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the 
foregoing  obligations  and  duties.  Her  Britannic 
Majesty  has  commanded  her  High  Commissioners 
and  Plenipotentiaries  to  declare  that  Her  Majesty's 
Government  cannot  assent  to  the  foregoing  rules 
as  a  statement  of  principles  of  international  law 
which  were  in  force  at  the  time  when  the  claims 
mentioned  in  Article  i  arose,  but  that  Her  Maj- 
esty's Government,  in  order  to  evince  its  desire 
of  strengthening  the  friendly  relations  between  the 
two  countries  and  of  making  satisfactory  provision 
for  the  future,  agrees  that  in  deciding  the  questions 
between  the  two  countries  arising  out  of  those 
claims,  the  Arbitrators  should  assume  that  Her 
Majesty's  Government  had  undertaken  to  act  upon 
the  principles  set  forth  in  these  rules.  And  the 
high  contracting  parties  agree  to  observe  these 
rules  as  between  themselves  in  future,  and  to  bring 
them  to  the  knowledge  of  other  maritime  powers, 
and  to  invite  them  to  accede  to  them."  Article 
7  to  17,  inclusive,  relate  to  the  procedure  of  the 
tribunal  of  arbitration,  and  provide  for  the  de- 
termination of  claims,  by  assessors  and  commis- 
sioners, in  case  the  arbitrators  should  find  any 
liability  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  and  should 
not  award  a  sum  in  gross  to  be  paid  in  settlement 
thereof.  Articles  18  to  25  relate  to  the  Fisheries. 
By  article  18  it  is  agreed  that  in  addition  to  the 
liberty  secured  to  American  fishermen  by  the  con- 
vention of  1S18,  "of  taking,  curing  and  drying  fish 
on  certain  coasts  of  the  British  North  American 
colonies  therein  defined,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  shall  have,  in  common  with  the  sub- 
jects of  Her  Britannic  Majesty,  the  liberty  for  [a 
period  of  ten  years,  and  two  years  further  after 
notice  given  by  either  party  of  its  wish  to  ter- 
minate the  arrangement]  ...  to  take  fish  of  every 
kind,  except  shell  fish,  on  the  sea-coasts  and  shores, 
and  in  the  bays,  harbours  and  creeks,  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
and  the  colony  of  Prince  Edward's  Island,  and  of 
the  several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  without  be- 
ing restricted  to  any  distance  from  the  shore,  with 
permission  to  land  upon  the  said  coasts  and  shores 
and  islands,  and  also  upon  the  Magdalen  Islands, 
for  the  purpose  of  drying  their  nets  and  curing 
their  fish ;  provided  that,  in  so  doing,  they  do  not 
interfere  with  the  rights  of  private  property,  or 
with  British  fishermen,  in  the  peaceable  use  of  any 
part  of  the  said  coasts  in  their  occupancy  for  the 
same  purpose.  It  is  understood  that  the  above- 
mentioned  liberty  applies  solely  to  the  sea-fishery, 
and  that  the  salmon  and  shad  fisheries,  and  all 
other  fisheries  in  rivers  and  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
are  hereby  reserved  exclusively  for  British  fisher- 
men." Article  lo  secures  to  British  subjects  the 
corresponding  rights  of  fishing,  &c.,  on  the  eastern 
sea-coasts  and  shores  of  the  United  States  north  of 
the  3gth  parallel  of  north  latitude.  Article  20  re- 
serves from  these  stipulations  the  places  that  were 
reserved  from  the  common  right  of  fishing  under 
the  first  article  of  the  treaty  of  June  5,  1854. 
Article  21  provides  for  the  reciprocal  admission 
of  fish  and  fish  oil  into  each  country  from  the 
other,  free  of  duty  (excepting  fish  of  the  inland 
lakes  and  fish  preserved  in  oil).  Article  22  pro- 
vides that,  "Inasmuch  as  it  is  asserted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Her  Britannic  Majesty  that  the  privi- 
leges accorded  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
under  Article  XVIII  of  this  treaty  are  of  greater 
value  than  those  accorded  by  Articles  XIX  and 
XXI  of  this  treaty  to  the  subjects  of  Her  Bri- 
tannic Majesty,  and  this  assertion  is  not  admitted 
by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  it  is 
further   agreed    that    Commissioners   shall    be    ap- 


pointed to  determine  ...  the  amount  of  any  com- 
pensation which  in  their  opinion,  ought  to  be  paid 
by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the 
Government  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty."  Article 
23  provides  for  the  appointment  of  such  commis- 
sioners, one  by  the  president  of  the  United  States, 
one  by  her  Britannic  majesty,  and  the  third  by 
the  president  and  her  majesty  conjointly ;  or, 
failing  of  agreement  within  three  months,  the  third 
commissioner  to  be  named  by  the  Austrian  Min- 
ister at  London.  The  commissioners  to  meet  at 
Halifax,  and  their  procedure  to  be  as  prescribed 
and  regulated  by  articles  24  and  25.  Articles  26 
to  31  define  certain  reciprocal  privileges  accorded 
by  each  government  to  the  subjects  of  the  other, 
including  the  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
Yukon,  Porcupine  and  Stikine  rivers,  lake  Michi- 
gan, and  the  Welland,  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Clair 
Flats  canals;  and  the  transportation  of  goods  in 
bond  through  the  territory  of  one  country  into 
the  other  without  payment  of  duties.  Article  32 
extends  the  provisions  of  articles  18  to  25  of 
the  treaty  to  Newfoundland  if  all  parties  con- 
cerned enact  the  necessary  laws,  but  not  otherwise. 
Article  33  limits  the  duration  of  articles  18  to  25 
and  article  30,  to  ten  years  from  the  date  of  their 
going  into  effect,  and  "further  until  the  expira- 
tion of  two  years  after  either  of  the  two  high 
contracting  parties  shall  have  given  notice  to  the 
other  of  its  wish  to  terminate  the  same."  The 
remaining  articles  of  the  treaty  provide  for  sub- 
mitting to  the  arbitration  of  the  German  Emperor 
the  northwestern  water-boundary  question  (in  the 
channel  between  Vancouver  Island  and  the  conti- 
nent)— to  complete  the  settlement  of  northwestern 
boundary  disputes. — Treaties  and  conventions  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  other  Powers  (ed.  oj 
i88q),  pp.  478-403. 

Also  in:  C.  Cushing,  Treaty  oj  Washington,  app. 

1871-1872. — Tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva, 
and  its  award. — Summary  of  the  controversy. — 
"The  appointment  of  .Arbitrators  took  place  in 
due  course,  and  with  the  ready  good-will  of  the 
three  neutral  governments.  The  United  States  ap- 
pointed Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams;  Great  Britain 
appointed  Sii-  .Alexander  Cockburn ;  the  King  of 
Italy  named  Count  Frederic  Sclopis;  the  President 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  Mr.  Jacob  Stsmpfli; 
and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  the  Baron  d'ltajuba. 
Mr.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis  was  appointed  Agent  of 
the  United  States,  and  Lord  Tentcrden  of  Great 
Britain.  The  Tribunal  was  organized  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  case  of  each  party,  and  held  its  first 
conference  [at  Geneva,  Switzerland]  on  the  15th 
of  December,  1871,"  Count  Sclopis  being  chosen  to 
preside.  "The  printed  Case  of  the  United  States, 
with  accompanying  documents,  was  filed  by  Mr. 
Bancroft  Davis,  and  the  printed  Case  of  Great 
Britain,  with  documents,  by  Lord  Tenterden.  The 
Tribunal  made  regulation  for  the  filing  of  the 
respective  Counter-Cases  on  or  before  the  15th  day 
of  April  next  ensuing,  as  required  by  the  Treaty ; 
and  for  the  convening  of  a  special  meeting  of  the 
Tribunal,  if  occasion  should  require;  and  then,  at 
a  second  meeting,  on  the  next  day,  they  adjourned 
until  the  15th  of  June  next  ensuing,  subject  to  a 
prior  call  by  the  Secretary,  if  there  should  be  oc- 
casion." The  sessions  of  the  tribunal  were  re- 
sumed on  June  15,  1872.  according  to  the  adjourn- 
ment, and  were  continued  until  September  14  fol- 
lowing, when  the  decision  and  award  were  an- 
nounced, and  were  signed  by  all  the  arbitrators 
except  the  British  representative.  Sir  Alexander 
Cockburn,  who  dissented.  It  was  found  by  the 
tribunal  that  the  British  government  had  "failed 
to    use   due    diligence    in    the    performance    of   its 


173 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


neutral  obligations"  with  respect  to  the  cruisers 
Alabama  and  Florida,  and  the  several  tenders  of 
those  vessels;  and  also  with  respect  to  the  Shen- 
andoah after  her  departure  from  Melbourne,  Feb. 
18,  186S,  but  not  before  that  date.  With  respect 
to  the  Georgia,  the  Sumter,  the  Nashville,  the 
Tallahassee  and  the  Chickamauga,  it  was  the  find- 
ing of  the  tribunal  that  Great  Britain  had  not  failed 
to  perform  the  duties  of  a  neutral  power.  So  far 
as  relates  to  the  vessels  called  the  Sallie,  the  Jef- 
ferson Davis,  the  Music,  the  Boston,  and  the  V.  H. 
Joy,  it  was  the  decision  of  the  tribunal  that  they 
ought  to  be  excluded  from  consideration  for  want 
of  evidence.  "So  far  as  relates  to  the  particulars 
of  the  indemnity  claimed  by  the  United  States,  the 
costs  of  pursuit  of  Confederate  cruisers"  are  de- 
clared to  be  "not,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Tribunal, 
properly  distinguishable  from  the  general  expenses 
of  the  war  carried  on  by  the  United  States,"  and 
"there  is  no  ground  for  awarding  to  the  United 
States  any  sum  by  way  of  indemnity  under  this 
head."  A  similar  decision  put  aside  the  whole 
consideration  of  claims  for  "prospective  earnings." 
Finally,  the  award  was  rendered  in  the  following 
language;  "Whereas,  in  order  to  arrive  at  an 
equitable  compensation  for  the  damages  which 
have  been  sustained,  it  is  necessary  to  set  aside  all 
double  claims  for  the  same  losses,  and  all  claims 
for  'gross  freights'  so  far  as  they  exceed  'net 
freights;'  and  whereas  it  is  just  and  reasonable  to 
allow  interest  at  a  reasonable  rate;  and  whereas, 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the 
Treaty  of  Washington,  it  is  preferable  to  adopt 
the  form  of  adjudication  of  a  sum  in  gross,  rather 
than  to  refer  the  subject  of  compensation  for 
further  discussion  and  deliberation  to  a  Board  of 
.\ssessors,  as  provided  by  .Article  X  of  the  said 
Treaty;  The  Tribunal,  making  use  of  the  author- 
ity conferred  upon  it  by  .Article  \'n  of  the  said 
Treaty,  by  a  majority  of  four  voices  to  one, 
awards  to  the  United  States  the  sum  of  fifteen  mil- 
lions five  hundred  thousand  Dollars  in  gold  as  the 
indemnity  to  be  paid  by  Great  Britain  to  the 
United  States  for  the  satisfaction  of  all  the  claims 
referred  to  the  consideration  of  the  Tribunal,  con- 
formably to  the  provisions  contained  in  .\rticle  VII 
of  the  aforesaid  Treaty."  It  should  be  stated  that 
the  so-called  "indirect  claims"  of  the  United  States, 
for  consequential  losses  and  damages,  growing  out 
of  the  encouragement  of  the  southern  Rebellion, 
the  prolongation  of  the  war,  &c.,  were  -dropped 
from  consideration  at  the  outset  of  the  session  ot 
the  tribunal,  in  June,  the  arbitrators  agreeing  then 
in  a  statement  of  opinion  to  the  effect  that  "these 
claims  do  not  constitute,  upon  the  principles  of 
international  law  applicable  to  such  cases,  good 
foundation  for  an  award  of  compensation  or  com- 
putation of  damages  between  nations."  This 
declaration  was  accepted  by  the  United  States  as 
decisive  of  the  question,  and  the  hearing  pro- 
ceeded accordingly. — C.  Gushing,  Treaty  of  Waslt- 
ingtoi:. 

An  excellent  summary  of  the  .Mabama  contro- 
versy by  Prof.  W.  .X  Dunning  makes  clear  the 
general  background  of  public  opinion  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  .After  an  account  of  the 
diplomatic  preliminaries  of  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton. Prof.  Dunning  says; — "As  to  the  .Uahama 
claims,  the  agreement  embodied  in  the  treaty  sig- 
nified great  concessions  on  both  sides  in  the  in- 
terest of  an  amicable  settlement.  Great  Britain 
expressed  regret  'for  the  escape,  under  whatever 
circumstances,  of  the  Alabama  and  other  vessels 
from  British  ports,  and  for  the  depredations  com- 
mitted by  those  vessels'  In  addition  to  this 
soothing  admission  that  something  disagreeable  had 


happened  to  the  United  States,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment consented  to  arbitration  in  the  fullest 
sense  in  reference  to  all  the  claims.  [See  Arbitra- 
tion, International;  Modern  Period;  1871-1872.] 
Three  rules  were  laid  down  as  to  the  duties  of 
a  neutral  government,  and  the  arbitral  trib- 
unal was  enjoined  to  base  its  judgment  on 
these  rules,  though  the  British  Government 
recognized  them,  not  as  a  statement  of  principles 
of  international  law  in  force  in  1861-65,  but  as 
principles  that  ought  in  the  future  to  be  adopted 
by  maritime  powers,  and  that  Great  Britain  had, 
in  fact,  sought  to  live  up  to  during  the  .American 
War.  The  three  rules  defined  the  duty  of  a  neu- 
tral government,  in  respect  to  the  fitting  out  and 
supplying  of  war-ships,  in  such  terms  as  to  make 
it  morally  certain  that  judgment  would  be  adverse 
to  Great  Britain  on  the  case  of  the  Alabama,  if 
not  as  to  other  of  the  Confederate  cruisers.  The 
British  Government,  in  short,  not  only  assumed 
a  somewhat  apologetic  attitude  at  the  outset,  but 
also  submitted  to  be  judged  by  principles  that 
were  not  obligatory  as  rules  of  international  con- 
duct at  the  time  of  the  acts  concerned,  and  that 
insured  an  unfavorable  decision.  A  proud  and 
powerful  nation  does  not  put  itself  in  such  a  posi- 
tion without  potent  motives.  One  such  was  ob- 
vious and  unconcealed:  the  general  adoption  of 
rigorous  rules  of  neutral  duty  would  be  very  ad- 
vantageous to  Great  Britain  whenever  she  should 
become  a  belligerent.  More  influential  than  this 
selfish  interest,  however,  was  the  desire,  in  no 
small  measure  purely  sentimental,  to  be  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  United  States.  The  American 
democracy  had  proved  in  the  severest  of  tests  its 
fitness  to  survive,  and  the  homage  of  a  people  and 
a  generation  in  whom  Darwinism  was  taking  deep 
root  was  generously  bestowed  on  the  people  who 
so  opportunely  illustrated  the  dogma  of  science 
Not  all  the  concession  in  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton was  on  the  part  of  the  British.  One  point 
that  had  been  strenuously  insisted  on  as  the  origi- 
nal grievance  of  them  all  by  Secretary  Seward  and 
Mr.  Sumner  was  allowed  by  Secretary  Fish  to 
recede  quietly  into  the  background.  This  was  the 
premature  recognition  of  the  Confederacy  as  a 
belligerent.  Fish  took  the  position  that  this 
action  of  the  British  Government  was  evidence 
of  an  unfriendly  spirit,  but  could  in  no  sense  be 
the  ground  of  a  claim  for  compensation.  This 
admission  was  regarded  as  having  a  bearing  on  the 
general  question  of  the  national  or  indirect  claims 
These  were  not  the  subject  of  any  reference  or 
allusion  in  the  treaty,  and  it  was  understood  by 
the  British  negotiators  that  the  .American  Govern- 
ment had  definitely  abandoned  them,  as  it  was 
known  to  have  ignored  the  demand  of  Sumner  that 
a  withdrawal  of  the  British  flag  from  the  Western 
Hemisphere  should  be  a  preliminary  condition  to 
any  settlement  whatever.  .As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
.Americans  had  no  desire  to  urge  the  extravagant 
claims  that  Sumner  had  made  so  conspicuous.  The 
British  commissioners,  on  their  side,  were  with- 
out authority  to  consider  them.  Yet  bccau.se  pop- 
ular feeling  was  so  sensitive  about  them  on  both 
sides  of  the  water  the  negotiators  avoided  all  ref- 
erence to  them,  and  by  this  very  excess  of  caution 
left  room  for  a  dangerous  misunderstanding.  The 
tribunal  of  arbitration  met  and  organized  at 
Geneva.  Switzerland,  in  the  middle  of  December, 
1871.  It  consisted  of  five  arbitrators,  appointed 
respectively  by  the  governments  of  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain.  Italy.  Switzerland,  and 
Brazil.  The  cases  of  the  two  contending  govern- 
ments were  at  once  presented  in  printed  form 
That  of  the  United  States  was  found  to  include, 


174 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


ALAND  ISLANDS 


in  addition  to  thf  claims  for  losses  due  to  the  de- 
struction of  vessels  by  the  cruisers  and  to  the  pur- 
suit of  the  cruisers,  claims  also  for  the  loss  in- 
volved in  the  transfer  of  the  merchant  marine  to 
the  British  flag,  the  increased  cost  of  insurance, 
and  the  prolongation  of  the  war.  That  is,  the  in- 
direct or  national  claims  were  laid  before  the 
tribunal  along  with  the  rest.  Protests  arose  at 
once  from  every  organ  of  opinion  in  Great  Britain. 
To  admit  responsibility  for  that  kind  and  degree 
of  loss  would  mean,  it  was  declared,  national  hu- 
miliation and  financial  ruin.  The  government  and 
the  negotiators  contended  that  the  wording  of  the 
treaty  excluded  the  indirect  claims  from  submission 
to  the  tribunal,  and  that  such  exclusion  had  been 
agreed  to  in  conference  by  the  American  negotia- 
tors. The  latter  denied  any  such  agreement  or  in- 
terpretation. Great  Britain  stood  firm  in  her  con- 
tention, however,  and  her  agent  was  directed  to 
withdraw  from  the  arbitration  in  case  considera- 
tion of  the  indirect  claims  should  be  persisted  in. 
After  many  months  of  tension  and  of  deep  distress 
among  the  friends  of  peace  and  amity,  a  way  out 
of  the  impasse  was  found  that  was  acceptable  to 
both  parties.  The  tribunal  itself  declared  that 
it  did  not  consider  itself  authorized,  under  inter- 
national law,  to  award  money  compensation  for 
such  losses  as  those  involved  in  the  indirect  claims. 
The  American  agent  thereupon  refrained  from 
demands  upon  the  arbiters  for  further  attention 
to  these  claims.  This  happy  outcome  of  the  dis- 
pute was  quite  as  pleasing  to  the  American  as  to 
the  British  Government.  Fish  and  his  coadjutors 
had  no  expectation  or  desire  that  Great  Britain 
should  be  mulcted  in  consequential  damages.  Sum- 
ner's speech  had  created  a  surprisingly  strong  senti- 
ment in  support  of  such  mulcting,  and  it  was 
problematical  whether  the  administration  could 
afford,  in  the  year  of  a  presidential  election,  to  run 
counter  to  this  sentiment.  Animosity  toward  the 
Southerners  was  at  this  time  a  strong  factor  in  the 
politics  of  the  Republican  party,  and  it  fell  in  well 
with  this  feeling  to  disparage  the  South  by  con- 
tending that  the  remarkable  prolongation  of  its 
resistance  to  the  North  was  due  solely  to  the  aid 
it  received  from  Great  Britain.  The  rejection  of 
the  indirect  claims  by  the  tribunal  of  arbitra- 
tion itself  relieved  the  administration  of  all  re- 
sponsibility for  abandoning  them,  and.  passed 
without  noteworthy  effect  on  American  public 
opinion.  The  judgment  of  the  tribunal  needs  but 
casual  mention.  In  respect  to  three  of  the  Con- 
federate cruisers,  the  Alabama,  the  Florida,  and 
the  Shenandoah* Great  Britain  was  found  to  have 
contravened  the  three  rules  of  neutral  conduct 
laid  down  by  the  treaty,  and  the  damages  due  to 
the  United  States  on  account  of  the  dereliction 
were  assessed  at  .$15,500,000.  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn,  the  British  arbitrator,  dissented  from  the 
judgment  of  the  tribunal  on  all  but  a  single  point, 
namely,  that  due  diligence  had  not  been  used  in 
ascertaining  the  character  of  the  Alabama  and  pre- 
venting her  departure  from  Liverpool.  The  dis- 
senting opinions  of  the  Englishman  were  embodied 
in  a  very  lengthy  document,  in  which  he  expressed 
with  unjudicial  candor  his  contempt  for  the  in- 
telligence of  his  fellow  arbitrators  and  for  the 
methods  and  attainments  of  those  who  conducted 
the  American  case.  Corkburn's  caustic  criticism 
found  some  reflection  in  the  Tory  press,  and  there 
appeared  more  or  less  of  the  once  familiar  diatribe 
against  the  Yankees  In  general,  however,  the 
judgment  was  acquiesced  in  by  British  public 
opinion  with  good  grace.  Even  Cockburn  ended 
his  offensive  opinion  with  an  expression  of  the 
hope  and  desire  that  the  arbitration  would  prove 


a  potent  influence  in  maintaining  amity  between 
the  two  kindred  peoples.  In  the  United  States 
the  announcement  of  the  actual  award  attracted 
little  attention  or  comment.  It  came  in  the  midst 
of  a  heated  electoral  campaign,  and  was  little  avail- 
able for  partisan  purposes.  The  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington had  afforded  to  the  Americans  their  most 
substantial  victory  a  year  earlier,  whei  Great  Brit- 
ain expressed  her  regret  and  agreed  to  arbitration. 
The  carrying  out  of  the  treaty  was  followed  with 
the  somewhat  languid  interest  of  him  who  gathers 
up  the  trophies  after  the  victory  is  won." — W.  A. 
Dunning,  British  empire  and  the  United  Slate), 
pp.  251-257. 

Also  in:  J.  K.  Hosmer,  Appeal  to  arms,  pp. 
315-317- — W.  A.  Dunning,  Reconstruction,  political 
and  economic,  pp.  I5q-i63,  166-167,  16Q-170. — 
A.  B.  Hart,  National  ideals  historically  traced,  p. 
315. — J.  F.  Rhodes,  History  oj  the  United  States 
V.  6,  pp.  335-344.  349.  351.  354-361.  364,  376.— 
C.  F.  Adams,  Jr.,  Life  oj  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
American  Statesmen  Series. — A.  E.  Conning,  Ham- 
ilton Fish. — F.  Wharton  (Digest  of  International 
Laiv  oj  United  Stales,  v.  3,  ch.  21). — J.  B.  Moore, 
Digest  of  international  lar.K 

ALACAB,  or  Toloso,  Battle  of  (1212).  See 
Almohades. 

ALAMANCE,  Battle  of  (1771).  See  North 
Carolin.a:    1766-1771. 

ALAMANNI.     See  .Alemanni. 

ALAMO,  a  Franciscan  mission  situated  in  San 
Antonio,  Texas,  so  called  from  the  grove  of  cotton- 
wood  in  which  it  stands;  built  about  1722;  used 
occasionally  after  1703  as  a  fort.  Bought  by  the 
state  in  1883  and  maintained  as  a  public  monu- 
ment. For  the  massacre  of  the  .Alamo  (1836),  see 
Te.xas:   1835-1S36. 

ALAMOOT,  or  Alamout,  Castle  of.— The 
stronghold  of  the  "Old  Man  of  the  Mountain,"  or 
sheikh  of  the  terrible  order  of  the  Assassins,  in 
northern  Persia.  Its  name  signilies  "the  eagle's 
nest,"  or  "the  vulture's  nest."     See  Assassins. 

ALAffD  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago  of  about 
300  islands  situated  in  the  Baltic  sea,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  western  part 
of  the  Baltic,  which  extends  from  the  Iliig^ten 
lighthouse  to  that  of  the  Lagskar  and  separates 
the  Aland  Islands  from  Sweden,  is  called  the 
Aland  sea.  The  sea  to  the  eastward,  separating 
Aland  from  the  coast  of  Finland,  is  full  of  small 
islands  and  islets,  eighty  of  which  are  inhabited. 
The  rest  are  rocky  islets,  reefs  and  skerries.  The 
largest  island  is  that  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
group,  Aland  proper;  its  length  is  twenty-three 
miles  and  its  greatest  width  twenty  miles.  The 
total  area  of  the  islands  is  about  550  square  miles 
and  the  population  numbers  nearly  27,000,  mostly 
of  Swedish  blood.  The  only  town  on  the  islands, 
which  are  sparsely  populated,  is  Mariehamm,  sit- 
uated on  the  south  coast  of  .Mand. 

12th  century  to  World  War. — In  the  12th 
century  the  islands  were  occupied  by  Eric,  the 
Saint;  by  the  peace  of  Noteborg  (1323)  they  were 
incorporated  together  with  Finland  in  Sweden, 
after  they  had  been  a  duchy  since  1284.  In  the 
Union  of  Calmar,  1307-1523,  the  Danes  had  con- 
trol, but  in  1634  'he  islands  were  made  part  of 
the  government  of  Finland  by  the  Swedish  con- 
stitution. Peter  the  Great  conquered  the  islands 
in  1714,  but  restored  them  to  Sweden  in  1721. 
Part  of  Finland  fell  under  Russian  rule  in  1 743 ; 
after  the  war  between  Russia  and  Sweden  (1808), 
both  Finland  and  the  islands  were  ceded  to  Russia 
by  the  treaty  of  Frederikshamm.  By  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  in  1856,  Russia  was  prohibited  from  erect- 
ing fortifications  on  the  islands,  despite  which  some 


T75 


ALAND  ISLANDS 


defence  works  were   constructed    while  in    1906  a 
Russian  garrison  was  installed  there.     In  the  fol- 
fowSg    v'ar   Russia   requested   France    and    Grea 
BrilaSi  to  cancel   the   convention   of    1856,   aboui 
fh    'Tme  time  a  secret  treaty  was  cone  udedbe^ 
tween   Germany   and   Russia,  by  which  the   latter 
was  promised  a  free  hand  with  «g-/d  'o  \he  '^^ 
bnd-      This  agreement  was  first  published  to  the 
world  by  Leon'  Trotsky    Bolshevis|^ore.gnmmis- 
ter,  in  December,  1917.    I"  the  Baltic  Treat>    con 
eluded  in  iqo8  between  Russia,  Germans,  Svseaen 
and   Denmark,  no  specific   mention   was  made   o^ 
?he  Alands,  but  the  memorandum  appended    taken 

?he  World  War  broke  out,  the  Russians  lost  no 
ime  in  fortifying  the  islands,  and  in  January, 
Z\  the  assured  Sweden  that  the  fortifications 
^^'  „nlv  temDorarv  This  assurance  was  re- 
pe'atedTn'w  t?n^  in  Vpi6  and  confirmed  by  Brit- 
Fsh  and  French  ministers.  Great  excitement  was 
aroused  fn  Sweden,  and  military  ineasures  were 
openly  advocated.  The  ebullition,  however,  died 
Hnwn  in  the  greater  turmoil  of  the  war 

1917-1919  -The    Russian    revolution    mtroduced 
a  new  perfod  in  the  history   of  inland    and  the 
question    of    the    Aland    islands,    "«    longer    one 
merely    of    fortifications,   became    acute.     On    -^u 
Tust  '-o    1Q17,  a  communal  assembly  was  held  in 
fh!   inlands     0    consider    the    question    of    reunvon 
',lu   Sweden      A  delegation   was  sent  to  Sweden 
o  urge    he  execution  of  that  P-I^Vh '"n   the"!!' 
Decei^ber   25-29  a   plebiscite  was   h'-'d   m  the   «^ 
lands,  at  which  95  per  cent,  of  the  adult  male  and 
female  population  voted  for  reunion.     A  petition 
to  that  effect   was  sent   to  Stockholm   and  favor^ 
ably    rec  ived   by   the   king.     Meanwhile    Sweden 
had   addressed   a   note   to   Germany,   Austria-Hun- 
gary and^Turkey  requesting  that  the  .^andques^ 
Uon    should    be    considered    at    Brest-L.tovsk       n 
nrder   to   safeguard   vital    interests    of   Sweden   m 
hoL    inlands."      The    Swedish    governn^nt    was 
urged  bv  the  country  to  occupy  the  island.,  Dui 
"hfBolsheviki   forestalled   them   by   landing     ;0°° 
trooDs    together  with  a  number  of  "Red  Guards 
rom   F  nTami.     Outrages  were  committed   on   the 
inhabitants,  who  appealed  to  Sweden  for  a>d  .   A 
Swedish  military  expedition  arnved  to  protect  their 
co-nationals,   forced   the   Russians   and     R^ds     to 
retire    but  were   forced  to  evacuate  their  position 
by  German  troops,  which  occupied  the  islands  on 
March   6    iQiS.     The   German  force  remained  till 
Octol^r   19^8     By  Article  \T  of  the  Brest-Litovsk 
?r°a5   (March  3^  X9i8),  Russia  w.s  obhgated    o 
evacuate  the  islands  and  remove  the  f<"  'i^"""^^ 
as  soon  as  possible.    On  December  31.  i9iS.  it  was 
announced  ^hat  an  agreement  had  been  signed  be_ 
tween  Sweden,  Finland  and  Germany  with  regard 
rthe  postponed  demolition  of  the  Aland  for  ito^ 
tions,  and  that  the   agreement  was  to  be   ratified 
at   once      On   March   24.    i9io,   a   dispatch    from 
Sweden  announced  that  the  new  Aland  expedition 
wouW  leave  Stockholm  on  March  31  t°."™™^"« 
The  destruction  of  the  fortifications.     Finland,  the 
other  claimant,  had  meanwhUe  not  been  .dle_      In 
March     1918,  the   Finnish  government  had  issi^ed 
a  decree  declaring  their  intention  of  forming  the 
islands  into  a  separate  province  ""der  a  civil  and 
militarv  governor.     Then  came  the  islanders    ap 
^lafandTe  Swedfeh  and  German  occupations  al- 


ALAND  ISLANDS 

^.-  rpterred  to     In  Februar%-,  1919,  a  deputation 

rte   Afandert  proceeded  to   Paris  to   Uy   their 

rase  before  the  Powers.     On  March  18,  the  t)wea 

sh  government  suggested  that  the  Peace   Conf«^ 

nee' should   consider   the    Aland   q"«"on^-Ba^d 

on  Handbook   Ac.  48.  prepared   under  the   d^ec 

"°"  oV'%9i:-"I^n  eSMto^^the'difpu't^dq"::- 
C^on  ?the  Aland  I^"ands^.hich  had  been  agitating 
both  Finland  and  Sweden  ever  since  the  Russian 
Revolution,  the  Paris  Peace  Conference  deeded 
That  the  islands  should  be  neulralued  under  the 
'guarantee    of    the    League    of    Nations."-.4««<^ 

^?j20-FiL''no-Swe''dish   quarrek- Intervention 
of  the' League  of  Nations.-The  dispute  between 
Finland   and   Sweden   over   the   disposition   of   the 
\hnd    Islands    reached    an    acute    ^tage.     Sweden 
wthdrew   her    minister    from    the .  Finnish    capi    1 
and  a  conflict  loomed  on  the  horizon      The  Brit 
ish  government  brought  the  matter  to  the  atten 
ion   of   the  secretariat   of   the   League;    the  latter 
promptly    intervened    and   induced   the    disputan^ 
to   debate   the   case   under  the   supervision   of    the 
League  Council  itself.— 4 H«»a/  Reg>ster,  1920,  PP. 
mn-mi— See  also  Finland:  1920. 
I920-Problem    submitted    to    arbitration    of 
iurists -"The  Swedes  claimed  that  the   Alanders 
debt    of    self-determination    was    an    'nternationa^ 
question.      The    Finns    claimed   that    the    probl  m 
was  one  within  the  domestic  Jurisdiction   of  Fin- 
Ind      The  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  de- 
cked  to  submit   this  preliminary   con  ention  to  a 
mall  committee  of  international  jurists^    The  fd- 
lowine  three   were   chosen;     Herr  Huber    (Swiss), 
M    LLnaude    (French),  and  Mynherr  Steruyck  n 
(Dutch)        This    Commission    decided    the    initial 
iuestion  in  favor  of  the  Swedes  and  A  anders^  and 
Reported  that   the  question  was  essentially    an   in 
ternational  one.    This,  however,  was  onl>  the  pre 
Um"narv  point,  and  although  representatives  of  the 
LMgueof  Nations  proceeded  to  the  Alands  m  the 
tutumn    the   Council   of   the   League  had   reached 
no  d^ci^ion  up  to  the  end  of  the  year."-.4«««a/ 

^t;f-S  'report  of  commission.-lsUnds 
awa  ded  to  Finland.-League  o*  N*'?"""  *^'^; 
tion -"Great  excitement  was  manifested  in  all  the 
Swedish  press  over  the  announcement  from  Ge 
bweais^   pre  commission  appointed 

ro'e'xamine  the  Question  whether  the  Aland  Islands 
n  he  Baltic  should  belong  to  Sweden  or  Finland 
had  found  for  the  latter  country.  Keen  disap- 
pfmtment  and  indignation  fr^ted  the  repor 
„,,.,. rViori.  with  expression  of  the  hope  mai  hk 
S:  wo'uld 'rdu:e'to  adopt  the  recommendation, 
c^w.,  \,  =anftion  Ihe  report,  according  to  Tidmit- 
™r  SliSo  m°  t  'vooW  del  Ih.  doathbloc  to 
lid,.? cStoco  In  th,  will  ol  tb.  L..;n.  »^ 

E.ff;oi;rnt:^5'ad:o;'-oZ^.r^ 
r'i'sfST,r^^s,^fr"H 

•,        Tn  the  course  of  its  36,000-word  report,  the 
commiSion  Vat^d  that  the  Aland  Islands  fotrn  a 

fbi;  tZ  f  pfebSrfhe^rf^ouldrdolte^dfy 
afoV  Swefen  it  is  questionable  whether  any  one 
hl,d  the  right  to  take  them  away  from  Finland 
The  desire  of  the  Alanders  to  join  Sweden  was 
?ound  to  be  mainly  due  to  their  anxiety  to  main- 
tabi  their  Swedish  language  and  culture.  As  Fm- 
uITh  fs  readv  to  grant  satisfactory  guarantees  to 
1?."  Afandert  the  commission  urged  that  it  would 


176 


ALAND 


ALARODIANS 


be  unjust  to  deprive  Finland  of  the  islands.  Fur- 
thermore, the  Aland  population  is  too  small  to 
stand  alone,  and  the  islands  are  in  other  ways 
hardly  capable  of  survivinR  as  an  independent 
State.  Therefore,  the  commission  recommends  that 
the  Alands  remain  under  Finland,  but  that  Fin- 
land grant  certain  linguistic,  cultural  and  trade 
guarantees  to  the  Swedish  population  of  the  archi- 
pelago. .  .  .  The  commission  recommends  that  the 
Alanders  should  have  the  right  tc  present  to  the 
Finnish  government  a  list  of  three  candidates  for 
Governor  of  the  islands,  and  that  the  Governor 
be  chosen  from  this  list.  The  report  ends  the 
procedure  begun  in  July,  iq2o,  when  Swedo-Fin- 
nish  relations  over  the  Aland  question  became 
acute,  and  Earl  Curzon  referred  the  question  to 
the  League  of  Nations." — Neiv  York  Times  Cur- 
rent History,  June,  1021,  pp.  543-544. — It  may  be 
added  that  this  report  w.ie  based  on  investigations 
conducted  by  Mr.  A.  Elkus,  former  United  States 
Ambassador  to  Constantinople;  M.  Calonder, 
former  President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  and 
Baron  Beyens,  former  Belgian  Minister  to  Ger- 
many. On  June  24,  iq2i,  the  Council  of  the 
League  of  Nations  finally  decided  that  the  Alands 
should  definitely  be  placed  under  the  rule  of  Fin- 
land, but  neutralized  in  regard  to  military  af- 
fairs, while  the  guarantees  recommended  by  the 
commission   (see  above,  1Q21),  were  also  adopted. 

Also  in:  C.  Hallendorf,  La  question  d'Aland 
avant  et  pendant  la  guerre  de  Crimee  (Stockholm, 
1917). — E.  Sjaestedt,  La  question  des  lies  d'Aland 
(Paris,  igig).- — S.  Tunberg,  Les  lies  d'Aland  dans 
I'histoire  {Paris,  iqig). — Sir  E.  Hertslet,  Map  of 
Europe  hv  treaty  4  v.,  iSyq-iSqi. 

ALANO.—igis.— Stormed  by  Italians.  See 
World  War:  iqi8:  IV.  Austro-Italian  theater:  c,  5. 

ALANS,  or  Alani.  —  "The  Alani  are  first 
mentioned  by  Dionysius  the  geographer  (B.  C. 
30-10)  who  joins  them  with  the  Daci  and  the 
Tauri,  and  again  places  them  between  the  latter 
and  the  Agathyrsi.  A  similar  position  (in  the 
south  of  Russia  in  Europe,  the  modern  Ukraine) 
is  assigned  to  them  by  Pliny  and  Josephus.  Seneca 
places  them  further  west  upon  the  Ister.  Ptolemy 
has  two  bodies  of  Alani,  one  in  the  position  above 
described,  the  other  in  Scythia  within  the  Imaus, 
north  and  partly  east  of  the  Caspian.  It  must 
have  been  from  these  last,  the  successors,  and, 
according  to  some,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Massagetje,  that  the  Alani  came  who  attacked 
Pacorus  and  Tiridates  [in  Media  and  Armenia, 
A.  D.  75].  .  .  .  The  result  seems  to  have  been  that 
the  invaders,  after  ravaging  and  harrying  Media 
and  Armenia  at  their  pleasure,  carried  off  a  vast 
number  of  prisoners  and  an  enormous  booty  into 
their  own  country." — G.  Rawlinson,  Sixth  great 
oriental  monarchy,  ch.  17. — E.  H.  Bunbury,  His- 
tory of  ancient  geography,  ch.  6,  note  H. — "The 
first  of  this  [the  Tartar]  race  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans were  the  Alani.  In  the  fourth  century  they 
pitched  their  tents  in  the  country  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Tanais. — J.  C.  L.  Sismondi,  Fall  0} 
the  Roman  empire, -ch.  3.  See  also  Europe:  Eth- 
nology: Migrations:  Map  showing  barbaric  migra- 
tions. 

406-409. — Final  invasion  of  Gaul.  See  Galtls: 
406 -4og. 

409. — Invasion  of  Cartagena.  See  Cartagena: 
409-713;  Spain:   400-414. 

429. — With  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  See  Van- 
dals: 429-439. 

451.— At  the  Battle  of  Chalons.  See  Huns: 
451- 

ALARCON,  Hernando  de  (fl.  16th  century),  a 
Spanish  navigator  sent  in  1540  to  assist  Coronado 


in  New  Mexico.  Entered  the  gulf  of  California, 
explored,  and  made  an  excellent  map  of  that  ter- 
ritory; dispelled  the  popular  belief  that  California 
was  an  island;  explored  Colorado  river  to  point 
above  Fort  Yuma. 
ALARCOS,  Battle  of  (1195).  See  Almohades. 
ALARIC  I  (Gothic,  Ala-reiks,  "all  ruler") 
(370-410),  renowned  chieftain  of  the  Visigoths. 
In  395  he  was  chosen  by  the  Visigoths  to  be  their 
leader.  "The  very  year  of  the  death  of  Theodo- 
sius  (A.  D.  395),  the  Visigoths  rose  under  Alaric, 
their  chieftain,  and  marched  into  Greece.  [See 
-Athens:  395.]  Seven  years  later  they  attacked 
Italy.  Stilicho,  the  general  of  Honorius,  success- 
fully resisted  them,  until,  out  of  jealousy  and 
fear,  he  was  murdered  by  his  royal  master.  Then 
Alaric  was  able  to  overrun  Italy  and  even  to  cap- 
ture Rome  (A.  D.  410).  It  was  ...  in  this  crisis 
that  the  Roman  legions  departed  from  Britain, 
leaving  it  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots." — G.  Goodspeed,  History  of  the  Ancient 
World,  pp.  427-428. — "For  the  first  time  in  800 
years,  foreign  soldiers  were  marched  into  the 
Forum  and  encamped  in  the  streets  of  Rome.  For 
three  days  and  nights  Alaric  gave  up  the  city  to 
plunder.  Then  he  gathered  his  forces  together  and 
started  for  southern  Italy."— A.  M.  Wolfson,  An- 
cient civilization,  p.  106. 

While  preparing  to  invade  Sicily  and  Africa, 
Alaric  died  and  was  buried  with  a  vast  treasure 
in  the  bed  of  the  river  Busento.  The  Visigoths 
then  left  Italy  and  moved  into  Spain,  where  they 
established  a  kingdom  (412)  which  lasted  for 
three  hundred  years. — See  also  Barbarian  inva- 
sions: 395-408,  408-410;  Goths:  395,  400-403; 
Roip:  394-39S,  408-410;  Europe:  Ethnology;  Mi- 
grations:  Map  showing  barbaric  migrations. 

Alaric  II  (d.  507),  King  of  Visigoths.  See 
Goths:   507-500. 

ALARODIANS,  IBERIANS,  COLCHIANS. 
— "The  Alarodians  of  Heroditus,  joined  with  the 
Sapeires  ...  are  almost  certainly  the  inhabitants 
of  Armenia,  whose  Semitic  name  was  Urarda, 
or  Ararat.  'Alarud,'  indeed,  is  a  mere  variant 
form  of  'Ararud,'  the  1  and  r  being  undis- 
tinguishable  in  the  old  Persian,  and  'Ararud'  serves 
determinately  to  connect  the  Ararat  of  Scripture 
with  the  Urarda,  or  Urartha  of  the  Inscriptions. 
.  .  .  The  name  of  Ararat  is  constantly  used  in 
Scripture,  but  always  to  denote  a  country  rather 
than  a  particular  mountain.  .  ,  ,  The  connexion 
...  of  Urarda  with  the  Babylonian  tribe  of 
Akkad  is  proved  by  the  application  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  the  ethnic  title  of  Burbur  (?)  to  the  Ar- 
menian king  ,  .  .  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  prove 
whether  the  Burbur  or  Akkad  of  Babylonia  de- 
scended in  a  very  remote  age  from  the  mountains 
to  colonize  the  plains,  or  whether  the  Urardians 
were  refugees  of  a  later  period  driven  northward 
by  the  growing  power  of  the  Semites.  The  former 
supposition,  however,  is  most  in  conformity  with 
Scripture,  and  incidentally  with  the  tenor  of  the 
inscriptions." — H.  C.  Rawlinson,  History  of  Herod- 
otus, bk.  7,  app.  3. — "The  broad  and  rich  valley 
of  the  Kur,  which  corresponds  closely  with  the 
modern  Russian  province  of  Georgia,  was  [an- 
ciently] in  the  possession  of  a  people  called  by 
Herodotus  Saspeires  or  Sapeires,  whom  we  may 
identify  with  the  Iberians  of  later  writers.  Ad- 
joining upon  them  towards  the  south,  probably  in 
the  country  about  Erivan,  and  so  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Ararat,  were  the  Alarodians,  whose 
name  must  be  connected  with  that  of  the  great 
mountain.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Sapeirian 
country,  in  the  tracts  now  known  as  Mingrelia  and 
Imeritia,  regions  of  a  wonderful  beauty  and  fer- 


177 


ALARUD 


ALASKA 


tility,  were  the  Colchians, — dependents,  but  not 
exactly  subjects,  of  Persia." — G.  Rawlinson,  Five 
great   monarchies:  Persia,  cli.  i. 

ALARUD.  See  Alarodians;  Iberians;  Col- 
chians. 

ALASHEHR.     See  Philadelphia,  Asia  Minor. 

Battle  of  (1920).     See  Greece;   1920. 

ALASKA,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
situated  at  the  extreme  northwestern  extremity  of 
North  .■\merica.  Until  1867  it  was  known  as 
Russian  America.  The  name  .Maska  was  given 
by  William  H.  Seward,  and  is  derived  from  the 
Aleut  word  alak'  sliak  or  al-ay'  ek-sa,  meaning  "a 
great  country."  The  range  of  climate  is  great  with 
wider  extremes  than  from  Maine  to  Florida.  Only 
the  northern  third  of  the  territory  has  a  really 
.Arctic  climate,  and  the  warm  waters  and  winds 
of  the  Pacific  make  the  southern  seaboard  com- 
paratively temperate.  .-Maska  has  an  area  of  500,- 
884  square  miles  Not  all  of  this  is  well-known — 
the  density  of  population  is  a  little  more  than 
I  person  per  10  square  miles — but  the  general 
characteristics  are  a  matter  of  common  knowledge 
and   the    resources   have    been    roughly    estimated. 


,;■.■!..-».: 


TYPES  OF  TOTEM  POLES,  AL.ASKA 

Exploration  has  been  going  on  from  its  acquisi- 
tion right  up  to  the  present,  so  continually,  that 
a  statement  of  the  most  recent  knowledge  is  soon 
superseded  by   later  discoveries. 

Natives. — The  natives  of  the  interior  include 
two  races,  the  Indian  and  the  Esquimo.  The 
valley  of  the  Yukon  is  inhabited  by  the  Indians, 
down  to  three  or  four  hundred  miles  of  its  mouth, 
while  its  lower  valley,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Kus- 
kokwim  and  the  rivers  that  drain  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean  west  and  north  are  occupied  by  the  Es- 
quimos.  (See  also  Indians.  .American:  Cultural 
areas  in  North  .America:  Eskimo  area.)  "The 
Indians  of  the  interior  of  .Alaska  are  a  gentle, 
.  .  .  kindly  .  .  .  tractable  people.  They  have  old 
traditions  of  bloody  tribal  warfare  that  have  grown 
in  ferocity,   one  supposes,  with  the  lapse  of  time. 


for  it  is  .  .  .  difficult  for  one  who  knows  them 
to  believe  that  so  mild  a  race  could  ever  have 
been  pugnacious  or  bloodthirsty.  ...  It  is  true 
that  .  .  .  murders  .  .  .  have  been  committed — 
murders  of  white  men  .  .  .  ;  but  in  the  sixty  years 
from  the  Nulato  massacre  of  1851,  over  the  whole 
vast  interior,  these  crimes  can  be  counted  on  the 
fintiers  of  one  hand.  They  are  not  a  revengeful 
people.  .  .  .  The  Indian  is  ...  in  most  cases  eager 
to  learn  and  eager  that  his  children  may  learn.  .  .  . 
The  government  has  undertaken  the  education  of 
the  Indian,  and  has  set  up  a  bureau  charged  with 
the  establishment  and  conduct  of  native  schools. 
There  are  five  such  schools  on  the  Yukon  between 
Eagle  and  Tanana,  including  these  two  points, 
amongst  Indians  all  of  whom  belong  to  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  five  more  between  Tanana  and 
.Anvik,  amongst  natives  divided  in  allegiance  be- 
tween the  Episcopal  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
Churches.  When,  somewhat  late  in  the  day,  the 
government  set  its  hand  to  the  education  of  the 
natives,  mission  schools  had  been  conducted  for 
many  years  at  the  five  stations  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  above  Tanana  and  at  the  various  mission 
stations  below  that  point.  .  .  .  That  the  Indian 
race  of  interior  .Alaska  is  threatened  with  extinc- 
tion, there  is  unhappily  little  room  to  doubt.  .  .  . 
.At  most  places  where  vital  statistics  are  kept  the 
death-rate  exceeds  the  birth-rate,  though  it  is 
sometimes  very  difficult  to  secure  accurate  sta- 
tistics. .  .  .  Certain  diseases  that  have  played  havoc 
in  the  past  are  not  much  feared  now.  ...  In  the 
last  few  years  there  have  been  no  serious  epi- 
demics; but  epidemic  disease  does  not  constitute 
the  chief  danger  that  threatens  the  native.  That 
chief  danger  looms  from  two  things;  tuberculosis 
and  whiskey.  Whether  tuberculosis  is  a  disease 
indigenous  to  these  parts,  or  whether  it  was  intro- 
duced with  the  white  man,  has  been  disputed  and 
would  be  difficult  of  determination.  Probably  it 
was  always  present  amongst  the  natives;  the  old 
ones  declare  that  it  was;  but  the  changed  condi- 
tions of  their  lives  have  certainly  .  ,  .  aggravated 
it.  They  lived  much  more  in  the  open  when  they 
had  no  tree-felling  tool  but  a  stone-axe  and  did 
not  build  cabins.  Perhaps  as  great  a  cause  of  the 
spread  of  tuberculosis  is  the  change  in  clothing. 
The  original  native  was  clad  in  skins,  which  are 
the  warmest  clothing  in  the  world.  The  Indian 
usually  sells  all  his  furs  and  then  .  .  .  buys  manu- 
factured clothing  from  the  trader  at  a  fancy  price. 
That  clothing  is  almost  always  cotton  and  shoddy. 
.  .  .  But  far ,  .  .  beyond  any  other  cause  of  the 
native  decline  stands  the  curse  of  the  country, 
whiskey.  Recognising  by  its  long  Indian  experi- 
ence the  consequences  of  .  .  .  liquor-drinking 
habits  amongst  the  natives,  the  government  has 
forbidden  under  penalty  the  giving  or  selling  of 
any  intoxicants  to  them.  A  few  years  ago  a  new 
law  [was]  passed  making  such  giving  or  selling  a 
felony.  The  Indian  is  the  only  settled  inhabitant 
of  interior  .Alaska  to-day ;  for  the  prospectors  and 
miners,  who  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  white  pop- 
ulation, are  not  often  very  long  in  one  place. 
Many  of  them  might  rightly  be  classed  as  perma- 
nent, but  very  few  as  settled  inhabitants.  It  is 
the  commonest  thing  to  meet  men  a  thousand  miles 
away  from  the  place  where  one  met  them  last. 
It  is  unquestionable  that  the  best  natives  in  the 
country  are  those  that  have  had  the  least  inti- 
macy with  the  white  man.  and  it  follows  that  the 
most  hopeful  and  promising  mission  stations  are 
those  far  up  the  tributarv-  streams,  away  from  min- 
ing camps  and  off  the  routes  of  travel,  difficult  of 
access,  winter  or  summer,  never  seen  hy  tourists 
at   all :   seen   only   by   those   who   seek   them  with 


178 


ALASKA,  1741-1787 


ALASKA,  1787-1867 


cost  and  trouble  At  such  stations  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Indian  is  manifest  and  the  popula- 
tion increases." — H.  Stuck,  Ten  thousand  miles 
with  a  dog  sled,  pp.  349-368. — See  also  Athapascan 
family:     Chippewyans:     Tinneh:    Sarcees;    EsKi- 

MAUAN   FAiULY. 

Also  in:  H.  Stuck,  Voyages  on  the  Yukon  and 
Us  tributaries,  1917. — G.  B.  Gordon,  In  the  Alas- 
kan wilderness,  1918. — E.  Higginson,  Alaska,  the 
gieat  country,  1909. — J.  J.  Underwood,  Alaska,  an 
empire  in  the  making,  1913. 

1741-1787.  —  Early  Russian  exploration  in 
Alaska. — Attitude  of  Peter  the  Great  towards 
the  new-found  territory. — Catherine  II  refuses 
to  colonize  Alaska. — Establishment  of  Russian 
supremacy  through  private  enterprise. — "Unlike 
other  European  powers  Russia  came  into  posses- 
sion of  territory  in  America  by  accident  and  not 
by  design.  Bering  was  sent  to  determine  the  re- 
lation between  the  old  and  the  new  worlds.  Peter 
the  Great  had  in  mind  scientific  discovery  and  not 
Ihe  acquisition  of  new  lands.  When  it  was  re- 
ported that  Bering  had  located  the  northwest  coast 
of  America,  the  government  took  no  steps  to  hold 
it.  Who  cared  far  a  distant  land  inhabited  by 
savages?  Until  the  time  of  Cook  the  e.xact  geo- 
graphic situation  of  the  islands  and  their  relation 
to  the  mainland  were  matters  of  speculation.  The 
statesmen  in  St.  Petersburg  had  their  faces  turned 
towards  the  Near  East  and  not  the  Far  East.  Had 
it  not  been  for  fur-traders,  who,  regardless  of  the 
neglect  of  the  government,  exploited  one  island 
after  another,  the  term  Russian-America  would 
not  have  appeared  on  the  maps.  Catherine  had 
not  been  on  the  throne  very  long  before  the  newly 
discovered  islands  were  called  to  her  attention  in 
various  ways.  The  profitable  trade  attracted  many 
adventurers,  and  the  wealthier  traders  came  to  the 
capital  to  ask  for  special  privileges,  and  to  bring 
charges  against  their  competitors.  To  gain  their 
point  they  painted  in  bright  colors  the  new  pos- 
sessions, the  limitless  territory  for  expansion, — the 
great  future  empire.  In  addition  to  these  Russian 
promoters  there  were  others  of  foreign  counties 
who  offered  to  lead  expeditions  of  discovery  and 
to  extend  Russia's  commerce  and  empire  in  the 
Indies  and  Am.erica.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
this  was  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  the  atmosphere  of  Europe  was  full  of  such 
projects,  the  voyages  of  Cook  and  La  Perouse 
being  evidence  enough  on  that  point.  Here  was 
a  serious  and  thoughtful  problem  for  Catherine  to 
decide.  Catherine  understood  that  in  order  to  hold 
dominions  out  in  the  ocean  and  far  from  the  me- 
tropolis a  nation  must  have  an  over-flowing  popu- 
lation, a  strong  navy,  and  a  merchant  marine. 
Russia  had  none  of  these.  In  order  then  to  un- 
derstand Russia's  problem  in  Alaska,  one  should 
constantly  keep  in  mind  these  factors — the  need  of 
population  and  of  a  navy.  After  thinking  the 
subject  over  the  Empress  decided  on  a  line  of 
action.  In  a  letter  to  her  minister,  Panin,  written 
in  1769,  in  answer  to  various  projects  of  foreign 
adventurers,  she  said:  'It  is  for  traders  to  traffic 
where  they  please.  I  will  furnish  neither  men,  nor 
ships,  nor  money,  and  I  renounce  forever  all  lands 
and  possessions  in  the  East  Indies  and  in  America.' 
That  was  a  clear  statement  of  policy  and  could 
not  be  misunderstood.  ...  In  1787,  two  Siberian 
merchant  adventurers  laid  before  the  Empress  a 
petition  in  which  they  undertook,  in  exchange  for 
special  commercial  privileges  in  Alaska,  to  colo- 
nize that  land  and  to  extend  the  limits  of  the 
Russian  Empire  in  America.  Catherine  drew  up  a 
paper  in  reply  covering  the  questions  of  coloniza- 
tion and  expansion  in  the  North  Pacific.     In  the 


first  place  she  declared  that  the  proposition  was  an 
impracticable  one  because  the  population  for  the 
proposed  colonies  would  have  to  be  drawn  from 
Siberia,  and  that  country  had  none  to  spare; 
one  hundred  people  in  Siberia,  were  equal  to  a 
thousand  in  Europe.  .  .  .  Russia  would  not  benefit 
from  expansion  in  the  Pacific;  to  claim  a  territory 
and  trade  in  a  colony  was  one  thing,  to  hold  and 
govern  it  was  another."— F.  A.  Colder  in  Pacific 
ocean  in  history,  pp.  269-273.— In  spite  of  the  lack 
of  encouragement  on  the  part  of  the  government, 
numerous  voyages  were  made  to  Alaska  by  private 
adventurers  and  considerable  wealth  was  accumu- 
lated by  them.  In  1767  "the  merchants  Polo- 
ponissof  and  Popof  also  sent  out  a  ship,  the  Joann 
Predtecha,  which  returned  after  an  absence  of  five 
years  with  60  sea-otters,  6,300  fur-seals,  and  1,280 
blue  foxes.  This  ends  the  list  of  private  enter- 
prises prior  to  the  resumption  of  exploration  by 
the  imperial  government.  .  .  .  The  gradual  es- 
tablishment of  Russian  supremacy  in  north-west- 
ermost  America  upon  a  permanent  basis  had  not 
escaped  the  attention  of  Spanish  statesmen.  .  .  . 
Alarmed  by  tidings  of  numerous  and  important 
discoveries  along  the  extension  of  her  own  South 
Sea  coast  line,  Spain  ordered  an  expedition  for 
exploring  and  seizing  the  coast  to  the  northward 
of  California  in  1773." — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History 
of  jilaska  (Works  of  H.  H.  Bancroft,  v.  33),  pp. 
156,  194. — In  1786  French  and  English  ships  were 
cruising  the  coasts  of  Alaska  and  reporting  on  the 
fur-trade. 

1787-1867. — Formation  of  United  American 
Company. — Name  changed  to  Russian  American 
Company  and  first  charter  granted,  1799. — Sec- 
ond charter,  1821. — Company  in  the  favor  of  the 
imperial  government. — Third  charter,  1841.  Re- 
fusal to  grant  fourth  charter. — Growth  of 
friendly  relations  between  Russia  and  United 
States  and  desire  of  Russia  to  sell  Alaska. — In 
1787  "the  idea  of  a  subsidized  monopoly  of  trade 
and  industry,  to  embrace  all  Russian  discoveries 
and  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  north  Pacific,  first 
arose  in  the  fertile  brain  of  Grigor  Shelikof.  ...  In 
pursuance  of  this  report  an  imperial  oukaz  was 
issued  September  28,  1788,  granting  the  company 
exclusive  control  over  the  region  actually  occupied 
by  them.  ...  It  was  at  first  feared  that  the  de- 
cease of  Catherine  II.  would  be  a  death-blow  to  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  the  Shelikof  party,  for  it  was 
known  that  her  successor,  Paul  I.,  was  opposed  to 
them.  But  ...  on  the  nth  of  August,  1790,  the 
act  of  consolidation  of  the  United  American  Com- 
pany was  confirmed  by  imperial  oukaz,  and  the 
association  then  received  the  name  of  the  Rus- 
sian American  Company.  'By  the  same  oukaz,' 
continues  the  report,  'the  company  was  granted 
full  privileges,  for  a  period  of  twenty  years,  on 
the  coast  of  northwestern  America.  .  .  .  [The  chief 
manager  of  the  company  under  this  charter  was 
Baranof.]  Baranof's  complaints  of  foreign  en- 
croachment appear  to  have  been  well  grounded. 
.  .  .  'The  Americans,'  writes  the  chief  manager, 
'have  been  acquainted  with  these  tribes  for  two 
or  three  years,  and  have  sent  from  six  to  eight 
ships  each  year.  ...  At  the  end  of  the  twenty 
years  for  which  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the 
Russian  American  Company  were  granted,  we  find 
this  powerful  monopoly  firmly  established  in  the 
favor  of  the  imperial  government,  many  nobles 
of  high  rank  and  several  members  of  the  royal 
family  being  among  the  shareholders.  The  com- 
pany already  occupied  nearly  all  that  portion  of 
the  American  continent  and  the  adjacent  islands 
south  of  the  Yukon  River  now  comprised  in  the 
territory    of    Alaska.  .  .  .  While    the    company's 


179 


ALASKA,  1787-1867 


ALASKA,  1787-1867 


business  was  thus  progressing  satisfactorily,  a  deud 
arose  in  the  diplomatic  horizon,  which  at  one  time 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  colonies.  [In 
1 82 1  the  Tsar  of  Russia  issued  a  ukase  forbidding 
the  vessels  of  any  other  nation  to  approach  within 
100  rniles  of  the  coast  of  Alaska  above  the  tifty- 
first  parallel.]  As  soon  as  the  arbitrary  measure 
of  Russia  became  known  to  English  and  .American 
northwest  traders,  protestations  and  complaints 
were  forwarded  to  their  respective  governments. 
The  matter  was  discussed  with  some  heat  in  the 
United  States  congress,  causing  voluminous  diplo- 
matic correspondence.  [This  attitude  of  Russia 
towards  her  colonial  territories  was  backed  by  the 
Holy  Alliance  whose  pledge  to  restore  the  power 
and  possession  of  all  the  'legitimate  thrones'  was 
causing  diplomatic  complications.)  In  the  mean- 
time some  traffic  was  carried  on  under  protest, 
and  the  matter  was  finally  settled  by  the  .Anglo- 
Russian  and  Russo-.American  treaties  of  1824  and 
1825.  .  .  .  [From  1S20  to  1825  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment prohibited  foreign  trade  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  company  was  on  the  brink  of  financial 
ruin.  Foreign  intercourse  was  necessary  to  supply 
the  needs  of  the  colony  and  develop  its  re- 
sources.] The  expense  of  supporting  the  colonies, 
apart  from  the  sums  required  for  the  home  office, 
taxes,  and  other  items,  increased  from  about  676,- 
000  roubles,  scrip,  in  1821,  to  over  i,2iq,ooo 
roubles  in  1841,  and  amounted  for  the  whole  period 
to  nearly  18,000.000  roubles.  ...  At  the  request 
of  the  directors,  and  after  a  careful  investigation 
into  the  condition  of  the  colonies,  the  imperial 
council  at  St.  Petersburg  decided,  on  the  sth  of 
March,  1841,  to  renew  the  charter  of  the  Rus- 
sian American  Company  for  a  further  period  of 
twenty  years.'' — Ibid.,  pp.  305-566. — "From  1S20 
to  i860  .\laska  became  more  and  more  a  burden 
on  the  Empire.  The  fur-bearing  animals  were 
being  killed  off,  the  natives  were  dying  out.  and 
it  was  difficult  to  persuade  Russians  to  engage  for 
service  in  Alaska  when  Siberia  and  the  .Amur  of- 
fered so  many  better  opportunities.  The  men  who 
did  come  were  in  large  part  worthless.  New  in- 
ternational problems  were  coming  up.  The  Cri- 
mean War  demonstrated  that  Russia  was  not  in  a 
position  to  defend  the  colonies  from  an  enemy 
unless  she  possessed  a  navy.  If  some  agreement 
had  not  been  reached  as  to  the  neutralization  of 
.Alaska.  England  would  have  captured  it  without 
any  difficulty  in  1854.  There  was  also  the  finan- 
cial question.  The  government  stood  back  of  the 
company  and  had  to  protect  its  credit  by  advanc- 
ing loans  to  pay  its  bills.  These  were  some  of  the 
considerations  the  Russian  statesmen  had  to  take 
into  account  when  a  request  was  made  for  a  fourth 
charter.  Before  this  was  granted  a  committee  was 
ordered  to  .Alaska  to  make  a  report,  which  report 
did  not  promise  much  for  the  future  of  the  ter- 
ritory. [In  the  meantime  exposure  of  abuses  in 
the  company's  affairs  caused  the  government  to 
refuse  to  renew  the  charter  except  on  such  terms 
as  the  company  was  unwilling  to  accept  and  in 
1862  an  officer  of  the  imperial  government  was  sent 
to  take  charge  of  the  company's  affairs]  The  gov- 
ernment realized  that  the  only  sensible  thing  to  do 
with  its  .American  possession  was  to  get  rid  of  it. 
Even  before  i86o  it  was  proposed  to  sell  it  to  the 
United  States,  but  the  war  interfered.  .As  soon 
as  peace  was  declared  the  proposition  was  taken 
up  again  and  successfully  carried  through.  In  a 
letter  to  the  minister  of  finance  written  by 
Stoeckl.  the  Russian  minister  in  Washington,  a 
number  of  reasons  are  given  why  the  sale  was 
necessary,  i.  With  the  exception  of  England  every 
European  nation,  that  at  one  time   or  other  had 

I 


acquired  colcnies  in  America,  has  lost  them.  Eng- 
land still  retains  Canada  but  it  is  only  a  matter 
of  years  before  that  territory  will  become  inde- 
pendent. If  all  these  nations  could  not  hold  their 
colonies,  it  is  not  likely  that  Russia  will  be  able 
to  keep  Alaska  indefinitely.  2,  In  case  of  war 
Russia  is  in  no  position  to  defend  her  American 
territory.  To  be  obliged  to  protect  the  large 
stretch  of  American  coast  would  be  a  source  of 
weakness.  3,  The  ports  of  .Alaska  are  closed  to 
American  shipping  If  the  government  of  the 
United  States  should  retaliate  by  closing  the  Pa- 
cific coast  markets  to  Russian  vessels  the  Alas- 
kan trade  would  be  badly  affected.  Should  .Alas- 
ka be  thrown  open  to  the  Yankees  they  would  soon 
exhaust  it.  If  they  close  their  ports  to  us  we  are 
lost;  if  we  open  ours  to  them  we  are  equally  lost. 
4.  The  .American  people  believe  that  it  is  their 
'manifest  destiny'  to  expand  on  the  Pacific  coast 
.  .  .  By  handing  the  territory  to  the  United  States 
we  bind  that  nation  in  friendship  to  us.  Russia, 
too.  has  her  manifest  destiny,  but  it  is  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Pacific,  along  the  .Amur.  Our 
men  and  resources  are  needed  there  and  should  not 
be  wasted  in  .America.  5.  From  the  very  begin- 
ning .Alaska- has  brought  nothing  but  embarrass- 
ment, diplomatic  complications,  financial  sacrifices 
and  loss  in  men.  If  Russia  should  keep  it  there 
would  be  more  trouble  and  additional  sacrifices 
Is  .Alaska  worth  the  price?  Looking  at  the  matter 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  good  of  Russia  we 
mu.st  answer  in  the  negative." — F.  A.  Colder.  Pa- 
cific ocean  in  history,  pp.  260-273. — ".As  early  as 
1861.  the  executive  governments  of  the  two  coun- 
tries came  to  an  understanding  to  act  in  concert 
with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  a  connection 
between  San  Francisco  and  St  Petersburg,  by  an 
interoceanic  telegraph  line  across  Behring's  Straits 
.At  a  subsequent  day  Congress  sanctioned  and  gave 
its  co-operation  to  that  policy.  On  the  2tith  ol 
December.  1864.  the  Secretary  of  State,  by  direc- 
tion of  the  President,  invited  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  to  send  his  principal  advisor,  the  Grand 
Duke  Constantine.  upon  a  visit  to  the  United 
States,  intimating  an  opinion  that  such  a  visit 
would  be  beneficial  to  the  United  States,  and  by 
no  means  unprofitable  to  Russia,  and  giving  the 
assurance  that  the  Grand  Duke,  coming  as  a  na- 
tional guest,  would  receive  a  cordial  and  most 
demonstrative  welcome  by  the  government  and 
people  of  the  United  States.  The  condition  of 
domestic  affairs  in  Russia  fat  that  time]  prevented 
the  acceptance  of  this  invitation.  .  .  .  The  me- 
morial of  the  legislature  of  Washington  Territory 
to  the  President,  received  in  February,  1866,  was 
made  an  occasion,  in  general  terms,  for  communi- 
cating to  Mr.  de  Stoeckl  the  importance  of  some 
early  and  comprehensive  arrangement  between  the 
two  countries,  to  prevent  the  growth  of  difficul- 
ties arising  out  of  the  fisheries  in  the  Russian  pos- 
sessions. In  the  spring  of  1866,  Mr.  Fox,  late 
.Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Na\'y.  was  made  the 
bearer  of  the  expressions  of  national  .sympathy 
with  the  Emperor,  arising  out  of  the  attempt  at 
his  assassination.  He  was  especially  charged  to 
express  the  most  friendly  feelings  towards  the  gov- 
ernment and  people  of  Russia.  In  the  month  of 
October,  1866,  Mr.  de  Stoeckl.  who  had  long  been 
the  Russian  minister  here,  and  enjoyed  in  a  high 
degree  the  confidence  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  went  home  on  a  leave  of  absence, 
promising  his  best  exertions  to  facilitate  the  es- 
tablishment of  good  relations  upon  a  permanent 
basis.  He  returned  to  Washington  early  in  the 
month  of  March  last.  The  treaty  for  the  cession 
of    Russian   .American    to    the    United   States   was 

80 


ALASKA,  1867 


ALASKA,  1884-1912 


concluded  and  signed  on  the  30th  day  of  March 
[1867]." — Papers  relating  to  the  cession  and  trans- 
fer of  Alaska  to  the  United  States  in  1867,  p.  324. 

1867. — Purchase  by  the  United  States. — In 
March,  1867,  definite  negotiations  on  the  subject 
were  opened  by  the  Russian  minister  at  Washing- 
ton, and  on  the  23d  of  that  month  he  received  from 
Secretary  Seward  an  offer,  subject  to  the  presi- 
dent's approval,  of  $7,200,000,  on  condition  that 
the  cession  be  "free  and  unencumbered  by  any 
reservations,  privileges,  franchises,  grants,  or  pos- 
sessions by  any  associated  companies,  whether  cor- 
porate or  incorporate,  Russian,  or  any  other.  Two 
days  later  an  answer  was  returned,  stating  that 
the  minister  believed  himself  authorized  to  accept 
these  terms.  On  the  20th  final  instructions  were 
received  by  cable  from  St.  Petersburg.  On  the 
same  day  a  note  was  addressed  by  the  minister  to 
the  secretary  of  state,  informing  him  that  the  tsar 
consented  to  the  cession  of  Russian  America  for 
the  stipulated  sum  of  $7,200,000  in  gold.  At  four 
o'clock  the  next  morning  the  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  two  parties  without  further  phrase  or  nego- 
tiation. In  May  the  treaty  was  ratified,  and  on 
June  20,  1867,  the  usual  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  president  of  the  United  States."  On  Oc- 
tober 18,  1867,  the  formal  transfer  of  the  terri- 
tory was  made,  at  Sitka,  General  Rousseau  taking 
possession  in  the  name  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States.— H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pa- 
cific states,  V.  28,  ch.  28. 

Also  in:  W.  H.  Dall,  Alaska  and  its  resources, 
pt.  2,  ch.  2. — W.  A.  Dunning,  Paying  for  Alaska 
(Political   Science    Quarterly,   Sept.,    iqi2). 

1867-1883. — Lack  of  government  in  Alaska. — 
Geodetic  surveys. — Obstacles  in  the  establish- 
ment of  civil  government. — The  only  govern- 
ment in  Alaska  between  1867  and  1877  was  that 
of  more  or  less  formal  military  authority.  Dur- 
ing these  years  considerable  work  was  done  in 
charting  the  coast,  locating  new  harbors  and  ex- 
ploring the  sources  of  the  Yukon.  From  1877 
to  1884,  Alaska  was  almost  entirely  without  gov- 
ernment, both  as  to  laws  and  officers.  "The  main 
obstacle  in  the  establishment  of  some  form  of  civil 
government  for  Alaska  appears  to  have  been  the 
difficulty  in  reconciling  the  conflicting  claims  of 
the  several  sections,  separated  as  they  are  by  a 
vast  extent  of  territory,  and  having  few  interests 
in  common,  ...  In  1883  Alaska  was  but  a  cus- 
toms district,  with  a  collector  and  a  few  deputies. 
For  laws,  the  territory  had  the  regulations  made 
by  the  secretary  of  the  treasury ;  and  for  protec- 
tion, the  presence  of  a  single  war-vessel,  the  crew 
of  which  was  sometimes  employed  as  a  police 
force  among  the  settlements  of  the  .Alexander 
Archipelago." — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  Alaska, 
(Works  of  H.  H.  Bancroft,  v.  33)  p.  627. 

1884-1912. — Civil  government. — First  estab- 
lishment and  development. — Defects. — Civil  gov- 
ernment was  first  established  in  Alaska  in  May, 
1884.  Better  provision  was  made  by  an  act  which 
passed  Congress  after  much  debate  and  was  ap- 
proved by  the  President  on  June  6,  iqoo.  It  con- 
stituted Alaska  a  civil  and  judicial  district,  with 
a  governor  invested  with  the  duties  and  powers 
that  pertain  to  the  governor  of  a  territory,  and  a 
district  court  of  general  jurisdiction,  civil  and 
criminal,  and  in  equity  and  admiralty,  the  court 
being  in  three  divisions,  each  with  a  district  judge. 
The  act  also  provided  a  civil  code  for  the  district. 
The  Civil  Government  Act  of  iqi2,  approved  by 
President  Taft  on  August  24,  altered  the  status  of 
Alaska  to  that  of  an  organized  territory,  with  a 
capital  at  Juneau.  (Previously  for  many  years 
the   government   headquarters  were  at  Sitka.)      A 

18 


legislature,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of 
representatives  was  created.  Constitutional  hmits 
set  to  the  powers  of  the  legislature  preclude  the 
authority  to  grant  divorces,  special  privileges  and 
private  charters;  its  fiscal  policy  is  prescribed  in 
regard  to  taxation,  while  its  borrowing  powers 
are  limited  to  administrative  expenditure,  "The 
development  of  Alaska  is  held  up  by  the  laws 
governing  it.  Alaska's  government  is  a  motley 
affair.  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Inte- 
rior [died  May,  192 1],  who  understands  the  situ- 
ation admirably,  calls  it  a  patchwork.  Many  of 
the  laws  that  govern  it  are  passed  by  Congress. 
There  is  a  territorial  government,  but  here  again 
Congress  holds  the  controlling  power,  for  their 
are  many  federal  restrictions  and  all  laws  passed 
by  the  home  legislature  must  be  transmitted  to 
Congress  and  if  disapproved  by  the  legislative  body 
at  Washington  they  are  void.  To  be  sure,  Alaska 
has  a  delegate  at  the  national  capital,  but  he  has 
no  vote.  .  .  .  Thus,  in  its  practical  working  out, 
Alaska  is  largely  governed  from  Washington.  .  .  . 
This  distant  lawmaking,  inefficient  as  it  is,  is  not 
all  of  the  maladministration  of  -'Vlaskan  affairs. 
Many  departments  and  bureaus  have  the  carrying 
out  of  the  laws  passed.  This  results  in  almost  in- 
extricable confusion.  There  is  a  government  for 
certain  public  lands  and  forests,  another  for  other 
lands  and  forests.  There  is  one  procedure  for 
making  homesteads,  mineral  and  other  land  entries 
within  the  national  forests;  another  procedure  for 
making  such  entries  in  land  outside  the  forest  re- 
serves. Certain  islands  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Alaska  may  be  leased  for  fox  farming  by  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce;  adjoining  unreserved 
islands  may  not  be  leased,  but  may  be  acquired 
under  the  general  land  laws  from  the  Department 
of  the  Interior.  Still  other  islands  are  reserved 
for  special  purposes  under  the  control  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  Vast  areas  in  the  for- 
est reserves  are  entirely  untimbered,  but  are  held 
under  the  regulations  of  the  Forest  Service,  while 
timbered  lands  in  other  sections  are  unprotected. 
Some  of  the  timbered  islands  off  the  coast  are  in- 
cluded within  the  forest  reserves.  Other  islands 
equally  well  timbered  are  not.  Homesteads  within 
the  forest  reserves  are  surveyed  by  the  Forest 
Service  without  cost  to  the  entry  man.  Homestead- 
ers on  unsurveyed  lands  outside  the  Forest  Re- 
serves must  pay  for  their  own  surveys.  It  has 
happened  that  three  separate  investigations  of 
mineral  claims  have  been  made  by  field  officers 
of  the  Forest  Service  Land  Office  and  Geological 
Survey.  Roads  and  trails  within  the  Forest  Re- 
serves are  built  by  the  Forest  Service  Roads  and 
trails  outside  these  reserves  are  built  by  a  com- 
mission of  army  officers.  Still  a  third  depart- 
ment having  charge  of  road  building  has  now  been 
established  by  the  Territorial  Legislature.  .  .  . 
Nor  is  this  interlocking  and  overlapping  of  many 
governmental  bureaus  the  only  cause  of  confu- 
sion. In  the  individual  department  there  is  much 
distraction.  The  Land  Office,  one  of  the  most 
vital  to  the  fullest  development  of  Alaska,  is  a 
fair  sample.  The  administration  of  laws  here  is 
not  plain  and  simple.  They  need  many  construc- 
tions to  arrive  at  their  meaning.  And  the  regu- 
lations and  reservation  orders  are  many,  ambigu- 
ous, and  not  known  to  the  settler.  .  .  .  The  legis- 
lative power  of  the  Territory  itself  is  vested  in  a 
Territorial  Legislature  consisting  of  a  Senate  and 
a  House  of  Representatives,  The  Senate  consists 
of  eight  members,  two  from  each  of  the  four 
judicial  divisions  into  which  Alaska  is  now  di- 
vided. The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of 
sixteen  members,  four  from  each  of  the  four  ju- 

I 


ALASKA,  1884-1922 


ALASKA,  1898-1899 


dicial  divisions.  The  term  of  each  member  of  the 
Senate  is  four  years,  one  member  from  each  judi- 
cial division  being  elected  ever>-  two  years.  The 
term  of  each  member  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives is  two  years.  The  legislature  convenes  bi- 
annually  at  Juneau  on  the  first  Monday  of  March 
in  odd  years,  and  the  length  of  the  session  is 
limited  to  sixty  days,  but  the  governor  is  em- 
powered to  call  an  extra  session.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  the  governor,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  President  for  a  term  of  four  years  by  and 
with  the  advice  of  the  United  States  Senate." — 
A.  k.  Hurr,  Alaska,  pp.  401-412. 

1884-1922. — Governors  of  Alaska. — "After  the 
purchase  of  the  territory  of  -■Vlaska  in  1867,  Lovell 
H.  Rousseau  was  appointed  a  special  commissioner 
to  formally  take  possession  of  the  region,  but  aside 
from  that,  .-Maska  practically  remained  without 
civil  government  until  May  17,  1884,  when,  by 
act  of  congress,  it  was  created  a  'civil  and  judicial 
district,'  with  executive  officers  appointed  by  the 
president  for  four  years,  but  without  representa- 
tive institutions  (until  1Q12]. — J.  H.  Kinkead,  ex- 
governor  of  Nevada,  was  appointed  first  governor 
by  Pres.  .Arthur  in  1884,  but  he  resigned  the 
following  year  upon  the  inauguration  of  Pres. 
Cleveland,  and  Mr.  [.Alfred  P.]  Swineford  suc- 
ceeded to  the  office  [May  0,  18S5I  and  served  for 
four  years.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  territory  and  repeatedly  urged 
its  organization.  .  .  .  On  .Apr.  20,  1880,  .  .  . 
I  Lyman  E.  Knapp]  was  appointed  governor  of 
.■\laska,  serving  until  .Aug.  20,  1803.  During  his 
administration  the  development  of  the  material 
industries,  mines,  fisheries  and  other  resources  of 
the  territory  marked  an  important  era.  The  or- 
ganization of  the  Indian  police,  the  local  militia,  a 
territorial  historical  society  and  library,  improve- 
ment in  the  public  buildings  and  methods  of  con- 
ducting the  public  business,  the  more  rapid  prog- 
ress in  civilization  by  the  natives,  and  improve- 
ments in  the  laws  concerning  town  sites  and  pre- 
emption of  lands  occupied  his  attention.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  the  seal  fisheries  controversy  occurred 
during  his  administration  and  he  was  called  upon 
to  aid  in  the  investigations  made  by  both  .Ameri- 
can and  English  Government  vessels.  [See  U.  S. 
A.:  i88q-i8q2.}  He  earnestly  labored  for  better 
mail  service  in  the  territory  and  succeeded  in  se- 
curing an  extension  of  more  than  sixteen  hundred 
miles  of  the  established  mail  routes.  He  published 
many  reports,  official  and  unofficial,  on  .Alaska  and 
discussions  of  important  public  questions,  among 
them  'The  Legal  and  Political  Status  of  the  Na- 
tives of  Alaska,'  in  the  '.American  Law  Register,' 
May,  i8qi.  [See  Territories  and  dependencies  of 
THE  United  St.\tes.1  ...  [In  18Q3  James  Sheak- 
ley  became  fourth  governor  of  .Alaska]  ...  In 
1887  Pres.  Cleveland  appointed  him  as  one  of  the 
U.  S.  commissioners  of  Alaska,  while  the  educa- 
tional department  made  him  superintendent  of 
schools  for  southeast  .\laska.  Upon  the  expiration 
of  his  term  as  U.  S.  commissioner  in  1802,  he  re- 
signed the  superintendency  of  the  schools.  .  .  .  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  .Alaska  by  Pres.  Cleve- 
land, June  28,  1803,  entered  upon  his  official  duties 
.Aug.  2q,  and  served  in  that  position  four  years. 
Gov.  Sheakley  gave  every  encouragement  to  the 
cause  of  education,  assisted  the  missionaries  of  all 
denominations,  and  did  what  he  could  to  protect, 
improve,  and  civilize  the  native  Indians.  The  rich 
placer  mines  of  British  Columbia  were  discovered, 
and  the  great  rush  to  the  Klondike  mining  region 
began  during  his  administration.  In  the  fall  of  1807 
the  San  Francisco  chamber  of  commerce  sent  him 
East,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  public  correct 


information  in  regard  to  the  Klondike  mines.  .  .  . 
[In  1897  John  G.  Brady  was  appointed  fifth 
governor  of  .Alaska].  In  1878  Mr.  Brady  went  to 
.Alaska  as  a  missionary,  with  Dr.  Sheldon  Jack- 
son, and  later  became  manager  of  the  Sitka  'Trad- 
ing Co.  On  June  16,  1807,  he  was  appointed  to 
succeed  James  Sheakley  as  governor  of  .Alaska. 
Under  his  administration  there  has  been  marked 
progress  in  the  development  of  its  resources,  the 
expansion  of  trade  and  increase  of  population.  On 
July  I,  i8gq,  a  new  code  of  criminal  procedure 
went  into  effect,  and  it  has  been  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  the  territory.  .A  territorial  conven- 
tion met  in  Juneau  in  October  the  same  year,  and 
submitted  a  memorial  to  congress  petitioning  for 
various  reforms  and  for  a  delegate  to  that  body. 
Gov.  Brady  in  his  annual  reports  ha?  supported 
many  of  the  measures  asked  for  in  the  petition  and 
has  especially  urged  the  extension  of  the  land 
laws,  the  adoption  of  a  code  of  civil  procedure 
and  the  necessity  for  roads,  telegraphs,  and  the 
erection  of  lighthouses  upon  dangerous  points  of 
the  coast.  His  administration  was  so  successful 
that  on  June  6,  iqoo,  he  was  reappointed  governor, 
his  second  term  expiring  in  1Q04." — Xalional  cyclo- 
pedia of  American  biography,  pp.  355-356. — Gov- 
ernor Brady  was  again  reappointed  in  1904  an<l 
served  until  1006.  The  governors  of  Alaska  who 
have  served  since  then  are  as  follows:  Wilfred  B. 
Hogatt,  iqo6-iQio;  Walter  E.  Clark,  1010-1014; 
John  F.  Strong,  1014-1018;  Thomas  Riggs,  Jr., 
iqiS-iq22.  Scott  Bone  has  been  appointed  to  begin 
his  term  in  1022. 

1897. — Gold  discoveries  in  the  Klondike  re- 
gion.    See  Klondike  gold  fields. 

1898-1899. — Discovery  of  the  Cape  Nome  gold 
mining  region. — The  Cape  Nome  mining  region 
lies  on  the  western  coast  of  .Alaska,  just  beyond 
the  military  reservation  of  St.  Michael  and  about 
120  miles  south  of  the  .\rctic  Circle.  It  can  be 
reached  by  an  ocean  voyage  of  ten  or  twelve 
days  from  Seattle.  It  had  long  been  known  that 
gold  existed  in  the  general  vicinity  of  Cape  Nome, 
and  during  the  years  1804-1808  a  few  adventurous 
miners  had  done  more  or  less  prospecting  and 
claim  staking  throughout  the  district  lying  be- 
tween the  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds.  During 
the  winter  of  i8q8-i8oq,  a  large  number  of  miners 
entered  the  Kotzebue  country,  while  others  spent 
the  season  in  the  vicinity  of  Golofnin  bay.  On 
Oct.  15,  i8q8,  a  party  of  seven  men  reached  Snake 
river  in  a  schooner.  "Between  that  date  and  the 
18th  a  miners'  meeting  was  held,  the  boundaries 
of  a  district  25  miles  square  were  established,  local 
mining  regulations  were  formulated,  and  Dr.  Kit- 
tleson  was  elected  recorder  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
.After  organizing,  the  district  natives  were  hired 
to  do  the  necessary  packing,  and  a  camp  was  es- 
tablished on  .Anvil  Creek.  The  prospecting  outfits 
were  quickly  brought  into  service.  In  one  after- 
noon S76  was  panned  out  on  Snow  Creek.  Encour- 
aged by  this  showing  lumber  was  carried  up  from 
the  schooner  and  two  rockers  were  constructed.  . . . 
In  four  or  five  days  over  Si, 800  was  cleaned  up 
with  these  two  rockers.  .  .  .  The  weather  turne<l 
cold  and  the  water  was  frozen  up.  .As  it  was  im- 
possible to  do  any  more  work  with  the  rockers  the 
party  broke  camp  on  the  3d  of  November  and 
returned  to  the  schooner,  which  they  found  frozen 
solid  in  2  feet  of  ice.  They  then  made  their  way 
in  a  small  boat  to  an  Indian  village,  near  Cape 
Nome,  where  they  obtained  dogs  and  sleds,  and 
a  little  farther  on  they  were  met  by  reindeer  from 
the  Swedish  Mission,  with  which  they  returned  to 
Golofnin  Bay. 

"The  lucky  miners  had  agreed  among  themselves 


182 


ALASKA,  1898-1899 


ALASKA,  1904-1911 


that  their  discovery  should  be  held  secret,  but  the 
news  was  too  good  to  keep,  and  soon  leaked  out. 
A  general  stampede  commenced  at  once  and  con- 
tinued all  winter.  Every  available  dog  and  rein- 
deer was  pressed  into  the  service,  and  they  were 
soon  racing  with  each  other  for  the  valuable  claims 
which  had  been  left  unstaked  in  the  vicinity  of 
Anvil  Creek.  As  soon  as  that  creek  had  been  all 
taken  up  the  stampede  extended  to  the  neighboring 
streams  and  gulches,  and  Glacier  and  De.xter 
creeks,  as  well  as  many  others  which  have  not 
[iroved  equally  valuable,  were  quickly  staked  and 
recorded.  By  the  25th  of  December  a  large  party 
armed  with  numerous  powers  of  attorney  had 
entered  the  district,  and  as  the  local  regulations 
allowed  every  man  to  stake  on  each  creek  one 
claim  of  the  full  legal  dimensions  (660  by  1,320 
feet),  it  was  not  long  until  the  whole  district  had 
been  thoroughly  covered,  and  nearly  every  stream 
had  been  staked  with  claims,  which  in  some  cases 
were  'jumped'  and  the  right  of  possession  disputed. 

"The  news  of  a  rich  strike  at  Nome  worked  its 
way  up  the  Yukon  River  during  the  winter,  and 
as  soon  as  the  ice  broke  in  June  a  large  crowd 
came  down  from  Rampart  City,  followed  by  a 
larger  crowd  from  Dawson.  .  .  .  Those  to  whom 
enough  faith  had  been  given  to  go  over  to  Cape 
Nome  were  disgusted  and  angered  to  find  that 
pretty  much  the  whole  district  was  already  staked, 
and  that  the  claims  taken  were  two  or  three 
times  as  large  as  those  commonly  allowed  on  the 
upper  river.  Another  grievance  was  the  great 
abuse  of  the  power  of  attorney,  by  means  of 
which  an  immense  number  of  claims  had  been 
taken  up,  so  that  in  many  cases  (according  to 
common  report)  single  individuals  held  or  con- 
trolled from  so  to   100  claims  apiece.  .  .  . 

"A  miners'  meeting  was  called  by  the  new- 
comers to  remedy  their  grievances.  Resolutions 
were  prepared,  in  which  it  was  represented  that 
the  district  had  been  illegally  organized  by  men 
who  were  not  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
who  had  not  conformed  with  the  law  in  properly 
defining  the  boundaries  of  the  district  with  ref- 
erence to  natural  objects,  in  enacting  suitable  and 
sufficient  mining  regulations,  and  in  complying 
with  any  of  the  details  of  organization  required 
by  law.  It  was  intended  by  the  promoters  of 
this  meeting  to  reorganize  the  district  in  such  a 
way  as  would  enable  them  to  share  the  benefits  of 
the  discovery  of  a  new  gold  field  with  the  men 
who  had  entered  it  the  previous  winter,  and,  as 
they  expressed  it,  'gobbled  up  the  whole  country.' 
It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  say  what  would  have 
been  the  result  if  their  attempt  had  not  been  in- 
terfered with.  ...  On  the  28th  of  June  Lieuten- 
ant Spaulding  and  a  detachment  of  10  men  from 
the  Third  Artillery  had  been  ordered  to  the  vi- 
cinity of  Snake  River,  and  on  the  7th  of  July 
their  numbers  were  increased  by  the  addition  of 
15  more.  As  soon  as  it  was  proposed  to  throw 
open  for  restaking  a  large  amount  of  land  already 
staked  and  recorded  an  appeal  was  made  to  the 
United  States  troops  to  prevent  this  action  by 
prohibiting  the  intended  meeting,  which  was  called 
to  assemble  July  10.  It  was  represented  to  them 
that  if  the  newcomers  should  attempt,  under  the 
quasi-legal  guise  of  a  miners'  meeting,  to  take 
forcible  possession  of  lands  already  claimed  by 
others,  the  inevitable  consequence  would  be  a 
reign  of  disorder  and  violence,  with  'the  possibility 
of  conpiderable  bloodshed.  On  the  strength  of  this 
representation  and  appeal  the  army  officers  decided 
to  prevent  the  adoption  of  the  proposed  resolu- 
tions. The  miners  were  allowed  to  call  their 
meeting  to   order,  but   as  soon   as  the   resolutions 


were  read  Lieutenant  Spaulding  requested  that 
they  be  withdrawn.  He  allowed  two  minutes  for 
compliance  with  his  request,  the  alternative  bein^ 
that  he  would  clear  the  hall.  The  resolutions  were 
not  withdrawn,  the  troops  were  ordered  to  fix 
bayonets,  and  the  hall  was  cleared  quietly,  with- 
out a  conflict.  Such  meetings  as  were  subse- 
quently attempted  were  quickly  broken  up  by 
virtue  of  the  same  authority.  The  light  in  which 
this  action  is  regarded  by  the  people  at  Nome 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  way  in  which  their 
personal  interests  were  affected.   .   .   . 

"The  great  discontent  which  actually  did  exist  at 
this  time  found  sudden  and  unexpected  relief  in 
the  discovery  of  the  beach  diggings.  It  had  long 
been  known  that  there  was  more  or  less  gold  on 
the  seashore,  and  before  the  middle  of  July  it 
was  discovered  that  good  wages  could  be  taken 
out  of  the  sand  with  a  rocker.  Even  those  who 
were  on  the  ground  could  hardly  believe  the  story 
at  first,  but  its  truth  was  quickly  and  easily  dem- 
onstrated. Before  the  month  was  over  a  great 
army  of  the  unemployed  was  engaged  in  throwing 
up  irregular  intrenchments  along  the  edge  of  the 
sea,  and  those  who  had  just  been  driven  nearly  to 
the  point  of  desperation  by  the  exhaustion  of  all 
their  resources  were  soon  contentedly  rocking  out 
from  $10  to  $50  each  per  day  and  even  more 
than  that.  This  discovery  came  like  a  godsend  to 
many  destitute  men,  and  was  a  most  fortunate 
development  in  the  history  of  the  camp. 

"Meantime  the  men  who  were  in  possession  of 
claims  on  Anvil  and  Snow  creeks  were  beginning 
to  sluice  their  ground  and  getting  good  returns  for 
their  work,  while  others  were  actively  making 
preparations  to  take  out  the  gold  which  they  knew 
they  had  discovered.  More  sluice  boxes  were  con- 
structed and  put  into  operation  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  A  town  site  was  laid  off  at  the  mouth 
of  Snake  River,  and  on  the  4th  of  July  a  post- 
office  was  established.  The  town  which  has  sprung 
so  suddenly  into  existence  is  called  'Nome'  by  the 
Post-Office  Department,  but  at  a  miners'  meeting 
held  February  28,  it  was  decided  to  call  it  'Anvil 
City,'  and  this  is  generally  done  by  the  residents 
of  the  district,  as  well  as  in  all  official  records. 
.'\t  a  meeting  held  in  September,  however,  the 
name  was  again  changed  to  'Nome.' " — United 
States,  S^tk  Cong.,  ist  sess.,  Senate  Doc.  No.  357, 
pp.  1-4- 

1900. — Explorations  in  the  north.  See  Arctic 
F..\PLORATio.\:    iqoo. 

1903. — Settlement  of  boundary  question  with 
Canada.     See  Al.aska  boundary  question. 

1904-1911. — Coal-Iand  controversy. — Cunning- 
ham claims. — Ballinger  vs.  Pinchot. — The  de- 
velopment of  the  coal  deposits  in  Alaska  has  been 
retarded  by  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and 
the  controversies  over  the  administration  of  the 
coal  lands.  The  two  issues  at  stake  in  the  coal 
land  controversy,  which  aroused  considerable  dis- 
cussion from  ic)04  to  igii,  were  the  fate  of  the 
principle  of  conservation  and  the  rapid  economic 
ilevelopment  of  Alaska.  Some  of  the  claims  en- 
tered previous  to  1Q06,  when  the  Alaska  coal  fields 
were  withdrawn  from  entry  by  executive  order, 
were  charged  with  fraud  because  monopoly  in- 
terests (especially  the  Alaska,  or  Morgan-Guggen- 
heim syndicate)  were  supposed  to  be  getting  con- 
trol of  the  coal  lands.  The  investigation  of  the 
notable  Cunningham  group  of  claims  dragged  on 
in  the  Department  of  the  Interior  for  several  years 
and  eventually  gained  publicity,  resulting  in  a 
heated  dispute  between  Chief  Forester  Pinchot  and 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  Ballinger.  Pinchot  was 
removed    by    President    Taft    for    insubordination 


183 


ALASKA,  1906 


ALASKA,  1918 


and  Ballinger,  accused  of  collusion,  although  up- 
held by  a  congressional  investigating  committee, 
resigned  in  ign.  Soon  after,  the  Cunningham 
claims  were  cancelled,  this  acting  as  a  precedent 
for  the  rejection  of  most  of  the  remaining  claims. 
The  opening  up  of  12,800  acres  of  coal  land  with- 
drawn from  the  Chugach  National  Forest  in  Oc- 
tober of  iqio  raised  again  the  fear  of  monopoly 
by  the  "Morgan-Guggenheim  Syndicate,"  through 
its  control  of  terminal  facilities.  President  Taft 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior  Fisher  defended  this 
executive  order  by  stating  that  the  territory  opened 
was  guarded  from  monopoly  by  the  reservation  of 
80-rod  strips  between  the  better  claims. — See  also 
Conservation':    ioio;  1010-1012. 

1906. — Election  of  a  delegate  to  Congress. — 
.\n  act  to  authorize  the  election  of  a  delegate  to 
Congress  from  the  territory  of  .Alaska  was  ap- 
proved by  the  President  May  7,  iqo6. 

1911. — First  territorial  legislature  and  its 
work. — "The  more  important  legislation  is  sum- 
marized as  follows:  An  act  revising  and  making 
additions  to  the  territorial  licenses  and  taxes,  and 
an  act  creating  a  territorial  treasury  and  provid- 
ing for  the  appointment  of  a  treasurer;  an  act 
making  important  and  comprehensive  amendments 
to  the  general  mining  law  as  applied  to  Alaska; 
an  employers'  liability  act;  a  poll-tax  law,  the 
poll  taxes  to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  con- 
struction of  wagon-roads;  arbitration  of  labor  dis- 
putes; a  miners'  labor-lien  law;  two  acts  limit- 
ing hours  of  labor,  the  first  prescribing  eight  hours 
in  all  metalliferous  lode  mines,  and  the  other  plac- 
ing the  same  limit  on  all  labor  in  connection  with 
public  works  for  the  territory ;  regulating  banks 
and  banking,  and  providing  for  examination;  en- 
abling municipal  corporations  to  extend  their 
boundaries;  quarantine  law  and  a  simple  sanitary 
code ;  compulsory  registration  ol  births,  marriages 
and  deaths;  compulsory  school  attendance;  pro- 
viding for  incorporated  towns  of  the  second  class ; 
extending  the  eJective  franchise  to  women.  The 
first  two  named  are  the  most  important  of  all, 
because  of  their  fundamental  nature,  but  I  would 
not  be  understood  as  implying  that  the  measure 
which  I  have  mentioned  last  is,  in  my  opinion,  of 
least  importance.  In  respect  to  the  general  tax 
and  license  measure,  the  difficulty  was  encountered 
at  the  beginning  of  its  consideration,  of  raising 
revenues  in  a  territory  whose  population  is  small 
and  whose  developed  resources  are  already  taxed 
under  federal  laws.  The  new  revenue  law  is  some- 
what unequal  as  to  the  various  taxes  imposed,  but 
it  is  not  a  vicious  or  very  burdensome  measure. 
It  is  roughly  estimated  that  it  will  yield  about 
$240,000,  per  annum.  The  appropriations  author- 
ized by  the  legislature  amount  to  about  S6o,ooo 
per  annum  for  the  next  two  years." — Alaskans  first 
legislature  {American  Review  of  Reviews,  v.  48, 
pp.  402-403). 

1912. —  Eruption  of  Mount  Katmai.—  "This 
volcanic  ridge,  a  great  lissure  or  vent  it  is  supposed 
to  be,  extends  on  down  the  .Alaska  Peninsula  where 
its  most  famous  peak  is  Mt.  Katmai.  The  erup- 
tion of  this  mountain  in  June,  1012,  was  the  most 
tremendous  volcanic  explosion  ever  recorded.  .  .  . 
The  explosions  and  the  shocks  threw  men  and 
horses  to  the  ground  four  hundred  miles  away.  It 
was  felt  to  the  .shore  of  the  .Arctic  Ocean.  The 
ash  fell  nine  hundred  miles  away,  and  according 
to  scientists  the  fine  dust  went  into  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmosphere  over  the  whole  world 
and  affected  the  weather  for  the  summer,  being 
the  cause  of  the  cold,  wet  season  of  that  year.  .  .  . 
Professor  Robert  F.  Griggs,  who  was  the  leader 
of  the  expedition  sent  by  the  National  Geographic 


Society  to  Katmai  after  the  disaster,  computes  that 
the  ashes  that  fell,  buried  an  area  as  large  as  the 
State  of  Connecticut  to  a  depth  varying  from  ten 
inches  to  more  than  ten  feet.  .  .  .  Fortunately, 
the  disaster  did  not  occur  in  a  settled  district. 
Kodiak  was  the  chief  sufferer  and  its  green  beauty 
became  a  gray  desert.  Though  one  hundred  miles 
away,  the  island  was  buried  under  ash.  The  roofs 
of  the  houses  were  broken  in  by  the  ashes  that 
settled  on  them.  The  land  was  a  land  of  dark- 
ness and  stifling  fumes  and  all  the  water  was 
poisoned.  .A  vessel  that  happened  to  be  in  the 
harbor  of  Kodiak  took  the  people  on  board  and 
supplied  their  needs  as  best  it  could  until  a  weird, 
gray  dawn  at  last  broke  and  they  returned  to 
their  homes  and  began  the  task  of  rehabilitation. 
Many  of  the  cattle  on  the  island  perished  for 
there  was  neither  food  nor  drink.  The  govern- 
ment experimental  station  shipped  its  herd  to  the 
States  until  vegetation  again  appeared.  But  the 
greatest  desolation  was  wrought  on  the  Alaska 
Peninsula  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  moun- 
tain. The  little  village  of  Katmai  though  five 
times  as  far  away  as  Pompeii  from  Vesuvius  or  St. 
Pierre  from  Mt.  Pelee  was  a  barren  waste.  The 
roofs  were  sunken  in  on  the  houses  and  the  build- 
ings were  filled  with  pumice.  The  church  stood 
in  a  sea  of  liquid  mud.  Trees  were  dead.  Pumice 
was  everywhere.  To  add  to  the  destruction,  if 
this  were  possible,  a  lake  that  had  been  formed  by 
rubbish  that  had  gathered  across  a  stream  and 
dammed  it,  broke  and  a  flood  swept  down  bring- 
ing boulders  and  trees  and  leaving  a  great  plain 
of  sticky  mud.  For  several  years  after  the  ex- 
plosion columns  of  steam  a  mile  high  and  a  thou- 
sand feet  in  diameter  poured  from  other  volcanoes 
of  the  group.  New  volcanoes  came  into  existence 
at  the  time.  Katmai  itself  really  blew  its  head  off 
and  is  to-day  but  a  stub  of  what  it  was  before 
the  explosion.  The  force  of  the  explosion  right 
at  the  peak  was  so  great  that  rocks  were  literally 
blown  to  pieces  and  the  lava  was  so  charged  with 
gas  it  became  steam." — A.  R.  Burr,  Alaska,  pp. 
176-178. 

1914. — Coal  lands  opened  up  by  Congress 
under  limitations. — Law  passed  to  build  a  Fed- 
eral railroad  in  Alaska. — By  a  law  passed  in 
iqi4,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  was  permitted 
to  lease  coal  lands  in  blocks  of  forty  acres  or 
multiples  to  2,560  acres.  .A  royalty  was  fixed  of 
not  less  than  two  cents  a  ton.  In  the  same  year 
a  bill  was  passed  authorizing  a  bond  issue  of 
$35,000,000  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  Fed- 
eral railroad  in  .Alaska.  The  bill  was  vigorously 
opposed  by  the  Guggenheim  interests.  "The  gov- 
ernment aims.  Secretary  Lane  says,  will  be  not 
merely  to  construct  a  railroad  from  the  sea  to  the 
interior,  but  to  select  a  route  that  will  develope 
both  the  agricultural  and  mineral  resources  of  the 
countn.'  'so  that  we  may  have  a  road  that  will 
tap  large  coal  fields  and  have  other  freight  to 
carry.'" — Independent,   March   23,   IQ14. 

1915-1918 — Important  legislation. — In  IQ15  a 
workmen's  compensation  law  was  adopted  which 
surpassed  that  of  other  sections  in  its  liberality. 
The  following  year  the  Mount  McKinley  district 
was  set  a.side  as  a  national  park.  The  year  loi" 
was  marked  by  two  laws  of  note:  an  eight  hour 
day  law  and  a  land  law.  In  accordance  with  this 
latter  law,  homeseekers  are  allowed  to  secure  titles 
though  they  aVe  not  residents  on  the  land.  In 
1Q18  the  prohibition   law  was  passed. 

1918.— Part  played  in  the  World  War.— The 
territory  furnished  over  3,000  men  for  the  service, 
and  outranked  all  sections  in  purchase  of  war 
stamps.     It  was  also  a  liberal  subscriber  to  bonds. 


184 


V. 


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ALASKA,  1919-1920 


ALASKA,  1919-1920 


1919-1920. — Phases  of  economic  development. 
— Problem  of  transportation. — Common  car- 
riers.— Roads. — Construction  of  the  Federal 
railroad.  —  Mining  handicapped.  —  Fisheries 
menaced. — Growth  of  agriculture  and  forest 
products. — "The  great  outstanding  problem  of 
Alaska  is  that  of  transportation.  The  public  of 
coastal  Alaska  is  served  by  three  regular  passenger 
and  freight  steamship  lines — two  American  and  one 
Canadian — representing  about  25  per  cent  of  the 
tonnage  operating  in  the  Territory.  The  Yukon 
River  system  is  served  by  one  line  of  river  steam- 
ers of  the  White  Pass  &  Yukon  Route  presumably 
controlled  by  British  capital.  The  Kushokwim 
River  is  served  by  a  small,  combination  freight 
and  passenger  ship  sailing  from  San  Francisco  to 
Bethel,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  itself 
are  dependent  upon  one  small  American  river 
steamer.  There  are  a  few  semicommon  carriers 
operating  locally  with  indifferent  success.  The 
Copper  River  &  Northwestern  Railroad  runs  from 
Cordova  to  Kennecntt,  a  distance  of  iq6  miles, 
and  is  primarily  an  ore-carrying  road,  but  per- 
forms the  function  of  a  common  carrier  The 
railroad  of  the  White  Pass  &  Yukon  Route  ex- 
tends from  Skagway  in  Alaska  to  Whitehorse  in 
Yukon  Territory,  a  distance  of  no  miles,  2,1  of 
which  are  in  Alaska.  The  Yakutat  &  Southern 
Railroad,  from  Yakutat  to  the  Sectuck  River, 
carries  little  besides  fish.  The  Government  rail- 
road from  Seward  to  Fairbanks  is  still  under  con- 
struction. .  .  ,  [Its  progress  was  handicapped  dur- 
ing the  World  War  for  lack  of  labor  and  inade- 
quacy in  appropriations]  This,  then,  in  brief  prac- 
tically covers  the  common-carrier  systems  to  and 
within  Alaska.  .  .  .  The  Alaska  Road  Commission, 
constituted  by  act  of  Congress  approved  January 
27,  1Q05,  is  composed  of  three  officers  of  the 
Army,  reporting  to  the  War  Department  through 
the  Chief  of  Engineers.  .  .  .  Approximately  5,000 
miles  of  wagon  road,  sled  road,  and  trail  have 
been  constructed  and  maintained  by  this  board 
since  1Q05.  Of  the  roads  constructed  about  400 
miles  have  a  gravel  surface  and  are  suitable  for 
light  automobile  traffic.  ...  In  addition  to  roads 
constructed  and  maintained  directly  through  Fed- 
eral appropriation  or  authorization  the  legisla- 
ture, at  its  last  session,  appropriated  .$375,000  for 
roads  and  trails.  .  .  .  Not  a  great  deal  was  ac- 
complished in  actual  new  construction  of  the 
Government  railroad  in  Alaska  during  the  first  few 
months  of  the  fiscal  year  1020  because  of  the  lack 
of  appropriation  and  the  uncertainty  surrounding 
it.  The  original  authorization  of  $35,000,000  was 
almost  exhausted  and  data  was  being  assembled 
for  presentation  to  Congress  asking  for  an  addi- 
tional authorization  of  $17,000,000,  This  was  pre- 
sented in  July,  iQio,  and  after  extended  hearings 
Congress  granted  the  additional  authorization  in 
an  act  which  was  approved  by  the  President  on 
October  18,  iqio  (Public  No.  50).  Of  course, 
during  these  months  the  road  was  operated  and 
maintained  as  well  as  possible  under  the  circum- 
.stances,  and  some  construction  work  done." — Re- 
port of  the  governor  of  Alaska  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  1020,  pp.   11-15. 

One  of  the  most  important  industries  of  Alaska 
is  mining:  gold,  silver,  copper  and  coal  are  found 
in  large  quantities.  "It  is  true  that  mining  has 
never  before  been  so  handicapped  as  at  present, 
that  operating  costs  are  practically  prohibitive  in 
places,  and  that  transportation  could  hardly  be 
worse.  .  .  .  The  winning  of  some  $20,000  worth 
of  gold  from  placer  mines  near  Juneau  in  1880 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  great  mining  industry 
of  Alaska,  the  value  of  whose  total  product  up  to 


the  close  of  1919  is  $438,161,000.  Alaska's  de- 
veloped mineral  deposits  are  chiefly  gold  and 
copper.  Hence,  her  mining  industry  in  igig  was 
subject  to  the  same  depression  that  affected  gold 
and  copper  mining  throughout  the  world.  This 
f.act  explains  in  large  measure  why  the  value  of 
Alaska's  mineral  output  in  1919  is  only  about 
$19,620,000,  while  that  of  1918  was  $28,254,000. 
.  .  .  The  outlook  of  gold  mining  in  Alaska  under 
present  economic  conditions  is  not  hopeful,  yet 
the  continued  success  of  certain  larger  ventures, 
like  dredging,  shows  that  it  is  by  no  means  hopeless. 
Such  operations  and  the  mining  of  bonanza  de- 
posits will  continue.  Alaska  still  contains  large 
reserves  of  gold-bearing  gravels  that  can  be  mined 
profitably  when  transportation  conditions  are  im- 
proved. No  one  can  foretell  whether  any  more 
bonanza  camps  will  be  found,  and  therefore  the 
only  certain  future  lies  in  the  development  of  de- 
posits of  lower  grade.  Therefore  the  most  im- 
portant event  of  the  year  for  the  future  of  mining 
in  Alaska  was  the  continuation  of  the  work  on  the 
Government  railroad  and  the  assurance  by  congres- 
sional action  of  the  money  needed  to  complete 
the  line.  It  is  now  certain  that  in  three  years 
there  will  be  a  standard-gauge  railway  connecting 
tidewater  on  the  Pacific  with  Fairbanks  and  navi- 
gable waters  on  the  Yukon.  To  give  its  full 
benefit  to  the  mining  industry,  however,  the  Alaska 
Railroad  must  be  connected  with  mining  centers 
by  good  wagon  roads." — Ibid.,  pp.  ig-24. — The 
production  of  coal,  which  reached  a  value  of  $411,- 
850  in  iqi8,  was  largely  the  work  of  the  .Alaskan 
Engineering  Commission,  which  was  responsible 
for  84  per  cent  of  the  total  output.  The  copper 
production  has  been  increasing  regularly  until  it 
reached  88,703,400  pounds,  worth  $24,240,508  in 
1Q17.  A  decrease  in  production  the  following  year 
was  due  to  the  shortage  of  labor  and  ships. 

Fishing  came  to  the  fore  in  Alaska  life  in  the 
'eighties  of  the  last  century,  when  pelagic  sealing 
had  already  made  serious  inroads  into  the  seal- 
herds  of  the  surrounding  seas.  The  catching  and 
canning  of  salmon,  at  first  undertaken  as  a  rather 
puny  substitute  for  seal  catching,  has  in  recent 
years  become  the  most  important  industry  of 
Alaska,  being  in  iqi8  three  and  a  half  times 
greater  than  that  of  copper,  which  is  next  in  rank. 
"Alaska's  at  present  most  important  industry  is 
seriously  menaced.  There  must  be  speedy  action 
of  sorts  taken  by  the  Government  or  the  salmon- 
fishing  industry,  normally  furnishing  trade  to  the 
United  States  in  the  sum  of  approximately  $50,- 
000,000  annually,  will  be  slowly  wiped  out.  .  .  . 
In  igio  the  salmon  pack  was  only  about  two- 
thirds  that  of  igi8,  but  a  partial  report  of  the 
canneries  to  the  Territorial  treasurer  shows  the 
profits  of  those  reporting  to  have  been  considerably 
over  $2,000,000.  Present  indications  are  that  the 
pack  for  1020  will  be  less  than  that  of  loig.  .  .  . 
Due  to  overfishing  both  in  and  outside  of  salmon 
streams  in  iqi8,  igig,  and  ig2o,  the  cyclic  return 
of  salmon  spawned  in  those  years  is  becoming,  and 
will  become,  less  and  less.  As  the  runs  decrease, 
newly  devised  and  increased  numbers  of  floating 
and  fixed  gear  further  decrease  the  escapement  of 
spawning  fish.  .  .  .  The  take  of  seal  and  fox  skins 
from  the  Pribilof  Islands  for  1917  and  igi8  will 
net  the  Government  $6,400,000.  In  this  large 
amount  the  Territory  participates  in  not  the 
slightest  measure.  Under  careful  governmental 
supervision  the  herd,  at  one  time  on  the  verge  of 
annihilation,  has  increased  to  about  525,000  ani- 
mals, which  inhabit  the  waters  of  Alaska  during 
the  summer  season." — Ibid.,  pp.  48-51.  See  Fish- 
eries; Bering  sea  QUEsnoN. 


i8s 


ALASKA   BOUNDARY    QUESTION 


ALASKA   BOUNDARY    QUESTION 


The  agricultural  value  of  Alaska  has  only  re- 
cently been  shown — certain  grasses,  grains,  live- 
stock and  vegetables  being  suitable  to  the  climate. 
Alaska  is  expected  to  have  as  much  arable  land  as 
Finland,  a  country  which  exports  agricultural  prod- 
ucts and  also  supports  a  population  of  2,500,000. 
To  further  agricultural  progress,  government  ex- 
periment stations  have  been  established  (see  Edu- 
cation, .'\gricultur.\l:  United  States),  and  an 
agricultural  college  has  been  founded  at  Fairbanks. 
Recently  two  industries  related  to  agriculture  have 
been  developed.  The  breeding  of  reindeer  as  a 
native  industry  has  increased  considerably,  the 
reindeer  numbering,  in  iqiQ,  over  125,000  head,  of 
which  only  about  28  per  cent  are  not  owned  by 
the  Indians.  Within  the  last  year  (1Q20)  prepara- 
tions have  been  made  for  the  opening  up  of  vast 
national  forests  for  the  manufacture  of  wood 
pulp.  Alaska's  resources  in  this  direction  are 
stated  by  Chief  Forester  W.  B.  Greeley  who  says 
that  Alaska  contains  100,000,000  cords  of  pulp- 
wood.  She  has  the  resources  to  produce  1,500,000 
tons  of  paper  yearly.  With  reasonable  care,  under 
the  methods  followed  by  the  Forest  Service,  this 
output  can  be  kept  up  perpetually. 

1920.  —  Education.  —  "The  public  schools  of 
Alaska  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Territorial 
board  of  education  with  the  commissioner  of 
education,  Juneau.  Alaska,  as  executive  head.  They 
are  maintained  for  white  children  and  for  children 
of  mixed  blood  leading  a  civilized  life,  and  are 
administered  under  both  Federal  and  Territorial 
laws.  .  .  .  There  are  163  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  .Alaska.  .  .  .  Schools  in  the  following  towns 
offer  four  years  of  high  school  work:  .\nchorage, 
Douglas,  Fairbanks,  Juneau,  Ketchikan.  Nome,  and 
\aldez.  .  .  .  .Alaska  high  schools  are  in  general  ac- 
credited at  the  leading  State  universities.  .  .  ."— 
Report  of  the  governor  of  Alaska  to  lite  Secretary 
oj  Ike  Interior,  1020,  pp.  11-15.  PP-  64-65.— See 
also  Epi'Cattox:  Alaska. 

1920. — Population. — Increase. — Effects  of  the 
World  War.— "The  white  population  of  .Alaska, 
^0,000  in  iQio,  increased  by  IQ15  to  about  50.000. 
From  IQIS  to  iqi8,  owing  to  war  conditions,  the 
population  declined,  but  in  igiq  the  tide  set  north- 
ward again  and  there  was  a  slight  increase,  which 
will  probably  continue  in  1020.  The  present  white 
population  of  the  Territor>-  is  estimated  to  be 
36,000,  in  addition  to  about  25,000  natives,  some 
of  whom  are  civilized.  The  industrial  population 
of  the  Territory  exceeds  40,000.  The  loss  in  popu- 
lation during  the  period  of  the  war  was  due  to 
( I )  men  entering  the  militan,'  service,  estimated 
to  number  3,000,  (2)  high  wages  in  the  States.  (3) 
the  decrease  in  number  of  men  employed  in  mining. 
In  1015  about  0,600  men  wpre  employed  in  the 
.Alaska  mining  industry  as  compared  with  about 
4,500  in   IQIQ." — Ibid.,  p.   104. 

ALASKA  BOUNDARY  QUESTION.— 1867- 
1903.— Basis  of  dispute.— Failure  of  Anglo- 
American  joint  commission  to  settle  question  in 
1898._Modus  Vivendi.— Hay-Herbert  Conven- 
tion, 1903.— "When  Alaska  was  acquired  from 
Russia  bv  purchase  in  1867,  the  boundary-line 
separating  that  territory  from  the  British  pos- 
sessions had  never  been  marked  or  even  accurately 
surveved,  though  the  treaty  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Russia,  on  which  the  controversy  turned, 
had  been  made  as  far  back  as  1S25.  The  language 
of  this  treaty  seemed  to  exclude  Great  Britain  al- 
together from  the  coast  north  of  54  degrees  and 
40  minutes.  .  .  .  But  owing  mainly  to  the  expenses 
of  a  survey  in  that  deserted  region  the  matter  was 
indefinitely  deferred  by  both  government?  There 
had  never  been  any  difference  of  opinion  expressed 

I 


as  to  the  general  interpretation  to  be  given  to  the 
treaty,  and  the  question  of  marking  the  boundary 
was  regarded  merely  as  a  surveying  problem  to  be 
settled  by  commissioners  appointed  in  the  usual  way 
and  with  the  usual  powers.    The  discovery  of  gold 
in  the   Klondike  district,  on  the  upper  tributaries 
of  the  Yukon,  in  Canadian  territory,  in  1807,  put 
a  very  different  aspect  on  the  matter.     The  short- 
est and  quickest   route  to  the  gold-bearing  region 
was  by  the  trails  leading  up  from  Dyca  and  Skag- 
way  on  the  headwaters  of  Lynn  Canal — Skagway 
being  about   11 15  miles  from  Seattle  and  less  than 
boo  miles  from  Dawson.     The  Yukon,  or  all-water 
route,  was   much   easier   but   slower — the   distance 
from  Seattle  to  St.  Michael  by  ocean  steamer  being 
2700   miles   and    from   that    point    to    Dawson   by 
river    steamer    1300    miles.      Dyea    and    Skagway 
soon  became  important  places,  and  the  population 
rapidly  increased.     The  Canadians  now  laid  claim 
to  these  ports  on   Lynn   Canal,  and  pushed   their 
outposts  down  in  that  direction.     Serious  difficul- 
ties threatened  from  the  conflict  of  authority  over 
the   collection    of   customs.     The   general   question 
of   the   boundary    was,    therefore,   referred    to   the 
.Anglo-.American  joint  high  commission,  which  met 
at  Quebec  in  the  summer  of  1808  for  the  purpose 
of   adjusting   matters   relating   to  commercial   reci- 
procity  and   fisheries.     The   commission    not    only 
failed  to  reach  an  agreement  on  this  question,  but 
it  developed  here  for  the  first  time  that  the  Canadi- 
ans had  set  up  an  entirely  new   theory  as  to  the 
interpretation   to  be  given   to  the   treaty   of   1825, 
so  as  greatly  to  narrow  the  American  coast  strip 
and  throw  the  boundary  line  across  the  heads  of 
inlets  and  channels  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the 
Canadians    access    to    several    deep-water    harbors. 
.  .  .  The    United    Slates    commissioners    naturally 
did  not  feel  authorized  to  trade  off  .American  ter- 
ritory in  this  way.     When  this  interpretation  was 
set  up,  it  became  at  once  evident  that  the  perma- 
nent   adjustment    of   the   boundary   was   a    matter 
that    would    require    long    diplomatic    negotiation. 
Meanwhile  there  was  a  steady  movement  of  men 
and  supplies  to  the  Klondike  by  way  of  Dyea  and 
Skagway;  and  the  situation  of  the  headwaters  of 
Lynn  Canal,  where  both  United  States  and  Cana- 
dian   officials    claimed    jurisdiction,    was    growing 
serious.      Under    these    circumstances    the    L'nited 
States   agreed   upon   a   modus   viveiidi   with   Great 
Britain,  fixing  a  provisional  line  at  certain  points, 
and  accordingly  notes  were  exchanged  October  20, 
i8oq;  the  line  thus  established  gave  the  Canadians 
temporary  possession  of  several  points  which  had 
always   been    regarded    as   within    .American   juris- 
diction.    The   main   question   was   left    for   future 
adjustment,  it  being  specifically  provided  that  this 
provisional    line    was    fixed    'without    prejudice   to 
the  claims  of  either  party   in   the   permanent  ad- 
justment of  the  international  boundan,'.'     Finally, 
on  January  24,  1003,  Mr.  Hay  signed  a  convention 
with  Sir  Alichael  Herbert,  agreeing  to  submit   the 
question  to  a  limited  sort  of  arbitration:  the  tribu- 
nal  was  to  consist   of  three   .Americans  and  three 
British  members.  ...  .As  the  tribunal  was   finally 
constituted,  no  decision  could  be  reached  unless  at 
least  one  commissioner  failed  to  sustain   the  con- 
tention  of   his   own   government   and   upheld   that 
of  the  other.    The  American  members  were  Elihu 
Root,    at    that    time    secretary    of    war;    Senator 
Henry    Cabot    Lodge,   of   Massachusetts;    and   ex- 
Senator  George  Turner  of  Washington.     The  Brit- 
ish   members    were    Lord    Alverstone,    lord    chief 
justice  of  England;  Sir  Louis  .Amable  Jette,  lieu- 
tenant-governor  of   the   province   of  Quebec;    and 
.Allen  B.  Aylesworth,  of  Toronto.  ...  It  was  evi- 
dent from  the  first  that  the  trial  was  really  before 

86 


ALASKA   BOUNDARY   QUESTION 


ALASKA   BOUNDARY    QUESTION 


Lord  Alverstone,  the  chief  justice  of  England;  in 
case  he  sustained  the  American  contention,  there 
would  be  an  end  of  the  controversy;  in  case  he  sus- 
tained the  Canadian  view,  there  would  be  an  even 
division,  and  matters  would  stand  as  they  stood  be- 
fore the  trial  began,  except  that  a  great  deal  more 
feeling  would  have  been  engendered,  and  the  United 
States  might  have  had  to  make  good  its  claim 
by  force.  .  .  .  After  a  good  deal  of  diplomatic 
sparring  over  points  connected  with  the  presenia- 
tion  of  the  cases,  the  members  of  the  tribunal  met 
m  London  September  3,  iQo.i." — J.  H.  Latane, 
Amerka  as  a  world  power,  pp.   102-203 

1903. — Disputed  treaty  clauses. — Contentions 
of  both  sides. — Decision  and  award  of  arbitra- 
tors, Oct.  20,  1903. — As  stated  above  the  contro- 
versy arose  over  the  ambiguous  language  of  the 
Anglo-Russian  treaty  of  1825,  Articles  ill  and  IV 
of  which  had  been  mcorporated  in  the  treaty  of 
cession  of  the  territory  to  the  United  States  in 
1867.  These  articles  read  as  follows:  "III.  The 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  possessions  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  upon  the  Coasts  of  the 
Continent  and  the  Islands  of  America  to  the 
North-West,  shall  be  drawn  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Commencing  from  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  Island  called  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  which 
point  lies  in  the  parallel  of  54  degrees  40  minutes, 
North  Latitude,  and  between  the  131st  and  133d 
Degree  of  West  Longitude  (Meridian  of  Green- 
wich), the  said  line  shall  ascend  to  the  North 
along  the  Channel  called  Portland  Channel,  as  far 
as  the  Point  of  the  Continent  where  it  strikes  the 
56th  Degree  of  North  Latitude;  from  this  last 
mentioned  Point  the  line  of  demarcation  shall  fol- 
low the  summit  of  the  mountains  situated  parallel 
to  the  coast,  as  far  as  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  141st  Degree  of  West  llongitude  (of  the  same 
meridian),  and,  finally,  from  the  said  point  of  in- 
tersection, the  said  Meridian  Line  of  the  141st 
Degree,  in  its  prolongation  as  far  as  the  Frozen 
Ocean,  shall  form  the  limit  between  the  Russian 
and  British  Possessions  on  the  Continent  of  Amer- 
ica to  the  North-West. 

"IV.  With  reference  to  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion laid  down  in  the  preceding  Article,  it  is  un- 
derstood: ist.  That  the  Island  called  Prince  of 
Wales  Island  shall  belong  wholly  to  Russia.  2d. 
That  wherever  the  summit  of  the  mountains  which 
extend  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  Coast,  from 
the  S6th  Degree  of  North  Latitude  to  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  141st  Degree  of  West  Longitude, 
shall  prove  to  be  at  the  distance  of  more  than  ten 
marine  leagues  from  the  Ocean,  the  limit  between 
the  British  Possessions  and  the  line  of  Coast  which 
is  to  belong  to  Russia,  as  above  mentioned,  shall 
be  formed  f)y  a  line  parallel  to  the  windings  of  the 
Coast,  and  which  shall  never  exceed  the  distance 
of  ten  marine  leagues  therefrom. 

"This  language  was  indefinite  in  several  particu- 
lars. In  the  first  part  of  the  boundary  described 
— that  is,  from  the  southernmost  point  of  Prince 
of  Wales  Island  along  Portland  Channel  to  the 
56th  degree,  there  was  room  for  doubt  as  to  the 
side  of  the  line  on  which  the  islands  at  the  mouth 
of  Portland  Channel  should  fall ;  and  there  was  the 
further  difficulty  that  Portland  Channel  does  not 
extend  as  far  north  as  the  56th  degree.  In  the 
second  part  of  the  line  described — that  is,  from 
the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  141st  de- 
gree of  west  longitude  (Mount  St.  Elias  approxi- 
mately)— there  is  no  dominant  range  of  moun- 
tains parallel  to  the  coast  corresponding  to  the 
language  of  the  treaty,  though  such  a  range  was 
prominently  marked  on  the  maps  of  Vancouver 
of  1798,  and  on  the  maps  of  other  cartographers 


prior  to  1825.  In  1893  a  joint  international  sur- 
vey of  the  coast  between  Portland  Channel  and 
Lynn  Channel  was  undertaken  by  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  and  in  their  report  the 
American  commissioners  testified  'that  throughout 
the  lisiere  the  mountains  are  composed  of  numer- 
ous isolated  peaks  and  short  ridges  running  in 
different  directions,  and  that  within  ten  leagues  of 
tidewater  there  is  no  defined  and  continuous  range 
such  as  appears  upon  the  early  maps  and  charts 
following  the  sinuosites  of  the  coast.'  As  to  the 
third  section  of  the  line — that  is,  from  Mount  St. 
Elias  to  the  Arctic  Ocean^there  has  never  been 
any  dispute.  A  number  of  specific  questions  were 
submitted  to  the  tribunal  for  decision.  The  most 
important  of  these  was  number  five:  'Was  it  the 
intention  and  meaning  of  said  convention  of  1825 
that  there  should  remain  in  the  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  Russia  a  continuous  fringe  or  strip  of  coast 
on  the  mainland,  not  exceeding  ten  marine  leagues 
in  width,  separating  the  British  possessions  from 
the  bays,  ports,  inlets,  havens,  and  waters  of  the 
ocean?'  If  this  question  should  be  answered  in 
the  negative,  the  tribunal  was  to  tell  how  the  li- 
siere was  to  be  measured,  whether  from  the  line  of 
the  general  direction  of  the  mainland  coast,  or 
from  the  line  separating  the  territorial  waters  from 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  or  from  the  heads  of 
inlets  and  bays.  The  English  contention  was  that 
the  line  should  follow  certain  peaks  along  the  coast 
and  run  parallel  with  the  general  direction  of  the 
mainland  coast,  cutting  through  inlets,  bays,  and 
headlands.  This  interpretation  ignored  the  meaning 
of  the  word  sinuosities,  and  failed  to  construe  the 
plain  intent  of  the  negotiators.  The  United  States 
claimed:  (i)  that  the  treaty  of  1825  confirmed 
in  full  sovereignty  to  Russia  a  strip  of  territory 
along  the  continental  shore  from  the  head  of 
Portland  Canal  to  Mount  St.  Elias,  ten  marine 
leagues  in  width  measured  from  the  heads  of  all 
gulfs,  bays,  inlets,  and  arms  of  the  sea — that  is, 
from  tidewater — unless  within  that  distance  from 
tidewater  there  was  a  range  of  mountains  lying 
parallel  to  the  sinuosities  of  the  coast,  in  which 
case  the  summit  of  such  range  was  to  form  the 
boundary;  (2)  that  the  acts  of  Great  Britain  sub- 
sequent to  this  treaty,  and  the  universal  inter- 
pretation given  it  by  governments,  geographers, 
cartographers,  and  historians,  agreed  with  and  con- 
firmed the  intention  and  meaning  as  above  stated; 
(3)  that  the  United  States  purchased  Alaska,  en- 
tered into  possession  of  and  occupied  the  lisiere 
above  described,  and  exercised  sovereign  rights 
therein,  and  remained  in  possession  for  thirty 
years  without  any  notice  from  Great  Britain  that 
she  claimed  any  portion  of  the  territory  ceded  by 
Russia;  (4)  that  there  being  no  continuous  range 
of  mountains  between  Portland  Channel  and 
Mount  St.  Elias  parallel  with  the  sinuosities  of 
the  coast,  the  width  of  the  lisiere  above  described 
was  limited  by  the  agreed  distance  of  ten  marine 
leagues  from  tidewater.  In  support  of  its  claims 
the  United  States  showed  from  the  records  of  the 
negotiations  leading  up  to  the  treaty  of  1S25  that 
Sir  Charles  Bagot,  the  English  negotiator,  made 
effort  after  effort  to  secure  an  outlet  to  deep 
water  through  the  lisiere,  and  was  finally  forced  to 
yield  the  point.  The  most  interesting  feature  of 
the  case  was  the  overwhelming  array  of  maps 
presented  by  the  United  States,  including  British, 
and  Canadian,  showing  the  boundary  line  claimed 
by  Russia  and  the  United  States.  It  was  also 
shown  that  both  the  Canadian  and  British  authori- 
ties had,  by  repeated  acts,  recognized  our  title  to 
the  strip  in  dispute.  The  decision  of  the  tribu- 
nal  was   rendered   October   20,   igo3.     On   all   the 


187 


ALASKA   BOUNDARY    QUESTION 


ALBA 


important  points  the  vote  stood  four  to  two,  Lord 
Alverstone,  Root,  Lodge,  and  Turner  concurring 
in  the  decision ;  and  the  two  Canadian  members 
dissenting.  The  decision  sustained  in  the  main  the 
American  claim,  holding  that  it  was  the  intention 
of  the  treaty  of  1S25  to  shut  England  out  from 
access  to  tidewater  through  the  lisiere.  Wales  and 
Pearse  islands,  at  the  entrance  of  Portland  Chan- 
nel, were  awarded  to  England,  and  the  line  from 
the  head  of  Portland  Channel  to  Mount  St.  Elias 
was  slightly  drawn  in,  though  it  ran  well  around 
the  heads  of  all  inlets.  The  tribunal  designated 
certain  mountain  peaks  as  the  mountains  referred 
to  as  parallel  to  the  coast,  except  between  the 
Stikine  and  Taku  rivers.  From  the  greater  part 
of  the  distance  between  these  rivers  the  tribunal 
declared  that  'in  the  absence  of  further  survey 
the  evidence  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  the  Tribunal 
to  say  which  are  mountains  parallel  to  the  coast 
within  the  meaning  of  the  treaty.'  The  commis- 
sioners appointed  later  to  complete  this  part  of 
the  boundary  agreed  on  what  is  practically  a 
straight  line,  and  this  was  accepted  by  both  gov- 
ernments as  final.  The  decision  was,  of  course, 
a  disappointment  to  the  Canadians,  but  it  did  not 
justify  the  charge  that  I^ord  Alverstone  had  sacri- 
ficed their  interests  in  order  to  further  the  British 
policy  of  friendly  relations  with  the  United  States." 
— J.  H.  Latane, /4merjra  as  a  world  power,  pp.  103- 
203. — See  also  Arbitration,  International:  1003; 
U.  S.  A.:  1892:  Settlement  of  Alaskan  boundary. 

1906-1914. — Convention  to  provide  for  final 
establishment  of  the  boundary  line. — Surveys. — 
Boundary  line  completed. — Final  proceedings  for 
establishing  the  boundary  line  of  Alaska  were  pro- 
vided for  in  a  convention  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  signed  April  21,  igo6. 
Tlie  need  and  object  of  the  convention  were  set 
forth  in  its  preamble  as  follows: 

"Whereas  by  a  treaty  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  His  Majesty  the  Emperor 
of  all  the  Russias,  for  the  cession  of  the  Russian 
possessions  in  North  America  to  the  United  States, 
concluded  March  30,  1867,  the  most  northerly  part 
of  the  boundary  line  between  the  said  Russian 
possessions  and  those  of  His  Britannic  Majesty, 
as  established  by  the  prior  convention  between 
Russia  and  Great  Britain,  of  February  2S-16,  182,1;, 
is  defined  as  following  the  141st  degree  of  longi- 
tude west  from  Greenwich,  beginning  at  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  said  141st  degree  of  west 
longitude  with  a  certain  line  drawn  parallel  with 
the  coast,  and  thence  continuing  from  the  said 
point  of  intersection,  upon  the  said  meridian  of 
the  141st  degree  in  its  prolongation  as  far  as  the 
Frozen  Ocean, 

"And  whereas,  the  location  of  said  meridian  of 
the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  between  the 
terminal  points  thereof  defined  in  said  treaty  is 
dependent  upon  the  scientific  ascertainment  of  con- 
venient points  along  the  said  meridian  and  the 
survey  of  the  country  intermediate  between  such 
points,  involving  no  question  of  interpretation  of 
the  aforesaid  treaties  but  merely  the  determination 
of  such  points  and  their  connecting  lines  by  the 
ordinary  processes  of  observation  and  survey  con- 
ducted by  competent  astronomers,  engineers  and 
surveyors ; 

"And  whereas  such  determination  has  not  hith- 
.  erto  been  made  by  a  joint  survey  as  is  requisite  in 
order  to  give  complete  effect  to  said  treaties." 

To  make  such  determination  it  was  agreed  that 
each  Government  should  "appoint  one  Commis- 
.sioner,  with  whom  may  be  associated  such  sur- 
veyors, astronomers  and  other  assistants  as  each 
Government  may  elect."     The  work  of  surveying 


continued  year  by  year,  and  at  its  completion,  in 
igi4,  a  well-defined  boundary  line  lay  between 
Alaska  and  Canada. — See  also  Alaska:  Map. 

Also  in:  Message  of  President  Roosevelt,  Dec. 
7,  1Q03. — British  Parliamentary  Papers  by  com- 
mand (U.  S.,  So.  I,  1004)  Cd.  1877. — Alaskan 
Boundary  Tribunal:  cases,  counter-cases,  argu- 
ments, aliases  oj  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
(Washington,  1003). — T.  W.  Balch,  Alaska-Can- 
ada frontier. 

ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC  EXPOSITION. 
Sec  Skattle:    iooq. 

ALASKAN  ENGINEERING  COMMIS- 
SION, Duties  of.     See  Interior,  Department  of 

THE. 

ALATOONA,  Battle  of.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1864 
(September-October:   Georgia). 

ALA-UD-DIN,  founder  of  the  Bahmani  dy- 
naslv  in  the  Deccan   in   1347. 

ALA-UD-DIN  KHILJI  (d.  c.  1316),  sultan 
of  Delhi  after  assassinating  Feroz  II,  his  uncle; 
subjected  the  Deccan  and  Gujarat  to  the  rule  of 
Islam.     See   India:    1200-1308. 

ALAUNG  PAYA  or  Alompra.  Sec  Alompra, 
Aloii.vg  Houra. 

ALAVA,  Miguel  Ricardo  de  (1771-1843), 
Spanish  soldier  and  diplomat.  Fought  under  Wel- 
lington in  the  Peninsular  campaign;  opposed  Don 
Carlos;  ambassador  to  England,  1834,  and  to 
France,  1835. 

ALAVA,  province  in  Spain.  See  Basque  prov- 
inces; Basques. 

ALBA,  Celtic  form  for  Caledonia.  See  Scot- 
land: The  name. 

ALBA. — Alban  Mount.— "Cantons  .  .  .  having 
their  rendezvous  in  some  stronghold,  and  including 
a  certain  number  of  clanships,  form  the  primitive 
political  unities  with  which  Italian  history  begins 
At  what  period,  and  to  what  extent,  such  cantons 
were  formed  in  Latium,  cannot  be  determined  with 
precision ;  nor  is  it  a  matter  of  special  historical 
interest.  The  isolated  Alban  range,  that  natural 
stronghold  of  Latium,  which  offered  to  settlers  the 
most  wholesome  air,  the  freshest  springs,  and  the 
most  secure  position,  would  doubtless  be  first  oc- 
cupied by  the  new  comers.  Here  accordingly,  along 
the  narrow  plateau  above  Palazzuola,  between 
the  .\lban  lake  (Lago  di  Castello)  and  the  .'Vlban 
mount  (Monte  Cavo)  extended  the  town  of  Alba, 
which  was  universally  regarded  as  the  primitive 
.seat  of  the  Latin  stock,  and  the  mother-city  of 
Rome,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other  Old  Latin  com- 
munities. Here,  too,  on  the  slopes  lay  the  very 
ancient  Latin  canton-centres  of  Lanuvium,  Aricia, 
and  Tusculum.  ...  All  these  cantons  were  in 
primitive  times  politically  sovereign,  and  each  of 
them  was  governed  by  its  prince  with  the  co-oper- 
ation of  the  council  of  elders  and  the  assembly  of 
warriors.  Nevertheless  the  feeling  of  fellowship 
based  on  community  of  descent  and  of  language 
not  only  pervaded  the  whole  of  them,  but  mani- 
fested itself  in  an  important  religious  and  political 
institution — the  perpetual  league  of  the  collective 
Latin  cantons.  The  presidency  belonged  originally, 
according  to  the  universal  Italian  as  well  as  Hel- 
lenic usage,  to  that  canton  within  whose  bounds 
lay  the  piecting-place  of  the  league;  in  this  case 
it  was  the  canton  of  .Mba.  .  .  .  The  communities 
entitled  to  participate  in  the  league  were  in  the 
beginning  thirty.  .  .  .  The  rendezvous  of  this 
union  was,  like  the  Pambceotia  and  the  Panionia 
among  the  similar  confederacies  of  the  Greeks,  the 
'Latin  festival'  (feria-  Latinae)  at  which,  on  the 
Mount  of  .\lba,  upon  a  day  annually  appointed  by 
the  chief  magistrate  for  the  purpose,  an  ox  was 
offered   in   sacrifice  by   the  assembled  Latin  stock 


188 


ALBA  DE  TORMES 


ALBANIA,  ANCIENT 


to  the  'Latin  god'  {Jupiter  Latiaris)." — T.  Moram- 
sen,  History  of  Rome,  bk.  i,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:   W.  Gell,  Topograph^/  of  Rome,  v.   i. 

ALBA  DE  TORMES,  Battle  of.  See  Spain: 
1809   (Aui;ust-\ovcmber.) 

ALBA  GR^CA,  ancient  name.     See  Belgrade. 

ALBAIAS.    See  Pampas  tribes. 

ALBAN,  Kingdom  of.  See  Albion;  Scotland: 
8th-oth  centuries. 

ALBANIA,  tlie  name  given  in  ancient  geography 
to  a  portion  of  the  eastern  Caucasus  and  a  region 
west  of  the  Caspian  sea.  The  inhabitants,  known 
as  Albani,  were  spread  over  an  extensive  region  to 
the  northwest  and  up  in  the  Caucasus  mountains. 
They  were  described  by  Strabo  as  a  people  of  line 
physique  and  excellent  character,  but  in  a  primi- 
tive stage  of  culture.  Although  they  were  a  nomad 
people  their  form  of  government  was  a  monarchy. 
In  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and  Mithradates 
(King  of  Pontus)  they  came  to  the  attention  of 
Porapey,  who  subjected  them  to  a  formal  recog- 
nition of  Roman  authority.  At  the  time  of  the 
barbarian  invasion  in  the  second  century  A.  D., 
Albania  was  invaded  by  the  Alani.  These  were 
afterwards  driven  into  Armenia  by  the  Khazars. 
Still  later  the  country  was  conquered  by  Persia 
under  its  Sassanid  rulers.  The  successive  inva- 
sions of  the  Huns,  Mongols,  and  other  barbarians 
effaced  Albania  from  the  map.  This  .Albania  must 
not  be  confused  with  the  modern  state  of  that 
name  on  the  Adriatic  coast  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula,    (q,  v.) 

ALBANIA. — Name  and  people. — Lack  of  po- 
litical organization. —  Population. —  Religion. — 
Language. — In  a  modern  geographical  sense 
Albania  is  a  name  applied  to  a  region  on  the 
western  shores  of  the  .'\driatic  north  of  Greece, 
west  of  Macedonia  and  south  of  Serbia.  It  con- 
stituted part  of  what  the  Romans  called  Illyriu, 
but  has  no  easily  defmed  natural  boundaries.  The 
entire  region  is  extremely  rough  and  mountainous, 
being  traversed  from  northwest  to  southwest  by  a 
number  of  parallel  mountain  chains.  Although  the 
climate  is  salubrious  and  bracing  and  much  of  the 
soil  fertile,  the  country  as  a  whole  has  no  in- 
dustrial development  and  appears  to  have  always 
been  extremely  poor.  The  people  are  famed  for 
their  mixed  primitive  virtues  of  honesty,  lawless- 
ness and  courage,  but  do  not  seem  to  lend  them- 
selves to  high  political  organization.  "The  Al- 
banian people  .  .  .  are  liqisl  not  a  unit  in  race, 
language,  religion  or  any  other  vital  interest.  They 
have  refused  to  accept  the  political  unity  of  the 
state,  and  have  not  progressed  in  thought  beyond 
the  stage  of  clan-organization.  But  they  are  a 
unit  in  not  being  related  to  any  one  else  in  the 
peninsula.  When  the  invading  swarms  of  Slavs, 
Bulgars  and  the  like  swept  over  the  Peninsula, 
they  swept  the  earlier  inhabitants  before  them 
and  in  the  almost  inaccessible  mountain  fastnesses 
of  the  extreme  south-west  those  who  refused  to 
be  conquered  or  absorbed  found  a  refuge.  So  in 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Caucasus  we  Imd  remnants 
of  earlier  races  which  the  immigrant  hosts  have 
crowded  out  of  their  path  and  left  as  a  glacier 
leaves  its  terminal  or  lateral  moraines." — 11.  H. 
Powers,  Things  men  fought  for. — "The  .Mbanian 
population  may  be  reckoned  at  about  two  and  a 
half  million  souls,  the  large  majority  of  whom  in- 
habit the  southwestern  portion  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  The  Albanians  belong  to  three  relig- 
ions: the  Roman  Catholic  Chur(h,  the  Greek  Or- 
thodox Church,  and  to  Islam,  The  Mohammedans 
exceed  in  number  both  the  Catholics  and  Ortho- 
dox put  together.  The  members  of  these  three 
faiths  all  live  together,  but  the  Catholics  are  more 


numerous  in  the  north  and  the  Orthodox  in 
the  south.  The  Mohammedans  are  found  every- 
where, but  form  compact  masses  in  the  center  of 
the  country.  .  .  .  The  language  is  one  and  the 
same.  It  is,  moreover,  one  of  the  oldest  languages 
in  Europe,  and  our  people  have  clung  to  it  tena- 
ciously in  the  face  of  much  enemy  opposition." — 
M.  B.  Konitza,  Albanian  question  (International 
Conciliation,  May,  1919). — See  also  Balkan 
states:  Races  existing;  and  Maps;  Europe:  Mod- 
ern: Political  map  of  Europe. 

Early  history. — Rule  of  Pyrrhus. — Entrance 
of  Christianity. — Under  the  Roman  empire. — 
Invasion  of  Slavs. — "We  first  hear  of  our  ances- 
tors from  classical  authors  who  describe  and  give 
the  names  of  many  of  the  independent  clans  who 
inhabited  the  Balkan  Peninsula  when  its  history 
dawns.  All  authorities  agree  that  they  are  not 
Greek.  The  Greeks,  in  fact,  designated  them  'bar- 
barians.' The  main  groups  formed  by  these  clans 
were  known  as  Macedonia,  Illyria,  and  Epirus. 
The  inhabitants  of  all  three,  so  Strabo  informs 
us,  spoke  the  same  tongue  and  had  similar  cus- 
toms. The  very  name  of  Macedonia,  formerly 
known  as  'Emathia,'  derives  in  all  probability 
from  the  Albanian  word  E  Madhia  (the  great). 
As  for  Illyria,  'liria'  in  Albanian  means  'freedom,' 
and  we  Albanians'  mterpret  it  as  'land  of  the 
free.'  [Throughout  their  history  the  Albanians 
obstinately  resisted  subjugation  from  invading  foes 
and  were  in  the  main  successful.  They  were  under 
the  rule  of  Pyrrhus,  however,  from  296-272  B.  C] 
Christianity  arrived  early  in  Illyria.  'Round  about 
Illyria,'  says  St.  Paul,  'have  I  fully  preached  the 
Gospel  of  Christ.'  The  Albanians  claim  hira  as 
the  first  missionary  among  them.  Illyria  formed 
part  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Rome  at  an  early  date, 
and  a  large  number  of  the  North  Albanians 
(Ghegs)  are  faithful  to  Rome  to  this  day.  Scutari 
and  Antivari  have  been  bishoprics  since  the  fourth 
century.  The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East  was 
repeatedly  invaded  by  hordes  of  barbarians  from 
beyond  the  Danube.  [Fourth  and  fifth  centuries.] 
The  Avars  devastated  wide  tracts,  and  after  them 
came  the  Slavs  [640].  These,  the  ancestors  of 
the  Serbs,  Montenegrins,  and  Bosniaks,  swarmed 
in  in  overpowering  numbers.  They  settled  first  in 
some  districts  depopulated  by  the  Avars,  and  by 
the  seventh  century  were  widely  spread  in  the 
Peninsula.  They  were  a  tribal  and  a  pastoral 
people,  and,  taking  possession  of  the  rich  plains 
for  their  flocks,  they  drove  Roman  civilization  to 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  where  it  has  never  com- 
pletely died  out.  (From  640-1360  with  some  in- 
terruptions the  .Albanians  were  under  Serbian  rule.l 
Of  the  native  Illyrian  population,  that  of  the 
north  disappeared.  But  southward  the  Illyrians 
defended  themselves  in  the  mountains  of  modern 
.Albania,  and  there  they  preserved  their  language 
and  customs  uninterruptedly,  up  to  the  present 
day,  against  all  comers." — Ibid. 

Medieval  period.  —  Bulgarian  kingdom  in 
Albania. — Byzantine,  Norman  and  Sicilian  con- 
quests.— Rise  of  the  Serbian  kingdom  of  Rashia. 
— Reign  of  Stefan  Dushan. — "From  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Servian  Sclavonians  within  the  bounds 
of  the  empire  [during  the  reign  of  Heraclius, 
first  half  of  the  seventh  century],  we  may  .  .  . 
venture  to  date  the  earliest  encroachments  of  the 
Illyrian  or  .Albanian  race  on  the  Hellenic  popula- 
tion. The  Albanians  or  .Arnauts,  who  are  now 
called  by  themselves  Skiptars,  are  supposed  to  be 
remains  of  the  great  Thracian  race  which,  under 
various  names,  and  more  particularly  as  Paion- 
ians,  Epirots  and  Macedonians,  take  an  important 
part   in   early   Grecian  history.     No  distinct  trace 


189 


ALBANIA,  MEDIEVAL 


ALBANIA,  MEDIEVAL 


of  the  period  at  which  they  began  to  be  co-pro- 
prietors of  Greece  with  the  Hellenic  race  can  be 
found  in  history.  ...  It  seems  very  difficult  to 
trace  back  the  history  of  the  Greek  nation  with- 
out suspecting  that  the  germs  of  their  modern 
condition,  like  those  of  their  neighbours,  are  to 
be  sought  in  the  singular  events  which  occurred 
in  the  reign  of  Heraclius." — G.  Finlay,  Greece  un- 
der the  Romans,  cli.  4,  sect.  6. — "The  most  un- 
changed people  in  the  [ Balkan  1  peninsula  must 
be  the  Albanians,  called  by  themselves  Skipelar, 
the  representatives  of  the  old  Illyrians.  .  .  .  Before 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  other  primi- 
tive nations  of  the  peninsula  .  .  .  began  to  show 
themselves  more  distinctly  alongside  of  the  Greeks. 
We  now  first  hear  of  Albanians  and  Vlaclis  by 
those    names." — E.    A.    Freeman,    Historical    grog- 


united  Bulgar  force.  In  the  twelfth  century  they 
united  under  the  rule  of  the  remarkable  line  of 
Xemanya  princes,  and  established  the  Kingdom  of 
Rashia  and  extended  it  rapidly.  Rashia,  in  Al- 
banian, means  plain.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  that 
Rashia  was  the  original  Illyrian  name  of  the  plains 
of  Kosovo.  The  Serbs  were,  in  fact,  known  by 
the  name  of  Rashians  even  into  the  eighteenth 
century.  Each  of  the  Ncmanya  kings  extended  his 
realm  by  conquest.  They  spread  over  North  Al- 
bania and  seized  Scutari.  Scutari,  the  capital  of 
North  .Albania,  is  one  of  the  oldest  capitals  in 
Europe.  It  is  first  mentioned  under  its  native 
name  of  Scodra  in  004  B.  C.  And  as  Shkodra  it 
is  known  still  to  all  Albanians.  The  name  of 
Scutari  was  given  to  it  by  the  Venetians  in  the 
thirteenth     century.      That    the    Albanians    were, 


GkOl  r  OF  .MODEliN  AI.B.\NI.\NS 
In  thr  ancient  MohammetJan  dre.ss  still  worn 


raphy  of  Europe. — In  861  the  Bulgars  conquered 
the  southern  portion  of  .Albania  and  gradually 
extended  their  sway  northward.  This  Bulgarian 
kingdom  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  victory 
of  Basil  II  in  1014.  Albania  continued  under 
Byzantine  rule  until  1204,  but  not  without  numer- 
ous revolts.  In  loSi  the  Normans  seized  Durazzo, 
returning  to  Italy  in  iioo.  In  iiSo  the  Serbians 
established  an  independent  kingdom  in  upper  .Al- 
bania. From  1204  to  13 18  Epirus  was  held  by 
Comnenus,  a  member  of  the  imperial  family  at 
Constantinople  who  was  forced  to  flee  when  the 
capitol  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  but  Durazzo 
was  under  Sicilian  kings  of  the  house  of  .Anjou 
(1271-1368).  In  the  meantime  the  Serbian  king- 
dom in  the  north  was  rising  in  importance.  "Not 
till  the  fall  of  the  .  .  .  Bulgar  Empire  did  the 
Serbs  play  an  important  part  in  Balkan  affairs. 
.\   tribal   people,   they   had   been    weak   before   the 


when  conquered  by  the  Serbs,  Roman  Catholic, 
is  evident  from  contemporary  accounts.  In  1321 
they  appealed  to  Charles  of  Anjou  and  to  Filippo 
of  Taranto  to  force  the  Serb  King  Milutin  to 
respect  their  religious  rights.  [In  1331  the  greatest 
of  the  Nemanya  kings,  Stefan  Dushan  ascended 
the  throne.  His  rule  lasted  until  135S.  He  in- 
cluded all  of  .Albania  in  his  kingdom  and  ruled 
under  the  title  "Imperator  Romaniae,  Slavoniae  et 
Albaniae."]  In  1332  the  French  friar,  Pere  Bro- 
chard,  describes  the  land  and  people.  'It  is  in- 
habited,' he  says,  'by  two  peoples,  the  Albanians 
and  the  Latins,  who  both  belong  to  the  Church 
of  Rome.  The  .Albanians  have  a  language  quite 
other  than  Latin.  .  .  .  They  have  four  Bishops 
under  the  Archbishop  of  Antivari.  .  .  .  Both  these 
peoples  are  oppressed  under  the  very  hard  servi- 
tude of  the  most  hateful  and  abominable  lord 
ship  of  the  Slavs  '     That  the  friar  did  not  exag- 


190 


ALBANIA,    1338-1443 


ALBANIA,   1478-1880 


gerate  is  shown  by  the  extremely  severe  laws  en- 
acted against  the  [Roman]  Catholics  by  the  great 
Czar  Stefan  Dushan  in  1349  in  his  celebrated 
canon.  Here  we  find  that  those  of  the  Latin 
heresy  who  refuse  to  be  converted  are  punishable 
by  death,  as  are  also  Latin  priests  who  attempt  to 
convert  anyone  to  the  Latin  faith." — M.  B. 
Konitza,  Albanian  question  (International  Con- 
ciliation, May,  1919). 

1358-1443. — Growth  of  native  rule  after  the 
fall  of  the  Serbian  kingdom. — Despotat  of 
Epirus  under  the  house  of  Thopia. — Venetian, 
Greek  and  Turkish  invasions. — "On  the  break-up 
of  that  power  [the  Serbian]  came  a  time  oi  utter 
confusion  and  endless  shiftings,  which  has,  how- 
ever, one  marked  feature.  The  Albanian  race  now 
comes  fully  to  the  front.  Albanian  settlers  press 
into  all  the  southern  lands,  and  Albanian  princi- 
palities stand  forth  on  a  level  with  those  held  by 
Greek  and  Latin  lords.  The  chief  Albanian  power 
which  arose  within  the  bounds  of  the  despotat 
[of  Epirus]  was  the  house  of  Thopia  in  northern 
Epeiros.  They  called  themselves  Kings  oj  Al- 
bania; they  won  Durazzo  from  the  Angevins,  and 
their  power  lasted  [1359-1392]  till  that  duchy 
passed  to  Venice.  ...  In  Epeiros  the  Servian  and 
Albanian  despots  had  both  to  yield  to  Italian 
princes.  .  .  .  Early  in  the  fifteenth  century  the 
Turk  won  all  Albania,  except  the  Venetian  posts. 
[The  Turkish  advance  began  with  the  capture  of 
lannina  in  1431]  Seventeen  years  later  came  a 
revolt  and  a  successful  defence  of  the  country, 
whose  later  stages  are  ennobled  by  the  name  of 
George  Kastriota  of  Croja,  the  famous  Scander- 
beg." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Historical  geography  oj 
Europe,  pp.  423-425. — During  this  period  of  native 
rule  from  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  to 
the  early  fifteenth,  part  of  upper  Albania  was 
ruled  by  the  Balsha  dynasty  (1366- 142 1)  and  a 
southern  section  by  the  Musaki  (1368-1476). 
Towards  the  close  of  the  century  Albanian  prin- 
cipalities fell  by  degrees  under  Venetians  and 
Greeks. 

1443-1467. — Scanderbeg's  war  with  the  Turks. 
— "John  Castriot,  Lord  of  Emalthia  (the 
modern  district  of  Moghlene)  [in  Epirus  or  Al- 
bania] had  submitted,  like  the  other  petty  despots 
of  those  regions,  to  Amurath  early  in  his  reign, 
and  had  placed  his  four  sons  in  the  Sultan's  hands 
as  hostages  for  his  fidelity.  Three  of  them  died 
young.  The  fourth,  whose  name  was  George, 
pleased  the  Sultan  by  his  beauty,  strength  and 
intelligence.  Amurath  caused  him  to  be  brought 
up  in  the  Mahometan  creed;  and,  when  he  was 
only  eighteen,  conferred  on  him  the  government  of 
one  of  the  Sanjaks  of  the  empire.  The  young 
Albanian  proved  his  courage  and  skill  in  many 
exploits  under  Amurath's  eye,  and  received  from 
him  the  name  of  Iskanderbeg,  the  lord  Alexander. 
When  John  Castriot  died,  Amurath  took  posses- 
sion of  his  principalities  and  kept  the  son  con- 
stantly employed  in  distant  wars.  Scanderbeg 
brooded  over  this  injury ;  and  when  the  Turkish 
armies  were  routed  by  Hunyades  in  the  campaign 
of  1443,  Scanderbeg  determined  to  escape  from 
their  side  and  assume  forcible  possession  of  his 
patrimony.  He  suddenly  entered  the  tent  of  the 
Sultan's  chief  secretary,  and  forced  that  function- 
ary, with  the  poniard  at  his  throat,  to  write  and 
seal  a  formal  order  to  the  Turkish  commander  of 
the  strong  city  of  Croia,  in  Albania,  to  deliver  that 
place  and  the  adjacent  territory  to  Scanderbeg, 
as  the  Sultan's  viceroy.  He  then  stabbed  the 
secretary  and  hastened  to  Croia,  where  his  strate- 
gem  gained  him  instant  admittance  and  submis- 
sion.    He  now   publicly   abjured   the   Mahometan 


faith,  and  declared  his  intention  of  defending  the 
creed  of  his  forefathers,  and  restoring  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  native  land.  The  Christian  popula- 
tion, flocked  readily  to  his  banner  and  the  Turks 
were  massacred  without  mercy.  For  nearly  twen- 
ty-five years  Scanderbeg  contended  against  all  the 
power  of  the  Ottomans,  though  directed  by  the 
skill  of  Amurath  and  his  successor  Mahomet,  the 
conqueror  of  Con.stantinople." — E.  S.  Creasy,  His- 
tory oj  the  Ottoman  Turks,  ch.  4. — "Scanderbeg 
died  a  fugitive  at  Lissus  on  the  Venetian  territory 
I1467].  His  sepulchre  was  soon  violated  by  the 
Turkish  conquerors ;  but  the  janizaries,  who  wore 
his  bones  enchased  in  a  bracelet,  declared  by  this 
superstitious  amulet  their  involuntary  reverence 
for  his  valour  .  .  .  His  infant  son  was  saved  from 
the  national  shipwreck;  the  Castriots  were  invested 
with  a  Neapolitan  dukedom,  and  their  blood  con- 
tinues to  flow  in  the  noblest  families  of  the  realm." 
— E.  Gibbon,  History  oj  the  decline  and  jail  oj  the 
Roman  empire,  ch.  67. 

Also  in:   A.  Lamartine,  History  oj  Turkey,  bk. 
II,  sect.  1 1-25. 

1478-1880.— Albania  under  Turkish  rule.— 
Struggles  for  independence. — Effect  of  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin. — Struggle  for  education. — 
Between  1478  to  1502  the  most  important  Vene- 
tian strongholds  in  Albania  were  captured  by  the 
Turks,  including  Scutari  and  Durazzo  (see  Greece: 
1454-1479)  and  by  1571  the  Turks  were  masters 
of  Albania.  The  Christians  either  emigrated  or 
fled  to  the  mountains,  but  the  Turks  were  never 
able  fully  to  convert  Albania  to  Islam  and  the 
country  was  torn  by  endless  strife  between  the 
mountainers  and  the  Turks,  the  Christians  and 
the  Mohammedan  converts.  When  the  Turkish 
power  began  to  wane  towards  the  end  of  the  17th 
century,  anarchy  and  confusion  were  abundant 
(See  TuRKEv:  1684-1696).  "There  was  nothing 
for  it  but  to  accept  Turkish  rule.  From  the  be- 
ginning the  Albanians  had  contrived  to  retail  local 
autonomy.  In  the  seventeenth  century  many  be- 
gan to  go  over  to  Islam.  But,  as  above  stated, 
unlike  the  other  Balkan  peoples,  when  Moham- 
medanized  they  retained  their  strong  sense  of 
nationality.  No  sooner  did  the  Moslem  Albanian 
chiefs  rise  to  power  than  they  began  to  work  for 
independence.  The  Albanians,  both  Moslem  and 
Christian,  descended  from  the  mountains  and  be- 
gan a  struggle  to  retake  the  plains  from  which 
their  forefathers  had  been  driven  by  the  conquer- 
ing Serbs.  Bit  by  bit  they  regained  territory  and 
settled  upon  it.  Attacked  by  the  Albanians  on  the 
one  side,  and  oppressed  on  the  other  by  the  Turk- 
ish government,  and  oppressed  also  by  the  Greek 
Church — which  strove  ever  to  replace  the  Serb 
and  Bulgar  churches  by  Greek  ones  throughout 
Turkey  in  Europe — the  Serbs  of  Kosovo,  led  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Ipek,  decided  to  emigrate  and 
moved  in  vast  masses  into  Austria,  where  they 
were  given  land  in  the  Banat  by  the  Emperor. 
The  Albanians  speedily  resettled  the  vacated  lands, 
occupying  the  whole  of  the  Kosovo  district  as 
far  as  Mitrovitza  and  northeast  as  far  as  Nish 
and  Uskub  Eastward  they  spread  as  far  as  Mon- 
astir,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Moslem  villages 
of  Macedonia  are  Albanian.  In  truth,  they  thus 
retook  a  great  part  of  their  ancient  Illyria  and 
Macedonia.  Christian  and  Moslem  united  to  pre- 
serve and  maintain  their  customs,  rights,  and 
language,  and  brooked  but  little  Turkish  inter- 
ference. [In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, Moslem  chieftans  set  up  independent  prin- 
cipalities, but  failed  to  maintain  their  sovereignty 
against  the  Porte  except  for  short  periods.  The 
last  of  these,  the  dynasty  of  Scutari,  came  to  aa 


191 


ALBANIA,   1478-1880 


ALBANIA,  1908-1914 


end  in  1831  with  the  surrender  of  its  head  to  the 
Grand  Vizier  Reshid  Pasha.]  The  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  was  a  time  of  great  stress 
and  struggle  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  Repeated 
attacks  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  who  each 
pretended  they  were  animated  by  a  desire  to  free 
the  Christians  from  Turkish  rule,  and  were  in 
truth  aiming  only  at  territorial  gains,  had  greatly 
weakened  Turkish  power  and  roused,  too,  the 
hopes  of  the  subject  peoples.  Serbia  rose  first 
and,  with  the  aid  of  both  Austria  and  Russia,  at- 
tained autonomy.  Greece  rose  shortly  afterward 
and,  also  with  European  help,  obtained  her  free- 
dom. 

"The  Greeks  were  greatly  helped,  too,  by  the  Al- 
banians of  the  south,  of  whose  valor  Lord  Byron 
tells.  In  return  for  this  help  they  hoped  that 
Greece  would  aid  them,  too,  when  their  time 
came.  .  .  .  Far  from  aiding  Albania  to  gain  free- 
dom, Greece  has  had  but  one  object,  and  that  is  to 
obtain  more  and  more  of  Albanian  territory.  .  .  . 
In  1880  an  International  Commission,  called  the 
Eastern  Roumelian  Commission,  was  appointed 
to  regulate  the  affairs  of  Turkey.  Great  Britain 
was  ably  represented  by  Lord  Edmund  Fitzmau- 
rice,  who  recognized  the  important  fact  that  if 
peace  were  to  be  permanent  in  the  Balkan  the 
rights  of  each  nationality  must  be  considered. 
Convinced,  after  careful  examination,  that  the  Al- 
banians had  been  treated  with  great  injustice,  he 
made  strong  representations  on  the  subject,  and 
recommended  the  immediate  formation  of  a  large 
and  autonomous  Albania,  which  should  become 
independent  on  the  break-up  of  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire in  Europe.  Having  caused  inquiries  to  be 
made  about  the  population  of  the  various  vilayets, 
he  recommended  that  the  state  of  Albania  should 
consist  of  the  whole  of  the  vilayets  of  Scutari  and 
Janina,  the  larger  part  of  the  vilayet  of  Kosovo, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  vilayet  of  Monastir.  In 
this  scheme  he  was  strongly  supported  by  [the 
British]  Ambassador  at  Constantinople,  Lord 
Goschen.  The  formation,  however,  of  an  inde- 
pendent Albania  did  not  suit  the  ambitious  plans 
either  of  Austria  or  of  Russia.  And,  unfortunately 
for  Europe,  nothing  was  done  save  to  recommend 
certain  reforms  to  the  Turks.  [See  B.^lkan  states: 
1878]  The  Albanian  question  remained  and  re- 
mains unsolved.  .  .  .  Though  by  means  of  the  Al- 
banian League  a  certain  amount  of  Albanian  terri- 
tory was  saved,  yet  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  resulted 
disastrously  for  Albania." — M.  B.  Konitza,  Albanian 
question  (International  Conciliation,  May,  iqig). 
— The  Albanian  League  was  formed  to  resist  the 
concessions  granted  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (July 
13,  1878)  to  Austria-Hungary,  Servia  and  Monte- 
negro, but  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  league,  the 
independence  of  Montenegro  and  Serbia  were  guar- 
anteed with  portions  of  Albanian  territory. — "Al- 
bania's struggle  to  obtain  national  education  in  the 
face  of  difficulties  merits  a  chapter  in  the  history 
of  education.  .  .  .  Books  and  papers  printed  in 
London,  Brussels,  and  Bucharest  were  smuggled 
into  the  country  at  great  risk  and  eagerly  studied, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  anyone  found  in  posses- 
sion of  such  works  was  liable  to  even  fifteen 
years'  imprisonment.  Many  people,  both  Moslem 
and  Christian,  studied  their  own  language  from 
the  Gospels  and  the  Book  of  Genesis  which  were 
published  in  Albanian  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  and  circulated  with  great  difficulty. 
Schoolmasters  found  guilty  of  teaching  .\lbanian 
were  severely  punished^in  some  cases  the  extreme 
sentence  of  fifteen  years  being  inflicted.  But  the 
Albanians  did  not  relax  their  efforts.  In  South 
Albania  the  Americans,  to  whom  Albania  is  deeply 


indebted,  opened  a  Girls'  School  at  Koritza  which 
was  protected  by  the  great  Republic.  This  was  a 
center  of  national  enthusiasm.  The  girls  taught 
their  brothers  to  write  their  mother  tongue.  In 
the  north  education  was  better  provided  for.  Both 
Italy  and  Austria,  being  anxious  to  obtain  in- 
fluence there,  opened  schools  for  boys,  girls,  and 
infants  in  Scutari  and  Durazzo.  And  the  Abbott 
of  the  Mirdites  started  a  school  in  his  mountains." 
—Ibid. 

1908-1914. — Young  Turk  revolution. — Balkan 
wars.  —  Temporary  monarchy  under  Prince 
William  of  Wied. — Independence  granted  by 
the  powers  under  an  International  Council  of 
Control. — Revolt  of  Essad  Pasha. — "Such  was 
the  situation  of  Albania  when  the  Young  Turk 
revolution  took  place  in  190S.  To  this  the  Al- 
banians at  first  lent  their  hearty  support,  believ- 
ing that  it  meant  equal  opportunities  for  all 
races.  They  were  soon  undeceived.  The  Young 
Turks  began  a  policy  of  forcible  Ottomanization 
and  the  Albanians  rose  against  it.  [See  also 
Turkey:  igoS.]  This  most  useful  and  loyal 
corner  of  the  sultan's  dominions  was  turned  into 
a  country  of  perennial  revolutions,  which  started 
soon  after  the  inauguration  of  the  constitutional 
regime.  In  the  winter  of  igii-1912,  when  the 
group  of  Albanian  deputies  in  the  Ottoman  ParUa- 
ment  saw  their  demands  for  reforms  rejected 
by  the  cabinet,  and  even  the  right  of  dis- 
cussion of  their  complaints  refused  on  the  floor 
of  Parliament,  the  Albanians  north  and  south,  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  Moslems,  united  in  resistance 
to  the  Turkish  authorities  that  extended  to  Uskub 
and  Monastir.  After  the  spring  elections  of  igu, 
the  resistance  became  a  formidable  revolt.  (See 
also  Turkey:  igio-igii.)  For  the  Young  Turks 
had  rashly  maneuvered  the  balloting  with  more 
than  Tammany  skill.  The  Albanians  were  left 
without  representatives  in  Parliament.  Former 
deputies,  such  as  Ismail  Kemal  Bey,  and  chiefs 
such  as  Isa  Boletinatz,  Idris  Sefer,  and  Ali  Riza 
joined  in  a  determination  to  demand  autonomy  by 
force  of  arms.  When,  in  July,  the  cabinet  decided 
to  move  an  army  against  the  Albanians,  there  were 
wholesale  desertions  from  the  garrison  at  Monastir, 
and  of  Albanian  officers  from  all  parts  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  Mahmud  Shevket  Pasha  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  the  ministry  of  war,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Said  Pasha  and  the  whole  cabinet.  The 
Albanians  demanded  as  a  sine  qua  non  the  disso- 
lution of  Parliament.  The  Mukhtar  cabinet  agreed 
to  the  dissolution,  and  accepted  almost  all  the  de- 
mands of  the  rebels  in  a  conference  at  Pristina." — 
M.  B.  Konitza,  Albanian  question  (International 
Conciliation,  May,  igig). 

The  situation  was  still  further  complicated  by  a 
split  in  the  Albanian  provisional  government,  Es- 
sad Pasha,  minister  of  the  interior  and  lately  de- 
fender of  Scutari,  having  refused  to  recognize  Av- 
lona  as  the  seat  of  government,  and  having  started 
a  government  of  his  own  at  Durazzo,  apparently 
with  the  object  of  having  himself  elected  Prince 
of  Albania,  as  he  possessed  great  influence  in  that 
part  of  the  country  where  his  extensive  estates 
were  situated.  Meanwhile  Serbia  marched  her 
troops  into  Albania  as  a  counter-attack  to  the 
.Albanian  raid,  but  she  withdrew  them  a  week 
after  in  response  to  a  peremptory  summons  to  do 
so  from  the  Austro-Hungarian  government.  On 
November  23,  igi3,  Prince  William  of  Wied, 
nephew  of  the  queen  of  Rumania,  an  officer  in  the 
Prussian  army,  regarded  as  a  well-informed  and 
capable  soldier,  was  selected  by  the  powers  as  the 
future  sovereign  of  Albania.  (See  Serbia:  1909- 
1913) 


192 


ALBANIA,    1908-1914 


ALBANIA,    1915-1917 


"The  principle  of  the  erection  of  Albania  into 
an  independent  State  was,  of  course,  adopted  by 
what  used  to  be  known  as  the  Concert  of  Europe 
some  years  before  the  decision  to  liberate  the  small 
peoples  who  had  long  lived  under  the  alien  domi- 
nation became  the  most  widely  advertised  object 
of  the  Associated  Powers  in  the  present  [world] 
war.  When,  after  the  first  Balkan  War,  the 
Powers  attempted  to  elaborate  a  settlement  of  the 
Balkan  question,  they  decided  that  the  moment 
had  arrived  to  grant  Albania  its  independence,  and, 
following  a  series  of  difficult  and  long-drawn-out 
negotiations,  the  representatives  of  the  six  great 
European  States,  united  under  the  presidency  of 
Sir  Edward  Grey,  created  an  independent,  autono- 
mous, and  hereditary  principality  of  Albania.  The 
reasons  which  motived  that  decision  still  exist,  and 
have  been  strengthened  rather  than  weakened  by 
the  international  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  the  meantime.  But  Albania  had  been  so  neg- 
lected by  Turkey  that  she  could  not  reasonably  be 
expected  to  work  out  her  own  salvation  single- 
handed,  and,  in  order  to  assist  her  organization, 
the  Powers  accorded  her  assistance  in  the  form  of 
an  International  Council  of  Control.  From  its 
very  inauguration  this  Council  produced  excellent 
results;  the  statute  elaborated  by  it  was  admirably 
suited  to  a  country  such  as  mine,  and  it  is  in  many 
ways  unfortunate  that  the  world  war  put  an  end 
to  its  mandate." — Essad  Pasha,  My  policy  for  Al- 
bania (Balkan  Review,  London,  June,  igig,  pp. 
329-330). 

"Prince  William  of  Wied  .  .  .  arrived  at  Du- 
razzo,  which  he  constituted  his  capital,  on  March 
7,  1914.  The  fact  that  his  regime  was  a  total 
failure  is  due  in  part  to  the  international  conditions 
then  prevailing  and  in  part  to  the  role  he  person- 
ally played.  On  the  international  side  trouble 
arose  from  the  fact  that  Albania  had  been  con- 
stituted largely  in  order  to  relieve  European  ten- 
sion and  some  of  the  ever-recurring  difficulties  be- 
tween the  Great  Powers.  [See  Balkan  states: 
1912-1913.]  Moreover,  whilst  Europe  had  nomi- 
nally fixed  the  northern  and  southern  frontiers, 
she  took  no  effective  measures  to  hand  over  to 
the  prince  territory  which  was  his.  In  the  south, 
the  Greeks  remained  in  (jossession  of  large  areas 
of  Albania  until  the  end  of  March,  1914.  Most, 
if  not  all,  of  these  districts  were  then  officially 
evacuated.  But,  instead  of  the  Greek  regular 
army,  there  came  the  Epirote  insurgents  and  the 
Epirote  independent  government,  who,  secretly 
supported  from  Athens,  maintained  a  reign  of  ter- 
ror in  an  area  actually  alloted  to  Albania.  Thus 
throughout  the  stay  of  the  'Mpret,'  as  the  Alba- 
nians called  their  ruler,  the  European  concert,  if 
concert  it  can  be  called,  ignored  the  necessity  for 
taking  the  measures  essential  for  the  protection  of 
the  country  and  looked  on  passively  whilst  the 
Greeks  infringed  the  frontiers  already  delimited 
in  the  south  and  whilst  the  insurgents  threatened 
and  practically  besieged  Durazzo  in  a  manner 
which  finally  confined  the  powers  of  the  prince 
almost  to  the  very  precincts  of  his  palace.  Thus 
enormous  difficulties  must  have  beset  any  ruler  of 
Albania.  His  Royal  Highness,  whose  shortcom- 
ings were  apparent  from  the  first,  made  little  en- 
deavor to  overcome  them.  To  say  nothing  of  his 
attitude  towards  the  southern  frontier  question, 
concerning  which  he  should  have  made  some  stipu- 
lation with  the  Great  Powers  before  he  ever  en- 
tered upon  his  new  task,  the  prince  made  at  least 
two  fundamental  mistakes.  By  arriving  at  Durazzo, 
instead  of  entering  his  new  country  by  way  of  Sku- 
tari,  which  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  interna- 
tional forces  which  occupied  it  in  the  first  Balkan 


War,  and  which  was  therefore  more  or  less  neutral 
country,  the  new  ruler  seemed  to  show  his  par- 
tiality towards  Essad  Pasha  and  thus  offended 
all  the  enemies  of  a  man,  who,  if  then  powerful  in 
the  center  of  the  country,  was  certainly  not  be- 
loved beyond  the  confines  of  his  own  particular 
district.  [Essad  Pasha  soon  led  a  rebellion  against 
him  and  had  himself  proclaimed  president.]  Sub- 
sequently, instead  of  trying  to  take  the  people  into 
his  confidence  before  it  was  too  late,  and  of  en- 
deavoring to  travel  among  them,  the  prince  ap- 
peared to  think  that  he  could  maintain  his  author- 
ity by  encouraging  one  section  of  the  community 
to  support  him  against  the  other  and  that  he  could 
succeed  in  Albania  without  any  display  of  cour- 
age. Thus  on  May  24,  a  few  days  after  the  ban- 
ishment of  Essad  Pasha,  at  a  time  when  Durazzo 
was  threatened  by  the  insurgents,  the  prince  and 
his  family  took  refuge  on  an  Italian  warship — 
an  act  which  was  enough  to  seal  his  fate  in  a 
country  where  cowardice  is  not  one  of  the  faults 
of  the  people.  [Before  Albania  had  time  even  to 
organize  gendarmerie,  the  Greeks  attacked  and  oc- 
cupied a  large  part  of  south  Albania,  and  the  com- 
mission looked  on  and  did  nothing.]  As  time 
wore  on  things  went  from  bad  to  worse  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  immediately  before  which  the 
international  contingent  vacated  Skutari  and  im- 
mediately after  which  [Sept.  3]  the  prince  and 
the  International  Commission  of  Control  left 
Durazzo."— H.  C.  Woods,  Albania  and  the  Alba- 
nians (Geographical  Review,  April,  1918,  pp.  257- 
273). — During  the  early  months  of  the  war  Essad 
Pasha  made  an  effort  to  have  his  title  of  president 
confirmed  by  the  Powers.  As  soon  as  Italy  en- 
tered the  war  he  went  to  Rome  to  persuade  Gen- 
eral Porro  to  attack  Austria-Hungary  by  way  of 
the  Balkans,  but  he  was  unsuccessful  in  both  un- 
dertakings.— See  also  World  War:  1914:  III.  Bal- 
kans: e. 

1915. — Agreement  of  Allies  and  Italy  over  Al- 
bania, by  Treaty  of  London.  See  London,  Treaty 
OR  Pact  of. 

1915-1917.— Effect  of  Serbian  debacle.— Italian 
advance. — Independence  proclaimed,  July  3,  1917. 
— "The  Montenegrins,  though  ostensibly  engaged 
in  opposing  Austria,  poured  their  troops  into  de- 
fenseless Scutari  and  remained  there.  No  protest 
was  made  by  the  Powers  for  this  unprovoked  vio- 
lation of  the  decision  made  by  them  in  1913  when 
they  unanimously  declared  Scutari  to  be  Alba- 
nian territory.  The  Serbs  also  entered  Albania  for 
a  short  time,  but  withdrew  again.  Then  came  the 
debacle  of  the  Serbs  and  their  flight  across  the 
Albanian  mountains  into  Scutari.  This  was  fatal 
for  Albania.  The  Austrian  and  Bulgarian  forces 
poured  into  Albania  in  pursuit  of  them.  All  mem- 
bers of  the  Entente  departed,  and  Albania  was 
left  to  her  fate.  The  Bulgars  withdrew,  but  three- 
quarters  of  Albanian  territory  have  been  mili- 
tarily occupied  by  Austria  until  the  last  few 
weeks.  Meanwhile,  Italy  had  advanced  in  the 
south  and  occupied  Tepelen  and  Argyrokastro. 
The  Greek  troops  of  King  Constantine  had  poured 
into  South  Albania  and  were  using  Koritza  as  a 
center  through  which  Austrian  and  German  couri- 
ers could  pass  to  or  from  Athens.  They  exported 
the  foodstuffs,  and  the  Albanian  population  was 
reduced  to  great  straits.  The  French  reached 
Koritza  in  December,  1916,  evicting  Greek  troops; 
and  at  the  request  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole 
district  hoisted  the  Albanian  flag  at  Koritza  and 
proclaimed  it  an  Albanian  Republic.  The  Italians 
extended  their  occupation,  and  on  July  3,  191 7, 
General  Ferrero  at  Argyrokastro  proclaimed  the 
independence   of  the  whole  of   Albania   under  the 


193 


ALBANIA,  1918 


ALBANIA,  1919 


protection  of  Italy.  We  must  now  consider  the 
question  of  Italy  with  regard  to  Albania,  [See 
also  Italy:  igi2-iQi4.]  Albania's  independence 
was  proclaimed  in  1912.  But  before  she  had  time 
to  organize  or  establish  herself  she  was  at  once 
caught  up  by  the  whirlwind  of  opposing  interests 
— those  of  Italy  and  Austria.  [See  World  War: 
Diplomatic  background;  71,  iv.]  Not  only  did  the 
two  currents  paralyze  Albania,  but  they  encouraged 
the  neighbor  states  to  make  existence  impossible 
to  her.  Today  [igig]  the  situation  is  altogether 
changed.  Austria  has  broken  up  completely,  and 
on  the  frontier  Albania  will  see  arising  in  her  place 
a  large  Slav  State  which  is  frankly  hostile  to  her. 
To  guard  against  possible  danger,  Albania  must 
seek  a  support,  and  this  time  she  will  have  no 
difficulty  of  choice.  But  if  Albania  needs  the 
support  of  Italy,  Italy,  too,  needs  the  support  of 
Albania.  For  to  Italy  this  state  is  of  vital  im- 
portance." —  M.  B.  Konitza,  Albanian  question 
{International  Conciliation,  May,  igig).^ — "I  am 
often  asked  if  Albania  can  ever  become  a  self- 
supporting  state.  History,  I  am  convinced,  will 
reply  to  that  question  in  the  affirmative.  Few 
countries  have  been  subjected  to  so  many  changes 
and  to  so  many  dominations.  But  just  as  from 
ancient  times  she  has  been  condernned  to  alien 
rule,  so  from  ancient  times  she  has  fought  for  her 
independence.  She  has  never  been  subjected.  Even 
though  a  great  part  of  the  population  adhered  to 
the  Moslem  faith,  and  though  the  land  remained 
under  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Ottomans 
for  centuries,  she  never  submitted  to  Turkish  rule, 
and  her  people  rejected  all  attempts  to  'Ottoman- 
ize'  them.  Even  the  Turks  admitted  this  fact. 
When,  in  1913,  the  Great  Powers  proposed  that 
the  Porte  should  maintain  its  sovereignty  over 
Albania,  Mahmud  Shevket  Pasha,  the  Grand  Vi- 
zier, categorically  declined  the  proposition,  recall- 
ing to  the  London  Conference  that  five  hundred 
years  of  such  sovereignty  had  merely  involved  his 
country  in  frequent,  expensive,  and  disastrous 
campaigns.  Albania  has  passed  through  a  variety 
of  crises  without  the  character  of  her  people  hav- 
ing been  subjected  to  the  slightest  alteration — a 
fact  due  to  her  social  organization  and  the  oral 
transmission  of  her  laws  and  customs  from  gener- 
ation to  generation  from  the  early  days  of  history. 
The  code  which  governs  the  conduct  of  the  people 
and  the  administration  of  justice  is  that  of  the 
'Law  of  Lek  Dukaghin,'  in  whom  some  of  us 
recognize  the  personality  of  the  Duke  Jean 
D'Anjou.  Despite  all  the  political  changes  that 
have  taken  place,  the  language  has  remained  as  it 
was  in  early  days,  and  its  persistence  is  all  the 
more  remarkable  in  that  this  is  exclusively  the  re- 
sult of  the  will  of  the  people,  for  neither  alphabet 
nor  grammar  have  existed  to  perpetuate  any  par- 
ticular system.  There  is  not  only  every  reason  to 
believe  that  Albania  can  be  formed  into  a  self- 
supporting  State,  but  it  is  obvious,  even  from  the 
facts  I  have  cited  above,  that  any  decision  to 
throw  the  country  back  under  foreign  domination 
will  conflict  with  the  aspirations  of  the  people, 
possibly  with  unhappy  results  for  the  peace  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula." — Essad  Pasha,  My  policy  for 
Albania  (Balkan  Review,  London,  June,  1919,  pp. 
320-331). — See  also  World  War:  1916:  IV.  Austro- 
Italian  front:   d;  V.  Balkan  theater:  a. 

1918. — Campaign  of  Italians  and  French.  See 
World  War:   iqi8:   V.  Balkan  theater:   a. 

1918. — Property  loss  due  to  war.  See  World 
War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  XIV.  Cost 
of  war:   b,  4. 

1919.  —  Italy's  strategic  claims.  —  Albanian 
problem  at  the  Peace  Conference. — "The  position 


of  Albania  at  the  Peace  Conference  has  been  seri- 
ously compromised  by  the  attempt  of  certain  Al- 
banians, who  do  not  represent  the  people  and 
whose  only  claim  to  notoriety  would  seem  to  con- 
sist in  their  former  relations  with  the  States  with 
whom  Britain,  France,  and  America  are  now  at 
war,  to  put  themselves  forward  as  the  spokesmen 
of  our  people." — Essad  Pasha,  My  policy  for  Al- 
bania (Balkan  Review,  London,  June,  igig, /i.  331). 
— "Much  of  the  business  which  occupied  the  at- 
tention of  the  (Peace)  Council  was  formal  in 
character.  The  smaller  states,  excluded  from  its 
deliberations,  demanded  at  least  the  opportunity 
to  present  to  it  their  claims,  and  many  hearings 
were  granted  to  their  representatives.  .  .  .  Every 
one  recognized  the  extravagance  and  unreality  of 
many  of  the  nationalist  demands.  .  .  .  [By  the 
Italian  representatives]  control  over  all  Albania, 
instead  of  the  portion  tentatively  assigned  to  Italy 
by  the  Treaty  of  London,  was  asked.  The  Italian 
representatives  felt  that  Italy  was  entitled  to  in- 
creased compensation  partly  because  the  war  had 
lasted  longer  than  anticipated,  and  partly  because 
the  collapse  of  Russia  had  thrown  a  heavier  bur- 
den upon  Italy  than  was  foreseen  when  the  Treaty 
of  London  was  negotiated.  ...  It  could  not  be 
forgotten  that  one  of  the  potent  causes  of  unrest 
in  the  Balkans  had  long  been  the  mistaken  policy 
of  blocking  Serbia's  effors  to  obtain  'free  and  se- 
cure access  to  the  sea.'  The  possible  political  con- 
sequence of  sanctioning  Italy's  desire  to  obtain  a 
solid  foothold  in  the  Balkans  through  control  of 
Albania  and  the  annexation  of  Slavonic  territories, 
against  the  bitter  protests  of  both  peoples  con- 
cerned, appeared  most  grave.  The  people  who 
were  rejoicing  over  the  elimination  of  Austrian 
interference  in  Balkan  affairs  were  evidently 
equally  hostile  to  anything  which  might  savor  of 
Italian  interference.  I'nder  these  conditions  it 
was  believed  that  to  grant  Italy's  claims  to  the 
eastern  islands  and  main-land  must  be  to  sow  the 
seeds  of  a  new  Balkan  conflict.  When  examined 
from  the  standpoint  of  strategic  geography  the 
three  main  areas  along  the  eastern  Adriatic  coast 
claimed  by  Italy  were  seen  to  possess  tremendous 
military  value.  It  was  the  manifest  duty  of  the 
American  specialists,  without  in  the  least  degree 
questioning  the  motives  actuating  the  Italian 
claims,  to  study  the  inevitable  consequences  which 
must  necessarily  follow  upon  granting  them.  [See 
Balkan  states:  ig2i:  .Albania.]  It  seemed  ob- 
vious that  the  Fiume  region  and  adjacent  terri- 
tory at  the  head  of  the  .Adriatic,  by  dominating 
the  great  northwestern  gateway  into  the  Balkans 
.  .  .  and  Albania  with  Valona,  by  commanding  the 
most  important  southern  routes  into  the  Balkans 
and  blocking  access  to  and  egress  from  the  .Adriatic 
Sea,  did  in  effect  constitute  three  extremely  strong 
and  admirably  strong  military  bridge-heads,  as- 
suring to  Italy  the  possibility  of  moving  across 
the  .Adriatic  and  advancing  them  into  the  Balkans, 
should  occasion  require.  .  .  .  Every  direct  access 
to  the  sea  possessed  by  the  Jugo-Slav  lands  would 
be  blocked,  and  the  power  of  resistance  to  an 
Italian  advance  enormously  curtailed." — E.  M. 
House  and  C.  Seymour,  What  really  happened  at 
Paris,  pp.  127-130. 

"In  Albania  Italy  had  always  maintained  a  lively 
interest,  more  particularly  because  of  the  magni- 
ficent harbour  of  Valona,  situated  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Strait  of  Otranto,  and  less  than  fifty 
miles  from  the  Italian  coast.  The  first  object  of 
her  policy  was  to  prevent  the  port  from  falling 
directly  or  indirectly  into  the  hands  of  Austria, 
while  the  latter  was  equally  concerned  to  prevent 
Italy   from  acquiring  a  position  which  would  en- 


194 


ALBANIA,  1920 


ALBANY  PLAN  OF  UNION 


able  her  to  bottle  up  the  Adriatic.  The  two  al- 
lies intrigued  actively  against  each  other  with  the 
Albanian  tribes,  planting  rival  schools  in  the 
country  and  seeking  to  extend  their  influence  over 
the  clan  chiefs.  The  result  was  a  stalemate  which 
was  recognized  in  the  mutual  self-denying  ordi- 
nance of  1906,  by  which  the  two  Powers  agreed 
to  abstain  from  any  attempt  to  obtain  political 
dominion  over  the  coveted  territory.  For  the  rest 
this  agreement  was  never  whole-hearted,  and 
merely  registered  the  fact  that  the  two  States, 
unable  to  bring  their  plans  to  fruition  at  the  mo- 
ment, were  willing  to  hang  the  matter  up  till  a 
more  propitious  moment  for  one  or  the  other. 
Under  pretext  that  the  Turks  had  failed  to  fulfill 
the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne,  Italy 
had  maintained  her  occupation  of  the  Twelve 
Islands  (the  Dodecanese),  but  it  was  during  the 
negotiations  in  London  in  the  winter  of  1912  that 
Italy  first  showed  her  hand  openly  in  the  matter 
of  the  Western  Balkans.  .  .  .  [The  Italian  press] 
loudly  proclaimed  the  necessity  for  a  big  Albania 
which  should  include  Prizren  and  Pec  in  the  north, 
as  wel^  as  Debar  (Dibra)  and  other  territories  in 
the  centre,  and  Northern  Epirus  in  the  south ;  the 
two  allies,  in  short,  while  jealous  of  each  other, 
had  no  mind  to  tolerate  the  presence  of  a  third 
competitor  in  the  Adriatic." — A.  H.  E.  Taylor, 
Italy  and  the  Balkans,  pp.  344-345. — See  also  Italy; 
1914:  Military  coup  in  Albania. — "The  Alban- 
ians number  1,000,000  people.  Like  the  states 
about  them,  they  have  slowly  gained  political  self- 
consciousness.  Their  homeland  is  a  broken  coun- 
try, and  a  large  part  of  the  population  leads  a 
pastoral  life.  Its  coastal  towns  and  lowland  cities 
are  intimately  tied  up  with  the  commercial  sys- 
tems of  its  neighbors,  and  its  mountain  popula- 
tion retains  the  primitive  organization  of  the  clan. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  is  obvious  that  the 
Albanians  should  not  have  had  a  strong  national 
programme  or  the  means  to  advance  it.  .  .  .  Had 
the  terms  of  the  secret  Treaty  of  London  of  1915 
been  carried  out,  Albania  would  have  been  di- 
vided. The  central  portion  would  have  been  an 
autonomous  Mohammedan  state  under  Italian  pro- 
tection ;  the  northern  part  would  have  been  under 
the  protection  of  Jugo-Slavia,  and  the  southern 
part  was  to  have  been  divided  between  Greece 
and  Italy.  Koritsa  would  have  become  a  Greek 
city,  Valona  an  Italian  stronghold  and  point  of 
penetration;  Scutari  and  the  Drin  valley  would 
have  become  an  outlet  for  Jugo-Slavia 's  trade — 
and  all  of  these  points  would  have  become  places 
for  military  and  political  conflict,  for  the  Alba- 
nians; though  having  no  unity  of  sentiment  regard- 
ing a  national  programme,  are  united  in  the  be- 
lief that  they  can  manage  their  affairs  better  than 
the  people  about  them.  The  Italians  have  been 
driven  from  Valona  by  the  efforts  of  the  Albanians 
themselves,  and  Albanian  independence  has  been 
recognized  by  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions."— E.  M.  House  and  C.  Seymour,  What 
really  happened  at  Paris,  pp.  174-175. 

1920. — Admitted  to  the  League  of  Nations. 
See  League  of  nations:  First  meeting  of  the  as- 
sembly. 

1920  (June). — Murder  of  Essad  Pasha.— On 
June  13,  1920,  Essad  Pasha  was  shot  dead  in  the 
city  of  Paris  by  an  Albanian  student  named  Aveni 
Rustem. 

Also  in:  C.  A.  Chekrezi,  Albania  past  and 
present  (New  York,  1919). — C.  A.  Dako,  Albania, 
the  master  key  to  the  Near  East  (Boston,  1919)- 
-  .^I.  J.  Cassavetes,  Question  of  Northern  Epirus 
at  the  Peace  Conference  (Boston,  1919). — R- 
Puaux,  Sorrows  of  Epirus   (London,  1918). — I.  D. 


Levine,  Resurrected  nations. — J.  C.  Powell,  Italy 
in  Albania  (New  Europe,  Aug.  26,  1920). — M.  E. 
Durham,  Story  of  Essad  Pasha  (Contemporary 
Review,  Aug.,  1920).— J.  S.  Schapiro,  Modern  and 
contemporary  European  history.— E.  M.  House  and 
C.  Seymour,  What  really  happened  at  Paris,  Story 
of  the  Peace  Conference — Memorandum  submitted 
by  the  Albanian  Delegation  to  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence (published  by  the  Association  for  Interna- 
tional Conciliation,  American  Branch,  New  York, 
1919). — C.  H.  Haskins  and  R.  H.  Lord,  Some  prob- 
lems of  the  Peace  Conference. — C.  Seymour,  Diplo- 
matic background  of  the  war,  1870-1914. 

ALBANIA,  Latin  form  for  Caledonia.  See 
Scotlanu:    The  name. 

ALBANO,  Elias  Fernandez  (d.  1910),  vice- 
president  of  Chile.     See  Chile:   1910. 

ALBANY,  N.  Y.— The  capital,  since  1797,  of 
New  York  state,  claims  to  be  the  oldest  perma- 
nently settled  town  of  the  original  thirteen  colo- 
nies. As  far  back  as  1540  a  French  trading  post 
stood  near  its  present  site,  though  its  continuous 
history  begins  with  its  first  settlement  by  some 
Dutch  families  about  1623.  In  1614,  the  year  after 
the  first  Dutch  traders  had  established  their  opera- 
tions on  Manhattan  island,  they  built  a  trading 
house,  which  they  called  Fort  Nassau,  on  Castle 
island,  in  the  Hudson  river,  a  little  below  where 
the  city  now  stands.  Three  years  later  this  small 
fort  was  washed  away  by  a  flood  and  the  island 
abandoned.  In  1623  Fort  Orange,  a  more  im- 
portant fortification  was  erected  on  the  site  after- 
wards covered  by  the  business  part  of  Albany, 
when  the  settlement  took  place.  "As  soon  as  the 
colonists  had  built  themselves  'some  huts  of  bark' 
around  the  fort,  the  Mahikanders  or  River  Indians 
[Mohegans],  the  Mohawks,  the  Oneidas,  the 
Onondagas,  the  Cayugas,  and  the  Senecas,  with 
the  Mahawawa  or  Ottawawa  Indians,  'came  and 
made  covenants  of  friendship  .  .  .  and  desired 
that  Ihey  might  come  and  have  a  constant  free 
trade  with  them,  which  was  concluded  upon.'  " — 
J.  R.  Brodhead,  History  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  V.   I,  pp.  55,   I5i- 

1630.^Embraced  in  the  land  purchase  of  the 
Patroon  Kiliaen  Van  Rensselaer.  (See  New  York: 
1621-1646.)  The  original  name  was  the  Fuyck,  or 
"hoop-net;"  afterwards  it  was  known  as  Be- 
verwyck. 

1664. — Occupied  and  named  Albany  by  the 
English,  in  honor  of  the  duke  of  York  and  Albany 
(James  II).     See  New  York:    1664. 

1673. — Again  occupied  for  a  short  time  by  the 
Dutch.     See  New  York:   1673. 

1686. — City  charter  received  from  Governor 
Dongan. 

1777. — Encounters  during  revolution.  See 
U.  S.  A.,  1777  (July-October). 

1866. — International  Convention  of  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
— International  committee.  See  Young  Men's 
Chkistian  .Association:   1865-1870. 

ALBANY  CONGRESS.    See  Albany  plan  of 

UNION. 

ALBANY  PLAN  OF  UNION  1754.— For  the 
purpose  of  securing  a  better  treaty  with  the  Six 
Nations,  commissioners  from  the  colonies  of  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connect- 
icut, New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  met 
at  Albany  in  the  Iroquois  country.  The  meeting 
was  suggested  by  the  Lords  of  Trade.  Councils 
were  held  with  the  Iroquois  chieftains  and  Indian 
affairs   were  discussed. 

The  convention  drew  up  a  general  plan  of  union 
which  seems  to  have  been  mainly  the  work  of 
Franklin.  This  plan  proposed  an  act  of  Parliament 
creating    "one    general    government"    in    America. 


195 


ALBANY  REGENCY 

The  sovereign  of  England  was  to  appoint  and  pay 
a  president-general.  The  assemblies  of  the  colo- 
nies were  to  choose  delegations  to  a  colonial  grand 
council,  the  number  being  in  proportion  to  taxes 
paid,  provided  that  no  colony  could  have  less  than 
two  nor  more  than  seven.  All  acts  of  the  council 
needed  the  assent  of  the  governor-general.  To- 
gether thev  could  control  Indian  affairs,  regulate 
Indian  trade,  raise  troops  and  levy  taxes.  Laws 
were  to  be  submitted  to  the  king  and  council  and 
if  not  disapproved  within  three  years  were  to 
remain  in  force.  Neither  the  colonies  nor  the 
English   government    adopted    the    plan.— See   also 

U.  S.  A.:  1754-  ,„,.-•         ,    ,, 

Also  in'  G  E.  Howard,  Prehmmaries  of  the 
Revolution,  pp.  13.  i4,  226.— W.  MacDonald, 
Select  charters  (1004),  pp.  253-257. 

ALBANY  REGENCY.— A  group  of  clever 
politicians  of  New  York  state  who  manipulated 
the  Democratic  party  machinery  of  that  state  from 
about  1820  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Martin  Van  Buren,  Silas  Wright,  William 
L.  Marcv  and  John  A.  Dix  were  among  its  lead- 
ers They  maintained  a  strict  party  discipline  by 
a  strict  svstem  of  rewards  to  the  faithful,  usually 
in  the  form  of  patronage,  and  by  making  offenders 
of  the  ring  conscious  of  their  displeasure.  It 
derived  its  name  from  its  position  at  the  state 
capital.  The  steadfast  support  of  one  another 
as  politicians,  and  friends,  caused  General  Jackson 
to  say,  "I  am  no  politician,  but  if  I  were  one,  I 
would  be  a  New  York  politician."— See  also  New 
York:    1823.  .     ,       . 

Also  in:    W.   Wilson,   History   of  the  American 

"^ALBATEGNIUS  (c.  8so-92g),  Arabian  astron- 
omer    See  Scienx-e:  Ancient:   Arabian  science. 

ALBATROS  D-III  AEROPLANE.  See 
World  W.\r;  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  IV. 
.\viation.  b.  „  o    . 

ALBEMARLE,  Confederate  ram.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1864  (.^pril-May:  North  Carolina)  ;  1864  (October; 
North  Carolina) 

ALBEMARLE,  Earls  and  dukes  of.— The 
name  Albemarle,  now  the  title  held  by  the  English 
familv  of  Keppel,  is  derived  from  the  French 
Aumale  (Latin,  Alba  Maria).  Albemarle  was  "a 
town  and  territorv  in  the  dukedom  of  Normandy" 
-ranted  by  William  III  to  Arnold  Joost  van 
keppel  in  i6q6-i6g7.  He  was  the  first  earl  of 
\lbemarle  and  was  born  in  1670;  he  served  with 
the  English  and  Dutch  troops,  was  a  major-gen- 
eral in  i6q7,  and  governor  of  Bois-le-Duc.  He 
commanded  at  the  siege  of  Aire  in  17 10,  led  Marl- 
borough's second  line  in  1711,  and  was  general 
of  the  Dutch  forces  in  171 2.  He  died  on  May  30, 
1718,  leaving  a  son  William  .\nne,  who  succeeded 
him  as  the  second  earl  of  Albemarle.  Of  the  later 
earls,  George  Thomas  Keppel  (1700-1801),  the  sixth 
earl,  is  worthy  of  mention.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1S15  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general.  He  trav- 
elled extensively  and  published  several  accounts  of 
his  journevs.  From  1832-1S35  he  was  a  member 
of  Parhanient  for  East  Norfolk.  In  t66o  Charles 
II  bestowed  the  title  of  Duke  of  Albemarle  on  the 
famous  General  George  Monk;  this  dukedom  be- 
came extinct  in  1088  on  the  death  of  Christopher, 
the  Second  duke.  The  earldom  of  Albemarle  sur- 
vives. 

ALBEMARLE,  N.  C— 1667-1669.— Settlement 
under  Stephens.  See  North  Carolin.^;  1663-1670. 
ALBERCA  COURT.  See  Alil-vmbra. 
ALBERIC  I  (d  025),  a  Lombard  adventurer, 
who,  joininn  forces  with  Berengar,  became  mar- 
grave of  Camerino  and  later  duke  of  Spoleto. 
Through    marriage    with    Marozia    he    became   the 


ALBERT 

most  powerful  noble  in  Rome.  In  916  he  assisted 
Pope  John  X  in  e.xpelling  the  Saracens  from 
Italy. 

Alberic  II  (d.  954),  son  of  Alberic  I  and 
Marozia.  Rebelling  against  the  authority  of  his 
mother,  in  933  he  overthrew  her  alien  husband 
(second),  Hugh,  temporal  ruler  of  Rome,  and  im- 
prisoned Pope  John  XI,  her  son;  for  this,  he  was 
made  "prince  and  senator  of  all  the  Romans;" 
ruled  Rome  wisely  and  moderately  until  his  death. 
— See  also  Rome;   Q03-964. 

ALBERONI,  Giulio,  Cardinal  (1664-1752), 
Spanish-Italian  statesman.  Consular  agent  for 
Parma  to  the  court  of  Philip  V  of  Spain.  Prime 
minister  of  Spain  in  1715  and  cardinal  in  1717; 
banished  from  Spain  in  171Q.  In  1724  he  was 
proposed  for  the  papal  chair,  receiving  ten  votes. 
Founded  the  Collegio  .Mberoni,  a  school  for  train- 
ing poor  boys  for  the  priesthood.  For  details  of 
his  Spanish  Ministry  see  Spain:   1713-1725;  Italy: 

I7I5-173S-  ,     ,      „  ,  . 

ALBERT  I  (187s-  ),  king  of  the  Belgians. 
Succeeded  his  uncle,  Leopold  II,  in  iqoq;  upheld  the 
neutrality  of  Belgium  in  August,  1914,  so  dtlaying 
the  Germans'  advance  as  to  defeat  their  plan  for 
the  quick  capture  of  Paris;  remained  at  the  head 
of  his  little  army  to  see  final  triumph  and  a  re- 
stored Belgium.^ee  also  Belgium:  1909  (De- 
cember); Belgium;  1914:  World  War;  World 
War;  iqi8:  II.  Western  front;  b;  XI.  End  of  the 
war;  d;  and  d,  1;  1919:  Visit  of  royal  family  to 
United  States.  a 

Albert  I,  German  king,  1 298-1308.  .^s  duke 
of  .Austria  contended  for  the  German  throne  with 
.•Vdolph  of  Nassau,  who  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
Albert's  army  in  1298;  at  first  antagonized  and 
later  cultivated  Philip  IV  of  France;  recognized 
by  Pope  Boniface  in  1303;  tried  unsuccessfully  to 
extend  his  sway  over  Holland  and  Thuringia. — 
See  also  .Austria;  1291-1349;  Germany:  1273- 
1308. 

Albert  II  (1397-1439),  German  king,  1438- 
1439.  As  duke  of  .Austria  (with  the  title  of  Al- 
bert V)  was  successively  chosen  king  of  Hungary, 
king  of  Bohemia  and  German  king;  fought  the 
disaffected  Bohemians,  also  the  Turks;  showed 
ability  in  his  short  reign.— See  also  Austria;  143S- 
1403.     Hungary;   1301-1342. 

Albert,  Hungarian  king.  See  .Albert  II,  Ger- 
man  king    (1307-1430). 

Albert  II,  kin^  of  Sweden,  1363-1389.  Son 
of  Albert  I  of  Mecklenburg;  held  his  throne  with 
some  difficullv  and  in  1389  was  defeated  and  im- 
prisoned bv  Queen  Margaret  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
wav.  widow  of  King  Haakon;  released  in  1305  he 
renounced  the  throne  and  returned  to  rule  over 
Mecklenburg  until  his  death  in  1412. 

Albert  (1819-1801),  prince  consort  of  Eng- 
land. -A  member  of  the  house  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha  and  first  cousin  of  Queen  Victoria  of  Eng- 
land, whom  he  married  in  1840;  by  tact  and  abil- 
ity in  affairs  overcame  earh  prejudice  against  him; 
he  was  cut  off  in  the  prime  of  life  by  a  sudden 
illness,  to  the  overwhelming  grief  of  the  queen 
and  the  mourninn  of  the  nation,  which  has  since 
remembered  him  as  Albert  the  Good.— See  also 
England:    1840:  Queen's  marriage. 

Albert,  (1848-  ),  prince  of  Monaco.  Con- 
ductor of  oceanographic  research  around  Spits- 
bergen.    See  Spitsbergen:    1006-1921. 

Albert  (1550- 1621),  archduke  of  .Austria.  He 
was  sixth  son  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  II,  arid 
was  brought  up  at  the  Spanish  court;  was  made 
cardinal  in  i577.  archbishop  of  Toledo  m  1584 
and  viceroy  of  Portugal  in  1594;  governor-general 
of   the  Netherlands;   renounced  his  religious  vows 


iq6 


ALBERT 


ALBIGENSES 


in  isqS  and  married  the  Infanta  Isabella;  engaged 
in  constant  warfare  in  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
subdue,  the  rebellious  Low  Countries. — See  also 
Netherlands;   i5S8-i5g3  and  1594-1  bog. 

Albert  I,  duke  of  Austria.  See  Albert  I,  Ger- 
man king,   12Q8-1308. 

Albert  V,  duke  of  Austria.  See  Albert  II, 
German  king,  I3g7-i43q. 

Albert  (1490-1568),  first  duke  of  Prussia  and 
grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  Order.  Third  son 
of  Frederick  of  Hohenzolk'rn;  as  grand  master 
engaged  in  struggles  and  negotiations  over  East 
Prussia ;  followed  the  advice  of  Martin  Luther  to 
marry  and  make  Prussia  an  hereditary  duchy;  in- 
vested with  the  duchy  in  1525  by  Sigismund  I, 
king  of  Poland ;  founded  the  university  of  Kbnigs- 
berg. — See  also  Poland;    13.3,^-1572. 

Albert,  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  commander  of 
the  fourth  Germany  army,  directed  against  south- 
eastern Belgium  at  the  opening  of  the  World  War. 
His  army  was  the  German  center  at  the  battle  of 
the  Marne.  In  October-November  (1914)  he 
opened  the  first  drive  to  the  Channel  ports  by  an 
attack  on  Ypres  and  Dixmude  (battle  of  the  Yser), 
and  in  igi6  commanded  the  northern  army  group 
opposed   to   the   Anglo-Belgian    armies. 

Albert  III,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  1470-1486. 
Third  son  of  Frederick  I  of  Hohenzollern;  early 
began  a  stormy  career  as  a  German  prince,  rul- 
ing over  Ansbach,  but  failing  in  several  attempts 
at  wider  power;  inherited  Bayrcuth  from  his 
brother  John  in  1464;  six  years  later  became 
elector  of  Brandenburg  on  the  abdication  of  his 
other  brother,  Frederick  II;  acrjuircd  Pnnierania 
and  put  down  a  revolt ;  one  of  the  most  energetic 
and  ambitious  rulers  of  the  fifteenth  century.- — 
See  also  Brandenburg:   1417-1640. 

Albert,    the    Bear     (1100-1170),    margrave    of 
Brandenburg.     See  Brandenburg;   1142-1152. 
Control  of  Lauenburg.    See  Saxony;  1180-1553. 
Albert,     The     Great.       See     Aleertus     Mag- 
nus. 

ALBERT,  Marcellin,  leader  of  the  wine-grow- 
ers revolt  in  France.  See  France;  1907  (May- 
July). 

ALBERT,  a  town  of  France  in  the  department 
of  the  Somme,  eighteen  miles  northeast  of  Amiens, 
situated  on  a  small  stream,  the  Ancre.  During  the 
battle  of  the  Somme  it  was  the  "jumping-off 
place"  of  the  British  attacks  in  the  direction  of 
Bapaume.  Was  captured  by  the  Germans  in 
March  of  1918  and  recovered  by  the  British  in 
August  of  that  same  year. — See  World  War:  1918; 
II  Western  front;   a,  1 ;   c,  26;  i;  k,  1. 

ALBERT  ACHILLES  OF  BRANDEN- 
BURG. See  Albert  III;  Brandenburg,  1470- 
1486. 

ALBERT  CROSS  OF  WAR.— Its  origin  and 
pattern.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary 
services;   VIII.  War  medals:  a. 

ALBERT  EDWARD,  Prince  of  Wales.  See 
Edward  VII. 

ALBERTA,  since  1905  a  province  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  east  of  British  Columbia  and 
north  of  western  Montana.  In  1S67,  when  the 
British  North  American  Act  was  passed.  Alberta 
was  a  part  of  the  Northwest  Territories.  The  prov- 
ince is  governed  by  a  uni-cameral  legislature,  the 
legislative  assembly  and  a  cabinet  known  as  the 
executive  council.  The  nominal  head  of  the  ex- 
ecutive department  is  a  lieutenant-governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Canadian  government.  Woman 
suffrage  exists.  Area  406,525  square  miles.  Ed- 
monton is  the  capital  and  Calgary  the  chief  city. — 
See  also  Canada;  1905,  also  1914-1918:  War-time 
prohibition ;  and  Map  of  Dominion  of  Canada  and 


Newfoundland;  Northwest  territory;  Tele- 
graphs AND  telephones;  1916;  U.  S.  A.:  Economic 
map. 

ALBERTINE  LINE  OF  HOUSE  OF  SAX- 
ONY.    See  Sa.xony;   1180-1553 

ALEERTUS  MAGNUS  (1193-  or  1206- 
12S0),  Count  of  Bollstiidt,  German  scholastic  phi- 
losopher. Distin;uished  for  his  wide  learning  and 
his  interest  in  the  spread  of  knowledge,  particu- 
larly the  doctrines  of  Aristotle.  Lectured  at  Paris, 
where  he  had  as  pupil  Thomas  Aquinas.  Endeav- 
ored to  reconcile  philosoiihy  and  theology,  using 
Aristotelian  principles.  Preached  the  eighth  Cru- 
sade in  Austria.  Member  of  the  Dominican  order, 
and  one  of  its  ardent  defenders.  He  was  the  most 
learned  man  of  his  time,  and  his  writings  dealt  with 
philosophy  and  the  Aristotelian  sciences. — See  also 
Universities  and  colleges:   1348-1826. 

ALBI,  capital  of  the  department  of  Tarn, 
France;  gives  its  name  to  the  Albigenses  (q.  v.). 
Site  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Cecile,  a  fortress-church 
in  unornamented  Gothic  style  with  slit-like  win- 
dows. From  the  twelfth  century,  authority  was 
usurped  by  the  bishops  of  AIbi  until,  after  the 
Albigensian  War,  the  land  passed  to  the  crown  of 
France. — See  also  Albigenses. 

ALBICI. — A  Gallic  tribe  which  occupied  the 
hills  above  Massilia  (Marseilles)  and  who  are  de- 
scribed as  a  savage  people  even  in  the  time  of 
Caesar,  when  they  helped  the  Massiliots  to  defend 
their  city  against  him. — G.  Long,  Decline  of  the 
Roman  republic,  v.  5,  cit.  4.  • 

ALBIGENSES. -"The  Albigensians,  so  called 
from  the  town  of  AIbi  in  Languedoc,  were  a 
branch  of  a  widely  spread  group  of  persons  who 
could  not  be  satisfied  with  the  Christian  theory 
of  the  universe  and  its  government.  While  they 
differed  very  widely  in  details,  all  members  of 
the  group  agreed  in  their  fundamental  notion  that 
the  only  reasonable  explanation  of  the  existence 
of  evil  in  the  world  was  to  give  up,  once  for  all, 
the  idea  of  a  single  administration  of  the  uni- 
verse. If  there  were  only  one  God  and  that  an  all- 
powerful  one,  why  had  he  not  done  his  work 
better?  Why  haci  he,  the  all-good,  allowed  so 
much  evil  to  get  into  the  world?  Why  had  he, 
the  all-wise,  apparently  made  so  many  mistakes  in 
his  management  of  things?  The  ready  answer  to 
all  this  was,  that  there  was  not  one  God  but  two,  ' 
one  good,  wise,  perfect,  absolute;  the  other  evil, 
capable  of  errors,  imperfect,  limited.  Such  reason- 
ing has  satisfied  vast  masses  of  men.  For  in- 
stance, it  forms  the  basis  of  the  great  Persian  re- 
ligion, which  has  been  for  centuries  the  religious 
inspiration  of  a  race  allied  to  our  own  by  com- 
munity of  descent.  When,  however,  men  came 
to  apply  it  to  Christianity,  and  especially  to  Chris- 
tianity as  the  outcome  of  Judaism,  they  found 
themselves  involved  in  many  difficulties.  One  of 
the  first  consequences  of  the  dualistic  theory  was 
that  the  God  of  the  Jews,  as  described  in  their 
writings,  could  never  have  been  the  good  God, 
but  must  have  been  the  lesser  power,  used  by  the 
greater  as  a  convenient,  though  unconscious,  agent 
in  the  creation  of  the  world  The  dualists  there- 
fore rejected  the  Old  Testament  as  authority.  An- 
other consequence  was  the  drawing  of  a  sharp 
line  between  the  spiritual  and  the  material.  What- 
ever was  material  belonged  in  the  domain  of  the 
lower  deity  and  was  essentially  base  in  its  char- 
acter. Man,  therefore,  in  so  far  as  he  was  a  ma- 
terial being,  was  evil  and  his  body  was  in  a  con- 
dition of  hopeless  conflict  with  his  soul.  The 
only  way  for  the  race  of  man  to  be  redeemed  was 
through  a  gradual  process  of  spiritualization.  .  .  . 
Then  again  the  idea  that  the  great  God  could  have 


197 


ALBIGENSES 


First  Crusade 


ALBIGENSES 


come  down  to  earth  and  actually  have  become  a 
man  was  beyond  all  conception  to  the  dualist. 
The  thing  we  call  Christ  was  only  an  emanation 
from  the  deity  and  was  not  at  all  a  man,  excepting 
in  the  mere  form.  His  life  on  earth  was  only  a 
vision,  intended  to  impress  men  with  the  truth  of 
his  teaching,  but  not  essentially  the  life  of  a  man. 
Hence  followed  naturally  the  rejection  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Eucharist." — E.  Emerton,  Mediaeval 
Europe,  pp.  33S-336. — "Nothing  is  more  curious  in 
in  Christian  history  than  the  vitality  of  the  Mani- 
chean  opinions.  That  wild,  half  poetic,  half  ra- 
tionalistic theory  of  Christianity,  .  .  .  appears  al- 
most suddenly  in  the  12th  century,  in  living,  al- 
most irresistible  power,  first  in  its  intermediate 
settlement  in  Bulgaria,  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
Greek  Empire,  then  in  Italy,  in  France,  in  Ger- 
many, in  the  remoter  West,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  .  .  .  The  chief  seat  of  these  opinions 
was  the  south  of  France.  Innocent  III.,  on  his 
accession,  found  not  only  these  daring  insurgents 
scattered  in  the  cities  of  Italy,  even,  as  it  were, 
at  his  own  gates  (among  his  first  acts  was  to  sub- 
due the  Paterines  of  Vitcrbo),  he  found  a  whole 
province,  a  realm,  in  some  respects  the  richest  and 
noblest  of  his  spiritual  domain,  absolutely  dis- 
severed from  his  Empire,  in  almost  universal  re- 
volt from  Latin  Christianity." — H.  H  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity,  bk.  q,  r/i.  8. — "Of  the  secta- 
ries who  shared  the  errors  of  Gnosticism  and  Mani- 
chiism  and  opposed  the  Catholic  Church  and  her 
hierarchy,  the  .Mbigenses  were  the  most  thorough 
and  radical.  Their  errors  were,  indeed,  partly 
Gnostic  and  partly  Manichaean,  but  the  latter  was 
the  more  prominent  and  fully  developed.  .  .  .  They 
are  called  Cathari  and  Patarini  in  the  acts  of  the 
Council  of  Tours  (1163),  and  in  those  of  the  third 
Lateran,  Publiciani  (i.  e.,  Pauliciani).  Like  the 
Cathari,  they  also  held  that  the  evil  spirit  created 
all  visible  things."— J.  Alzog,  Manual  of  universal 
church  history,  periad  2,  epoch  2,  pt.  1,  ch.  3,  sect. 
236. 

"It  is  not  without  significance  that  these  ideas 
found  their  readiest  acceptance  in  a  population 
that  was,  probably,  as  keenly  intelligent  as  any 
in  Europe.  The  citizens  of  the  great  industrial 
towns  of  southern  France  caught  at  the  teachings 
of  the  dualistic  missionaries.  .  .  .  They  did  not 
proceed  to  any  violence,  but  simply  w'ithdrew 
themselves  from  the  association  of  the  dominant 
religion.  Their  secular  rulers,  especially  the  count 
Raymond  V'l  of  Toulouse,  finding  nothing  of- 
fensive to  the  public  welfare  in  their  doctrines, 
let  them  alone  or  even  directly  protected  them 
from  attack.  Under  these  conditions  they  in- 
creased so  rapidly  that  practically  whole  com- 
munities became  converted,  and  the  machinery 
of  the  church  found  itself  for  the  moment  inca- 
pable of  dealing  with  so  obstinate  a  resistance.  .  .  . 
In  addition  to  this  all-sufficient  religious  motive 
for  persecution  there  were  not  wanting  others  of  a 
more  practical  sort.  There  was,  first,  the  antag- 
onism of  North  and  South,  an  opposition  which, 
in  spite  of  all  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  French 
government,  was  still  far  from  being  overcome. 
The  chief  feudal  prince  in  the  South  was  Raymond 
of  Toulouse,  one  of  the  leading  feudatories  of  the 
crown.  If  he  could  be  brought  down  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  crown  with  the  papacy,  the  game 
was  worth  the  candle.  If  his  lands  could  be 
brought  into  the  hands  of  more  pliant  subjects,  it 
would  be  so  much  gain  in  the  great  effort  of  Philip 
Augustus  to  make  himself  king  indeed  of  all 
France  The  tempting  bait  of  the  rich  lands  of 
Languedoc  was  enough  to  secure  abundant  fighting 
material  and  the  dangers  of  this  domestic  crusade 


were  as  nothing  compared  with  those  of  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  East.  The  crusading  ardor  was 
at  this  moment  decidedly  on  the  wane.  Jlhe  re- 
sult of  the  fourth  Crusade  had  been  far  from  en- 
couraging to  the  purely  religious  interests  con- 
cerned. It  had  ended  in  the  capture  of  the  friendly 
and  Christian  Constantinople  by  the  crusading 
army  under  the  lead  of  the  clever  traders  of  Ven- 
ice and  in  much  negotiation,  with  mutual  good- 
will, between  the  heathen  and  the  Christian  lead- 
ers. 

"The  outlook  in  southern  France  seemed  to  offer 
to  the  ambition  of  Innocent  III  the  compensation 
he  needed.  There  is  probably  no  doubt  whatever 
as  to  the  personal  integrity  of  his  purposes.  .  .  . 
Certainly  it  cannot  be  said  that  Innocent  resorted 
to  the  sword  until  he  had  exhausted  all  the  re- 
sources of  peaceful  endeavor.  Almost  immedi- 
ately upon  his  accession  he  had  sent  two  legates 
into  the  infected  districts  and  had  called  upon  the 
local  clergy  to  assist  them  in  converting  or  in 
punishing  the  heretics.  The  response  was  not  en- 
couraging. It  became  evident  that  the  .  .  .  prin- 
ciple of  toleration  had  made  great  progress  in  the 
land.  The  local  clergy  knew  too  intimately  the 
quality  of  the  persons  they  were  called  upon  to 
discipline  and  it  was  clear  that  a  foreign  agent 
would  be  needed.  This  point  is  characteristic  of 
the  whole  history  of  the  persecution.  Nowhere 
in  Europe,  probably,  was  there  a  population  more 
loyal  to  itself.  A  series  of  foreign,  i.  e.,  French 
monastic  clergymen,  Arnold  of  Citeaux  and  Peter 
of  Castelnau  the  most  prominent,  headed  the  work 
of  peaceful  exhortation.  The  inhabitants  made  no 
resistance,  were  in  fact  more  than  willing  to  set 
their  own  champions  against  the  strongest  debaters 
of  the  Roman  church ;  but  this  process  did  not 
succeed.  The  more  the  method  of  argument 
was  tried,  the  more  the  heresy  grew.  .  .  .  For 
nearly  ten  years  the  campaign  of  ideas  went 
on ;  then  a  crisis  came  at  the  murder  of  Castel- 
nau, possibly  with  the  connivance  of  Count  Ray- 
mond. 

"From  that  time  on  there  was  no  hesitation  on 
the  part  of  the  pope.  All  previous  efforts  to  rouse 
the  crusading  temper  had  failed.  Philip  Augustus, 
the  overlord  of  the  land,  had  his  hands  full  in 
the  north  and  the  great  barons  of  France  were  not 
yet  ready  to  act.  The  murder  of  the  papal  legate 
seemed  to  break  all  restraints.  Innocent  renewed 
his  summons  to  all  the  faithful  in  Europe.  .  .  .  The 
response  this  time  was  unexpectedly  gratifying. 
Philip  of  France  took  no  action  himself,  fearing 
possibly  lest  the  appearance  of  wanting  the  south- 
ern lands  for  the  crown  might  alienate  the  loyalty 
of  his  nearer  neighbors;  but  he  placed  no  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  his  barons.  Recruits  of  every  de- 
scription poured  in  from  all  over  Europe,  indi- 
viduals and  groups  drawn  together  by  the  curious 
combination  of  motives  usual  in  all  the  crusading 
armies." — E.  Emerton,  Mediaeval  Europe,  pp.  337- 
340 — Sec  also  Cathari;  Paulicians. 

1209. — First  Crusade. — Pope  "Innocent  III.,  in 
organizing  the  persecution  of  the  Catharians  [or 
Catharistsl,  the  Patarins,  and  the  Pauvres  de 
Lyons,  exercised  a  spirit,  and  displayed  a  geniu? 
similar  to  those  which  had  already  elevated  him 
to  almost  universal  dominion ;  which  had  enabled 
him  to  dictate  at  once  to  Italy  and  to  Germany ; 
to  control  the  kings  of  France,  of  Spain,  and  of 
England ;  to  overthrow  the  Greek  Empire,  and  to 
substitute  in  its  stead  a  Latin  dynasty  at  Constan- 
tinople. In  the  zeal  of  the  Cistercian  Order,  and 
of  their  .^bbot.  .■Vrnaud  .^malric ;  in  the  fiery  and 
unwearied  preaching  of  the  first  Inquisitor,  the 
Spanish   Missionary,   Dominic;   in   the  remorseless 


198 


ALBIGENSES 


Second  Crusade 


ALBIGENSES 


activity  of  Foulquet,  Bishop  of  Toulouse;  and 
above  all,  in  the  strong  and  unpitying  arm  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Innocent 
found  ready  instruments  for  his  purpose.  Thus 
aided,  he  excommunicated  Raymond  of  Toulouse 
[1207],  as  Chief  of  the  Heretics,  and  he  promised 
remission  of  sins,  and  all  the  privileges  which  had 
hitherto  been  exclusively  conferred  on  adventurers 
in  Palestine,  to  the  champions  who  should  enroll 
themselves  as  Crusaders  in  the  far  more  easy  en- 
terprise of  a  Holy  War  against  the  Albigenses.  In 
the  first  invasion  of  his  territories  [1209],  Ray- 
mond VI.  gave  way  before  the  terrors  excited  by 
the  300,000  fanatics  who  precipitated  themselves 
on  Languedoc;  and  loudly  declaring  his  personal 
freedom  from  heresy,  he  surrendered  his  chief 
castles,  underwent  a  humiliating  penance,  and 
tooli  the  cross  against  his  own  subjects.  The  brave 
resistance  of  his  nephew  Raymond  Roger,  Viscount 
of  Bezieres,  deserved  but  did  not  obtain  success. 
When  the  crusaders  surrounded  his  capital,  which 
was  occupied  by  a  mixed  population  of  the  two 
Religions,  a  question  was  raised  how,  in  the  ap- 
proaching sack,  the  Catholics  should  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Heretics.  'Kill  them  all,'  was  the 
ferocious  reply  of  Amalric;  'the  Lord  will  easily 
know  His  own.'  In  compliance  with  this  advice, 
not  one  human  being  within  the  walls  was  permit- 
ted to  survive ;  and  the  tale  of  slaughter  has  been 
variously  estimated,  by  those  who  have  perhaps 
exaggerated  the  numbers,  at  60,000,  but  even  in 
the  extenuating  despatch,  which  the  Abbot  him- 
self addressed  to  the  Pope,  at  not  fewer  than 
15,000.  Raymond  Roger  was  not  included  in  this 
fearful  massacre,  and  he  repulsed  two  attacks  upon 
Carcassonne,  before  a  treacherous  breach  of  faith 
placed  him  at  the  disposal  of  de  Montfort,  by 
whom  he  was  poisoned  after  a  short  imprisonment. 
The  removal  of  that  young  and  gallant  Prince  was 
indeed  most  important  to  the  ulterior  project  of 
his  captor,  who  aimed  at  permanent  establishment 
in  the  South.  The  family  of  de  Montfort  had 
ranked  among  the  nobles  of  France  for  more  than 
two  centuries;  and  it  is  traced  by  some  writers 
through  an  illegitimate  channel  even  to  the  throne: 
but  the  possessions  of  Simon  himself  were  scanty ; 
necessity  had  compelled  him  to  sell  the  County  of 
Evreux  to  Philippe  Auguste;  and  the  English  Earl- 
dom of  Leicester  which  he  inherited  maternally, 
and  the  Lordship  of  a  Castle  about  ten  leagues 
distant  from  Paris,  formed  the  whole  of  his  reve- 
nues."— E.  Smedley,  History  of  France,  cli.  4. — See 
also  Christianity:   iith-i6th  centuries. 

Also  in  J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  History  of  the 
crusades  against  the  Albigenses,  ch.  i. — H.  H.  Mil- 
man,  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  g,  ch.  8. 
— J.  Alzog,  Manual  of  universal  church  history, 
period  2,  epoch  2,  pt.  i,  ch.  3. 

1210-1213. —  Second  Crusade.— "The  conquest 
of  the  Viscounty  of  Beziers  had  rather  inflamed 
than  satiated  the  cupidity  of  De  Montfort  and  the 
fanaticism  of  Amalric  [legate  of  the  Pope]  and 
of  the  monks  of  Citeaux.  Raymond,  Count  of 
Toulous,  still  possessed  the  fairest  part  of  Langue- 
doc, and  was  still  suspected  or  accused  of  afford- 
ing shelter,  if  not  countenance,  to  his  heretical  sub- 
jects. .  .  .  The  unhappy  Raymond  was  .  .  .  again 
excommunicated  from  the  Christian  Church,  and 
his  dominions  offered  as  a  reward  to  the  cham- 
pions who  should  execute  her  sentence  against  him. 
To  earn  that  reward  De  Montfort,  at  the  head  of 
a  new  host  of  Crusaders,  attracted  by  the  promise 
of  earthly  spoils  and  of  heavenly  blessedness,  once 
more  marched  through  the  devoted  land  [1210], 
and  with  him  advanced  .Amalric.  At  each  succes- 
sive conquest,  slaughter,  rapine,  and  woes  such  as 


may  not  be  described  tracked  and  polluted  their 
steps.  Heretics,  or  those  suspected  of  heresy, 
wherever  they  were  found,  were  compelled  by  the 
legate  to  ascend  vast  piles  of  burning  fagots.  .  .  . 
At  length  the  Crusaders  reached  and  laid  siege  to 
the  city  of  Toulouse.  .  .  .  Throwing  himself  into 
the  place,  Raymond  .  .  .  succeeded  in  repulsiog 
De  Montfort  and  Amalric.  It  was,  however,  but 
a  temporary  respite,  and  the  prelude  to  a  fearful 
destruction.  From  beyond  the  Pyrenees,  at  the 
head  of  1,000  knights,  Pedro  of  Arragon  had 
marched  to  the  rescue  of  Raymond,  his  kinsman, 
and  of  the  counts  of  Foix  and  of  Comminges,  and 
of  the  Viscount  of  Beam,  his  vassals;  and  their 
united  forces  came  into  communication  with  each 
other  at  Muret,  a  little  town  which  is  about  three 
leagues  distant  from  Toulouse.  There,  also,  on 
the  12th  of  September  [1213],  at  the  head  of  the 
champions  of  the  Cross,  and  attended  by  seven 
bishops,  appeared  Simon  de  Montfort  in  full  mili- 
tary array.  The  battle  which  followed  was  fierce, 
short  and  decisive.  .  .  .  Don  Pedro  was  numbered 
with  the  slain.  His  army,  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand, broke  and  dispersed,  and  the  whole  of  the 
infantry  of  Raymond  and  his  allies  were  either 
put  to  the  sword,  or  swept  away  by  the  current 
of  the  Garonne.  Toulouse  immediately  surren- 
dered, and  the  whole  of  the  dominions  of  Raymond 
submitted  to  the  conquerors.  At  a  council  subse- 
quently held  at  Montpellier,  composed  of  five 
archbishops  and  twenty-eight  bishops,  De  Mont- 
fort was  unanimously  acknowledged  as  prince  of 
the  fief  and  city  of  Toulouse,  and  of  the  other 
counties  conquered  by  the  Crusaders  under  his 
command." — Sir  J.  Stephen,  Lectures  on  the  history 
of  France,  led.  7. — See  also  Aragon. 

Also  in:  J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  History  of  crus- 
ades against  the  Albigenses,  ch.  2. 

1217-1229. — Renewed  Crusades. — Dissolution 
of  the  county  of  Toulouse. — Pacification  of 
Languedoc. — "The  cruel  spirit  of  De  Montfort 
would  not  allow  him  to  rest  quiet  in  his  new  Em- 
pire. Violence  and  persecution  marked  his  rule ; 
he  sought  to  destroy  the  Proven(;al  population  by 
the  sword  or  the  stake,  nor  could  he  bring  him- 
self to  tolerate  the  liberties  of  the  citizens  of  Tou- 
louse. In  12 17  the  Toulousans  again  revolted,  and 
war  once  more  broke  out  betwixt  Count  Raymond 
and  Simon  de  Montfort.  The  latter  formed  the 
siege  of  the  capital,  and  was  engaged  in  repelling 
a  sally,  when  a  stone  from  one  of  the  walls  struck 
him  and  put  an  end  to  his  existence.  .  .  .  Amaury 
de  Montfort,  son  of  Simon,  offered  to  cede  to  the 
king  all  his  rights  in  Languedoc,  which  he  was 
unable  to  defend  against  the  old  house  of  Tou- 
louse. Philip  [."Vugustus]  hesitated  to  accept  the 
important  cession,  and  left  the  rival  houses  to  the 
continuance  of  a  struggle  carried  feebly  on  by 
either  side."  King  Philip  died  in  1223  and  was 
succeeded  by  a  son;  Louis  VIII,  who  had  none  of 
his  father's  reluctance  to  join  in  the  grasping  per- 
secution of  the  unfortunate  people  of  the  south. 
Amaury  de  Montfort  had  been  fairly  driven  out  of 
old  Simon  de  Montfort's  conquests,  and  he  now 
sold  them  to  King  Louis  for  the  office  of  constable 
of  France.  "A  new  crusade  was  preached  against 
the  Albigenses;  and  Louis  marched  towards  Lan- 
guedoc at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  1226.  The  town  of  Avignon 
had  proferred  to  the  crusaders  the  facilities  of  cross- 
ing the  Rhone  under  her  walls,  but  refuged  entry 
within  them  to  such  a  host.  Louis  having  arrived 
at  Avignon,  insisted  on  passing  through  the  town: 
the  Avignonais  shut  their  gates,  and  defied  the 
monarch,  who  instantly  formed  the  siege.  One 
of  the  rich  municipalities  of  the  south  was  almost 


199 


ALBIGENSES 


ALBION 


a  match  for  the  king  of  France.  He  was  kept  three 
months  under  its  walls ;  his  array  a  prey  to  fam- 
ine, to  disease  and  to  the  assaults  of  a  brave  gar- 
rison. The  crusaders  lost  20,000  men.  The  people 
of  Avignon  at  length  submitted,  but  on  no  dis- 
honourable terms.  This  was  the  only  resistance 
that  Louis  experienced  in  Languedoc.  .  .  .  All  sub- 
mitted. Louis  retired  from  his  facile  conquest; 
he  himself,  and  the  chiefs  of  his  army  stricken  by 
an  epidemic  which  had  prevailed  in  the  con- 
quered regions.  The  monarch's  feeble  frame  could 
not  resist  it;  he  expired  at  Montpensier,  in  Au- 
vergne,  in  November,  1226.''  Louis  \III  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  young  son,  Louis  IX  (St.  Louis), 
then  a  boy,  under  the  regency  of  his  energetic  and 
capable  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile.  "The  termi- 
nation of  the  war  with  the  Albigenses,  and  the 
pacification,  or  it  might  be  called  the  acquisition, 
of  Languedoc,  was  the  chief  act  of  Queen 
Blanche's  regency.  Louis  VIII  had  overrun  the 
country  without  resistance  in  his  last  campaign; 
still,  at  his  departure,  Raymond  VI.  again  ap- 
peared, collected  soldiers  and  continued  to  struggle 
against  the  royal  lieutenant.  For  upward  of  two 
years  he  maintained  himself;  the  attention  of 
Blanche  being  occupied  by  the  league  of  the  barons 
against  her.  The  successes  of  Raymond  VII.,  ac- 
companied by  cruelties,  awakened  the  vindictive 
zeal  of  the  pope.  Languedoc  was  threatened  with 
another  crusade;  Raymond  was  willing  to  treat, 
and  make  considerable  cessions,  in  order  to  avoid 
such  extremities.  In  April,  I2  2q,  a  treaty  was 
signed:  in  it  the  rights  of  De  Montfort  w'ere  passed 
over.  About  two-thirds  of  the  domains  of  the 
count  of  Toulouse  were  ceded  to  the  king  of 
France;  the  remainder  was  to  fall,  after  Raymond's 
death,  to  his  daughter  Jeanne,  who  by  the  same 
treaty  was  to  marry  one  of  the  royal  princes: 
heirs  failing  them,  it  was  to  revert  to  the  crown 
[which  it  did  in  1271].  On  these  terms,  with  the 
humiliating  addition  of  a  public  penance,  Ray- 
mond VII.  once  more  was  allowed  peaceable  pos- 
session of  Toulouse,  and  of  the  part  of  his  do- 
mains reserved  to  him.  Alphonse,  brother  of 
Louis  IX.,  married  Jeanne  of  Toulouse  soon  after, 
and  took  the  title  of  count  of  Pointiers;  that  pro- 
vince being  ceded  to  him  in  apanage.  Robert,  an 
other  brother,  was  made  count  of  Artois  at  the 
same  time.  Louis  himself  married  Margaret,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Raymond  Berenger,  count  of 
Province." — E.  E.  Crowe,  History  of  France,  v.  i, 
eft.  2-3- 

Results  of  the  Crusades. — "The  struggle  ended 
in  a  vast  increase  of  the  power  of  the  French 
crown,  at  the  expense  alike  of  the  house  of  Tou- 
louse and  of  the  house  of  Aragon.  The  domin- 
ions of  the  count  of  Toulouse-  were  divided.  A 
number  of  fiefs,  Beziers,  Narbonne,  Nimes,  Albi, 
and  some  other  districts  were  at  once  annexed  to 
the  crown.  The  capital  itself  and  its  county  passed 
to  the  crown  fifty  years  later.  ...  The  name  of 
Toulouse,  except  as  the  name  of  the  city  itself, 
now  passed  away,  and  the  new  acquisitions  of 
France  came  in  the  end  to  be  known  by  the  name 
of  the  tongue  which  was  common  to  them  with 
Aquitaine  and  Imperial  Burgundy  [Provence]. 
Under  the  name  of  Languedoc  they  became  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  valuable  provinces  of 
the  French  kingdom." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Historical 
geography  of  Europe,  ch.  q. — "So  far  as  the  ap- 
parent purpose  of  the  crusade,  the  purifying  of  the 
land  from  heretical  thought  was  concerned,  the 
papacy  might  well  congratulate  itself.  It  had  dis- 
tinctly established  the  principle  that,  if  political 
allies  could  be  found,  divergence  from  its  system 
might   successfully    be   met   with    the   sword.      Its 


most  important  result  was  the  permanent  estab- 
lishment of  the  Holy  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisition. 
The  proceedings  against  the  heretics  of  'Toulouse 
had  shown  how  utterly  useless  it  was  to  entrust 
the  pursuit  of  heresy  to  the  local  episcopal  author- 
ity. Not  only  was  the  episcopate  very  largely  con- 
taminated by  wordliness  in  every  f onn ;  it  was 
bound  up  with  local  interests  in  too  many  ways 
to  make  it  a  safe  instrument  of  persecution.  The 
next  recourse  had  been  to  papal  legates,  specially 
created  for  this  purpose,  but  this  had  only  been 
able  to  call  forth  a  lukewarm  assistance  from  the 
existing  local  authorities.  The  only  effective 
method  was  to  create  a  new  tribunal  which  should 
be  composed  of  men  who  had  no  other  interests. 
Such  men  were  provided  by  the  new  mendicant 
orders  and  within  a  few  years  after  the  death  of 
Innocent,  we  find  the  formal  recognition  by  the 
papacy  of  the  Domincans  as  the  regular  organ 
for  the  searching  out  of  heresy  and  its  trial.  From 
about  1230  on,  it  is  fair  to  speak  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion as  permanently  established.  .  .  .  The  politi- 
cal result  of  the  crusade  was  the  definite  breaking- 
up  of  the  overgrown  power  of  the  counts  of  Tou- 
louse. ...  In  this  way  the  French  monarchy 
gained  the  south  of  France,  and  perhaps  its  suc- 
cess there  w'ould  have  been  long  postponed  if  the 
religious  troubles  had  not  offered  it  this  entering 
wedge." — E.  Emerton,  Mediaeval  Europe,  pp.  341- 
342. — "The  Church  of  the  Albigenses  had  been 
drowned  in  blood.  These  supposed  heretics  had 
been  swept  away  from  the  soil  of  France.  The 
rest  of  the  Langucdocian  people  had  been  over- 
whelmed with  calamity,  slaughter,  and  devasta- 
tion. The  estimates  transmitted  to  us  of  the  num- 
bers of  the  invaders  and  of  the  slain  are  such  as 
almost  surpass  belief.  We  can  neither  verify  nor 
correct  them ;  but  we  certainly  know  that,  during 
a  long  succession  of  years,  Languedoc  had  been  in- 
vaded by  armies  more  numerous  than  had  ever 
before  been  brought  together  in  European  warfare 
since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  [We  know 
that  these  hosts  were  composed  of  men  inflamed  by 
bigotry  and  unrestrained  by  discipline;  that  they 
had  neither  military  pay  nor  magazines;  that  they 
provided  for  all  their  wants  by  the  sword,  living 
at  the  expense  of  the  country,  and  seizing  at  their 
pleasure  both  the  harvests  of  the  peasants  and  the 
merchandise  of  the  citizens.]  More  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  landed  proprietors  had  been  de- 
spoiled of  their  fiefs  and  castles.  In  hundreds  of 
villages,  every  inhabitant  had  been  massacred.  .  .  . 
Since  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Vandals,  the  Euro- 
pean world  had  never  mourned  over  a  national 
disaster  so  wide  in  its  extent  or  so  fearful  in  its 
character." — J.  Stephen,  Lectures  on  the  history 
of  France,  led.  7. 

Albigenses  in  Bosnia.  See  Bosnia:  12th  cen- 
turv. 

ALBIGEOIS.     See  Albigenses. 

ALBINUS,  Clodius'  (d.  iq?  A.  D.),  Roman 
commander.  Governor  of  Gaul  and  Britain;  in 
104  was  made  Cssar  by   Septimius  Severus. 

ALBION,  ancient  name  for  the  island  of  Great 
Britain ;  generally  confined  to  England.  "The  most 
ancient  name  known  to  have  been  given  to  this 
island  [Britain]  is  that  of  Albion.  .  .  .  There  is, 
however,  another  allusion  to  Britain  which  seems 
to  carry  us  much  further  back,  though  it  has  usu- 
ally been  ill  understood.  It  occurs  in  the  story 
of  the  labours  of  Hercules,  who,  after  securing 
the  cows  of  Geryon,  comes  from  Spain  to  Liguria, 
where  he  is  attacked  by  two  giants,  whom  he  kills 
before  making  his  way  to  Italy.  Now,  according 
to  Pomponius  Mela,  the  names  of  the  giants  were 
.Mbiona    and    Bergyon,    which    one    may,   without 


200 


ALBIS 


ALCANTARA 


much  hesitation,  restore  to  the  forms  of  Albion 
and  Iberion,  representing,  undoubtedly,  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  position  of  which  in  the  sea  is 
most  appropriately  symbolized  by  the  story  mak- 
ing them  sons  of  Neptune  or  the  sea-god.  .  ,  . 
Even  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  Albion,  as  the  name  of 
the  island,  had  fallen  out  of  use  with  Latin  au- 
thors; but  not  so  with  the  Greeks,  or  with  the 
Celts  themselves,  at  any  rate  those  of  the  Goidelic 
branch ;  for  they  are  probably  right  who  suppose 
that  we  have  put  the  same  word  in  the  Irish  and 
Scotch  Gslic  Alba,  genitive  Alban,  the  kingdom  of 
Alban  or  Scotland  beyond  the  Forth.  Albion 
would  be  a  form  of  the  name  according  to  the 
Brythonic  pronunciation  of  it.  .  .  .  It  would  thus 
appear  that  the  name  Albion  is  one  that  has  re- 
treated to  a  corner  of  the  island,  to  the  whole  of 
which  it  once  applied." — J.  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain, 
ch.  b. — See  also  Britannia;  Scotland;  Sth-gth  cen- 
turies. 

Also  in:  E.  Guest,  Origines  Celticae,  ch.  i. 

ALBIS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  river 
Elbe. 

ALBIZZI,  Rinaldo  de  (d.  1452),  Florentine 
statesman  who  opposed  Medici.  See  Florence: 
1433-1464. 

ALBOIN  (d.  c.  573),  king  of  the  Lombards,  son 
of  Audoin,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  destroyed  the 
kingdom  of  the  Gepidae  and  married  Rosamund, 
daughter  of  the  slain  king  Cunimund.  In  568 
he  invaded  and  conquered  a  large  portion  of  Italy. 
At  ,the  instigation  of  his  queen  he  was  assassinated 
by  his  chamberlain  Peredeo,  in  revenge  for  having 
forced  her  to  drink  wine  from  a  cup  formed  from 
her     father's     skull. — See     also     Lombards:     568- 

573. 

ALBORNOZ,  Gil  Alvarez  de  (c.  1310-1367), 
Spanish  cardinal.  Fought  in  the  battles  of  Tarifa 
(1340)  and  Algeciras  (1344),  sent  to  Italy  as  papal 
legate  and  paved  the  way  for  the  return  of  Urban 
V  to  Rome;  founder  of  the  college  of  St.  Clement 
at  Bologna  and  author  of  a  work  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Roman  church. — See  also  Papacy:  1352- 

1378 
ALBRET,  Lordship  of,  in  the  Landes,  France, 

gave  its  name  to  a  powerful  feudal  family,  whose 
members  distinguished  themselves  in  local  wars; 
during  the  fourteenth  century  supported  first  the 
English  cause  and  later  the  French.  By  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  IV  whose  mother  was  Jeanne 
d'Albret  the  dukedom  came  under  the  crown ;  in 
165 1,  was  granted  to  the  family  of  La  Tour 
d'Auvergne.  Jean  d'Albret,  belonging  to  a  younger 
branch,  was  employed  by  Francis  I  in  his  intrigues 
to  become  emperor. — See  also  Navarre:  1528- 
1563. 

ALBRIGHT,  Jacob  (1759-1808),  founder  of  the 
Evangelical  Association   (q.v.). 

ALBRIGHT  ART  GALLERY. —  "Incorpor- 
ated 1862.  Occupies  magnificent  gallery  of  white 
marble  in  Delaware  Park  [Buffalo,  N.  Y.l  built 
and  endowed  by  John  J.  Albright  in  IQ05.  Collec- 
tions comprise  2S6  modern  oil  paintings  by  Ameri- 
can, English,  Scottish,  German,  French,  Dutch, 
Austrian,  Italian,  Spanish  and  Scandinavian  art- 
ists; 7g6  engravings,  including  a  historical  collec- 
tion of  the  masters  of  engraving  and  an  almost 
complete  collection  of  the  works  of  Sir  Seymour 
Haden;  Arundel  prints,  cartoons,  drawings,  sculp- 
tures and  casts  and  various  art  objects — a  total 
of  over  1,300  exhibits.  Maintains  an  art  school 
attended  by  some  300  students  and  publishes  a 
quarterly  art  magazine,  'Academy  Notes.'  The 
commission  for  two  caryatid-porticos  in  white 
marble,  for  the  north  and  south  wings  of  the  art 
building,  was  given  to  Augustus  St.  Gaudens,  and 


the  eight  beautiful  statues  were  his  last  work." — 
Year's  art,  1920,  p.  238. 

ALBU,  Celtic  form  for  Caledonia.  See  Scot- 
land:   The  name. 

ALBUERA,  or  Albuhera,  La,  a  small  village 
in  Spain  in  the  province  of  Badajoz,  celebrated 
for  the  victory  of  the  British,  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards  over  the  French  in  the  Peninsular  War, 
May,  1811. 

ALBUM  (Latin,  albus,  white),  a  board  chalked 
or  painted  white,  on  which  decrees,  edicts,  and 
other  public  notices  were  inscribed  in  black,  in 
ancient  Rome.  In  medieval  and  modern  times 
album  denotes  a  book  of  blank  pages  in  which 
verses,  autographs,  sketches  and  the  like  are  col- 
lected. In  law,  the  word  is  the  English  equivalent 
of  "mailles  blanches,"  for  rent  paid  in  silver 
("white")    money. 

ALBUMAZAR  (805-885),  Arabian  astrologer. 
Author  of  over  fifty  works  which  contained  some 
serious  errors,  but  several  of  which  were  never- 
theless translated  into  Latin. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  Affonso  d',  surnamed  "the 
Great"  and  "the  Portuguese  Mars"  (1453-1515), 
was  a  celebrated  Portuguese  navigator  and  con- 
queror, being  the  founder  of  the  Portuguese  em- 
pire in  the  east;  made  his  first  expedition  to  India 
in  1503;  conquered  Goa,  the  whole  of  Malabar, 
Ceylon,  the  Sunda  Islands,  the  peninsula  of  Ma- 
lacca and  the  island  of  Ormuz. — See  also  Com- 
merce: Era  of  geographic  expansion:  I5th-i7th 
centuries:   Leadership  of   the  Portuguese. 

'ALBUQUERQUE,  the  largest  city  of  New 
Mexico  and  the  capital  of  Bernalillo  county ;  situ- 
ated on  the  Rio  Grande,  60  miles  southwest  of 
Sante  Fe.  Due  to  its  climate,  which  is  especially 
adapted  for  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  it  has 
become  a  famous  health  resort.  It  was  founded 
in  1706,  and  named  in  honor  of  the  duke  of  Al- 
buquerque, viceroy  from  Spain  1702-1710.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  it  was  occupied  by  Confederate 
troops  under  General  Henry  Hopkins  Sibley.  The 
modern  city  really  dates  from  the  completion  of 
the   first   railway   to  Albuquerque   in    1880. 

ALCALA  DE  HENARES,  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  New  Castile,  the  birthplace  of  Cervantes,  1547; 
its  once  famous  university  founded  by  Cardinal 
Jimenez  in  1510  was  removed  to  Madrid  in  1836. 
The  city  is  supposed  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  Ro- 
man Complulnm,  hence  the  name  Compluteiisian 
Polyglot  which  was  given  to  the  famous  edition  of 
the  Bible  prepared  here  between  1514  and  1517. 

ALCALA  UNIVERSITY.  — 1510.  — Founded 
by     Ximenes. — Constitution.      See    Universities 

AND    COLLEGES:     I240-Ii;iO. 

ALCALDE,  ALGUAZIL,  CORREGIDOR.— 

"The  word  alcalde  is  from  the  Arabic  'al  cadi,'  the 
judge  or  governor.  .  .  .  Alcalde  mayor  signifies  a 
judge,  learned  in  the  law,  who  exercises  [in  Spain] 
ordinary  jurisdiction,  civil  and  criminal,  in  a  town 
or  district."  In  the  Spanish  colonies  the  alcalde 
mayor  was  the  chief  judge.  "Irving  (Columbus, 
ii.  331)  writes  erroneously  alguazil  mayor,  evi- 
dently confounding  the  two  ofiices.  ...  An  al- 
guacil  mayor,  was  a  chief  constable  or  high  sher- 
iff." "Corregidor,  a  magistrate  having  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction  in  the  first  instance  ('nisi 
prius')  and  gubernatorial  inspection  in  the  political 
and  economical  government  in  all  the  towns  of  the 
district  assigned  to  him." — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History 
of  the  Pacific  states,  v.  i,  pp.  207  and  250,  foot- 
notes.— See  also  Audiencias;  Holy  Brotherhood 
or  Herman'dad. 

ALCANTARA,  town  of  western  Spain  on  the 
Tagus,  seven  miles  from  the  Portuguese  frontier. 
The   town   was   famous   as   the   stronghold  of  the 


201 


ALCANTARA 


ALDEN 


kjiightly  order  of  Alcantara ;  and  also  for  the 
bridge  over  the  Tagus  built  by  Trajan  in  A.  D., 
lOS  and  still  in  a  tine  state  of  preservation.  From 
Arabic,  al  Kantara,  "the  bridge."  For  the  bat- 
tle of  Alcantara  (1580).  See  Portugal:  157Q- 
1580. 

ALCANTARA,  Knights  of.  See  Alcantara, 
Order  of. 

ALCANTARA,  Order  of.— "Towards  the  close 
of  Alfonso's  reign  [Alfonso  VIII  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  who  called  himself  'the  Emperor,'  1126- 
1157],  may  be  assigned  the  origin  of  the  military 
order  of  Alcantara.  Two  cavaliers  of  Salamanca, 
don  Suero  and  don  Gomez,  left  that  city  with  the 
design  of  choosing  and  fortifying  some  strong 
natural  frontier,  whence  they  could  not  only  arrest 
the  continual  incursions  of  the  Moors,  but  make 
hostile  irruptions  themselves  into  the  territories  of 
the  misbelievers.  Proceeding  along  the  banks  pf 
the  Coales,  they  fell  in  with  a  hermit,  Araando  by 
name,  who  encouraged  them  in  their  patriotic  de- 
sign and  recommended  the  neighbouring  hermitage 
of  St.  Julian  as  an  excellent  site  for  a  fortress. 
Having  examined  and  approved  the  situation,  they 
applied  to  the  bishop  of  Salamanca  for  permission 
to  occupy  the  place:  that  permission  was  readily 
granted:  with  his  assistance,  and  that  of  the  her- 
mit Amando,  the  two  cavaliers  erected  a  castle 
around  the  hermitage.  They  were  now  joined  by 
other  nobles  and  by  more  adventurers,  all  eager 
to  acquire  fame  and  wealth  in  this  life,  glory  in 
the  ne.xt.  Hence  the  foundation  of  an  order  which, 
under  the  name,  first,  of  St.  Julian,  and  subse- 
quently of  Alcantara,  rendered  good  ser\'ice  alike 
to  king  and  church." — S.  A.  Dunham,  History  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  bk.  3,  sect.  2,  ch.  i,  div.  2. 

ALCAZAR,  or  "The  Three  Kings,"  Battle  of 
(1578  or  1570).  See  Morocco:  647-1860;  Portu- 
gal:   1579-1580. 

ALCEDO,  United  States  patrol  boat  sunk  by  a 
German  submarine  during  the  World  War.  See 
World  War:    1Q17:    IX.  Naval  operations:    c,  4. 

ALCESTER,  Frederick  Beauchamp  Paget 
Seymour,  Baron  (1821-1895),  British  admiral. 
Commanded  the  naval  brigade  in  New  Zealand 
during  the  Maori  War;  commanded  the  squadron 
sent  to  Albania  in  1880  to  compel  the  Porte  to 
cede  Dulcigno  to  Montenegro;  commander  of  the 
British  fleet  at  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria, 
1882. 

ALCHEMY.— "The  term  'alchemy,'  or,  as  it 
was  spelt  until  the  nineteenth  century,  alchymy, 
derived  from  the  Arabic,  is  said  to  have  come 
originally  from  a  Greek  word  (chyma)  signifying 
things  melted  and  poured  out.  It  is  more  probably 
derived  from  Kliem,  'the  land  of  Egypt,'  which 
was  so  named  from  the  dark  colour  of  its  soil, 
composed  of  crumbling  syenite.  Alchemy,  accord- 
ing to  this  derivation,  is  the  'art  of  the  black 
country,'  the  Black  Art.  In  Egypt  it  was  carried 
to  a  high  degree  of  development,  and  consequently 
this  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  name  receives  sup- 
port from  the  philological  character  of  the  deriva- 
tives— al,  the  .Arabic  definite  article,  and  Khem, 
dark — because  the  term  first  came  into  use  when 
the  Arabian  Mohammedans  dominated  Egypt, 
learned  the  secrets  of  the  temple  laboratories,  and 
spread  throughout  the  civilized  parts  of  Western 
Europe  the  knowledge  they  had  thus  acquired. 
The  application  of  the  term  has  frequently,  but 
wrongfully,  been  restricted  to  the  pretended  arts 
of  making  gold  and  silver,  and  the  more  profitable 
arts  of  adulterating  and  of  imitating  gold.  It 
had,  however,  a  wider  application,  and  ought  to 
be  regarded  as  including  all  the  arts  known  in  an- 
cient times,  which  dealt  with  things  now  compre- 


hended in  the  science  of  chemistry." — J.  C.  Brown, 
History   of  chemistry,  p.   2. — See  also  Chemistry, 

Practiced  by  Arabs.  See  Science:  .\ncient: 
Arabian  Science. 

ALCHUINE.     See  Alcuin, 

ALCIBIADES  (c,  450-404  B.C.),  Athenian 
politician  and  general.  Commander  of  the  Athe- 
nians in  the  enterprise  against  Syracuse.  To  escape 
trial  for  mutilation  of  statues,  lied  to  Sparta  where 
he  arranged  an  alliance  with  Persia  and  an  Ionian 
revolt  against  .Athens;  later  assisted  the  .Athenians 
by  defeating  the  Lacedsmonians  and  returned  to 
his  native  city  in  triumph. — See  also  Athens:  B.C. 
413-411;  Greece;  B. C.  421-418;  419-416;  413-412; 
411-407;  Syracuse:   B.C.  415-413. 

ALCLYDE. — Rhydderch,  a  Cumbrian  prince  of 
the  sixth  century  who  was  the  victor  in  a  civil 
conflict,  "fixed  his  headquarters  on  a  rock  in  the 
Clyde,  called  in  the  Welsh  Alclud  [previously  a 
Roman  town  known  as  Theodosia],  whence  it  was 
known  to  the  EnglLsh  for  a  time  as  Alclyde ;  but 
the  Goidels  called  it  Dunbrettan,  or  the  fortress  of 
the  Brythons,  which  has  prevailed  in  the  slightly 
modified  form  of  Dumbarton.  .  .  .  Alclyde  was 
more  than  once  destroyed  by  the  Northmen." — J. 
Rhvs,  Celtic  Britain,  ch.  4. — See  also  Cumbria. 

ALCMAEONIDAE,  a  distinguished  family  in 
Athens.  The  family  was  banished  about  596  B.  C, 
for  the  slaying  of  Cylon  by  Archon  Megacles ;  re- 
turned in  510  through  the  aid  of  Sparta.  To  this 
family  belonged  Clisthenes,  Pericles  and  ."Mcibiades. 
— See  also  .\thens:  B.C.  612-595;  Greece;  B,  C, 
Sth-5th  centuries. 

ALCOCK,  Captain  Sir  John  William,  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  .Mr  Force,  decorated  in  IQ19  for 
first  crossing  the  .Atlantic  in  an  airplane,  from 
Newfoundland  to  Clifden,  Ireland.  [See  Avia- 
tion: Important  flights  since  igoo:  1919  (June).] 
Alcock  was  created  knight  in  1919.  He  died  Dec. 
1 8  of  the  same  vear. 

ALCOCK,  Sir  Rutherford  (1809-1897),  Eng- 
lish diplomat.  Consul  to  China,  1844-1846;  con- 
sul-general in  Japan,  1846-1865,  where  he  stayed 
through  the  period  of  feudal  anarchy.  Served  as 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Peking  until  1871. 
Brought  the  art  of  Japan  to  the  world's  no- 
tice. 

ALCOHOL  PROBLEM.   See  Liquor  problem. 

ALCOLEA,  Battle  of  (1868).  See  Spain: 
1868-1873. 

ALCORTA,  Jos§  Figueroa,  President  of  Ar- 
gentine republic,  1906-1910.    See  Acre  disputes. 

ALCUIN,  or  Albinus  Flaccus  (735-804),  cele- 
brated English  prelate  and  scholar  at  the  time  of 
Charlemagne;  active  in  ecclesiastical  and  literary 
movements  on  the  Continent ;  writer  of  many 
learned  treatises  on  grammar,  rhetoric,  theology 
and  philosophy;  at  Troyes  from  78 j  to  790;  his 
school  conducted  for  Charlemagne  and  his  en- 
tourage, was  instrumental  in  introducing  Latin  cul- 
ture (see  School  of  the  palace,  Charlemagne's)  ; 
spent  last  years  as  abbot  at  Tours;  a  facile  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  and  the  leading  intellectual 
figure  of  the  Carolingian  Renaissance. — See  also 
Annals:  French,  German,  Italian  and  Spanish  an- 
nals; Christianity:  597-800:  English  church;  Edu- 
cation: Medieval:  724-814;  Charlemagne  and 
Alcuin, 

ALDBOROUGH,  England,  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Isurium  Brigantum.    See  Isurium, 

ALDEN,  Ichabod  (1739-1778),  .\merican  officer. 
See  U.  S.  .\:    1778   (June-November). 

ALDEN,  John  (1599-1687),  one  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers,  who  emigrated  to  .America  in  the  May- 
flower in  1620.  One  of  the  first  settlers  of  Dux- 
bury.     Of  great   assistance  in   the  government    of 


202 


ALDERNEY   ISLAND 

the  colony,  and  the  last  male  survivor  of  the  origi- 
nal group.  The  romance  of  his  marriage  to  Pris- 
cilla  Mullens  was  the  theme  of  Longfellow's  poem 
"The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  " 
ALDERNEY  ISLAND.  See  Channel  islands 
ALDERSHOT  COMMAND,  the  body  of 
troops  stationed  at  the  great  military  camp  estab- 
lished in  1855  at  Aldershot,  Hampshire,  England. 
The  permanent  force  is  made  up  of  troops  avail- 
able for  service  with  the  first  army   corps 

ALDERSON,  Sir  Edwin  Alfred  Herrey 
(1859-  ),  British  Lieutenant-general.  See  World 
War:   igis:   II.  Western  front:  c,  11. 

ALDIE,  Battle  of.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1863  (June- 
July:  Pennsylvania ) . 

ALDINE  PRESS.  See  Printinc  and  the 
Press:    1460-1515. 

ALDOBRANDINI,  Florentine  family.  See 
Rome:   1600-1656. 

ALDRED,  or  Ealdred  (d.  1069),  English  arch- 
bishop. In  1046  led  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  the  Welsh,  supported  the  cause  of  Edgar 
the  ^theling,  but  later  submitted  to  William  the 
Conqueror,  and  crowned  the  Norman  king 

ALDRICH,  Nelson  Wilmarth  (1841-1915), 
Republican  member  of  the  United  States  Senate 
from  Rhode  Island  for  thirty  years;  previously  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  187S-1S80.  He  evi- 
denced an  unusual  skill  in  parliamentary  organiza- 
tion as  leader  of  the  conservative  faction  in  the 
Seriate;  chiefly  responsible  for  the  Payne-.'^ldrich 
tariff  act,  which  was  received  with  keen  disappoint- 
ment by  tariff  reformers;  responsible  for  the  en- 
actment of  the  Aldrich-Vreeland  currency  law. 
(q.  V.)  As  chairman  of  the  National  Monetary 
Commission,  he  recommended  revision  of  the  bank- 
ing laws,  which  furnished  the  basis  for  the  Federal 
Reserve  act  of  1913.  See  Tariff:  1909;  U.  S.  A.: 
1910  (March-June). 

ALDRICH-VREELAND  ACT  (1908),  Ameri- 
can monetary  act.  "The  Aldrich-Vreeland  act, 
1908,  undertook  to  supply  the  need  [of  a  more 
elastic  currency]  by  allowing  banks  to  issue 
additional  notes  on  depositing  approved  state, 
country,  or  municipal  bonds  and  by  forming  as- 
sociations with  joint  responsibility  to  issue  notes 
secured  by  commercial  paper.  ...  In  the  Aldrich- 
Vreeland  act  was  a  provision  for  a  monetary  com- 
mission. Senator  Aldrich  becoming  chairman." — 
J.  S.  Bassett,  Short  history  of  the  United  States, 
p.  850.  See  Money  and  banking:  Modern  period: 
1912-1913:   Federal  reserve  system. 

ALDRINGER,  Johann,  Count  von  (1588- 
1634),  general  in  the  imperial  German  army  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Served  under  Wallenstein 
and  Tilly,  on  the  death  of  the  latter  (1632)  suc- 
ceeding to  his  command ;  fought  against  the  Swedes 
on  the  Danube. 

ALEANDRO,  Cirolamo  (Hieronymus  Alex- 
ander, 1480-1542),  Italian  ecclesiastic  (cardinal) 
and  scholar;  author  of  a  "Lexicon  grjeco-latinum" 
(1512),  etc.;  was  several  times  papal  legate  to 
Germany,  and  an  ardent  opponent  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

ALEICHEM,  Sholem  (1859-1916),  pseud,  of 
Solomon  J.  Rabinowitz,  Jewish  author.  See  Jews: 
Language  and  literature. 

ALEMAN,  Louis  (c.  1390-1450),  French 
cardinal ;  member  of  the  council  of  Basel  where 
he  maintained  the  supremacy  of  a  council  over 
the  pope.  In  1440  proclaimed  the  deposition 
of  Pope  Eugenius  IV,  elevating  the  antipope 
Felix  V. 

ALEMANNI,  or  Alamanni.  —  213.  —  Origin 
and  first  appearance. — "Under  Antoninus,  the 
Son  of  Severus,  a  new  and  more  severe  war  once 
more   (213)    broke  out   in   Raetia      This  also  was 


ALEMANNI 

waged   against    the    Chatti;    but    by    their    side   a 
second  people  is  named,  which   we  here  meet  for 
the  first  time— the  Alamanni.     Whence  they  came, 
we  know  not.     According  to  a  Roman  writing  a 
little  later,  they  were  a  conflux  of  mixed  elements; 
the  appellation  also  seems  to  point  to  a  league  of 
communities,  as  well  as  the  fact  that,  afterwards, 
the  different  tribes  comprehended  under  this  name 
stand    forth— more    than    is   the    case    among    the 
other    great    Germanic    peoples— in    their    separate 
character,   and   the   Juthungi,   the   Lentienses,   and 
other  Alamannic  peoples  not  seldom  act  independ- 
ently.   But  that  it  is  not  the  Germans  of  this  region 
who  here  emerge,  allied  under  the  new  name  and 
strengthened  by  the  alliance,  is  shown  as  well  by 
the   naming    of   the   Alamanni   along   side    of   the 
Chatti,  as  by  the  mention  of  the  unwonted  skil- 
fulness  of  the  Alamanni  in  equestrian  combat.     On 
the  contrary,  it  was  certainly,  in  the  main,  hordes 
coming  on  from  the  East  that  lent  new  strength  to 
the  almost  extinguished   German  resistance  on  the 
Rhine;  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  powerful  Sem- 
nones,    in    earlier    times    dwelling    on    the    middle 
Elbe,  of  whom  there  is  no  further  mention  after 
the  end  of  the  second  centurv,  furnished  a  strong 
contingent  to  the  Alamanni."— T.  Mommsen,  His- 
tory of  Rome,  bk.  8,  ch.  4.— "The  standard  quota- 
tion^respecting   the   derivation   of   the   name   from 
'al'  — 'all'   and    'm-n'  =  'man,'   so    that    the    word 
(somewhat  exceptionably)  denotes 'men  of  all  sorts,' 
is  from  .'\gathias,  who  quotes  Asinius  Quadratus.  .  .  . 
Notwithstanding  this,  I  think  it  is  an  open  ques- 
tion, whether  the  name  may  not  have  been  applied 
by   the   truer  and   more    unequivocal   Germans   of 
Suabia    and    Franconia,    to    certain    less    deiinitely 
Germanic    allies   from   Wurtemberg   and    Baden, — 
parts   of   the    Decumates   Agri — parts   which   may 
have  supplied  a  Gallic,  a  Gallo-Roman,  or  even  a 
Slavonic    element    to    the    confederacy ;    in    which 
case,  a  name.so  German  as  to  have  given  the  pres- 
ent French  and   Italian  name  for   Germany,  may, 
originally,    have    applied    to    a    population    other 
than  Germanic.  .  .  .  The  locality  of  the  Alemanni 
was  the  parts  about  the  Limes  Romanus,  a  bound- 
ary which,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus,  Nie- 
buhr  thinks  they  first  broke  through.     Hence  they 
were  the  Marchmen  of  the  frontier,  whoever  those 
Marchmen  were.     Other  such  Marchmen  were  the 
Suevi;  unless,  indeed,  we  consider  the  two  names 
as  synonymous.     Zeuss   admits  that,   between   the 
Suevi  of   Suabia,   and    the   Alemanni,   no   tangible 
difference  can  be  found." — R.  G.  Lathan,  Germania 
of  Tacitus;  EpUegomena,  sect.  11. — See  also  Ger- 
many:   3d  century. 
Also  in:  T.  Smith,  Arminiiis,  pt.  2,  cli.  i. 
259. — Invasion   of   Gaul   and   Italy.— The   Ale- 
manni, "hovering   on  the  frontiers  of  the  Empire 
.  .  .  increased    the    general    disorder    that    ensued 
after  the  death   of   Decius.     They   inflicted  severe 
wounds  on  the  rich  provinces  of  Gaul ;  they  were 
the   first   who   removed   the  veil  that  covered  the 
feeble  majesty  of  Italy.     A  numerous  body  of  the 
.•Memanni     penetrated     across     the     Danube     and 
through  the  Rhaetian  Alps  into  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardy,  advanced  as  far  as  Ravenna  and  displayed 
the    victorious    banners    of    barbarians    almost    in 
sight  of  Rome   [259].     The  insult  and  the  danger 
rekindled  in  the  senate  some  sparks  of  their  ancient 
virtue.     Both   the   Emperors  were  engaged  in  far 
distant   wars — Valerian   in   the   East   and   Galienus 
on  the  Rhine"     The  senators,  however,  succeeded 
in  confronting  the  audacious  invaders  with  a  force 
which    checked    their    advance,    and   they   "retired 
into  Germany  laden  with  spoil" — E.  Gibbon,  His- 
tory of  the  decline  and  fail  of  the  Roman  empire, 
ch.  10. 


203 


ALEMANNI 


ALENgON 


270. — Invasion  of  Italy. — Italy  was  invaded  by 
the  Alemanni,  for  the  second  time,  in  the  reign  of 
Aurelian,  270.  They  ravaged  the  provinces  from 
the  Danube  to  the  Po,  and  were  retreating,  laden 
with  spoils,  when  the  vigorous  Emperor  intercepted 
them,  on  the  banks  of  the  former  river.  Half  the 
host  was  permitted  to  cross  the  Danube ;  the  other 
half  was  surprised  and  surrounded.  But  these  last, 
unable  to  regain  their  own  country,  broke  through 
the  Roman  lines  at  their  rear  and  sped  into  Italy 
again,  spreading  havoc  as  they  went.  It  was  only 
after  three  great  battles, — one  near  Placenlia,  in 
which  the  Romans  were  almost  beaten,  another 
on  the  Metaurus  (where  Hasdrubal  was  defeated), 
and  a  third  near  Pavia, — that  the  Germanic  invad- 
ers were  destroyed. — E.  Gibbon,  History  0)  the 
decline  and  fall  of  the  Ro"nan  empire,  ch.  11. — See 
also  Barbaria.\  i.vv.hsio.ns:  3d  century. 

355-361.— Repulse  by  Julian.     See  Gaul:  35s- 

361. 

365-367.— Invasion  of  Gaul.— The  Alemanni 
invaded  Gaul  in  305,  committing  widespread  rav- 
ages and  carrying  away  into  the  forests  of  Ger- 
many great  spoil  and  many  captives.  The  ne.vt 
winter  they  crossed  the  Rhine,  again,  in  still 
greater  numbers,  defeated  the  Roman  forces  and 
captured  the  standards  of  the  Herulian  and  Ba- 
tavian  auxiliaries.  But  \  alentinian  was  now 
Emperor,  and  he  adopted  energetic  measures.  His 
lieutenant  Jovinus  overcame  the  invaders  in  a 
great  battle  fought  near  Chalons  and  drove  them 
back  to  their  own  side  of  the  river  boundary. 
Two  years  later,  the  Emperor,  himself,  passed  the 
Rhine  and  inflicted  a  memorable  chastisement  on 
the  Alemanni.  At  the  same  time  he  strengthened 
the  frontier  defences,  and,  by  diplomatic  arts,  fo- 
mented quarrels  between  the  .Aiemanni  and 
their  neighbors,  the  Burgundiuns,  which  weak- 
ened both. — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  decline  and 
fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  25. 

378. — Defeat  by  Gratian. — On  learning  that  the 
young  Emperor  Gratian  was  preparing  to  lead 
the  military  force  of  Gaul  and  the  West  to  the 
help  of  his  uncle  and  colleague,  X'alens,  against 
the  Goths,  the  Alemanni  swarmed  across  the 
Rhine  into  Gaul.  Gratian  instantly  recalled  the 
legions  that  were  marching  to  Pannonia  and  en- 
countered the  German  invaders  in  a  great  battle 
fought  near  Argentaria  (modern  Colmar)  in  the 
month  of  May,  .\.  D.  378.  The  .Memanni  were 
routed  with  such  slaughter  that  no  more  than 
S.ooo  out  of  40,000  to  70,000,  are  said  to  have 
escaped.  Gratian  afterwards  crossed  the  Rhine 
and  humbled  his  troublesome  neighbors  in  their 
own  country. — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  26. 

496-504. — Overthrow  by  the"  Franks. — "In  the 
year  4g6  the  Salians  ISalian  Franks  1  began  that 
career  of  conquest  which  they  followed  up  with 
scarcely  any  intermission  until  the  death  of  their 
warrior  king.  The  Alemanni,  extending  them- 
selves from  their  original  seats  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  between  the  Main  and  the  Danube, 
had  pushed  forward  into  Germanica  Prima,  where 
they  came  into  collision  with  the  prankish  sub- 
jects of  King  Sigebert  of  Cologne.  Clovis  flew  to 
the  assistance  of  his  kinsman  and  defeated  the 
Alemanni  in  a  great  battle  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ziilpich  [called,  commonly,  the  battle  of  Tol- 
biac].  He  then  established  a  considerable  number 
of  his  Franks  in  the  territory  of  the  Alemanni. 
the  traces  of  whose  residence  are  found  in  the 
names  of  Franconia  and  Frankfort." — W.  C. 
Perry,  The  Franks,  ch.  2. — "Clovis  had  been  in- 
tending to  cross  the  Rhine,  but  the  hosts  of  the 
Alamanni  came  upon   him,  as  it  seems,  unexpvct- 

204 


edly  and  forced  a  battle  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river.  He  seemed  to  be  overmatched,  and  the 
horror  of  an  impending  defeat  overshadowed  the 
Frankish  king.  Then,  in  his  despair,  he  bethought 
himself  of  the  God  of  Clotiiaa  [his  queen,  a  Bur- 
gundian  Christian  princess,  of  the  orthodox  or 
Catholic  faith].  Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he 
said:  'Oh  Jesus  Christ,  whom  Clotilda  declares 
to  be  the  Son  of  the  living  God,  who  art  said  to 
give  help   to   those   who  are   in   trouble   and   who 


trust  in  Thee,  I  humbly  beseech  Thy  succor !  I 
have  called  on  my  gods  and  they  are  far  from 
my  help.  If  Thou  wilt  deliver  me  from  mine  ene- 
mies, I  will  believe  in  Thee,  and  be  baptised  in 
Thy  name.'  At  this  moment,  a  sudden  change 
was  seen  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Franks.  The  .Ala- 
manni began  to  waver,  they  turned,  they  fled. 
Their  king,  according  to  one  account  was  slain; 
and  the  nation  seems  to  have  accepted  Clovis  as 
its  over-lord."  The  following  Christmas  day  Clo- 
vis was  baptised  at  Reims  and  3,000  of  his  war- 
riors followed  the  royal  example.  "In  the  early 
years  of  the  new  century,  probably  about  503  or 
504,  Clovis  was  again  at  war  with  his  old  ene- 
mies, the  .Alamanni.  .  .  .  Clovis  moved  his  army 
into  their  territories  and  won  a  victory  mucli 
more  decisive,  though  less  famous  than  that  of 
406.  This  time  the  angry  king  would  make  no 
such  easy  terms  as  he  had  done  before.  From 
their  pleasant  dwellings  by  the  Main  and  the 
Neckar,  from  all  the  valley  of  the  Middle  Rhine, 
the  terrified  .Alamanni  were  forced  to  flee.  Their 
place  was  taken  by  Frankish  settlers,  from  whom 
all  this  district  received  in  the  Middle  .Ages  the 
name  of  the  Duchy  of  Francia,  or,  at  a  rather  later 
date,  that  of  the  Circle  of  Franconia.  The  .Ala- 
manni, with  their  wives  and  children,  a  broken 
and  dispirited  host,  moved  southward  to  the 
shores  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  entered  the 
old  Roman  province  of  Rhastia.  Here  they  were 
on  what  was  held  to  be,  in  a  sense,  Italian 
ground;  and  the  arm  of  Theodoric,  as  ruler  of 
Italy,  as  successor  to  the  Emperors  of  the  West, 
was  stretched  forth  to  protect  them.  .  .  .  Eastern 
Switzerland,  Western  Tyrol.  Southern  Baden  and 
WiJrtemberg  and  Southwestern  Bavaria  probably 
formed  this  new  .Alamannia,  which  will  figure  in 
later  history  as  the  'Ducatus  Alamanniae.'  or  the 
Circle  of  Swabia." — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  in- 
vaders, bk.  4,  ch.  p. — See  also  Suevi:  460-500; 
F'ranks:  4S1-511;  SwiTZERtAND:  Celtic  inhabitants; 
ist-3d  centuries;  Europe:  Ethnology:  Migrations: 
Map  showing  Barbaric  migrations. 

528-729. — Struggles  against  the  Frank  domin- 
ion.    See  Ger.manv:  4S1-768. 

547. — Final  subjection  to  the  Franks.  See 
Bavaria:    547. 

.Also  in:  P.  Godwin,  History  of  France:  Ancient 
Gaul,  bk.  3,  ch.  11. 

ALEMANNIA:  Mediaeval  duchy.  See  Ger- 
many: 843-002. 

ALEN^ON,  Counts  and  dukes  of.— First  line 
founded  by  Yves,  lord  of  Belesmc,  who  fortified 
the  town  of  .AIen(;on  in  tenth  century.  All  his 
successors  were  involved  in  the  wars  of  the  kings 
of  England,  in  Normandy.  Mabille,  countess  of 
.AIeni;on  and  heiress  of  this  family,  married  Roger 
de  Montgomery,  and  thus  a  second  house  of  Alen- 
i;on  was  started,  which  became  extinct  with  the 
death  of  Robert  IV.  Established  in  a  third  house 
in  the  person  of  Charles  of  Valois,  it  was  raised 
to  a  peerage  in  1367  and  into  a  dukedom  in  1414. 
John,  first  duke  of  .Alen(;on,  was  killed  at  Agin- 
court  on  October  25,  141  s,  after  having  killed  the 
duke  of  York.  The  dukedom  reverted  back  to 
the    crown    in    1524,    was   given    to    Catherine    de 


ALEPPO 


ALEXANDER 


Medici  in  1559,  and  as  an  appanage  to  her  son 
Francis  in  1566.  Henry  IV  pawned  it  to  the  duke 
of  Wiirtembcrg,  and,  by  grant  of  Louis  XIII,  it 
passed  to  Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans. 

ALEPPO  (Haleb),  a  vilayet  of  the  former 
Turkish  empire  including  northern  Syria  and 
northwestern  Mesopotamia.  The  city  of  the  same 
name  is  the  junction  point  of  the  Bagdad  and 
Hejaz  railways,  and  with  the  surrounding  ter- 
ritory was  captured  by  General  Allenby  in  igi8. 

Location.  See  Arabu:  Map;  Turkey:  Map  of 
Asia  Minor. 

637. — Surrender  to  Moslems.  See  Caliphate: 
632-639. 

638-969. — Taken  by  the  Arab  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed in  638,  this  city  was  recovered  by  the 
Byzantines  in  969.  See  Byzantine  empire;  963- 
1025. 

1260. — Destruction  by  the  Mongols. — The 
Mongols,  under  Khulagu,  or  Houlagou,  brother 
of  Mangu  Khan,  having  overrun  Mesopotamia 
nnd  extinguished  the  caliphate  at  Bagdad,  crossed 
the  Euphrates  in  the  spring  of  1260  and  advanced 
to  Aleppo.  The  city  was  taken  after  a  siege  of 
seven  days  and  given  up  for  five  days  to  pillage 
and  slaughter.  "When  the  carnage  ceased,  the 
streets  were  cumbered  with  corpses.  ...  It  is  said 
that  100,000  women  and  children  were  sold  as 
slaves.  The  walls  of  Aleppo  were  razed,  its 
mosques  destroyed,  and  its  gardens  ravaged." 
Damascus  submitted  and  was  spared.  Khulagu 
was  meditating,  it  is  said,  the  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem, when  news  of  the  death  of  the  Great  Khan 
called  him  to  the  east. — H.  H.  Howorth,  History 
of  the  Mongols,  pp.  200-211. 

1401. — Sack    and    massacre    by    Timur.      See 

TiMUR. 

16th-18th  centuries. — Conquest  by  the  Otto- 
mans.— Revival  of  trade. — Under  the  strong  rule 
of  the  Ottomans,  who  took  possession  of  Aleppo 
in  1517,  its  trade  with  the  East  revived  and  in- 
creased. In  the  reign  of  James  I  one  of  the  first 
provincial  factories  and  consulates  of  the  British 
Turkey  Company  was  established  there.  It  was 
long  the  eastern  outpost  of  the  company's  opera- 
tions, and  was  connected  by  private  postal  serv- 
ice with  the  western  outpost  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  Bagdad.  Aleppo's  importance  in 
trade  was  first  diminished  by  the  discovery  of  the 
Cape  route  to  India;  the  opening  of  a  land  route 
through  Egypt  to  the  Red  sea  lessened  it  further; 
and  the  making  of  the  Suez  canal  struck  the  final 
blow. 

1916  (May). — Declared  independent  with 
French  and  English  spheres  of  influence.  See 
Syria:    1908-1921. 

1918. — Captured  and  occupied  by  British.  See 
World  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c,  13  and 
24. 

ALERIA,  Naval  battle  of  (537  B.C.).  See 
Rome:  Ancient  kingdom:  B.C.  753-510. 

ALESIA,  ancient  name  for  a  hill  in  central 
France  now  Alise-Ste.-Reine,  where  in  52  B.  C. 
Ciesar  besieged  Vercingctorix,  forced  him  to  sur- 
render and  completed  the  conquest  of  Gaul.  Ex- 
cavations of  the  siege  works  were  made  by  Napo- 
leon III.     See  Gaul:   B.C.  58-51. 

ALESSANDRI,  Arturo,  president  of  Chile, 
1920.  As  the  result  of  a  disputed  election  in  1920, 
a  court  of  honor  was  appointed,  and  after  careful 
examination,  Seiior  Alessandri  was  declared  elected. 
The  result  was  accepted  by  the  people. — See  also 
Chile:    1920  (June). 

ALESSANDRIA:  Creation  of  the  city  (1168). 
See  Italy:    i 174- it 83. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS,  a  chain  of  islands  ex- 


tending westward  from  the  coast  of  Alaska  into  the 
Pacific  ocean.     See  Alaska:   Map. 

Inhabitants.     Sec  Eskimauan  family. 

1741.— Bering's  exploration.— Russian  claims. 
See  Oregon:    1741-1836. 

ALEXANDER  I,  pope   (A.  D.  106-115). 

Alexander  II,  pope,  1061-1073  coadjutor  of 
Hildebrand  in  suppressing  simony ;  was  threat- 
ened by  the  pretentions  of  the  German  anti-pope 
Honorarius  II,  who  was  soon  deposed. 

Alexander  III,  pope,  1159-1181;  opposed  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  who  withheld  recognition  of  him 
as  pope  until  1177.  Held  the  third  Lateran  Synod; 
humbled  Henry  II  of  England  in  the  Thomas 
Becket  affair;  confirmed  the  kingship  of  Alphonso 
I  of  Portugal;  excommunicated  William  the  Lion 
of  Scotland  and  laid  the  interdict  on  that  coun- 
try.— See  also  Italy:  1154-1162  to  1174-1183; 
Papacy:    1122-1250;  Venice:   1177. 

Alexander  IV,  pope,  1254-1261  ;  opposed  the 
Hohenstaufens  under  Conradin  and  Manfred ; 
tried  to  unite  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches;  es- 
tablished the  Inquisition  in  France;  attempted  to 
organize  a  Crusade  against  the  Tatars.  See  Ve- 
rona:  1236-1259. 

Alexander  V,  pope,  1409-1410;  promoted  the 
council  of  Pisa,  which  elected  him  to  supersede 
the  two  rival  claimants  to  the  papal  succession  in 
order  to  effect  a  solution  of  the  Great  Schism; 
conferred  investiture  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  on 
Louis  II  of  Anjou. — See  also  Papacy:  1377- 
1417. 

Alexander  VI,  pope,  1492- 1503,  lived  a  purely 
secular  life,  using  all  his  power  to  gain  wealth 
and  station  for  his  children.  Intervened  in  the 
Franco-Spanish  quarrels  over  the  possession  of 
Naples;  attempted  the  conquest  of  central  Italy. 
Crushed  the  power  of  several  of  the  great  fami- 
lies of  Italy;  patron  of  Italian  art. — See  also 
Papacy:  1471-1513;  America:  1492;  1493;  Flor- 
ence:   1490-1498. 

Alexander  VII,  pope,  1655-1667,  patron  of 
literature  and  art;  favored  the  Jesuits;  carried  on 
protracted  controversies  with  France  and  Portu- 
gal.— See  also  Papacy:  1644-1667;  Port  Royal  and 
THE  Jansenists:   1602-1700. 

Alexander  VIII,  pope,  1689-1691,  condemned 
the  proclamation  of  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean 
church  made  in  1682;  indulged  in  nepotism;  con- 
demned the  Jesuit   doctrine  of  philosophic  sin. 

Alexander,  of  Battenberg  (1857-1893).  Made 
prince  of  Bulgaria  in  1879  through  the  influence 
of  the  Russian  tsar.  In  1881  assumed  absolute 
power,  but  restored  the  constitution  in  1883;  as- 
sumed the  government  of  the  revolted  East  Rume- 
lia  in  1885,  causing  a  war  with  Serbia  which'  he 
closed  successfully ;  was  forced  by  Russian  influ- 
ence to  abdicate  in  1886. — See  also  Bulgaria: 
1885-1886;  1879. 

Alexander  III,  the  Great  (356-323  B.C.),  king 
of  Macedon.  Was  ambitious  to  establish  a  Pan- 
hellenic  empire;  subdued  Greece,  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt,  where  he  founded  the 
city  that  bears  his  name.  Completely  routed  the 
Persians  under  Darius,  and  extended  his  empire  to 
India.  Attempted  to  fuse  Oriental  and  Greek 
civilizations. — Sec  also  Asia:  B.C.  334-A.  D.  1498; 
Athens:  B.  C.  336-322  ;  Egypt:  B.  C.  332  ;  332-322  ; 
Gaza:  B.C.  332;  Gordian  knot;  Greece:  B.C. 
336-335;  India:  B.C.  327-312;  Macedonia:  B.C. 
334-330;  B.C.  330-323;  Persepolis:  B.C.  330; 
Rhodes,  Island  of:  B.C.  332;  Samaria:  Change 
of  population  by  Alexander  the  Great;  Sidon; 
Tyre:  B.C.  332. 

Alexander  (1893-1920),  king  of  Greece,  second 
son  of  king  Constantine,  whom  he  succeeded  on 


20: 


ALEXANDER 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.C.  332 


his  abdication,  June,  igt?.  Died,  October,  1920. 
See  Greece:  1916;  1920-1021;  World  War:  iqi7: 
V:  Balkan  theatre:  a,  1;  a,  5;  a,  7. 

Alexander  (1461-1506),  IcinK  of  Poland,  1501- 
1507.  The  parsimony  of  the  Polish  nobles,  who 
controlled  the  mint,  forced  him  to  sue  for  peace 
with  Russia,  and  assisted  Prussia  and  Moldavia 
in  their  efforts  to  secure  their  freedom.  See  Po- 
land: 1333-1572 

Alexander  I  (Aleksander  Pavlovich)  (1777- 
1825),  tsar  of  Russia,  1801-1825.  Posed  as  a  re- 
former, but  did  little;  made  war  on  Napoleon, 
but  became  his  ally  at  Tilsit.  Took  Finland  from 
the  Swedes  (1809).  After  Napoleon's  downfall, 
formed  the  Holy  Alliance;  was  patron  of  liberal 
government  in  Europe  until  1818  when  Metter- 
nich  gained  influence  over  him ;  refused  aid  to  the 
Greeks,  but  later  threatened  war  upon  Turkey. — 
See  also  Austrl\:  1809-1814  ;  Holy  Alliance; 
Russia;    1801 ;   1807-1820. 

Alexander  II  (1818-1881),  tsar  of  Russia.  Came 
to  the  throne  1855.  In  1861  emancipated  the 
serfs,  retaining  the  communal  system ;  organized 
the  army  and  navy ;  drew  up  a  new  judicial  ad- 
ministration, a  new  penal  code,  a  system  of  rural 
government.  Made  war  on  Turkey  1877  to  pro- 
tect Christians  in  the  east,  but  lost  much  of  his 
gain  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  Assassinated, 
March  13,  1881.  See  Europe:  Modern  period: 
Russia  in  the  19th  century;  Russia:   1879-1881. 

Alexander  III  (1845-1894),  tsar  of  Russia.  A 
firm  believer  in  autocracy  and  an  ardent  Slavo- 
phil. Annulled  his  father's  reforms  in  local  gov- 
ernment, centralizing  the  imperial  administration. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  last  Russian  tsar,  Nich- 
olas II. — See  also  Europe:  Modern  period:  Russia 
in  the  loth  century;  Russu:   1881-1894;  1894. 

Alexander  I  (1078-1124)  king  of  Scotland, 
son  of  Malcolm  Canmore  and  Margaret,  sister  of 
Edgar  the  .-Etheling ;  brother  of  Edgar  whom  he 
succeeded  to  the  Scottish  throne  in  1107.  He 
married  Sibylla,  daughter  of  Henry  I  of  England. 
Gained  the  title  of  "the  Fierce"  by  his  ruthless 
suppression  of  an  insurrection  in  his  northern 
dominion. 

Alexander  II  (1198-1240),  king  of  Scotland,  son 
of  William  the  Lion,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1214; 
surnamed  "the  Peaceful."  Led  an  army  into 
England  to  support  the  English  barons  against 
John  in  their  struggle  for  Magna  Carta. 

Alexander  III  (i  241 -1285),  king  of  Scotland,  son 
of  Alexander  II,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1249  Mar- 
ried Princess  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry 
III  of  England  in  1251;  defeated  the  Norwegians 
in  their  attempt  at  invasion  in  1263. 

Alexander  (il,  323  B.C.),  Greek  painter.  See 
Painting:  Greek. 

ALEXANDER,  The  Great.  See  .Alexander 
UI  (356-323  B.C.). 

ALEXANDER,  Sir  James  Edward  (1S03- 
1885),  British  soldier,  traveler  and  author.  Served 
in  the  war  against  Burma  (1825);  conducted  an 
exploring  expedition  into  .Africa   1836-18^7. 

ALEXANDER,  Joshua  Willis  (1S52-  ), 
appointed  secretary  of  commerce.  See  \J.  S.  A: 
1919-1920. 

ALEXANDER,  Sir  William  (1567-1640)  See 
America;  Map  of  early  colonial  grants;  New  Eng- 
land:  1621-1631;  Nova  Scotia:   1621-1668. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES  (d.  1245).  English 
theologian  Received  a  doctor's  degree  at  Paris 
where  he  was  a  celebrated  teacher  Hi?  work,  the 
"Summa  Theologiae,"  formulates  a  system  of  edu- 
cation and  is  the  first  philosophical  contribution  of 
the  Franciscan  order,  which  Alexander  had  entered 
in   1222. 


ALEXANDER    JANNAEUS     (d.    76    B.C.), 

king  of  the  Jews.     See  Gaza:   B.  C.   100 

ALEXANDER  KARAGEORGEVICH,  prince- 
regent  of  Serbia  and  successor  of  Peter  I,  as  king  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Jugo-Slavia  (1888-  ); 
distinguished  himself  in  the  national  struggle 
against   .'\ustria   and    Bulgaria,   1914-1918. 

ALEXANDER  NEVSKY,  Saint  (1220-1263), 
grand  duke  of  Vladimir.  Fought  against  Germans, 
Swedes  and  Lithuanians,  who  attacked  Russia 
after  the  Tatar  invasions,  in  1262,  to  prevent  a 
revolt,  induced  the  Tatars  to  lighten  the  yearly 
tribute  and  abolish  military  service  rendered  by  the 
Russians  to  the  Tatars. 

ALEXANDER  OBRENOVICH  (1876-1903), 
king  of  Serbia,  1889-1903;  in  1893  overthrew  the 
regency  and  took  authority  into  his  own  hands 
Restored  the  conservative  constitution  of  i86g 
To  appease  the  people's  anger  at  his  marriage  to  a 
lady  of  the  court,  granted  a  bi-cameral  legisla- 
ture; was  assassinated  with  his  consort  by  revo- 
lutionists, June  II,  1903.    See  Serbia:  1885-190^ 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS  (AD.  209-235). 
Roman  emperor.  Defeated  .\rtaxerxes,  king  of 
Persia;  defended  his  borders  from  the  German  in- 
vaders; killed  in  an  insurrection  in  the  army; 
though  a  pagan,  reverenced  the  teachings  of 
Christianity.     See  Rome:    192-284. 

ALEXANDER-SINCLAIR,  Sir  Edwyn  Sin- 
clair (1867-  ),  Rear-admiral  served  in  battle  of 
Jutland.  See  World  War:  igi6:  IX.  Naval  opera- 
tions: a. 

ALEXANDERSON.  Ernst  Fredrik  'Werner 
(1878-  ).  See  Electrical  discovery:  Telegra- 
phy and  telephony:   Alexanderson  alternator. 

ALEXANDRA  FEODOROVNA,  Princess 
.Mix  of  Hesse  (1872-1918),  last  empress  of  Russia 
through  marriage  to  Tsar  Nicholas  II  in  1894; 
was  a  grand  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria ;  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  Soviet  government,  and  put 
to  death  with  her  husband  and  children.  See  Rus- 
sia:  1916:   Opposition  of  Duma  to  cabinet. 

ALEXANDRETTA,  or  Iskanderun,  a  town  of 
North  Syria,  the  key  to  Beisan  Pass;  scene  of  the 
victory  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1832  which  opened 
Cilicia  to  his  advance. 

1920. — Recognized  as  of  international  interest 
by  treaty  of  Sevres.  See  Sevres,  Treaty  of: 
1020:  Contents  of  treaty:  Part  XI.  Ports,  water- 
ways and  railways 

1921. — French  administration.  See  Sevres,  Treaty 
of:    1921:   Secret  pact  of  France  with  Turkey 

ALEXANDRIA.— B.  C.  332.— Founding  of  the 
city. — "When  Alexander  reached  the  Egyptian 
military  station  at  the  little  town  or  village  of 
Rhakotis,  he  saw  with  the  quick  eye  of  a  great 
commander  how  to  turn  this  petty  settlement  into 
a  great  city,  and  to  make  its  roadstead,  out  of 
which  ships  could  be  blown  by  a  change  of  wind, 
into  a  double  harbour  roomy  enough  to  shelter 
the  navies  of  the  world.  .Ml  that  was  needed  was 
to  join  the  island  by  a  mole  to  the  continent 
The  site  was  admirably  secure  and  convenient,  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  great  inland  Lake  Mareotis.  The  whole 
northern  side  faced  the  two  harbours,  which  were 
bounded  east  and  west  by  the  mole,  and  beyond 
by  the  long,  narrow  rocky  island  of  Pharos, 
stretching  parallel  with  the  coast  On  the  south 
was  the  inland  port  of  Lake  Mareotis  The 
length  of  the  city  was  more  than  three  miles,  the 
breadth  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  mile;  the 
mole  w^  above  thref-quarters  of  a  mile  long  and 
six  hundred  feet  broad;  its  breadth  is  now  doubled, 
owing  to  the  silting  up  of  the  sand.  Modern 
Alexandria   until    lately    only   occupied   the    mole, 

206 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.C.  304 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.C.  282-246 


and  was  a  great  town  in  a  corner  of  the  space 
which  Alexander,  with  large  provision  for  the 
future,  measured  out.  The  form  of  the  new  city 
was  ruled  by  that  of  the  site,  but  the  fancy  of 
Alexander  designed  it  in  the  shape  of  a  Mace- 
donian cloak  or  chlamys,  such  as  a  national  hero 
wears  on  the  coins  of  the  kings  of  Maccdon,  his 
ancestors  The  situation  is  excellent  for  commerce. 
.Alexandria,  with  the  best  Egyptian  harbour  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  inland  port  connected 
with  the  Nile  streams  and  canals,  was  the  natural 
emporium  of  the  Indian  trade.  Port  Said  is  supe- 
rior now,  because  of  its  grand  artificial  port  and 
the  advantage  for  steamships  of  an  unbroken  sea- 
route." — R  S.  Poole,  Cities  oj  Egypt,  ch.  12. — See 
also  Macedonia,  &c.:  B.  C.  334-330;  and  Egypt: 
B.  C.  ir- 

B.  C.  304. — Antigonus  and  Demetrius  make 
war  on  Ptolemy. — Rhodes  sends  fleet  to  aid 
Egyptian  king.    See  Rhodes,  Island  of:  B.  C.  304. 

B.C.  282-246.— Reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
— Greatness  and  splendor  of  the  city. — Com- 
merce. —  Libraries.  —  Museum.  —  Schools.  — 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  son  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Egypt  in  282  B.  C.  when 
his  father  retired  from  it  in  his  favor,  and  reigned 
until  246  B.  C.  "Alexandria,  founded  by  the  great 
conqueror,  increased  and  beautified  by  Ptolemy 
Soter,  was  now  far  the  greatest  city  of  Alexan- 
der's Empire.  It  was  the  first  of  those  new  foun- 
dations which  are  a  marked  feature  in  Hellenism; 
there  were  many  others  of  great  size  and  impor- 
tance— above  all,  Antioch,  then  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris,  then  Nicomedia,  Nica^a,  Apamea,  which 
lasted;  besides  such  as  Lysimacheia,  Antigoneia, 
and  others,  which  early  disappeared,  .  .  .  Alexan- 
dria was  the  model  for  all  the  rest.  The  inter- 
section of  two  great  principal  thoroughfares, 
adorned  with  colonnades  for  the  footways, 
formed  the  centre  point,  the  omphalos  of  the  city. 
The  other  streets  were  at  right  angles  with  these 
thoroughfares,  so  that  the  whole  place  was  quite 
regular.  Counting  its  old  part,  Rhakotis,  which 
was  still  the  habitation  of  native  Egyptians,  Alex- 
andria had  five  quarters,  one  at  least  devoted  to 
Jews  who  had  originally  settled  there  in  great 
numbers.  The  mixed  population  there  of  Mace- 
donians, Greeks,  Jews,  and  Egyptians  gave  a  pe- 
luliarly  complex  and  variable  character  to  the 
population.  Let  us  not  forget  the  vast  number 
of  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  world  whom 
trade  and  politics  brought  there  It  was  the  great 
mart  where  the  wealth  of  Europe  and  of  Asia 
changed  hands.  .Alexander  had  opened  the  sea- 
way by  exploring  the  coasts  of  Media  and  Persia 
Caravans  from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
ships  on  the  Red  Sea,  brought  all  the  wonders  of 
Ceylon  and  China,  as  well  as  of  Further  India,  to 
.Alexandria.  There,  too,  the  wealth  of  Spain  and 
Gaul,  the  produce  of  Italy  and  Macedonia,  the 
amber  of  the  Baltic  and  the  salt  fish  of  Pontus, 
the  silver  of  Spain  and  the  copper  of  Cyprus,  the 
timber  of  Macedonia  and  Crete,  the  pottery  and 
oil  of  Greece — a  thousand  imports  from  all  the 
Mediterranean — came  to  be  exchanged  for  the 
spices  of  Arabia,  the  splendid  birds  and  embroider- 
ies of  India  and  Ceylon,  the  gold  and  ivory  of 
Africa,  the  antelopes,  the  apes,  the  leopards,  the 
elephants  of  tropical  climes.  Hence  the  enormous 
wealth  of  the  Lagidje,  for  in  addition  to  the  mar- 
vellous fertility  and  great  population — it  is  said  to 
have  been  seven  millions — of  Egypt,  they  made  all 
the  profits  of  this  enormous  carrying  trade.  We 
gain  a  good  idea  of  what  the  splendours  of  the 
capital  were  by  the  very  full  account  preserved 
to  us  by  Athenaeus  of  the  great  feast  which  inaugu- 


rated the  reign  of  Philadelphuf.  ...  All  this 
seems  idle  pomp,  and  the  doing  of  an  idle  syba- 
rite. Philadelphus  was  anything  but  that.  ...  It 
was  he  who  opened  up  the  Egyptian  trade  with 
Italy,  and  made  Puteoli  the  great  port  for  ships 
from  Alexandria,  which  it  remained  for  centuries. 
It  was  he  who  explored  Ethiopia  and  the  southern 
parts  of  Africa,  and  brought  back  not  only  the 
curious  fauna  to  his  zoological  gardens,  but  the 
first  knowledge  of  the  Troglodytes  for  men  of 
science.  The  cultivation  of  science  and  of  letters 
too  was  so  remarkably  one  of  his  pursuits  that  the 
progress  of  the  Alexandria  of  his  day  forms  an 
epoch  jn  the  world's  history,  and  we  must  sepa- 
jate  his  University  and  its  professors  from  this 
summary,  and  devote  to  them  a  separate  section. 
.  .  .  The  history  of  the  organization  of  the  Uni- 
versity and  its  staff  is  covered  with  almost  im- 
penetrable mist.  For  the  Museum  and  Library 
were  in  the  strictest  sense  what  we  should  now 
call  an  University,  and  one,  too,  of  the  Oxford 
type,  where  learned  men  were  invited  to  take 
Fellowships,  and  spend  their  learned  leisure  close 
to  observatories  in  science,  and  a  great  library  of 
books.  Like  the  mediaeval  universities,  this  en- 
dowment of  research  naturally  turned  into  an 
engine  for  teaching,  as  all  who  desired  knowledge 
flocked  to  such  a  centre,  and  persuaded  the  Fel- 
low to  become  a  Tutor.  The  model  came  from 
Athens.  There  the  schools,  beginning  with  the 
.Academy  of  Plato,  had  a  fixed  property — a  home 
with  its  surrounding  garden,  and  in  order  to  make 
this  foundation  sure,  it  was  made  a  shrine  where 
the  Muses  were  worshipped,  and  where  the  head 
of  the  school,  or  a  priest  appointed,  performed 
stated  sacrifices.  This,  then,  being  held  in  trust 
by  the  successors  of  the  donor,  who  bequeathed  it 
to  them,  was  a  property  which  it  would  have  been 
sacrilegious  to  invade,  and  so  the  title  Museum 
arose  for  a  school  of  learning.  Demetrius  the 
Phalerean,  the  friend  and  protector  of  Theophras- 
tus,  brought  this  idea  with  him  to  Alexandria, 
when  his  namesake  drove  him  into  exile  and  it  was 
no  doubt  his  advice  to  the  first  Ptolemy  which 
originated  the  great  foundation,  though  Philadel- 
phus, who  again  exiled  Demetrius,  gets  the  credit 
of  it.  The  pupil  of  Aristotle  moreover  impressed 
on  the  king  the  necessity  of  storing  up  in  one 
central  repository  all  that  the  world  knew  or 
could  produce,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  laws  of 
things  from  a  proper  analysis  of  detail.  Hence 
was  founded  not  only  the  great  library,  which  in 
those  days  had  a  thousand  times  the  value  a  great 
library  has  now,  but  also  observatories,  zoologi- 
cal gardens,  collections  of  exotic  plants,  and  of 
other  new  and  strange  things  brought  by  exploring 
expeditions  from  the  furthest  regions  of  Arabia  and 
Africa.  This  library  and  museum  proved  indeed  a 
home  for  the  Muses,  and  about  it  a  most  brilliant 
group  of  students  in  literature  and  science  was 
formed.  The  successive  librarians  were  Zcnodotus, 
the  grammarian  or  critic;  Callimachus,  to  whose 
poems  we  shall  presently  return ;  Eratosthenes,  the 
astronomer,  who  originated  the  process  by  which 
the  size  of  the  earth  is  determined  to-day ;  .Appol- 
lonius  the  Rhodian,  disciple  and  enemy  of  Calli- 
machus; Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  founder  of  a 
school  of  philological  criticism;  and  Aristarchus  of 
Samos,  reputed  to  have  been  the  greatest  critic  of 
ancient  times.  The  study  of  the  text  of  Homer 
was  the  chief  labour  of  Zenodotus,  Aristophanes, 
and  Aristarchus,  and  it  was  Aristarchus  who 
mainly  fixed  the  form  in  which  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  remain  to  this  day.  .  .  The  vast  collec- 
tions of  the  library  and  museum  actually  deter- 
mined   the    whole   character  of    the   literature   of 


207 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.C.  282-246 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.C.  48-47 


Alexandria.  One  word  sums  it  all  up — erudition, 
whether  in  philosophy,  in  criticism,  in  science, 
even  in  poetry.  Strange  to  say,  they  neglected  not 
only  oratory,  for  which  there  was  no  scope,  but 
history,  and  this  we  may  attribute  to  the  fact  that 
history  before  .Alexander  had  no  charms  for  Hel- 
lenism. Mythical  lore,  on  the  oth;r  hand,  strange 
uses  and  curious  words,  were  departments  of  re- 
search dear  to  them.  In  science  they  did  great 
things,  so  did  they  in  geography.  .  .  .  But  weie 
they  original  in  nothing?  Did  they  add  nothmg  of 
their  own  to  the  splendid  record  of  Greek  litera- 
ture? In  the  next  generation  came  the  art  of 
criticism,  which  .Aristarchus  developed  into  a  real 
science,  and  of  that  we  may  speak  in  its*  place; 
but  even  in  this  generation  we  may  claim  for  them 
the  credit  of  three  original,  or  nearly  original,  de- 
velopments in  literature — the  pastoral  idyll,  as  we 
have  it  in  Theocritus;  the  elegy,  as  we  have  it  in 
the  Roman  imitators  of  Philetas  and  Callimachus; 
and  the  romance,  or  love  story,  the  parent  of  our 
modern  novels.  .'\ll  these  had  early  prototypes  in 
the  folk  songs  of  Sicily,  in  the  love  songs  of  Mim- 
nermus  and  of  .^ntimachus,  in  the  tales  of  Miletus, 
but  still  the  revival  was  fairly  to  be  called  origi- 
nal. Of  these  the  pastoral  idyll  was  far  the  most 
remarkable,  and  laid  hold  upon  the  world  for 
ever." — J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Story  of  Alexavder's  em- 
pire, ch.  13-14. — "Tbere  were  two  Libraries  of 
Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies,  the  larger  one  in 
the  quarter  called  the  Bruchium,  and  the  smaller 
one,  named  'the  daughter,'  in  the  Serapeum.  which 
was  situated  in  the  quarter  called  Rhacotis.  The 
former  was  totally  destroyed  in  the  conflagration 
of  the  Bruchium  during  Cssar's  Alexandrian  War 
fsee  below:  48-47  B.  C] ;  but  the  latter,  which  was 
of  great  vahie,  remained  uninjured  (see  J.  Mat- 
ter, Essai  Itistorique  siir  I'Ecole  d'Alexandric,  v.  i, 
p.  133  seg.,  237  seq.).  It  is  not  stated  by  any 
ancient  writer  where  the  collection  of  Pcrgamus 
was  placed,  which  Antony  gave  to  Cleopatra 
(Plutarch,  Anton.,  c.  58)  ;  but  it  is  most  probable 
that  it  was  deposited  in  the  Bruchium,  as  that 
quarter  of  the  city  was  now  without  a  library,  and 
the  queen  was  anxious  to  repair  the  ravage;  occa- 
sioned by  the  civil  war.  If  this  supposition  is  cor- 
rect, two  Alexandrian  libraries  continued  to  exist 
after  the  time  of  Cfesar,  and  this  is  rendered  still 
more  probable  by  the  fact  that  during  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  Bruchium 
was  still  the  literary  quarter  of  .Alexandria.  But  a 
great  change  took  place  in  the  time  of  .■\ureli3n. 
This  Emperor,  in  suppressing  the  revolt  of  Firmus 
in  Egypt,  A.D.  273  [see  below:  273I  is  said  to 
have  destroyed  the  Bruchium :  and  though  this 
statement  is  hardly  to  be  taken  literally,  the 
Bruchium  ceased  from  this  time  to  be  included 
within  the  walls  of  .Mexandria,  and  was  regarded 
only  as  a  suburb  of  the  city.  Whether  the  great 
library  in  the  Bruchium  with  the  museum  and  its 
other  literary  establishments,  perished  at  this  time, 
we  do  not  know;  but  the  Scrapcum  for  the  next 
century  takes  its  place  as  the  literary  quarter  of 
Alexandria,  and  becomes  the  chief  library  in  the 
city.  Hence  later  writers  erroneously  speak  of  the 
Serapeum  as  if  it  had  been  from  the  beginning 
the  great  Alexanddan  library.  .  .  .  Gibbon  seems 
to  think  that  the  whole  of  the  Serapeum  was  de- 
stroyed [38q,  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius — see  below! ;  but  this  was  not  the  case.  It 
would  appear  that  it  was  only  'M'l  sanctuarv  of 
the  god  that  was  levelled  with  the  ground,  and 
that  the  library,  the  halls  and  other  buildings  in 
the  consecrated  ground  remained  standing  long 
afterwards." — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Ronian  empire,  ch.  2S.     Notes  by 


Dr.  William  Smith.- — Concerning  the  reputed  final 
destruction  of  the  library  by  the  Moslems,  see 
below;  A.D.  641-646. — See  also  Education:  An- 
cient: .Alexandria;  Europe;  Historic  period;  Spread 
of  Hellenism;  Hellenism:  Hellenism  and  Alexan- 
dria; iNVExnoNs:  Greek;  Libraries:  Ancient  Alex- 
andria;  Painting:    Greek. 

.Also  in:  O.  Delepierre,  Historical  difficulties 
and  contested  events,  ch.  3. — S.  Sharpe,  History  of 
l^Sypty  <"''•  7'  8  and  12. 

"If  we  consider  in  its  large  features  what  the 
early  Hellenistic  period  has  done  for  us  in  litera- 
ture, we  may  divide  its  action  into  the  care  and 
preservation  of  Hellenic  masterpieces,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  works  of  its  own.  .As  regards  the 
former,  there  can  be  no  douiit  that  the  creation  of 
the  great  cosmopolitan  library  at  .Alexandria,  and 
the  great  trade  in  books  which  came  thence,  were 
the  greatest  acts  of  protection  ever  done  for  the 
greatest  literature  the  world  has  seen.  And  not 
only  were  all  the  masterpieces  of  the  Golden  .Age 
sought  out  and  catalogued,  but  the  chief  librarian 
made  it  his  business  to  publish  critical  studies  on 
the  purity  of  the  texts,  and  to  see  that  the  .Alex- 
andrian text  represented  the  best  and  soundest  tra- 
dition. ...  So  there  was  collected  at  this  wonder- 
ful library  all  that  was  rare  and  precious,  ordered 
and  catalogued  by  competent  scholars.  I  go  a 
step  farther,  and  say  that,  though  we  have  no 
explicit  record  telling  us  the  fact,  there  must  have 
been  some  regular  permission  to  copv  books  in  the 
library,  and,  multiplying  them  by  slave  hands,  to 
disperse  them  by  way  of  trade  all  over  the  Greek- 
speaking  world." — See  also  Greece,  Literature  of: 
Development  of  philosophical  Ulerature. — "We  have 
from  Alexandria,  Theocritus,  and  we  have  the  love- 
novel.  I  will  here  add  a  word  upon  two  more  of 
these  poets.  .  .  .  The  first  is  Aratus,  who  was  in- 
deed a  Hellenistic,  but  not  an  .Alexandrian,  poet, 
whose  didactic  work  on  the  astronomy  of  use  for 
navigation,  and  on  the  signs  of  the  weather  of 
use  for  farming,  has  survived  to  us  complete.  .  .  . 
Wc  still  possess  the  Argonautics  of  ApoUonius  the 
Rhodian — a  pedant-poet  of  the  same  generation. 
In  the  midst  of  pages  of  tedious  prolixity,  which 
have  forever  damned  the  popularity  of  the  work, 
occurs  the  great  episode  of  the  meeting  and  love 
at  first  sight  of  Medea  and  Jason.  The  treat- 
ment of  this  world-w'ide,  but  never  world-worn, 
theme  is  so  wholly  fresh,  so  wholly  un-Hellenic, 
that  it  requires  no  subtle  criticism  to  see  in  it  the 
broad  light  of  the  oriental  love-novel  which  had 
first  dawned  in  the  East  upon  the  companions  of 
.Alexander.  It  is  no  longer  the  physical,  but  the 
sentimental  side  of  that  passion  which  interests  the 
poet  and  his  readers.  The  actual  marriage  of  the 
lovers  is  but  an  episode,  in  which  the  surrounding 
anxieties  and  the  unhappy  omens  take  the  foremost 
place." — J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Story  of  Alexander's  em- 
pire, p.  100. 

B.C.  48-47. — Caesar  and  Cleopatra. — Rising 
against  the  Romans. — Siege. — Destruction  of  the 
great  library. — Roman  victory. — From  the  battle 
field  of  Pharsalia  Pompey  fled  to  .Alexandria  tn 
Egypt,  and  was  treacherously  murdered  as  he 
stepped  on  shore.  C<esar  arrived  a  few  days  after- 
wards, in  close  pursuit,  and  shed  tears,  it  is  said, 
on  being  shown  his  rival's  mangled  head.  He  had 
brought  scarcely  more  than  3,000  of  his  soldiers 
with  him,  and  he  found  Egypt  in  a  turbulent  state 
of  civil  war.  The  throne  was  in  dispute  between 
children  of  the  late  king,  Ptolemaeus  Auletes. 
Cleopatra,  the  elder  daughter,  and  Ptolemaeus,  a 
son,  were  at  war  with  one  another,  and  Arsinoe. 
a  younger  daughter,  was  ready  to  put  forward 
claims.     Notwithstanding   the  insignificance  of  his 


208 


ALEXANDRIA,  A.  D.  100-312 


ALEXANDRIA,  A.  D.  389 


force,  Caesar  did  not  hesitate  to  assOme  to  occupy 
Alexandria  and  to  adjudicate  the  dispute.  But  the 
fascinations  of  Cleopatra  (then  twenty  years  of 
age)  soon  made  him  her  partisan,  and  her  scarcely 
disguised  lover.  This  aggravated  the  irritation 
which  was  caused  in  Alexandria  by  the  presence  of 
Cjesar's  troops,  and  a  furious  rising  of  the  city 
was  provoked.  He  fortified  himself  in  the  great 
palace,  which  he  had  taken  possession  of,  and 
which  commanded  the  causeway  to  the  island, 
Pharos,  thereby  commanding  the  port.  Destroy- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  city  in  that  neighborhood, 
he  made  his  position  exceedingly  strong.  At  the 
same  time  he  seized  and  burned  the  royal  fleet,  and 
thus  caused  a  conflagration  in  which  the  greater  of 
the  two  priceless  libraries  of  Alexandria — the 
library  of  the  Museum — was,  much  of  it,  con- 
sumed. [See  above;  B.C.  282-246.]  By  such 
"measures  Caesar  withstood,  for  several  months,  a 
siege  conducted  on  the  part  of  the  Alexandrians 
with  great  determination  and  animosity.  It  was 
not  until  March',  47  B.C.,  that  he  was  relieved 
from  his  dangerous  situation,  by  the  arrival  of  a 
faithful  ally,  in  the  person  of  Mithradates,  of 
Pergamum,  who  led  an  army  into  Egypt,  reduced 
Pelusium,  and  crossed  the  Nile  at  the  head  of  the 
Delta.  Ptolemffius  advanced  with  his  troops  to 
meet  this  new  invader  and  was  followed  and  over- 
taken by  Caesar.  In  the  battle  which  then  oc- 
curred the  Egyptian  army  was  utterly  routed  and 
Ptolemeeus  perished  in  the  Nile.  Cleopatra  was 
then  married,  after  the  Egyptian  fashion,  to  a 
younger  brother,  and  established  on  the  throne, 
while  Arsinoe  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome. — A. 
Hirtius,  Alexandrian  war. 

A.  D.  100-312. — Early  Christian  church. — Its 
influence.  See  CuRisn.^NiTv;  33-100:  Rise  of  the 
churches:  Alexandria,  also  100-312:  Period  of 
growth  and  struggle:   Alexandria. 

116. — Destruction  of  the  Jews.    See  Jews:  116. 

215. — Massacre  by  Caracalla. — "Caracalla  was 
the  common  enemy  of  mankind.  He  left  the  capi- 
tal (and  he  never  returned  to  it)  about  a  year 
after  the  murder  of  Geta  [213].  The  rest  of  his 
reign  [four  years]  was  spent  in  the  several 
provinces  of  the  Empire,  particularly  those  of  the 
East,  and  every  province  was,  by  turns,  the  scene 
of  his  rapine  and  cruelty.  ...  In  the  midst  of 
peace,  and  upon  the  slightest  provocation,  he  issued 
his  commands  at  Alexandria,  Egypt  [215],  for  a 
general  massacre.  From  a  secure  post  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Serapis,  he  viewed  and  directed  the  slaugh- 
ter of  many  thousand  citizens,  as  well  as  stran- 
gers, without  distinguishing  either  the  number  or 
the  crime  of  the  sufferers." — E.  Gibbon,  History 
of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  6. 

260-272. — Tumults  of  the  third  century. — 
"The  people  of  Alexandria,  a  various  mixture  of 
nations,  united  the  vanity  and  inconstancy  of  the 
Greeks  with  the  superstition  and  obstinacy  of  the 
Egyptians.  The  most  trifling  occasion,  a  transient 
scarcity  of  flesh  or  lentils,  the  neglect  of  an  accus- 
tomed salutation,  a  mistake  of  precedency  in  the 
public  baths,  or  even  a  religious  dispute,  were  at 
any  time  sufficient  to  kindle  a  sedition  among  that 
vast  multitude,  whose  resentments  were  furious 
and  implacable.  After  the  captivity  of  Valerian 
[the  Roman  emperor,  made  prisoner  by  Sapor, 
king  of  Persia,  260]  and  the  insolence  of  his  son 
had  relaxed  the  authority  of  the  laws,  the  Alex- 
andrians abandoned  themselves  to  the  ungoverned 
rage  of  their  passions,  and  their  unhappy  country 
was  the  theatre  of  a  civil  war,  Vv'hich  continued 
(with  a  few  short  and  suspicious  truces)  above 
twelve  years.  All  intercourse  was  cut  off  between 
the    several    quarters    of    the    afflicted   city,   every 


street  was  polluted  with  blood,  every  building  of 
strength  converted  into  a  citadel;  nor  did  the 
tumult  subside  till  a  considerable  part  of  .Mexan- 
dria  was  irretrievably  ruined.  The  spacious  and 
magnificent  district  of  Bruchion,  with  its  palaces 
and  museum,  the  residence  of  the  kings  and  phi- 
losophers of  Egypt,  is  described,  above  a  century 
afterwards,  as  already  reduced  to  its  present  state 
of  dreary  solitude." — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the 
decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  10. 

273. — Destruction  of  the  Bruchium  by  Aure- 
lian. — After  subduing  Palmyra  and  its  queen  Ze- 
nobia,  272,  the  emperor  Aurclian  was  called  into 
Egypt  to  put  down  a  rebellion  there,  headed  by 
one  Firmus,  a  friend  and  ally  of  the  Palmyrene 
queen.  Firmus  had  great  wealth,  derived  from 
trade,  and  from  the  paper-manufacture  of  Egypt, 
which  was  mostly  in  his  hands.  He  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death.  "To  Aurelian's  war  against 
Firmus,  or  to  that  of  Probus  a  little  before  in 
Egypt,  may  be  referred  the  destruction  of  Bru- 
chium, a  great  quarter  of  Alexandria,  which  ac- 
cording to  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  was  ruined  un- 
der Aurelian  and  remained  deserted  ever  after." — 
J.  B.  L,  Crevier,  History  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
bk.  27. 

296. — Siege  by  Diocletian. — A  general  revolt 
of  the  African  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire 
occurred  206.  The  barbarous  tribes  of  Ethiopia 
and  the  desert  were  brought  into  alliance  with  the 
provincials  of  Egypt,  Cyrenaica,  Carthage  and 
Mauretania,  and  the  flame  of  war  was  universal. 
Both  the  emperors  of  the  time,  Diocletian  and 
Maximian,  were  called  to  the  African  field.  "Dio- 
cletian, on  his  side,  opened  the  campaign  in  Egypt 
by  the  siege  of  Alexandria,  cut  off  the  aqueducts 
which  conveyed  the  waters  of  the  Nile  into  every 
quarter  of  that  immense  city,  and,  rendering  his 
camp  impregnable  to  the  sallies  of  the  besieged 
multitude,  he  pushed  his  reiterated  attacks  with 
caution  and  vigor.  After  a  siege  of  eight  months, 
Alexandria,  wasted  by  the  sword  and  by  fire,  im- 
plored the  clemency  of  the  conqueror,  but  it  ex- 
perienced the  full  extent  of  his  severity.  Many 
thousands  of  the  citizens  perished  in  a  promiscu- 
ous slaughter,  and  there  were  few  obnoxious  per- 
sons in  Egypt  who  escaped  a  sentence  either  of 
death  or  at  least  of  exile.  The  fate  of  Busiris 
and  of  Coptos  was  still  more  melancholy  than  that 
of  Alexandria;  those  proud  cities  .  .  .  were  utterly 
destroyed." — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  13. 

389. — Destruction  of  the  Serapeum. — "After 
the  edicts  of  Theodosius  had  severely  prohibited 
the  sacrifices  of  the  pagans,  they  were  still  toler- 
ated in  the  city  and  temple  of  Serapis.  .  .  .  The 
archepiscopal  throne  of  Alexandria  was  filled  by 
Thcophilus,  the  perpetual  enemy  of  peace  and 
virtue;  a  bold,  bad  man,  whose  hands  were  al- 
ternately polluted  with  gold  and  with  blood.  His 
pious  indignation  was  excited  by  the  honours  of 
Serapis.  .  .  .  The  votaries  of  Serapis,  whose 
strength  and  numbers  were  much  inferior  to  those 
of  their  antagonists,  rose  in  arms  [380]  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  philosopher  Olympius,  who  ex- 
horted them  to  die  in  the  defence  of  the  altars  of 
the  gods.  These  pagan  fanatics  fortified  them- 
selves in  the  temple,  or  rather  fortress,  of  Serapis; 
repelled  the  besiegers  by  daring  sallies  and  a  reso- 
lute defence;  and,  by  the  inhuman  cruelties  which 
they  exercised  on  their  Christian  prisoners,  obtained 
the  last  consolation  of  despair.  The  efforts  of  the 
prudent  magistrate  were  usefully  exerted  for  the 
establishment  of  a  truce  till  the  answer  of  Theo- 
dosius should  determine  the  fate  of  Serapis."  The 
judgment    of    the    emperor   condemned   the   great 


209 


ALEXANDRIA,  413-1882 


ALEXEIEV 


temple  to  destruction  and  it  was  reduced  to  a  heap 
of  ruins.  "The  valuable  library  of  Alexandria 
was  pillaged  or  destroyed ;  and,  near  twenty  years 
afterwards,  the  appearance  of  the  empty  shelves 
excited  the  regret  and  indignation  of  every  spec- 
tator whose  mind  was  not  totally  darkened  by  re- 
ligious prejudice." — E.  Gibbon,  History  of  the  de- 
cline and  Jail  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  28. — Gib- 
bon's statement  as  to  the  destruction  of  the  great 
library  in  the  Serapeum  is  called  in  question  by 
his  learned  annotator,  Dr.  Smith.  See  above,  B.  C. 
282-246. 

413-415. — Patriarch  Cyril  and  his  mobs. — 
"His  voice  [that  of  Cyril,  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
412-444]  inflamed  or  appeased  the  passions  of  the 
multitude:  his  commands  were  blindly  obeyed  by 
his  numerous  and  fanatic  parabolani,  familiarized 
in  their  daily  office  with  scenes  of  death ;  and  the 
prjefects  of  Egypt  were  awed  or  provoked  by  the 
temporal  power  of  these  Christian  pontiffs.  Ar- 
dent in  the  prosecution  of  heresy,  Cyril  auspi- 
ciously opened  his  reign  by  oppressing  the  No- 
vations, the  most  innocent  and  harmless  of  the 
sectaries.  .  .  .  The  toleration,  and  even  the  priv- 
ileges of  the  Jews,  who  had  multiplied  to  the 
number  of  40,000,  were  secured  by  the  laws  of 
the  Cssars  and  Ptolemies,  and  a  long  prescription 
of  700  years  since  the  foundation  of  Alexandria. 
Without  any  legal  sentence,  without  any  royal 
mandate,  the  patriarch,  at  the  dawn  of  d.ay,  led 
a  seditious  multitude  to  the  attack  of  the  syna- 
gogues. Unarmed  and  unprepared,  the  Jews  were 
incapable  of  resistance :  their  houses  of  prayer 
were  levelled  with  the  ground,  .ind  the  episcopal 
warrior,  after  rewarding  his  troops  with  the  plun- 
der of  their  goods,  expelled  from  the  city  the 
remnant  of  the  misbelieving  nation.  Perhaps  he 
might  plead  the  insolence  of  their  prosperity,  and 
their  deadly  hatred  of  the  Christians,  whose  blood 
they  had  recently  shed  in  a  malicious  or  accidental 
tumult.  Such  crimes  would  have  deserved  the 
animadversions  of  the  magistrate;  but  m  this  pro- 
miscuous outrage  the  innocent  were  confounded 
with  the  guilty." — E.  Gibbon,  Hilary  of  the  de- 
dine  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  47.— "Be- 
fore long  the  adherents  of  the  archbishop  were 
guilty  of  a  more  atrocious  and  unprovoked  crime, 
of  the  guilt  of  which  a  deep  suspicion  attached  to 
Cyril.  All  Alexandria  respected,  honoured,  took 
pride  in  the  celebrated  Hypatia.  She  was  a  woman 
of  extraordinary  learning ;  in  her  was  centred  the 
lingering  knowledge  of  that  Alexandrian  Platonism 
cultivated  by  Plotinus  and  his  school.  Her  beauty 
was  equal  to  her  learning;  her  modesty  commended 
both.  .  .  .  Hypatia  lived  in  great  intimacy  with 
the  praefect  Orestes ;  the  only  charge  whispered 
against  her  was  that  she  encouraged  him  in  his 
hostility  to  the  patriarch.  .  .  .  Some  of  Cyril's 
ferocious  partisans  seized  this  woman,  dragged  her 
from  her  chariot,  and  with  the  most  revolting  in- 
decency tore  her  clothes  off  and  then  rent  her 
limb  from  limb." — H.  H.  Milman,  History  of  Latin 
Christianity,  bk.  2,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:   C.  Kingsley,  Hypatia. 

641-646. — Moslem  conquest. — The  precise  date 
of  events  in  the  Moslem  conquest  of  Egypt,  by 
.Amru,  lieutenant  of  the  Caliph  Omar,  is  uncertain. 
Sir  WiUiam  Muir  fixes  the  first  surrender  of  .Alex- 
andria to  Amru  in  641.  .After  that  it  was  reoccu- 
pied  by  the  Byzantines  either  once  or  twice,  on 
occasions  of  neglect  by  the  .Arabs,  .is  they  pur- 
sued their  conquests  elsewhere.  The  probability 
seems  to  be  that  this  occurred  only  once,  in  646. 
Tt  seems  also  probable,  a?  remarked  bv  Sir  William 
Muir,  that  the  two  sieges  on  the  taking  and  re- 
taking of  the  city — 641  and  646 — have  been  much 


confused  in  the  scanty  accounts  which  have  come 
down  to  us  On  the  first  occasion  Alexandria  would 
appear  to  have  been  generously  treated ;  while,  on 
the  second,  it  suffered  pillage  and  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed.  How  far  there  is  truth  in  the 
commonly  accepted  story  of  the  deliberate  burn- 
ing of  the  great  Alexandrian  library — or  so  much 
of  it  as  had  escaped  destruction  at  the  hands  of 
Roman  generals  and  Christian  patriarchs — is  a 
question  still  in  dispute.  Gibbon  discredited  the 
story,  and  Sir  William  Muir,  the  latest  of  students 
in  Mohammedan  history,  declines  even  the  men- 
tion of  it  in  his  narrative  of  the  conquest  of 
Egypt.  But  other  historians  of  repute  maintain 
the  probable  accuracy  of  the  talc  told  by  \h\i\- 
pharagus — that  Caliph  Omar  ordered  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  library,  on  the  ground  that,  if  the  books 
in  it  agreed  with  the  Koran  they  were  useless,  it 
they  disagreed  with  it  they  were  pernicious.  Sec 
Caliphate:  640-646. 

829.— Translation  of  the  body  of  St.  Mark  to 
Venice.     See  Venice:   820. 

llth-15th  centuries.— Trade.  See  Commerce: 
Medieval:    iith-ihth  centuries. 

1798. — Captured  by  the  French  under  Bona- 
parte.    See  France:   1708   (May-Auuust) . 

1801-1802.— Battle  of  French  and  English.— 
Restoration  to  the  Turks.  See  France:  1801- 
1802. 

1807.— Surrendered  to  the  English.— Brief 
occupation  and  humiliating  capitulation.  See 
Turkey:    1806-1807. 

1840. — Bombardment  by  the  English.  See 
Titrkey,  1831-1840. 

1882. — Bombardment  by  the  English  fleet. — 
Massacre  of  Europeans.  —  Destruction.  See 
Egypt:    1875-1882;    1882-1883. 

ALEXANDRIA,  University  of.  See  Alexan- 
dria:  B.  C.  282-246. 

ALEXANDRIA,  Library  of.  See  Alexandria: 
B.C.  282-246. 

ALEXANDRIA,  LA.,  Burning  of.  See  U.  S.  A'.: 

1864  (March-May;  Louisiana). 
ALEXANDRIA,  VA.:  1861  (May).— Occupa- 
tion by  Union  troops. — Murder  of  Colonel  Ells- 
worth.    See  U.  S.  .\.:   1861    (May:   Virginia). 

1861  (July). — Alexandria  government. — After 
the  secession  of  Virginia  in  1861,  unionist  delegates 
meeting  at  Wheeling  set  up  on  July  i  a  "reorgan- 
ized state  government"  which  was  recognized  by 
Congress.  Its  governor  was  Francis  H.  Pierpont. 
.After  the  admission  of  West  Virginia  as  a  separate 
state  (June  20,  i86.^1,  the  capital  of  the  unionist 
government  of  Virginia  was  transferred  to  Alex- 
andria, where  Governor  Pierpont  asserted  juris- 
diction over  all  the  counties  of  Virginia  lying 
within  the  federal  lines.  This  "Alexandria  gov- 
ernment" continued  until  the  close  of  the  war  in 

1865  when  a  new  state  government  was  set  up  at 
Richmond. 

ALEXANDRINE  SCHOOL.  See  Eclecti- 
cism. 

ALEXANDROPOL,  a  Russian  town  and  for- 
tified camp  in  Transcaucasia,  the  scene  of  the  de- 
feat of  the  Turks  by  the  Russians  in  1853.  In 
iQio,  an  important  center  for  American  relief 
work  in  the  Near  East. 

ALEXEIEV,  Eugene  Ivanovitch,  Count 
(1845-  ),  Russian  admiral  and  the  tsar's  viceroy 
in  the  Far  East.  Regarded  as  responsible  for  pre- 
cipitating the  Russo-Japanese  War  (1Q04)  through 
his  aggressive  policy  in  seeking  valuable  conces- 
sions in  Korea;  established  his  headquarters  at 
Port  .Arthur  when  the  Japanese  suddenly  attacked, 
opening  hostilities  without  a  declaration  of 
war. 


210 


ALEXEIEV 


ALFRED,  THE  GREAT 


ALEXEIEV,  M.  V.  (1843-  ),  Russian  gen- 
eral. Commander  of  the  3d  Army  in  Manchuria, 
Russo-Japanese  War,  and  chief  of  headquarters 
staff ;  commander  of  one  of  the  Russian  armies  in 
the  World  War;  chief  of  staff  under  the  tsar  when 
the  latter  took  personal  command  in  September, 
1915;  with  other  generals  secured  the  abdication 
of  the  tsar  at  Pskov,  March  15,  iqi?;  commander- 
in-chief  under  Kerensky's  provisional  government ; 
succeeded  by  Brussilov  in  June,  iqi",  Rerensky  at 
the  time,  as  minister  of  war,  endeavoring  to  rally 
the  troops  for  what  proved  to  be  a  short-lived 
offensive. — See  also  Russia:  1918-1920;  World 
War:    1916:    III.  Eastern   front:    a. 

ALEXIS,  tsar  of  Russia.    See  Alexius  Mik- 

HAILOVITCH. 

ALEXIUS  I,  Comnenus  (1048-1118),  son  of 
John  Comnenus,  brother  of  the  emperor  Isaac 
Comnenus.  In  loSi  with  the  aid  of  soldiery,  sup- 
planted the  old  and  feeble  emperor  Nicephorus  Bo- 
tantiates,  who  retired  to  a  monastery.  Was  By- 
zantine emperor  from  108 1  to  11 18,  and  during 
that  time  successfully  defended  his  empire  against 
the  Petchenegs,  the  Turks  and  the  Normans.  The 
first  Crusade  also  occurred  during  his  reign ;  he 
used  the  Crusaders  as  his  instruments  to  recon- 
quer the  islands  and  coast?  of  Asia  Minor  from 
the  Turks. — See  also  Byzantine  empire:  1081- 
1085;  Crusades:  1096-iooq;  Venice:  iooq-iioi. 

Alexius  II,  Comnenus  (1167-1183),  Byzan- 
tine emperor  from  1180  to  11S3,  having  succeeded 
his  father  Manuel  I.  Was  strangled  by  his  uncle, 
Andronicus. 

Alexius  III,  Angelus  (d.  12 10),  brother  of 
Isaac  II,  Byzantine  emperor,  whose  throne  he 
usurped  in  iiQS;  was  emperor  until  1203,  when  an 
army  of  Crusaders  besieged  and  captured  Con- 
stantinople, deposed  him,  and  reinstated  Isaac  II. 
Alexius  died  a  few  years  later  in  exile. — S^e  also 
Byzantine  empire:   1203-1204. 

Alexius  IV,  Angelus  (d.  1204),  Byzantine 
emperor  1203- 1204,  son  of  Isaac  II,  Angelus.  Was 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  government ;  put 
to  death  by  Alexius  V  after  a  reign  of  six  months. 

Alexius  V,  (d.  1204),  surnamed  Ducas  Murt- 
zuphlos,  became  Byzantine  emperor  in  1204  after 
the  death  of  Alexius  IV  by  usurping  the  throne, 
but  was  driven  from  Constantinople  by  the  Cru- 
saders, who  had  resolved  to  partition  the  empire. 
He  fled  to  Morea  where  he  was  seized,  tried  for 
the  murder  of  Alexius  IV,  and  executed. 

ALEXIUS  COMNENUS  (1180-1222),  a 
grandson  of  Andronicus  I.  In  1204,  while  the 
Crusaders  were  besieging  Constantinople,  he  cap- 
tured Trebizond,  and  some  other  cities  on  the 
Black  sea.  He  took  the  title  of  Grand  Comnenus, 
and  became  governor  or  duke  of  Trebizond.  His 
family  ruled  there  for  two  and  a  half  centuries, 
his  grandson  having  assumed  the  title  of  emperor. 
— See  also  Trebizond:    i204-i4bi. 

ALEXIUS  MIKHAILOVITCH  (1629-1676), 
second  Russian  tsar  of  the  Romanoff  line;  son  of 
Michael  Romanoff,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1645. 
Early  part  of  his  reign  was  stormy,  due  to  his 
youthfulness,  but  in  ten  years  he  quelled  all  in- 
surrections; waged  war  on  Poland  from  1654  to 
1667,  acquiring  possession  of  Smolensk  and  east- 
ern Ukraine.  In  a  war  with  Sweden  from  1655  to 
1658  he  conquered  a  part  of  Livonia  and  Inger- 
manland.  but  by  the  treaty  of  Kardis  of  June  21, 
1661,  he  had  to  relinquish  this  territory.  He  also 
extended  his  conquests  to  eastern  Siberia,  codified 
the  laws  of  the  various  provinces  of  Russia,  and 
began  to  introduce  European  civilization,  thus 
paving  the  way  for  his  son,  Peter  the  Great.- — See 
also  Russia:  1645-1675. 


ALEXIUS  PETROVITCH  (1690-1718),  eld- 
est son  of  Peter  the  Great ;  entered  a  monastery 
rather  than  acquiesce  in  Peter's  reforms  and  in- 
novations; was  disinherited  in  1718  and  con- 
demned to  death  after  an  investigation  followed  by 
the  discovery  of  a  conspiracy  to  undo  the  re- 
forms of  Peter.  Soon  afterward  he  was  par- 
doned, but  the  terror  and  agitation  of  the  trial, 
and  the  torture  to  which  he  had  been  subjected,  led 
to  his  death  in  1718.  To  avoid  scandal,  Peter  pub- 
lished the  proceedings  of  the  trial. 

ALEXSINAC:  Occupied  by  Bulgarians.  See 
World  War:   1915:  V.  Balkans;  b,  4. 

ALFARO,  Eloy,  General,  president  of  Ecuador, 
1897-1001.     See  Ecuador:   1888-1899. 

ALFIERI,  Vittorio  Amadeo  (1749-1803),  Ital- 
ian dramatist.    See  Italian  literature:   1710-1890 

ALFONSO  I,  king  of  Aragon  and  Navarre, 
1104-1134.    See  Aragon. 

Alfonso  II,  king  of  Aragon,  1162-1196.  See 
Aragon. 

Alfonso  III,  king  of  Aragon,  1285-1291.  Sec 
Cortes. 

Alfonso  IV,  king  of  Aragon,  1327-1336. 

Alfonso  V,  king  of  Aragon  and  I  as  king  of 
Sicily,  1416-1458;  I  of  Naples,  1443-1458.  See 
Italy:   1412-1447. 

Alfonso  I,  king  of  Castile,  1072-1109  and  VI  of 
Leon,  1065-1109. 

Alfonso  II,  king  of  Castile,  1126-1157. 

Alfonso   III,  king   of   Castile,   1158-1214. 

Alfonso  I,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo,  739-757.     See  Spain:    713-950. 

Alfonso  II,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo   791-842. 

Alfonso  III,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo,  866-910. 

Alfonso  IV,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo,  925-930. 

Alfonso  V,  king  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias,  or 
Oviedo,  999-1027. 

Alfonso  VI,  king  of  Leon,  1065-1109,  and  I,  as 
king  of  Castile,  1072-1109. 

Alfonso  VII,  king  of  Leon,  1109-1126  and  I,  as 
king  of  Aragon. 

Alfonso  VIII,  king  of  Leon,  1126-1157. 

Alfonso  IX,  king  of  Leon,  1 188-1230. 

Alfonso  X,  king  of  Leon  and  Castile,  1252- 
1284.    See  Cadiz:  1262;  Cortes;  Spain:  1248-1350. 

Alfonso  XI,  king  of  Leon  and  Castile,  13 12- 
1350. 

Alfonso  II,  king  of  Naples,   1494-1495. 

Alfonso  I  (Alfonso  Henriques)  (1094-1185), 
king  of  Portugal,  1112-1185.    See  Portugal:  1095- 

1325- 

Alfonso  II,  king  of  Portugal,  1211-1223.  See 
Portugal:    1095-1325. 

Alfonso  III,  king  of  Portugal,  1248-1279.  See 
Portugal:   1095-1325. 

Alfonso  IV,  king  of  Portugal,  I325-I3S7- 

Alfonso   V,  king  of  Portugal,   1439-1481. 

Alfonso  VI,  king  of  Portugal,  1656-1667. 

Alfonso  I,  king  of  Sicily,  1416-1458. 

Alfonso  XII,  king  of  Spain,  1874-1885.  See 
Spain:   1S74-18S5. 

Alfonso  XIII  (1886-  ),  king  of  Spain. 
Born  a  king,  being  the  posthumous  son  of  Alfonso 
XII ;  he  assumed  the  duties  of  a  constitutional 
monarch  in  1902  at  the  age  of  16.  In  iqo6  he  mar- 
ried Princess  Victoria  Ena  of  Battenberg,  niece  of 
Edward  VII  of  England.  See  Spain:  1885-1896; 
1902-1906;  1914-1918. 

ALFORD,  Battle  of  (1645).  See  Scotland: 
1644-1645. 

ALFRED,  the  Great  (848-900),  king  of  Wessex, 
871-900.     He  repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Danes. 


211 


ALFRED   UNIVERSITY 


ALGERIA 


in  a  battle  at  Edington  in  Wiltshire,  878,  thereby 
promoting  the  consoUdation  of  the  country.  He 
furthered  the  spread  of  learning  by  translations 
of  books  on  history  and  philosophy  from  the  Latin 
and  the  initiation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 
— See  also  Bible,  English:  8th- nth  centuries;  Ed- 
ucation: Medieval:  871-qoo;  England:  King  Al- 
fred; Engl.^nd:  855-8S0;  English  literature: 
bth-iith  centuries. 

ALFRED  UNIVERSITY,  a  non-sectarian, 
coeducational,  American  university  at  Alfred,  N.  Y. 
Chattered  in  1S57.  Has  sixteen  university  build- 
ings, including  a  new  Carnegie  library.  Depart- 
ments of  industrial  mechanics,  theology,  music,  fine 
arts.  Has  state  school  of  clayworking  and  cera- 
mics and  state  school  of  agriculture.  Presidents  of 
the  university  have  been  William  Kenyon,  Jona- 
than Allen,  Arthur  Elwin  Main  and  Boothe  Cowell 
Davis. 

ALFUROS.     See  Celebes. 

ALGARDI,  Ale^sandro  (1602-16S4),  Italian 
sculptor.  The  statue  of  San  Filippo  Neri,  the 
Villa  Doria  Pamfili,  the  monument  of  Leo  XI,  a 
bronze  statute  of  Innocent  X,  and  La  Fuega  d'At- 
tila  mark  the  high  points  of  his  career. 

ALGAU,  Battle  of  (1525).  See  Germany: 
1524-1525. 

ALGEBRA  is  a  branch  of  mathematics  which 
treats  of  the  relation  of  quantities  by  means  of 
letters  and  symbols.  The  word  is  of  Arabic 
origin.  First  mention  of  algebra  is  found  in  a 
work  called  ilm  al-jebr  wa'l-muqabala.  by  Mo- 
hammed ben  musa  al-Khowarizmi,  who  lived  in 
the  ninth  century.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a 
celebrated  Moorish  savant  by  the  name  of  Geber, 
living  in  the  eleventh  century,  was  at  one  time 
believed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  algebra. 
Proof,  however,  exists  that  the  subject  was 
treated  as  early  as  1700  B.  C.  by  Ahmes,  an 
Egyptian.  The  invention  of  algebra  was  at  one 
time  attributed  to  the  Greeks;  but  this  theory 
has  been  discarded  since  Eisenlohr's  decipherment 
of  the  "Rhind  papyrus,"  inasmuch  as  distinct 
signs  of  an  algebraic  analysis  are  in  evidence  in 
this  work.  Egyptian  algebra  was  probably  of  an 
elementary  type,  as  Greek  geometers  ignore  the 
subject.  The  earliest  work  on  algebra,  which  ex- 
ists only  in  translation,  is  by  Diophantus  (about 
350  A.  D.),  an  Alexandrian  mathematician,  who 
probably  followed  earlier  investigators.  It  was 
the  Hindus,  however,  who  extended  the  scope  of 
algebra.  They  evolved  a  method  of  solving  de- 
terminate equations,  and  made  even  greater  prog- 
ress in  their  treatment  of  indeterminate  equations 
of  the  first  and  second  degrees.  Aryabhatta  is  the 
mathematician  who  is  generally  recognized  as  the 
man  responsible  for  this  extended  study  of  the  sub- 
ject. Hankel  credits  the  Brahmans  with  being 
the  real  inventors  of  algebra.  With  regard  to  the 
Arabs  in  the  west,  Cordova,  the  capital  of  the 
Moorish  empire  in  Spain,  like  Bagdad  in  the  east, 
became  a  center  of  learning,  particularly  along 
mathematical  lines.  The  most  famous  Spanish 
mathematician  is  Al  Madshritti  (1007),  who  con- 
tributed an  excellent  dissertation  on  amicable  num- 
bers. Following  the  decline  of  the  Moorish  em- 
pire, the  Arabs  in  the  west  failed  to  produce  an- 
other mathematician  comparable  with  the  bril- 
liant minds  of  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  centu- 
ries. Leonardo  of  Pisa,  an  Italian  merchant,  in 
1202,  published  a  work  called  "Liber  abaci,"  thus 
bringing  algebra  into  Christendom.  Contempor- 
aneously with  this  (Pisa's)  historic  achievement 
the  popularity  of  algebra  spread  ta  Germany, 
France,  and  England.  The  writings  of  the  German 
mathematicians,  Michael  Stifel  and  Johann  Scheu- 


belius  (Scheybl,  1494-1570),  are  marked  by  the 
fact  that  they  introduced  into  the  field  of  algebra 
a  more  complete  symbolism  for  quantities  and  op- 
erations. It  was  in  consequence  of  their  work 
that  the  sign  (  +  )  for  addition  or  a  positive  quan- 
tity, the  sign  ( — )  for  subtraction  or  the  minus 
quantity,  and  ( V )  for  denoting  the  square  root, 
were  aciopted  and  are  still  in  use  to-day.  In  1552 
Robert  Recorde  published  the  first  treatise  on  al- 
gebra in  English.  He  it  was  who  introduced  the 
sign  (=^)  for  equality.  Early  in  the  seventeenth 
century  many  new  terms  and  symbols  were  intro- 
duced through  the  works  of  Franciscus  Victa,  re- 
published at  Leiden  in  1646.  He  also  vastly  im- 
proved the  methods  for  solving  equations  and 
devised  a  new  means  for  determining  approxi- 
mate values  of  the  roots  of  equations.  In  1673 
Rene  Descartes,  the  famous  French  philosopher, 
rendered  invaluable  service  to  algebra  by  develop- 
ing the  modern  theory  of  analytical  geometry  and 
by  demonstrating  the  relationship  between  algebra 
and  geometry.  The  seventeenth  century  also 
brought  forward  the  epoch-making  discoveries  of 
Ke[)ler  and  Bonaventura  Cavalicri,  upon  the 
foundation  of  which  both  Newton  and  Leibnitz 
brought  to  light  the  infinitesimal  calculus.  Early 
in  the  nineteenth  century-,  Benjamin  and  Charles 
S.  Pierce,  father  and  son  respectively,  devised  sys- 
tems of  pure  symbolic  algebra. 

Also  in:  T.  H.  Heath,  Diophantus,  (Greek  al- 
gebra).— Wallis,  Opera  mathematics  (16Q3-16Q9). 
— Hutton,  Mathematical  and  philosophical  dic- 
tionary (181S). — F.  Cajori,  History  of  mathemat- 
ics, iQiq. — G.  R.  Kaye, /«rf;(7H  mathematics.  1015. — 
M.  Cantor,  Vorlesiingen  iiber  Geschichte  der  Math- 
matic,  1007. — D.  E.  Smith,  History  of  modern 
mathematics. 

ALGECIRAS,  a  seaport  in  southern  Spain,  four 
miles  west  of  Gibraltar.  It  was  perhaps  the 
Portus  Albus  of  the  Romans  and  was  probably 
refounded  in  1713  by  the  Moors;  taken  by  Alfonso 
XI  in  1344  after  a  long  siege  and  destroyed;  re- 
built by  King  Charles  III  in  1760;  in  1801  the 
scene  of  a  naval  encounter  between  the  English 
and  Franco-Spanish  fleets.  In  1006  the  important 
international  conference  on  Morocco  (q.v.)  was 
held  here.  See  France:  1004-1906;  Italy:  1906: 
Part  of  Italy  at  .Mgeciras  conference;  Tangier: 
1Q06;  U.  S.  A.:   1005-T906. 

1907. — Demonstration  against  French  occupa- 
tion.    See  Morocco:    1907-1000. 

ALGER,  Russell  Alexander  (1836-1907), 
.American  soldier  and  politician.  Served  in  the 
Civil  War;  governor  of  Michigan,  1885-1897; 
secretary  of  war.  1897-1890  (See  U.  S.  A.:  1897, 
March;  iSgS,  July-.'Xugust:  .Army  administration), 
appointed  L'nited  States  senator,  1902,  and  elected 
to  that  office,  1903. 

ALGERIA,  a  Mediterranean  country  forming 
part  of  French  .Africa.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Tunis,  on  the  west  by  Morocco,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Sahara,  all  now  under  French 
control.  (See  .Africa:  Map).  .After  the  Turkish 
conquest,  the  name  .Algeria  was  applied  to  a  ter- 
ritory which  in  ancient  times  was  occupied  in 
the  cast  by  the  Numidians.  and  in  the  west  by  the 
Moors    (or  Mauri). 

1516-1535. — Under  Barbarossa  rule.     See  Bar- 

BARY   states:    1516-1535. 

1541. — Disastrous  invasion  of  Charles  V.  See 
Barbarv  states:    1541. 

1815. — War  with  the  U.  S.  A.  See  Barbary 
states:   181 5. 

1816.— War  with  England. — Exmouth's  expe- 
dition.— Slavery  abolished.  See  Barbary  states: 
1816. 


212 


ALGERIA,  1830-1898 


ALGERIA,  1898-1912 


1830. — Conquest  by  the  French.  See  Barbary 
states:   1830;  France:   1815-1830. 

1830-1846. — Abd-el-Kader  and  the  war  with 
France.     See   Barbarv   states:    1830-1846. 

1830-1898. —  French  colonization. —  Beginning 
of  the  French  African  empire. — "The  establish- 
ment of  the  French  Protectorate  over  Morocco  in 
igi2  was  the  culmination  of  eighty  years  of  effort 
in  North  .Africa.  .  .  .  The  French  African  empire 
started  on  the  Mediterranean  under  Louis  Philippe, 
was  spread  to  West  Africa  under  Napoleon  III, 
and  across  the  Sahara  and  through  the  Sudan  to 
Central  Africa  under  the  Third  Republic.  Algeria 
was  the  nucleus  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  Senegal 
on  the  Atlantic.  It  has  been  a  curious  combina- 
tion of  foresight  and  luck,  the  building  of  this 
empire,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  every  other  African 
colony  and  every  other  Power,  more  the  latter 
than  the  former.  The  late  Europeanization  of 
the  Mediterranean  is  the  great  enigma  of  modern 
history.  While  remote  regions  of  the  globe  were 
being  transformed  and  brought  under  the  aegis  of 
European  civilization,  the  Mediterranean  remained 
under  the  shadow  of  Islam,  a  closed  sea,  whose 
waters  washed  nations  in  the  embryo  and  vast 
coasts  where  anarchy  had  reigned  for  fifteen  cen- 
turies since  the  disappearance  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. France  went  into  Algeria  in  1830,  and  in- 
augurated the  modern  era  of  the  Middle  Sea,  not 
because  of  a  conviction  that  the  time  had  come 
to  do  away  with  the  pirates  of  the  Barbary  Coast, 
but  because  ol  a  trivial  dispute  between  the  Bey 
of  Algiers  and  the  French  Consul  over  a  question 
of  grain !  It  was  an  auspicious  moment,  however. 
The  sea  power  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  had  been 
irrevocably  destroyed  three  years  before  at  the 
battle  of  Navarino.  Mohammed  .\\i  was  severing 
in  Egypt  the  essential  link  of  the  chain  that  bound 
Africa  to  Turkey.  Christian  civilization  was  be- 
ing reestablished  in  the  Hellenic  peninsula.  Italy 
was  at  the  threshold  of  the  generation  which  was 
to  bring  national  unity.  .  .  .  Fashoda  was  the 
awakening.  This  humiliation  had  to  come.  With 
aims  definitely  centered  on 'definitely  assured  ter- 
ritories, the  builders  of  the  colonial  empire  were 
able  to  proceed  to  administrative  organization 
along  lines  that  would  bring  financial  results.  The 
money  needed  for  economic  development  could 
then  be  solicited  and  obtained  from  Parliament 
and  from  private  capital.  .  .  .  Napoleon's  idea 
of  an  Arab  empire  was  abandoned.  The  natives 
could  not  be  assimilated.  Algeria  could  not  be 
held  indefinitely  as  a  vast  military  camp.  A 
European  element — for  the  most  part  French — 
must  be  introduced,  given  means  of  acquiring 
land,  and  encouraged  to  come  and  stay  by  the 
granting  of  privileges  not  enjoyed  by  the  natives. 
The  first  step  was  the  law  of  1873  concerning 
native  property.  It  resulted  in  the  unjust  and 
wholly  indefensible  eviction  of  thousands  of  pro- 
prietors from  their  lands.  Then  followed  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Moslem  system  of  administering 
justice  through  kadis,  which  resulted  in  the  op- 
pression of  the  natives  and  the  awakening  of  re- 
ligious antagonism.  The  third  step  was  the  ex- 
tension to  Algeria  of  the  new  French  municipal 
law.  This  put  the  government  of  communes  into 
the  hands  of  minor  officials  and  white  colonists, 
who  became  legally  the  masters  of  the  destinies  of 
the  natives  among  whom  they  lived.  All  sorts  of 
advantages  were  granted  to  colonists  to  bring  them 
and  to  keep  them  in  Algeria:  partial  exemption 
from  military  service,  partial  exemption  from  tax- 
ation, and  a  gift  of  lands  of  dispossessed  natives. 
At  the  same  time,  the  process  of  governing  from 
Paris   resulted    in    arrested   economic    development 


and  administrative  confusion.  The  Governor  of 
Algeria  had  no  control  over  the  military  authori- 
ties. Administrations,  depending  upon  ministries 
in  Paris,  were  directed  by  considerations  and  gov- 
erned by  rules  totally  contrary  to  the  interests  of 
Algeria  and  unsuited  to  its  different  economic  and 
political  situation  and  its  peculiar  problems.  There 
was  no  coordination  of  policy  and  effort  between 
branches  of  the  Government.  Finances  were  man- 
aged from  Paris,  revenues  collected  by  Paris,  and 
credits  voted  in  the  general  French  budget.  .  .  . 
."Vlgeria  did  not  prosper.  The  natives  regarded 
the  French,  as  they  had  every  right  to  do,  as 
gendarmes  and  merchants  whose  one  thought  was 
to  exploit  them  and  to  treat  them  unjustly.  They 
resented  bitterly  a  regime  which  farced  intruders 
upon  them,  gave  the  intruders  exemption  from 
military  service  and  taxation,  and  imposed  upon 
them  (the  natives]  the  burdens  from  which  the 
intruders  were  free.  The  colonists  felt  that  they 
had  exchanged  ihe  orderly  civil  administration  at 
home  for  a  half-baked,  improvised  uncertain  regime 
that  was  neither  military  nor  civil,  and  under 
which  they  did  not  know  exactly  where  they 
stood.  They  did  not  enjoy  all  the  rights  of  French 
citizens,  especially  in  the  matter  of  voting  upon 
how  the  money  they  paid  in  taxes  and  the  revenue 
from  the  wealth  they  created  should  be  spent. 
Essential  reforms  were  enacted  after  Fashoda, 
reforms  that  have  brought  wealth  and  prosperity, 
and  make  the  days  of  the  nineteenth  century 
seem  like  an  ugly  dream." — H.  A.  Gibbons,  New 
map  of  Africa,  pp.  130-133. — See  also  Africa:  Mod- 
ern European  occupation:   Later  iqth  century. 

1896-1906. — Encroachments  on  the  Moroccan 
boundary.    See  Morocco:   1895-1906. 

1898-1912. — Economic  and  cultural  develop- 
ment under  the  French. — Attitude  of  French  in- 
habitants towards  the  natives. — "In  1898,  three 
delegations,  to  be  elected  separately  by  French  cit- 
izens, taxpayers  other  than  citizens,  and  natives, 
were  established  to  decide  upon  the  expenditure  of 
the  tax-payers'  money.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
self-government.  But  it  had  no  real  importance 
until  the  law  of  December  24,  iqoo,  separated  .Al- 
gerian from  French  finances,  and  establfshed  a  dis- 
tinct Algerian  budget.  The  Algerian  delegations, 
now  masters  of  their  finances,  discussed  and  de- 
cided how  their  money  should  be  spent.  The  re- 
sult was  magical.  Immediately  there  was  an  ex- 
tension of  public  works.  Natives  as  well  as 
colonists  began  to  take  an  interest  in  their  coun- 
try. Let  one  illustration  suffice.  Before  1900,  the 
forests  of  .Algeria  brought  in  only  several  hundred 
thousand  francs,  which  represented  fines  collected 
from  natives.  To-day  there  are  practically  no 
fines.  But  forest  products  figure  in  the  budget 
for  more  than  five  million  francs.  Since  1900,  Al- 
geria has  become,  after  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  the  United  States,  the  best  client  of 
France.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  her  trade,  which 
amounts  to  nearly  $250,000,000  per  annum,  is  with 
the  mother  country.  Railways  have  been  extended 
[see  Africa:  Modern  European  occupation:  Sum- 
mary: Modern  railroad  and  industrial  development] 
so  that  Algeria,  whose  means  of  transportation 
were  limited  fifteen  years  ago,  has  now  two  thou- 
sand miles  in  exploitation.  This  has  meant  a 
rapid  development  of  mineral  wealth,  and  the 
possibility  of  using  forest  produce,  especially  cork. 
The  great  prosperity  of  Algeria,  however,  is  in 
agriculture,  where  dry  farming  has  brought  under 
cultivation  cereal-bearing  areas  that  the  natives 
never  utilized.  The  most  remarkable  phenomenon 
in  Algeria,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  colonists,  is 
the   way   the   soil   takes   to   vines.     .Algerian   wine 


213 


ALGERIA 


ALGONQUIAN  FAMILY 


has  become  a  factor  in  the  French  markets,  and 
brings  to  its  producers  financial  returns  far  beyond 
their  dreams.  Algeria  is  also  looked  upon  as  a 
most  important  source  of  mutton  for  French 
markets.  Popular  education  was  established  in 
Algeria  in  1892,  and  is  more  extended  than  any- 
where else  in  Africa  except  in  the  South  African 
Commonwealth.  Since  the  inhabitants  received 
ihe  privilege  of  voting  the  budget,  sums  are  al- 
lotted that  would  make  possible  primary  educa- 
tion everywhere  were  it  not  for  the  unfortunate 
-system  of  communal  responsibility.  There  are 
still  a  hundred  thousand  boys  in  populated  cen- 
ters who  have  no  school  facilities,  and  little  has 
been  done  to  educate  girls.  But  it  is  the  will  of  the 
Government  to  give  education  to  all,  and  the 
funds  for  that  purpose  are  provided.  In  the 
matter  of  schools  the  French  in  Algeria  have  felt 
much  more  keenly  their  stewardship  than  the 
British  in  Egypt.  The  effort  they  are  making  in 
all  their  colonies  is  rivaled  only  by  what  the 
United  States  is  doing  in  the  Philippines.  But 
education  brings  its  problems,  especially  in  old 
Moslem  countries  where  the  natives  believes  that 
they  are  superior  to  their  rulers.  In  their  attitude 
socially  toward  natives,  the  French  are  found  by 
subject  races  to  be  far  more  pleasant  to  live  with 
than  the  British.  Especially  among  the  upper 
classes  life  is  happier  and  richer  for  French  than 
for  British  subject  races.  .  .  .  The  Frenchman 
feels  no  racial  antipathy  for  the  natives  and  the 
native  knows  it.  So  the  Frenchman  has  not  as 
much  to  fear  from  Moslem  education  as  the 
Englishman.  His  political  interest  does  not  suf- 
fer greatly  by  the  spread  of  primary  education. 
Higher  education  of  native  races  is  not  a  night- 
mare for  him.  He  can  conceive  of  the  day  when 
the  native  holds  the  franchise,  full  and  free  of 
French  citizenship.  What  he  asks  is  that  the 
native  learn  to  speak  French  and  become  im- 
pregnated with  French  ideals.  His  only  fear  is 
being  too  greatly  outnumbered  in  the  midst  of  a 
native  population.  Between  iqoi  and  igos,  the 
territory  of  Algeria  was  greatly  extended  into  the 
hinterland.  By  the  decree  of  August  14,  1905, 
Southern  Algeria  was  organized.  It  includes  the 
oases  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Sahara.  The 
extension  of  the  railway  to  the  desert  and  the  paci- 
fication of  the  Sahara  enabled  the  civil  authori- 
ties to  take  over  much  sooner  than  was  anticipated 
the  administration  of  the  Algerian  hinterland.  Not 
many  years  ago,  a  deputy  declared  in  the  Palais 
Bourbon  that  France  would  never  hold  Southern 
.Algeria  in  any  other  way  than  by  military  posts, 
whose  garrisons  would  be  afraid  to  go  out  for  a 
walk  unless  they  were  all  together  and  all  armed. 
Garrisons  are  few  to-day,  especially  since  they  are 
needed  more  in  France  than  in  Algeria." — H.  A. 
Gibbons,  New  map  of  Africa,  pp.  133-140. 

1919. — Fiscal  reform. — "On  January  i,  iqig,  an 
important  fiscal  reform  went  into  effect.  From 
that  time  on.  native  tax-payers  in  Northern  Algeria 
were  subjected  to  the  same  municipal  and  depart- 
mental charges  as  the  European  colonist?,  while 
they  were  freed  from  the  whole  of  the  special 
charges  known  as  "impots  arabes."  The  new  sys- 
tem of  taxation  includes  (i)  a  land  tax  on  prop- 
erty not  devoted  to  building  purposes,  to  be  fixed 
generally  at  five  per  rent,  of  the  taxable  revenue 
of  such  property,  and  affecting  Europeans  in  the 
same  way  as  natives;  (2)  taxes  on  industrial  and 
commercial  profits,  on  profits  of  agriculture  and 
development,  on  public  and  private  salaries,  and 
on  the  incomes  in  non-commercial  professions; 
and  (3)  a  comprehensive  tax  on  income  as  a 
whole      Equality   between   Europeans   and   natives 


in  regard  to  taxation  has  by  now  been  established 
in  all  French  colonies  in  the  north  of  Africa." — 
Ibid.,  p.  141. 

Also  in:  Cat,  Petite  histoire  de  I'Algerie,  Tunisie, 
Maroc. — H.  D.  Gramont,  Histoire  d'Alger  sous  la 
domination  turque. — P.  Leroy-Beaulieu,  L'Algerie 
el  la  Tunisie. — P.  Masson,  Histoire  des  etablisse- 
ments  et  du  commerce  fran(ois  dans  I'Afrique  bar- 
baresque. — E.  Plantet,  Correspondance  des  deys 
d'Alger  avec  la  cour  de  France.— C.  Rousset,  La 
Conquete  de  /'.l/genV.— Thomas-Stamford,  About 
Algeria. — M.  Wahl,  L'Algerie. — Watson,  Voice  of 
the  South. — T.  Wolf,  Im  Land  des  Lichts 

ALGERIAN  HINTERLAND.  See  Algeria: 
1898-1912. 

ALGIERS,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Al- 
geria, on  the  west  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Algiers.  It 
is  of  great  commercial  importance. 

1666. — Bombardment  by  French.  See  Barbary 
states:   1004-1684. 

1684. — Bombardment  by  French.  See  Barbary 
states:   1604-1684. 

1785-1801.— Tribute  exacted  for  navigation  of 
Mediterranean.     See  Barbary  states:    1 785-1801. 

1795.— Treaty  with  United  States.  See  Bar- 
bary states:    1785-1801. 

ALGIHED,  the  term  by  which  a  war  is  pro- 
claimed among  the  Mahommedans  to  be  a  Holy 
War.     Also  written  Al  Jihad. 

ALGONQUIAN  (Algonkin)  FAMILY.— 
"About  the  period  1500- 1000,  those  related  tribes 
whom  we  now  know  by  the  name  of  Algonkins  were 
at  the  height  of  their  prosperity.  They  occupied 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  Savannah  river  on  the 
south  to  the  strait  of  Belle  Isle  on  the  north.  .  .  . 
The  dialects  of  all  these  were  related,  and  evi- 
dently at  some  distant  day  had  been  derived  from 
the  same  primitive  tongue.  Which  of  them  had 
preserved  the  ancient  forms  most  closely,  it  may 
be  premature  to  decide  positively,  but  the  tendency 
of  modern  studies  has  been  to  assign  that  place  to 
the  Cree — the  northernmost  of  all.  We  cannot 
erect  a  genealogical  tree  of  these  dialects.  .  .  .  We 
may,  however,  group  them  in  such  a  manner  as 
roughly  to  indicate  their  relationship.  This  I  do" 
— in  the  following  list:  "Cree. — Old  Algonkin. — 
Montagnais.  —  Chipeway,  Ottawa,  Pottawattomie, 
Miami,  Peoria,  Pea,  Piankishaw,  Kaskaskia,  Me- 
nominee, Sac,  Fox,  Kikapoo. — Sheshatapoosh,  Se- 
coffee,  Micmac,  Melisceet,  Etchemin,  Abnaki. — 
Mohe.'an,  Massachusetts,  Shawnee,  Minsi,  Unami, 
Unalachtigo  [the  last  three  named  forming,  to- 
gether, the  nation  of  the  Lenape  or  Dela wares), 
Nanticoke,  Powhatan,  Pampticoke.  —  Blackfoot, 
Gros  Ventre,  Sheyenne.  .  .  .  kW  the  Algonkin  na- 
tions who  dwelt  north  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  east 
shore  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  in  the  basins  of  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson  rivers,  claimed  near  kinship 
and  an  identical  origin,  and  were  at  times  united 
into  a  loose,  defensive  confederacy.  By  the  west- 
ern and  southern  tribes  they  were  collectively 
known  as  Wapanachkik — 'those  of  the  eastern  re- 
gion'— which  in  the  form  Abnaki  is  now  confined 
to  the  remnant  of  a  tribe  in  Maine.  .  .  .  The  mem- 
bers of  the  confederacy  were  the  Mohegans  (Mahi- 
canni)  of  the  Hudson,  who  occupied  the  valley  of 
that  river  to  the  falls  above  the  site  of  Albany, 
the  various  New  Jersey  tribes,  the  Delawares  proper 
on  the  Delaware  river  and  its  branches,  including 
the  Minsi  or  Monseys,  among  the  mountains,  the 
Nanticokes,  between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  At- 
lantic, and  the  small  tribe  called  Canai,  Kanawhas 
or  Ganawese,  whose  towns  were  on  tributaries  of 
the  Potomac  and  Patuxent.  .  .  .  Linguistically,  the 
Mohegans  were  more  closely  allied  to  the  tribes  of 
New  England  than  to  those  of  the  Delaware  Val- 


214 


ALGONQUIAN  FAMILY 


ALGONQUIAN  FAMILY 


Jey.  Evidently,  most  of  the  tribes  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut  were  comparatively 
recent  offshoots  of  the  parent  stem  on  the  Hudson, 
supposing  the  course  of  migration  had  been  east- 
ward. .  .  .  The  Nanticokes  occupied  the  territory 
between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  ocean,  except  its 
southern  extremity,  which  appears  to  have  been 
under  the  control  of  the  Powhatan  tribe  of  Vir- 
ginia."— D.  G.  Brinton,  Lenape  and  their  legends, 
ch.  1-2. — "Mohegans,  Munsees,  Manhattans,  Me- 
toacs,  and  other  affiliated  tribes  and  bands  of  Al- 
gonquin hneage,  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Hudson 
and  the  islands,  bay  and  seaboard  of  New  York, 
including  Long  Island,  during  the  early  periods  of 
the  rise  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy.  .  .  .  The 
Mohegans  finally  retired  over  the  Highlands  east 
of  them  into  the  valley  of  the  Housalonic.  The 
Munsees  and  Nanticokes  retired  to  the  Delaware 
river  and  reunited  with  their  kindred,  the  Lenapees, 
or  modern  Delawares.,  The  Manhattans,  and  nu- 
merous other  bands  and  sub-tribes,  melted  away 
under  the  influence  of  liquor  and  died  in  their 
tracks." — H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  Notes  on  the  Iroquois, 
ch.  5. — "On  the  basis  of  a  difference  in  dialect,  that 
portion  of  the  Algonquin  Indians  which  dwelt  in 
New  England  has  been  classed  in  two  divisions,  one 
consisting  of  those  who  inhabited  what  is  now  the 
State  of  Maine,  nearly  up  to  its  western  border, 
the  other  consisting  of  the  rest  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. The  Maine  Indians  may  have  been  some 
iS,ooo  in  number,  or  somewhat  less  than  a  third 
of  the  native  population  of  New  England.  That 
portion  of  them  who  dwelt  furthest  towards  the 
east  were  known  by  the  name  of  Etetchemins. 
The  Abenaquis,  including  the  Tarratines,  hunted  on 
both  sides  of  the  Penobscot,  and  westward  as  far 
as  the  Saco.  if  not  quite  to  the  Piscataqua.  The 
tribes  found  in  the  rest  of  New  England  were 
designated  by  a  greater  variety  of  names.  The 
home  of  the  Penacook  or  Pawtucket  Indians  was 
in  the  southeast  corner  of  what  is  now  New  Hamp- 
shire and  the  contiguous  region  of  Massachusetts. 
Next  dwelt  the  Massachusetts  tribe,  along  the  bay 
of  that  name.  Then  were  found  successively  the 
Pokanokets,  or  Wampanoags,  in  the  southeasterly 
region  of  Massachusetts,  and  by  Buzzard's  and 
Narragansett  Bays;  the  Narragansetts,  with  a  trib- 
utary race  called  Nyantics  in  what  is  now  the 
western  part  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island ;  the 
Pequots,  between  the  Narragansetts  and  the  river 
formerly  called  the  Pequot  River,  now  the  Thames ; 
and  the  Mohegans,  spreading  themselves  beyond 
the  River  Connecticut.  In  the  central  region  of 
Massachusetts  were  the  Nipmucks,  or  Nipnets;  and 
along  Cape  Cod  were  the  Nausets,  who  appeared 
to  have  owed  some  fealty  to  the  Pokanokets.  The 
New  England  Indians  exhibited  an  inferior  type  of 
humanity.  .  .  .  Though  fleet  and  agile  when  ex- 
cited to  some  occasional  effort,  they  were  found  to 
be  incapable  of  continuous  labor.  Heavy  and 
phlegmatic,  they  scarcely  wept  or  smiled." — J.  G. 
Palfrey,  Compendious  history  of  Neiv  England,  bk. 
i,v.\,  ch.  3. — "The  valley  of  the  'Cahohatatea,'  or 
Mauritius  River  fi.  e.,  the  Hudson  river,  as  now 
named]  at  the  time  Hudson  first  ascended  its 
waters,  was  inhabited,  chiefly,  by  two  aboriginal 
races  of  Algonquin  lineage,  afterwards  known 
among  the  English  colonists  by  the  generic  names 
of  Mohegans  and  Mincees.  The  Dutch  generally 
called  the  Mohegans,  Mahicans ;  and  the  Mincees, 
Sanhikans.  These  two  tribes  were  subdivided  into 
numerous  minor  bands,  each  of  which  had  a  dis- 
tinctive name.  The  tribes  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river  were  generally  Mohegans;  those  on  the  west 
side,  Mincees.  They  were  hereditary  enemies.  .  .  . 
Long  Island,  or  'Sewan-hacky,'  was  occupied  by 
the  savage   tribe   of   Metowacks,   which   was  sub- 


divided into  various  clans.  .  .  .  Staten  Island,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  was  inhabited  by  the 
Monatons.  .  .  .  Inland,  to  the  west,  hved  the  Rar- 
itans  and  the  Hackinsacks;  while  the  regions  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  well-known  'Highlands,'  south  of 
Sandy  Hook,  were  inhabited  by  a  band  or  sub- 
tribe  called  the  Nevesincks  or  Navisinks.  ...  To 
the  south  and  west,  covering  the  centre  of  New 
Jersey,  were  the  Aquamachukes  and  the  Stanke- 
kans;  while  the  valley  of  the  Delaware,  northward 
from  the  Schuylkill,  was  inhabited  by  various  tribes 
of  the  Lenape  race.  .  .  .  The  island  of  the  Man- 
hattans" was  occupied  by  the  tribe  which  received 
that  name  Lsee  Manhattan].  On  the  shores  of 
the  river,  above,  dwelt  the  Tappans,  the  Weck- 
quaesgeeks,  the  Sint  Sings,  "whose  chief  village  was 
named  Ossin-Sing,  or  'the  Place  of  Stones,'  "  the 
Pachami,  the  Waorinacks,  the  Wappingers,  and  the 
Waronawankongs.  "Further  north,  and  occupying 
the  present  counties  of  Ulster  and  Greene,  were  the 
Minqua  clans  of  Minnesincks,  Nanticokes,  Mincees, 
and  Delawares.  These  clans  had  pressed  onward 
from  the  upper  valley  of  the  Delaware.  .  .  .  They 
were  generally  known  among  the  Dutch  as  the 
.■Esopus  Indians." — J.  R.  Brodhead,  History  of  the 
slate  of  New  York,  v.  i,  ch.  3. — "The  area  formerly 
occupied  by  the  Algonquian  family  was  more  ex- 
tensive than  that  of  any  other  linguistic  stock  in 
North  .'Xmerica,  their  territory  reachin;  from  Lab- 
rador to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  Churchill 
River  of  Hudson  Bay  as  far  south  at  least  as 
Pamlico  Sound  of  North  Carolina.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  this  territory  was  an  area  occupied  by 
Iroquoian  tribes,  surrounded  on  almost  all  sides 
by  their  Algonquian  neighbors.  On  the  south  the 
Algonquian  tribes  were  bordered  by  those  of  Iro- 
quoian and  Siouan  (Catawba)  stock,  on  the  south- 
west and  west  by  the  Muskhogean  and  Siouan 
tribes,  and  on  the  northwest  by  the  Kitunahan 
and  the  great  Athapascan  families,  while  along  the 
coast  of  Labrador  and  the  eastern  shore  of  Hudson 
Bay  they  came  in  contact  with  the  Eskimo,  who 
were  gradually  retreating  before  them  to  the  north. 
In  Newfoundland  they  encountered  the  Beothukan 
family,  consisting  of  but  a  single  tribe.  A  portion 
of  the  Shawnee  at  some  early  period  had  separated 
from  the  main  body  of  the  tribe  in  central  Ten- 
nessee and  pushed  their  way  down  to  the  Savannah 
River  in  South  Carolina,  where,  known  as  Savan- 
nahs, they  carried  on  destructive  wars  with  the  sur- 
rounding tribes  until  about  the  beginninj  of  the 
iSlh  century  they  were  finally  driven  out  and 
joined  the  Delaware  in  the  north.  Soon  afterwards 
the  rest  of  the  tribe  was  expelled  by  the  Cherokee 
and  Chicasa,  who  thenceforward  claimed  all  the 
country  stretching  north  to  the  Ohio  River.  The 
Cheyenne  and  Arapaho,  two  allied  tribes  of  this 
stock,  had  become  separated  from  their  kindred  on 
the  north  and  had  forced  their  way  through  hostile 
tribes  across  the  Missouri  to  the  Black  Hills  coun- 
try of  South  Dakota,  and  more  recently  into  Wy- 
oming and  Colorado,  thus  forming  the  advance 
guard  of  the  Algonquian  stock  in  that  direction, 
having  the  Siouan  tribes  behind  them  and  those 
of  the  Shoshonean  family  in  front.  [The  following 
are  the]  principal  tribes:  Abnaki,  Algonquin,  Ara- 
paho, Chevenne,  Conoy,  Cree,  Delaware,  Fox,  Illi- 
nois, Kick'apoo,  Mahican,  Massachuset,  Menomi- 
nee, Miami,  Micmac,  Mohegan,  Monta'-nais,  Mon- 
tauk,  Munsee,  Nanticoke,  Narraganset,  Nauset, 
Nipmuc,  Ojibwa,  Ottawa,  Pamlico,  Pennacook, 
Pequot,  Piankishaw,  Pottawotomi,  Powhatan,  Sac, 
Shawnee.  Siksika.  Wampanoag,  Wappinger.  The 
present  number  of  the  .Mgonquian  stock  is  about 
QS  600,  of  whom  abovit  60,000  are  in  Canada  and 
the  remainder  in  the  United  States."—!  W.  Powell, 
Seventh  annual  report   (Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pp. 


2T5 


ALGONQUIN 


ALIEN    ENEMIES 


4J.48). — See  also  Blackfeet;  Howkans;  Hurons; 
Indians,  Amepjcan:  Cultural  areas  in  North  Amer- 
ica; Eastern  woodlands  area,  also  Linguistic  char- 
acteristics; Iroquois  confederacy;  New  England; 
1637  (Pequot  War),  1674-1075  to  1676-1678  (King 
Philip's  War) ;  Pontiac's  War  ;  Shoshonean  fam- 

Also  in:  J.  W.  DeForest,  History  of  the  Indians 
of  Connecticut.— \.  Gallatin,  Synopsis  of  the  In- 
dian tribes  (Archaologia  Americana,  v.  2),  inlrod., 
sect.  2— S.  G.  Drake,  Aboriginal  races  of  North 
America,  bk.  2-3. 

ALGONQUIN,  an  American  steamship  sunk, 
March  \  1017,  by  a  German  submarine  which 
continued  to  shell  the  ship  after  it  had  stopped; 
although  there  was  no  loss  of  life,  the  crew  was 
twenty -seven  hours  in  open  boats,  before  reach- 
ing the  Irish  coast.  One  of  a  series  of  mcidents 
directly  leading  to  America's  entry  of  the  World 
War.-^See  also  U.  S.  A.;   1917   (Feb.-April.) 

ALGUAZIL.    See  Alcalde. 

ALHAMA,   Fall   of    (1476-1492).     See  Spain; 

'''aLHAMBRA,    Granada,   the   most    interesting 
example    of    the    splendid   citadel-palaces   built   by 
the   Moorish   conquerors.     It   was  begun   in    124S 
by  Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar,  enlarged  in  1279  by 
his  successor,  and  again  in  1306,  when  its  mosque 
was  built.     It  "represents  the  best  preserved  as  well 
as  the  most  perfect  example  of  the  Moorish-Arabic 
genius      It  was  a  fortress-palace,  much  of  it  built 
on  the  brink  of  the  rock,  the  steep  slopes  of  which 
were  used  to  construct  the  lower  stories  of  baths, 
offices,  and  guard-rooms.    The  exterior  has  no  im- 
pressiveness,  though  the  original  grouping  of  walls 
and  roofs  must  have  been  highly  picturesque.     Its 
halls,    chambers,    and    remains    of    a    mosque    are 
clustered  about  two   rectangular  courts  or  patios, 
which  are  joined  like  the  two  parts  of  an  'L'—the 
•Court  of  the  Alberca'  and  the  'Court  of  the  Lions.' 
From  one  of  the  ends  of  the  Alberca  Court  pro- 
jects   the    'Hall    of    the    Ambassadors';    from    the 
other  the  'Hall   of   the   Tribunal,'   while  the   long 
sides  of  the  Court  of  Lions  open  respectively  into 
the  'Hall  of  the  Abencerrages'  and  the  'Hall  of  the 
Two  Sisters.'    The  'Court  of  the  Lions'  is  so  called 
from  the  fountain  in  its  centre,  an  immense  marble 
basin  supported,  upon  twelve  lions,  which  form  a 
remarkable    exception    to    the    Muhammedan    rule 
against  representing  the  image  of  any  living  thing. 
Both   these   Courts  are   arcaded,   the   columns,  set 
singly  or  in  pairs,  or  groups,  exhibiting,  as  do  all 
the  columns  in  the  Alhambra,  distinctive  features 
in   their  capitals,  which   are   separated   by   a   high 
necking   from   the   shaft.     It   is,   however,   in   the 
interior   of   the   halls   that   the   decoration   reaches 
its  finest  pitch  and  nowhere  more  than  in  the  'Hall 
of  the  Two  Sisters,'  which  form'ed  the  culminating 
feature  of  the  harem  quarters.    The  name  is  sup- 
posed   to   have   been    derived    from   two   slabs   of 
marble  in  the  pavement  but  may  well  have  been 
suggested  bv   the   window,  which   occupies   a   bay 
and  is  divided  by  a  small  column  and  two  arches 
into  two  lights.    The  walls,  above  a  high  wainscot 
of   lustred   tiles,   are  encrusted   with   flat   moulded 
arabesques,  representing  a  delicate  lacelike  tracery 
of  leafy  vines  and  tendrils,  still  tinctured  with  the 
red,  blue,  and  gold   that  formerly  enriched  them. 
The  arabesques  melt  into  the  stalactite  embellish- 
ments which  completely   cover  the  hollow   of   the 
dome;   created,  as  it  seems,  by  giant  bees,  whose 
cells  hang   down   like  grape-clusters   in   an   endless 
profusion   of  exquisite  intricacy      Time  was  when 
this  unsurpassable  delicacy  of  magnifuence  glowed 
with   gold   touched   into   a   thousandfold   diversity 
of  tones,  by   the  light   of  hanging   lamps.     As  an 


expression  of  the  Arabic  genius  in  the  direction 
of  subtlety,  this  represents  finality.  It  embodies 
the  culture  of  a  race  that  in  its  learning  as  in 
its  art  had  been  devoted  to  the  exaltation  of 
details;  and  embodies  also  the  latent  instinct  of 
a  desert-wandering  race  whose  eye  had  been  little 
habituated  to  varieties  of  form,  but  saturated 
with  colour  and  in  the  watches  of  the  night  had 
been  long  familiar  with  the  mystery  of  vaulted 
sky,  sown  with  star-clusters  and  hung  with  the 
jewelled  lamps  of  planets.  It  was  characteristic 
also  of  the  Oriental  fondness  of  abstraction  that 
revels  in  subtleties  and  loves  to  merge  itself  in 
the  contemplation  of  the  infinite.  It  is  the  kind 
of  decoration  that  being  denied  the  reinforcement 
of  nature  was  bound  to  evolve  sterility." — C.  H. 
Caffm,  How  to  study  architecture,  pp.  226-227. — 
See  also  Architecture:  Mohammedan;  Spain: 
1238-1273. 

ALHAZEN  (d.  T038),  Arabian  astronomer 
and  mathematician.  See  Science;  Ancient:  Ara- 
bian. 

ALI  (Ali  ben  Abu  Talib)  (c.  600-661),  fourth 
caliph.     See  Caliphate;  661;  Suhtes. 

ALI  DINAR,  appointed  sultan  of  Darfur  (q.v.) 
in  iSgq;  grandson  of  Mahommed-el-Fadhl. 

Raids  the  British  border  of  the  Sudan.— Loss 
of  his  monarchy.     See  Sudan;   1014-1020. 

ALI  MUNTAR:  British  operations  and  cap- 
ture. See  World  W.«;  1Q17:  \L  Turkish  theatre: 
c,  1,  iii  and  iv. 

ALI  PASHA  (1741-1S22),  Turkish  pasha  of 
lannina.  Called  the  "Lion,"  because  of  his  power 
and  bravery;  by  brigandage  and  strategem  over- 
powered neighboring  pashas  and  took  over  their 
territories;  put  his  enemies  to  death  without 
scruple;  by  bribery  gained  favor  at  Constantinople 
and  in  178S  was  made  pasha  of  lannina  (.Mbania)  ; 
in  turn  cultivated  relations  with  the  French  and 
the  English;  for  a  time  master  of  .Mbania,  Epirus 
and  Thessaly,  controlling  Morea  and  Lepanto 
through  his  sons;  even  dared  intrigue  at  Constan- 
tinople to  further  his  inordinate  ambitions.  He 
was  murdered  in  the  spring  of  1822,  while  suing 
for  peace   with   Constantinople. 

ALIBAMUS,  or  Alabamas.  See  Muskhogean 
FA^^LY. 

ALICULUFS.     See  Pat.agonians. 
ALIEN  ANARCHiST  BILL:  Passed  June  5, 
1920.     See  U.  S.  \.:    1920   (June). 
ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS.  See  U.S.A.; 

1798. 

ALIEN  CONTRACT  LABOR  LAW  (1885). 
See  L.VBOR  legislation;    1S64-1020. 

ALIEN  ENEMIES,  residents  or  sojourners  in 
a  country  who  are  citizens  or  subjects  of  a  hos- 
tile State  Their  legal  position  is  accurately  indi- 
cated bv  the  assurance  addressed  by  the  President 
to  alien  enemies  in  the  United  States,  in  his  proc- 
lamation of  April  6,  1917.  that  so  long  as  they 
refrained  from  acts  of  hostility  toward  the  United 
States  and  obeyed  the  laws  they  should  "be  un- 
disturbed in  the  peaceful  pursuit  of  their  hves  and 
occupations  and  be  accorded  the  consideration  due 
to  all  peaceful  and  law-abiding  persons,  except  so 
far  as  restrictions  may  be  necessar>-  for  their  own 
protection  and  for  the  safety  of  the  United  States. ' 

Restrictions  in  United  States.— These  were 
prescribed  by  the  President  in  his  proclamations  of 
April  6  and' November  16,  1017,  by  virtue  of  au- 
thority conferred  upon  him  by  paragraphs  4067- 
4070  of  the  Revised  Statutes.  By  the  earlier  proc 
lamation  alien  enemies  were  forbidden  to  have  in 
their  possession  any  firearms,  ammunition,  explo- 
sives, wireless  apparatus  or  parts  thereof;  or  to 
approach  within  one-half  mile  of  any  fort,  camp, 

16 


©    E.  M.  Newman 


COURT  OF  THE  LIONS  IN  THE  ALHAMBRA,  GRANADA,  SPAIN 


ALIEN   IMMIGRATION   LAWS 


ALLEGHANS 


arsenal,  aircraft  station,  navel  vessel,  navy  yard,  or 
munitions  factory;  or  to  write,  print,  or  publish 
any  attack  upon  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  Congress,  or  any  person  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  or  upon  any  measure  of  the 
Government ;  or  to  abet  any  hostile  acts  against 
the  United  States,  or  to  give  its  enemies  informa- 
tion or  aid  and  comfort.  Alien  enemies  transgress- 
ing those  restrictions  were  liable  to  summary  ar- 
rest and  to  removal  to  any  place  designated  by 
the  President.  Finally,  no  alien  enemy  could 
either  leave  or  enter  the  United  States  except  under 
restrictions  to  be  prescribed  by  the  President.  The 
supplementary  proclamation  of  November  i6  for- 
bade alien  enemies  to  "enter  or  be  found  within" 
the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  Panama  Canal 
Zone;  or  within  loo  yards  of  any  canal,  wharf, 
pier,  dry  dock,  warehouse,  elevator,  railroad  ter- 
minal, etc.;  or  to  be  found  on  the  waters  within 
i  miles  of  the  shore  line  of  the  United  States,  or 
on  any  of  the  Great  Lakes,  except  on  public  fer- 
ries; or  to  ascend  in  any  airplane,  balloon,  etc. 
It  also  provided  for  the  registration  and  issuance 
of  registration  cards  to  all  alien  enemies,  with  pro- 
hibition of  change  of  abode  or  travel  except  on 
permission ;  and  for  monthly,  weekly,  or  other 
periodical  report  to  Federal,  State,  or  local  au- 
thorities as  might  be  specified.  Subsequent  in- 
structions to  water-front  operators  provided  for 
cooperation  with  United  States  troops  in  guard- 
ing docks,  piers,  warehouses,  etc. — Sec  also  World 
War:  1Q17:  VIII.  United  States  and  the  war:  e; 
also  Alien  property  custodian;  U.  S.  A.:  igi7 
(October) :  Trading  with  the  Enemv  Act. 

ALIEN  IMMIGRATION  LAWS:  Canada. 
See  Immigration  and  emigration:  Canada: 
ig20. 

ALIEN  LAND  LAWS.— In  many  countries 
laws  exist  limiting  or  prohibiting  the  ownership  of 
real  estate  by  aliens.  At  common  law  it  was  not 
allowed,  but  in  England  and  in  most  of  the  States 
in  this  country  the  disability  has  been  removed 
since  1870.  Various  countries  for  obvious  military 
reasons  prohibit  alien  land  ownership  in  frontier 
districts.  Japan  prohibits  the  owning  of  land  by 
foreigners,  but  seeks  for  her  nationals  a  continuance 
of  the  privilege  of  holding  land  in  California.  In 
view  of  the  referendum  of  1020,  by  which  the 
people  of  California  voted  in  favor  of  prohibitmg 
alien  land  ownership,  a  controversy  developed  with 
Japan.  There  arose  from  this  the  question  of  the 
validity  of  state  law  if  in  seeming  conflict  with  a 
national   treaty. — See  also  California:    iqoo-iq20. 

ALIEN  LAW:  Venezuela.  See  Venezuela: 
iqiQ. 

In  Australia.  See  Immigration  and  emigra- 
tion: Australia:   1Q00-1021. 

ALIEN  PROPERTY  CUSTODIAN,  United 
States,  an  official  created  during  the  World  War 
by  the  Trading  with  the  Enemy  Act,  with  power  to 
require,  at  his  discretion,  any  property  held  within 
the  United  States  for,  or  on  behalf  of,  an  "enemy" 
or  "ally  of  enemy,"  to  be  transferred  to  him,  and  to 
hold  the  same  as  trustee  till  the  end  of  the  war.  The 
primary  purpose  of  the  measure  was  to  prevent 
the  property  of  the  enemy  from  being  used  in  the 
service  of  the  enemy  and  to  safeguard  well-dis- 
posed enemy  aliens  from  having  their  property 
thus  abused.  It  also  put  it  in  the  power  of  the 
government  to  requisition  easily  such  property 
when  it  might  require  the  same  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war,  or  even  to  confiscate  it  should 
Germany  confiscate  the  property  of  Americans  held 
in  Germany.  The  provisions  of  the  act  applied  to 
patents,  debts,  and  readv  money,  and  the  latter 
was  expected  to  be  invested  in  Liberty  Bonds.     It 


should  be  added  that  German  subjects  and  the 
subjects  of  her  allies,  resident  in  the  United  States, 
did  not,  from  the  mere  fact  of  their  nationality, 
fall  within  the  operation  of  the  act.— See  also 
U.  S.  A.:  1917  (Oct.):  Trading  with  the  Enemy 
Act. 

.ALIENATION,  Right  of.  See  Common  law: 
i2qo. 

ALIENS  ACT:  England.  See  Immigration 
and  emigration:   England:    iqos-igoq. 

ALIGARH,  district  and  city  of  British  India. 
The  city  contains  Fort  Aligarh,  which  was  stormed 
by  the  British  in  1803,  and  the  Mohammedan  An- 
glo-Oriental College.     See  India:   i7o8-i."<o5. 

ALIORUMNAS.  See  Huns:  Gothic  account 
of. 

ALIWAL,  Battle  of  (1846).  See  India:  1845- 
1840. 

ALJUBARROTA,  Battle  of  (1385).  See 
Portugal:    1383-1385;   Spain:    1368-1479. 

ALKMAAR,  a  town  of  north  Holland. 

1573. — Siege  and  deliverance.  See  Nether- 
lands:   i.i;73-iS74- 

1799  (September).— Battle  of.  See  France: 
1 790   (September-October). 

1799  (October). — Convention,  by  the  terms  of 
which  the  Anglo-Russian  army  under  the  Duke  of 
York  evacuated  the  Netherlands. 

ALL  GERMAN  INDUSTRIAL  COMBINA- 
TIONS.    See  Trusts:    Germany:   1920. 

ALL  INDIA  MOSLEM  LEAGUE.  See 
India:    1907-1921. 

ALL  RUSSIAN  CENTRAL  EXECUTIVE 
COMMITTEE:  Organization,  powers  and  du- 
ties.    See  Russia,  Soviet  constitution  or. 

ALL  RUSSIAN  CONGRESS.  See  Bolshe- 
viKi:  Development  and  political  form  of  their 
power;  Russia:  1917:  Disintegrating  propaganda, 
etc.;  Russia,  Soviet  constitution  of. 

ALL  RUSSIAN  GOVERNMENT  (1918). 
See  Russia:   1918-1920:  Anti-Bolshevik  movement. 

"ALL  THE  TALENTS"  MINISTRY.  See 
England:    1806-1812. 

ALLANSON,  Cecil  John  Lyons  (1877-  ), 
British  lieutenant  colonel.  See  World  War:  1915: 
VI.  Turkev:   a,  4   (xxx). 

ALLATOONA.     See  Alatoona. 

ALLDEUTCHER  VERBUND.  See  Pan- 
Germanism. 

ALLECTUS,  Minister  of  Carausius  in  Brit- 
ain.— Battle  with  the  Romans.  See  Britain:  288- 
2q7.  ' 

ALLEGEWIS.    See  Alleghans. 

ALLEGHANS,  or  AUegewi,  or  Talligewi.— 
"The  oldest  tribe  of  the  United  States,  of  which 
there  is  a  distinct  tradition,  were  the  Alleghans 
The  term  is  perpetuated  in  the  principal  chain 
of  mountains  traversing  the  country.  This  tribe, 
at  an  antique  period,  had  the  seat  of  their  power 
in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  its  confluent  streams, 
which  were  the  sites  of  their  numerous  towns  and 
villages.  They  appear  originally  to  have  borne  the 
name  of  AUi,  or  AUeg,  and  hence  the  names  of 
Talligewi  and  AUegewi.  (Trans.  Am.  Phi.  Soc, 
vol.  I.)  By  adding  to  the  radical  of  this  word  the 
particle  'hany'  or  'ghany,'  meaning  river,  they  de- 
scribed the  principal  scene  of  their  residence — name- 
ly, the  Alleghany,  or  River  of  the  Alleihans,  now 
called  Ohio.  The  word  Ohio  is  of  Iroquois  origin, 
and  of  a  far  later  period;  having  been  bestowed 
by  them  after  their  conquest  of  the  country,  in 
alliance  with  the  Lenapees,  or  ancient  Delawares. 
(Phi.  Trans.)  The  term  was  applied  to  the  entire 
river,  from  its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi,  to 
its  origin  in  the  broad  spurs  of  the  AUeghanies,  in 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  .  .  .  There  are  evi- 


217 


ALLEGIANCE 


ALLEN 


dences  of  antique  labors  in  the  alluvial  plains  and 
valleys  of  the  Scioto,  Miami,  and  Muskingum,  the 
Wabash,  Kaskaskia,  Cahokia,  and  Illinois,  denoting 
that  the  ancient  AUeghans,  and  their  allies  and 
confederates,  cultivated  the  soil,  and  were  serai- 
agriculturists.  These  evidences  have  been  traced, 
at  late  periods,  to  the  fertile  table-lands  of  Indiana 
and  Michigan.  The  tribes  lived  in  Axed  towns,  cul- 
tivating extensive  fields  of  the  zea-maize;  and  also, 
as  denoted  by  recent  discoveries,  ...  of  some  spe- 
cies of  beans,  vines,  and  esculents.  They  were,  in 
truth,  the  mound  builders." — H.  R.  Schoolcraft, 
Information  respecting  the  Indian  tribes,  pi.  s,  p. 
133. — This  conclusion,  to  which  Mr.  Schoolcraft 
had  arrived,  that  the  ancient  AUeghans  or  Tallegwi 
were  the  mound  builders  of  the  Ohio  valley  is 
being  sustained  by  later  investigators,  and  seems 
to  have  become  an  accepted  opinion  among  those 
of  highest  authority.  The  AUeghans,  moreover, 
are  being  identified  with  the  Chcrokees  of  later 
times,  in  whom  their  race,  once  supposed  to  be 
extinct,  has  apparently  survived;  while  the  fact, 
long  suspected,  that  the  Cherokee  language  is  of 
the  Iroquois  family  is  being  proved  by  the  latest 
studies.  According  to  Indian  tradition,  the  Al- 
leghans  were  driven  from  their  ancient  seats.  Ion.; 
ago,  by  a  combination  against  them  of  the  Lenape 
(Delawares)  and  the  Mengwe  (Iroquois).  The 
route  of  their  migrations  is  being  traced  by  the 
character  of  the  mounds  which  they  built,  and  of 
the  remains  gathered  from  the  mounds.  "The  gen- 
eral movement  [of  retreat  before  the  Iroquois  and 
Lenape]  .  .  .  must  have  been  southward,  .  .  .  and 
the  exit  of  the  Ohio  mound  builders  was,  in  all 
probability,  up  the  Kanawah  Valley  on  the  same 
line  that  the  Cherokees  appear  to  have  followed 
in  reaching  their  historical  locality.  ...  If  the 
hypothesis  here  advanced  be  correct,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  Cherokees  entered  the  immediate  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  from  the  northwest,  striking  it  in 
the  region  of  Iowa." — C.  Thomas,  Problem  of  the 
Ohio  mounds  (Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i8Sq).  See 
Cherokees;  Iroquois  coxfeder.*cy ;  also  America, 
Prehistoric. 

Ai^o  in:  C.  Thomas,  Burial  mounds  of  Northern 
sections  of  the  U.  S.  (Fifth  An.  Rept.  of  the 
Bureau  of  ethnology,  1883-84) . — J.  Heckeweldcr, 
Account  of  the  Indian  Nations,  ch.  i. 

ALLEGIANCE,  the  fidelity  owed  by  every 
person  to  a  ruler  or  to  a  state.  Developing  from 
feudal  times,  when  it  was  a  personal  obligation 
to  the  subject's  liege  lord,  it«  is  in  modern  mon- 
archies a  duty  owed  nominally  to  the  sovereign 
but  really  to  the  country  which  he  personifies. 
In  the  United  States  of  America,  allegiance  is  due 
the  state  itself.  It  readily  falls  into  three  classes: 
(i)  natural  allegiance,  due  to  birth  within  the 
country;  (2)  acquired  allegiance,  due  to  volun- 
tary naturalization  or  to  acquiescence  in  citizen- 
ship granted  in  connection  with  the  transfer  of 
territory  from  one  country  to  another;  (3)  tem- 
porary limited  allegiance,  due  from  a  foreigner  to 
the  country  in  which  he  is  sojourning,  and  involv- 
ing proper  obedience  to  authority.  This  last  ob- 
ligation is  terminated  on  departure  from  the  coun- 
try. Natural  allegiance  also  applies  to  those  born 
abroad  under  certain  circumstances,  and  cases  of 
ambiguity  are  settled  by  voluntary  election  of 
citizenship.  For  example,  if  an  American  citizen 
has  a  child  born  abroad,  it  is  considered  a  natural 
born  .American.  At  the  same  time  the  child  born 
in  America  of  foreign  parents  may  choose  Ameri- 
can allegiance  and  automatically  assume  American 
citizenship.  The  right  of  voluntarv  naturalization 
and  transfer  of  allegiance  has  been  generally  rec- 
ognized since  about  1870  by  most  civilized  nations, 


although  previously  allegiance  was  regarded  as  in- 
alienable. The  former  doctrine  had  led  to  the 
British  claim  of  the  right  to  impress  seamen  of 
alleged  British  birth ;  and  to  demands  of  conti- 
nental countries  that  their  nationals  should  not 
escape  military  duty  by  American  naturalization. 
The  late  German  empire  asserted  the  right  of  dual 
citizenship  and  actually  passed  a  law  by  which 
Germans  could  retain  the  rights  and  duties  of 
German  allegiance  even  after  taking  oath  to  sup- 
port and  defend  another  country. — See  also  Brit- 
ish empire:  Citizenship;  Naturalization;  U.  S.A.; 
1812  and  1814. 

ALLEGRI,  Gregorio  (1584-1652),  Italian 
composer.  Entered  the  Papal  chapel  in  1629.  His 
works  are  chiefly  motets,  the  most  famous  of  which 
is  the  Miserere  sung  annually  by  the  Pontifical 
choir  on  Wednesday  and  Friday  of  Holy  Week. 
See  Music:    i6th  century. 

ALLEMAGNE,  the  French  name  for  Germany, 
derived  from  the  confederation  of  the  Alemanni. 
See  Alsace-Lorraine;   1871. 

ALLEMANT,  France,  taken  by  the  French 
(1017).  See  World  War:  191 7:  II.  Western  front: 
f,  3. 

ALLEN,  Charles  Herbert  (1848-  ),  Amer- 
ican politician  and  banker.  Appointed  governor  of 
Porto  Rico.  See  Porto  Rico:  1900  (May),  (No- 
vember-December) . 

ALLEN,  Ethan  (1737-1789),  American  sol- 
dier. Upheld  the  rights  of  New  Hampshire  against 
New  York  state  for  jurisdiction  over  the  "New 
Hampshire  Grants,"  now  \ermont.  To  protest 
against  the  disregard  of  this  claim,  he  organized 
the  Green  Mountain  Boys,  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  offered  their  services  to  the  Ameri- 
can cause.  Captured  Fort  Ticonderoga  in  1775. 
Accompanied  the  Montgomery  expedition  to  Mon- 
treal and  was  made  prisoner.  His  correspondence 
with  Governor  Haldimand  of  Canada  laid  him 
open  to  a  charge  of  treason  which  was  never  sub- 
stantiated.— See  also  Vermont:  1749-1774,  1781; 
U.  S.  A.:  1775  (Mav),  (August-December). 

ALLEN,  Grant '(1848-1899).  See  Art:  What 
is  art. 

ALLEN,  Henry  Justin  (1868-  ),  American 
editor  and  statesman;  governor  of  Kansas,  191Q- 
192 1.  An  independent  Republican.  Broke  a  coal 
miners'  strike  by  calling  upon  citizens  to  serve  as 
volunteer  miners.  Sponsored  some  drastic  legis- 
lation for  compulsory  arbitration  of  industrial  dis- 
putes which  he  defended  in  debate  with  Samuel 
Gompers. — See  also  Arbitration  and  Conciliation, 
Industrial:  United  States:  1020-1921. 

ALLEN,  Horatio  (1802-1S89),  American  en- 
gineer. Inventor  of  the  swivelling  truck  for  loco- 
motives.    See  Railroads:    1830-1880. 

ALLEN,  Ira  (1751-1814),  brother  of  Ethan 
.Mien,  one  of  the  founders  of  Vermont.  See  Ver- 
mont:   1 781. 

ALLEN,  James  Lane  (1849-  ),  American 
novelist  and  short-story  writer.  Graduate  of  Ken- 
tucky University  (1S72),  where  he  later  taught 
languages.  Since  1S86  he  has  devoted  himself  to 
the  writing  of  novels  dealing  almost  wholly  with 
the  'blue-grass  region'  and  containing  studies  of 
nature  and   the  pioneers. 

ALLEN,  Sir  James  (1855-  ),  Prime  Minis- 
ter of  New  Zealand  since  1912  and  minister  of 
finance  and  education  from  1012  to  i9i.S-  For  his 
action  in  the  New  Zealand  coal  strike  see  Labor 

STRIKES    AND    BOYCOTTS:     191? 

ALLEN,  William  (1806-1879),  American 
statesman.  Member  of  Congress  from  Ohio.  1833- 
3,!;:  United  States  senator,  1837-49.  Elected  Dem- 
ocratic governor  of  Ohio,    1873.     Favored  green- 

18 


ALLENBY 


ALMA-TADEMA 


Jjack  paper  money.  Defeated  for  reelection  by 
R.  B.  Hayes.  Reputed  author  of  the  slogan  "Fif- 
ty-four forty,  or  fight."  Known  in  the  senate  as 
"Earthquake  Allen,"  and  "The  Ohio  Gong." 

ALLENBY,  Edmund  Henry  Hynman,  Vis- 
count (1861-  ),  British  field  marshal;  served  in 
South  Africa  in  various  campaigns  from  1884  to 
igo2,  commanding  cavalry  in  the  Boer  War  and 
being  cited  and  decorated;  had  important  cavalry 
command  at  beginning  of  World  War,  being  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant-general;  commander-in-chief 
Egyptian  Expeditionary  Force,  I9i7-i9ig;  served 
throughout  Palestine  campaign  and  was  made  field- 
marsbal  and  viscount;  captured  Jerusalem  in  191 7 
and  in  the  campaign  of  IQ18  crushed  Turkish  re- 
sistance m  Syria.  In  1920,  made  High  Commis- 
sioner for  Egypt. — See  also  Egypt:   1918-1919. 

British  retreat.  See  World  War:  1914:  I. 
Western  front:   n. 

At  the  battle  of  the  Aisne.  See  World  War: 
1914:  I.  Western  front:  s,  1. 

Operations  around  Lys.  See  World  War: 
1014:    I.  Western  front:   w,  4. 

At  the  battle  of  Ypres.  See  World  War:  1914: 
I.   Western  front:   w,  14. 

In  command  of  the  British  third  army.  See 
World  War:   1915:   H,  Western  front;  a,  7. 

At  the  battle  of  the  Somme.  See  World  War: 
1916:  H.  Western  front:  d,  5. 

At  the  battle  of  Arras.  See  World  War:  1917: 
n.  Western  front:   c,  4. 

Capture  of  Jerusalem. — Despatches.  See 
Jerusalem:  1917;  World  War:  1917:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  c;  c,  2;  c,  2,  vii;  c,  2,  ix;  c,  3. 

ALLENDE,  Ignacio  (1779-1811),  Mexican  gen- 
eral.    See  Mexico:   1810-1810. 

ALLENSTEIN,  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  sixty 
miles  south  of  Konigsberg,  on  the  Thorn-Kovno 
railroad.  Figured  prominently  in  the  maneuvers 
preliminary  to  the  battle  of  Tannenberg,  August, 
IQ14. — See  also  World  War;  1914:  II.  Eastern 
front:  c,  3. 

ALLENTICAN  INDIANS.  See  Indians, 
American;  Cultural  areas  in  South  America:  Pam- 
pean  area 

ALLERHEIM,  Battle  of  (or  Second  battle 
of  Nordlingen,  1645).     See  Germany:   1640-1645. 

ALLIA,  Battle  of  (390  B.C.).  See  Rome: 
B.C.  300-347- 

ALLIANCE,  Dual,  Holy,  etc.  See  under  name, 
as  Dual  alliance,  Holy  alliance.  For  list  of 
alliances,  see  League. 

ALLIANCE  ISRAELITE  UNIVERSELLE. 
See  Jews;    i8th-ioth  centuries,  and  Zionism. 

ALLIGEWI  INDIANS.  See  Iroquois  con- 
federacy. 

ALLISON,  William  Boyd  (1829-1908),  Ameri- 
can legislator,  served  as  Republican  in  House  of 
Representatives  (1863-1871)  ;  elected  to  Senate  in 
1873  and  reelected  in  1878,  1884,  1890,  1896  and 
1902;  assured  the  passage  of  the  Silver  Coinage 
Act  of  1878,  known  as  the  Bland-Allison  Act,  by 
amending  Bland's  original  bill  and  striking  out  the 
provision  for  "free  and  unlimited"  silver  coinage. 

ALLIZE:  French  minister  at  Munich  and 
Bavaria.  See  World  War;  Diplomatic  back- 
ground:  12,  and  4. 

ALLMAN,  George  James  (1812-1898),  Scot- 
tish zoologist ;  Regius  professor  of  natural  history 
in  Edinbur^'h  University,  1855;  president  of  the 
Linnaean  Society,  1874,  and  president  of  the  British 
Association,  1870. 

ALLOBROGES,  Conquest  of  the.— The  Allo- 
broges  having  sheltered  the  chiefs  of  the  Salyes, 
when  the  latter  succumbed  to  the  Romans,  and 
having  refused  to  deliver  them  up,  the  proconsul 


Cn.  Domitius  marched  his  army  toward  their 
country,  B.  C.  121.  The  Allobroges  advanced  to 
meet  him  and  were  defeated  at  V'indalium,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Sorgues  with  the  Rhone,  and 
not  far  from  Avignon,  having  20,000  men  slain 
and  3,000  taken  prisoners.  The  Arverni,  who  were 
the  allies  of  the  Allobroges,  then  took  the  field 
crossing  the  Cevennes  mountains  and  the  river 
Rhone  with  a  vast  host,  to  attack  the  small  Roman 
army  of  30,000  men,  which  had  passed  under  the 
command  of  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  ^milianus.  On 
the  8th  of  August,  B.  C.  121,  the  Gaulish  horde 
encountered  the  legions  of  Rome,  at  a  point  near 
the  junction  of  the  Isere  and  the  Rhone,  and  were 
routed  v/ith  such  enormous  slaughter  that  150,000 
are  said  to  have  been  slain  or  drowned.  This 
battle  settled  the  fate  of  the  Allobroges,  who 
surrendered  to  Rome  without  further  struggle; 
but  the  Arverni  were  not  pursued.  The  final  con- 
quest of  that  people  was  reserved  for  Caesar. — G. 
Long,  Decline  nf  the  Roman  Republic,  v.  i,  cli.  21. 

ALLOTMENTS.— "From  1882  to  1890,  [in 
England]  a  series  of  allotment  Acts  were  passed  to 
enable  the  local  authorities  to  acquire  lands  to 
rent  in  small  parcels.  This  was  followed  in  1892, 
by  the  Small  Holdings  Act,  empowering  County 
Councils  to  obtain  lands  and  advance  sums  of 
money  to  those  who  desired  to  purchase  holdings 
of  fifty  acres  or  under.  But  none  of  these  meas- 
ures proved  effective ;  for  in  fifteen  years  not  more 
than  850  acres  were  sold.  A  new  Small  Holdings 
and  Allotments  Act  of  1907,  authorizing  the 
County  Councils  to  take  lands  at  the  current 
price  with  or  without  the  consent  of  the  large 
owners,  has  proved  more  successful,  and  within 
three  years  nearly  100,000  acres  were  allotted  to 
small  cultivators.  At  present  [1920],  plans  are 
under  discussion  to  improve  the  housing  conditions 
of  the  agricultural  laborer,  to  raise  his  wages,  to 
secure  deserving  tenants  against  eviction,  and  to 
increase  still  further  the  number  of  peasant  pro- 
prietors."— A.  L.  Cross,  History  of  England  and 
Greater  Britain,  pp.   742-7^13. 

ALLOUEZ,  Claude  Jean  (1620-1689),  one  of 
the  early  French  Jesuits  to  visit  the  Great  Lakes. 
Founded  the  Mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  Lake 
Superior  in  1665,  explored  Green  Bay  and  estab- 
lished missions  among  the  Illinois  Indians. — See  also 
Canada:    1634-1673;    Wisconsin;    1658-1669. 

ALLPORT,  Sir  James  Joseph  (1811-1892), 
F.nglish  railway  manager.  Was  connected  with  the 
growth  and  development  of  railway  lines  from 
their  beginning  and  rose  to  be  manager  of  the 
great  Midland  system,  one  of  the  most  important 
in  England.  Developed  the  third-class  passenger 
service  at  a  penny  a  mile. 

ALLSTON,  Washington  (1779-1843),  Ameri- 
can historical  painter  and  poet.  "Elijah  in  the 
wilderness,"  "The  Prophet  Jeremiah"  and  "Saul 
and  the  Witch  of  Endor"  are  among  his  most  noted 
works. 

ALMA,  Battle  of  (1854).  See  Russia:  1854- 
18S6. 

ALMAGEST  OF  PTOLEMY.  See  Science: 
Ancient:  Greek. 

ALMAGRO,  Diego  de  (1475-1538).  See  Amer- 
ica; 1524-1528;  Chile:  1535-1724;  Peru:  1528- 
1531.  iS3i-i,«3,  1533-1548. 

ALMANSOR,  Jacob.     See  Almohades. 

ALMANZA,  or  Almansa,  Battle  of.  See 
Spain:   1707. 

ALMA-TADEMA,  Sir  Laurence  (Laurens) 
(1836-1912),  Dutch-British  painter.  Many  of  his 
paintings  were  designed  to  reproduce  the  life  of 
ancient  Egypt,  Greece  and  Rome.  "The  education 
of  the  children  of  Clovis,"  "An   Egyptian   at  his 


219 


ALMEIDA 


ALOD 


doorwaj',"  "The  mummy,"  "Phidias  and  the  Elgin 
marbles,"  and  "The  vintage  festival"  are  among 
his  most  notable  works. 

ALMEIDA,  Francisco  de  (c.  1450-1510),  Por- 
tuguese warrior.  Served  against  the  Moors ;  estab- 
lished Portuguese  fortresses  in  Cochin,  Ceylon  and 
Sumatra ;  destroyed  the  Egyptian  fleet  at  Diu  in 
1508. — See  also  Commerce;  Era  of  geographic  ex- 
pansion: I5th-i7th  centuries:  Leadership  of  the 
Portuguese;  India:   1408-1580. 

ALMENARA,  Battle  of  (1710).  See  Spain: 
1707-1710. 

ALMERIC.     See  AAtALRic. 

ALMOGAVARES,  mercenary  Spanish  soldiers 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  They 
originally  came  from  the  Pyrenees,  though  they 
were  later  recruited  from  Navarre,  Aragon,  and 
Catalonia.  They  were  frontier  foot-soldiers,  light- 
ing with  javelins,  short  stabbing  swords,  and 
shields.  The  culmination  of  their  achievements 
was  the  foundation  of  the  .■\ragonese  duchy  of 
Athens.  The  name  died  out  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

ALMOHADES.— The  empire  of  the  Almora- 
vides,  in  Morocco  and  Spain,  which  originated  in  a 
Moslem  missionary  movement,  was  overturned  in 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  by  a  movement 
of  somewhat  similar  nature.  The  agitating  cause 
of  the  revolution  was  a  religious  teacher  named 
Mahomet  ben  Abdallah,  who  rose  in  the  reign  of 
.All  (successor  to  the  great  Almoravide  prince, 
Joseph),  w'ho  gained  the  odor  of  sanctity  at  Mo- 
rocco and  who  took  the  title  of  AI  Mehdi,  or  El 
Mahdi,  the  Leader,  "giving  himself  out  for  the 
person  whom  many  Mahometans  expect  under 
that  title.  As  before,  the  sect  grew  into  an  army, 
and  the  army  grew  into  an  empire.  The  new  dyn- 
asty were  called  .\lmohades  from  Al  Mehdi,  and 
by  his  appointment  a  certain  .'\bdelmumen  was 
elected  Caliph  and  Commander  of  the  Faithful. 
Under  his  vigorous  guidance  the  new  kingdom 
rapidly  grew,  till  the  Almohades  obtained  quite 
the  upper  hand  in  .Africa,  and  in  1146  they  too 
passed  into  Spain.  [See  Spain:  1146-1232.]  Un- 
der Abdelmumcn,  Joseph  and  Jacob  Almansor,  the 
.Mmohades  entirely  supplanted  the  .Mmoravides,  and 
became  more  formidable  foes  than  they  had  been 
to  the  rising  Christian  powers.  Jacob  .Almansor 
won  in  1105  the  terrible  battle  of  Alarcos  against 
Alfonso  of  Castile,  and  carried  his  conquests  deep 
into  that  kingdom.  His  fame  spread  through  the 
whole  Moslem  world.  .  .  .  With  Jacob  .Mmansor 
perished  the  glory  of  the  .Mmohades.  His  succes- 
sor, Mahomet,  lost  in  1211  [June  i6l  the  great 
battle  of  .Alacab  or  Tolosa  against  .\lfonso,  and 
that  day  may  be  said  to  have  decided  the  fate  of 
Mahometanism  in  Spain.  The .  Almohadc  dynasty 
gradually  declined.  .  .  .  The  .\lmohades,  like  the 
Ommiads  and  the  .'\lmoravides.  vanish  from  his- 
tory amidst  a  scene  of  confusion  the  details  of 
which  it  were  hopeless  to  attempt  to  remember." 
— E.  -A.  Freeman,  History  and  conqufsts  of  the 
Saracens,  ted.  $. — See  also  .Africa:  Ancient  and 
medieval  civilization:   .Arab  occupation. 

Also  tn  H.  Coppee,  History  of  the  conquest  of 
Spain   hx   the  Arah-.\foors,  bk.  8,  ch.  4. 

ALMONACID,  Battle  of  (1800).  See  Spain: 
1800   (.August-November). 

ALMORAVIDES.— During  the  confusions  of 
the  nth  century  in  the  Moslem  world,  a  mission- 
ary from  Kairwan — one  .Abdallah — preaching  the 
faith  of  Islam  to  a  wild  tribe  in  Western  North 
Africa,  created  a  religious  movement  which  "na- 
turally led  to  a  political  one." 

"The  tribe  now  called  themselves  .Almoravides, 
or  more  properly  Morabethah,   which   appears  to 


mean  followers  of  the  Marabout  or  religious 
teacher.  .Abdallah  does  not  appear  to  have  him- 
self claimed  more  than  a  religious  authority,  but 
their  princes  Zachariah  and  .Abu  Bekr  were  com- 
pletely guided  by  his  counsels.  After  his  death 
.Abu  Bekr  founded  in  1070  the  city  of  Morocco. 
There  he  left  as  his  lieutenant  his  cousin  Joseph, 
who  grew  so  powerful  that  .Abu  Bekr,  by  a  won- 
derful exercise  of  moderation,  abdicated  in  his 
favour,  to  avoid  a  probable  civil  war.  This 
Joseph,  when  he  had  become  lord  of  most  part  of 
Western  Africa,  was  requested,  or  caused  himself 
to  be  requested,  to  assume  the  title  of  Emir  al 
Momenin,  Commander  of  the  Faithful.  As  a  loyal 
subject  of  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  he  shrank  from 
such  sacrilegious  usurpation,  but  he  did  not 
scruple  to  style  himself  Emir  Al  Muslemin,  Com- 
mander of  the  Moslems.  .  .  .  The  Almoravide 
Joseph  passed  over  into  Spain,  like  another  Tarik; 
he  vanquished  .Alfonso  [the  Christian  prince  of 
the  rising  kingdom  of  Castile]  at  Zalacca  [Oct.  23, 
10S6]  and  then  converted  the  greater  portion  ot 
Mahometan  Spain  into  an  appendage  to  his  own 
kingdom  of  Morocco.  The  chief  portion  to  escape 
was  the  kingdom  of  Zaragossa,  the  great  out-post 
of  the  Saracens  in  northeastern  Spain.  .  .  .  The 
great  cities  of  Andalusia  were  all  brought  under  a 
degrading  submission  to  the  .Almoravides.  Their 
dynasty  hoivever  was  not  of  long  duration,  and  it 
fell  in  turn  [1147]  before  one  whose  origin  was 
strikingly  similar  to  their  own"  [the  Almohades 
q.v.]. — E.  A.  Freeman,  History  and  conquests  of 
the  Saracens,  led.  5. — See  also  Crusades:  Map; 
AD.  1097;  PoRTUCU.;  Early  history;  Sp.ain:  1146- 
1232. 

Also  in:  H.  Coppee,  History  of  the  conquest  of 
Spain  by  the  Arab-Moors,  bk.  8,  ch.  2  and  4. 

ALMUTZ,  Siege  of  (1758).  See  Germany: 
1758. 

ALNWICK  CASTLE,  a  British  merchant  ship 
torpedoed  March  19,  iqi7,  by  a  German  submarine 
without  warning  320  miles  from  land;  the  crew  was 
forced  to  take  to  six  open  boats,  some  of  which 
were  lost.  After  several  days  of  severe  sufferins  the 
survivors  were  rescued  by  the  French  steamer  Vene- 
zia. 

ALOD,  ALODIAL.— "It  may  be  questioned 
whether  any  etymological  connexion  exists  between 
the  words  odal  and  alod,  but  their  signification  ap- 
plied to  land  is  the  same:  the  alod  is  the  heredi- 
tary estate  derived  from  primitive  occupation; 
for  which  the  owner  owes  no  service  except  the 
personal  obligation  to  appear  in  the  host  and  in 
the  council  .  .  .  The  land  held  in  full  ownership 
might  be  either  an  ethcl,  an  inherited  or  other- 
wise acquired  portion  of  original  allotment ;  or  an 
estate  created  by  legal  process  out  of  public  land. 
Both  these  are  included  in  the  more  common  term 
alod;  but  the  former  looks  for  its  evidence  in  the 
pedicree  of  its  owner  or  in  the  witness  of  the  com- 
munity, while  the  latter  can  produce  the  charter 
or  book  by  which  it  is  created,  and  is  called  boc- 
land.  .As  the  primitive  allotments  gradually  lost 
their  historical  character,  as  the  primitive  modes  of 
transfer  became  obsolete,  and  the  use  of  written 
records  took  their  place,  the  ethel  is  lost  sight  of 
in  the  bookland.  .All  the  land  that  is  not  so  ac- 
counted for  is  folcland,  or  public  land." — W. 
Stubbs,  Constitutional  history  of  Eni;land,  ch.  3, 
sect.  24,  and  ch.  5,  sect.  36. — ".Alodial  lands  are 
commonly  opposed  to  beneficiary  or  feudal;  the 
former  being  strictly  proprietary,  while  the  latter 
depended  upon  a  superior.  In  this  sense  the  word 
is  of  continual  recurrence  in  ancient  histories,  laws 
and  instruments.  It  sometimes,  however,  bears  the 
sense   of   inheritance.  .  .  .  Hence,   in    the   charters 


220 


ALOMPRA 


ALPHABET 


of  the  eleventh  century,  hereditary  fiefs  are  fre- 
quently termed  alodia." — H.  Hallam,  View  of  the 
slate  oj  Europe  during  tlie  Middle  Ages,  cli.  2,  pi. 
I,  nole. — See  also  Folcland. 

Also  in:  J.  M.  Kemble,  Saxons  in  England,  bk. 
I,  ch.  II. 

ALOMPRA,  Aloung  P'Houra  (1711-1760), 
founder  of  the  last  Burmese  dynasty.  Ousted  the 
invading  Peguans  in  1753,  and  seized  the  Burmese 
throne;  founded  the  city  of  Rangoon.  In  1757 
conquered  Pegu,  making  himself  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  eastern  monarchs. — See  also  Burma: 
Early  history. 

ALONZO,  Severe,  president  of  Bolivia,  i8q6- 
1S99.     See   Bolivi.a:    iSqq. 

ALOST,  a  town  in  central  Belgium,  the  old 
capital  of  East  Flanders,  thirty  miles  west  of 
Louvain.  Printing  was  introduced  into  Belgium  in 
1475  by  Thierry  Martens,  a  native  of  Alost.  In 
1914  the  scene  of  military  severities  and  violations 
of  the  laws  of  war  by  the  Germans.  See  Belgium: 
1667;  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  serv- 
ices: X.  Alleged  atrocities  and  violation  of  inter- 
national law:  a,  11. 

ALP,  the  name  given  by  the  Swiss  inhabitants 
of  the  Alpine  valleys  to  the  summer  pastures  situ- 
ated on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  below  the 
snow  line.  These  mountain  pastures,  found 
throughout  the  Alpine  system,  have  been  in  use 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years;  references  to 
their  existence  in  the  years  730,  868  'and  gqg  have 
been  noted.  In  the  German-speaking  mountain 
districts  these  alps  are  the  centers  of  the  pastoral 
life  of  the  inhabitants.  Statistics  show  that  there 
are  4778  such  pastures  now  in  the  country,  45% 
of  which  are  owned  jointly  or  exclusively  by  the 
communes,  54 '/r  by  individuals,  and  the  remaining 
I'/f  by  the  state  or  a  few  of  the  larger  monasteries. 

Also  in:  J.  Ball,  Hints  and  notes,  practical  and 
scientific,  jar  travellers  in  the  Alps  (art.  X  and 
pp.  Ivii-lxv). 

ALP  ARSLAN,  or  Mohammed  ben  Da'ud 
(102Q-1072),  sultan  of  Khorasan,  105Q-1072.  Con- 
quered Georgia  and  .'Armenia  about  1064;  in  107 1 
captured  Aleppo  and  took  prisoner  the  Byzantine 
emperor  Romanus  Diogenes;  founder  of  the  Sel- 
juk  empire  of  Rum.     See  Turkey:    1063-1073. 

ALPHABET.— Importance  of  the  alphabet.— 
"To  us  nothing  seems  more  natural  or  more  easy 
than  to  express  on  paper  the  sounds  of  our  spoken 
words  by  means  of  those  twenty-six  simple  signs 
which  we  call  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet.  The 
phrase  'as  easy  as  A.  B.  C  has  actually  become  a 
proverbial  expression.  And  yet,  if  we  set  aside 
the  still  more  wonderful  invention  of  speech,  the 
discovery  of  the  Alphabet  may  fairly  be  accounted 
the  most  difficult  as  well  a?  the  most  fruitful  of 
all  the  past  achievements  of  the  human  intellect. 
It  has  been  at  once  the  triumph,  the  instrument, 
and  the  register  of  the  progress  of  our  race.  But, 
long  before  the  Alphabet  had  been  invented,  men 
had  contrived  other  systems  of  graphic  represen- 
tation by  means  of  which  words  could  be  recorded. 
The  discovery  of  some  rude  form  of  the  art  of 
writing  was,  we  may  believe,  the  first  permanent 
step  that  was  taken  in  the  progress  towards  civ- 
ilization. Till  men  could  leave  behind  them  a 
record  of  acquired  knowledge  the  sum  of  their 
acquisitions  must  have  remained  almost  stationary. 
Thus  only  could  successive  generations  be  enabled 
to  profit  by  the  labours  of  those  who  had  gone 
before,  and  begin  their  onward  progress  from  the 
most  advanced  point  which  their  predecessors  had 
attained.  It  is  true  that  at  a  time  when  writing 
was  unknown  it  would  be  possible  for  civiliza- 
tion    to    advance    in    certain    defined     directions. 


There  would,  for  example,  be  nothing  to  prevent  a 
considerable  development  of  artistic  skill ;  the  me- 
tallurgic,  the  ceramic,  and  the  textile  arts  might 
flourish,  and  certain  forms  of  poetry — lyric,  epic, 
and  dramatic — would  not  altogether  be  impossible. 
All  this  might  easily  be  the  case,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  law  would  be  mainly  custom,  science  could 
be  little  more  than  vague  traditions,  history  would 
be  uncertain  legend,  while  religion  must  have  con- 
sisted mainly  of  rhythmic  adorations,  and  of  for- 
mulas of  magical  incantation.  The  \'edic  hymns, 
the  Arval  chants,  the  Rhapsodies  of  the  Kalevala, 
the  metrical  maledictions  of  Accadian  priests,  the 
tale  of  Troy,  the  legend  of  Romulus,  the  tradi- 
tional folk  lore  of  the  Maoris,  may  give  us  a 
measure  of  the  extreme  limits  which  are  attain- 
able by  the  religion,  the  literature,  the  history,  and 
the  science  of  unlettered  nations.  It  is  more  than 
a  mere  epigram  to  affirm  that  unlettered  races 
must  of  necessity  be  illiterate.  But  not  only  may 
a  people  have  a  literature  without  letters,  but  they 
may  possess  the  Art  of  Writing  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  an  Alphabet.  Every  system  of  non- 
alphabetic  writing  will,  however,  either  be  so  limited 
in  its  power  of  expression  as  to  be  of  small  prac- 
tical value,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  su 
difficult  and  complicated  as  to  be  unsuited  for  gen- 
eral use.  It  is  only  by  means  of  the  potent  sim- 
plicity of  the  alphabet  that  the  art  of  writing 
can  be  brought  within  general  reach.  The  famil- 
iar instances  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  China  are 
sufficient  to  prove  that  without  the  alphabet  any 
complete  system  for  the  graphic  representation  of 
speech  is  an  acquirement  so  arduous  as  to  de- 
mand the  labour  of  a  lifetime.  Under  such  condi- 
tions, science  and  religion  necessarily  tend  to  re- 
main the  exclusive  property  of  a  sacerdotal  ca.ste; 
any  diffused  and  extended  national  culture  be- 
comes impossible,  religion  degenerates  into  magic, 
the  chasm  which  separates  the  rulers  and  the 
ruled  grows  greater  and  more  impassable,  and  the 
very  art  of  writing,  instead  of  being  the  most 
effective  of  all  the  means  of  progress,  becomes  one 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  instruments  by  which 
the  masses  of  mankind  can  be  held  enslaved. 
Hence  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  really  impor- 
tant factor  in  human  progress  is  not  so  much  the 
discovery  of  a  method  by  which  words  can  be 
recorded,  as  the  invention  of  some  facile  graphic 
device,  such  as  the  alphabet,  by  means  of  which 
the  art  of  writing  can  be  so  far  simplified  as  to 
become  attainable  before  the  years  of  adolescence 
have  been  passed." — I.  Taylor,  History  of  the  al- 
phabet, pp.  1-3. 

Earliest  stages  of  development. — "The  art  of 
writing  involves  very  complex  factors.  It  can 
hardly  be  in  doubt  that  man  learned  that  art  by 
slow  and  painful  stages.  The  conception  of  such 
an  analysis  of  speech-sounds  as  would  make  the 
idea  of  an  alphabet  possible  must  have  come  as 
the  culminating  achievement  of  a  long  series  of 
efforts.  The  precise  steps  that  marked  this  path 
of  intellectual  development  can  for  the  most  part 
be  known  only  by  inference;  yet  it  is  probable 
that  the  main  chapters  of  the  story  may  be  repro- 
duced with  essential  accuracy.  For  the  very  first 
chapters  of  the  story  we  must  go  back  in  imagina- 
tion to  the  prehistoric  period.  Even  barbaric  man 
feels  the  need  of  self-expression,  and  strives  to 
make  his  ideas  manifest  to  other  men  by  pictorial 
signs.  The  cave-dweller  scratched  pictures  of  men 
and  animals  on  the  surface  of  a  reindeer  horn  or 
mammoth  tusk  as  mementos  of  his  prowess.  The 
American  Indian  does  essentially  the  same  thing 
to-day,  making  pictures  that  crudely  record  his 
successes   in    war   and    the   chase.     The   Northern 


221 


ALPHABET 


Earliest  Stages 


ALPHABET 


Indian  had  got  no  farther  than  this  when  the 
white  man  discovered  Amerira ;  but  the  Aztecs  of 
the  South-west  and  the  Maya  people  of  Yucatan 
had  carried  their  picture-makinp  to  a  much  higher 
state  of  elaboration.     They  had  developed  systems 


of  pictographs  or  hieroglyphics  that  would  doubt- 
less in  the  course  of  generations  have  been  elabo- 
rated into  alphabetical  systems,  had  not  the  Euro- 
peans cut  off  the  civilization  of  which  they  were 
the  highest  exponents.    What  the  Aztec  and  Maya 


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EXAMPLES  OF  EARLY  ALPHABETS 
222 


ALPHABET 


Deciphering 
Hieroglyphs 


ALPHABET 


were  striving  toward  in  the  sixteenth  century 
A.  D.,  various  Oriental  nations  had  attained  at  least 
five  or  six  thousand  years  earlier.  In  Egypt  at  the 
time  of  the  pyramid-builders,  and  in  Babylonia 
at  the  same  epoch,  the  people  had  developed  sys- 
tems of  writing  that  enabled  them  not  merely  to 
present  a  Hmited  range  of  ideas  pictorially,  but  to 
express  in  full  elaboration  and  with  finer  shades 
of  meaning  all  the  ideas  that  pertain  to  highly 
cultured  existence.  The  man  of  that  time  made 
records  of  military  achievements,  recorded  the 
transactions  of  every-day  business  life,  and  gave 
expression  to  his  moral  and  spiritual  aspirations 
in  a  way  strangely  comparable  to  the  manner  of 
our  own  time.  He  had  perfected  highly  elaborate 
systems  of  writing.  Of  the  two  ancient  systems 
of  writing  just  referred  to  as  being  in  vogue  at  the 
so-called  dawning  of  history,  the  more  picturesque 
and  suggestive  was  the  hieroglyphic  system  of  the 
Egyptians.  This  is  a  curiously  conglomerate  sys- 
tem of  writing,  made  up  in  part  of  symbols  rem- 
iniscent of  the  crudest  stages  of  picture-writing, 
in  part  of  symbols  having  the  phonetic  value  of 
syllables,  and  in  part  of  true  alphabetical  letters. 
In  a  word,  the  Egyptian  writing  represents  in  itself 
the  elements  of  the  various  stages  through  which 
the  art  of  writing  has  developed.  We  must  con- 
ceive that  new  features  were  from  time  to  time  ad- 
ded to  it.  while  the  old  features, 'curiously  enough, 
were  not  given  up.  Here,  for  example,  in  the  midst 
of  unintelligible  lines  and  pothooks,  are  various 
pictures  that  are  instantly  recognizable  as  repre- 
sentations of  hawks,  lions,  ibises,  and  the  like.  It 
can  hardly  be  questioned  that  when  these  pictures 
were  first  used  calligraphically  they  were  meant  to 
represent  the  idea  of  a  bird  or  animal.  In  other 
words,  the  first  stage  of  picture-writing  did  not 
go  beyond  the  mere  representation  of  an  eagle  by 
the  picture  of  an  eagle.  But  this,  obviously,  would 
confine  the  presentation  of  ideas  within  very  nar- 
row limits.  In  due  course  some  inventive  genius 
conceived  the  thought  of  syombolizing  a  picture 
To  him  the  outUne  of  an  eagle  might  represent  not 
merely  an  actual  bird,  but  the  thought  of  strength, 
of  courage,  or  of  swift  progress.  [See  also  Aztec 
AND  Maya  picture  writing.]  Such  a  use  of  sym- 
Dols  obviously  extends  the  range  of  utility  of  a 
nascent  art  of  writing.  Then  in  due  course  some 
wonderful  psychologist — or  perhaps  the  joint  ef- 
forts of  many  generations  of  psychologists — made 
the  astounding  discovery  that  the  human  voice, 
which  seems  to  flow  on  in  an  unbroken  stream  of 
endlessly  varied  modulations  and  intonations,  may 
really  be  analyzed  into  a  comparatively  limited 
number  of  component  sounds — into  a  few  hun- 
dreds of  syllables.  That  wonderful  idea  conceived, 
it  was  only  a  matter  of  time  until  it  would  occur 
to  some  other  enterprising  genius  that  by  selecting 
an  arbitrary  symbol  to  represent  each  one  of  these 
elementary  sounds  it  would  be  possible  to  make 
a  written  record  of  the  words  of  human  speech 
which  could  be  reproduced — rephonated — by  some 
one  who  had  never  heard  the  words  and  did  not 
know  in  advance  what  this  written  record  con- 
tained. This,  of  course,  is  what  every  child  learns 
to  do  now  in  the  primer  class,  but  we  may  feel 
assured  that  such  an  idea  never  occurred  to  any 
human  being  until  the  peculiar  forms  of  picto- 
graphic  writing  just  referred  to  had  been  practised 
for  many  centuries.  Yet,  as  we  have  said,  some 
genius  of  prehistoric  Egypt  conceived  the  idea  and 
put  it  into  practical  execution,  and  the  hierogly- 
phic writing  of  which  the  Egyptians  were  in  full 
possession  at  the  very  beginning  of  what  we  term 
the  historical  period  made  use  of  this  phonetic 
system  along  with  the  ideographic  system  already 


described." — H.  S.  Williams,  History  of  the  Al- 
phabet (Harper's  Magazine,  v.  loS,  pp.  534-535). 
Deciphering  the  hieroglyphs. — "Of  all  the 
splendid  achievements  of  archaeological  research 
during  the  present  century,  there  are  none  of  more 
universal  interest  and  importance  than  those  which 
are  revealing  the  origin  and  history  of  letters.  .  .  . 
.\t  the  beginning  of  the  present  [igj  century  the 
great  mass  of  testimony  now  laid  open  before  us 
was  an  apparently  impenetrable  mystery.  Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphics  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  yet 
remained,  for  the  most  part,  but  confusion  of  or- 
nament and  meaningless  signs.  Some  little  ad- 
vance, it  is  true,  had  been  reached  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  to  the 
signification  of  certain  hieroglyphic  characters,  but 
these  were  as  yet  but  conjecture;  a  groping  in  the 
dark,  with  no  means  to  verify,  uncertain,  unas- 
sured. [See  also  Cuneiform  writing.]  With 
the  opening  of  the  present  century  two  events 
occurred  which  were  to  place  in  the  hands 
of  scholars  the  keys  to  these  mysteries.  The 
first  in  date  of  these  discoveries,  through  not  in 
results,  was  the  finding  of  the  Rosetta  Stone  in 
1799.  This  was  an  outcome  of  the  French  scien- 
tific expedition  to  Egypt  under  the  first  Napoleon. 
At  this  date,  a  French  artillery  officer,  named 
Boussard,  while  digging  among  some  ruins  at 
Fort  St.  Julian,  near  Rosetta,  discovered  a  large 
stone,  of  black  basalt,  covered  with  inscriptions. 
This  tablet,  now  known  as  'The  Rosetta  Stone,' 
was  of  irregular  shape,  portions  having  been 
broken  from  the  top  and  sides.  The  inscriptions 
were  in  three  kinds  of  writing ;  the  upper  text  in 
hieroglyphic  characters,  the  second  in  a  later  form 
of  Egyptian  writing,  called  enchorial  or  demotic, 
and  the  third  was  in  Greek.  No  one  of  these  had 
been  entirely  preserved.  Of  the  hieroglyphic  text, 
a  considerable  portion  was  lacking;  perhaps  thir- 
teen or  fourteen  lines  at  the  beginning.  From  the 
demotic,  the  ends  of  about  half  the  lines  were  lost, 
while  the  Greek  text  was  nearly  perfect,  with  the 
e.xception  of  a  few  words  at  the  end.  The  im- 
mediate inferences  were  that  these  three  inscrip- 
tions were  but  different  forms  of  the  same  decree, 
and  that  in  the  Greek  would  be  found  some  clew 
for  the  decipherment  of  the  others.  It  was  first 
presented  to  the  French  Institute  at  Cairo  where 
it  was  destined  not  long  to  remain.  The  sur- 
render of  Alexandria  to  the  British,  in  1801,  placed 
the  Rosetta  Stone,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  in 
the  hands  of  the  British  commissioner.  This  gen- 
tleman, himself  a  zealous  scholar  and  keenly  alive 
to  the  importance  of  the  treasure,  at  once  dis- 
patched it  to  England,  where  it  was  presented  by 
George  III  to  the  British  Museum.  A  fac-simile 
of  the  inscriptions  was  made  in  1802,  by  the  So- 
ciety of  Antiquaries,  of  London,  and  copies  were 
soon  distributed  among  the  scholars  of  Europe. 
When  the  Greek  inscription  was  read,  it  was  found 
to  be  a  decree  by  the  priests  of  Memphis  in  honor 
of  King  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  B.  C.  iqS:  That,  in 
acknowledgment  of  many  and  great  benefits  con- 
ferred upon  them  by  this  king,  they  had  ordered 
this  decree  should  be  engraved  upon  a  tablet  of 
hard  stone  in  hieroglyphic,  enchorial  and  Greek 
characters;  the  first,  the  writing  sacred  to  the 
priests;  the  second,  the  language  or  script  of  the 
people,  and  the  third  that  of  the  Greeks,  their 
rulers.  Also,  that  this  decree,  so  engraved,  should 
be  set  up  in  the  temples  of  the  first,  second  and 
third  orders,  near  the  image  of  the  ever  living 
King.  It  might  be  supposed  that  with  this  clew 
the  work  of  decipherment  would  be  readily  ac- 
complished. On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  most 
distinguished  scholars  of  Europe  tried,  during  the 


223 


ALPHABET 


Theories 
of  Origin 


ALPHABET 


twenty  following  years,  without  success.  The  chief 
obstacle  in  the  way  was  the  prevailing  opinion 
that  the  pictorial  forms  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphs 
were  mainly  ideographic  symbols  of  things.  In 
consequence,  the  absurd  conceptions  read  into  these 
characters,  led  all  who  attempted  the  decipher- 
ment of  these  far  away  from  the  truth.  It  is 
true  that  Zoega,  a  Danish  archaeologist,  and 
Thomas  Young,  an  English  scholar,  each  inde- 
pendently, about  1787,  had  made  the  discovery 
that  the  hieroglyphs  in  the  ovals  represented  royal 
names,  and  were  perhaps  alphabetic ;  but  the  sig- 
nification of  these  characters  were  never  fully  com- 
prehended by  either  of  these  great  scholars.  The 
claim  made  by  the  friends  of  Mr.  Young  as  the 
first  discoverer  of  the  true  methods  of  decipher- 
ment, rests  upon  the  fact  that  he  gave  the  true 
phonetic  values  to  five  of  these  characters  in  the 
spelling  of  the  names  of  certain  royal  personages, 
and  in  1819  published  an  article  announcing  this 
discovery.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  had  so 
little  confidence  in  this  conception  that  he  went 
no  farther  with  it,  and  still  later,  in  1823,  lost  the 
prestige  he  might  have  gained,  by  the  publication 
as  his  belief,  that  the  Egyptians  never  made  use 
of  signs  to  express  sound  until  the  time  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  invasions  of  Egypt.  The  real 
work  of  decipherment  was  reserved  for  Champol- 
lion,  who,  born  at  Grenoble,  in  1700,  was  but  nine 
years  old  when  the  famous  stone  was  discovered 
which  later  on  was  to  yield  to  him  the  long  lost 
language  of  the  hieroglyphs.  Among  the  characters 
on  the  Rosetta  Stone,  in  the  hieroglyphic  text, 
were  to  be  found  certain  pictorial  forms  enclosed 
in  an  oval.  It  had  hitherto  been  suggested  that 
these  ovals  contained  characters  signifying  royal 
names.  Were  these  symbolic  signs,  or  how  were 
they  to  be  interpreted?  Champgllion  concluded 
that  some  of  these  signs  expressed  sound  and  were 
alphabetic  in  character.  Thus,  if  the  signs  in  the 
cartouche  supposed  to  signify  Ptolemy,  could  be 
found  to  be  identical,  letter  for  letter,  with  the 
Ptolemaioi  of  the  Greek  inscription,  an  important 
proof  would  be  obtained.  It  so  happened  that  on 
an  obelisk  found  at  Phila;  there  was  a  hieroglyphic 
inscription,  which,  according  to  a  Greek  text  on 
the  same  shaft  should  be  that  of  Cleopatra.  If, 
then,  the  signs  for  P,  t  and  /  in  Ptolemaios  cor- 
responded with  the  signs  for  p,  t  and  /  in  Cleo- 
patra, the  identity  of  these  as  alphabetic  signs 
would  be  confirmed.  The  comparison  fully  justi- 
fied his  theory,  and  further  confirmation  was  sup- 
plied by  further  comparisons,  until  he  finally  came 
into  possession  of  hieroglyphic  signs  for  all  the 
consonants."— F.  D.  Jermain,  hi  the  path  of  the 
alphabet,  pp.  q-14. 

Theories  of  origin  and  •  development. — "At 
first  .sight  the  diversity  of  alphabets  seems  as  little 
connected  as  the  diversity  of  languages.  But  as 
the  labours  of  the  philologist  have  gradually  traced 
the  various  relations  of  the  better-known  languages 
one  to  the  other,  so  likewise  the  epigraphist  has 
dealt  with  the  varieties  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
alphabets  which  are  the  more  familiar,  v/hilc  the 
archaologist  has  yet  to  trace  and  connect  the  al- 
phabets of  the  less-known  races,  many  of  which 
were  used  for  languages  which  are  still  unread. 
The  more  obvious  questions  of  the  origins  and 
connections  of  the  better-known  alphabets  of  var- 
ious countries  seemed  to  have  been  fairly  settled 
and  put  to  rest  a  generation  ago;  the  more  remote 
alphabets  and  the  more  ancient  signary  had  not 
then  been  brought  to  light  to  complicate  the  sub- 
ject. The  old  traditional  view  of  the  derivation 
of  the  western  alphabets  from  the  Phoenician  fitted 
well  enough  to  most  of  the  facts  then  known,  and 


was  readily  accepted  in  general.  Further,  De 
Rouge's  theory  of  the  derivation  of  the  Phcenician 
from  the  Egyptian  hieratic  writing  of  the  xiith 
dynasty  was  plausible  enough  to  content  most  en- 
quirers, though  only  two  out  of  twenty-two  let- 
ters were  satisfactorily  accounted  for.  In  1883 
Isaac  Taylor  could  safely  claim  that  he  had  'sum- 
marised and  criticised  all  previous  discoveries  and 
researches  as  to  the  origin  and  development  of 
alphabets'  by  his  general  outline  in  his  work  on 
The  Alphabet:  in  that  book  a  sound  general  basis 
seemed  to  have  been  reached,  and  only  minor 
questions  needed  further  discussion  and  adjust- 
ment. Yet  the  voice  of  caution  was  heard  even 
then.  Dr.  Peile,  in  1SS5,  when  judicially  report- 
ing on  Isaac  Taylor's  work,  and  while  agreeing 
that  'his  book  deserves  to  be,  and  doubtless  will 
be,  the  standard  book  in  England  on  the  history 
of  the  alphabet,'  yet  saw  that  other  solutions  might 
arise.  He  added:  'But  no  proof  of  the  affilia- 
tion of  the  Phcenician  alphabet  can  be  complete 
without  evidence  from  writing  to  fill  up  the  long 
gap  between  the  period  of  the  Papyrus  Prisse  and 
that  of  the  Baal  Lebanon  and  Moabite  inscriptions. 
In  default  of  this  it  must  always  be  possible  that 
the  Phoenician  alphabet  is  descended  from  some 
utterly  lost,  non-Egyptian  system  of  writing, 
traces  of  which  may  some  day  turn  up  as  unex- 
pectedly as  the-  so-called  Hittite  hieroglyphs.' 
Within  a  generation  later  this  possibility  clearly 
appears  to  be  the  forecase  of  the  real  history." — 
W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  Formation  of  the  alpliabet, 
pp.  1-2. 

"The  investigation  of  the  origin  of  our  alphabet, 
always  a  subject  of  great  interest,  has  been  stimu- 
lated in  recent  years  by  the  discovery  of  writing 
in  Crete,  and  by  the  claim  of  Sir  .Arthur  Evans 
that  this  .Aegean  writing  was  the  source  of  the  so- 
called  Phoenician  alphabet.  In  the  midst  of  the 
present  writer's  work  on  the  subject,  in  all  too 
brief  intervals  snatched  from  other  pressing  duties, 
the  trend  of  his  own  results  has  meantime  received 
unexpected  confirmation  from  the  remarkable  es- 
say of  Dr.  .\lan  H.  Gardiner  revealing  the  exis- 
tence of  a  hitherto  unknown  script  of  Egyptian 
origin  in  Sinai,  which  may  have  been  a  form  of 
the  Proto-Semitic  script,  posited  by  Praetorius  as 
the  probable  ancestor  of  both  the  Phoenician  and 
South  Semitic  alphabets,  .\t  the  same  time  the 
thoughtful  remarks  of  Schaefer,  in  a  discussion  of 
the  reasons  for  the  vowelless  character  of  the 
Phoenician  alphabet,  have  likewise  lent  further 
support  to  the  author's  conviction  that  the  old 
and  now  widely  rejected  hypothesis  of  an  Egyp- 
tian origin  of  the  alphabet  commonly  called  Phoe- 
nician must  be  carefully  re-examined.  One  of  the 
neglected  aspects  of  the  entire  problem  has  been 
its  connection  with  the  related  question  of  the 
physical  process  and  material  equipment  of  writ- 
ing in  the  Near  East.  This  subject  has  bearing, 
and  important  bearing,  on  the  whole  question  of 
the  influence  of  any  given  system  of  writing  in 
the  eastern  Mediterranean.  ...  An  examination 
of  the  civilizations  of  the  Near  East  shows  clearly 
that  (excluding  monumental  documents)  there 
were  two  physical  processes  of  writing  in  the  east- 
ern Mediterranean  world.  One,  which  grew  up  < 
the  Nile,  consisted  in  applying  a  colored  fluid  to  a 
vegetable  membrane ;  the  other,  which  arose  in  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  world,  incised  or  impressed  its 
signs  on  a  yielding  or  plastic  surface  which  later 
hardened.  Both  of  these  methods  reached  the 
classical  world:  in  the  wax  tablet  for  the  Greek  or 
Roman  gentleman's  memoranda,  and  in  the  pen, 
ink,  and  paper  (papyrus)  which  have  descended 
to  our  own  day.     "The  early  geographical  line  to 


224 


ALPHABET 


Theories 
of  Origin 


ALPHABET 


be  drawn  between  these  two  methods  of  writing 
may  be  indicated  in  the  shortest  terms  by  saying 
that  the  practice  of  incision  on  a  plastic  surface 
was  Asiatic;  the  process  employing  pen,  ink,  and 
vegetable  paper  was  Egyptian.  ...  If  anyone  has 
a  lingering  doubt  about  the  Egyptian  character  of 
the  writing  equipment  of  these  Aramean  scribes 
in  the  Assyrian  reliefs,  such  doubt  will  I  am  sure 
disappear  on  examination  of  a  relief  of  the  Ara- 
mean king  of  Samal,  discovered  at  Senjirli  by  von 
Luschan.  .  .  .  The  king  is  seated  on  his  throne  at 
the  left,  while  before  him  stands  his  secretary,  with 
an  object  under  his  left  arm,  which  looks  surpris- 
ingly like  a  book,  but  as  this  is  impossible  it  may 
perhaps  be  a  roll  partly  unrolled.  In  his  left  hand, 
however,  he  carries  an  unmistakable  Egyptian 
writing  outfit.  .  .  .  This  Egyptian  writing  outfit, 
carried  by  the  Aramean  secretary  of  Samal,  of 
course  contained  reed  pens  with  a  soft  brush  point 
like  those  we  have  found  in  Egypt.  If  this  official 
were  to  begin  taking  down  his  lord's  dictation,  he 
would  spread  his  papyrus  paper  on  his  left  hand, 
as  we  have  seen  the  Egyptian  scribe  doing,  and 
after  him  the  Aramean  scribes  on  the  Assyrian  re- 
liefs. The  pen  would  make  the  same  broad  strokes 
produced  by  the  Egyptian  scribe,  and  to  settle 
the  matter  once  for  all  it  is  important  to  notice  at 
this  point  that  the  Aramaic  ostraca  found  at 
Samaria,  perhaps  reaching  back  into  the  ninth 
century  B.  C,  clearly  show  that  the  soft-pointed 
Egyptian  brush  pen  was  employed  in  writing  them. 
Finally  we  know  exactly  how  these  Aramean  docu- 
ments of  Western  Asia  looked,  since  we  have  been 
able  to  hold  in  our  hands  the  Elephantine  papyri. 
The  system  of  writing  which  employed  pen,  ink, 
and  paper  was  the  only  one  which  possessed  an 
alphabet,  and  which  wrote  that  alphabet  without 
vowels.  It  is  evident  that  the  pen-ink-and-paper 
method  of  writing  came  from  Egypt  into  Asia  and 
spread  there  at  the  very  time  when  the  alphabet 
also  was  appearing  and  coming  into  common  use 
in  the  same  region.  It  follows  therefore  that  the 
Egyptian  system  of  writing  was  in  most  intimate 
contact  with  the  whole  scribal  situation  in  West- 
ern Asia,  and  it  is  highly  unlikely  that  we  can 
entirely  dissociate  the  physical  process  and  material 
equipment  contributed  by  Egypt  to  Asia  at  this 
time  from  the  alphabet  which  Asia  Hkewise  gained 
at  the  same  time." — J.  H.  Breasted,  Physical  pro- 
cesses of  writing  in  the  early  Orient  and  their  re- 
lation to  the  origin  of  the  alphabet  (American 
Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  July,  igi6,  pp.  230- 
248). — See  also  ^gean  civii-ization:  Minoan  age: 
B.  C.  1200-750. 

"The  vexed  question  of  the  origin  of  our  alpha- 
bet has  given  rise  to  a  long  series  of  controversies 
and  theories,  but  of  recent  years  the  matter  ap- 
pears to  have  been  comfortably  settled  among 
philologists.  A  recent  discovery  of  great  impor- 
tance has  caused  us,  however,  to  reconsider  our 
ideas  and  to  push  back  farther  into  the  mists  of 
antiquity.  It  is,  of  course,  a  matter  of  common 
knowledge  that  our  English  alphabet  is  taken  di- 
rectly from  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  who  in 
their  turn  received  it  from  the  Phoenicians.  It  is 
indeed  true  that  not  later  than  1,000  years  before 
the  Christian  era  a  perfect  alphabet  of  twenty-two 
consonants,  but  without  vowels,  was  used  upon 
Phoenician  soil,  and  it  is  clear  that  Greece  adopted 
most  of  the  letters  of  this  script,  although  possibly 
in  an  earlier  stage  of  development  than  that  in 
which  we  first  encounter  it.  Some  of  the  Greek 
letters,  however,  seem  to  have  a  closer  affinity 
with  those  of  another  Semitic  alphabet,  akin  to 
Phoenician,  but  used  In  slightly  varying  forms  in 
South  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  and  generally  known 


as  South  Semitic,  the  North  Semitic  being  Phoeni- 
cian proper.  The  mutual  relations  of  the  North 
and  South  alphabets  seem  to  postulate  a  common 
parent  which  came  into  existence  at  least  anterior 
to  1000  B.  C,  and  which  may  be  called  Original 
Semitic.  Opinions  differ  considerably  as  to  the 
origin  of  this  hypothetical  script,  and  a  cluster  of 
divergent  theories  ascribe  its  origin  respectively 
to  Babylonian  cuneiform,  Egyptian  hieratic,  the 
lately  discovered  Cretan,  and  finally  a  number  of 
marks  and  other  symbols  found  on  Egyptian  pot- 
tery, but  certainly  not  Egyptian  in  origin.  All 
these  derivations  present  diificulties,  and  a  different 
solution  of  the  problem  has  been  presented  by  Dr. 
Alan  H.  Gardiner,  who  has  studied  the  subject 
exhaustively  and  whose  researches  have  already 
been  propounded  by  Mr.  T.  E.  Peet.  Our  data 
are  the  early  forms  of  the  letters,  and  their  names, 
which  can  be  shown  with  great  probability  to  be 
as  old  as  the  letters  themselves.  The  signs  were 
originally  chosen  on  the  acrophonic  principle; 
thus,  in  order  to  represent  the  sound  B,  a  com- 
mon object,  whose  name  began  with  B — namely, 
BET,  'a  house' — was  chosen.  The  sign  was  hence 
called  BET,  which  has  survived  in  the  Greek 
BETA.  Can  we  see  this  process  in  its  early 
stages?  In  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  on  a  plateau 
called  Serabit-el-Khadim,  anciently  frequented  by 
the  Egyptians  for  the  purpose  of  turquoise-mining, 
stood  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Hathor, 
really  called  'the  Lady  of  the  Turquoise.'  In  this 
temple  the  expedition  sent  by  the  Egypt  Explora- 
tion Fund  in  1905  discovered  various  monuments 
bearing  inscriptions  in  an  unknown  script,  and 
near  the  turquoise  mines  in  the  same  district  were 
found  seven  further  inscriptions  in  the  same  writ- 
ing. Careful  copies  were  made  of  these  documents, 
but  it  was  not  until  1Q14  that  their  true  significance 
was  realized,  when  Dr.  Alan  H.  Gardiner,  submit- 
ted them  to  a  long  and  minute  study.  It  soon 
became  manifest  to  Dr.  Gardiner  that,  though  the 
language  was  not  Egyptian,  many  of  the  characters 
were  taken  from  Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  but  this 
borrowing  was  confined  merely  to  the  forms  of 
the  sign  and  not  to  their  Egyptian  values.  As 
Semites  are  known  from  other  evidence  to  have 
accompanied  the  Egyptian  expeditions  to  Sinai,  Dr. 
Gardiner  argued  that  the  new  script  might  well 
be  Semitic,  and  he  proceeded  to  fix  the  values  of 
the  signs  on  the  acrophonic  principle  already  al- 
luded to.  These  signs  being  only  thirty-two  in 
number  could  scarcely  be  other  than  alphabetic. 
Having  thus  determined  the  values  of  fifteen  signs, 
with  their  help  a  group  of  four  signs  which  recurs 
in  several  of  the  texts  was  found  to  read  BA'ALAT 
— the  Semitic  word  for  Lady,  or  Goddess — the  evi- 
dent equivalent  of  the  Hathor  of  the  purely  Egyp- 
tian inscriptions  of  this  site.  Dr.  Gardiner  and 
other  scholars  have  added  new  readings  for  other 
groups  of  signs,  but  none  of  these  are  quite  as 
convincing  as  the  instance  just  quoted.  Here,  then, 
in  Sinai,  we  have  at  a  date  probably  earlier  than 
1500  B.  C.  a  Semitic  people  apparently  in  the 
very  act  of  borrowing  signs  from  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphic  script,  in  order  to  form  on  the  acro- 
phonic principle  a  true  alphabet  which  would  suf- 
fice to  write  their  own  speech.  For  B  they  bor- 
rowed the  Egyptian  sign  for  'house'  because  their 
own  word  BET  began  with  the  b-sound,  and  so 
on.  From  the  very  crude  alphabet  which  these  in- 
scriptions reveal,  it  is  possible  to  trace  many  of 
the  letters  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  and  thus  to 
show  that  they  are  conventionalized  forms  of  ob- 
jects selected  originally  from  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphs on  the  acrophonic  principle.  If  we  have 
not  here  the  actual  origin  of  the  Phoenician — and 


225 


ALPHEUS 


ALPS 


hence  of  our  own — alphabet,  we  have  at  least  a 
striking  example  of  the  process  to  which  both  are 
due." — W.  R.  Dawson,  Egyptian  origin  of  the  al- 
phabet (Asiatic  Review,  Jan.,  1920,  pp.  i24-i2b). 
— See  also  Arabia:  The  Sabaeans;  Runes;  Semitic 

LITERATURE. 

Origin  of  the  English  alphabet. — "The  printed 
letters  or  sound-signs  which  compose  our  alphabet 
are  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  years  old. 
'Roman  type'  we  call  them,  and  rightly  so,  since 
from  Italy  they  came.  They  vary  only  in  slight 
degree  from  the  founts  of  the  famous  printers  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  these  being  imitations  of  the 
beautiful  'minuscule'  (so  called  as  being  of  smaller 
size)  manuscripts  of  four  hundred  years  earlier. 
Minuscule  letters  are  cursive  (i.e.  running)  forms 
of  the  curved  letters  about  an  inch  long  called 
'uncials'  (from  Latin  uncia,  'an  inch,'  or  from 
uncus,  'crooked'),  which  were  themselves  derived 
from  the  Roman  letters  of  the  Augustan  age. 
These  Roman  capitals,  to  which  those  in  modern 
use  among  us  correspond,  are  practically  identical 
with  the  letters  employed  at  Rome  in  the  third 
century  B.  C;  such,  for  instance,  as  are  seen  in 
the  well-known  inscriptions  on  the  tombs  of  the 
Scipios,  now  among  the  treasures  of  the  Vatican. 
These,  again,  do  not  differ  very  materially  from 
forms  used  in  the  earliest  existing  specimens  of 
Latin  writing,  which  may  probably  be  referred  to 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  Thus  it  appears 
that  our  English  alphabet  is  a  member  of  that 
great  Latin  family  of  alphabets,  whose  geographical 
extension  was  originally  conterminous,  or  nearly 
so,  with  the  limits  of  the  Western  Empire,  and 
afterwards  with  the  ancient  obedience  to  the  Ro- 
man."— E.  Clodd,  Story  oj  the  alphabet,  pp.  34-35. 

Slavonic  alphabet. — Invented  by  Cyril  and 
Methodius.  See  Russian  literature:  gth-i4th 
centuries. 

Russian  alphabet  first  used  by  Peter  the  Great. 
See   Russian    literature:    1680-1752. 

ALPHEUS,  the  principal  river  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  modern  Morea.  The  Modern  Ruphia, 
which  rises  near  Asea,  is  for  the  most  part  a  shal- 
low, rapid  stream.  It  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea. 
For  a  short  space  the  stream  flows  beneath  the 
ground,  hence,  the  fable  that  it  passed  underneath 
the  sea  and  rose  in  Svracuse,  Sicily. 

ALPHONSO.     See  Alfonso. 

ALPINI:  On  Grappa  front.  See  World  W.\r: 
1Q17:    IV.   Austro-Italian   front:   e,  5. 

ALPS. — The  name  Alps  has  been  given  to  the 
crescent-shaped  mountain  system  of  Europe,  ex- 
tending from  Savona,  Italy  to  Vienna,  Austria. 
The  system  covers  part  of  Italy,  France,  Switzer- 
land, Bavaria  and  Austria.  The  length  of  the 
chain  along  the  main  line  is  660  miles,  and  the 
area  of  the  surface  covered  by  the  entire  range  is 
said  to  be  80,000  square  miles.  In  the  main  the 
range  is  a  continued  chain  of  towering  mountains, 
with  sharp,  abrupt  peaks.  Among  the  rivers  which 
flow  from  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  are  the  Rhine, 
Rhone,  Danube  and  Po.  The  loftiest  and  most 
famous  summits  of  the  Alps  are.  Mount  Blanc 
(15,782  ft.);  Monte  Rosa  (15,215  ft,);  Weisshorn 
(14,804  ft.);  Breithorn  (13,685  ft.)  and  Matter- 
horn  (14,780  ft.).  .Metsch  is  the  name  of  the  larg- 
est glacier  in  the  .'Mps  system,  being  thirteen  miles 
long.  The  origin  of  the  word  Alps  is  uncertain, 
writers  differing  between  a  derivation  from  the 
Celtic  root  "alb"  (height),  and  the  Latin  adjective 
"albus,"  white.  The  word  Alps  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  Alp,  which  is  the  name  given  to  the 
summer  mountain  pastures  by  the  natives  of  the 
Alpine  valleys  (See  .Alp  )  .Among  the  first  men 
who    did    extensive    exploration    work    in    the    ice 


and  snow  regions  were  Horace  Benedict  de  Saus- 
sure  (1740-179Q),  and  Placidus  a  Spescha  (1752- 
1833),  the  Benedictine  monk  of  Disentis.  The  first 
known  English  .\lpine  climber  was  Colonel  Mark 
Beaufoy  (1764-1S27).  The  higher  Alps  are  per- 
petually covered  with  snow,  offering,  with  their 
picturesque  glaciers,  cascades  and  forests,  scenery 
which  is  famous  throughout  the  world  for  grand- 
eur and  magnificence.  Several  important  moun- 
tain groups,  although  they  might  be  considered  in- 
dependent ranges,  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  appear  connected  with  the  main  system.  It 
is  therefore  incorrect  to  suppose  that  the  .\lps  form 
strictly  a  single  range.  It  may  be  said,  more  ac- 
curately, that  the  main  chain  or  group  is  flanked 
on  either  side  by  other  important  ranges,  which, 
however,  are  not  comparable  with  the  main  group, 
in    point   of    height,    grandeur    or   picturesqueness. 

Concerning  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  we 
know  little  more  than  what  has  come  down  to  us 
from  the  Roman  and  Greek  historians.  Other  than 
that  a  number  of  Alpine  tribes  were  conquered  by 
.Ai^'ustu3,  we  are  in  ignorance  of  the  history  of 
the  Alpine  dwellers  previous  to  the  early  part  of 
the  eleventh  century,  when  the  Carolingian  em- 
pire was  finally  dismembered.  In  1349  Dauphine 
became  France's  prize,  following  a  prolonged 
struggle  for  the  Alpine  region  between  the  feudal 
lords  of  Savoy,  Dauphine  and  Provence.  The 
county  of  Nice,  which  was  formerly  part  of  Pro- 
vence, fell  to  the  feudal  house  of  Savoy  in  1388, 
as  did  Piedmont  and  other  lands  on  the  Italian 
side  of  the  .Alps.  France  began  to  drive  back  the 
house  of  Savoy  across  the  range,  however,  even- 
tually forcing  it  to  limit  its  power  solely  to  Italy. 
(See  also  Venice:  1508-1509.)  In  i860  this  rivalry 
came  to  an  end  when  the  rest  of  the  county  of 
Nice  and  Savoy  were  given  over  to  France,  making 
the  latter  a  definite  power  in  the  Alpine  region. 
This  reversal  of  power  is  significant  of  the  marked 
historical  influence  which  the  physical  aspect  of 
the  .Alpine  ranges  has  exerted  upon  the  Central 
European  countries,  particularly   upon   Italy. 

As  barriers. — Importance  of  passes. — It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  .Alps  have  had  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  history.  Passable  only  at  a  few  points 
and  there  not  leadily,  they  have  made  it  hard 
for  the  invadei  of  Italy.  Hannibal's  failure  to 
crush  Rome  in  218  B.  C.  was  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  hardships  suffered  by  his  army  in  crossing 
the  bleak  Alpine  passes.  As  a  result  of  the  World 
War,  Italy's  northeastern  frontier  has  been  ex- 
tended to  the  crest  of  the  eastern  Alps,  making  the 
country  easier  to  defend  on  that  side. 

"The  vast  majority  of  these  [passes]  are  natu- 
rally of  no  practical  importance.  Armies  cannot 
use  them:  traffic  over  them  is  impossible.  ...  At 
the  utmost  some  of  them  may  serve,  as  in  the 
Pyrenees,  for  a  smuggling  trade,  but  even  this  dis- 
appears when  the  profits  of  smuggling  cease  to  be 
great.  There  are,  however,  an  appreciable  number 
of  gaps  in  the  chain,  by  which  there  was  never 
any  difficulty  for  travellers  on  foot  or  with  laden 
animals,  over  which  in  modern  limes  good  car- 
riage roads  have  been  made.  These  gaps  occur  at 
fairly  long  intervals,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  Alps." 
— H.  B.  George,  Relations  oj  geography  and  liis- 
tory,  p.  202. — The  natives  of  the  Alpine  regions 
were  probably  the  first  to  use  these  passes,  al- 
though the  outside  world  first  learned  of  their 
existence  when  they  were  crossed  by  the  Romans 
during  military  expeditions.  It  is  more  than  likely 
that  the  inhabitants  themselves  pointed  out  these 
convenient  paths  to  the  Romans.  Cisar  makes 
no  mention  of  the  .Alps  beyond  that  he  has  crossed 
them;   when  scmie   of  the  mountain  tribes   try   to 


226 


ALPS 


Passes 


ALPS 


block  the  passage  of  Roman  merchants  or  armies, 
they  become  important  enough  to  be  conquered. 
It  was  not  till  after  the  Cimbri  in  102  B,  C.  in- 
vaded Italy  by  the  Brenner  route  that  the  Romans 
realized  the  value  of  Rhaetia  (Tyrol)  as  a  thor- 
oughfare from  Italy  to  Germany,  and  began  its 
conquest  in  36  B.  C.  We  know  for  certain  that 
the  Romans  availed  themselves  of  the  Mont  Ge- 
nevre  Pass,  later  used  by  Charles  VIII  in  1404  in 
his  invasion  of  Italy ;  in  the  Central  Alps  the  Ro- 
mans used  the  Spliigen  and  Septimer  routes,  as  well 
as  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  farther  west,  subse- 
quently so  advantageously  made  use  of  by  Napo- 
leon in  his  conquest  of  Italy.  [See  also  Com- 
merce: Ancient:   200-600.) 

"The  Alps  long  retarded  Roman  expansion  into 
central  Europe,  just  as  they  delayed  and  obstructed 
the  southward  advance  of  the  northern  barbarians. 
Only    through    the    partial    breaches    in    the    wall 


Provincia.  .  .  .  Mountains  folded  into  a  succes- 
sion of  parallel  ranges  are  greater  obstructions  than 
a  single  range  like  the  Erz,  Black  Forest,  and 
Vosges,  or  a  narrow,  compact  system  like  the  West- 
ern Alps,  which  can  be  crossed  by  a  single  pass. 
Owing  to  this  simple  structure  the  Western  Alps 
were  traversed  by  four  established  routes  in  the  days 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  These  were:  I.  The  Via 
Aiirelia  between  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the  sea, 
where  now  runs  the  Cornice  Road.  II.  The  Alons 
Malrona  (Mont  Genevre  Pass,  6080  ft.  or  1854 
meters)  between  the  headstream  of  the  Dora 
Riparia  and  that  of  the  Durance,  which  was  the 
best  highway  for  armies.  III.  The  Little  St.  Ber- 
nard (7075  ft.  or  2157  meters),  from  Aosta  on  the 
Dora  Baltea  over  to  the  Isere  and  down  to  Lug- 
dunum  (Lyons).  IV.  The  Great  St.  Bernard  (8ioq 
ft.  or  2472  meters)  route,  which  led  northward 
from  Aosta  over  the  Pennine  Alps  to  Octodurus  at 


ALL'S 
Roaii  over  the   St.   (nittliarcl   Pass 


known  as  passes  did  the  .Alps  admit  small,  divided 
bodies  of  the  invaders,  like  the  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
tons, who  arrived,  therefore,  with  weakened  power 
and  at  intervals,  so  that  the  Roman  forces  had 
time  to  gather  their  strength  between  successive 
attacks,  and  thus  prolonged  the  life  of  the  declin- 
ing empire.  So  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Alpine 
barrier  facilitated  the  resistance  of  Italy  to  the 
German  emperors,  trying  to  enforce  their  claim 
upon  this  ancient  seat  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire. The  northern  expansion  of  the  Romans,  re- 
buffed by  the  high  double  wall  of  the  Central  Alps, 
was  bent  to  the  westward  over  the  Maritime,  Cot- 
tine  and  Savoy  Alps,  where  the  barrier  offered 
the  shortest  and  easiest  transmontane  routes. 
Hence  Germany  received  the  elements  of  Mediter- 
ranean culture  indirectly  through  Gaul,  second- 
hand and  late.  The  ancient  Helvetians,  moving 
southward  from  northern  Switzerland  into  Gaul, 
took  a  route  skirting  the  western  base  of  the  .'Mps 
by  the  gap  at  Geneva,  and  thus  threatened  Roman 

2 


the  elbow  of  the  upper  Rhone,  where  Martigny 
now  stands.  Across  the  broad  double  rampart  of 
the  central  Alps  the  Roman  used  chiefly  the  Bren- 
ner route,  which  by  a  low  saddle  unites  the  deep 
reijntrant  valleys  of  the  Adige  and  Inn  rivers,  and 
thus  surmounts  the  barrier  by  a  single  pass.  How- 
ever, a  short  cut  northward  over  the  Chalk  Alps 
by  the  Fern  Pass  made  closer  connection  with 
Augusta  Vindelicorum  (.Augsburg).  The  Romans 
seem  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  St.  Gotthard, 
which,  though  high,  is  the  summit  of  an  unbroken 
ascent  from  Lake  Maggiore  up  the  valley  of  the 
Ticino  on  one  side,  and  from  Lake  Lucerne  up  the 
Reuss  on  the  other.  .  .  .  Mountains  are  seldom 
equally  accessible  from  all  sides.  Rarely  does  the 
crest  of  a  system  divide  it  symmetrically.  This 
means  a  steep,  diflicult  approach  to  the  summit 
from  one  direction,  and  a  longer,  more  gradual, 
and  hence  easier  ascent  from  the  other.  It  mean-; 
also  in  general  a  wide  zone  of  habitation  and  food 
supply   on   the  gentler  slope,  a  better  commissary 


227 


ALPS 


Roman  Period 
Medieval  Times 


ALPS 


and  transport  base  whence  to  make  the  final  as- 
cent, whether  in  conquest,  trade  or  ethnic  growth. 
Its  boundary  along  the  crest  of  the  Alps  from 
Mont  Blanc  to  the  Mediterranean  brings  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  upheaved  area  within  the  domain  of 
France,  and  gives  to  that  country  great  advantages 
of  approach  to  the  Alpine  passes  at  the  expense  of 
Italy.  With  the  exception  of  the  ill-matched  con- 
flict between  the  civilized  Romans  and  the  barba- 
rian Gauls,  it  is  a  matter  of  hi,story  that  from  the 
days  of  Hannibal  to  Napoleon  III,  the  campaigns 
over  the  Alps  from  the  north  have  succeeded, 
while  those  from  the  steep-rimmed  Po  Valley  have 
miscarried.  The  Brenner  route  favored  alike  the 
Cimbri  hordes  in  102  B.  C.  and  later  the  medieval 
German  Emperors  invading  Italy  from  the  upper 
Danube.  The  drop  from  the  Brenner  Pass  to 
Munich  is  «8oo  ft.;  to  Rovereto,  an  equally  dis- 
tant point  on  the  Italian  side,  the  road  descends 
3770  ft.  .  .  .  The  strategic  importance  of  pass 
peoples  tends  early  to  assume  a  poUtical  aspect. 
The  mountain  state  learns  to  exploit  this  one  ad- 
vantage of  its  ill-favored  geographical  location. 
The  cradle  of  the  old  Savoyard  power  in  the  late 
Middle  Ages  lay  in  the  Alpine  lands  between  Lake 
Geneva  and  the  western  tributaries  of  the  Po 
River.  This  location  controlling  several  great 
mountain  routes  between  France  and  Italy  gave 
the  Savoyard  princes  their  first  importance.  The 
autonomy  of  Switzerland  can  be  traced  not  less 
to  the  citadel  character  of  the  country  and  the 
native  independence  of  its  people,  than  to  their  po- 
litical exploitation  of  their  strategic  position." — 
E.  C.  Semple,  Infiuences  of  geographic  environ- 
ment, pp.  4,  532-554. — See  also  Brenner  P.ass. 

The  formation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  be- 
tween 1281  and  181S,  marked  a  consolidation  of 
the  smaller  and  weaker  cantons  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Central  Alpine  chain.  This  unification 
of  the  smaller  states,  made  possible  by  their  strate- 
gic advantages,  successfully  achieved  the  desired  re- 
sult of  maintaining  a  combined  defen.se  against 
foreign  aggression.  That  the  policy  of  the  Swiss 
Federation  has  been  exemplary  has  been  borne  out 
during  the  Great  War  when  Switzerland  insisted 
on  maintaining  strict  neutral  relations  with  all  the 
warring  nations  unless  an  act  of  aggres.'iion  were 
made  against  it.  In  consequence  of  this  policy 
Switzerland  was  the  only  European  country  which 
held  strictly  to  its  neutrality  although  completely 
surrounded  by  neighbors  warring  against  each 
other  in   a  life-and-death  struggle, 

Roman  period. — Hannibal's  crossing  of  the 
Alps. — Medieval  times.— "The  position  of  the 
territories  once  occupied  by  the  Etruscans,  Tus- 
cany and  much  of  the  Po  basin,  seems  to  imply 
that  they  [the  Greeks]  followed- the  Latins  rather 
than  preceded  them,  and  traces  of  them  are  sup- 
posed to  show  that  they  came  in  from  the  north, 
through  what  are  called  the  Rhaetian  ."Mps.  More 
confidently  it  can  be  affirmed  that  the  Gallic 
tribes,  who  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
had  spread  over  the  whole  plain  of  the  Po,  came 
over  the  western  .^Ips,  though  it  is  of  course  im- 
possible to  guess  by  what  routes.  They  continued 
to  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  north  of  the 
Apennines,  even  after  Rome  had  in  some  sense 
conquered  them  in  the  interval  between  the  first 
and  second  Punic  wars,  and  were  no  small  sup- 
port to  Hannibal,  after  he  had  crossed  from  the 
land  of  their  kindred  beyond  the  .-Mps  info  Cisal- 
pine Gaul — the  name  of  Italy  was  not  yet  extended 
to  the  plain  of  the  Po. 

"The  most  remarkable  historical  event  connected 
with  the  passes  of  the  .\lps  is  certainly  the  passage 
of  Hannibal ;   and   much   critical   energy   has  been 


expended  in  trying  to  determine  his  route,  with- 
out further  success  than  showing  that  he  must 
certainly  have  crossed  by  some  pass  south  of  Mont 
Blanc.  .  .  .  Hannibal,  coming  from  distant  Car- 
thage, had  of  course  to  rely  upon  guidance  from  the 
Gauls:  he  obviously  knew  before  starting  that  the 
Alps  were  passable,  but  there  is  no  indication  that 
he  had  any  knowledge  either  of  the  difficulties  of 
the  task,  or  that  there  was  any  choice  of  routes. 
.  .  .  All  that  he  knew  himself  was  doubtless  that 
his  guides  undertook  to  take  him  across  into 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  The  conduct  of  Scipio,  the  Roman 
general  commanding  against  Hannibal,  also  tends 
to  show  that  Roman  knowledge  of  the  Alpine 
passes  was  slight.  Scipio,  when  he  found  that  the 
Carthaginians  had  marched  up  the  Rhone,  took 
for  granted  that  they  were  going  to  cross  the  Alps, 
and  removed  his  army  by  sea  to  Italy,  in  order 
toi  meet  the  enemy  in  the  plain  of  the  Po.  Scipio 
was  not  wanting  in  capacity,  as  this  prompt  ac- 
tion shows.  It  is  no  unfair  conjecture  that  if  he 
had  possessed  any  definite  knowledge  of  the  Al- 
pine valleys,  he  would  have  landed  at  Genoa,  and 
posted  himself  at  Turin,  in  order  to  encounter 
Hannibal  before  he  could  reach  the  open  plains, 
where  the  famous  .African  cavalry  would  have  free 
scope.  If,  however,  he  knew  that  there  were  various 
routes,  but  had  only  confused  and  imperfect  in- 
formation about  them,  the  course  which  he  adopted, 
of  waiting  on  the  Ticino,  was  obviously  right. 

"The  historical  importance  of  Hannibal's  feat 
is  not  however  concerned  with  the  determination 
of  his  exact  route.  It  was  a  revelation  to  the 
world  that  an  army,  as  distinguished  from  a  mere 
horde — that  an  army  with  all  its  impedimenta 
could  be  conveyed  across  a  great  mountain  range. 
Nor  was  it  long  before  his  example  was  followed. 
His  brother  Hasdrubal  led  an  army  into  Italy  ten 
years  later,  apparently  by  one  of  the  passes  from 
the  Isere,  with  unexpected  ease  and  speed.  .\  cen- 
tury afterwards  occurred  another  invasion  of  Italy, 
which  illustrates  the  difficulty  of  defending  a 
mountain  frontier  such  as  the  .\lps.  The  Romans 
were  by  that  time  effectively  masters  of  the  whole 
Po  basin,  as  well  as  of  Provence;  geographical 
Italy  was  also  now  politically  united  under  one 
government.  They  were  aware  that  the  hordes 
of  barbarians,  known  to  history  as  the  Cimbri 
and  Teutones,  were  on  the  move  for  Italy.  These 
formidable  enemies  had  either  trampled  over,  or 
won  to  their  side,  the  tribes  beyond  the  .Alps,  both 
in  the  Rhone-land  and  in  the  modern  Switzerland. 
They  apparently  formed  a  scheme,  highly  advanced 
for  their  stage  of  civilization,  of  entering  Italy  by 
two  widely  distant  entrances,  and  joining  forces 
on  the  Po.  The  Romans  were  informed  of  their 
purpose,  and  sent  one  consul  to  Provence,  while 
the  other  waited  on  the  .Adige.  Unfortunately  our 
authorities  are  so  brief  that  they  give  no  hint  as 
to  the  route  by  which  the  Cimbri  entered  Italy; 
all  we  know  is  that  the  consul  Catulus  failed  to 
stop  them,  and  that  they  moved  westwards  up  the 
north  bank  of  the  Po  to  meet  their  kindred.  For- 
tunately Marius  had  destroyed  the  Teutones  in 
Provence,  and  was  in  time  to  join  his  colleague, 
and  cru'^h  the  Cimbri  also,  not  far  from  the  Ti- 
cino. One  may  conjecture  that  the  St.  Gotthard 
pass  was  unknown  at  the  time,  or  the  Cimbri, 
who  were  guided  by  their  Helvetian  allies,  would 
not  have  gone  so  far  to  the  eastwards  as  they 
did;  though  whether  they  crossed  from  the  head 
of  the  Rhine,  or  made  the  still  longer  circuit  by 
the  Inn  and  .\dige,  we  cannot  even  guess. 

".As  the  Roman  empire  extended  to  its  ultimate 
limits  in  Europe,  the  .Alps  became  no  longer  a 
frontier.     Naturallv  therefore  centuries  elapsed  be- 

28 


ALPS 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


fore  they  again  figured  in  history.  In  the  convul- 
sions which  followed  the  death  of  Nero,  two  can- 
didates for  the  imperial  throne  successively  en- 
tered north  Italy,  one  from  the  west,  the  other 
from  the  east.  Each  in  turn  defeated  the  rival  in 
possession  on  the  Lombard  plain,  and  as  it  hap- 
pened on  the  same  battlefield,  but  in  neither  case 
was  there  any  defence  of  the  mountain  passes.  In 
the  break  up  of  the  Western  empire,  the  Teuton 
tribes  seem  to  have  entered  Italy  as  they  pleased: 
the  Alps  might  as  well  not  have  existed.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages,  the  regions  on  both  sides  of 
the  Alps  were  divided  up  into  so  many  small 
states  (if  the  word  can  be  reasonably  applied), 
all  virtually  independent,  and  all  formally  included 
in  the  Empire,  that  the  mountains  continued  to 
be  of  little  political  importance.  If  the  Emperor 
had  to  expect  opposition  on  one  route,  he  could 
take  another;  practically  his  communications  with 
Italy  lay  chiefly  over  the  Brenner  and  its  varia- 
tions. From  western  Europe  the  usual  routes  were, 
as  has  been  said,  the  Great  St.  Betnard  and  the 
Mont  Cenis;  but  nothing  historically  turned  on 
this  fact,  travel  over  the  Alps  being  substantially 
that  of  private  persons,  largely  on  business  con- 
nected with  the  Church." — H,  B.  George,  Relations 
oj  geography  and  history,  pp.  211-212,  213-215. 

Aerial  flight  over  the  Alps  (igio).  Sec  Avia- 
tion; Important  flights  since  1900:   igio. 

Factor  in  World  War.  See  World  War:  iqi6: 
IV.  Austro-Italian  front:  a;  b,  2;  b,  4;  and  c; 
1917:  I.  Summary:  b,  8;  1918:  IV.  Austro-Italian 
theater:   c,  3;  c,  12. 

Frontiers  of  Italy. — Peace  Conference  claims. 
— "Now  if  there  is  one  country  in  Europe  of 
which  nature  has  made  a  geographic  unity  it  is 
Italy.  In  all  epochs,  geographers  have  seen  in  the 
Alps  the  natural  frontiers  of  that  peninsula  des- 
tined to  be  the  first  hearth  of  civilization  in  Eu- 
rope. It  can  easily  be  understood,  therefore,  how 
Italy  came  [at  the  Peace  Conference]  to  include 
among  her  war  ambitions,  the  aim  of  gathering  to 
herself  the  northern  and  eastern  crests  of  the  Alps, 
that  is  to  say,  the  frontiers  which  Augustus  had 
assigned  to  Italy,  but  which  were  held  in  1Q14,  by 
the  Austrian  Empire.  By  advancing  to  that  line, 
and  by  annexing  the  Trenlino  and  Istria,  Italy 
would  achieve,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  both 
her  geographical  and  her  national  unity.  She  would 
be,  in  Europe,  the  almost  perfect  model  of  the 
nation  which,  should  a  desire  for  war  seize  upon 
her,  must  face  the  greatest  difficulties  in  attacking 
others,  possessing,  the  while,  the  best  facilities  of 
defense  in  case  she  were  attacked  by  others." — G. 
Ferrero,  National  aspirations  of  Italy  (in  Le  Fi- 
garo, quoted  in  Tlie  Living  Age,  April  26,  1919). 
—See  also  Italy:   IQ15:   Treaty  of  London. 

Also  in:  J.  Ball,  Alpine  guide. — T.  G.  Bonney, 
Alpine  regions  of  Switzerland  and  the  neighbour- 
ing countries. — Sir  M.  Conway,  The  Alps,  and  Alps 
from  end  to  end. — G.  Allais,  Le  Alpi  occidentali 
nell'  antichila. — E.  Oehlmann,  Die  Alpenpdsse  im 
Mittelalter.^A.  Smith,  Story  of  Mont  Blanc. — 
A.  B.  Edwards,  Untrodden  peaks  and  unfrequented 
valleys. — A.  F.  Mummery,  My  climbs  in  the  Alps. 
— Sir  L.  Stephen,  Playground  of  Europe. — E. 
Whymper,  Scrambles  amongst  the  Alps.— P.  J.  de 
Bourcet,  Memoires  militaires  sur  les  frontieres  de 
la  France,  du  Piemont,  et  de  la  Savoie   (1801). 

AL-RUNAS.     See  Huns:   Gothic  account  of. 

ALSACE. — Name.     See  Alemanni:   213. 

1648. — Ceded  to  France  by  peace  of  West- 
phalia. See  Alsace-Lorraine:  1552-1789;  West- 
phalia, Peace  of. 

1672-1714.— Frederick  William's  attempted  re- 
covery.   See  Austria:  1672-17x4. 


ALSACE-LORRAINE.— Its  history  as  af- 
fected by  its  position. — The  history  of  Lorraine 
up  to  modern  times  will  be  found  under  Lorraine. 
The  French  geographer  and  historian  Vidal  de  la 
Blache  has  characterized  Alsace-Lorraine  as 
"France  of  the  east,"  a  region  between  the  Rhine, 
the  Meuse,  and  the  Ardennes.  This  territory  has 
always  been  historically  a  frontier  country  lying 
at  the  junction  of  France,  Belgium,  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  without  such  natural  frontiers 
as  might  mark  it  off  definitely  from  these  neigh- 
boring countries.  To  be  sure,  Alsace  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Rhine,  but  Lorraine  has  always 
had  entirely  artificial  boundaries.  The  fate  of  Al- 
sace-Lorraine has  been  complicated  by  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  a  meeting-place  of  two  powerful 
aggressive  peoples,  the  French  and  the  German, 
and  also  because  it  lay  on  the  cross-roads  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  valleys  as  well  as  the 
historic  routes  leading  through  the  Alps  from  the 
Po  valley  and  from  the  Rhone  valley  through  the 
gap  at  Belfort.  It  may  be  said  then,  that  this 
region  has  no  geographic  unity.  Until  very  recent 
times  Lorraine  was  closer  to  France  than  it  was 
to  Alsace,  while  Alsace  itself  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  natural  regions  having  little  intricate 
indications.  Although  it  was  as  late  as  1648  when 
France  secured  possession  of  the  greater  part  of 
Alsace  [see  also  Germany:  1648]  and  not  until 
more  than  one  hundred  years  later  that  she  ac- 
quired Lorraine,  the  process  of  assimilation  was 
completed  over  a  century  ago.  It  was  the  French 
Revolution  that  made  Alsace-Lorraine  an  integral 
part  of  the  French  nation.  The  development  of 
communications,  particularly  canals  and  railroads, 
connected  this  territory  with  France  and  with  the 
Rhine,  so  that  by  1S71  an  economic  unity  with 
France   was  achieved. 

Early  history. — Romans,  Gauls  and  Huns. — 
"But  the  Roman  conquest  was  accomplished  at 
last  in  Belgium  and  in  the  rest  of  Celtic  land,  and 
then  was  extended  over  the  Rhine  until  the  bar- 
barian tribes  were  so  interwoven  with  the  Roman 
legions  that  it  was  hard  to  distinguish  between 
them.  Ruins  of  monuments  planned  by  Romans 
and  constructed  by  barbarian  labour  are  scattered 
over  Western  Europe  to  tell  the  tale  of  who  built, 
who  saw,  and  who  destroyed.  In  .Msace,  the 
earliest  ruins  are  not,  however,  these.  There  are 
still  traces  of  preceding  occupation.  Parts  of  a 
great  wall,  the  so-called  Heidenmauer,  are  to  be 
seen  on  the  Odilienburg,  showing  how  primitive 
people  of  the  Vosges  highlands  tried  to  protect 
themselves  against  assault.  Then  there  are  many 
Druid  remains,  some  near  the  sites  of  the  Roman 
temples  which  are  found  in  considerable  numbers. 
Of  Latin  theatres,  arches,  aqueducts,  such  as  blos- 
somed in  many  parts  of  Gaul,  there  are  no  ex- 
amples in  Alsace.  Fortifications  and  highways, 
however,  remain  to  prove  that  the  Romans  did  not 
neglect  the  Vosges  region.  Argentoratum,  followed 
by  Strasburg,  was  one  of  the  Roman  strongholds 
which  has  never  ceased  to  be  a  fortified  place.  The 
splendid  military  roads  show  the  best  work  of 
the  Romans  in  this  section  of  their  domain.  .  .  . 
Some  of  the  most  important  ran  from  Besani;on 
(to  use  modern  terms)  to  Strasburg,  on  to  May- 
ence,  to  Ell,  Breisach,  and  on  to  the  Rhine,  from 
Brumath  to  Saverne  and  Metz,  from  .\lsace  into 
Lorraine  through  the  valley  of  Schirmeck,  from 
Alsace  into  Lorraine  through  the  valley  of  the 
Villi,  and  in  many  other  directions.  If  the  Peu- 
tinger  map  be  rightly  dated,  many  of  these  high- 
ways were  later  than  200  A.  D.  But  on  it  can 
be  seen  three  highways  leading  out  of  Strasburg, — 
Argentoratum.      The    end    of    the    Gallo-Roman 


229 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


Treaty  of 
Verdun 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


period  came  imperceptibly.  Roman  domination 
simply  ceased  to  exist,  and  oflicials  of  northern  races 
who  had  administered  affairs  in  the  name  of  Rome 
continued  to  hold  sway  without  respect  to  trans- 
Alpine  authority.  German  settlement,  pre-emi- 
nently Prankish  and  Teutonic,  in  the  V'osges  tract 
westward  of  the  Rhine  was  not  the  result  of  de- 
cisive conquest.  It  was  merely  gradual  trans- 
Rhenish  migration,  not  differing  radically  from  the 
kind  that  had  been  inaugurated  by  Ariovistus  and 
checked  by  Julius  Caesar,  except  that  it  was  less 
aggressive  and  in  smaller  numbers.  The  Celtic 
inhabitants  were  neither  entirely  dispossessed  nor 
enslaved  by  the  German  colonists,  to  whom,  more 
over,  they  did  not  remain  antagonistic.  This  must 
be  taken  into  account  in  attempting  to  arrive  at 
any  conclusion  as  to  the  ultimate  racial  status  of 
the  Alsatian  tract.  Whether  in  the  course  of  the 
centuries  before  Soo  A.  D.  the  predominant  ele- 
ment remained  as  essentially  Gallo-Frankish,  with 
the  characteristics  of  activity,  enterprise,  energy, 
independence,  irony,  and  badinage  ascribed  to  the 
people  of  the  French  realm,  as  it  finally  took  shape, 
or  whether  an  inherent  Teutonic  quality  continued 
to  differentiate  the  Alsatians  from  their  French 
neighbours  on  the  other  side  of  the  Vosges,  re- 
mains a  moot  question.  ...  As  far  as  geographic 
nomenclature  is  concerned,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  the  dominant  note  in  the  formative  period 
was  Germanic.  Strasburg,  Breisach,  Ebersheim, 
Rouffac,  Seltz,  Ell-Sass,  itself,  however  spelled  at 
different  epochs,  all  tell  one  story,  and  they  arc 
not  names  that  have  changed  radically  during  the 
last  phase  of  political  affiliation.  .  .  .  Many  of 
those  that  passed  over  Alsatian  soil  did  not  trouble 
themselves,  indeed,  to  leave  any  constructive  trace 
of  themselv-es,  though  they  left  trace  enough  of 
the  damage  they  wrought.  After  the  Burgundians 
came  Attila,  who  destroyed  Argentoratum — where 
Strasburg  later  came  to  replace  the  Roman  city 
— and  various  other  settlements.  That  was  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  centun.',  not  long  before  the 
invaders  were  repulsed  at  Chalons  (451  .\.  D.)  by 
Romans  and  Germans  fishting  as  allies,  .attila 
went  on  to  Italy  and  gradually  the  .Msatians  stole 
down  to  the  plains  from)  the  highlands  where,  like 
other  Gauls,  they  had  taken  refuge,  and  took  up 
their  life  again  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  Roman 
civilization,  which  had  indeed  retreated,  but  which 
had  left  a  permanent  impress  upon  the  land  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  mountains.  There  came  a 
time  when  the  Prankish  sovereicns  of  Gaul  rec- 
ognized .the  individuality  of  the  province  so  far 
as  to  create  a  duke  of  Alsace,  and  we  hear  of  one 
Ettich  or  Attich  as  bearing  that  title  before  Chris- 
tian times.  Legends  have  clustered  about  his 
daughter  Odilia,  who  brought  bitter  disappoint- 
ment to  her  father  at  her  birth,  because  she  was 
not  only  a  girl  when  he  had  desired  a  boy,  but 
blind  at  that.  The  water  of  baptism  finally  gave 
her  sight,  and  the  Odilienberg,  where  she  grew 
up,  away  from  her  father's  unfriendly  eyes,  re- 
mains to  bear  witness  to  the  miracle  of  her  con- 
version to  Christianity.  The  Bishop  of  Strasburg, 
too,  comes  upon  the  scene  and  .Msarc  thus  be- 
comes a  duchy  anrl  has  3  bishopric,  is  Christian 
and  provincial.  .  .  .  Had  this  title  of  duke  not 
come  into  being  there  might  never  have  been  an 
AUace.  but  the  name  persisted  even  though  the 
unit  was  fractured." — R.  Putnam,  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine, pp.  15-21. 

842-1477.— Strasburg  Oath.— Treaty  of  Ver- 
dun.— Foundation  of  House  of  Hapsburg. — 
Treaty  of  St.  Omer. — "The  Treaty  of  Verdun, 
84.1  A.  D  ,  between  the  three  grandsons  of  Charles 
the  Great   (Charlemagne  seems  far  more  befitting 


that  sovereign)  gave  to  Charles  the  Bald  the  nu- 
cleus of  prc^ent-day  France,  to  Louis  the  German, 
trans-Rhine  territory  as  far  as  the  River  Elbe, 
while  to  Lothaire,  eldest  son  and  Emperor,  fell  a 
middle  realm  between  the  two  familiar  divisions 
of  modern  Europe.  It  was  Lotharii  regniim,  a 
realm  which  bequeathed  to  posterity  one  legacy 
in  the  name  Lotliaringia,  Lolhriiigen,  Lorraine, 
and  another  in  the  phantom  of  an  ideal  kingdom. 
One  bequest  was  permanent,  though  applied  to 
units  of  different  area,  the  other  intermittent  in 
vitality.  Modern  Lorraine,  .Msace,  Burgundy, 
Provence,  and  Italy,  excepting  the  States  of  the 
Church,  were  all  comprised  within  Lothaire's 
heritage,  in  addition  to  the  imperial  title.  [See 
also  Lorr.hine:  S43-870.]  But  that  allotment  was 
of  brief  duration.  Lothaire  II.  succeeded  his 
father,  indeed,  but  on  his  death,  his  uncle:-. 
Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis  the  German,  took 
it  upon  themselves  to  make  a  fresh  division  of 
the  Carolingian  empire  into  only  two  parts  as 
far  as  Europe  north  of  the  Alps  was  concerned 
The  son  of  Lothaire  II.  was  permitted  to  retain 
the  Italian  provinces  alone  of  the  paternal  'Mid- 
dle Kingdom,'  while  the  remainder  was  parcelled 
out  between  his  great-uncles,  thus  marking  the 
confines  of  Prance,  Germany,  and  Italy,  or  rather 
indicating  those  three  geographical  unities.  More- 
over, not  only  did  modern  European  boundary 
lines  cast  their  shadows  before  at  the  crisis  of 
these  territorial  division  but  an  interesting  evi- 
dence of  the  linguistic  scission  between  the  sub- 
jects of  the  Prankish  sovereigns  remains  as  one 
result  of  these  fraternal  bargains.  This  is  the 
document  containing  the  oaths  sworn  at  Stras- 
burg, 842  A.  D.,  as  a  prelude  to  the  formal  tri- 
angular convention  at  X'erdun,  the  following  year 
The  two  younger  brothers  safe-guarded  them- 
selves against  their  senior  by  interchanging  pledges 
of  mutual  support.  The  occasion  was  a  formal 
and  solemn  function.  The  brothers  were  accom- 
panied by  their  armies,  who  were  taken  into  their 
confidence,  each  over-lord  addressing  his  own  sol- 
diers in  their  own  vernacular,  explaining  the 
reasons  for  enmity  towards  Lothaire,  and  then 
proceeding  to  give  the  formal  oath  each  to  the 
adherents  of  his  brother,  Louis  the  German  speak- 
ing in  the  lingua  romana,  the  speech  of  Roman- 
ized Gaul,  and  Charles,  sovereign  of  the  same 
realm,  using  the  lingua  teudisca,  spoken  across 
the  Rhine.  The  phrases  that  were  comprehen- 
sible to  these  ninth-century  French  and  Germans 
look  like  a  very  queer  jumble  of  words.  Their 
interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  both  vernaculars  were 
probably  comprehensible  to  the  bystander  in  Stras- 
burg, just  as  the  two  more  polished  languages 
have  been  in  our  day.  It  is  probable  that  thu.s 
early  the  children  of  the  borderland  had  their 
ears  attuned  to  bi-lingual  addresses.  The  words  of 
Louis  were:  'Pro  Deo  amur  et  pro  christian 
poblo  et  nostro  commun  salvament,  dist  di  in 
avant,  in  quant  Deus  savir  et  podir  me  dunat,  si 
salvaraeio  cist  meon  fradre  Karlo  et  in  adiudha  et 
in  cadhuna  cosa,  si  cum  om  per  dreit  son  fradra 
salvar  dist,  in  n  quid  il  mi  allresi  fazet ;  et  ab 
Ludhcr  nul  plaid  numquam  prindrai,  qui  meon 
vol  cist  meon   fradre  Karle  in  damno  sit.' 

"The  form  of  Charles'  oath  was:  'In  Codes 
minna  ind  in  thes  christianes  folches  ind  unser 
bedhero  gealtnissi.  fon  thesemo  dagc  frammordes, 
so  fram  so  mir  Got  gewizci  indi  madh  furgibit, 
50  haldih  tesan  minan  bruodher,  soso  man  mit 
rehtu  sinan  bruodhfr  seal,  in  thiu,  thaz  er  mig 
sosoma  duo;  indi  mit  Ludheren  in  nonheiniu  thing 
ne  gegango  the  minan  willon  imo  ce  scadhen 
werhen.' 

230 


ALSACE-LORRAIN  E 


Hapsburg 
Dominion 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


"[For  the  love  of  God,  and  for  the  sake  as  well 
of  our  peoples  as  of  ourselves,  I  promise  that 
from  this  day  forth,  as  God  shall  grant  me  wisdom 
and  strength,  1  will  treat  this  my  brother  as  one's 
brother  ought  to  be  treated,  provided  that  he 
shall  do  the  same  by  me.  And  with  Lothair  I  will 
not  willingly  enter  into  any  dealings  which  may 
injure  this  my  brother." — E.  Emerton,  Medioeval 
Europe,    p.    27.] 

"The  actual  division  between  Louis  and  Charles 
of  Lothaire's  'Middle  Kingdom'  did  not  take 
place  until  many  years  after  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
dun. It  was  not  until  about  870  that  Louis  the 
German  entered  into  the  possession  of  his  share, 
which  included  Alsace  as  well  as  other  of  the 
Lotharingian  parcels.  Then  the  Vosgcs  Moun- 
tains, instead  of  the  Rhine  River,  became  the 
boundary  between  the  Germanic  and  Prankish 
kingdoms.  .  .  .  Germany  counted  her  own  birthday 
as  the  day  when  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  was  signed. 
A  thousand  years  of  existence  was  celebrated  in 
1843.  Into  that  thousand-year  nationality,  Alsace 
did  not  enter  either  at  the  beginning  or  the  end. 
On  both  days  her  fate  was  linked  to  another  sov- 
ereignty. .  .  . 

"Had  the  realm  covered  by  the  titular  authority 
of  Charles  the  Great  remained  intact,  the  Alsatian 
tract  might  have  had  a  different  history,  for  the 
great  Carolingian  made  Colmar  and  Schlestadt 
his  residence  from  time  to  time,  and  a  mid-Euro- 
pean capital  might  have  grown  into  importance, — 
a  capital  looking  east  and  west  over  a  wide  im- 
perial domain.  But  after  870  A.  D.  the  lot  of 
Alsace  as  a  border  land  on  Germanized  territory 
was  practically  decided,  although  confusing  changes 
continued  to  make  her  ultimate  political  affiliations 
look  very  uncertain  from  time  to  time.  [See  also 
Lorraine:  pii-q8o.l  The  trail  of  hazardous  for- 
tune cannot  be  followed  in  detail.  In  the  twelfth 
century  her  fealty  was  due  to  the  great  German 
King  and  Roman  Emperor  (1152),  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  while  her  immediate  control  was  in  the 
hands  of  various  lesser  authorities.  A  new  power 
was  springing  into  being  at  that  period,  destined 
to  affect  European  life  more  than  was  possible 
for  the  sovereign,  seldom  seen  by  the  people  at 
large.  That  was  the  free  city,  waxing  into  prowess 
by  means  of  valuable  privileges  bought  from  em- 
perors who  wished  to  obtain  money  for  schemes 
of  conquest  or  personal  ambition,  or  bestowed 
by  them  voluntarily  for  the  purpose  of  erecting 
burgher  bulwarks  against  over-powerful  nobles. 
In  course  of  time,  ten  of  these  communes  came 
into  being  in  Alsace,  while  Strasburg  besides  being 
a  city  state  continued  to  exert  influence  as  a 
dominant  episcopal  see.  Long  before  the  two 
Pragmatic  Sanctions  of  Frederick  II  (1220  and 
1232)  endowed  bishops  and  nobles  with  supremacy 
in  their  own  towns, — except  when  the  Emperor 
was  present  in  person, — this  Alsatian  bishopric  had 
accjuired  territorial  independence  and  a  high  de- 
gree of  temporal  power.  Once,  indeed,  when  the 
city  attempted  to  use  influence  in  an  imperial 
election,  it  suffered  seriously  at  the  hands  of  the 
successful  candidate  whom  it  had  opposed  to  no 
purpose,  but  as  a  rule  it  managed  to  hold  its 
own  against  any  interference  from  without.  By 
the  third  C|uarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
state  of  Alsatian  administration  was  as  follows: 
First,  it  must  be  noted  that  after  the  episode  of 
Duke  Ettich — Eticho,  Attich — the  dukedom  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  revived  as  such.  Without 
examining  too  curiously  how  it  all  happened,  we 
find  in  existence  two  landgraviates,  dividing  Alsace 
into  two  gaueit,  the  Sundgau  and  the  Nordgau, 
the  latter.  Lower  Alsace,  dependent  on  the  see  of 


Strasburg,  the  former,  Upper  Alsace,  in  the  hands 
of  the  cadet  branch  of  the  House  of  Habs- 
hurg.  .  .  .  Financial  embarrassments  led  to  a 
curious  commercial  transaction  in  regard  to  the 
lands  to  which  the  Habsburgs  had  title.  Sigis- 
mund  of  Austria  mortgaged  his  rights  to  Charles 
of  Burgundy  and  the  report  made  to  the  latter 
by  Jean  Poinsot  and  Jean  Pellot,  June  13,  1471, 
gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  condition  of  Al- 
sace. Here  is  the  story  of  what  happened  and 
what    led   to   such   happening. 

"The   Habsburgs   took   the   title   by   which  they 
have  so   long  been  known   from  a  castle   built  in 
the  eleventh  century  by   one  bishop  of  Strasburg 
and   his  brother  Radbod   upon   the  Aar,  in   Swiss 
territory,  not  far  from  the  border  of  Upper  Alsace. 
Tradition  has  it  that  Radbod  followed  his  hawk— 
Habicht — into    an    unknown    region    and    was    so 
much  charmed   with  the  beauty   of  the  spot  that 
he    decided    to    build    a    castle    there    and,    later, 
named    the    house    Habichlsburg    from    the    guide 
who  had  led  him  thither.     The  longer  term  con- 
tracted, naturally,  by  easy  transition  into  Habsburg 
and  has  held  its  own  to  this  day.     Little  by  little, 
the    family   grew   to   be    one    of    the    foremost    in 
the   Empire,   and   in   1273   its   reputation   was  en- 
hanced  by    the   elevation    of    Rudolph,    Count    of 
Habsburg,    to    the    imperial    dignity, — the    first    of 
many  sons  of  the  race  to  hold  that  office,  although 
it   did   not   become   the    assured   perquisite   of   the 
Habsburgs  until   later.      [See  also  Austria:    124b- 
1282.]      It   may   be   added   that   Radbod   and   his 
brother  the  bishop,  Werner,  who  collaborated  in  the 
castle  building  on  the  heights  of  the  Wulpelsberg, 
are  alleged   to  be  descendants   of   Duke  Ettich  of 
Alsace.      Possibly    the   tradition    originated   to   ac- 
count for  the  partition   of  the   two   gauen  or   dis- 
tricts of  Alsace  between  the  see  of  Strasburg  and 
the  count  of  Habsburg.     After  three  centuries  of 
fortunes,  more  or  less  fair,  we  find  Frederick  III, 
Emperor,  and  his  cousin  the  Archduke  Sigismund, 
of  the  cadet  branch,  in  possession  of  the  Habsburg 
lands    in    Tyrol    in    various    other    places,    besides 
being  Landgrave  of  the  Sundgau  and  holding  other 
estates  in  Alsace.     Sigismund  did  not  have  a  com- 
pact   principality    to   administer    from    his    capital,    ' 
Innspruck,  and  perhaps  that  was  the  reason  why 
he    fell    into    serious    difficulties    in    every    direc- 
tion. .  .  .  There  was  a  group  of  princes  in  Europe 
at  this  epoch  (1460),  Louis  XI.  of  France,  Charles 
of    Burgundy,   Frederick    III.    and   his   son   Maxi- 
milian,  who   spent   their   lives   in   trying   to   over- 
reach  each   other.     Frederick   could   not   help   his 
cousin,    so    Sigismund    applied    to    Louis    XL    for 
assistance,  but   fear  of  the  Swiss  made   the   King 
refuse.     Then    the    Archduke   went   down    to    the 
Netherlands   with   his  petition   and   found   Charles 
more  amenable.     The  reason   was  plain.     Charles 
was  most  desirous  of  uniting  his  Netherland  group 
of    duchies,    countships,    and    seigniories   with    his 
two  Burgundies,  and  the  territories  offered  to  him 
by  Sigismund  lay  so  as  to  fill  in  part  of  the  gap 
between.    The  Burgundian's  hope  of  erecting  a  new 
edition  of  a  'Middle  Kingdom'  affected  his  policy 
in   many  respects  and  never  more   markedly  than 
in   this  transaction   with  Sigismund.     The  bargain 
was   made.     Perhaps   the   fact   that   the   applicant 
was  pretty  close  to  the  Emperor,  who  alone  could 
turn  a  duke  into  a  real  king,  made  Charles  espe- 
cially willing  to  oblige  his  needy   visitor.     At  St. 
Omer   on   May   qth   another   of   the   long   row   of 
treaties    was   signed    which,    without    the   slightest 
concern   for  the   will   of  the  inhabitants,  disposed 
of  the   political  control  of  Alsatian  soil.     Charles 
agreed  to  pay  Sigismund  ten  thousand  florins  im- 
mediately  and   forty    thousand   before   Septembe- 


231 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


French 
Ownership 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


24th  in  return  for  the  cession  of  all  Sigismund's 
seigniorial  rights  in  the  landgraviate  of  Alsace,  the 
county  of  Ferrette,  and  in  certain  Rhine  towns.  If 
he  found  himself  in  possession  of  means  to  buy 
back  his  landgraviate,  Sigismund  was  to  be  per- 
mitted so  to  do,  provided  that  he  could  produce 
at  Besani;on  tlie  whole  sum  at  once,  that  aug- 
mented by  all  the  outlays  made  by  the  Burgundian 
upon  the  property.  ...  No  real  gain  came  to 
Charles  from  the  Treaty  of  St.  Omer.  The  Aus- 
trian dukes  had  not  been  popular  in  Alsace,  but 
their  poverty  had  prevented  them  from  being  hard 
masters  even  where  they  retained  the  right  to 
exert  any  local  authority  at  all.  .  .  .  Before  the 
death  of  Charles  at  Nancy  in  1477,  Sigismund  had 
drawn  back  the  Alsace  estates  to  the  Habsburgs. 
His  friends  rallied  around  him  when  they  saw  what 
Charles  was  about.  Money  was  found  for  the 
Archduke,  who  was  enabled  to  offer  his  creditor 
full  redemption,  with  the  required  payment  in  one 
sum.  Charles  had  refused  to  accept  this  and, 
as  far  as  appears  clearly,  no  money  ever  did 
return  to  the  Burgundian  treasury." — R.  Putnam, 
Alsace  and  Lorraine,  pp.  22-37. 

843-870. — Included   in   the    kingdom   of    Lor- 
raine.    See  Lorraine:   843-870. 

10th  century. — Joined  to  the  Holy  Roman  em- 
pire.    See  Lorraine:   qii-gSo. 

13th  century. — Origin  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg.    See  Austria:   1246-1282. 

1525. — Revolt  of  the  peasants.    See  Germany: 
1 524-1525. 

1552-1774.— Medieval  period.— Thirty  Years' 
War. — Under  Louis  XIV,  acquired  by  Louis 
XV. — "In  the  later  Middle  Ages  Lorraine  formed 
a  duchy,  within  which  lay  a  number  of  small 
and  in  some  cases  independent  feudal  states  and 
the  city  of  Metz,  a  free  city  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  whose  people  spoke  French.  In  1552,  on 
the  petition  of  certain  German  Protestant  princes, 
Metz  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  king 
of  France,  who  took  possession  of  the  city  and 
the  surrounding  territory  subject  to  it.  In  1613 
the  bishopric  of  Metz  and  its  lands  were  taken 
over  by  the  F'rench  king,  the  whole  being  com- 
bined with  Toul  and  Verdun  into  the  three  prov- 
inces of  the  Three  Bishoprics  (Trois  Eveches), 
and  the  cession  was  confirmed  by  the  Emperor  in 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  of  1648.  [See  also  Ger- 
many: 1648.1  Further  acquisitions  made  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  notably  Sierck  and  Saarlouis, 
gave  France  a  strategic  line  of  communication 
through  Lorraine  to  Alsace.  The  duchy  of  Lor- 
raine, which  had  likewise  been  dependent  on 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  was  declared  free  by 
Emperor  Charles  V  and  was  gradually  drawn  into 
the  French  sphere  of  influence.  Relinquished  by 
its  Hapsburg  duke  in  1736,  in  1738  by  the  treaty 
of  Vienna  it  was  handed  over  to  a  Polish  duke, 
Stanislas  Leszcynski,  on  condition  that  at  his  death 
it  should  pass  to  his  son-in-law,  Louis  XV  of 
France,  by  whom  it  was  accordingly  acquired  in 
1766.  Certain  small  enclaves  within  Lorraine  did 
not  pass  to  France  until  the  Revolution.  Alsace, 
except  the  city  of  Miilhouse,  was  annexed  to 
France  in  the  course  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  Middle  .\ges  had  broken  the  countr\-  up  into 
a  great  variety  of  feudal  states  and  free  cities; 
the  Reformation  divided  it  still  further  by  re- 
ligious dissensions.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
France  intervened  on  the  side  of  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany ;  at  its  close  France  received 
considerable  possessions  in  .Msace,  in  much  the 
same  way  that  Brandenburg  (the  future  Prussia) 
then  secured  valuable  additions  in  the  north.  The 
treaty    of    Westphalia    (1648)    assured    to    France 

2y. 


certain  lands  and  certain  governmental  rights  pos- 
sessed by  the  Emperor  in  his  imperial  capacity  and 
as  head  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  but  the  pro- 
visions were,  possibly  with  intention,  left  vague 
at  certain  points  and  became  the  occasion  of  pro- 
tracted legal  and  historical  disputes.  By  a  com- 
bination of  undoubted  grants,  more  or  less  justi- 
fied legal  interpretations,  and  the  direct  seizure 
of  the  city  of  Strasburg,  Louis  XIV  rounded  out 
his  possession  of  the  whole  of  Alsace.  [See 
also  France:  1679-1681.]  The  sole  exception, 
Miilhouse,  allied  with  the  Swiss  Confederation, 
voluntarily  offered  itself  to  France  in  1798." — C.  H. 
Haskins  and  R.  H.  Lord,  Some  problems  of  the 
Peace  Conference,  pp.  77-79. 

1621-1622. — Invasions  by  Mansfeld  and  his 
predatory  army.     See  Germany:    1021-1623. 

1636-1639. — Invasion  and  conquest  by  Duke 
Bernhard  of  Weimar. — Secured  for  France  by 
Richelieu.     See  Germany:   1634-1639. 

1659. — Renunciation  of  the  claims  of  the  king 
of  Spain.     See  France:   1659-1661. 

1674-1678. — Ravaged  in  the  campaigns  of 
Turenne  and  Cond£.  See  Netherlands;  1674- 
1678. 

1744. — Invasion  by  the  Austrians.  See  Aus- 
tria:   1 743- 1 744. 

1789-1794. — French  revolution  period. — Origin 
of  the  Marseillaise. — The  abolition  of  feudal 
privileges  was  one  of  the  first  steps  of  the  Revo- 
lution, which  reverberated  in  Alsace,  where  Ger- 
man princes  held  feudal  privileges.  These  being 
directly  threatened,  the  rulers  appealed  to  the 
emperor,  .\cording  to  Maurice  Leon,  this  attempt 
by  a  handful  of  German  princes  to  force  their 
feudal  claims  upon  the  country  that  first  abol- 
ished them  in  Europe  precipitated  the  war  of 
monarchical  Europe  against  revolutionary  France 
and  the  consequent  attempt  to  suppress  repub- 
licanism in  France.  The  Revolution,  however,  won 
the  day ;  the  people  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  sent 
delegates  to  the  Assembly,  while  the  princes  held 
aloof.  The  stirring  strains  of  the  "Marseillaise"  were 
first  sung  in  Strassburg  in  1792,  and  breathe  de- 
fiance to  the  German  invaders  from  Prussia. — See 
also  Music:    Folk  music  and  nationalism:   France. 

1871. — Cession  to  Germany. — "At  the  close  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  Germany  required  of 
France  the  cession  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  with 
a  boundary  on  the  west  which  was  defined  by  the 
treaty  of  Frankfort  in  1871.  In  the  next  forty 
years  Alsace-Lorraine  passed  through  various 
stages  of  government,  from  military  dictatorship 
through  a  certain  amount  of  territorial  indepen- 
dence to  the  definite  constitution  imposed  by  the 
Reichstag  in  191 1.  Those  who  had  hoped  for 
autonomy  were  disappointed  in  this  instrument, 
which  failed  to  elevate  the  Rcichsland  to  the  posi- 
tion of  a  federated  state  of  the  empire,  although 
an  anomalous  provision  was  made  for  its  repre- 
sentation in  the  Bundesrat.  Legally  Alsace-Lor- 
raine was  still  a  subject  territory  of  the  em- 
pire. .  .  .  For  more  than  half  a  century  the  prob- 
lem of  Alsace-Lorraine  has  been  debated  back  and 
forth  with  arguments  which  have  had  no  effect 
on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  controversy.  .  .  . 
To  the  French  ."Msace  and  Lorraine  had  become 
and  remained  fundamentally  French,  having  been 
assimilated  gradually  and  without  violence  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  French  most  of  all  by 
having  entered  fully  into  the  spirit  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  taken  an  active  part  therein.  They 
begged  to  remain  a  part  of  France  in  1871,  as  the 
unanimous  protests  of  their  representatives  show, 
and  they  continued  French  at  heart  against  the 
strongest    pressure    in    the    opposite    direction.      In 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


German  Rule 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


spite  of  differences  of  language,  sucli  as  exist  in 
other  parts  of  France,  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were 
Frencfi  in  social  structure,  in  political  ideals,  and 
in  the  sympathies  of  the  population  Without 
these  lost  provinces  France  was  a  mutilated  coun- 
try, not  fully  France.  Furthermore,  the  posses- 
sion of  Metz  and  the  Vosges  by  a  military  power 
like  Germany  constituted  a  standing  menace  to  a 
peaceful  country  like  the  French  Republic;  it  also 
menaced  the  economic  life  of  France  and  its  de- 
fence by  making  possible,  as  in  IQ14,  immediate 
seizure  of  the  richest  part  of  its  iron  supply. 
France  was  robbed  of  these  provinces  by  force 
in  187 1,  and  the  wrong  had  to  be  righted,  not  only 
in  the  interest  of  France  but  for  the  sake  of  the 
inhabitants." — C.  H.  Haskins  and  R.  H.  Lord, 
Some  problems  of  the  Peace  Conference,  pp.  80-85. 
— "The  French  call  their  neighbour  [Germany] 
Allemagne,  after  an  unimportant  Teuton  people 
that  settled  in  and  about  Alsace  in  the  break-up 
of  the  Western  empire.  .  .  .  Teutonic  Alsace, 
Protestant  and  German-speaking,  was  conquered  by 
France  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  last  stage 
of  the  conquest  being  marked  by  circumstances 
of  exceptional  treachery  and  wrong.  Neverthe- 
less it  became  thoroughly  French  in  sentiment,  and 
strongly  resented  being  re-transferred  to  Germany 
in  1871.  On  which  side  is  the  principle  of  nation- 
ality to  be  invoked  in  the  case  of  Alsace — for  or 
against  the  present  [1907]  state  of  things?  There 
is  nothing  but  sentiment  to  draw  it  towards  France, 
nothing  except  sentiment  to  alienate  it  from  Ger- 
many."— H.  B.  George,  Relations  of  geography  and 
history,  pp.  58,  65-66. — "The  last  great  cession 
of  territory  in  Europe  I1871]  deprived  France 
of  its  piece  of  territory  bordering  on  the  Rhine, 
and  restored  to  Germany  a  district  German  in  race 
and  language." — Ibid.,  p.  30. — "The  German  con- 
quest of  1870  made  the  political  frontier  corre- 
spond much  more  nearly  to  the  division  of  races 
and  languages,  though  entirely  against  the  wish 
of  the  people,  who  had  in  the  interval  been  incor- 
porated in  France.  It  is  instructive  to  compare 
the  fate  of  Lorraine  with  that  of  Savoy,  that  is 
to  say  with  the  composite  state  over  which  the 
dukes  of  Savoy  ruled.  Both  were  divided  in 
language,  and  more  or  less  in  race:  both  were 
situated  between  two  great  and  often  hostile  pow- 
ers: both  were  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  person 
of  their  princes,  attracted  towards  France.  Yet 
Lorraine  was,  so  to  speak,  squeezed  to  death  be- 
tween France  and  Germany,  while  the  house  of 
Savoy  throve  on  the  vicissitudes  of  several  cen- 
turies, and  ultimately  became  sovereigns  of  united 
Italy.  .  .  .  But  the  main  reason  for  the  contrast 
between  Lorraine  and  Savoy  is  geographical.  It 
has  been  pointed  out  .  .  .  how  the  Alps  between 
Savoy  and  Piedmont  helped  the  fortunes  of  those 
princes.  Lorraine  had  no  such  backbone:  it  lay 
completely  open  to  France,  and  Germany  had  no 
particular  motive  for  defending  it ;  for  it  can 
hardly  be  said  that  Metz,  in  French  hands,  con- 
stituted a  menace  to  Germany,  however  the  case 
may  be  now  that  it  has  reverted  to  German 
hands  [in  1871].  The  acquisition  of  Alsace  by 
France  marks  the  end  of  the  period  of  religious 
wars,  as  the  seizure  of  the  three  bishoprics  marks 
the  beginning.  It  was  a  piece  of  sheer  undis- 
guised'conquest,  without  any  excuse  of  nationality 
or  of  a  personal  convention  between  any  Alsatian 
ruler  and  France.  Richelieu  simply  took  advantage 
of  the  distractions  of  Germany  to  lay  hands  on 
a  German  province  ...  a  province  essentially 
German  ever  since  the  Allemanni  invaded  the 
Roman  empire,  and  Protestant  in  addition.  Louis 
XIV  completed  the  robbery,  and  indeed  improved 


on  the  method.  During  a  period  of  general  peace 
he  seized  Strassburg  and  other  places — which, 
though  situated  within  Alsace,  were  politically  in- 
dependent of  it — and  the  Empire  was  not  strong 
enough  to  resent  the  outrage." — Ibid.,  pp.  237-238. 
— See  also  France:   1871   (January-May;. 

1871-1879. — Organization  of  government  as  a 
German  imperial  province.  See  Germany:  1871- 
1879. 

1879-1894. — Manteuffel  era  of  German  rule. — 
Administration  of  Hohenlohe  as  Statthalter. — 
Policy  of  Alsatian  minister  Puttkammer. — "The 
'Manleuliel  Era,'  as  this  period  of  Alsatian  history 
is  called,  lasted  six  years,  from  1879  to  1885.  If 
anyone  could  have  succeeded  in  the  role  he  had 
mapped  out  Manteuffel  could  have.  Believing 
correctly  that  no  government  is  successful  for 
any  length  of  time  that  does  not  have  the  people 
on  its  side,  Manteuffel  sought  first  to  know  those 
among  whom  he  had  come  to  rule.  He  traveled 
much  through  the  country,  trying  to  impart  his 
ideas  to  local  officials  and  notabihties,  municipal 
councilors,  clergymen,  and  teachers,  to  say  the 
happy  and  healing  word  to  everyone.  He  told  the 
people  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  that  he  understood 
and  respected  their  sentiments,  that  he  did  not 
ask  for  an  enthusiastic  adhesion  to  the  new  order 
of  things,  but  only  a  reasoned  submission  to  the 
ineluctable  fact.  He  warned  them,  however,  that 
he  would  proceed  d  outrance  against  anyone  who 
should  conspire  with  the  foreigner.  He  announced 
that  as  the  Doge  of  Venice  had  solemnly  wedded 
the  Adriatic,  so  he  wbhed  to  woo  Alsace-Lorraine 
and  obtain  her  liberties  for  her.  ...  In  his  per- 
sonal capacity  he  won  general  esteem.  Accessible 
to  all,  receiving  freely  even  workingmen  who  came 
to  present  their  grievances,  he  exemplified  the  fine 
politeness  of  the  Old  Regime  and  was  a  more  pop- 
ular figure  than  his  predecessor  or  than  any  of 
his  successors  were  to  be.  ...  In  his  fundamental 
purpose  Manteuffel  could  not  succeed.  Moreover, 
he  did  not  have  the  support  of  his  own  officials 
whose  conduct  served  more  or  less  to  nullify  and 
insulate  the  Staathalter.  All  through  his  regency 
the  bureaucrats  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  big  and  little, 
carried  on  an  incessant  and  perfidious  campaign 
in  the  German  press,  seeking  to  undermine  him. 
Harassed  by  the  Germans  who  criticised  his  mod- 
eration and  irritated  by  the  Alsatians  and  Lor- 
rainers  whose  passive  resistance  to  the  one  thing 
that  counted  revealed  the  essential  superficiality 
of  the  'pacification,'  moreover  compelled  from 
time  to  time  in  the  discharge  of  his  obligations 
to  the  authorities  in  Berlin  to  adopt  harsh  and 
unpopular  measures,  such  as  the  suppression  of 
certain  newspapers.  .  .  .  Manteuffel  stood  inse- 
curely upon  treacherous  sands.  So  strong  was  the 
opposition  to  his  policy  in  Germany  that  he  would 
have  been  recalled  had  it  not  been  that  the  octo- 
genarian Emperor,  William  I,  did  not  like  to  dis- 
miss old  friends  and  advisers.  .  .  .  Manteuffel's 
programme,  the  only  wise  one,  could  only  succeed 
if  assured  of  length  of  years  for  its  realization. 
And  these  were  not  to  be  vouchsafed  the  sagacious 
experiment.  .  .  .  Manteuffel's  official  days  were 
numbered.  But  he  was  spared  the  crowning  hu- 
miliation of  recall  because  his  earthly  days  were 
also  numbered.  He  died  on  June  17,  18S5,  and 
the  policy  for  which  he  stood  died  with  him.  .  .  . 
As  the  Manteuffel  regime  had  not,  in  the  brief 
space  of  six  years,  reconciled  Alsace  to  Germany, 
as  the  process  of  comparatively  mild  Germaniza- 
tion  had  made  no  appreciable  advance,  the  Ger- 
man government  now  resorted  to  methods  with 
which  it  was  more  familiar,  and  in  which  it  had 
a  more  robust  faith.     Coercion,  pure  and  simple, 


233 


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ALSACE-LORRAINE 


coercion  thorough  and  undisguised,  applied  at  every 
point  considered  dangerous  and  applied  without 
hesitation  and  without  interruption,  was  hence- 
forth the  programme  of  the  government.  To  pre- 
side over  the  execution  of  this  policy  a  new 
Statthalter,  Prince  Chlodwig  von  Hohenlohe- 
Schillingsfiirst  was  appointed.  .  .  .  The  period  of 
greatest  tension  since  1S71  now  began  and  lasted 
for  several  years,  indeed  all  through  this  regency, 
which  ended  only  with  the  promotion  of  Hohen- 
lohe  to  the  chancellorship  of  the  Empire  in  1804. 
It  was  a  period  of  danger,  replete  with  incidents 
that  set  Germany,  France,  and  Alsace-Lorraine 
on  edge.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  Hohenlohe  had  tried  to 
use  the  war  scare  in  Alsace  to  secure  from  the 
voters  the  election  of  candidates  favorable  to  the 
project  of  the  Chancellor.  He  told  the  Alsatians 
that,  if  war  came,  their  province  would  inevitably 
be  the  theater  of  hostilities  and  would  be  fear- 
fully harried  by  the  contending  armies.  The  re- 
sult of  his  intervention  was  quite  unexpected.  .  .  . 
Candidates  patronized  and  supported  by  the  Stat- 
thalter were  decisively  defeated.  A  solid  delega- 
tion of  fifteen  'protestataires'  was  sent  to  the 
Reichstag.  Of  314,000  registered  voters,  the  'pro- 
testers' received  247,000  votes,  that  is  82,000  more 
than  had  been  cast  for  them  in  1884.  So  stiff- 
necked  a  f)eople  needed  emphatically  to  be  tamed 
and  tamed  it  should  be.  Bismarck  went  at  the 
congenial  task  with  determination,  exceedingly  ir- 
ritated by  the  overwhelming  condemnation  of  his 
policy  in  Alsace  at  the  time  it  was  so  overwhelm- 
ingly approved  throughout  the  Empire.  Extraor- 
dinary, exceptional  measures  now  rained  upon 
the  devoted  heads  of  this  independent  people.  The 
leading  Alsatian  minister,  Hoffman,  considered  too 
mild  for  the  work,  was  recalled  and  Puttkammer, 
J,  relative  of  Bismarck,  was  appointed  in  his  place, 
and  began  at  once  a  policy  of  punishment  and 
repression.  Puttkammer  had  declined  even  to 
accept  his  post,  that  of  Secretary  of  State  and 
President  of  the  Ministry  of  .Msace-Lorraine,  until 
Antoine,  deputy  from  Metz  .  .  .  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  the  Reichstag.  Accordingly  the  Reich- 
stag expelled  him  on  March  31,  1887,  an  act  en- 
tirely pleasing  to  those  who  did  not  care  for  par- 
liamentary immunities.  Against  another  deputy 
from  Alsace,  Lalance  of  Mulhouse,  a  decree  of 
expulsion  was  issued,  then  suspended,  then  re- 
placed by  judicial  prosecution  and  finally  by  a 
mere  administrative  measure,  which  forced  the 
unwelcome  deputy  to  depart.  A  vigorous  attack 
was  made  forthwith  on  various  Alsatian  organiza- 
tions, art  clubs,  the  medical  society  of  Strasburg, 
botanical  and  zoological  societies.  Other  organiza- 
tions which  refused  to  admit  the  German  immi- 
grants to  their  membership,  such  as  gymnastic 
and  choral  and  student  clubs,  were  likewise  dis- 
solved by  administrative  decree.  ...  A  series  of  ' 
incidents  also  occurred,  alarming  and  calculated 
to  increase  the  irritation  and  tension  of  the  times, 
such  as  the  brutal  arrest,  on  Alsatian  soil,  of 
Schnaebele,  a  French  railway  official  at  Pagny-sur- 
Moselle,  by  his  German  colleague  of  Noveant  who 
had  summoned  him  hither  for  the  transaction  of 
routine  business,  an  incident  that  for  several  days 
caused  all  Europe  to  hold  its  breath  (April  20, 
1887).  .  .  .  This  policy  of  intimidation  received 
its  appropriate  coronation  in  a  measure,  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  German  government  would 
completely  subdue  the  recalcitrants,  a  new  and 
drastic  regulation  prescribine  the  use  of  passports, 
a  measure  put  into  force  June  1,  1888.  Hence- 
forth certain  categories  of  people  were  absolutely 
excluded  from  .Alsace-Lorraine,  for  instance,  any- 
one   connected    with    the    French    armv.      Everv 


other  person,  not  a  German,  who  wished  to  enter 
Alsace-Lorraine,  must  get  a  passport  viseed  at 
the  German  embassy  in  Paris,  and  it  was  intended 
that  this  passport  should  be  granted  only  in  ex- 
ceptional cases." — C.  D.  Hazen,  Alsace-Lorraine 
under    German    rule,    pp.    125-134. 

1911.  —  Constitution.  —  "The  people  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  had  for  forty  years  been  in  absolute 
subjection  to  other  wills  than  their  own.  Though 
allowed  a  Delegation  or  Landesausschuss,  before 
which  routine  legislative  proposals  were  laid,  yet 
that  body  was  elected  not  directly  by  the  people 
but  indirectly  and  largely  by  and  from  district 
and  municipal  councils,  so  that,  by  reason  of  its 
complicated  and  carefully  controlled  composition 
as  well  as  because  of  the  humble  character  of  its 
powers,  it  could  only  be  servile.  It  could  at  any 
moment  be  overruled  by  outside  powers,  by  the 
local  executive,  appointed  from  Berlin,  or  by  Ber- 
lin itself.  There  was  in  this  form  of  government 
no  satisfaction  given  to  the  legitimate  desire  of  the 
Alsatians  to  manage  their  own  affairs.  .  .  .  On 
March  15,  iqio,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire, 
Bethmann-Hollweg,  announced  in  the  Reichstag 
that  the  Emperor  had  agreed  with  the  confeder- 
ated governments  to  grant  a  more  autonomous 
constitution  to  Alsace-Lorraine.  This  announce- 
ment was  received  with  lively  satisfaction.  But 
the  people  of  the  Rfichsland  were  soon  to  learn 
that  the  Greeks  are  not  the  only  people  to  suspect 
when  they  come  forward  bearing  gifts.  When,  on 
June  20,  the  members  of  the  Landesausschuss  ex- 
pressed the  desire  that  the  Landesausschuss  should 
be  consulted  beforehand  as  to  the  constitutional 
changes  under  consideration  in  Berlin  they  were 
informed  by  the  Alsatian  ministry  that  the  Im- 
perial Government  did  not  recognize  the  right  of 
the  Landesausschuss  to  mix  in  questions  which  be- 
longed exclusively  to  the  Bundersrath  and  the 
Reichstag.  Indeed,  the  speech  of  the  Chancellor 
ought  to  have  checked  any  undue  optimism  on  the 
part  of  the  Alsations.  Stating  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  grant  'a  greater  political  independence  to 
Alsace,'  the  Chancellor  proceeded  to  lecture  both 
the  Pan-Germanists — for  their  opposition  to  any 
concessions — and  those  whom  he  called  the  'Pan- 
French,'  for  their  particularistic  and  Francophile 
agitation.  The  cry  'Alsace  for  the  .\lsatiuns'  had, 
he  said,  a  seductive  sound,  but  he  added  that  this 
could  never  be  realized  as  long  as  the  leaders  of 
the  movement  affected  not  to  recognize  the  fun- 
damentally German  character  of  the  population 
and  aimed  at   G'allicizing  the  country   in  the  face 

of    ethnography    and    history The    cause    of 

Alsace  was  thus  really  lost  in  advance.  .  .  .  The 
actual  plan  for  reform  was  not  laid  before  the 
Reichstag  until  December,  igio.  Its  discussion 
dragged  from  the  start.  When  the  Landesausschuss 
expressed  opposition  to  certain  features  of  the  plan 
its  session  was  abruptly  closed,  May  g,  iqii,  an 
action  which  naturally  produced  a  bad  impression 
upon  the  country.  On  May  26,  ign,  the 
new  Constitution  of  Alsace-Lorraine  was  voted 
by  the  Reichstag.  Violently  opposed  by  the  Pan- 
Germanists  and  betrayed  by  those  so-called  liberal 
parties  in  the  Reichstag  whose  supposed  princi- 
ples required  that  they  support  it.  .Alsatian  au- 
tonomy came  out  practically  by  the  same  door 
wherein  it  went.  Only  one  change  of  any  impor- 
tance was  made.  The  Landesausschuss.  or  single- 
chambered  body,  was  now  to  give  way  to  a  bi- 
cameral legislature  which  was  henceforth  to  be 
the  sole  source  of  legislation  for  Alsace-Lorraine. 
The  lower  house  was  to  be  elected  by  secret  and 
practically  manhood  suffrage,  but  this  house  was 
to  be  balanced  by  an   upper  house   in   which  the 


234 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


Constitution 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


Government  would  always  be  assured  of  a  major- 
ity. The  control  of  the  legislature  over  the  budget, 
a  vital  test  of  its  importance,  was  affirmed  but 
was  rendered  illusory  by  the  provision  that  if 
it  should  refuse  to  vote  it,  then  the  Government 
ahould  be  entirely  free  to  levy  taxes  and  incur 
expenses  on  the  basis  of  the  preceding  budget,  that 
is,  to  raise  and  spend  as  much  money  as  ever. 
Moreover  the  legislature,  in  this  respect  like  the 
other  legislatures  of  Germany,  would  have  no 
means  of  enforcing  its  wishes.  The  executive 
power  remained  concentrated,  as  before,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Statthalter  who  would  reside,  it  is 
true,  in  Strasburg,  but  whose  inspiration  and  in- 
structions would  come,  as  hitherto,  from  Berlin. 
The  local  ministry  was  to  be,  as  hitherto,  respon- 
ible  not  to  the  elected  chamber,  but  to  the  Stat- 
thalter alone,  and  the  Statthalter  was  responsible 
only  to  the  Emperor.  As  the  Statthalter  and  the 
ministry  were  to  appoint  and  control  the  bureau- 
iiacy,  or  civil  service,  Alsace  would  remain,  as 
ill  the  past,  entirely  subject  to  an  oligarchy  of 
lorcign  officials,  the  detested  immigrants  from 
Germany,  and  to  the  daily  vexations  and  irrita- 
cions  of  a  despotic  bureaucracy.  Every  individual 
in  Alsace  would  be  subjected  as  during  the  past 
lOrty  years  to  the  system  of  espionage  which  is 
one  of  the  ubiquitous  elements  of  modern  Ger- 
man government.  The  Constitution  of  iqii  pre- 
tended to  raise  Alsace-Lorraine  to  the  rank  of  a 
German  state,  to  place  it  on  a  plane  of  equality 
with  the  other  twenty-five  members  of  the  con- 
federation. In  practice  it  did  nothing  of  the 
kind.  It  allowed  her  three  votes  in  the  Bundes- 
rath.  She  would  thus,  like  all  the  other  states, 
be  represented  in  both  the  Bundesrath  and  the 
Reichstag.  But  the  three  delegates  from  Alsace- 
Lorraine  were  to  receive  their  instructions  from 
the  Statthalter,  were  to  vote  in  the  Bundesrath  as 
he  might  direct.  But  the  Statthalter  was  not 
an  independent  sovereign  like  the  King  of  Saxony 
or  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  ruling  by  his  own 
right ;  nor  was  he  an  elected  republican  head  of 
the  state.  He  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor, 
and  was  his  representative,  revocable  at  will  and 
consequently  not  likely  to  do  anything  distasteful 
to  him.  The  Constitution  of  iqii  increased 
greatly  the  power  of  the  Emperor;  it  did  not  in- 
crease the  power  of  the  people.  In  theory  Alsace- 
Lorraine  was  given  statehood;  in  practice,  she 
was  to  be  as  tightly  bound  as  ever.  .  .  .  The 
Alsatians  were  shown,  in  all  this  campaign  of 
much  talk  about  nothing,  that  nowhere  in  Ger- 
many did  they  have  any  friends  in  their  desire 
for  real  self-government,  not  even  in  the  Center 
and  Socialist  parties  which  decisively  betrayed 
their  allies  in  the  Reichsland  for  the  sake  of  the 
immediate  political  advantages  which  offered  them- 
L^elves.  The  latter  cooperated  with  the  Conserva- 
tives and  the  Pan-Germanists  in  granting  this 
mockery  of  autonomy.  The  trail  of  Pan-German- 
ism was  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  the  annexed 
provinces  during  the  few  remaining  years  of  peace. 
It  was  indeed  provided  by  Article  28  that  any 
further  modification  of  the  new  Constitution  should 
be  made  by  the  Reichstag  and  the  Bundesrath. 
The  people  themselves  of  the  new  'state'  would 
not  be  able  to  change  their  fundamental  law  in 
any  particular.  Their  Constitution  of  ion,  like 
that  of  187Q,  now  superseded,  was  blighted  in  the 
same  way.  .  .  .  .\t  any  moment  the  legislative 
organs  of  the  German  Empire  were  at  liberty 
to  withdraw  it  or  to  alter  it.  Alsace-Lorraine  re- 
mained what  she  had  always  been  in  theory  and 
in  fact,  an  Imperial  Territory,  a  Reichsland,  the 
property  of  the  collective  states  of  the  confedera- 


tion. .  .  .  The  period  from  igii  to  igi4  was  the 
last  act  in  the  long  and  ignoble  history  of  op- 
pression which  since  1870  has  been  the  sign  man- 
ual of  German  rule.  The  situation  became  stead- 
ily more  and  more  critical  for  the  Alsatians  and 
Lorrainers. 

"After  1911  a  species  of  terrorization  was  or- 
ganized in  Alsace-Lorraine.  Spies  infested  the 
country,  denouncing  every  manifestation  of  oppo- 
sition or  criticism.  Even  local  officials  like  the 
Statthalter,  Wedel,  or  the  chief  secretary,  Zorn 
von  Eulach,  a  native  Alsatian  who  had  long  ago 
gone  over  to  the  German  official  side,  were  re- 
proached bitterly  .  .  .  with  lukewarmness  and  in- 
difference to  the  welfare  of  the  Fatherland.  .  .  . 
During  the  three  years  preceding  .  .  .  [the  World 
War]  the  cloven  hoof  appeared  repeatedly.  The 
public  opinion  of  the  provinces  was  exacerbated 
and  alarmed  by  a  series  of  irritating  episodes  which 
showed  the  people  the  humiliation  of  their  posi- 
tion, the  fragility,  indeed  the  non-existence,  of 
any  guarantee  of  their  liberties.  Hansi  (J.  J. 
Waltz),  a  native  Alsatian,  was  thrown  into  prison 
...  for  having  caricatured  a  Pan-German  high 
school  teacher,  Herr  Gneisse,  and  in  1Q14  he  was 
.  .  .  prosecuted  for  high  treason  in  the  federal 
court  at  Leipsic  because  of  caricatures  which  in 
any  self-governing  country  would  pass  current 
as  the  most  ordinary  satires  upon  the  foibles  and 
pretensions  of  the  official  class.  Abbe  Wetterle, 
editor  of  a  newspaper  in  Colmar,  and  formerly  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag,  was  condemned  to  fine 
and  imprisonment  for  protesting  against  the  in- 
solence of  the  Pan-Germans.  A  merchant  of  Miil- 
house  was  expelled  from  Alsace  for  having  asked  a 
hotel  orchestra  to  play  the  Marseillaise.  During 
these  years,  also,  the  authorities  proceeded  against 
numerous  Alsatian  societies  and  clubs  in  a  way 
that  could  only  create  widespread  irritation  and 
resentment,  against  choral  unions,  gymnastic  clubs, 
and  societies  founded  for  the  purpose  of  caring  for 
the  graves  of  Alsatians  who  died  on  Alsatian  soil 
during  the  Franco-German  war.  In  addition  to 
military  and  political  pressure,  economic  pressure 
was  also  used  to  further  the  programme  of  Ger- 
manization.  Alsatian  economic  interests  were  re- 
peatedly sacrificed  in  the  interest  of  neighboring 
states  like  Baden  or  of  the  powerful  Rhenish- 
Westphalian  steel-and-iron-mongers.  Alsatian  man- 
ufacturers or  merchants  were  the  victims  of  despic- 
able informers  and  all  who  were  suspected  of 
French  sympathies  were  made  to  fee!  the  full 
displeasure  of  the  government.  The  great  locomo- 
tive corporation  of  Graffenstaden,  on  which  the 
life  of  that  town  absolutely  depended,  was  in- 
formed that  there  would  be  no  more  government 
contracts,  unless  it  dismissed  a  manager  whom  the 
Pan-Germanists  considered  Francophile  As  the 
business  would  have  been  ruined  without  govern- 
ment orders,  the  corporation  submitted.  .  .  The 
reaction  of  all  these  incidents,  grave  or  petty  as 
the  case  might  be,  was  exactly  what  might  have 
been  expected.  The  Alsatians  and  Lorrainers 
united  as  one  man  against  this  recrudescence  of 
tyranny.  Dropping  their  differences  of  opinion, 
ignoring  party  lines,  they  joined  in  indignant  pro- 
test against  a  government  which  subjected  them 
to  continued  maltreatment,  which  failed  to  assure 
them  the  most  elementary  rights  of  free  men. 
The  hollowness  and  the  mockery  of  the  boasted 
Constitution  of  loii  were  patent  to  all  the  world 
in  the  light  of  these  events  "—C.  D.  Hazen,  .4/- 
sace-Lorrniiir    under    German    rule.    pp.     175-186. 

1913.— Zabern  (Saverne)  affair.— "The  Berlin 
government  was  harassed  by  the  fear  of  treason- 
able   arrangements    between    Alsace-Lorraine    and 


235 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


Returned  to 
France 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


Paris.      That    this    fear    was    well    grounded    was 
made  more   than  probable   by   the  fact   that   with 
the   declaration    of    martial    law    in    the    'Imperial 
Land'  after  the  war  tocsin  sounded  at  the  begin- 
ning of  August,  1914,  several  prominent  Alsatians, 
including    Wetterle    fled    across    the    border    into 
France,  and  that   others  who   were  not  so   fortu- 
nate  as   to   make   their   escape   were  arrested   and 
found  guilty  of  treasonable  acts.     As  it  was,  how- 
ever, the  threats  against  the  constitution  and  the 
various  pin  pricks  which  the  government  was  able 
to  inflict  effectively  destroyed  any  national  patri- 
otism which  the  granting  of  the  constitution  might 
have  inspired.    Popular  irritation  grew  and  showed 
itself   in   many   ways,   culminating   in   the   incident 
at  Zabern  in  December,  1013.     In  this  busy  Alsa- 
tian   town    of    some    ten    thousand    inhabitants    a 
Prussian  regiment  of  infantry  was  quartered.    Sol- 
diers on  duty  at  the  barracks  and  at  liberty  in  the 
town  had  been  subjected   to   insults,   and  in  sev- 
eral cases  to  rough  treatment  on  the  part  of  rude 
fellows    of    the    baser    sort    among    the    populace. 
Their   officers,    filled    with    the    Prussian    tradition 
of    military    supremacy,    ordered    the    privates    to 
make    forcible    resistance,   employing    at    the   same 
time  the   rugged  language   of   the  barracks,  which 
being   faithfully   reported  in   the  town,  added  still 
further   to   the   excitement.     A   crisic   was  reached 
in    an    encounter    between    civilians   anJ    a    squad 
of   soldiers   led   by   a   young   lieutenant,   in   which 
the   latter   fearing,   as  he   claimed,  that   he   would 
be    assaulted    by    a    civilian    of    the    lower    class, 
with    the    consequent    irreparable    loss    of    honor 
according  to  the   peculiar  Prussian  military   tradi- 
tion, sabred  a  lame  shoemaker.     In  the  riot  which 
resulted  Colonel  Reutter,  in  command  at  the  bar- 
racks, took  over  the  administration  of  public  order, 
brusquely    thrusting    aside    the    civil    officials    and 
pacifying  the  city  by  the  abrupt  methods  of  the 
military.     Instantly  a  shout   of  protest  arose,  not 
only  from  Alsace-Lorraine,  but  from  all  non-feudal 
circles  in   Germany   as  well.     The  rude  supplant- 
ing  of   the   civil   power  by   the   military    \yas  re- 
garded as  a  recession  to  the  most  autocratic  days 
of    Prussian    history,    and    in    the    Reichstag    loud 
calls  went  up  for  an  authoritative  statement  from 
the   Kaiser.     The   Imperial   Diet  recorded   a   vote 
of   censure   upon   the   Chancellor   for   a   speech    in 
which  the  majesty  of  the  law  was  not  vindicated. 
The  whole  matter  went  to  the  Emperor  as  supreme 
military  authority  and  the  net  result  was  the  trans- 
ferring  of  the   regiment   and   the   court-martialing 
of  its  officers.     The  latter  were   finally  acquitted, 
and  Colonel  Reutter  soon  after  was  promoted  by 
the    Emperor.     The   feeling    of   the    feudal   classes 
was  summed  up  in  the  words  of  the  reactionary 
Police  President   of   Berlin,  Voii   Jagow:     'Alsace- 
Lorraine  is  the  enemy's  country.'    Non-feudal  Ger- 
many   accepted    a    technical    statement    from    the 
ministry   confirming   the  supremacy   of  the  consti- 
tution   over    the    military    power,    with    a    further 
promise   from   the  government   that   a   certain   old 
Prussian   cabinet    order   of    1S20    which    might    be 
interpreted   to    the    contrary    would    be    amended. 
Radical    and    Socialist    were    the    more    ready    to 
still    their   attacks    and   hush    the   matter   up,   be- 
cause the  French  journals,  always  ready  to  foment 
discord  in  the  lost  provinces,  had  seized  upon  the 
situation."— R    H.   Fife,   German   empire    between 
two  wars.   pp.   227-230. 

1914-1918.— Part  in  the  World  War.— Alsace- 
Lorraine  lay  close  to  the  scene  of  conflict,  but  was 
only  occasionaliv  the  actual  scene  of  severe  fierht- 
ing  except  during  the  first  two  months  of  the 
war  A  little  fringe  of  western  Alsace  was  occu- 
pied   uninterruptedly    by    the    French    throughout 


the  great  struggle  and  was  also  the  scene  of  occa- 
sional local  fighting.— See  also  World  War:  1914'. 
I.  Western  front;  h. 

1915. — Department  of  Haut-Rhin  formed.  See 
Frj\nce;    1915   (January). 

1918  (Nov.) — Germany  forced  to  evacuate. 
See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services: 
I.  Armistices:  f,  1;  and  IQ18:  XI.  End  of  the 
war:  c. 

1918.— Political  aspects  of  recovery  by  France. 
See  France:    igiS   (November). 

1918. — President  Wilson's  peace  program.— 
Lloyd  George's  and  President  Wilson's  declara- 
tion of  war  aims. — Count  Hertling's  attitude. 
See  World  War:  igi8:  X.  Statement  of  war  aims; 
b;  and  d. 

1918-1920. — Reconstruction  work.  See  World 
War;  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  XII.  Recon- 
struction; a,  3. 

1919. — Peace     Conference     decision. — "Alsace- 
Lorraine  took  little  of  the  time  of  the  peace  con- 
ference.    This  would  have  seemed  strange  at  any 
time  during  the  war  or  the  generation  which  pre- 
ceded it,  for  .Msace-Lorraine  was  an  open  wound 
which,   in    President  Wilson's   phrase,   'had   unset- 
tled the  peace  of  the  world  for  nearly  fifty  years.' 
It  was  not  a  direct  cause  of  the  war,  but  it  be- 
came  a  burning   issue   as  soon   as   the   war   broke 
forth,  and  it   remained  one  of  the  chief   obstacles 
to  any  peace  of  compromise.     But  the  problem  of 
.Msace-Lorraine   was  settled  by   the  .Allied  victory 
and    evacuation    required    by    the    armistice,    and 
these  military  acts  were  sealed  by  the  enthusiastic 
reception  of  the  French  troops  immediately  there- 
after.    There  was  no  way   of  reopening  the  ques- 
tion   at    the    conference,    for    the    Germans    had 
accepted  President  Wilson's  eighth  point  requiring 
that  the  wrong  done  to  France  should  be  righted, 
and   by    their   enforced   evacuation    they    were   no 
longer  in  a  position  to  delay  or  to  interfere.    Nev- 
ertheless at  \'ersailles  Germany  put  up  a  last  fight 
for   the    retention    of   these   territories,   tied   up   as 
they  were  with  Germany's  imperial  tradition,  with 
her  strategic  position,  and  with  her  supply  of  iron 
ore     She  demanded  that  there  should  be  a  popu- 
lar   vote.      For    this    there   was   no    legal    ground, 
the   language   of   President    Wilson    speaking    only 
of   the   wrong   done   to   France,   and   the   armistice 
having   assimilated  .Msace-Lorraine  to  other  occu- 
pied territories.  .  .  .  Since  the  signing  of  the  treaty 
the    secret    propaganda    of    the    German    Heimat- 
dienst    [Home    Service!    has    been    active    in    Al- 
sace-Lorraine, keeping  alive  German  feeling  where 
it   still   exists   and   in   particular   fomenting   a   so- 
called  Neutralist  movement   for  the  separation  of 
this  region   as  a   neutralized  state  under  the  pro- 
tection   of   the   League   of   Nations.  .  .  .  With   the 
major  question  of  the  return  of  the  lost  provinces 
to   France    settled    in    advance,   the    Paris    confer- 
ence had  only  to  deal  with  matters  of  detail,  such 
as  naturallv  arise  in  a  retrocession  from  one  coun- 
trv   to   another.     The   draft   of   such   clauses   was 
submitted    bv    the    French    and    referred    by    the 
council  of  four  to  the  special  committee  of  three, 
Messrs     Tardieu,    Headlam-Moriey,    and    Haskins, 
which    had    already    been    at    work    on    the    Saar 
valley.      .  .  The   clauses   respectine   citizenship   are 
particularlv  complicated,  and  much  depends  upon 
the   spirit   of  liberality  with  which  these  and   the 
economic    clauses    are    interpreted    by    the    French 
administration"— E.   M.    House   and   C.   Seymour, 
What  really  happened  at  Paris,  story  0/  the  Peace 
Conference,  pp.  46-4S. 

"The  treaty  therefore  restored  the  provmces 
with  the  frontiers  of  187  r.  Since  Germany  had 
refused  to  assume  any  share  of  the  French  debt  in 


236 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


ALTAR 


1871,  France  now  recovers  the  provinces  free  of 
obligations  as  to  the  German  national  debt.  Simi- 
larly German  state  property  including  railroads 
is  transferred  without  payment  or  credit  on  Ger- 
many's reparation  account.  Other  articles  fix  the 
details  as  to  customs,  court  proceedings,  and  the 
like.  For  five  years  products  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
are  to  enter  Germany  duty-free,  up  to  the  average 
amounts  of  1911-1913.  Germany  also  is  to  allow 
free  export  and  re-import  ot  yarns  and  textile 
products.  The  French  government  has  the  right 
to  exclude  German  capital  from  public  utilities 
and  mines,  and  it  also  reserves  the  right  (0  retain 
and  liquidate  the  property  of  German  citizens  in 
Alsace-Lorraine.  An  annex  provides  for  the  restor- 
ation to  French  citizenship  of  the  old  Alsace- 
Lorrainers  and  their  descendants,  with  some  ex- 
ceptions. Various  others  within  a  year  may  claim 
French  nationality,  thou.;h  in  individual  cases  the 
French  may  reject  the  claim.  Germans  born  or 
domiciled  in  Alsace-Lorraine  before  the  war  must 
be  naturalized,  a  period  of  three  years  from  No- 
vember I,  1918,  being  required." — A.  P.  Scott,  /«- 
troduction  to  the  peace  treaties,  p.  16. — See  also 
Versaii,les,  Treaty  of:   Part  III;  Section  V. 

"France  had  not  provoked  the  war  in  order  to 
regain  Alsace-Lorraine ;  but  from  the  moment  the 
war  began,  every  Frenchman  was  determined  that 
the  old  'open  wound'  in  the  side  of  France  must 
be  healed.  Although  during  the  war  there  had 
been  some  talk  among  outside  observers  of  a  pos- 
sible division  •of  Alsace-Lorraine  along  the  lines 
of  the  prevailing  languages,  and  although  Presi- 
dent Wilson  had  not  specified  just  how  'the 
wrong  done  to  France  in  1871'  was  to  be  righted, 
there  was  not  the  slightest  doubt  after  the  armis- 
tice that  Alsace-Lorraine  should  be  restored  entire 
to  France.  The  Germans  admitted  that  in  spite 
of  their  historic  and  nationalistic  claims,  they  had, 
according  to  present  conceptions  of  right,  done 
an  injustice  in  1871,  when  they  had  not  consulted 
the»peoplc  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  acordance  with 
the  new  principle  of  self-determination,  however, 
they  demanded  a  plebiscite,  which  should  decide 
whether  the  region  wished  to  join  France  or  Ger- 
many or  become  a  free  state.  This  proposal  was 
summarily  rejected.  It  was  felt  that  restoration 
to  France  was  necessary  to  redress  the  injustice 
of  1871.  The  will  of  the  inhabitants  had  been 
shown  by  their  protests  at  that  time,  and  later. 
Practically,  a  fair  plebiscite  would  have  been  dif- 
ficult in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  French  sym- 
pathizers had  left  after  1871,  that  many  Germans 
had  come  in  since  then,  and  that  during  the  war 
the  Germans  had  treated  the  territory  as  enemy 
country.  The  treaty  therefore  restored  the  prov- 
inces to  France  with  the  frontiers  of  1871.  .  .  . 
The  restoration  of  Alsace-Lorraine  is  doubly  sig- 
nificant. It  has  a  moral  and  sentimental  value, 
as  marking  the  failure  of  that  Prussian  policy  of 
blood  and  iron  which  seemed  so  triumphant  in 
1871.  For  France,  the  stronger  frontier  and  the 
added  population  are  additional  safeguards.  But 
still  more  important  is  the  iron  of  Lorraine,  the 
richest  field  in  Europe.  From  it  Germany  drew 
nearly  all  her  ore.  With  it  Germany  was  able 
tn  forge  her  industrial  and  military  machine. 
Without  it  Germany  will  be  helpless  fo'  aggression, 
and  dependent  for  her  industrial  development  on 
the  cultivation  of  friendly  economic  relations  with 
France." 

With  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  the  transition 
period  began.  The  French  government  by  the  de- 
cree of  November  26,  IQ18,  took  over  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  country  and  French  troops 
displaced  the   Germans.     On  March   22,   1919,  M. 


.Alexandre  Millerand  was  appointed  first  governor- 
general.  The  task  of  submitting  civil  officials  and 
courts  for  the  administration  of  French  law  and 
of  organization  of  the  educational  system  along 
French  lines,  has  been  substantially  achieved.  Seri- 
ous difficulties  were  encountered  due  to  French 
unfamiliarity  with  the  country  and  the  barrier  of 
languages,  for,  in  Alsace  at  least,  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  people  speak  a  German  dialect. 
The  currency  question  also  offered  certain  peculiar 
difficulties  of  its  own.  The  franc  was  made  to 
take  the  place  of  the  mark.  Altogether  there 
was  much  confusion  and  disappointment  over  these 
various  diftkultics  in  spite  of  the  great  popular 
acclaim  with  which  the  transfer  of  these  last 
provinces  from  German  to  French  sovereignty  was 
received. 

"For  France  the  reacquisition  of  the  lost  prov- 
inces brings  not  only  renewed  strength  but  per- 
plexing problems  and  responsibilities.  Germany 
had  signally  failed  to  win  the  affection  and  loy- 
alty of  Alsace-Lorraine.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
German  connection  had  brought  much  prosperity 
to  the  provinces,  and  by  no  means  all — perhaps 
not  even  a  majority — of  the  people  were  in  1914 
anxious  to  return  to  France.  In  1918,  however, 
the  French  were  welcomed  with  a  heartiness  which 
even  the  Germans  had  to  admit.  The  problem  of 
the  complete  reincorporation  of  the  provinces  in 
France  is  not  a  simple  one.  Great  caution  will 
have  to  be  e.xercised  in  applying  the  French  laws 
as  to  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  and 
limiting  clerical  control  of  education.  If  Alsace- 
Lorraine  should  prove  less  prosperous  than  under 
German  rule,  or  if  the  anti-clericalism  of  France 
should  offend  the  strong  Catholic  sentiment  of  the 
people,  grave  dissatisfaction  may  yet  arise.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  as  little  occasion  as  possible  will 
be  given  for  the  growth  of  a  new  irredentism,  and 
that  the  historic  wrong  of  1871  may  have  found 
its  final  solution." — A.  P.  Scott,  Introduction  to 
the  peace  treaties,  pp.  nS-118. — See  also  France: 
1918    (November). 

Also  in:  E.  A.  Vizetelly,  True  story  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine. — C.  Phillipson,  Alsace-Lorraine. — -G.  W. 
Edwards,  Alsace-Lorraine  described  and  pictured 
(London,  1919). — B.  Cerf,  Alsace-Lorraine  since 
1870  (New  York,  1919). — Marie  Harrison,  Stolen 
lands:  Study  on  Alsace-Lorraine  (London,  iqi8). 
— C.  Phillipson,  Alsace-Lorraine,  past,  present,  and 
future  (London,  1918). — C.  D.  Hazen,  .Alsace-Lor- 
raine under  German  rule  (New  York,  1917).— 
D.  S.   Jordan,   Alsace-Lorraine    (1916). 

ALSO?  CLAIM.     See  Chile:   1909. 

ALSUA,  Enrigue  Dorn  y  de,  Representative 
from  Ecuador  at  the  Peace  Conference  (loio).  See 
Versailles,  Treaty  of:   Conditions  of  peace. 

ALT  AUTZ,  Poland:  Taken  by  the  Germans 
(1915).  See  World  War:  1915:  III.  Eastern  front: 
g,  8. 

ALTA  CALIFORNIA  (Upper  California). 
See   California. 

ALTAMIRA,  caves  in  northern  Spain  wherein 
notable  examples  of  prehistoric  paintings  were 
found.     See  Painting:  Pre-classical. 

ALTAMSH,  or  Altimsh  (d.  1236),  king  of 
Delhi.     See  India:   977-1290. 

ALTAR,  a  raised  place  of  earth,  stone  or  other 
material,  which  forms  the  central  point  of  worship 
in  the  sacred  building  or  enclosure  of  any  reli- 
gion. In  the  older  religions  it  was  upon  the  altar 
that  sacrifices  were  made,  libations  poured,  or 
gifts  deposited.  In  the  liturgical  Christian  churches 
the  sacrament  is  administered  from  the  altar.  In 
the  Protestant  churches,  the  altar  has  disappeared,  or 
has  been  replaced  by  the  simple  communion  table. 


2Z7 


ALTDORFER 


AMALEKITES 


ALTDORFER,  Albiccht  (  ?i48o-i53S),  Ger- 
man painter  and  engraver,  called  the  "Giorgionc 
of  the  North."  His  engravings  on  wood  and 
copper  rank  next  to  those  of  Albrecht  Diirer. 
ALTEN,  Sir  Charles  (1704-1S40),  Hanoverian 
and  British  soldier.  Participated  in  the  cainpaign 
in  the  Low  Countries,  1703-1705,  in  the  Hano- 
verian expedition  1S05,  was  with  Moore  in  the 
expedition  to  Spain,  and  commanded  Wellington's 
third   division   at   Waterloo. 

ALTENBURG:  Its  origin  and  dukedom.  See 
Saxony:   i  180- is ^3 

ALTENHEIM,  Battle  of  (1675).  See  Neth- 
erlands:  1674-1678. 

ALTGELD,  John  Peter  (1847-1002),  governor 
of  Illinois,  1S03-1807;  came  to  the  United  States 
from  Germany  at  an  early  age.  While  governor 
he  was  severely  criticized  for  his  leniency  in  par- 
doning three  anarchists,  said  to  have  been  guilty 
of  exploding  a  bomb  in  Chicago  during  a  strike 
in  1886.  He  again  showed  that  his  sympathies 
were  with  the  workers  when  he  refused  to  call 
out  the  militia  in  1804,  during  the  Pullman  strikes. 
President  Cleveland  sent  federal  troops  over  Alt- 
geld's  protest  on  the  ground  that  his  action  was 
necessary  to  protect  the  federal  mills.  He 
supported  William  J.  Bryan  in  the  iSq6  and 
iQoo  presidential  campaigns,  in  favor  of  "free 
silver,"  and  was  a  strong  advocate  of  prison 
reform. 
ALTHING.    See  Thing. 

ALTHING  (General  Diet):  Denmark.  See 
Denmark:   1S00-1S74. 

ALTINUM,  an  ancient  town  of  Venitia,  de- 
stroyed bv  Attila  in  452.     Sec  Venice:  452. 

ALTITUDE   RECORDS.     See  Aviation:   De- 
velopment of  airplanes  and  air  service:    1008-1020. 
ALTMAN,    Benjamin     (1840-1913),    American 
art   collector   and   merchant.     See   Gifts  and  be- 
quests. 

ALTOBELLI,  Argentina  (c.  i860-  ),  Italian 
communist.  In  1020  she  was  head  of  the  union 
of  peasants  or  land  workers,  and  an  influential 
agitator   in   the   Italian   industrial  struggle. 

ALTON,  a  railroad  town  of  Madison  Co.,  111., 
on  the  Mississippi,  which  is  here  spanned  by  a 
bridge,  first  settled  in  1783.  In  1837,  during  the 
anti-slavery  agitation.  Elijah  P,  Lovejoy,  a  prom- 
inent abolitionist,  was  killed  in  what  was  known 
as  "the  Alton  riot." 

ALTON  A,  Schleswig-Holstein:  1713.— Burned 
by  the  Swedes.     See  Sweden:   1707-1718. 

ALTOPASCIO,  Battle  of  (1325)-  See  Italy: 
1313-1330. 

ALVA,  or  Alba,  Fernando  Alvarez  de  To- 
ledo, Duke  of  (1508-1583),  famous  Spanish  gen- 
eral and  statesman ;  prime  minister  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  Spain  under  Charles  V  and  Philip 
II;  fought  in  the  campaigns  of  Charles  V,  and 
was  important  factor  in  the  victory  at  Mijhlberg 
(1547)  against  Elector  John  Frederick  of  Saxony; 
was  victorious  against  the  combined  French  and 
Papal  forces  in  the  Italian  campaign  (1555);  was 
sent  to  suppress  Dutch  revolt  in  Netherlands 
(1567)  ;  in  1580.  conducted  a  campaign  against 
Don  Antonio  of  Portugal. — See  also  Netherlands: 
i,S67-iS73;  1573-1574;  Rome:  Modern  city:  1537- 
1621. 

ALVARADO,  Pedro  de  (1405-1541),  Spanish 
soldier  appointed  commander  of  a  fleet  for  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  He  later  conquered  Guate- 
mala, and  in  1527  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
captured  territory  by  Charles  V.  See  Me-\ico: 
1510-1520;   i=;2i    (Mav-Julv). 

ALVARADO,  Salvador  (1880-  ),  Mexican 
general   and  statesman;   governor   of   the  state   of 


Yucatan  (1015-1917)  under  socialistic  system;  gov- 
ernor of  state  of  Tabasco  for  a  short  time;  par- 
ticipated in  revolution  of  1920  which  caused  the 
downfall  of  Carranza ;  special  envoy  to  Washington 
for  General  Alvaro  Obregon,  leader  of  the  revo- 
lution; made  minister  of  finance  under  the  Obre- 
gon government;  sent  on.  mission  to  New  York, 
Washington,  and  European  capitals  to  discuss  re- 
sumption of  payments  on  Mexican  foreign  debt. 
— Sec  also  Y'ucatan:   1911-1918. 

ALVAREZ,  Juan  (1780-1897),  President  of 
Mexico.     See  Mexico:   1848-1861. 

ALVEAR,  Carlos  Maria  (c.  1785-1850),  aids 
Uruguay  to  establish  its  independence.  See  Uru- 
guay:  1821-1905. 

ALVERSTONE  (Sir  Richard  Everard  Web- 
ster), Baron  (1842-1915),  lord  chief  justice  of 
England.  Counsel  for  The  Times  in  the  Parnell 
inquiry ;  in  1803  represented  England  in  the  Ber- 
ing sea  arbitration;  in  1903  a  member  of  the 
.Maska  boundary  commission   (q.v.). 

ALVES,  Rodriquez,  president  of  Brazil,  1918- 
1922.  Sec  Brazil:  1918. 
ALWANIYAH  See  Dervishes. 
ALYATTES  (609-500  B.C.),  king  of  Lydia, 
founder  of  the  Lydian  empire.  Fixed  the  Halys 
as  the  boundary  between  Media  and  Lydia;  drove 
the  Cimmcrii  from  .\sia,  subdued  the  Carians. 
His  tomb  at  Sardis  was  excavated  in   1854. 

A.M.  (Anno  mundi),  the  Year  of  the  World,  or 
the  year  from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  accord- 
ing to  the  formerly  accepted  chronological  reck- 
oning of  .Archbishop  Usher  and  others.  Computed 
from  biblical  sources,  the  date  of  the  creation 
was  set  at  4004  B.  C,  a  theory  no  longer  accepted 
bv   scientists. 

AMADE,  Albert  d',  French  general.  In  1914, 
with  a  newly-formed  corps,  delayed  the  attempted 
German  drive  between  the  British  and  French 
armies.  See  World  War:  1914;  Western  front 
For  operations  in  Morocco  see  Morocco:  1907- 
1909;   1909. 

AMADEO,    king    of     Spain,     1871-1873-      See 
Amedeo  Ferdinando  Maria  di  Savoia. 
AMAHUACO.    See  Andesians. 
AMAL,  the  name  of  the  leading   family  of  the 
Ostrogoths,    from    which    nearly    all    their    kings, 
known   as   .Amalings,   were   chosen. 

AMALEKITES.— "The  Amalekites  were  usu- 
ally regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Edomites  or 
'Red-skins.'  Amalek,  like  Kenaz,  the  father  ol 
the  Kenizzites  or  'Hunters,'  was  the  grandson  of 
Esau  (Gen.  36:  12,  16).  He  thus  belonged  to  the 
group  of  nations, — Edomites,  .Ammonites,  and 
Moabites, — who  stood  in  a  relation  of  close  kin- 
ship to  Israel.  But  they  had  preceded  the  Israelites 
in  dispossessing  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  land, 
and  establishing  themselves  in  their  place.  The 
Edomites  had  partly  destroyed,  partly  amalgamated 
the  Horites  of  Mount  Seir  (Deut.  2:12);  the 
Moabites  had  done  the  same  to  the  Emlin,  a 
people  great  and  many,  and  tall  as  the  Anakim' 
(Deut.  2:10).  while  the  .Ammonites  had  extirpated 
and  succeeded  to  the  Rephaim  or  'Giants,'  who  in 
that  part  of  the  country  were  termed  Zamzum- 
min  (Deut.  2:20;  Gen.'  14:5^  Edom  however 
stood  in  a  closer  relation  to  Israel  than  its  two 
more  northerly  neighbours.  .  .  .  Separate  from 
the  Edomites  or  .Amalekites  were  the  Kenites  or 
wandering  'smiths.'  They  formed  an  important 
Guild,  in  an  age  when  the  art  of  metallurgy  was 
confined  to  a  few.  In  the  time  of  Saul  we  hear 
of  them  as  camping  among  the  Amalekites  (I. 
Sam.  15:6.)  .  .  .  The  Kenites  .  .  did  not  con- 
stitute a  race,  or  even  a  tribe.  They  were,  at 
most,    a    caste.     But    they    had    originally    come, 


^38 


AMALFI 


AMATONGALAND 


like  Ihe  Israelites  or  the  Edomites,  from  those  bar- 
ren regions  of  Northern  Arabia  which  were  peo- 
pled by  the  Menti  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions. 
Racially,  therefore,  we  may  regard  them  as  allied 
to  the  descendants  of  Abraham.  While  the  Kenites 
and  Amalckites  were  thus  Semitic  in  their  origin, 
the  Hivites  or  'Villagers'  are  specially  associated 
with  Amorites." — A.  H.  Sayce,  Races  of  the  Old 
Testament,  cli.  6. — See  also  Jews;  Israel  under  the 
Judges,  and  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah;  Chris- 
tianity:  Map  of  Sinaitic  peninsula. 

Also  in:  H.  Ewald,  History  of  Israel,  bk.  i, 
sect.   4. 

AMALFI,  a  seaport  town  in  Campania,  south 
Italy.  It  is  about  twenty-two  miles  southeast  of 
Naples,  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno.  An  interesting 
building  is  the  old  cathedral,  with  bronze  doors 
cast  in  Constantinople  in  the  nth  century.  A 
hotel  now  makes  use  of  an  old  Capuchin  monas- 
tery, which  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century.  "It  was  the  singular  fate  of  this  city 
to  have  filled  up  the  interval  between  two  periods 
of  civilization,  in  neither  of  which  she  was  destined 
to  be  distinguished.  Scarcely  known  before  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century,  Amalfi  ran  a  brilliant 
career,  as  a  free  and  trading  republic  which  was 
checked  by  the  arms  of  a  conqueror  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  twelfth.  .  .  .  There  must  be,  I  suspect, 
some  exaggeration  about  the  commerce  and  opu- 
lence of  Amalfi,  in  the  only  age  when  she  pos- 
sessed any  at  all." — H.  Hallam,  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  cit.  g,  pt.  i,  with  note. — "Amalfi 
and  Atrani  lie  close  together  in  two  .  .  .  ravines, 
the  mountains  almost  arching  over  them,  and  the 
sea  washing  their  very  house-walls.  ...  It  is  not 
easy  to  imagine  the  time  when  Amalfi  and  Atrani 
were  one  town,  with  docks  and  arsenals  and  har- 
bourage for  their  associated  fleets,  and  when  these 
little  communities  were  second  in  importance  to 
no  naval  power  of  Christian  Europe  The  Byzan- 
tine Empire  lost  its  hold  on  Italy  during  the 
eighth  century;  and  after  this  time  the  history 
of  Calabria  is  mainly  concerned  with  the  republic 
of  Naples  and  .Amalfi,  their  conflict  with  the  Lom- 
bard dukes  of  Benevento,  their  opposition  to  the 
Saracens,  and  their  final  subjugation  by  the  Nor- 
man conquerors  of  Sicily.  Between  the  year  83q 
when  Amalfi  freed  itself  from  the  control  of 
Naples  and  the  yoke  of  Benevento,  and  the  year 
1 13 1,  when  Roger  of  Hauteville  incorporated  the 
republic  in  his  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  this 
city  was  the  foremost  naval  and  commercial  port 
of  Italy.  The  burghers  of  Amalfi  elected  their 
own  doge ;  founded  the  Hospital  of  Jerusalem, 
whence  sprang  the  knightly  order  of  S.  John ;  gave 
their  name  to  the  richest  quarter  in  Palermo;  and 
owned  trading  establishments  or  factories  in  all  the 
chief  cities  of  the  Levant.  Their  gold  coinage  of 
'tari'  formed  the  standard  of  currency  before  the 
Florentines  had  stamped  the  lily  and  S.  John  upon 
the  Tuscan  florin.  Their  shipping  regulations 
supplied  Europe  with  a  code  of  maritime  laws. 
Their  scholars,  in  the  darkest  depths  of  the  dark 
ages,  prized  and  conned  a  famous  copy  of  the 
Pandects  of  Justinian,  and  their  seamen  deserved 
the  fame  of  having  first  used,  if  they  did  not 
actually  invent,  the  compass.  .  .  .  The  republic 
had  grown  and  flourished  on  the  decay  of  the 
Greek  Empire.  When  the  hard-handed  race  of 
Hauteville  absorbed  the  heritage  of  Greeks  and 
Lombards  and  Saracens  in  Southern  Italy  these 
adventurers  succeeded  in  annexing  Amalfi.  But  it 
was  not  their  interest  to  extinguish  the  state.  On 
the  contrary,  they  relied  for  assistance  upon  the 
navies  and  the  armies  of  the  little  commonwealth. 
New  powers  had   meanwhile   arisen    in   the  North 


of  Italy,  who  were  jealous  of  rivalry  upon  the  open 
seas;  and  when  the  Neapolitans  resisted  King 
Roger  in  1135,  they  called  Pisa  to  their  aid,  and 
sent  her  fleet  to  destroy  Amalfi.  The  ships  of 
Amalfi  were  on  guard  with  Roger's  navy  in  the 
Bay  of  Naples.  The  armed  citizens  were,  under 
Roger's  orders,  at  Aversa.  Meanwhile  the  home 
of  the  republic  lay  defenceless  on  its  mountain- 
girdled  seaboard.  The  Pisans  sailed  into  the  har- 
bour, sacked  the  city  and  carried  off  the  famous 
Pandects  of  Justinian  as  a  trophy.  Two  years 
later  they  returned,  to  complete  the  work  of  de- 
vastation. Amalfi  never  recovered  from  the  in- 
juries and  the  humiliation." — J.  A.  Symonds, 
Sketches  and  studies  in  Italy,  pp.  2-4. 

AMALFITAN  TABLES'.  See  International 
law:  Maritime  codes. 

AMALGAMATED  CLOTHING  WORKERS 
STRIKE.  See  Arbitration  and  conciliation.  In- 
dustrial:  United  States:    loiS-ioiq. 

AMALGAMATED  LABOR  UNION.  See 
American  Federation  of  Labor:   1881-1886. 

AMALIKA.  See  Arabia:  Ancient  succession 
and  fusion  of  races. 

AMALINGS,  or  Amals. — The  royal  race  of 
the  ancient  Ostrogoths,  as  the  Balthi  or  Balthings 
were  of  the  Visigoths,  both  claiming  a  descent 
from    the   gods. 

AMALRIC  I  (113S-1174),  king  of  Jerusalem. 
Reigned  from  1162  till  his  death.  Made  several 
unsuccessful  incursions  into  Egypt.  See  Jerusa- 
lem:  1144-1187. 

Amalric  II  (1144-1205),  king  of  Jerusalem 
from  1 197  to  his  death.  Merely  nominal  ruler, 
as  Jerusalem  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens 
throughout  his  reign;  was  also  king  of  Cyprus, 
as  Amalric  I,  from  1194.  See  Jerusalem:  1187- 
1229. 

AMANA  COMMUNIT"if,  German  religious 
communistic  society  of  Iowa.  See  Socialism:  1843- 
1874. 

AMANDO.     See   Alcantra,   Knights  of. 

AMANI  (East  Africa),  Battle  of.  See  World 
War:  1916:  VII.  African  theater:  a,  11. 

AMAPALA,  Treaty  of  (1895).  See  Central 
America:    1895-1002. 

AMARA,  Mesopotamia,  Captured  by  British 
(1915).     See  World  War:   1915:  VI.  Turkey:  c,  2. 

AMARYNTHUS,  (i),  king  of  Eubrea;  (2)  a 
town  under  the  rule  of  King  Amarynthus,  famed 
for  its  temple  of  Artemis. 

AMASIA,  a  small  Turkish  city  in  Asia  Minor 
about  200  miles  southwest  of  Trebizond,  in  an- 
cient times  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pon- 
tus.  Strabo,  the  father  of  geography,  was  born 
here. 

AMASIS  I  (c.  1700  B.C.),  founder  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  in  Egypt.  Waged  successful 
wars  against  the  Hyksos  princes. 

Amasis  II,  last  great  ruler  of  Egypt,  570-526 
B.  C;  usurped  the  throne  of  King  Apries;  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  Greece.    See  Egypt: 

B.  C.  670-525. 

AMATHUS,  an  ancient  Phcenician  city  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Cyprus.  It  was  involved  in 
the  successful  revolt  of  Cyprus  against  Persian 
rule  (500-494  B.  C).  Amathus  refused  to  join  the 
phil-Hellene  league;  that  refusal  brought  on  a 
siege  of  the  city  by  Onesilas  of  Salamis,  who  was 
captured  and  executed  when  his  attempt  failed. 

AMATI,  Nicolo  (1596-1684),  the  most  famous 
of  the  Amati  family  that  founded  the  Cremona 
school  of  violin  makers.  Nicolo  was  the  teacher 
of  Andrea  Guarnicri  and  Antonio  Stradivari. 

AMATONGALAND,  or  Tongaland.— On  the 
cast  coast  of  South  .Africa,  north  of  Zululand,  un- 


239 


AMAURY 


AMAZON  RIVER 


der    British   protection   since    1888.     See    Africa; 
Modern  European  occupation:    1884-1S89. 

AMAURY.     See  Aiialrk. 

AMAZIGH  OF  THE  RIF,  Characteristics  of. 
See  Africa:    Races  of  Africa:    Prehistoric   peoples. 

AMAZON  INDIANS.  See  India.ns,  Amer- 
ican: Cultural  areas  in  South  America:  Amazon 
area. 

AMAZON  RIVER:  Its  course.— Madeira- 
Mamore  railway. — The  .\mazon  is  a  river  of 
South  America,  and  is  the  longest  and  most  ex- 
tensive inland  waterway  in  the  world.  Its  length 
is  variously  estimated  at  between  3,000  and  4,000 
miles;  with  more  than  ;oo  tributaries  this  great 
fluvial  system  drains  an  area  of  over  2,700,000 
square  miles.  About  2.500  miles  of  its  length 
courses  through  Brazil.  Rising  in  the  Peruvian 
Andes  in  two  main  arteries,  the  Maranon  or  Tingu- 
ragua  and  the  Ucayali,  also  known  as  the  Apuri- 
mac,  the  stream  becomes  united  at  Tabatinga  on 
the  borders  of  Peru  and  Brazil,  abou.  5  south  and 
flows  eastward  as  the  SoHmoens  river  to  the  Rio 
Negro  confluence.  From  this  point  the  Amazon 
proper,  or  lower  course,  winds  through  Brazil 
and  empties  itself  into  the  .Atlantic  directly  on 
the  equator.  From  Tabatinga  the  two  sections 
of  the  main  stream,  together  with  most  of  their 
ramifying  branches,  are  comprised  within  Brazil- 
ian territory ;  the  upper  section,  together  with  the 
upper  valleys  of  some  of  the  Solimoens  affluents, 
belong  entirely  to  Peru.  Here  rise  and  flow  for 
hundreds  of  miles  the  Maraiion,  the  Huallaga,  and 
the  Ucayali,  that  is,  the  three  farthest  head- 
streams  of  the  whole  system  with  which  the  Paute, 
Pastaza,  Tigre  and  Napo  from  Ecuador  converge 
above  Tabatinga  to  form  the  Solimoens.  It  is 
apparently  owing  to  its  westernmost  position,  far- 
thest from  the  ."Atlantic,  that  the  Marafion  is  com- 
monly regarded  as  the  true  upper  source  of  the 
Amazon.  Judging  by  length  and  volume,  however, 
this  distinction  should  be  awarded  to  the  Ucayali, 
which  is  the  largei;  of  the  two  at  the  confluence 
and   has  also   a   much   longer   course. 

"From  Para  to  the  Amazon  proper  much  can  be 
seen,  but  by  far  the  greater  interest  lies  in  the  pas- 
sage through  the  narrows;  that  is,  the  latter  part  of 
this  stretch,  and  it  can  be  enjoyed  only  by  day- 
light, when  the  sometimes  threatening  closeness 
to  the  banks  permits  those  on  the  deck  of  the 
steamer  to  catch  the  details  within  or  about  the 
small  thatched  huts  (barracas)  of  the  natives;  to 
watch  the  children  at  their  games,  which  are  much 
the  same  as  games  of  children  in  other  parts  of 
the  world;  and  to  study  the  endless  variety  of  the 
crowded,  impenetrable  vegetation  of  the  forest. 
Here  the  trees  appear  to  be  higher  and  greener, 
the  sparse  clearings,  whether  made  by  nature  or 
man,  farther  apart;  but  the  huts  are  numerous, 
and  the  traveler  can  fancy  a  certain  degree  of 
neighborhood  life  among  the  simple  people.  One 
seldom  sees  a  patch  along  the  water's  edge  be- 
tween any  two  huts,  or  settlements,  but  the  water 
is  always  there,  and  it  affords  the  only  traveled 
highway  for  either  sociability  or  commence.  The 
main  river  to  the  novelty-seeking  tourist  may  be 
somewhat  disappointing.  He  who  has  seen  the 
Rhine,  the  Thames,  the  Danube,  or  the  Hudson  is 
apt  to  come  away  with  the  fixed  opinion  that  the 
Amazon  is  rather  monotonous.  The  only  reason 
upon  which  such  an  opinion  can  be  based  is  the 
fact  that  the  four  or  five  days  on  the  river  to  Man- 
aos  present  no  striking  views  of  constantly  varying 
scenery,  no  great  evidences  of  the  struggles  of 
nature  when  the  earth  was  forming,  and  only  here 
and  there  substantial  traces  of  man's  conquest  of 
the  land.     The   stream  flows  practically   due  east 


from  the  Andes  with  only  a  few  turns  in  its 
course,  although  the  channel  alters  from  season 
to  season.  The  numerous  islands  are  in  general 
indistinguishable  from  the  mainland;  the  entrance 
of  any  one  of  the  many  important  tributaries  cre- 
ates little  disturbance  and  seems  not  to  increase 
at  all  the  tremendous  volume  of  water  between 
the  two  banks.  .  .  .  Only  three  places  really  at- 
tract notice  on  the  through  voyage — Obidos,  San- 
tarem,  and  Itacoatiara  a  few  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Madeira  River.  The  two  former 
are  historical,  being  early  settlements  grown  into 
cities  since  the  time  of  the  Province  and  the 
Empire;  the  latter  was  originally  an  Indian  vil- 
lage and  once  had  the  name  of  Serpa  which  is 
yet  heard  on  the  lips  of  experienced  river  men. 
Para  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Brazil,  and  offers 
for  the  tourist  much  that  is  interesting  from  any 
point  of  view.  Manaos,  on  the  contrary,  is  one 
of  the  newest  cities  in  Brazil,  and  illustrates  fairly 
well  what  Brazilians  can  do  in  civic  foundation 
and  improvement.  ...  To  those  who  are  travelers 
with  a  different  purpose,  however,  the  Amazon 
Valley  is  a  wonderland,  the  richest  in  opportunity 
of  any  of  the  world's  hitherto  unoccupied  spaces. 
For  the  botanist,  for  instance,  an  unlimited  field 
for  investigation  is  still  open,  and  the  studies  of 
Bates,  Spruce,  or  others  have  merely  hewn  a  slight 
path  through  this  most  luxuriant  of  nature's  gar- 
dens. For  the  biologist  and  zoologist,  the  amount 
of  the  unknown  is  fascinating,  and  the  needed  re- 
searches into  the  natural  history  of  this  region  will 
furnish  activity  for  inquiring  minds  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  present  century.  The  eth- 
nologist also  must  be  fascinated  by  the  chance 
here  offered  to  discover  man  in  an  environment 
which,  while  leaving  him  essentially  savage,  has 
yet  developed  in  him  many  of  the  better  phases 
of  human  nature.  In  fact  every  student  of  what- 
ever degree  or  inclination  should  know  that  here 
is  a  theater  that  calls  him  most  ardently  to  ac- 
tion now,  and  in  which  there  need  be  not  one 
moment  of  dullness  or  monotony.  .  .  .  One  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  first  part  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  .  .  .  [is]  the  Madeira-Mamore  Rail- 
way. ...  In  a  sentence,  the  Madeira-Mamore 
Railway  is  to  Brazil  and  Bolivia  what  the  Panama 
Canal  is  to  Chile  and  Peru.  .  .  .  The  Madeira- 
Mamore  Railway  is  363.4  kilometers  long  (202 
miles).  It  extends  in  a  direction  almost  due  south, 
within  the  Brazilian  State  of  Matto  Grosso,  be- 
tween the  terminals  Porto  Velho  at  the  north,  on 
the  Madeira  River,  to  Guajara-Mirim  at  the  south, 
on  the  Mamore  River.  .  .  .  The  Madeira-Mamore 
Railway  was  built  to  avoid  the  rapids  and  falls 
of  the  Madeira  River,  and  it  is  evident,  when 
passing  over  the  line,  that  the  result  was  most 
satisfactorily  obtained." — H.  Hale,  Valley  of  the 
river  Amazon. — Madeira-Mamore  Railway  Com- 
pany {Pan  American  Union,  Dec.,  1912). — See  also 
Brazil:  Geographic  description;  Latin  America: 
Map  of  South  America. 

Discovery  and  naming. — The  mouth  of  the 
great  river  of  South  America  was  discovered  in 
1500  by  Pinzon,  or  Pincon,  who  called  it  "Santa 
Maria  dc  la  Mar  Dulc"  (Saint  Mary  of  the  fresh- 
water sea).  "This  was  the  first  name  given  to 
the  river,  except  that  older  and  better  one  of 
the  Indians,  'Parana,'  the  Sea;  afterwards  it  was 
Maraiion  and  Rio  das  Amazonas,  from  the  female 
warriors  that  were  supposed  to  live  near  iti 
banks.  .  .  .  After  Pinion's  time,  there  were  others 
who  saw  the  fresh-water  sea,  but  no  one  was 
hardy  enough  to  venture  into  it.  The  honor  of 
its  real  discovery  was  reserved  for  Francisco  de 
Orellana;   and  he  explored  it,  not  from  the  east, 


240 


AMAZON  RIVER 


AMAZON  RIVER 


but  from  the  west,  in  one  of  the  most  daring 
voyages  that  was  ever  recorded.  It  was  accident 
rather  than  design  that  led  him  to  it.  After  .  .  . 
Pizarro  had  conquered  Peru,  he  sent  his  brother 
Gonzalo,  with  340  Spanish  soldiers,  and  4,000 
Indians,  to  explore  the  great  forest  east  of  Quito, 
'where  there  were  cinnamon  trees.'  The  expe- 
dition started  late  in  1539,  and  it  was  two  years 
before  the  starved  and  ragged  survivors  returned 
to  Quito.  In  the  course  of  their  wanderings  they 
had  struck  the  river  Coco;  building  here  a  brig- 
antine,  they  followed  down  the  current,  a  part  of 
them  in  the  vessel,  a  part  on  shore.  After  a  while 
they  met  some  Indians,  who  told  them  of  a  rich 
country  ten  days'  journey  beyond — a  country  of 
gold,  and  with  plenty  of  provisions.  Gonzalo 
placed  Orellana  in  command  of  the  brigantine,  and 
ordered  him,  with  50  soldiers,  to  go  on  to  this  gold- 
land,  and  return  with  a  load  of  provisions.  Orel- 
lana arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Coco  in  three 
days,  but  found  no  provisions;  'and  he  considered 
that  if  he  should  return  with  this  news  to  Pizarro, 
he  would  not  reach  him  in  a  year,  on  account  of 
the  strong  current,  and  that  if  he  remained  where 
he  was,  he  would  be  of  no  use  to  the  one  or  to 
the  other.  Not  knowing  how  long  Gonzalo  Pizarro 
would  take  to  reach  the  place,  without  consulting 
any  one  he  set  sail  and  prosecuted  his  voyage  on- 
ward, intending  to  ignore  Gonzalo,  to  reach  Spain, 
and  obtain  that  government  for  himself.'  Down 
the  Napo  and  the  Amazons,  for  seven  months, 
these  Spaniards  floated  to  the  Atlantic.  At  times 
they  suffered  terribly  from  hunger:  'There  was 
nothing  to  eat  but  the  skins  which  formed  their 
girdles,  and  the  leather  of  their  shoes,  boiled  with 
a  few  herbs. '  When  they  did  get  food  they  were 
often  obliged  to  fight  hard  for  it;  and  again  they 
were  attacked  by  thousands  of  naked  Indians,  who 
came  in  canoes  against  the  Spanish  vessel.  At 
some  Indian  villages,  however,  they  were  kindly 
received  and  well  fed,  so  they  could  rest  while 
building  a  new  and  stronger  vessel.  .  .  .  On  the 
26th  of  August,  1541,  Orellana  and  his  men  sailed 
out  to  the  blue  water  'without  either  pilot,  com- 
pass, or  anything  useful  for  navigation ;  nor  did 
they  know  what  direction  they  should  take.'  Fol- 
lowing the  coast,  they  passed  inside  of  the  island 
of  Trinidad,  and  so  at  length  reached  Cubagua  in 
September.  From  the  king  of  Spain  Orellana  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  the  land  he  had  discovered;  but 
he  died  while  returning  to  it,  and  his  company 
was  dispersed.  It  was  not  a  very  reliable  account 
of  the  river  that  was  given  by  Orellana  and  his 
chronicler.  Padre  Carbajal.  So  Hcrrera  tells  their 
story  of  the  warrior  females,  and  very  properly 
adds:  'Every  reader  may  believe  as  much  as  he 
likes.'  " — H.  H.  Smith,  Bra::i!,  the  Amazons,  and 
the  coast,  ch.  i. — In  chapter  eighteen  of  this  same 
work  "The  Amazon  Myth"  is  discussed  at  length, 
with  the  reports  and  opinions  of  numerous  travel- 
lers, both  early  and  recent,  concerning  it.  Mr. 
Southey  had  so  much  respect  for  the  memory  of 
Orellana  that  he  made  an  effort  to  restore  that 
bold  but  unprincipled  discoverer's  name  to  the  great 
river.  "He  discarded  Maranon,  as  having  too 
much  resemblance  to  Maranham,  and  Amazon,  as 
being  founded  upon  fiction  and  at  the  same  time 
inconvenient.  Accordingly,  in  his  map,  and  in  all 
his  references  to  the  great  river  he  denominates  it 
Orellana.  This  decision  of  the  poet-laureate  of 
Great  Britain  has  not  proved  authoritative  in 
Brazil.  O  Amazonas  is  the  universal  appellation 
of  the  great  river  among  those  who  float  upon  its 
waters  and  who  live  upon  its  banks.  .  .  .  Para, 
the  aboriginal  name  of  this  river,  was  more  appro- 
priate than  any  other.     It  signifies  'the  father  of 


waters.'  .  .  .  The  origin  of  the  name  and  mystery 
concerning  the  female  warriors,  I  think,  has  been 
solved  within  the  last  few  years  by  the  intrepid 
Mr.  Wallace.  .  .  .  Mr.  Wallace,  I  think,  shows 
conclusively  that  Friar  Gaspar  [Carbajal]  and  his 
companions  saw  Indian  male  warriors  who  were 
attired  in  habiliments  such  as  Europeans  would 
attribute  to  women.  ...  I  am  strongly  of  the 
opinion  that  the  story  of  the  Amazons  has  arisen 
from  these  feminine-looking  warriors  encoun- 
tered by  the  early  voyagers."— J.  C.  Fletcher 
and  D.  P.  Kidder,  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians, 
ch.  27. 

Also  in:  A.  R.  Wallace,  Travels  on  the  Ama- 
zon and  Rio  Negro,  ch.  17. — R.  Southey,  History 
of  Brazil,  v.  i,  ch.  4. 

Tributaries. — River  of  Doubt.— Development 
of  river  system.— The  more  important  of  the  many 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon  are:  Tocantins,  Xingu, 
Tapajos,  Purus,  Jurua,  Japura,  Rio  Negro  and  Ma- 
deira. One  of  the  largest  affluents  of  this  great  arm 
of  the  Amazon  is  the  Rio  Teodoro,  which  was  named 
in  honor  of  the  discoverer,  the  late  ex-president, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  led  the  Roosevelt-Ron- 
don  exploration  expedition  through  the  Brazilian 
wilderness  in  1914  "On  February  27,  1914,  shortly 
after  midday,  we  started  down  the  River  of 
Doubt  (Rio  Teodoro)  into  ihe  unknown.  We 
were  quite  uncertain  whether  after  a  week  we 
should  find  outselves  in  the  Gy-Parana,  or  after 
six  weeks  in  the  Madeira,  or  after  three  months 
we  knew  not  where.  ...  We  put  upon  the  map 
a  river  some  fifteen  hundred  kilometres  in  length, 
of  which  the  upper  course  was  not  merely  utterly 
unknown  to,  but  unguessed  at  by,  anybody; 
while  the  lower  course,  although  known  for  years 
to  a  few  rubber-men,  was  utterly  unknown  to 
cartographers.  It  is  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Ma- 
deira, which  is  itself  the  chief  affluent  of  the  .Ama- 
zon. The  source  of  this  river  is  between  the  12th 
and  13th  parallels  of  latitude  south  and  the  ^gth 
and  60th  degrees  of  longitude  west  from  Green- 
wich ...  we  finally  entered  the  wonderful  Ama- 
zon itself,  the  mighty  river  which  contains  one- 
tenth  of  all  the  runnin;  water  of  the  globe.  It 
was  miles  across,  where  we  entered  it;  and  indeed 
we  could  not  tell  whether  the  farther  bank,  which 
we  saw,  was  that  of  the  mainland  or  an  island. 
.  .  .  The  mightiest  river  in  the  world  is  the 
Amazon.  It  runs  from  west  to  east,  from  the 
sunset  to  the  sunrise,  from  the  Andes  to  the  At- 
lantic. The  main  stream  flows  almost  along  the 
equator,  while  the  basin  which  contains  its  af- 
fluents extends  many  degrees  north  and  south  of 
the  equator.  This  gigantic  equatorial  river  basin 
is  filled  with  an  immense  forest,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  with  which  no  other  forests  can  be 
compared  save  those  of  western  Africa  and  Ma- 
laysia."— T.  Roosevelt,  Through  the  Brazilian  wil- 
derness. 

"So  fertile  is  the  soil  of  the  Amazon  that  it  is 
claimed  that  for  every  bushel  of  maize,  rice,  or 
beans  planted  over  800  bushels  are  harvested  .  .  . 
'.Amazonia'  is  an  agricultural  El  Dorado,  and  it  is 
an  amazing  incongruity  that  food  should  ever 
have  been  imported  into  the  valley,  where  enough 
rice,  for  instance,  could  be  raised  to  feed  the  en- 
tire world ;  yet  until  two  or  three  years  ago  rice 
was  imported,  some  of  it  from  China." — J.  F. 
Barry,  Great  possibilities  of  Amazonia  (Pan  Amer- 
ican Union,  Mar.,  1920).— The  last  ten  years 
have  brought  great  changes  in  the  civilization  and 
commercial  life  of  the  .Amazon  and  "Amazonia." 
Probably  the  most  important  factors  in  the  de- 
velopment of  this  fabulously  wealthy  river  system 
are  the  construction  of  the  railroad  line  from  Porto 


241 


AMAZON   RUBBER  COMPANY 


AMBROSIAN   CHANT 


Velho  to  Guajara-Wirim,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  Amazon  iNavigation  Company  in  1912.  The 
importance  of  the  latter  undertaking,  to  the  hfe 
and  progress  0!  the  Brazilians,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  Amazon  Navigation  Company, 
which  operates  under  a  federal  charter,  covers  fif- 
teen routes  and  a  total  distance  of  235,552  miles 
annually.  The  fleet  consists  of  about  100  crafts, 
some  of  which  have  been  taken  from  the  old  (Eng- 
lish) Amazon  Navigation  Company  The  steamers 
ply  not  only  on  the  .Amazon  but  also  on  all  of  its 
more  important  affluents,  such  as  the  Tapajos,  the  ' 
Javory.  the  Madeira,  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Purus 
and  the   lurua. 

AMAZON  RUBBER  COMPANY:  Putumayo 
rubber  atrocities.    Sec  Pkku:  1012-1013. 

AMAZONS. — "The  .Vmazons,  daughters  of  Ares 
and  Harmonia,  are  both  early  creations,  and  fre- 
quent reproductions,  of  the  ancient  epic.  ...  A 
nation  of  courageous,  hardy  and  indefatigable 
women,  dwelling  apart  from  men,  permitting  only 
a  short  temporary  intercourse  for  the  purpose  of 
renovating  their  numbers,  and  burning  out  their 
right  breast  with  a  view  of  enabling  themselves  to 
draw  the  bow  freely, — this  was  at  once  a  general 
type  stimulating  to  the  fancy  of  the  poet,  and  a 
theme  eminently  popular  with  his  hearers.  Nor 
was  it  at  all  repugnant  to  the  faith  of  the  latter — 
who  had  no  recorded  facts  to  guide  them,  and  no 
other  standard  of  credibility  as  to  the  past  except 
such  poetical  narratives  themselves — to  conceive 
communities  of  .Amazons  as  having  actually  existed 
in  anterior  time.  Accordingly  we  find  these  war- 
like females  constantly  reappearing  in  the  ancient 
poems,  and  universally  accepted  as  past  realities 
In  the  Iliad,  when  Priam  wishes  to  illustrate  em- 
phatically the  most  numerous  host  in  which  he 
ever  found  himself  included,  he  tells  us  that  it  was 
assembled  in  Phrygia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sanga- 
rius,  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  formidable 
Amazons  When  Bellerophon  is  to  be  employed 
on  a  deadly  and  perilous  undertaking,  by  those 
who  indirectly  wish  to  procure  his  death,  he  is 
despatched  against  the  Amazons.  .  .  .  The  ."Xrgo- 
nautic  heroes  find  the  .Amazons  on  the  river  Ther- 
modon  in  their  expedition  along  the  southern  coast 
of  the  Euxine.  To  the  same  spot  Herakles  goes  to 
attack  them,  in  the  performance  of  the  ninth  la- 
bour imposed  upon  him  by  Eurystheus,  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  the  girdle  of  the  .\mazonian 
queen,  Hippolyte;  and  we  are  told  that  they  had 
not  yet  recovered  from  the  losses  sustained  in  this 
severe  ag  -rcssion  when  Theseus  also  assaulted  and 
defeated  them,  carrying  off  their  queen  Antiope. 
This  injury  they  avenged  by  invading  .Attica  .  .  . 
and  penetrated  even  into  Athens  itself:  where  the 
final  battle,  hard-fought  and  at  one  time  doubtful, 
by  which  Theseus  crushed  them,  was  fought — in 
the  very  heart  of  the  city,  .\ttic  antiquaries  con- 
fidently pointed  out  the  exact  position  of  the  two 
contending  armies.  .  .  .  No  portion  of  the  ante- 
historical  epic  appears  to  have  been  more  deeply 
worked  into  the  national  mind  of  Greece  than  this 
invasion  and  defeat  of  the  .^mazons.  .  .  .  Their 
proper  territory  was  asserted  to  be  the  town  and 
plain  of  Themiskyra,  near  the  Grecian  colony  of 
Amisus,  on  the  river  Thermodon  [northern  Asia 
Minor],  a  region  called  after  their  name  by  Roman 
historians  and  geographers.  .  .  .  Some  authors 
placed  them  in  Libya  or  Ethiopia." — G.  Grote, 
Hislorv  of  Greece,  pt.  i,  ch.  11. 

AMA-ZULU.     See  Zululaxd. 

AMBACTI.— "The  Celtic  aristocracy  [of  Gaull 
.  .  .  developed  the  .system  of  retainers,  that  is.  the 
privilege  of  the  nobility  to  surround  themselves 
with  a  number  of  hired  mounted  servants — the  am- 


bacti  as  they  were  called — and  thereby  to  form  a 
state  within  a  state;  and,  resting  on  the  support 
of  these  troops  of  their  own,  they  defied  the  legal 
authorities  and  the  common  levy  and  practically 
broke  up  the  commonwealth.  .  .  .  This  remark- 
able word  [ambacti]  must  have  been  in  use  as 
early  as  the  sixth  century  of  Rome  among  the 
Celts  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  ...  It  is  not  merely 
Celtic,  however,  but  also  German,  the  root  of  our 
'Amt,'  as  indeed  the  retainer-system  itself  is  com- 
mon to  the  Celts  and  the  Germans.  It  would  be 
of  great  historical  importance  to  ascertain  whether 
the  word — and  therefore  the  thing — came  to  the 
Celts  from  the  Germans  or  to  the  Germans  from 
the  Celts.  If,  as  is  usually  supposed,  the  word 
is  originally  German  and  primarily  signified  the 
servant  standing  in  battle  'against  the  back'  ('and' 
=against,  'bak'=back)  of  his  ma.ster.  this  is  not 
wholly  irreconcilable  with  the  singularly  early  oc- 
currence of  the  word  among  the  Celts.  ...  It  is 
.  .  .  probable  that  the  Celts,  in  Italy  as  in  Gaul, 
employed  Germans  chiefly  as  those  hired  servants- 
at-arms.  The  'Swiss  guard'  would  therefore  in 
that  case  be  some  thousands  of  years  older  than 
people  suppose." — T.  Mommsen.  History  of  Rome, 
hk.   5,   cli.    7.   and  foot-note. 

AMBAN,  the  title  of  two  imperial  Chinese  resi- 
dents in  Lhasa.  Tibet,  who  supervised  the  man- 
agement  of  all  secular  affairs  of  the  country  by 
the  four  ministers  of  state.  See  Tibet:  1902 -1904; 
1010-IQ14, 

AMBARRI,  a  small  tribe  in  Gaul  which  occu 
pied   anciently    a   district   between    the   Saone.   the 
Rhone  and  the  Ain. 

AMBASSADOR   SERVICE.     See  Diplomatic 

AND   COXSULAR    SERVICE. 

AMBASSADORS,  Hall  of.    See  Ai.hambra. 

AMBIANI.    See  Belg.t.. 

AMBIORIX,  prince  of  the  Eburones  in  Belgian 
Gaul.  Fought  unsuccessfullv  against  Cjesar  in  54 
B.  C.    See  Eburones;  Gaul:  B.  C.  58-51. 

AMBITUS. — Bribery  at  elections  was  termed 
ambitus  among  the  Romans,  and  many  unavail- 
ing laws  were  enacted  to  check  it. — W.  Ramsay, 
Manual  of  Roman  antiquity,  ch.  g. 

AMBI'VARETI,  a  tribe  in  ancient  Gaul  which 
occupied  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse,  to  the  south 
of  the  marsh  of  Peel. 

AMBLEVE,  Battle  of  (716).  See  Franks: 
511-752 

AMBOISE,  Georges  d'  (1460-1510),  French 
cardinal  and  prime  minister  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XII.  In  150^,  made  papal  legate  to  France  for 
life. 

AMBOISE,  a  town  of  central  France,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Loire.  It  is  noted  for  the  chateau, 
overlooking  the  Loire  from  the  eminence  above  the 
town.  The  Logis  du  Roi,  the  chief  part,  was  built 
by  Charles  VIII.  the  other  wing  by  Louis  XII  and 
Francis  I. 

AMBOISE,  Conspiracy  or  Tumult  of.  See 
France:    ii;^Q-i=;6i. 

AMBOISE,  Edict  of.     See  France;  1560-1563. 

AMBOYNA,  Massacre  of.  See  India:  1600- 
1702. 

AMBRACIA  (Ambrakia).     See  Corcyra. 

AMBRONES,  a  Germanic  tribe  which  joined 
the  Tcutones  against  the  Romans  in  102  B.  C.  See 
CiMBRi  AND  Teutones:  B.C.  113-101. 

AMBROSE,  Saint  (340-307),  celebrated  Father 
of  the  ancient  church:  unanimously  elected  bishop 
of  Milan  in  374;  reputed  author  of  the  .^mbrosian 
ritual.  See  Milan:  374-307;  Music:  Ancient: 
B.C    4-A  D.  307 

AMBROSIAN  CHANT,  the  ecclesiastical  mode 
of  saying  and  singing  Divine  service,  organized  by 


242 


AMBROSINl 


AMENDMENTS 


St.  Ambrose  about  3S4  for  the  cathedral  of  Milan. 
— See  also  Milan:  374-397;  Music:  Ancient: 
B.C.  4-A.  D.  307,  and  540-604. 

AMBROSINl,  Bartolomeo  (1588-1657),  Ital- 
ian naturalist,  director  of  the  botanical  garden  at 
the  university  of  Bologna,  succeeding  Aldrovandi, 
whose  pupil  he  was. 

AMBROSIUS  AURELIANUS,  leader  of  the 
Britons  against  the  Saxons  in  the  fifth  century; 
identified  by  some  with  Uther-Pendragon,  father 
of  King  .\rthur. — See  also  .'Vrthurian  legend. 

AMBULANCE  CORPS,  American.  See 
American  ambulance. 

AMEDEO  FERDINANDO  MARIA  DI  SA- 
VOIA  (1845-1800),  king  of  Spain,  1870-1873. 
Third  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II  of  Italy;  elected 
by  the  Cortes  after  disturbances  following  the 
revolution  of  1868,  by  which  Isabella  II  had  been 
deposed;  abdicated  February  11,  1873,  after  which 
the  Republic  was  proclaimed.  See  Spain:  1868- 
1873. 
,  AMEER.    See  .Amir. 

AMEIXIAL  (Estremos),  Battle  of  (1663). 
See   Portugal:    1637-1668. 

AMELIA  CASE.— The  Amclin  had  sailed  from 
Hamburg  to  Calcutta  and  on  the  return  voyage 
was  captured  by  the  French,  who  held  her  about 
ten  days,  when  she  was  captured  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, commanded  by  Captain  Silas  Talbot,  U.  S.  N. 
Talbot  had  brought  suit  in  the  New  York  district 
court  that  the  Amelia  be  judged  lawful  prize, 
which  the  owners  disputed,  since  Hamburg  and  the 
United  States  were  not  at  war.  Seeman  appealed 
from  the  decision  of  the  district  court,  and  Tal- 
bot from  that  of  the  circuit  court.  The  supreme 
court  ordered  the  vessel  to  be  sold  and  the  costs 
to  be  paid  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale;  of  the 
residue  one-sixth  was  to  go  to  the  libellant,  for 
commander  and  crew,  the  remainder  to  the  own- 
ers of  the  vessel.  This  practically  reaffirmed  the 
decision  of  the  circuit  court.  The  decree  was 
handed  down  in  August,  iSoi.  Jared  Ingersoll  was 
principal  counsel  for  plaintiff,  .\lexander  James  Dal- 
las for  defendant. — J.  A.  Bayard,  Annual  report  of 
the  American  Historical  Association,  1013,  p.  123. 

AMELIUS  (fl.  246-260),  Greek  philosopher. 
See  Neoplatonism. 

AMEL-MARDUK,  or  Amil-Marduk,  king  of 
Babvlonia.  See  Babylonia:  Decline  of  the  Empire. 
AMENDMENTS  TO  CONSTITUTIONS: 
United  States. — To  the  Federal  constitution. — 
The  framers  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  seem  to  have  felt  that  the  sovereignty  of  the 
states  would  be  best  protected  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  several  states.  They  provided  that  Congress 
may  propose  amendments  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
each  house,  but  that  such  amendments  must  be 
ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  several  states 
either  through  their  legislatures  or  by  conventions. 
The  states  themselves  may  take  the  initiative  in 
proposing  amendments  and  Congress  is  required  to 
call  a  convention  for  this  purpose  on  application 
of  the  legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  states.  One 
part  of  the  Constitution  is  virtually  unamendable 
because  of  the  provision  "that  no  State,  without 
its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage 
in  the  Senate."  Between  1780  and  1Q20,  nineteen 
amendments  were  adopted.  The  first  ten,  however, 
were  adopted  at  one  time  and  comprise  a  Bill  of 
Rights  omitted  from  the  original  Constitution  be- 
cause the  framers  of  the  Constitution  took  these 
rights  for  granted.  (See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1701.) 
The  eleventh  amendment  prevents  the  Federal 
Government  from  being  party  in  law  suits  brought 
by  citizens  of  any  state  against  the  government 
of  another  state.    The  twelfth  amendment  chanced 


the  manner  of  voting  in  the  electoral  college.    The 
thirteenth,    fourteenth    and    fifteenth    amendments 
were  adopted  after  the  Civil  War.    The  thirteenth 
gives  the  slaves  their  freedom,  [see  also  U.  S.  A.: 
1865    (January)]   the  fourteenth  gives  civil   rights 
to  the  freedman  and  defines  citizens  as  "all  persons 
born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  and  sub- 
ject  to   the  jurisdiction   thereof."     It  also  forbids 
any  state  to  abridge   the  privileges  or  immunities 
of  citizens  of  the  United  Stales"  or  to  "deprive  any 
person   of   life,   liberty,   or   property    without   due 
process  of  law."     [See  also  Suffrage,  Manhood: 
United  States:    1864-1921;  U.  S.  A.:   1S66   (June), 
1866-1867      (October-March),     looi      (January).] 
The  fifteenth  amendment  provides  that  "the  right 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by 
any   stale   on  account   of   race,  color,   or  previous 
conditions  of  servitude."     [See  also  U.  S.  A.:   i8b8- 
1870:    Process   of   reconstruction;   also   1869-1870] 
."Vmcndment  sixteen  empowers  Congress  to  levy  and 
collect   taxes   on    incomes.      [See    U.   S.   A:    igoo 
(July).]      The    seventeenth    amendment    provides 
for  the  election  of  United  States  senators  by  vote 
of » the   people.      [See   also   Arizona:    1912.]      The 
eighteenth  is  as  follows  [Constitutional  League  of 
America,  p.  31] :— "Section  I.— After  one  vear  from 
the    ratification    of    this    article    the    manufacture, 
sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  with- 
in, the  importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation 
thereof   from   the   United  States  and   all    territory 
subject  to  the  junsdicion  thereof  for  beverage  pur- 
poses is  hereby  prohibited.     Section  II.— The  Con- 
gress and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent 
power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legis- 
lation.    Section   III. — This  article  shall  be  inoper- 
ative   unless    it    shall    have    been    ratified    as    an 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures 
of  the  several  States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitu- 
tion, within  seven  years  from  the  date  of  the  sub 
mission    thereof   to   the   States   by   the   Congress." 
[See  also  Liquor   problem:    United  States:    1913- 
1919.]      The    nineteenth    amendment    forbids   any 
state  to  deny  suffrage  to  a  citizen  because  of  sex. 
[See  Suffrage,  Woman:  United  States:  1851-1920.] 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  this  period  of  over  a 
century  and   a  quarter  the  Constitution   has  been 
amended  at  only  eight  different  times.     It  requires 
a  strong  popular  demand  to  get  Congress  to  pass  a 
proposed    amendment.      More    than    one-half    of 
eighteen   hundred   propositions   of   this  sort   intro- 
duced into  Congress  in  the  first  hundred  years  were 
"pigeon-holed"  or  killed  in  committees. — See  also 
U.  S.  A.:    Constitution. 

Court  decisions  covering  amendments  to  Fed- 
eral constitution. — "In  March,  1920,  a  United 
States  District  Court  held  that  both  the  Amend- 
ment and  the  National  Prohibition  Act  are  valid; 
that  there  is  nothing  in  the  subject-matter  of  the 
.Amendment  incompetent  or  improper  to  form  part 
of  the  Constitution;  that  there  is  no  usurpation 
of  powers  properly  belonging  to  the  States  alone; 
that  since  an  amendment  of  the  Constitution  pro- 
vides that  future  amendments  shall  be  ratified  by 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States,  the  objection  urged 
as  regards  States  which  have  a  referendum  law, 
namely,  that  the  .Amendment  should  have  been 
submitted  to  referendum,  is  of  no  force;  that  Con- 
gress had  a  right  to  define  (as  it  has  defined,  by 
the  'half  of  one  per  cent.'  provision  in  the  Volstead 
Law)  what  intoxicating  liquor  is;  and  that  the 
contention  that  the  plaintiff's  property  has  been 
destroyed  without  compensation,  contrary  to  the 
Constitution,  has  no  basis,  because  Congress  has 
the  right  to  determine  whether  compensation  shall 
be  made  when  the  property  (as  here)  is  not  taken 


24  3 


AMENDMENTS 


for  public  use.  The  discussion  by  Judge  Rellstab 
orth'e  meaning  of  the  clause  •concurrent  power  to 
enforce  by  appropriate  legislation  is  i^ull  ana  '" 
erestng  He  rejects  any  dictionary  fhrn  ,on  of 
the  word  'concurrent'  which  would  restrict  the  ac- 
tion  of    Congress   and    the   Legislatures   to   agree- 

is"if^^^.^\^^io1SSet^ 
rei^^^:ci^^^^vr5^£ 

P^-T'har'merniS'Xh  will  carry  out  the  in- 
tended pur^e  of'congress  should  be  given  to  this 
word  The  thing  sought  to  be  prohibited  is  the 
T^anufac  lire  of  and  commerce  in  intoxicating  hq- 
^  fnr  heverige  purposes,  and  the  prohibition 
rndfthrrugS^he'  United  States  aiid  all  ter 

ii:-^^u:j^oh^;^^r^bi:^rtti| 

slat  ^e  power,  and  this  power  is  delegated  to  both 
Congres^nd  the  several  States^    If  Congressidha 
Sn  to  be  effective  is  dependent  upon   each  of 
?he  States  joining  with  it  in  its  enforcemen    leg  s- 
ation    an    absolute   failure   to   effect   such   legis  a- 
tion  "s  not  merely  possible  but  decidedly  pM\e 
'""in  another  form  the  anti-nulhfying    o-e  of  this 
decision   is  expressed  in   the  words:      When   Con 
gress   acts   to    enforce   this   Amendment     its   com 
mands  extend  throughout  the  Union      This  is  cer- 
U  nlv  plain  and  direct  doctrine      It  -  — ^'f/^ 
by    k    reference    to    a    statement    of    Chief-Justce 
Marshall,    of    the    United    States    Supreme    Court, 
manv  vears  ago.     Justice  Marshall  said 

"•Should  this  collision  [between  an  act  of  Con- 
gress and  New  York   [legislation]  exist,  '»  will  be 
immaterial  whether  those  laws  were  passed  in  vir- 
tue of  a   concurrent  power  'to  regulate  commerce 
with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  States, 
;    in  virtue  of  a  power  to  regulate  their  domestic 
trade  and  police.     In  one  case  and  the  other    the 
acts  of  New  York  must  yield  to  the  law  of  Con- 
gress     and    the    decision    sustaining    the    privilege 
?hev   confer,   against    a   right   given   by   a   law    o 
the  Union,  must  be  erroneous.  .  .  .  The  nullity   ot 
anv  act,  inconsistent  with  the  Constitution   is  pro- 
duced bv  the  declaration,  that  the  Constitution  is 

''^'pSr  JuTge  Rellstab  holds  'The  prohibi- 
torv  section  of  the  Eighteenth  Amendment  is  of 
national  scope  and  operation  and  its  efficacy  de- 
pends upon  its  bein:  nationally  enforced.  Us  en- 
forcement section  was  nationally  envisaged,  as  was 
he  need  of  the  co-operation  of  the  several  States 
0  secure  general  observance.  To  carry  out  such 
a  concept  Congress  alone,  of  all  the  legislative 
bodies  r^ust  take  the  lead,  and  its  leadership,  when 
assumed,  dominates."-OK//oofe,  March  31,  1920- 
See  also  Supreme  Court:   1882-1808;  lOM^io^i^ 

The  Supreme  Court  held,  in  the  case  of  Hollings- 
worth  tv.  Virginia  (3  Dallas  78)  that  the  president 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  proposing  or  adoptmg 

of  amendments.  <:„,„„ 

Amendment  of  state  constitutions.-Referen- 
dum  -There  is  as  yet  no  uniform  practice  with 
regTrd  to  consulting  the  people  before  calling  a 
constitutional  convention  In  nearly  th>ft>  /'ates 
the  legislature  mav  use  its  discretion  as  to  the  time 
of  consulting  the' people.  In  several  ^t^'-  New 
York  among  the  number,  the  people  must  be  con- 
sulted at  stated  intervals  on  the  question  of  hold- 
ng  a  constitutional  convention.  Thomas  Jefferson 
held  that  once  in  each  generation  a  new  constitu- 


AMENDMENTS 

but  a  few  states  leave  these  details  entirely  to  leg- 
[J^ative  discretion.  In  the  states  that  have  the 
d  re  t  popular  initiative  the  voters  are  'nc^ependent 
of  the  legislatures  in  the  matter  of  calling  and 
organizing  constitutional  conventions  These 
S  number  more  than  a  third  of  the  total 

There   is  no   uniform   practice  in   the  matter   01 
securing  the  approval  of  the  electorate  alter  con- 
s  Hut^^ns  have  been  revised.     New  England    New 
York  and  Virginia  led  the  way  in  the  practice  of 
Securing  popular  approval  to  propose  amendmen  s 
and  it  is^ow  general,  though  there  has  been   m 
recent    vears    some    departure    f^<"",/^is    custorn. 
For  a  discussion  of  these  cases,  consult  W.  F   Dodd, 
Revlion    and    amcdment    of   stale    conMuUons, 
(,-,    (,-71  _See  also  Minnesota:   iSqb. 
^^Other   methods   of   amending    sta  e    constitu- 
tions.-"In  the  beginning  there  seems  to  have  been 
no  clear  recognition  of  the  necessity  for  a  distinc- 
tion bctween'the  revision   and  the  amendment   of 
state  constitutions.     In  the  original  states  the  prac- 
tice varied      Onlv  three  of  the  original  state  con- 
stitutions   contained    any    special    provisions    for 
their   amendment  by   legislative  action.     Delaware 
provided    that    certain    parts    of    the    constUution 
should  not   be  subject  to  amendment   at  al  ,  and 
hat  'no  other  part  should  be  altered  except  with 
the  consent  of   five  out  ot;^  the  seven  members  o 
the  legislative  assembly  and  ^e^'e" ,?"'  °  .'^^^  "  "„'_ 
members  of  the  legislative  council.      South  Laro 
Una  also  established  a  distinction  between  the  proc- 
ess  of    ordinary   legislation   and   that   of   constitu- 
tional amendment  by  requiring  an  exceptional  ma^ 
ioritv  for  the  adoption  of  a  measure  of  the  latter 
ch-i!acter      Marvland   made   a   sharper   distinction 
between   constitutional   amendments   and    prdinary 
statutes  by  requiring  that  the  former,  having  been 
adopted  bv  the  legislature,  should  be  published  at 
ea^r  three  months  before  the  fction  of    he  next 
lecislature,   and   then   readopted   by   the   latter,   m 
order  to  become  effective.     The  Maryland  plan  of 
action  by  two  successive  legislatures  was  accepted 
Sy  South   Carolina  in    1790   and  by   Delaware  m 
1702   and  grafted  upon  their  own  original  devices^ 
This  arrangement  was  generally  considered  at    he 
time    to   give    adequate   popular   control   over   the 
pro  ess  of' amendment,  and  was  adopted  in  severa 
other  states;  but  the  only  state  which    till  clings 
^0  dav   to   a   process   of   amendment   which   makes 
no  provision  for  a  special  popular  vote  upon  each 
proposed    amendment   is   Delaware.     A   somewhat 
more  democratic  practice  was  adopted  m  Alabama 
in   ,8iQ.     This  consisted  in  the  provision  that   an 
amend'„,ent  proposed  by  the  'eP'^lature  shouM  be 
voted  on  directly  by  (he  people,  mstead  of  be  ng 
merely   published    for    their    information     but     he 
nower  to  take  final  action  was  still  vested  in  the 
xTsuc^ceeding   legislature.     This  plan   was  never 
widelv  copied,  and  exists  to-day  in  only  t^vo  states 
South  Carolina  and  Mississippi.     A  still  more  dem- 
nrratic  practice  was  Inaugurated  in  Connecticut  in 
8     lns?eld  of  placing  the  popular  vote  between 
he   two   successive  legislative   actions  the   popular 
ote  was  placed  after  the  second  legislative  action 
hi  s  giving  to  the  electorate  the  final  decision,  and 
making  Hs  action  definitive  instead  of  mere  V  ad- 
v'ov       The    Connecticut    plan    was    adopted    in 
Mline  in   1810  and  simplified  by  the  omission  of 
?Se  requirement  that  a  second  legislature  endo  se 
proposed   amendments,  thus  enabhng   any  legisla- 


244 


AMENEMHAT 


AMERICA 


ture  to  submit  its  proposals  directly  to  the  people. 
The  Connecticut  and  Maine  plans  have  since  been 
widely  copied,  and  popular  control  over  the  process 
of  amendment  through  legislative  initiative  has 
been  almost  completely  established.  The  final  stage 
in  the  evolution  of  the  amending  process  has  been 
the  adoption  of  the  direct  popular  initiative,  thus 
dispensing  altogether  with  legislative  intervention. 
This  stage  was  first  entered  upon  in  Oregon  in 
igo2,  and  is  now  established  in  twelve  states." — 
A.  N.  Holcombe,  Slate  government  in  the  United 
States,  pp.  98-9Q. — See  also  Initiative  and  ref- 
erendum;  South  Dakota:    18S0-1012. 

The  method  of  altering  constitutions  piece- 
meal by  separate  amendments  seems  to  be 
yielding  to  the  method  of  general  overhauling  by 
constitutional  conventions.  In  none  of  the  states 
is  action  by  the  governor  necessary  in  amending 
the  state  constitution.  The  growing  tendency  to 
distrust  the  legislature  and  to  make  the  state  con- 
stitutions resemble  a  group  of  statutes  has  made  it 
necessary  to  amend  the  fundamental  law  rather 
often.  For  further  details  of  state  constitutional 
amendments  see  various  states  as  Arkansas:  1S85- 
IQ08;  California:  iqoo-iqoq:  Constitutional 
changes;  Immigration  and  emigration:  United 
States:  1920-1021:  Anti-Japanese  law  in  California; 
Indiana:   1918;  North  Carolina:   1900. 

.^Lso  in:   F.  N.  Thorpe,  Federal  and  state  con- 


stitutions; colonial  charters,  and  other  organic 
taws  of  the  state,  territories,  and  colonies  now  or 
heretofore  forming  the  United  States  of  America, 
7  I'.,  Washington,  igog. 

For  amendments  to  constitution  in  other  countries, 
see  country  head,  as  Australia,  Constitution. 

AMENEMHAT,  or  Amenemhe,  I,  King  of 
Egypt  (c.  B.  C.  2130),  founder  of  the  twelfth  dyn- 
asty.   See  Moeris,  Lake. 

Amenemhat  II,  King  of  Egypt  (c.  B.  C.  2066- 
2031). 

Amenemhat  III,  King  of  Egypt  (c.  B.  C.  1986- 
1942).     See  Moeris,  Lake. 

Amenemhat  IV,  King  of  Egypt  (c.  B.  C.  1941- 
1932)- 

AMENHOTEP.     See  Amenophis. 

AMENOPHIS  I,  Egyptian  pharaoh  (c.  B.C. 
1778).    See  Egypt;  About  B.C.  1700-1300. 

Amenophis  II,  Egyptian  pharaoh  (c.  B.  C. 
1687).     See  Egvpt:  About  B.C.  1700-1300. 

Amenophis  III,  King  of  Egypt  (c.  B.C.  1493). 
See  Egypt:    B.  C.   1414-1379. 

Amenophis  IV  (died  c.  1350  B.C.),  one  of 
the  Pharoahs  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  in  Egypt; 
endeavored  to  substitute  exclusive  worship  of  the 
sun  for  Egyptian  polytheism  and  shifted  his  capital 
to  the  city  of  Tell-El-.Amarna.  After  his  reign  of 
about  18  years,  his  reforms  were  soon  abolished. 
— See  also  Egypt:  B.  C.  1379. 


AMERICA 


Politico-geographical  survey. — Arrival  of  the 
white  man. — Influence  of  the  discovery  on 
European  history. — Geography  and  climate: 
factors  in  settlement.  —  Natural  resources. — 
Area. — "The  history  of  America  covers  but  a 
short  period,  and  the  political  conditions  have  been 
peculiar.  It  furnishes  very  few  instances,  similar 
to  those  afforded  in  abundance  by  European  his- 
tory, of  the  influence  of  geography  on  the  political 
destinies  of  nations.  Though  the  whole  of  South 
America,  e.xcejbt  the  European  settlements  in 
Guiana,  is  now  partitioned  among  independent  na- 
tions, they  are  all  of  one  type;  and  their  turbu- 
lent annals  record  no  events  of  the  slightest  in- 
terest from  the  geographical  point  of  view.  The 
same  holds  good  of  the  southern  portion  of  North 
America:  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish  conquer- 
ors have  mingled  with  the  natives,  and  have 
formed  states  like  their  southern  neighbors,  with 
a  similar  veneer  of  modern  civiHzation  largely  due 
to  immigrants  from  Europe,  and  a  similar  sub- 
stratum of  comparative  barbarism.  The  United 
States  were  saved  by  the  triumph  of  the  North 
in  the  war  of  secession  from  breaking  up  into 
separate  nations,  so  that  a  single  government  rules 
the  whole  centre  of  the  continent  from  ocean  to 
ocean.  Similarly  the  whole  of  America  north  of 
the  United  States  is  occupied  by  the  single  domin- 
ion of  Canada,  loyal  to  the  British  crown,  but  in 
other  respects  an  independent  nation.  The  fron- 
tier between  the  two  is  in  most  of  its  length  ab- 
solutely conventional,  but  happily  there  have  been 
only  trifling  wars  upon  it.  The  geography  of 
North  America  to  some  extent  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  two  great  nations  now  occupy  the  whole 
of  it,  north  of  the  comparatively  narrow  portion 
which  tapers  down  to  the  isthmus  of  Panama  The 
Rocky  mountains,  which  form  the  watershed  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  run  close  to  the 
western  side  of  the  continent.  East  of  them  is 
one  boundless  plain,  not  of  couri^e  altogether  flat, 
but  containing  no  chain  of  mountains  long  or 
high  enough  to  form  a  definite  barrier.     Even  the 


Alleghanies  are  not  hard  to  cross,  and  sink  away 
into  the  plain  at  each  end.  Thus  when  the  white 
men,  having  settled  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  began 
to  push  their  way  westward,  they  encountered  no 
geographical  obstacles.  The  question  as  to  which 
of  the  European  peoples  should  dominate  America 
was  fought  out  before  the  great  expansion  began." 
— H.  B.  George,  Relations  of  geography  and  his- 
tory, pp.  294-295. 

"Two  great  events  happened  within  thirty  years 
of  each  other,  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
and  the  Reformation.  These  two  events  closely 
involved  with  two  others,  viz.,  the  consolidation 
of  the  great  European  States  and  the  closing  of 
the  East  by  the  Turkish  Conquest,  caused  the  vast 
change  which  we  know  as  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  opening  of  the  modern  period.  But 
of  the  two  leading  events  the  one  was  of  far  more 
rapid  operation  than  the  other.  The  Reformation 
produced  its  effect  at  once  and  in  the  very  front 
of  the  stage  of  history.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  the  occu- 
pation of  the  New  World  is  going  on  in  the  back- 
ground, and  does  not  force  itself  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  the  student  who  is  contemplating  Europe. 
The  achievements  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro  do  not 
seem  to  have  any  reaction  upon  the  European 
struggle.  And  perhaps  it  is  not  till  near  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  raids  of  Francis 
Drake  and  his  fellows  upon  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  Central  America  mainly  contributed  to 
decide  Spain  to  her  great  enterprise  against  Eng- 
land, perhaps  it  is  not  till  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  that  the  New  World  begins  in  any  per- 
ceptible degree  to  react  upon  the  Old.  But  from 
this  time  forward  European  affairs  begin  to  be 
controlled  by  two  great  causes  at  once,  viz.,  the 
Reformation  and  the  New  World,  and  of  these  the 
Reformation  acts  with  diminishing  force,  and  the 
New  World  has  more  and  more  influence.  .  .  . 
fin  the  eighteenth  centuryl  the  religious  question 
with  all  its  grandeur  has  sunk  to  rest,  and  the 
colonial  question,  made  up  of  worldly  and  material 
considerations,  has  taken  its  place     Now  the  New 


245 


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Politico- geographical 
Survey 


AMERICA 


World,  considered  as  a  boundless  territory  open 
to  settlement,  would  act  in  two  ways  upon  the 
nations  of  Europe.  In  the  first  place  it  would 
have  a  purely  political  effect,  that  is,  it  would  act 
upon  their  governments.  For  so  much  debatable 
territory  would  be  a  standing  cause  of  war.  It 
is  this  action  of  the  New  World  that  we  have 
been  considering  hitherto,  while  we  have  observed 
how  mainly  the  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  particularly  the  areat  wars  of  England  and 
France,  were  kindled  by  this  cause.  But  the  New 
World  would  also  act  upon  the  European  com- 
munities themselves,  modifying  their  occupations 
and  ways  of  life,  altering  their  industrial  and  eco- 
nomical character." — Sir  J.  Seeley,  Expansion  of 
England,  pp.  7S-80. 

"For  over  one  hundred  years  after  the  discovery 
of  .America  the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese  were 
permitted  to  select  the  sites  of  their  colonies  and 
occupy  as  much  of  the  land  of  the  new  continent 
as  they  desired,  undisturbed  by  any  interference 
of  the  English  or  French.  Fortunately  for  the 
future  of  Anglo-Sa.\on  supremacy  in  North  .Amer- 
ica, the  Portuguese  directed  their  efforts  to  South 
America,  .Africa,  and  southeastern  .Asia.  The  Span- 
iards followed  in  a  general  way  the  tracks  of 
Columbus  and  concentrated  their  efforts  upon  the 
West  Indies,  and  Central  and  South  .America.  The 
initial  impulse  which  was  given  to  exploration  and 
settlement  in  this  region  was  retjnforced  by  the 
finding  of  precious  metals  in  Mexico  and  Peru. 
For  generations  afterwards,  the  energies  of  Spain 
were  concentrated  here,  leaving  the  northern  part 
of  the  .American  continent  to  others.  This  was 
largely  accident,  although  the  winds  and  ocean 
currents  had  been  the  chief  factors  in  tak- 
ing Columbus  over  the  course  which  he  sailed 
and  bringing  him  to  the  particular  portion  of 
the  newly  discovered  lands  which  he  actually 
reached. 

"Similarly,  the  claims  of  the  New  World  which 
were  staked  out  by  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch 
were  determined  in  the  first  instance  mainly  by 
geographical  considerations  The  North  .Atlantic 
is  relatively  narrow  between  Newfoundland  on  the 
one  side  and  Ireland  and  Brittany  on  the  other. 
Knowledge  that  the  Spaniards  had  already  pre- 
empted the  lands  for  the  south  also  directed  the 
later  arrivals  to  the  more  northern  portion  of 
North  America.  All  these  influences  combined  to 
apportion  in  a  rough  way  the  newly  discovered 
lands  among  the  maritime  powers.  The  new  con- 
ditions of  life  which  the  English  and  French  found 
awaiting  them  were  arduous  enough  to  discourage 
the  timid  and  weed  out  the  unfit,  without  abso- 
lutely discouraging  immigration  from  Europe.  The 
climate  of  our  Atlantic  seaboard  is  more  rigorous 
than  that  of  France  and  the  British  Isles  but  it  is 
a  white  man's  country  and  makes  no  impossible 
demands  upon  a  European's  powers  of  adaptation. 
South  of  Chesapeake  Bay  many  districts  suffered 
from  malaria  which,  combined  with  the  hot  sum- 
mers, put  a  premium  upon  negro  slavery.  On  the 
northern  end  of  the  habitable  area,  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  region,  agriculture  was  made  difficult 
by  severe  winters  and  a  thin  soil.  Physiography 
and  climate,  therefore,  discouraged  the  growth  of 
a  dense  population  in  what  is  now  lower  Canada 
and  hampered  the  growth  of  the  French  settle- 
ments there,  despite  the  profits  in   the   fur  trade. 

"The  main  outlines  of  the  growth  of  the  English 
colonies  were  also  fixed  fairly  early  by  these  same 
natural  features  The  climate,  the  configuration 
of  the  land,  the  presence  or  absence  of  natural 
harbors,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  fauna 
and  flora  directed  industrs-  into  this  or  that  chan- 


nel. The  mountain  wall  of  the  Appalachians 
flanked  by  dense  forest  growths  opposed  a  mighty 
barrier  to  westward  migration,  while  the  warlike 
aborigines  assisted  the  mountains  and  forests  in 
hemming  in  the  English  colonists  close  to  the  At- 
lantic shore-land." — D.  E.  Smith,  in  J.  N.  Lamed, 
Ed.,  English  leadership,  pp.  210-212. 

"The  first  Europeans  in  America  were  doomed 
to  many  a  disappointment  in  the  matter  of  climate 
The  effects  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  carries  the 
heat  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  away  from  North 
.America  to  warm  the  shores  of  western  Europe, 
were  at  first  not  recognized  by  the  newcomers. 
Their  natural  expectation  was  that  in  a  given  lati- 
tude the  climate  of  America  would  approximate 
that  of  Europe.  New  England,  from  June  to  Sep- 
tember, did  appear  in  the  same  latitude.  A  New 
England  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  resembled  that 
of  Norway  or  Sweden,  while  Labrador,  which  was 
only  as  far  north  as  England,  had  a  climate  which 
in  Europe  was  known  only  within  the  .Arctic 
Circle.  .  .  .  Low-lying  shores,  cut  by  numerous 
navigable  streams,  rendered  the  .Atlantic  coast  of 
.North  .America  more  easy  of  access  than  was  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  majority  of  these  Atlantic  riv- 
ers were  short  and  swift,  and  possessed  of  water 
power  well  suited  to  the  manufacturing  which  was 
to  spring  up  in  later  centuries.  The  interior  of 
the  continent  could  not  easily  be  penetrated  along 
these  streams,  for  the  reason  that  some  few  miles 
inland  they  were  usually  broken  in  their  cour.=e 
by  rapids  and  falls,  which  were  difficult  of  pas- 
sage. Still  farther  inland  they  lost  themselves  in 
a  mountain  barrier,  the  .Appalachians,  which  ex- 
tended parallel  to  the  seashore  as  far  south  as 
Georgia.  The  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  cut  this 
barrier  in  the  north,  but  it  v.as  early  found  that 
this  waterway,  filled  with  rapids  and  frozen  over 
for  nearly  half  the  year,  was  not  all  that  could 
be  desired  as  a  key  to  the  interior  of  the  continent 
Nor  was  the  Mississippi  a  much  more  satisfactory 
route  inland,  since  hidden  shoals  rendered  its  as- 
cent so  difficult  that  navigation  of  its  waters  could 
be  easily  accomplished  only  southward  with  the 
current.  Confronted  bv  these  conditions,  the  Eu- 
ropean settlers  quite  naturally  contented  themselves 
at  first  with  the  coast.  They  did  nut  explore  the 
passes  over  the  mountains  to  the  west  till  almost 
a  century  after  their  first  settlement,  and  they 
did  not  push  through  these  barriers  in  any  con- 
siderable numbers  for  another  half  century.  .  .  . 
Fortunately  the  Europeans  found  the  struggle  for 
existence  in  .America  comparatively  easy.  The  .At- 
lantic Ocean,  from  Newfoundland  to  Cape  Cod, 
contained  an  abundance  of  .sea  food,  particularly 
the  valuable  codfish  and  mackerel,  which  were 
highly  esteemed  as  early  as  the  days  of  Columbus 
and  have  constituted  the  basis  of  a  valuable  in- 
dustry down  to  the  present  time.  On  land  the 
fertile  soil  responded  quickly  to  the  efforts  of  the 
husbandmen.  .As  has  been  well  said,  raising  their 
own  food  has  seldom  been  a  serious  problem  for 
the  settlers  in  virgin  .America.  Over  and  above 
its  own  needs,  the  country  has  usually  been  able 
to  furnish  a  surplus  for  consumption  abroad. 
Supplies  of  game,  such  as  deer,  elk.  wild  geese, 
and  turkeys,  abounded.  The  forests,  extending  as 
far  west  as  the  plains  of  the  interior,  furnished  an 
abundance  of  lumber;  and  everywhere,  in  forests, 
streams,  and  plains,  the  beaver,  otter,  sable,  badger, 
buffalo,  deer,  and  other  fur-bearing  animals  yielded 
rich  returns  to  the  fur  trader.  The  vast  mineral 
resources  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  coal,  iron,  and 
petroleum,  though  not  yielding  up  their  treasure 
to  the  early  settlers,  have  added  immensely  to 
the  wealth   of  the  countr\-,  as   fnmi  time  to  lime 


246 


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Prehistoric 
Period 


AMERICA 


the  secret  of  their  existence  has  been  wrested  from 
nature. 

"The  vastness  of  the  new  continent  surprised  the 
Europeans.  Both  North  America,  with  8,000,000 
square  miles,  and  South  America,  with  6,800,000 
square  miles,  are  larger  than  Europe,  which  totals 
only  3,700,000  square  miles.  Exclusive  of  the 
island  possessions,  the  present  area  of  the  United 
States,  3,600,000  square  miles,  is  almost  as  large 
as  the  whole  of  Europe." — E.  D.  Fife,  History  of 
the   United  Stales,  pp.   26-28. 

Name.     See  below:   1500-1514. 

Aboriginal  inhabitants.  See  Indians,  A\rER- 
ican;  Mythology:  Primitive  mytholoKy;  also  un- 
der the  names  of  the  tribes,  and  under  countries, 
e.g.,  Mexico:  Aboriginal  inhabitants,  etc. 


the  theme  of  many  an  essay  on  the  wonders  of 
ancient  civilization.  The  research  of  the  past  years 
has  put  this  subject  in  a  proper  light.  First,  the 
annals  of  the  Columbian  epoch  have  been  care- 
fully studied,  and  it  is  found  that  some  of  the 
mounds  have  been  constructed  in  historical  time, 
while  early  explorers  and  settlers  found  many  ac- 
tually used  by  tribes  of  North  American  Indians; 
so  we  know  that  many  of  them  were  builders  of 
mounds.  Again,  hundreds  and  thousands  of  these 
mourfds  have  been  carefully  examined,  and  the 
works  of  art  found  therein  have  been  collected 
and  assembled  in  museums.  At  the  same  time,  the 
works  of  art  of  the  Indian  tribes,  as  they  were 
produced  before  modilication  by  European  culture, 
have   been   assembled  in   the   same   museums,  and 


Photogrftph.  Department  at  Interior 

CLIFF  DVVF.r.LINGS   IN   MESA  VFROE   N.^TIO.N.M.  P.VRK.   COI.OK.\DO 
Oldest  signs  of  human   habitations   in  America 


Prehistoric. — "Widely  scattered  throughout  the 
United  States,  from  sea  to  sea,  artificial  mounds 
are  discovered,  which  may  be  enumerated  by  the 
thousands  or  hundreds  of  thousands.  They  vary 
greatly  in  size;  some  are  so  small  that  a  half- 
dozen  laborers  with  shovels  might  construct  one 
of  them  in  a  day,  while  others  cover  acres  and 
are  scores  of  feet  in  height.  These  mounds  were 
observed  by  the  earliest  explorers  and  pioneers 
of  the  country.  They  did  not  attract  great  at- 
tention, however,  until  the  science  of  archaeology 
demanded  their  investigation.  Then  they  were  as- 
sumed to  furnish  evidence  of  a  race  of  people 
older  than  the  Indian  tribes.  Pseud-archa^ologists 
descanted  on  the  Mound-builders  that  once  inhab- 
ited the  land,  and  they  told  of  swarming  popula- 
tions who  had  reached  a  high  condition  of  culture, 
erecting  temples,  practicing  arts  in  the  metals,  and 
using  hieroglyphs.     So  the  Mound-builders  formed 


the  two  classes  of  collections  have  been  carefully 
compared.  All  this  has  been  done  with  the  great- 
est painstaking,  and  the  Mound-builder's  arts  and 
the  Indian's  arts  are  found  to  be  substantially 
identical.  No  fragment  of  evidence  remains  to 
support  the  figment  of  theory  that  there  was  an 
ancient  race  of  Mound-builders  superior  in  culture 
to  the  North  American  Indians.  .  .  .  That  some 
of  these  mounds  were  built  and  used  in  modern 
times  is  proved  in  another  way.  They  often  con- 
tain articles  manifestly  made  by  white  men,  such 
as  glass  beads  and  copper  ornaments.  ...  So  it 
chances  that  to-day  unskilled  archa;ologists  are 
collecting  many  beautiful  things  in  copper,  stone, 
and  .shell  which  were  made  by  white  men  and 
traded  to  the  Indians.  Nov,;,  some  of  these  things 
are  found  in  (he  mounds;  and  bird  pipes,  elephant 
pipes,  banner  stones,  copper  spear  heads  and 
knives,  and   machine-made  wampum  are  collected 


247 


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Prehistoric  Period 
Arvheological   Research 


AMERICA 


in  quantities  and  sold  at  high  prices  to  wealthy 
amateurs.  .  .  .  The  study  of  these  mounds,  his- 
torically and  archaeologically,  proves  that  they 
were  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Some  were 
for  sepulture,  and  such  are  the  most  common  and 
widely  scattered.  Others  were  used  as  artilicial 
hills  on  which  to  build  communal  houses.  .  .  . 
Some  of  the  very  large  mounds  were  sites  of  large 
communal  houses  in  which  entire  tribes  dwelt. 
There  is  still  a  third  class  .  .  .  constructed  as 
places  for  public  assembly.  .  .  .  But  to  explain 
the  mounds  and  their  uses  would  expand  this  article 
into  a  book.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  Mound- 
builders  were  the  Indian  tribes  discovered  by  white 
men.  It  may  well  be  that  some  of  the  mounds 
were  erected  by  tribes  extinct  when  Columbus  first 
saw  these  shores,  but  they  were  kindred  in  cul- 
ture to  the  peoples  that  still  existed.  In  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  United  States,  conditions 
of  aridity  prevail.  Forests  are  few  and  are  found 
only  at  great  heights.  .  .  .  The  tribes  lived  in  the 
plains  and  valleys  below,  while  the  highlands  were 
their  hunting  grounds.  The  arid  lands  below  were 
often  naked  of  vegetation ;  and  the  ledges  and 
cliffs  that  stand  athwart  the  lands,  and  the  canyon 
walls  that  inclose  the  streams,  were  everywhere 
quarries  of  loose  rock,  lying  in  blocks  ready  to 
the  builder's  hand.  Hence  these  people  learned  to 
build  their  dwellings  of  stone;  and  they  had  large 
communal  houses,  even  larger  than  the  structures 
of  wood  made  by  the  tribes  of  the  east  and  north. 
Many  of  these  stone  pueblos  are  stiJl  occupied,  but 
the  ruins  are  scattered  wide  over  a  region  of 
country  embracing  a  little  of  California  and  Ne- 
vada, much  of  Utah,  most  of  Colorado,  the  whole 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  far  southward 
toward  the  Isthmus.  .  .  .  No  ruin  has  been  dis- 
covered where  evidences  of  a  higher  culture  are 
found  than  exists  in  modern  times  at  Zuni,  Oraibi, 
or  Laguna.  The  earliest  may  have  been  built 
thousands  of  years  ago,  but  they  were  built  by 
the  ancestors  of  existing  tribes  and  their  congeners. 
.\  careful  study  of  these  ruins,  made  during  the 
last  twenty  years,  abundantly  demonstrates  that 
the  pueblo  culture  began  with  rude  structures  of 
stone  and  brush,  and  gradually  developed,  until 
at  the  time  of  the  exploration  of  the  country  by 
the  Spaniards,  beginning  about  1540,  it  had  reached 
its  highest  phase.  Zuni  [in  New  Mexico]  has  been 
built  since,  and  it  is  among  the  largest  and  best 
villages  ever  established  within  the  territory  of 
the  United  States  without  the  aid  of  ideas  de- 
rived from  civilized  men."  With  regard  to  the 
ruins  of  dwellings  found  sheltered  in  the  craters  of 
extinct  volcanoes,  or  on  the  shelves  of  cliffs,  or 
otherwise  contrived,  the  conclusion  to  which  all 
recent  archsological  study  tends  -is  the  same  "All 
the  stone  pueblo  ruins,  all  the  clay  ruins,  all  the 
cliff  dwelUngs,  all  the  crater  villages,  all  the  cavate 
chambers,  and  all  the  tufa-block  houses  are  fully 
accounted  for  without  resort  to  hypothetical 
peoples  inhabiting  the  country  anterior  to  the 
Indian  tribes.  .  .  .  Pre-Columbian  culture  was  in- 
digenous; it  began  at  the  lowest  stage  of  savag- 
ery and  developed  to  the  highest,  and  was  in  many 
places  passing  into  barbarism  when  the  good  queen 
sold  her  jewels." — J.  W.  Powell,  Prehistoric  man  in 
America  (.Forum,  Jan.,  iSgo). — "The  writer  believes 
.  .  .  that  the  majority  of  American  archaeolo- 
gists now  sees  no  sufficient  reason  for  supposing 
that  any  mysterious  superior  race  has  ever  lived 
in  any  portion  of  our  continent.  They  find  no 
archzeological  evidence  proving  that  at  the  time 
of  its  discovery  any  tribe  had  reached  a  stage  of 
culture  that  can  properly  be  called  civilization 
Fven   if  we   accept   the  exaggerated  statements  of 


the  Spanish  conquerors,  the  most  intelligent  and 
advanced  peoples  found  here  were  only  semi-bar- 
barians, in  the  stage  of  transition  from  the  stone 
to  the  bronze  age,  possessing  no  written  language, 
or  what  can  properly  be  styled  an  alphabet,  and 
not  yet  having  even  learned  the  use  of  beasts  of 
burden." — H.  W.  Haynes,  Prehistoric  archaeology 
of  North  America  {Narrative  and  Critical  History 
of  America,  v.  i,  ch.  6). — "It  may  be  premised 
.  .  .  that  the  Spanish  adventurers  who  thronged 
to  the  New  World  after  its  discovery  found  the 
same  race  of  Red  Indians  in  the  West  India  Islands, 
in  Central  and  South  America,  in  Florida  and  in 
Mexico.  In  their  mode  of  life  and  means  of  sub- 
sistence, in  their  weapons,  arts,  usages  and  customs, 
in  their  institutions,  and  in  their  mental  and  physi- 
cal characteristics,  they  were  the  same  people  in 
different  stages  of  advancement.  .  .  .  There  was 
neither  a  political  society,  nor  a  state,  nor  any 
civiUzation  in  America  when  it  was  disco%'ered; 
and,  excluding  the  Eskimos,  but  one  race  of  In- 
dians, the  Red  Race." — L.  H.  Morgan,  Houses  and 
house-life  of  the  American  aborigines  {Contribu- 
tions to  North  American  Ethnology,  v.  4,  ch. 
10). — "We  have  in  this  country  the  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  man  before  the  time  of 
the  glaciers,  and  from  the  primitive  conditions  of 
that  time,  he  has  lived  here  and  developed,  through 
stages  which  correspond  in  many  particulars  to 
the  Homeric  age  of  Greece." — F.  W.  Putnam,  Re- 
port Peabody  Museum  of  Archaeology,  1886. 

"In  recent  years  archeologists  have  uncovered  a 
number  of  interesting  ancient  Indian  villages  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States  where 
the  four  states  of  Arizona,  Utah,  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico  corner.  It  is  a  collection  of  remark- 
able ruins  called  Mummy  Lake  Village,  so  named 
from  a  mummy  pit  found  there.  It  contains  a 
strange  three-story  house  113  feet  long  and  no 
feet  wide;  a  large  front  court  is  inclosed  with  a 
stone  wall.  The  house  had  more  than  100  rooms. 
In  one  of  these  southwestern  villages  an  ancient 
fire-place  was  found  and  a  grinding  mill  with  the 
grinding  stones  still  in  their  original  position. 
Aztec  Spring  City  is  another  interesting  place. 
It  extends  over  15  acres  and  the  stone  wall  built 
into  it  is  estimated  to  contain  2,000,000  cubic  feet 
It  seems  queer  that  the  stones  had  to  be  carried 
from  a  distance.  This  village  has  been  dug  into 
considerably  by  grave  robbers.  At  Goodman 
Point  Village  there  was  a  large  building  in  the 
center,  apparently  a  community  house,  and  similar 
structures  around  it.  \  community  spring  fur- 
nished water  for  the  villagers.  The  National 
Geographic  Society  through  the  Yale  University 
Expedition  to  Peru  in  1915  resulted  in  making 
known  to  the  world  the  marvelous  civilization  of 
the  early  Peruvian  Indians.  Megalithic  or  big  stone 
people  were  probably  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Quichuas,  a  tribe  of  the  Incas  whom  the  Spaniards 
conquered.  It  is  clear  that  there  were  settled  agri- 
cultural communities  centuries  before  America  was 
discovered  by  Columbus.  These  .Aborigines  had 
tillage  agriculture,  used  fertilizer,  and  irrigated  arid 
regions.  They  also  built  terraces  with  large  stones 
carefully  fitted  together  behind  which  soil,  brought 
from  a  distance,  was  placed  for  the  growing  of 
crops.  River  courses  were  straightened  and  this 
valley  land  was  reclaimed  for  agriculture.  The 
Peruvian  Indians  placed  more  importance  on  the 
raising  of  crops  than  on  the  tombs  of  the  dead. 
Their  agricultural  terraces  show  finer  workman- 
ship than  their  dwellings.  Early  Spanish  historians 
tell  us  that  they  had  special  gardens  for  raising  po- 
tatoes for  the  royal  household.  Among  the  crops 
of  the  ancient   Peruvians  were   the  sweet   potato. 


248 


AMERICA 


Prehistoric  Connections 
with  Africa  and  Asia 


AMERICA 


I  he  potato,  the  tomato  and  Indian  coin.  When  we 
think  of  the  importance  of  the  potato  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  food  today  we  can  see  that  the  real  treas- 
ure of  the  Incas  was  not  their  gold  but  their 
agriculture.  In  the  masonry  of  these  Staircase 
Farms  are  some  joints  so  delicate  as  to  be  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  indicating  the  finest  craftsman- 
ship."— O.  F.  Cook,  Staircase  farms  of  the  ancients 
{National   Geographic  Magazine,  May,    iqi6). 

Also  in:  L.  Carr,  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley.— C.  Thomas,  Burial  mounds  of  the  northern 
sections  of  the  United  States:  Annual  report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1883-1884.— Marquis  de  Na- 
daillac,  Prehistoric  American. — J.  Fiske,  Discovery 
of  America,  ch.  i. — J.  W.  Fewkes,  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology.  Bulletin  51. — Indian  mound 
groups  and  village  sites  about  Madison  (.American 
Antiquarian,  v.  33,  Oct.,  240-241). — W.  P»  Lewis, 
Published  facts  relating  to  early  man  in  North 
America  (Archceological  Bulletin  2,  Sept.,  pp. 
102-106). — K.  Sumner,  Cave  and  cliff -dwellings  of 
the  Southwest  (Ameri<-ana,  v.  6,  .iug.,  pp.  738-743). 
— E.  S.  Curtis,  North  American  Indian,  VI,  VII. 
— A.  W.  Ivins,  Record  keeping  among  the  Aztecs 
(Utah  General  and  Historical  Magazine,  v.  2, 
April,  pp.  go-92), — J.  C.  Morton,  Vanishing  race 
(Ohio  Archwological  and  Historical  Publication, 
v.  2,  January,  pp.  48-56). — C,  Wissler,  Research 
and  exploration  among  the  Indians  of  the  northern 
plains  (American  Museum  Journal,  v.  11,  April, 
pp.  126-127). 

Theory  of  a  land  bridge  from  Africa. — Read- 
ers conversant  with  various  theories  of  the  origin 
of  the  American  Indians  and  their  culture  will 
recognize  immediately  the  significance  of  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  land  bridge  between  America  and 
Africa  in  pre-historic  times.  The  idea  is  not  new 
but  it  has  been  given  a  new  interest  because  its 
defense  has  been  taken  up  recently  by  M.  Joleaud. 
The  existence  of  such  a  land  bridge  extending  in 
recent  geologic  times  from  the  West  Indies  to 
Morocco,  would  explain  most  of  the  heretofore 
inexplicable  similarities  between  Aztec  and  Inca 
civilization  on  the  one  hand,  and  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion on  the  other.  This  theory  has  also  been 
sponsored  recently  by  Professor  Leo  Wiener  of 
Harvard,  in  a  work  entitled  Africa  and  the  discov- 
ery of  America.  Professor  Wiener  induces  the  aid  of 
philology  and  archaeology  to  prove  that  African 
negroes,  mainly  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  river 
Niger,  crossed  the  Atlantic  and  settled  in  America 
long  before  the  arrival  of  Columbus.  He  claims 
that  many  Indian  words  quoted  by  Columbus  are 
in  reality  of  African  origin ;  and  that  the  habit  of 
smoking,  and  the  cultivation  of  certain  plants, 
were  practiced  by  Africans  before  they  were  taken 
up  by  American  Indians. 

Theory  of  a  cultural  wave  across  Asia. — An- 
other theory  of  the  origin  of  ancient  civilization 
in  America  was  presented  by  Mr.  G  Elliot  Smith  in 
Science,  August  11,  iqi6.  He  holds  that  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  American  cultures, 
such  as  the  mummifying  of  the  dead,  the  use  of 
irrigation  canals  and  pyramidal  structures,  come 
from  the  ancient  civilization  of  Egypt  through  a 
'great  cultural  wave.'  He  believes  that  this  cul- 
tural wave  passed  from  the  valley  of  the  Nile  by 
way  of  Assyria  into  India,  Korea,  Siberia,  the  Pa- 
cific islands  and  America.  He  thinks  it  started 
about  900  B.  C.  He  says: — "In  the  whole  range 
of  ethnological  discussion  perhaps  no  theme  has 
evoked  livelier  controversies  and  excited  more 
widespread  interest  than  the  problems  involved  in 
the  mysteries  of  the  wonderful  civilization  that  re- 
vealed itself  to  the  astonished  Spaniards  on  their 
first  arrival  in  America.    During  the  last  century, 


which  can  be  regarded  as  covering  the  whole  peri- 
od of  scientific  investigation  in  anthropology,  the 
opinions  of  those  who  have  devoted  attention  to 
such  inquiries  have  undergone  the  strangest  fluc- 
tuations. If  one  delves  into  the  anthropological 
journals  of  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  they  will  be 
found  to  abound  in  careful  studies  on  the  part 
of  many  of  the  leading  ethnologists  of  the  time, 
demonstrating,  apparently  in  a  convincing  and  un- 
questionable manner,  the  spread  of  curious  cus- 
toms or  beliefs  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New. 
Then  an  element  of  doubt  began  to  creep  into  the 
attitude  of  many  ethnologists,  which  gradually 
stiffened  until  it  set  into  the  rigid  dogma — there  is 
no  other  term  for  it — that  as  the  result  of  'the 
similarity  of  the  working  of  the  human  mind' 
similar  needs  and  like  circumstances  will  lead  vari- 
ous isolated  groups  of  men  in  a  similar  phase  of 
culture  independently  one  of  the  other  to  invent 
similar  arts  and  crafts,  and  to  evolve  identical  be- 
liefs. The  modern  generation  of  ethnologists  has 
thoughtlessly  seized  hold  of  this  creed  and  usefl 
it  as  a  soporific  drug  against  the  need  for  mental 
exertion.  For  when  any  cultural  resemblance  is 
discovered  there  is  no  incentive  on  the  part  of 
those  whose  faculties  have  been  so  lulled  to  sleep  to 
seek  for  an  explanation ;  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  murmur  the  incantation  and  bow  the  knee  to 
a  fetish  certainly  no  less  puerile  and  unsatisfy- 
ing than  that  of  an  African  negro.  It  does  not 
seem  to  occur  to  most  modern  ethnologists  that 
the  whole  teaching  of  history  is  fatal  to  the  idea 
of  inventions  being  made  independently.  Origi- 
nality is  one  of  the  rarest  manifestations  of  human 
faculty.  .  .  .  From  Indonesia  the  whole  eastern 
Asiatic  littoral  and  all  the  neighboring  islands  were 
stirred  by  the  new  ideas;  and  civilizations  bearing 
the  distinctive  marks  of  the  culture-complex  which 
I  have  traced  from  Egypt  sprang  up  in  Cochin- 
China,  Corea,  Japan  and  eventually  in  all  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  the  western  coast  of 
America.  The  proof  of  the  reality  of  this  great 
migration  of  culture  is  provided  not  merely  by 
the  identical  geographical  distribution  of  a  very 
extensive  series  of  curiously  distinctive,  and  often 
utterly  bizarre,  customs  and  beliefs,  the  precise 
dates  and  circumstances  of  the  origin  of  which  are 
known  in  their  parent  countries;  but  the  fact  that 
these  strange  ingredients  are  compounded  in  a 
definite  and  highly  complex  manner  to  form  an 
artificial  cultural  structure,  which  no  theory  of 
independent  evolution  can  possibly  explain,  be- 
cause chance  played  so  large  a  part  in  building  it 
up  in  its  original  home.  For  instance,  it  is  quite 
conceivable  (though  I  believe  utterly  opposed  to 
the  evidence  at  our  disposal)  that  different  people 
might,  independently  the  one  of  the  other,  have  in- 
vented the  practises  of  mummification,  building 
megaUthic  monuments,  circumcision,  tattooing  and 
terraced  irrigation ;  evolved  the  stories  of  the  petri- 
fication of  human  beings,  the  strange  adventures 
of  the  dead  in  the  underworld,  and  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  kings;  and  adopted  sun-worship.  But  why 
should  the  people  of  America  and  Egypt  who 
built  megalithic  monuments  build  them  in  accord- 
ance with  very  definite  plans  compounded  of 
Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Indian  and  East  Asiatic 
models?  And  why  should  the  same  people  who 
did  so  also  have  their  wives'  chins  tattooed,  their 
sons  circumcised,  their  dead  mummified?  Or  why 
should  it  be  the  same  people  who  worshiped  the 
sun  and  adopted  the  curiously  artificial  winged- 
sun-and-serpent  symbolism,  who  practised  terraced 
irrigation  in  precisely  the  same  way,  who  made 
idols  and  held  similai  beliefs  regarding  them,  who 
had  identical  stories  of  the  wanderings  of  the  dead 


249 


Prehistoric  Connections  AMERICA 

AMERICA  ^jffj  Africa  and  Asia 

cthnoRraphy  of  their  country  have  called  forth  the 
adoration  of  all  anthropologists,  seriously  to  re- 
consider the  significance  of  the  data  they  are  amass- 

'"objection    was    urged    to    this    theory    by    Mr. 
Philip  Ainsworth  Means  in  Saaicc    Oc(    13.  ig'^ 
He  says:     "This  theory   is  important.     But  there 
are  several  serious  objections  to  1  .      (O    "   Mf 
Elliot  Smith  is  right   in  thinking  that  the  Ameri- 
can   aborigines    in    Mexico,    Peru,    etc.,    "sed    py- 
ramidal   structures,    numerous    irrigation    systems, 
and  manv  customs  closely  resembling  those  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  because  their  culture  was  really 
an   offshoot   of   the   Egyptian  culture    how  can   it 
be    explained   that    in   all   pre-Columbian   America 
there   was   no   such    thing    as   a    wheeled   vehicle  i- 
Chariots  of  various  sorts  were  much  used  in  an- 
cient  Egvpt,  as   well   as  in   the   intervening   areas, 
vet  there  is  not  a  shred  of  evidence  to  prove  that 
the   Indians  of  America  ever  knew  anything  even 
remotely   resembling   them.     Had   the   founders  o 
\merican  culture  come  from  an  area  where  wheclecl 
vehicles  were  known,  is  it  not  inevitable  that  they 
would  have  made  use  of  such  vehicles  during  then- 
long    journcv?      Does    it    not    seem    that    wheeled 
vehicles  would  be  more  useful  to  them  than  pyr- 
amids,  and  that   therefore   they  would   have  been 
remembered  first   on  the  arrival  of  the  wanderers 
in  their  new  land?     It  is  difficult  to  be  leve  that 
the  American  aborigines  were  the  cultural  descend- 
ants  of    a    wheel-using    people,    for   wheels,   being 
essentially   useful,  would  inevitably   have   Persisted 
as   a    feature   of    their   material   culture,  had   that 
been    the    case.      (2.)    In    a    like    manner,    one   is 
puzzled  bv   a  lack  of  any  ships  or  vessels  of  ad- 
vanced type  among  the  .\merican   Indians.     Even 
in   Mexico,   Yucatan   and   Peru,   where   civilization 
was.   in   other   respects,   of   a   well-advanced    type, 
there  were  no  really  complicated  vessels  before  th" 
coming  of  the  Spaniards.    On  the  coast  of  Ecuador 
there  was  found  the  most  elaborate  type  of  boa 
known  to  the  Indian  race.    It  consisted  of  a  raft  of 
light  wood  with  a  flimsy  platform  on  which  stood 
a    rude    shelter       A    simple    sail,    sometimes    even 
two,    was    used.      Large    canoes    with    sails    were 
also  used  in  Yucatan      Not  one  of  these    however 
is'worthv   to   be  compared  with  even  the  earlies 
and  simplest  ships  used  in  Egypt      It  is  known,  of 
course,    that    boat-building    reached    very    early    a 
high  development  in  Babylonia,  India  and  China, 
through  all  of  which  the  'cultural  wave   is  said  to 
have  passed      (3  )    Finally,  the  date   B.  C.  Qoo  is 
altogether  too  late  for  the  beginning  of  the  alleged 
migration  of  cultures     If  this  migration  took  place 
at  all,  it  must  have  left  Egypt  much  earlier  than 
this   for  we  have  the  Tuxtla  statuette  (dated  about 
B    C     100)    to   prove   that   even   before   the  conv 
mencement    of    our   era    the    Maya    calendar   had 
already   gone   through   its   long   preliminary   stages 
and    was    already    in    existence    in    P^^etica lly     its 
final  form.     No  doubt  every  one  will  admit  that 
fhe  period  B.  C    ooo-.oc  is  entirely  too  short  for 
a    'great    cultural    wave'    to    roll    from    Egypt    to 
America.      The    year    B.    C.    1500    is    much    more 
likely  to  be  the  date  needed.     In   conclusion,  the 
present   writer  admits   that,  despite   the   three   ob- 
jections   here    noted    (and    several    others  ,    the  e 
s  a  large  amount   of  seemingly  ^"""borative  evi- 
dence that  tends  to  support  the  views  «    M/   ^ ''^ 
Smith      It   will,  however,   be   a   long   time   before 
American  anthropologists  will  be  forced  to  accept 
thTse   views    as   final,    and    many    tests,   based   on 
physical    anthropology,    history,    archeology,    etc 
win    have    to    be    successfully    applied    be  ore    the 
Egyptian  source  of  American  civilization  is  finally 
proved" 


in  the  underworld?     If  any  theory  of  evolution  of 
customs    and    beliefs   is    adequate    to    explain    the 
independent   origin   of   each  item   in   the   extensive 
repertoire,  either  of  the  New  Empire  Egyptian  o 
the  Pre-Columbian  American  civilization   (which  1 
deny)     it  is  utterly   inconceivable  that  the  fortui- 
tous combination  of  hundreds  °\f'"^y  Z.°7Zc 
ous    and    fantastic    elements    could    possibly    have 
happened  twice.     It  is  idle  to  deny  the  complete- 
n  sTof   the  demonstration  which  the  existence  e 
such  a  civilization  in  America  supplies  of  the  fact 
that   it   was   derived   from   the   late   New    Empire 
Egyptian     civilization,     modified     by     Ethiopian, 
Mediterranean,   West   Asiatic,    Indian     mdone^^n. 
East  Asiatic  and  Polynesian  influences.    The  com 
Plate   overthrow    of    all   '^e   objections   0     a   gen- 
eral  nature    to    the    recognition    of    the    facts    has 
already  been  ex|)lained.    There  is  nothing  to  hinder 
one,  therefore,  'from   accepting  the  obvious  signift- 
can^e   of    the   evidence.     Moreover    every     ink   m 
this  chain   of   connections  is  admitted  by    inycsAi- 
gators   of   localized   areas   along   the   great   migra- 
?ion   route,   even   by   those   who   most   s  renuous^ 
deny  the  more  extensive  migrations  of  evilturc^  Ihe 

connections   of   the   New   E-^P'^-:.  •^•^V ""'     w\th 
Soudan    and    with    Syria    and    its    relat  ons    with 
Babylonia;  the  intercourse  betwxen  the  latter  and 
India  in   the  eighth   and  seventh  centuries  B.   C  , 
the  migrations  of  culture  from  India  to  Indonesia 
and  To  the   farthest  limits  of   Polynesia-all  these 
are    well    authenticated    and    generally    admitted 
111   that    I    claim,    then,   is   that    the    mfluence    o 
Egypt   was  handed  on   from  place  to  place;   that 
(he   links  which   all  ethnologists  recognize  as  gen- 
uine bonds  of  union  can  with  equal  certamty  be 
joined  up   into   a  cultural  chain  uniting  Egypt  to 
Cerica      In  almost  every  one  of  the    ocal  point 
along   this  great   migration  route   the   folk-lore   ot 
?o  day  has  preserved  legends  of  the  culture^heroes 
who  'introduced    some    one    or    other    of    the   ele- 
ments   of    this    peculiarly    distinctive    civilization 
Those    familiar    with    the    literature    of   ethnology 
must   be   acquainted    with   hundreds    of   scraps    of 
corroborative  evidence  testifying  to  the  reality   of 
the  spread  postulated.     For  I  have  mentioned  only 
a  small   part  of  the  extraordinary  cargo  of  bizarre 
practises    and    beliefs    with    which    these    ancient 
mariners    (carrying    of    course    their    characterise 
ideas  of  naval  construction  and  craftsmanship)   set 
out  from  the  African  coast  more  than  twenty-tive 
centuries  ago  on  the  great  expedition  which  e-en- 
tuallv   led  their  successors  some  centuries  later  to 
the  New  World     At  every  spot  where  they  touched 
and    tarried,    whether    on    the   coasts    of    Asia     the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  or  on  the  continent  of  Amer^ 
ica,   the   new   culture   took   root  and   flourished  in 
its   own    distinctive   manner,   as   it    was   subjected 
to   the   influence   of   the   aborigines   or  to   that  ot 
later   comers   of   other   ideas   and    traditions ;    and 
each   place  became  a  fresh  focus  from  which  the 
new  knowledge  continued  to  radiate  for  long  a;es 
after    the    primary    inoculation.      The    first    great 
cultural   wave    (or   the   series   of   waves   of   whicti 
it   was  composed)    continued   to   flow    for   several 
centuries      It   must   have   begun   some   time   after 
B   C   QOO  because  the  initial  equipment  of  the  great 
wanderers   included    practises    which    were    not    in- 
vented   in    Egypt    until    that    time.     The    last    of 
the  series  of  ripples  in  the  creat  wave  set  out  from 
India    just   after   the   practise   of   cremation    made 
its  appearance  there,  for  at  the  end  of  the  series 
the  custom  of  incinerating  the  dead  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  Indonesia,  Polynesia,- Mexico  and  else- 
where .  I    wish    especially    to    appeal    to    that 
band    of    American    ethnolocists,    whose    devo  ed 
labors  in   rescuini:  the  information  concernmg  the 


250 


AMERICA 


Discoveries  of 
the  Northmen 


AMERICA 


In  a  rejoinder  to  Mr.  Means,  Mr.  Smith  writes 
in  Science,  March  g,  1917. — "It  is  signilkant  that, 
when  citing  six  memoirs  relating  to  shippnig,  some 
of  them  quite  irrelevant,  Mr.  Means  should  have 
omitted  all  reference  to  the  writings  of  Paris,  Pitt- 
Rivers,  Assmann  and  Friederici,  where  he  will  fmd 
the  evidence  he  imagines  to  be  non-existent.  But 
does  the  argument  from  ships  really  help  his  case  ? 
Where  is  the  'similarity  of  the  workin.;  of  the  human 
mind'  if  the  highly  civiUzed  people  of  Peru  and 
Mexico  hadn't  sufficient  of  what  Dr.  Goldcnweiser 
calls  'happy  thoughts'  to  accomplish  more  in  the 
way  of  ship-building?  Is  not  this  paucity  of  ship- 
ping merely  a  token  of  the  remoteness  of  America 
from  the  home  of  its  invention?  The  fact  that  the 
culture-bearers  who  first  crossed  the  Pacific  by 
the  Polynesian  route  were  searching  for  pearls 
and  precious  metals  is  surely  a  sufficient  explana- 
tion of  their  desertion  of  the  sea  once  they  reached 
the  American  eldoradn.  Another  of  Mr.  Means's 
difficulties  I  fail  to  understand.  Why  was  eight 
centuries  too  brief  a  time  for  a  ship  to  have  made 
its  way  from  the  Red  Sea  to  America?  Before  the 
introduction  of  steam-ships  what  was  to  prevent 
a  vessel  doing  the  journey  as  quickly  in  the  eighth 
century  B.  C.  as  in  the  eighth,  or  perhaps  even  the 
eighteenth,  A.  D.?  There  are  reasons,  given  in  de- 
tail by  Aymonier  and  others,  for  believing  that 
western  culture  had  already  made  its  influence  felt 
in  Cambodia  before  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.  C. ;  Indonesia  and  even  Japan  received  the 
leaven  at  the  same  time;  and  it  can  hardly  be  in 
doubt  that  the  ancient  mariners  did  not  limit  their 
easterly  wanderings  to  Indonesia,  but  pushed  out 
into  the  Pacific,  and  soon  afterwards  crossed  it 
to  America.  The  remaining  difficulty  which  is 
holding  Mr.  Means  back  is  that  the  Pre-Columbian 
Americans  did  not  use  wheeled  vehicles.  Seeing 
that  the  whole  of  the  migration,  which  I  have 
described  as  extending  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Amer- 
ica, consisted  of  a  series  of  maritime  expeditions, 
it  is  not  altogether  clear  what  Mr.  Means  is  re- 
ferring to  when  he  asks;  'Is  it  not  inevitable  that 
they  would  have  made  use  of  such  vehicles  during 
their  long  journey?'  .At  the  time  the  great  cultural 
movement  took  place  it  is  quite  likely  that  none 
of  the  wanderers  had  ever  seen,  or  even  perhaps 
heard  of,  a  wheeled  vehicle.  Even  if,  on  some 
rare  occasion  of  state,  in  Egypt  or  one  of  the 
Asiatic  monarchies,  they  had  seen  the  king  drive  in 
a  chariot,  was  that  an  adequate  reason  why  these 
sailors,  when,  after  many  years  of  adventure,  they 
at  last  reached  the  American  coast,  teeming  with 
the  spoils  they  coveted,  should  have  remembered 
the  chariot,  and  at  once  set  to  work  to  build  carts 
and  train  llamas  to  draw  them?  Surely  the  utter 
improbability  of  this  whittles  down  Mr.  Means's 
difficulty  to  the  vanishing  point.  Or  alternatively, 
if  there  is  any  substance  in  the  'psychic  unity' 
hypothesis,  why  didn't  the  Americans  get  a  'happy 
thought'  and  invent  'so  simpfe  and  obvious  a  de- 
vice' as  a  wheeled  vehicle?" 

lOth-llth  centuries. — Supposed  discoveries  by 
the  Northmen. — "The  fact  that  the  Northmen 
knew  of  the  existence  of  the  Western  Continent 
prior  to  the  age  of  Columbus,  was  prominently 
brought  before  the  people  of  this  country  in  the 
year  18.^7,  when  the  Royal  Society  of  Northern 
Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen  published  their  work 
on  the  Antiquities  of  North  America,  under  the 
editorial  supervision  of  the  great  Icelandic  scholar. 
Professor  Rafn.  But  we  are  not  to  suppose  that 
the  first  general  account  of  these  voyages  was  then 
given,  for  it  has  always  been  known  that  the  his- 
tory of  certain  early  voyages  to  America  by  the 
Northmen  were  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  Den- 


mark and  Iceland.  .  .  .  Vet,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  Icelandic  language,  though  simple  in  construc- 
tion and  easy  of  acquisition,  was  a  tongue  not  un- 
derstood by  scholars,  the  subject  has  until  recent 
years  been  suffered  to  lie  in  the  background,  and 
permitted,  through  a  want  of  interest,  to  share  in 
a  measure  the  treatment  meted  out  to  vague  and 
uncertain  reports.  ...  It  now  remains  to  give  the 
reader  some  general  account  of  the  contents  of 
the  narratives  which  relate  more  or  less  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  western  continent.  .  .  .  The  first 
extracts  given  are  very  brief.  They  are  taken  from 
the  'Landanama  Book,'  and  relate  to  the  report 
in  general  circulation,  which  indicated  one  Guinni- 
born  as  the  discoverer  of  Greenland,  an  event 
which  has  been  fixed  at  the  year  876.  .  .  .  The 
next  narrative  relates  to  the  rediscovery  of  Green- 
land by  the  outlaw,  Eric  the  Red,  in  qS.j,  who 
there  passed  three  jcars  in  exile,  and  afterwards 
returned  to  Icelanci.  About  the  year  q86,  he 
brought  out  to  Greenland  a  considerable  colony 
of  settlers,  who  fixed  their  abode  at  Brattahlid, 
in  Ericsfiord.  Then  follow  two  versions  of  the 
voyage  of  Biarne  Heriulfson,  who,  in  the  same 
year,  q86,  when  sailing  for  Greenland,  was  driven 
away  during  a  storm,  and  saw  a  new  land  at  the 
southward,  which  he  did  not  visit.  Next  is  given 
three  accounts  of  the  voyage  of  Leif,  son  of  Eric 
the  Red,  who  in  the  year  1000  sailed  from  Brat- 
tahlid to  find  the  land  which  Biarne  saw.  Two  of 
these  accounts  are  hardly  more  than  notices  of  the 
voyage,  but  the  third  is  of  considerable  length,  and 
details  the  successes  of  Leif,  who  found  and  ex- 
plored this  new  land,  where  he  spent  the  winter, 
returning  to  Greenland  the  following  spring  [hav- 
ing named  different  regions  which  he  visited  Hellu- 
land,  Markland  and  Vinland,  the  latter  name  in- 
dicative of  the  finding  of  grapes.)  After  this 
follows  the  voyage  of  Thorvald  Ericson,  brother  of 
Leif,  who  sailed  to  Vinland  from  Greenland,  which 
was  the  point  of  departure  in  all  these  voyages. 
This  expedition  was  begun  in  100:,  and  it  cost 
him  his  life,  as  an  arrow  from  one  of  the  natives 
pierced  his  side,  causing  death  Thorstein,  his 
brother,  went  to  seek  Vinland,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  bringing  home  his  body,  but  failed  in  the 
attempt.  The  most  distinguished  explorer  was 
Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  the  Hopeful,  an  Icelander 
whose  genealogy  runs  bark  in  the  old  Northern 
annals,  through  Danish,  Swedish,  and  even  Scotch 
and  Irish  ancestors,  some  of  whom  were  of  ro\al 
blood.  In  the  year  1006  he  went  to  Greenland, 
where  ho  met  Gudrid,  widow  of  Thorstein,  whom 
he  married.  Accompanied  by  his  wife,  who  urged 
him  to  the  undertaking,  he  sailed  to  Vinland  in 
the  spring  of  1007,  with  three  vessels  and  160  men, 
where  he  remained  three  years.  Here  his  son 
Snorre  was  born.  He  afterwards  became  the 
founder  of  a  great  family  in  Iceland,  which  gave 
the  island  several  of  its  first  bishops.  Thorfinn 
finally  left  Vinland  because  he  found  it  difficult 
to  sustain  himself  against  the  attacks  of  the  na- 
tives. The  next  to  undertake  a  voyage  was  a 
wicked  woman  named  Freydis,  a  sister  to  Leif 
Ericson,  who  went  to  Vinland  in  ion,  where  she 
lived  for  a  time  with  her  two  ships,  in  the  same 
places  occupied  by  Leif  and  Thorfinn.  Before 
she  returned,  she  caused  the  crew  of  one  ship  to 
be  cruelly  murdered,  assisting  in  the  butchery  with 
her  own  hands.  After  this  we  have  what  are 
called  the  Minor  Narratives,  which  are  not  essen- 
tial."— B.  F.  De  Costa,  Pre-Columbian  discovery 
of  America,  general  introduction. — "By  those  who 
accept  fully  the  claims  made  for  the  Northmen, 
as  discoverers  of  the  .American  continent  in  the 
voyages  believed   to  be   authentically  narrated   in 


^Si 


AMERICA 


Search  for 
Trade  Routes 


AMERICA 


these  sagas,  the  Helluland  of  Leif  is  commonly  iden- 
tified with  Newfoundland,  Markland  with  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Vinland  with  various  parts  of  New 
England.  Massachusetts  bay,  Cape  Cod,  Nantucket 
island,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Buzzards  bay,  Narra- 
gansett  bay.  Mount  Hope  bay.  Long  Island  sound, 
and  New  York  bay  are  among  the  localities  sup- 
posed to  be  recognized  in  the  Norse  narratives,  or 
marked  by  some  traces  of  the  presence  of  the  Vi- 
king explorers.  Prof.  Gustav  Storm,  the  most  re- 
cent of  the  Scandinavian  investigators  of  this  sub- 
ject, finds  the  Helluland  of  the  sagas  in  Labrador 
or  Northern  Newfoundland,  Markland  in  New- 
foundland, and  Vinland  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape 
Breton  island." — G.  Storm,  Studies  of  the  Vine- 
land  voyages. — "The  only  discredit  which  has  been 
thrown  upon  the  story  of  the  Vinland  voyages, 
in  the  eyes  either  of  scholars  or  of  the  general 
public,  has  arisen  from  the  eager  credulity  with 
which  ingenious  antiquarians  have  now  and  then 
tried  to  prove  more  than  facts  will  warrant.  .  .  . 
Arch^ological  remains  of  the  Northmen  abound 
in  Greenland,  all  the  way  from  Imraartinek  to  near 
Cape  Farewell;  the  existence  of  one  such  relic 
on  the  North  .American  continent  has  never  yet 
been  proved.  Not  a  single  vestige  of  the  North- 
men's presence  here,  at  all  worthy  of  credence, 
has  ever  been  found.  .  .  .  The  most  convincing 
proof  that  the  Northmen  never  founded  a  colony 
in  America,  south  of  Davis  Strait,  is  furnished  by 
the  total  absence  of  horses,  cattle  and  other  domes- 
tic animals  from  the  soil  of  North  America  until 
they  were  brouchf  hither  by  the  Spanish,  French 
and  English  settlers" — J.  Fiske,  Discovery  of 
America,  ch.  2. — "What  Leif  and  Karlsefne  knew 
they  experienced,"  writes  Prof.  Justin  Winsor, 
"and  what  the  sagas  tell  us  they  underwent,  must 
have  just  the  difference  between  a  crisp  narrative 
of  personal  adventure  and  the  oft-repeated  and 
embellished  story  of  a  fireside  narrator,  since  the 
traditions  of  the  Norse  voyages  were  not  put  in 
the  shape  of  records  till  about  two  centuries  had 
elapsed,  and  we  have  no  earlier  manuscript  of  such 
a  record  than  one  made  nearly  two  hundred  years 
later  still.  ...  .A  blending  of  history  and  myth 
prompts  Horn  to  say  that  'some  of  the  sagas  were 
doubtless  oricinally  based  on  facts,  but  the  telling 
and  retelling  have  changed  them  into  pure  myths.' 
The  un.sympathetic  stranger  sees  this  in  stories  that 
the  patriotic  Sandinavians  are  over-anxious  t.j 
make  appear  as  genuine  chronicles.  .  .  .  The 
weight  of  probability  is  in  favor  of  a  Northman 
descent  upon  the  coast  of  the  American  mainland 
at  some  point,  or  at  several,  somewhere  to  the 
south  of  Greenland;  but  the  evidence  is  hardly 
that  which  attaches  to  well  established  historical 
records.  .  .  .  There  is  not  a  'single  item  of  all 
the  evidence  thus  advanced  from  time  to  time 
which  can  be  said  to  connect  by  archa>ological 
traces  the  presence  of  the  Northmen  on  the  soil  of 
North  .\merica  south  of  Davis'  Strait?"  Of  other 
imagined  pre-Columban  discoveries  of  .American, 
by  the  Welsh,  by  the  .Arabs,  by  the  Basques.  &-c., 
the  possibilities  and  probabilities  are  critically  dis- 
cussed by  Professor  Winsor  in  the  same  connection. 
— J.  Winsor,  Narrative  and  critical  history  of 
America,  v.  i,  cli.  2,  and  Critical  notes  to  the 
same. — See  also  below:   1404. 

Also  in:  Bryant  and  Gay,  Popular  history  of 
the  United  States,  ch.  3.— E.  F.  Slafter.  ed.  Voy- 
ages of  the  Northmen  to  .America  (Prince  So- 
ciety, 1877). — E.  F.  Slafter,  Discovery  of  America 
by  the  Northmen  (New  Hampshire  Historical 
Society,  t888). — N.  L.  Beamish,  Discovery  of 
America  by  the  Northmen. — .A.  J.  Weise,  Dis- 
coveries of  America,  ch,  i. — O.  Mossmiiller,  Erik 


the  Red,  Leif  the  Lucky,  and  other  pre-Columbian 
discoveries  of  America,  translated  Irom  the  German 
by  P.  Upton. — F.  Nanscn,  in  northern  mists;  Arctic 
exploration  in  early  times. — T.  S.  Lonergan,  Was 
iit.  Brendan  .-Imerica's  first  discoverer f  (Ameri- 
cana, V.  0,  Oct.,  pp.  953-964). — B.  L.  Wick,  Did  the 
Norsemen  erect  the  Newport  round  towerl — C.  K. 
Adams,  Recent  discoveries  concerning  Columbus 
(Report  American  Historical  Association  gi,  pp. 
4,  89-99)  ■ — W.  E.  Curtis,  E.xisting  autographs,  v.  94, 
pp.  445-451. — J.  B.  Thacher,  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, his  life,  his  work,  his  remains. — E.  G.  Bourne, 
Spain  in  .America. — J.  Winsor,  Christopher  Colum- 
bus (1892).— R.  H.  Major,  Select  letters  of  Co- 
lumbus (2nd  ed.,  1890). — C.  R.  Markham,  Life 
of  Christopher  Columbus. — H.  Latane,  America 
as  a  world  power,  p.   16. 

15th  century. — Need  of  new  trade  routes. — 
"During  this  period  the  city  republics  of  Italy  were 
losing  their  prosperity,  their  wealth,  their  enter- 
prise, and  their  vigor.  This  was  due,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  to  a  variety  of  causes,  internal  and  ex- 
ternal, political  and  economic;  but  the  sufferings 
in  the  wars  with  the  Turks  and  the  adverse  con- 
ditions of  the  Levant  trade  on  which  their  prosper- 
ity primarily  rested  were  far  the  most  important 
causes  of  their  decline.  Thus  the  demand  of 
European  markets  for  Eastern  luxuries  could  no 
longer  be  met  satisfactorily  by  the  old  methods; 
yet  that  demand  was  no  less  than  it  had  been, 
and  the  characteristic  products  of  the  East  were 
still  sought  for  in  all  the  market-places  of  Eu- 
rope. Indeed,  the  demand  was  increasing.  As 
Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century  became  more 
wealthy  and  more  familiar  with  the  products  o' 
the  whole  world,  as  the  nobles  learned  to  demanc. 
more  luxuries,  and  a  wealthy  merchant  class  grew 
up  which  was  able  to  gratify  the  same  tastes  as 
the  nobles,  the  demand  of  the  West  upon  the  East 
became  more  insistent  than  ever.  Therefore,  the 
men,  the  nation,  the  government  that  could  find 
a  new  way  to  the  East  might  claim  a  trade  of 
indefinite  extent  and  extreme  profit.  This  is  the 
explanation  of  that  eager  search  for  new  routes 
to  the  Indies  which  lay  .at  the  back  of  so  many 
voyages  of  discovery  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Southward  along  the  co.ast  of  .Africa,  in 
the  hope  that  that  continent  could  be  rounded  to 
the  southeast ;  northward  along  the  coast  of  Eu- 
rope in  search  of  a  northeast  passage;  westward 
relying  on  the  sphericity  of  the  earth,  and  hoping 
that  the  distance  from  the  west  coast  of  Europe  to 
the  east  coast  of  Asia  would  prove  not  to  be 
interminable ;  after  .America  was  reached,  again 
northward  and  southward  to  round  and  pass  be- 
yond that  barrier,  and  thus  reach  .Asia — such  was 
the  progress  of  geographical  exploration  for  a 
century  and  a  half,  during  which  men  gradually 
became  familiar  with  a  great  part  of  the  earth's 
surface.  .A  study  of  the  history  of  trade-routes 
corroborates  the  fact  disclosed  by  many  other 
lines  of  study — that  the  discovery  of  America  was 
no  isolated  phenomenon:  it  was  simply  one  step 
in  the  development  of  the  world's  history.  Changes 
in  the  e.astern  Mediterranean  led  men  to  turn  their 
eyes  in  other  directions  looking  for  other  sea 
routes  to  the  East  When  they  had  done  so,  alone 
with  much  else  that  was  new,  .America  was  dis- 
closed to  their  vision  .  .  .  but  the  diversion  of 
commercial  interest  was  only  a  part:  the  restless 
energies  of  the  Latin  races  of  southern  Europe 
turned  into  a  new  channel;  search  for  trade  led 
to  discovery,  discovery  to  exploration,  explora- 
tion to  permanent  settlement :  and  settlement  to 
the  creation  of  a  new  centre  of  commercial  and 
political    interest,    and    eventually    to    the    rise    of 


252 


AMERICA,  1484-1492 


First  Voyage 
of  Columbus 


AMERICA,  1492 


a  new  nation." — E.  P.  Cheyney,  European  back- 
ground of  American  history,  1300-1600,  pp.  38-40. 
— See  also  Commerce:  Era  of  geographic  expan- 
sion:  15th. 17th  centuries:  Spanish  enterprise. 

1484-1492. — Great  project  of  Columbus,  and 
the  sources  of  its  inspiration. — Seven  years'  suit 
at  the  Spanish  court. — Departure  from  Palos. — 
".\\\  attempts  to  diminish  the  glory  of  Columbus' 
Lichievement  by  proving  a  previous  discovery 
whose  results  were  known  to  him  have  signally 
failed.  .  .  .  Columbus  originated  no  new  theory 
respecting  the  earth's  form  or  size,  though  a  pop- 
ular idea  has  always  prevailed,  notwithstanding 
the  statements  of  the  best  writers  to  the  contrary, 
that  he  is  entitled  to  the  glory  of  the  theory  as 
well  as  to  that  of  the  execution  of  the  project.  He 
was  not  in  advance  of  his  age,  entertained  no  new 
theories,  believed  no  more  than  did  Prince  Henry, 
his  predecessor,  or  Toscanclli,  his  contemporary; 
nor  was  he  the  first  to  conceive  the  possibility  of 
reaching  the  east  by  sailing  west.  He  was  however 
the  first  to  act  in  acordance  with  existing  beliefs. 
The  Northmen  in  their  voyages  had  entertained  no 
ideas  of  a  New  World,  or  of  an  Asia  to  the  West. 
To  knowledge  of  theoretical  geography,  Columbus 
added  the  skill  of  a  practical  navigator,  and  the 
iron  will  to  overcome  obstacles.  He  sailed  west, 
reached  Asia  as  he  believed,  and  proved  old 
theories  correct.  There  seem  to  be  two  undecided 
points  in  that  matter,  neither  of  which  can  ever 
be  settled.  First,  did  his  experience  in  the  Portu- 
guese voyages,  the  perusal  of  some  old  author,  or 
a  hint  from  one  of  the  few  men  acquainted  with 
old  traditions,  first  suggest  to  Columbus  his  proj- 
ect? ..  .  Second,  to  what  extent  did  his  voyage 
to  the  north  [made  in  1477,  probably  with  an 
English  merchantman  from  Bristol,  in  which  voy- 
age he  is  believed  to  have  visited  Iceland]  influ- 
ence his  plan?  There  is  no  evidence,  but  a  strong 
probability,  that  he  heard  in  that  voyage  of  the 
existence  of  land  in  the  west.  .  .  .  Still,  his  visit 
to  the  north  was  in  1477,  several  years  after  the 
first  formation  of  his  plan,  and  any  information 
gained  at  the  time  could  only  have  been  confirma- 
tory rather  than  suggestive." — H.  H.  Bancroft, 
History  of  the  Pacific  states,  v.  i,  summary  ap- 
pended to  ch.  I.— "Of  the  works  of  learned  men, 
that  which,  according  to  Ferdinand  Columbus,  had 
most  weight  with  his  father,  was  the  'Cosmo- 
graphia'  of  Cardinal  Aliaco.  Columbus  was  also 
confirmed  in  his  views  of  the  existence  of  a  west- 
ern passage  to  the  Indies  by  Paulo  Toscanelli,  the 
Florentine  philosopher,  to  whom  much  credit  is 
due  for  the  encouragement  he  afforded  to  the  enter- 
prise. That  the  notices,  however,  of  western  lands 
were  not  such  as  to  have  much  weight  with  other 
men,  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  difficulty  which 
Columbus  had  in  contending  with  adverse  geog- 
raphers and  men  of  science  in  general,  of  whom  he 
says  he  never  was  able  to  convince  any  one.  .'\fter 
a  new  world  had  been  discovered,  many  scattered 
indications  v/ere  then  found  to  have  foreshown  it. 
One  thing  which  cannot  be  denied  to  Columbus  Is 
that  he  worked  out  his  own  idea  himself.  .  .  .  He 
first  applied  himself  to  his  countrymen,  the  Geno- 
ese, who  would  have  nothing  to  say  to  his  scheme. 
He  then  tried  the  Portuguese,  who  listened  to  what 
he  had  to  say,  but  with  bad  faith  sought  to  antici- 
pate him  by  sending  out  a  caravel  with  instruc- 
tions founded  upon  his  plan.  .  .  .  Columbus,  dis- 
gusted at  the  treatment  he  had  received  from  the 
Portuguese  Court,  quitted  Lisbon,  and.  after  visit- 
ing Genoa,  as  it  appears,  went  to  see  wh.at  favour 
he  could  meet  with  in  Spain,  arriving  at  Palos  In 
the  year  1485."  The  story  of  the  long  suit  of 
Columbus  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella; 


of  his  discouragement  and  departure,  with  intent  to 
go  to  France;  of  his  recall  by  command  of  Queen 
Isabella;  of  the  tedious  hearings  and  negotiations 
that  now  took  place;  of  the  lofty  demands  ad- 
hered to  by  the  confident  Genoese,  who  required 
"to  be  made  an  admiral  at  once,  to  be  appointed 
viceroy  of  the  countries  he  should  discover,  and  to 
have  an  eighth  01  the  profits  of  the  expedition;" 
of  his  second  rebuff,  his  second  departure  for 
France,  and  second  recall  by  Isabella,  who  finally 
put  her  heart  into  the  enterprise  and  persuaded 
her  more  skeptical  consort  to  assent  to  it — the 
story  of  those  seven  years  of  the  struggle  of  Co- 
lumbus to  obtain  means  for  his  voyage  is  familiar 
to  all  readers.  "The  agreement  between  Colum- 
bus and  their  Catholic  highnesses  was  signed  at 
Santa  Fc  on  the  17th  of  April,  1492;  and  Colum- 
bus went  to  Palos  to  make  preparation  for  his 
voyage,  bearing  with  him  an  order  that  the  two 
vessels  which  that  city  furnished  annually  to  the 
crown  for  three  months  should  be  placed  at  his 
disposal.  .  .  .  The  Pinzons,  rich  men  and  skilful 
mariners  of  Palos,  joined  in  the  undertaking,  sub- 
scribing an  eighth  of  the  expenses;  and  thus,  by 
these  united  exertions,  three  vessels  were  manned 
with  90  mariners,  and  provisioned  for  a  year.  At 
length  all  the  preparations  were  complete,  and 
on  a  Friday  (not  inauspicious  in  this  case),  the 
3d  of  August,  1492,  after  they  had  all  confessed 
and  received  the  sacrament,  they  set  sail  from  the 
bar  of  Saltes,  making  for  the  Canary  Islands." — 
Sir  A.  Helps,  Spanish  conquest  in  America,  bk.  2, 
ch.   I. 

Also  in:  J.  Winsor,  Christopher  Columbus,  ch. 
5-9,   and   20. 

1492. — First  voyage  of  Columbus. — Discovery 
of  the  Bahamas,  Cuba  and  Haiti. — The  three 
vessels  of  Columbus  were  called  the  Santa  Maria, 
the  Pinta  and  the  Nina.  "All  had  forecastles  and 
high  poops,  but  the  'Santa  Maria'  was  the  only  one 
that  was  decked  amidships,  and  she  was  called  a 
'nao'  or  ship.  The  other  two  were  caravelas,  a 
class  of  small  vessels  built  for  speed.  The  'Santa 
Maria,'  as  I  gather  from  scattered  notices  in  the 
letters  of  Columbus,  was  of  120  to  130  tons,  like 
a  modern  coasting  schooner,  and  she  carried  70 
men,  much  crowded.  Her  sails  were  a  foresail 
and  a  foretop-sail,  a  sprit-sail,  a  main-sail  with 
two  bonnets,  and  maintop  sail,  a  mizzen,  and  a 
boat's  sail  were  occasionally  hoisted  on  the  poop. 
The  'Pinta'  and  'Nifia'  only  had  square  sails  on 
the  foremast  and  lateen  sails  on  the  main  and 
mizzen.  The  former  was  50  tons,  the  latter  40 
tons,  with  crews  of  20  men  each.  On  Friday,  the 
3d  of  August,  the  three  little  vessels  left  the 
haven  of  Palos,  and  this  memorable  voyage  was 
commenced.  .  .  .  The  expedition  proceeded  to  the 
Canary  Islands,  where  the  rig  of  the  'Pinta'  was 
altered.  Her  lateen  sails  were  not  adapted  for 
running  before  the  wind,  and  she  was  therefore 
fitted  with  square  sails,  like  the  'Santa  Maria.' 
Repairs  were  completed,  the  vessels  were  filled  up 
with  wood  and  water  at  Gomera,  and  the  expedi- 
tion took  its  final  departure  from  the  island  of 
Gomera,  one  of  the  Canaries,  on  September  6th, 
1492.  .  .  .  Columbus  had  chosen  his  route  most 
happily,  and  with  that  fortunate  prevision  which 
often  waits  upon  genius.  From  Gomera,  by  a 
course  a  little  south  of  west,  he  would  run  down 
the  trades  to  the  Bahama  Islands.  From  the 
parallel  of  about  30''  N.  nearly  to  the  equator 
there  is  a  zone  of  perpetual  winds — namely,  the 
north-east  trade  winds — always  moving  in  the 
same  direction,  as  steadily  as  the  current  of  a 
river,  except  where  they  are  turned  aside  by 
local  causes,  so  that  the  ships  of  Columbus  were 


253 


AMERICA,  1492 


Second  Voyage 
of  Coliiml)H:i 


AMERICA,  1492 


steadily  carried  to  their  destination  by  a  law 
of  nature  which,  in  due  time,  revealed  itself  to 
that  close  observer  of  her  secrets.  The  constancy 
of  the  wind  was  one  cause  of  alarm  among  the 
crews,  for  they  began  to  murmur  that  the  pro- 
visions would  all  be  exhausted  if  they  had  to 
beat  against  these  unceasing  winds  on  the  return 
voyage.  The  next  event  which  excited  alarm 
among  the  pilot?  was  the  discovery  that  the  com- 
passes had  more  than  a  point  of  easterly  varia- 
tion. .  .  .  This  was  observed  on  the  17th  of  Sep- 
tember, and  about  300  miles  westward  of  the 
meridian  of  the  Azores,  when  the  ships  had  been 
eleven  days  at  sea.  Soon  afterwards  the  voyagers 
found  themselves  surrounded  by  masses  of  sea- 
weed, in  what  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea,  and  this 
again  aroused  their  fears.  They  thought  that  the 
ships  would  get  entangled  in  the  beds  of  weed  and 


was  on  the  poop  and  saw  a  light.  ...  At  two 
next  morning,  land  was  distinctly  seen.  .  .  .  The 
island,  called  by  the  natives  Guanahani,  and  by 
Columbus  San  Salvador,  has  now  been  ascer- 
tained to  be  VVatUng  Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas, 
14  miles  long  by  6  broad,  with  a  brackish  lake  in 
the  centre,  24°  10'  30"  north  latitude.  .  .  .  The 
difference  of  latitude  between  Gomera  and  VVat- 
ling  Island  is  235  miles.  Course,  W.  s"  S.;  dis- 
tance 3,114  miles;  average  distance  made  good 
daily,  85';  voyage  35  days.  .  .  .  After  discovering 
several  smaller  islands  the  fleet  came  in  sight  of 
Cuba  on  the  27th  of  October,  and  explored  part 
of  the  northern  coast.  Columbus  believed  it  to  be 
Cipango,  the  island  placed  on  the  chart  of  Tos- 
canelli,  between  Europe  and  Asia.  •.  .  .  Crossing 
the  channel  between  Cuba  and  St.  Domingo  [or 
Hayti],    they    anchored    in    the    harbour    of    St. 


i..\\iiiN(;  OF  cm  I'Mi'.i'S 

From   the   painting   !»>■    \'anci<-rlyn 


become  immovable,  and  that,  the  beds  marked 
the  limit  of  navigation.  The  cause  of  this  accumu- 
lation is  well  known  now.  If  bits  of  cork  are  put 
into  a  basin  of  water,  and  a  circular  motion  given 
to  it,  all  the  corks  will  be  found  crowding  to- 
gether towards  the  centre  of  the  pool  where  there 
is  the  least  motion.  The  .Atlantic  Ocean  is  just 
such  a  basin,  the  Gulf  Stream  is  the  whirl,  and 
the  Sargasso  Sea  is  in  the  centre.  There  Colum 
bus  found  it,  and  there  it  has  remained  to  this  day, 
moving  up  and  down  and  changing  its  position  ac- 
cording to  seasons,  storms  and  winds,  but  never 
altering  its  mean  position.  ...  As  day  after  day 
passed,  and  there  was  no  sign  of  land,  the  crews 
became  turbulent  and  mutinous.  Columbus  en- 
couraged them  with  hopes  of  reward,  while  he 
tnid  them  plainly  that  he  had  come  to  discover 
India,  and  that,  with  the  help  of  God,  he  would 
[lersevere  until  he  found  it  At  length,  on  the 
nth  of  October,  towards  ten  at   night,  Colimibus 


Nicholas  Mole  on  December  4th.  The  natives  came 
with  presents  and  the  country  was  enchanting. 
Columbus  .  .  .  named  the  island  'Espaiiola'  lor 
Hispaniola]  But  with  all  this  peaceful  beauty 
around  him  he  was  on  the  eve  of  disaster."  The 
Santa  Maria  was  drifted  by  a  strong  current  upon 
a  sand  bank  and  hopelessly  wrecked.  "It  was 
now  necessary  to  leave  a  small  colony  on  the 
island.  .  .  .  .\  fort  was  built  and  named  'La  Navi- 
dad,'  30  men  remaining  behind  supplied  with 
stores  and  provisions,"  and  on  Friday,  Jan.  4,  1493, 
Columbus  began  his  homeward  voyage.  Weather- 
ing a  dangerous  gale,  which  lasted  several  days, 
his  little  vessels  reached  the  Azores  Feb.  17.  and 
arrived  at  Palos  March  15,  bearing  their  marvel- 
lous news. — C.  R.  Markham,  Sea  fathers,  ch.  2. — 
The  same.  Life  of  Columbtta,  ch.  5. — The  state- 
ment above  that  the  island  of  the  Bahamas  on 
which  Columbus  first  landed,  and  which  he  called 
San  Salvador,  "has  now  been  ascertained  to  be  Wat- 


AMERICA,  1492 


Papal  Bnll 


AMERICA,   1493 


ling  Island"  seems  hardly  justified.  The  question  be- 
tween Watling  island,  San  Salvador  or  Cat  island, 
Samana,  or  Attwood's  Cay,  Mariguana,  the  Grand 
Turk,  and  others  is  still  in  dispute.  Professor 
Justin  Winsor  says  "the  weight  of  modern  testi- 
mony seems  to  favor  Watling 's  Island;"  but  at 
the  same  time  he  thinks  it  "probable  that  men 
will  never  quite  agree  which  the  Bahamas  it  was 
upon  which  these  startled  and  exultant  Europeans 
lirst  stepped." — J.  Winsor,  CItrisloplier  Colum- 
bus, ch.  Q. — The  same.  Narrative  and  critical  history 
of  America,  v.  2,  ch.  i,  note  B. — Professor  John 
Fiske  says:  "All  that  can  be  positively  asserted 
of  Guanahani  is  that  it  was  one  of  the  Bahamas; 
there  has  been  endless  discussion  as  to  which  one, 
and  the  question  is  not  easy  to  settle.  Perhaps 
the  theory  of  Captain  Gustavus  Fox,  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  is  on  the  whole  best  supported.  Cap- 
tain Fox  maintains  that  the  true  Guanahani  was 
the  little  Island  now  known  as  Samana  or  Att- 
wood's Cay." — J.  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  v. 
I,  ch.   S- 

Also  in:  U.  S.  Coast  and  geodetic  survey,  Rep., 
1880,  app.  18. 

1492. — Discovery  of  the  Virgin  Islands.  See 
Virgin  Islands:   Discovery  and  settlement. 

1493. — Papal  grant  of  the  New  World  to 
Spain. — Demarcation  of  maritime  and  colonial 
domains  of  Spain  and  Portugal. — "Spain  was  at 
this  time  connected  with  the  Pope  about  a  most 
momentous  matter.  The  Genoese,  Cristoforo  Co- 
lombo, arrived  at  the  Spanish  court  in  March, 
1493,  with  the  astounding  news  of  the  discovery  of 
a  new  continent.  .  .  .  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
thought  it  wise  to  secure  a  title  to  all  that  might 
ensue  from  their  new  discovery.  The  Pope,  as 
Vicar  of  Christ,  was  held  to  have  authority  to 
dispose  of  lands  inhabited  by  the  heathen ;  and 
by  papal  Bulls  the  discoveries  of  Portugal  along 
the  African  coast  had  been  secured.  The  Portu- 
guese showed  signs  of  urging  claims  to  the  New 
World,  as  being  already  conveyed  to  them  by 
the  papal  grants  previously  issued  in  their  favour. 
To  remove  all  cause  of  dispute,  the  Spanish  mon- 
archs  at  once  had  recourse  to  Alexander  VI.,  who 
issued  two  Bulls  on  May  4  and  5  [1493]  to  de- 
termine the  respective  rights  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. In  the  first,  the  Pope  granted  to  the  Spanish 
monarchs  and  their  heirs  all  lands  discovered  or 
hereafter  to  be  discovered  in  the  western  ocean. 
In  the  second,  he  defined  his  grant  to  mean  all 
lands  that  might  be  discovered  west  and  south  of 
an  imaginary  line,  drawn  from  the  North  to  the 
South  Pole,  at  th^  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues 
westward  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands. 
In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  we  are 
amazed  at  this  simple  means  of  disposing  of  a 
vast  extent  of  the  earth's  surface."  Under  the 
Pope's  stupendous  patent,  Spain  was  able  to  claim 
every  part  of  the  American  Continent  e.^cept  the 
Brazilian  coast. — M.  Creighton,  History  of  the 
Papacy:  during  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  bk. 
5,   v.  3,   ch.    6. 

"Perhaps  there  are,  in  the  whole  history  of  di- 
plomacy, no  documents  which  have  aroused  more 
passionate  discussions  and  given  occasion  to  more 
divergent  commentaries,  than  the  bulls  of  Alexan- 
der VI.  relating  to  the  colonial  expansion  of  Spain. 
Promulgated  at  a  critical  moment  in  the  evolution 
of  Europe,  a  moment  marked  by  the  rise  of  the 
modern  states  and  a  decline  of  the  papacy,  they 
belong  to  a  period  of  political  and  religious  transi- 
tion. If  they  have  obtained  so  extraordinary  a 
prominence,  it  is  because  of  the  mass  of  various 
and  important  events  with  which  they  were  asso- 
ciated:  the  rapid  enlargement  of  the  geographical 


horizon,  colonial  expansion,  religious  propaganda, 
the  foundation  of  international  law,  the  trans- 
formation of  the  relations  between  Church  and 
State.  They  have  been  published  in  the  great 
diplomatic  collections,  and  the  chief  of  them  (Inter 
caetera,  May  4)  is  found  in  the  Corpus  of  the 
Catholic  canon  law.  It  is  nowise  surprising  that 
they  have  been  considered  from  very  different 
points  of  view:  they  have  been  of  interest  alike 
to  geographers  and  to  historians,  to  theologians, 
statesmen,  and  jurists,  and  the  opinions  expressed 
regarding  them  have  varied  with  the  different 
epochs,  quite  as  much  as  with  the  different  minds 
of  those  expressing  them.  To  relate  the  history 
of  the  discussions  occasioned  by  these  documents 
would  be  to  set  forth  comprehensively  all  the 
transformations  of  modern  and  contemporary  his- 
toriography. Even  to-day,  despite  the  searching 
investigations  to  which  these  bulls  have  been  sub- 
jected, despite  the  publication  of  a  number  of 
sources  already  considerable,  opinions  are  much 
divided,  and  several  problems,  enigmas  even,  are 
still  to  be  solved,  with  respect  to  their  scope  and 
meaning.  In  the  first  place  what  was  the  role  of 
Alexander  \'l.  himself?  Did  he  undertake  a  veri- 
table partition  of  the  world?  And  did  he  do  this 
in  the  capacity  of  an  arbiter,  of  a  supreme  judge, 
of  a  guardian  of  the  peace,  or  otherwise?  Was 
he  protecting  the  interests  of  the  two  leading 
colonial  powers,  or  only  those  of  one  of  them? 
What  was,  at  the  beginning,  the  importance  of  the 
line  of  demarcation,  and  who  was  its  author? 
What  force  did  the  Spanish  sovereigns  and  the 
princes  of  the  period  ascribe  to  the  bulls  in  ques- 
tion ?  The  opinion  which  has  long  prevailed  is 
that  which  regards  Alexander  VI.  as  an  arbiter. 
This  opinion  was  sustained  especially  by  Hugo 
Grolius,  and  one  of  its  principal  upholders  at  the 
present  time  is  L.  Pastor.  According  to  this  au- 
thor, the  pope,  at  the  time  of  the  conflict  which 
arose  between  Spain  and  Portugal  with  respect 
to  the  lands  discovered  by  Columbus,  was  in- 
vited to  act  as  mediator;  he  decided  in  a  peaceful 
manner  a  series  of  very  thorny  boundary  ques- 
tions, and  these  decisions  are  to  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  glories  of  the  papacy.  Another  view, 
held  by  E.  G.  Bourne,  S.  E.  Dawson,  and  H. 
Harrisse,  is  that  Alexander  VI.  intervened  in  the 
conflict  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  not  as  an 
arbiter,  but  as  supreme  judge  of  Christendom, 
or  guardian  of  its  peace.  It  is  asserted  that,  at 
least  in  respect  of  certain  dispositions  appearing  in 
the  bulls,  he  took  the  initiative  in  order  to  prevent 
strife.  Finally,  an  opinion  completely  differing 
from  all  the  preceding  has  been  expressed  by  E. 
Nys.  He  beHeves  it  possible  to  prove  that  the 
role  of  Alexander  VI.  was  absolutely  a  nullity, 
his  bulls  containing  neither  an  arbitral  decision 
nor  even  an  ascription  of  sovereignty.  .  .  .  ."Xt  the 
moment  when  Columbus  was  undertaking  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Atlantic,  the  Spanish  sovereigns 
had  renounced  for  the  benefit  of  Portugal  all 
colonial  expansion  'beyond  or  on  this  side  of  the 
Canaries  over  against  Guinea.'  Sixtus  IV.  (1481) 
had  confirmed  this  treaty  as  well  as  the  bulls 
granted  to  the  Portuguese  by  Nicholas  V.  and 
Calixtus  III.  The  same  pope  had  assured  to  the 
Portuguese  the  discoveries  which  should  be  made 
in  Guinea  and  beyond  in  the  direction  of  these 
'southern  regions,'  sanctioning  thus  the  bulls  of  his 
predecessors,  notably  that  which  Nicholas  V. 
(1454)  issued  in  consequence  of  the  Portuguese 
discoveries  'in  the  Ocean  Sea  toward  the  regions 
lying  southward  and  eastward  '  Out  in  the  At- 
lantic the  maps  of  the  period  place  the  mysteri- 
ous island   Antilia   or   Island   of   the  Seven   Cities. 


^55 


AMERICA,  1493 


Papal  Bull 


AMERICA,  1493 


In  1475  and  in  i486  the  King  of  Portugal  had 
granted  it,  together  with  neighboring  islands  and 
lands,  to  F.  Telles  and  to  Dulrao  respectively.  He 
considered  the  'Ocean  Sea'  as  his  domain,  imagin- 
ing, as  did  all  his  contemporaries,  that  it  lay 
chiefly  in  the  equatorial  zone.  On  the  return  from 
his  first  voyage  Columbus,  as  is  well  known,  landed 
in  Port''gal.  King  John  II.,  declaring  that  he 
had  operated  in  'the  seas  and  limits  of  his  lord- 
ship of  Guinea,'  had  the  discoverer  brought  be- 
fore him  (about  March  6,  1403)  and  Columbus 
declared  to  him  that  he  was  returning  from  'Cy- 
pangu  and  Antilia,'  islands  which  formed  the  ap- 
proaches to  India.  Shortly  after,  Peter  Martyr, 
the  Italian  humanist,  chaplain  of  Isabella,  spoke 
of  the  'western  Antipodes'  discovered  by  Chris- 
topher Columbus  in  contrast  to  the  'southern  An- 
tipodes,' toward  which  the  Portuguese  navigators 
sailed.  But  it  was  believed  that  the  chief  trans- 
oceanic lands  lay  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  bal- 
ancing thus  the  Eurasian  continent.  Zurita,  chron- 
icler of  Aragon  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
alludes  to  the  fact  that  the  ancients  represented 
this  southern  world  in  the  form  of  islands,  large 
and  small,  separated  by  great  distances.  John  II. 
went  to  Torres  Vedras  to  pass  Easter  (.4pril  7). 
Two  days  before,  he  sent  to  the  court  of  Spain 
the  alcalde  mayor  of  that  town,  Ruy  de  Sande, 
to  ascertain  whether  Columbus  intended  to  pur- 
sue his  discoveries  to  the  south,  or  would  confine 
his  enterprises  to  the  west.  But  this  envoy  did 
not  arrive  till  after  the  departure  from  Barcelona 
(April  22)  of  the  Spanish  ambassador  charged  to 
announce  to  the  King  of  Portugal  the  discovery, 
on  behalf  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  of  the  islands 
and  continents  situated  in  the  direction  of  the 
Indies.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  had  not  waited 
till  this  time  to  obtain  from  the  sovereign  pontiff 
a  monopoly  of  the  discoveries  and  the  right  of 
commercial  exploitation  in  the  Oceanic  Sea  and  in 
the  islands  of  the  Indies.  As  early  as  March  30, 
they  had  addressed  their  congratulations  to  Co- 
lumbus, 'Admiral  of  the  Ocean  Sea  and  viceroy 
and  governor  of  the  islands  discovered  in  the  In- 
dies.' They  no  doubt  hastened  to  address  to  their 
agents  or  permanent  ambassadors  at  the  court  of 
Rome  the  instructions  necessary  to  enable  the 
latter  to  assert  title  as  soon  as  possible,  over 
against  the  claims  which  would  without  question 
be  asserted  by  the  King  of  Portugal.  The  re- 
ception which  the  Curia  would  give  to  this  de- 
mand could  not  fail  to  be  most  favorable.  The 
many  bonds  which  attached  Alexander  VI.  to 
Spain  during  the  first  years  of  his  pontificate  are 
well  known,  as  also  the  care  with  which  he  strove 
then  to  maintain  them  in  spite  of  all  sorts  of  dif- 
ficulties. Though  he  had  not-  lived  long  in  his 
native  country  he  had  remained  a  true  .Aragonese, 
and  had  constantly  surrounded  himself  by  compa- 
triots and  by  other  Spaniards  in  the  course  of  his 
cardinalate.  ...  An  upholder  of  Spanish-Neapoli- 
tan policy  during  his  cardinalate,  Alexander  VI. 
treated  it  with  solicitude  at  the  beginning  of  his 
pontificate,  and  was  able  to  derive  from  his  rela- 
tions with  the  Spanish  sovereigns  valuable  ad- 
vantages for  his  family.  As  is  well  known,  he 
sacrificed  everything,  both  spiritual  and  temporal 
interests,  to  his  children ;  in  the  first  place  to  Juan, 
whose  'fortunes  and  influence  depended  entirely 
upon  the  prosperity  and  strength  of  Spain.  The 
death  of  Pedro  Luis,  duke  of  Gandia,  had  caused 
that  duchy  in  148S  to  pass  to  Juan,  for  whom 
the  pope  obtained  the  hand  of  Dona  Maria  En- 
riquez,  fiancee  of  the  deceased  (August,  1403). 
Meanwhile,  however,  Alexander  VI.  allowed  him- 
self  to   be   drawn   away   by   Cardinal   .Ascanio,   to 


whom  he  owed  the  tiara,  toward  the  Milano-Ve- 
netian  alliance,  hostile  to  the  King  of  Naples  and 
favorable  to  France.  Ascanio  Sforza,  brother  of 
Ludovico  il  Moro,  after  becoming  vice-chancellor 
exercised  for  some  time  a  considerable  ascendancy 
over  the  pope,  and  so  caused  him  to  attach  him- 
self to  that  alliance,  represented  as  intended  to 
insure  the  peace  of  Italy  (.'\piil  25).  It  was  just 
at  this  time  that  the  Spanish  sovereigns  requested 
the  bull  of  donation  of  the  islands  recently  dis- 
covered. To  secure  their  pardon,  so  to  speak,  for 
his  equivocal  course,  Alexander  VI.  took  pains  to 
give  them  satisfaction  and  at  the  same  time  to 
address  to  them  a  formal  document  attested  by  a 
notary  {instrumenlum  publicum),  by  which  he 
declared  that  he  'desired  that  even  his  allies  should 
preserve  entire  and  inviolable  the  bond  which 
united  him  to  these  sovereigns,  and  this  under  all 
circumstances  whatever.'  He  also  informed  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  of  the  conditions  of  the  alliance 
which  he  had  concluded  with  Milan  and  Venice, 
and  made  his  excuses  for  not  having  offered  his 
mediation  between  Spain  and  France  by  declaring 
that  he  had  supposed  peace  to  have  been  concluded 
by  the  restoration  of  Perpignan  and  Roussillon 
to  the  first  of  these  powers.  Finally,  he  sent 
them,  by  the  hand  of  the  same  nuncio,  the  cor- 
respondence e.xchanged  between  the  Emperor  and 
the  King  of  France  relating  to  a  plan  of  peace. 
The  pope  visibly  exerts  himself  to  please  the  mon- 
archs  to  whom  he  was  soon  about  to  grant  the 
title  of  'Catholic,'  and  informs  them  of  his  whole 
policy.  The  conclusion  of  the  letter  which  Podo- 
catharus  addressed  in  his  name  to  the  nuncio 
in  Spain  contains  this  interesting  recommendation: 
'Moreover  tell  them  distinctly  with  what  care 
we  lay  ourselves  out  to  satisfy  them  in  all  things 
and  to  furnish  to  all  the  world  proofs  of  the 
paternal  affection  we  have  for  them.'  Evidently 
then  Alexander  VI.  could  refuse  nothing  to  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella ;  eager  to  give  them  evidences 
of  his  good-will  he  did  not  hesitate  to  comply 
entirely  with  their  request  relative  to  the  discov- 
eries made  by  Columbus,  without  examining 
whether  their  claim  menaced  the  rights  of  other 
sovereigns  or  not.  He  was  to  continue  in  this 
attitude  of  favor  until  the  time  when  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  his  son,  Caesar,  that  is  to 
say,  after  the  death  of  Juan,  duke  of  Gandia 
(1407).  The  question  has  often  been  discussed, 
whether  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  needed  a  papal 
grant  in  order  to  acquire  the  sovereignty  of  lands 
discovered  by  one  of  their  agents.  This  question 
directly  depends  upon  that  of  the  nature  of  the 
papal  power,  and  opinions  relating  to  the  latter 
vary  according  to  place  and  time.  By  the  terms 
of  the  bull  itself,  the  pope  disposed,  in  favor  of 
the  Spanish  monarchs,  of  the  temporal  sovereignty 
[dominium)  of  lands  discovered  or  to  be  discov- 
ered in  a  certain  region.  While  the  Catholic  sov- 
ereigns clearly  held  at  that  time  that  they  had  in 
temporal  matters  no  superior  within  theif  own 
dominions,  including  all  lands  of  which  they  had 
made  effective  acquisition,  the  bulls  in  question 
were  titles  to  future  discoveries,  and  were  de- 
signed to  repeal  bulls  which  previous  popes  had 
promulgated  in  favor  of  the  kings  of  Portugal. 
Proof  that  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  attached  a 
great  value  to  them  is  seen  in  their  anxiety  that 
the  things  which  they  desired  should  be  incor- 
porated in  them,  and  also  in  the  revisions  to 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  they  subsequently  caused 
them  to  be  subjected.  Before  the  end  of  May, 
negotiations  had  begun  between  John  II.  and  the 
Spanish  monarchs.  They  were  conducted  with 
peaceful  intentions  on  both  sides.     In  the  course 


256 


Euriipe  It  ikown  at  at  Iht  aecnUon  nf  Charten  l',  ISI3. 
-  Tht  dalt  o//iiunilallun  glveii  a/ler  Inwnnamti. 
Cvlmiitt  anil  dtprn(tttnflrt  In  ItiO,  eclartit  tl-iil- 

Jlnglish     1  I  Frtncl.  \        '  \ 


Maps  preparcl  specially  for  the  NEW  LARNED 
under  direction  of  the  editors  aud  publishers. 


c 


AMERICA,  1493 


Papal  Bull 


AMERICA,  1493 


of  them,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  obtained  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  extent  of  the  claims  made  by 
the  Portuguese  king,  and  of  his  intention  to  re- 
serve to  himself  discoveries  made  toward  the  south 
and  the  Ocean  Sea.  Thereupon  the  dispositions 
made  by  the  bull  of  May  3  became  inadequate, 
for  Columbus  counted  with  certainty,  as  we  have 
seen,  upon  making  new  expeditions,  and  first  of  all 
toward  the  south.  He  was  urgent  that  this  bull 
should  be  replaced  by  another,  containing  a  new 
stipulation  with  respect  to  the  maritime  and  colo- 
nial dominion  of  Spain.  The  Spanish  monarchs 
desired  to  include  in  that  dominion  the  whole 
Atlantic,  as  is  proved  by  the  confirmation  of  priv- 
ileges which  was  granted  to  Columbus  on  May 
28.  'This  sea,'  they  say,  'belongs  to  us  to  the 
west  of  a  line  passing  through  the  Azores  and 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  extending  from  north 
to  south,  from  pole  to  pole.'  It  is  manifest  with 
what  insistence  they  claim  the  Ocean  Sea  in  both 
hemispheres.  Columbus  however  suggested  that 
the  line  should  be  set  further  to  the  west,  a  hun- 
dred leagues  from  the  Portuguese  islands  in  ques- 
tion. That  fact  is  explicitly  shown  in  a  letter 
which  the  sovereigns  addressed  to  him  later  (Sep- 
tember 5)  and  which  reports  a  rumor  that  had 
been  spread  of  the  existence  of  very  rich  lands 
between  that  line  and  the  southern  part  of  Africa, 
lands  of  which  they  feared  that  they  might  be 
deprived  in  virtue  of  the  terms  of  the  bull  already 
amended.  The  text  of  the  latter  must  have  been 
drawn  up  during  the  month  of  June  and  sent  then 
to  the  Spanish  agents  at  the  court  of  Rome.  The 
determination  of  Columbus  to  operate  in  the  south 
of  the  Ocean  Sea  as  well  as  in  the  west  gave  rise 
to  the  repetition  of  the  words  'toward  the  west 
and  the  south'  which  determined  in  so  strange 
a  fashion  the  position  of  the  boundary  in  the 
ocean  between  the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese 
dominions.  It  was,  then,  at  the  instance  of  Co- 
lumbus that  the  line  of  demarcation  was  mentioned 
in  the  papal  document.  Was  he  himself  the 
author  of  that  line,  and  if  so  on  what  basis  did 
he  select  it?  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
suggested  to  him  by  his  sovereigns.  The  instruc- 
tions which  they  gave  him  at  the  beginning  of 
September,  1403,  and  a  little  earlier,  with  a  view 
to  his  second  voyage,  were  merely  that  he  should 
sail  as  far  as  possible  from  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions. On  the  other  hand,  everything  leads  us  to 
believe  that  both  the  papal  chancery  and  the  pope 
himself  were  entirely  strangers  to  the  establish- 
ment of  this  line.  If  they  did  not  take  the  initia- 
tive in  the  case  of  any  of  the  essential  stipulations 
contained  in  the  bulls  in  question,  why  should 
they  have  done  so  in  precisely  that  one  which  con- 
cerns the  delimitation  of  the  two  colonial  domains, 
so  advantageous  to  Spain?  The  supposition  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  attributing  to  Columbus 
the  authorship  of  the  line  of  demarcation  appears 
accordingly  very  plausible,  and  in  the  present  state 
of  the  sources,  practically  certain.  Whether  Co- 
lumbus, in  establishing  the  line,  was  guided  by 
facts  of  physical  geography  observed  in  the  course 
of  his  first  voyage — changes  in  the  stars,  the  aspect 
of  the  sea,  the  temperature,  the  variation  of  the 
compass  and  the  like — drawing  inferences  from 
these  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  Orient  and  the 
end  of  the  Occident,  may  be  doubted,  but  it  is 
no  longer  possible  to  deny  him  an  essential  part 
in  the  planning  of  the  famous  line  of  demarca- 
tion. .  .  .  We  do  not  enter  now  into  the  history 
of  those  diplomatic  negotiations  between  Spain  and 
Portugal,  which,  beginning  on  August  18,  1403, 
resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas  (June  7,  1494). 
Early  in  the  course  of  those  negotiations  the  Span- 


ish sovereigns,  in  a  letter  of  September  S,  ad- 
dressed to  Columbus,  asked  his  advice  as  to 
whether  it  was  not  necessary  to  modify  the  'bull' 
— evidently  that  of  May  4.  His  reply  was  no 
doubt  affirmative.  Such  a  modification  might  be 
brought  about  through  a  simple  additional  and 
amplifying  bull.  Columbus  intended  to  pursue 
his  discoveries  to  the  very  Orient  itself,  where  the 
Portuguese  hoped  to  arrive  soon.  He  wished  to 
plant  the  standard  of  Castile  in  the  eastern  as 
well  as  in  the  southern  Indies  and  it  was  no  doubt 
for  this  reason  that  he  requested  the  papal  ratifi- 
cation of  the  Spanish  monopoly  of  conquests  be- 
yond the  sea,  by  way  of  the  west,  in  all  regions 
not  occupied  by  Christians,  especially  in  the 
Orient  and  in  the  Indies.  The  bull,  dated  Sep- 
tember 26,  revoked,  it  will  be  recalled,  all  con- 
trary dispositions  in  previous  bulls  granted  to  kings, 
princes,  infantes,  or  religious  or  military  orders 
(this  stipulation  is  evidently  directed  at  Portugal), 
even  when  granted  for  motives  of  piety,  the  spread 
of  the  gospel,  or  the  ransom  of  captives.  It  also 
gave  expression  to  the  principle  that  the  posses- 
sion of  territories,  to  be  valid,  must  be  effective; 
but  its  chief  object  was  to  secure  to  Spain  access 
to  the  Orient,  where  it  was  customary  to  locate  In- 
dia properly  so  called.  The  position  of  India  is 
however  not  clearly  defined  in  the  papal  document ; 
it  names  it  at  first  in  connection  with  the  'orien- 
tal regions,'  and  then  after  a  mention  of  these 
regions.  That  the  King  of  Portugal  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  preventing  so  considerable  an  extension 
of  the  sphere  of  influence  of  Spain  must  probably 
be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  at  this  time  he  was 
making  it  the  chief  objective  of  his  policy  to  pro- 
cure that  his  natural  son,  Dom  Jorge,  should  be 
recognized  as  his  heir  presumptive  to  the  prej- 
udice of  his  brother  Manoel,  and  to  obtain  for 
him  the  hand  of  a  Spanish  infanta.  The  decision 
of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  ambassadors  that 
the  line  of  demarcation  should  be  set  at  a  point 
370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  dif- 
fering considerably  from  that  set  forth  in  the 
bull  of  May  4,  1493,  the  contracting  parties  agreed 
to  insert  in  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas  a  clause 
stipulating  that  the  papal  confirmation  should  be 
sought;  but  that  no  papal  mot  it  propria  should 
dispense  either  one  of  the  two  parties  from  ob- 
serving the  convention.  The  maintenance  of  the 
treaties  was  thus  guaranteed  against  the  arbitrary 
action  of  the  plenitudo  poteslatis  of  the  sovereign 
pontiff.  The  confirmation  of  the  treaty  was  not 
obtained  under  the  pontificate  of  Alexander  VI., 
nor  until  January  24.  1506.  The  other  European 
states  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  contrary  to  what 
has  generally  been  believed,  made  no  account  of 
the  bulls  issued  in  favor  of  the  first  two  colonial 
powers.  .  .  .  The  kings  of  France,  like  those  of 
England,  whose  line  of  conduct  with  respect  to 
the  pope  they  had  imitated,  did  not  recognize  the 
supreme  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See  even  in 
ecclesiastical  matters;  naturally  they  were  still 
less  disposed  to  recognize  it  in  temporal  affairs. 
To  sum  up,  then,  the  bull  of  demarcation,  like 
the  other  bulls  delivered  to  Spain  in  1403,  con- 
stituted at  first  a  grant  exclusively  Spanish;  it 
was  in  large  part,  if  not  wholly,  shaped  by  the 
chancery  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;  the  line  of 
demarcation  itself,  which  played  so  important  a 
part  in  subsequent  transactions,  had  been  sug- 
gested and  probably  first  devised  by  Christopher 
Columbus.  Moreover,  the  different  bulls  of  that 
year  were  but  successive  increments  of  the  favors 
granted  to  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  Alexander  VI. 
being  at  that  time  but  an  instrument  in  their 
hands.      Friction     with     Portugal    was     increased 


257 


AMERICA,  1493-1496 


Second  Voyage 
of  Columbus 


AMERICA,  1494 


rather  than  diminished  by  the  granting  of  these 
bulls.  Far  from  recognizing  the  prior  rights  of 
that  country  in  the  Atlantic,  the  Holy  See  re- 
stricted them  more  and  more,  in  the  interest  of 
Spain.  The  difficulties  between  the  two  powers  were 
smoothed  away  by  their  own  diplomatic  means 
and  Portugal  distinctly  repudiated  the  incidental 
arbitration  of  the  pope  or  of  any  other  authority. 
If  later  she  relied  upon  the  bull  of  demarcation, 
it  was  because  new  circumstances  brought  her 
into  that  attitude,  for  the  force  of  a  diplomatic 
document  arises  less  from  the  conditions  under 
which  it  has  been  shaped  than  from  the  events 
with  which  it  is  subsequently  associated,  and  which 
usually  modify  its  range  of  application." — H.  Van- 
der  Linden,  Alexander  VI  and  the  demarcation  of 
the  maritime  and  colonial  domains  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  1403-1404  (American  Historical  Review, 
Oct.,  1916,  pp.  1-20). 

Also  in:  E.  G.  Bourne,  Demarcation  line  of 
Pope  .Alexander  VI  (Yale  Review,  May,  1920). — 
J.  Fiske,  Discovery  of  .imerica,  v.  i,  ch.  6. — J. 
Gordon,  Bulls  distributing  America  (American 
Society  of  Church  History,  v.  4). 

1493-1496. — Second  voyage  of  Columbus. — 
Discovery  of  Jamaica  and  the  Caribbees. — Sub- 
jugation of  Hispaniola. — "The  departure  of  Co- 
lumbus on  his  second  voyage  of  discovery 
presented  a  brilliant  contrast  to  his  gloomy  em- 
barkation at  Palos.  On  the  25th  of  September 
[1493],  at  the  dawn  of  day,  the  bay  of  Cadiz 
was  whitened  by  his  fleet.  There  were  three  large 
ships  of  heavy  burden  and  fourteen  caravals.  .  .  . 
Before  sunrise  the  whole  fleet  was  under  way." 
Arrived  at  the  Canaries  on  the  ist  of  October, 
Columbus  purchased  there  calves,  goats,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  fowls,  with  which  to  stock  the  island 
of  Hispaniola;  also  "seeds  of  oranges,  lemons, 
bergamots,  melons,  and  various  orchard  fruits, 
which  were  thus  first  introduced  into  the  islands 
of  the  west  from  the  Hesperiodes  or  Fortunate 
Islands  of  the  Old  World."  It  was  not  until  the 
13th  of  October  that  the  fleet  left  the  Canaries, 
and  it  arrived  among  the  islands  since  called  the 
Lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbees,  on  the  evening  of 
Nov.  2.  Sailing  through  this  archipelago,  dis- 
covering the  larger  island  of  Porto  Rico  on  the 
way,  Columbus  reached  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Hispaniola  or  Haiti  on  the  2 2d  of  November, 
and  arrived  on  the  27th  at  La  Navidad,  where 
he  had  left  a  garrison  ten  months  before.  He 
found  nothing  but  ruin,  silence  and  the  marks 
of  death,  and  learned,  after  much  inquiry,  that 
his  unfortunate  men,  losing  all  discipline  after 
his  departure,  had  provoked  the  natives  by  rapac- 
ity and  licentiousness  until  the  latter  rose  against 
them  and  destroyed  them.  Abandoninc  the  scene 
of  this  disaster,  Columbus  found  an  excellent  har- 
bor ten  leagues  east  of  Monte  Christi  and  there 
he  began  the  founding  of  a  city  which  he  named 
Isabella.  "Isabella  at  the  present  day  is  quite 
overgrown  with  forests,  in  the  midst  of  which  are 
still  to  be  seen,  partly  standing,  the  pillars  of 
the  church,  some  remains  of  the  king's  store- 
houses, and  part  of  the  residence  of  Columbus,  all 
built  of  hewn  stone."  While  the  foundations  of 
the  new  city  were  being  laid,  Columbus  sent 
back  part  of  his  ships  to  Spain,  and  undertook 
an  exploration  of  the  interior  of  the  island — the 
mountains  of  Cibao — where  abundance  of  gold  was 
promised.  Some  gold  washings  were  found — far 
too  scanty  to  satisfy  the  expectations  of  the  Span- 
iards; and,  as  want  and  sickness  soon  made  their 
appearance  at  Isabella,  discontent  was  rife  and 
mutiny  afoot  before  the  year  had  ended.  In  .\pril, 
:494,    Columbus   set    sail    with    three    caravels   to 


revisit  the  coast  of  Cuba,  for  a  more  extended 
exploration  than  he  had  attempted  on  the  first 
discovery.  "He  supposed  it  to  be  a  continent,  and 
the  extreme  end  of  Asia,  and  if  so,  by  following 
its  shores  in  the  proposed  direction  he  must  even- 
tually arrive  at  Cathay  and  those  other  rich  and 
commercial,  though  semi-barbarous  countries,  de- 
scribed by  Mandeville  and  Marco  Polo."  Re- 
ports of  gold  led  him  southward  from  Cuba  until 
he  discovered  the  island  which  he  called  Santiago, 
but  which  has  kept  its  native  name,  Jamaica,  sig- 
nifying the  Island  of  Springs.  Disappointed  in 
the  search  for  gold,  he  soon  returned  from  Jamaica 
to  Cuba  and  sailed  along  its  southern  coast  to 
very  near  the  western  extremity,  confirming  him- 
self and  his  followers  in  the  belief  that  they  skirted 
the  shores  of  Asia  and  might  follow  them  to  the 
Red  Sea,  if  their  ships  and  stores  were  equal  to  so 
long  a  voyage.  "Two  or  three  days'  further  sail 
would  have  carried  Columbus  round  the  extremity 
of  Cuba;  would  have  dispelled  his  illusion,  and 
might  have  given  an  entirely  different  course  to 
his  subsequent  discoveries.  In  his  present  convic- 
tion he  lived  and  died;  believing  to  his  last  hour 
that  Cuba  was  the  extremity  of  the  .Asiatic  conti- 
nent." Returning  eastward,  he  visited  Jamaica 
again  and  purposed  some  further  exploration  of 
the  Caribbee  Islands,  when  his  toils  and  anxieties 
overcome  him.  "He  fell  into  a  deep  lethargy,  re- 
sembling death  itself.  His  crew,  alarmed  at  this 
profound  torpor,  feared  that  death  was  really  at 
hand.  They  abandoned,  therefore,  all  further 
prosecution  of  the  voyage ;  and  spreading  their 
sails  to  the  east  wind  so  prevalent  in  those  seas, 
bore  Columbus  back,  in  a  state  of  complete  insen- 
sibility, to  the  harbor  of  Isabella,"  Sept.  4.  Re- 
covering consciousness,  the  admiral  was  rejoiced  to 
find  his  brother  Bartholomew,  from  whom  he  had 
been  separated  for  years,  and  who  had  been  sent 
out  to  him  from  Spain,  in  command  of  three  ships. 
Otherwise  there  was  little  to  give  pleasure  to  Co- 
lumbus when  he  returned  to  Isabella.  His  follow- 
ers were  again  disorganized,  again  at  war  with 
the  natives,  whom  they  plu.idered  and  licentiously 
abused,  and  a  mischief-making  priest  had  gone 
back  to  Spain,  along  with  certain  intriguing  of- 
ficers, to  make  complaints  and  set  enmities  astir 
at  the  court.  Involved  in  war,  Columbus  prose- 
cuted it  relentlessly,  reduced  the  island  to  submis- 
sion and  the  natives  to  servitude  and  misery  by 
heavy  exactions.  In  March.  1496,  he  returned  to 
Spain,  to  defend  himself  against  the  machinations 
of  his  enemies,  transferring  the  government  of  His- 
paniola to  his  brother  Bartholomew. — W.  Irving, 
Life  and  voyages  of  Columbus,  bk.  6-8,  v.  1-2. 

.^Lso  in:  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific 
states,  v.  I,  ch.  2. — J.  Winson,  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus, ch.   12-14. 

1494. — Treaty  of  Tordesillas. — Amended  par- 
tition of  the  New  World  between  Spain  and 
Portugal. — "When  speaking  or  writing  of  the 
conquest  of  .America,  it  is  generally  believed  that 
the  only  title  upon  which  were  based  the  con- 
quests of  Spain  and  Portugal  was  the  famous 
Papal  Bull  of  partition  of  the  Ocean,  of  1403.  Few 
modern  authors  take  into  consideration  that  this 
Bull  was  amended,  upon  the  petition  of  the  King 
of  Portugal,  by  the  [Treaty  of  Tordesillas],  signed 
by  both  powers  in  1494,  augmenting  the  portion 
assigned  to  the  Portuguese  in  the  partition  made 
between  them  of  the  Continent  of  America.  The 
arc  of  meridian  fixed  by  this  treaty  as  a  dividing 
line,  which  gave  rise,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of 
the  .age,  to  so  many  diplomatic  congresses  and 
interminable  controversies,  may  now  be  traced  by 
anv    student    of    elementary    mathematics.      This 

=  58 


AMERICA,   1497 


Cabot  and 
Vespucci 


AMERICA,    1497-1498 


line  .  .  .  runs  along  the  meridian  of  47°  32'  56" 
west  of  Greenwich.  .  .  .  Ihe  name  Brazil,  or  'tierra 
del  Brazil,'  at  that  time  [the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century]  referred  only  to  the  part  of  the  conti- 
nent producing  the  dye  wood  so-called.  Nearly 
two  centuries  later  the  Portuguese  advanced  toward 
the  South,  and  the  name  Brazil  then  covered  the 
new  possessions  they  were  acquiring." — L.  L. 
Dominguez,  Introd.  to  "The  conquest  oj  the  River 
Plate"  (Hakliiyt  Society  Publications,  No.  81). 

1497. — Discovery  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent by  John  Cabot. — "The  achievement  of 
Columbus,  revealing  the  wonderful  truth  of  which 
the  germ  may  have  existed  in  the  imagination  of 
every  thoughtful  mariner  won  [in  England]  the 
admiration  which  belonged  to  genius  that  seemed 
more  divine  than  human;  and  'there  was  great  talk 
of  it  in  all  the  court  of  Henry  VII.'  A  feeling  of 
disappointment  remained,  that  a  series  of  disasters 
had  defeated  the  wish  of  the  illustrious  Genoese 
to  make  his  voyage  of  essay  under  the  flag  of  Eng- 
land. It  was,  therefore,  not  difficult  for  John 
Cabot,  a  denizen  of  Venice,  residing  at  Bristol,  to 
interest  that  politic  king  in  plans  for  discovery. 
On  the  5th  of  March,  1406,  he  obtained  under  the 
great  seal  a  commission  empowering  himself  and 
his  three  sons,  or  either  of  them,  their  heirs,  or 
their  deputies,  to  sail  into  the  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  sea  with  a  fleet  of  five  ships,  at  their 
own  expense,  in  search  of  islands,  provinces,  or 
regions  hitherto  unseen  by  Christian  people ;  to 
affix  the  banners  of  England  on  city,  island,  or 
continent;  and,  as  vassals  of  the  English  crown,  to 
possess  and  occupy  the  territories  that  might  be 
found.  It  was  further  stipulated  in  this  'most 
ancient  American  State  paper  of  England,'  that 
the  patentees  should  be  strictly  bound,  on  every 
return,  to  land  at  the  port  of  Bristol,  and  to  pay 
to  the  king  one-fifth  part  of  their  gains;  while  the 
exclusive  right  of  frequenting  all  the  countries 
that  might  be  found  was  reserved  to  them  and  to 
their  assigns,  without  limit  of  time.  Under  this 
patent,  which,  at  the  first  direction  of  English 
enterprise  toward  America,  embodied  the  worst  fea- 
tures of  monopoly  and  commercial  restriction,  John 
Cabot,  taking  with  him  his  son  Sebastian,  em- 
barked in  quest  of  new  islands  and  a  passage  to 
Asia  by  the  north-west.  After  sailing  prosper- 
ously, as  he  reported,  for  700  leagues,  on  the  24th 
day  of  June  [1407]  in  the  morning,  almost  four- 
teen months  before  Columbus  on  his  third  voyage 
came  in  sight  of  the  main,  and  more  than  two 
years  before  Amerigo  Vespucci  sailed  west  of  the 
Canaries,  he  discovered  the  western  continent,  prob- 
ably  in  the  latitude  of  about  56°  degrees,  among 
the  dismal  cliffs  of  Labrador.  He  ran  along  the 
coast  for  many  leagues,  it  is  said  even  for  300,  and 
landed  on  what  he  considered  to  be  the  territory 
of  the  Grand  Cham,  But  he  encountered  no 
human  being,  although  there  were  marks  that  the 
region  was  inhabited.  He  planted  on  the  land  a 
large  cross  with  the  flag  of  England,  and,  from 
affection  for  the  republic  of  Venice,  he  added  the 
banner  of  St.  Mark,  which  had  never  been  borne 
so  far  before.  On  his  homeward  voyage  he  saw 
on  his  right  hand  two  islands,  which  for  want  of 
provisions  he  could  not  stop  to  explore.  After  an 
absence  of  three  months  the  great  discoverer  re- 
entered Bristol  harbor,  where  due  honors  awaited 
him.  The  king  gave  him  money,  and  encouraged 
him  to  continue  his  career.  The  people  called  him 
the  great  admiral;  he  dressed  in  silk;  and  the 
English,  and  even  Venetians  who  chanced  to  be 
at  Bristol,  ran  after  him  with  such  zeal  that  he 
could  enlist  for  a  new  voyage  as  manv  as  he 
pleased.  ...  On   the   third  day   of  the  month   of 


February  ne.xt  after  his  return,  'John  Kaboto, 
Venecian,'  accordingly  obtained  a  power  to  take 
up  ships  for  another  voyage,  at  the  rates  fixed 
for  those  employed  in  the  service  of  the  king,  and 
once  more  to  set  sail  with  as  many  companions 
as  would  go  with  him  of  their  own  will.  With  this 
license  every  trace  of  John  Cabot  disappears.  He 
may  have  died  before  the  summer;  but  no  one 
knows  certainly  the  time  or  the  place  of  his  end, 
and  it  has  not  even  been  ascertained  in  what 
country  this  finder  of  a  continent  first  saw  the 
light."— G.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United  States 
(Author's  last  Revision),  pt.  i,  ch.  i. — In  his  crit- 
ical work  on  the  discovery  of  America,  published 
in  i8g2,  Mr.  Henry  Harrisse  states  his  conclusions 
as  to  the  Cabot  voyages,  and  on  the  question 
whether  the  American  discoveries  were  made  by 
John  Cabot  or  his  son  Sebastian,  as  follows:  . 
"i. — The  discovery  of  the  continent  of  North 
America  and  the  first  landing  on  its  east  coast 
were  accomplished  not  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  but  by 
his  father  John,  in  I4g7,  under  the  auspices  of 
Kin;  Henry  VII.  2.— The  first  landfall  was  not 
Cape  Breton  Island,  as  is  stated  in  the  planisphere 
made  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1544,  but  eight  or  ten 
degrees  further  north,  on  the  coast  of  Labrador; 
which  was  then'  ranged  by  John  Cabot,  probably 
as  far  as  Cape  Chudley.  3. — This  fact  was  tacitly 
acknowledged  by  all  pilots  and  cosmographers 
throughout  the  first  half  of  the  i6th  century;  and 
the  knowledge  of  it  originated  with  Sebastian 
Cabot  himself,  whatever  may  have  been  after- 
wards his  contrary  statements  in  that  respect. 
4- — The  voyage  of  1408,  also  accomplished  under 
the  British  flag,  was  likewise  carried  out  by  John 
Cabot  personally.  The  landfall  on  that  occasion 
must  be  placed  south  of  the  first;  and  the  ex- 
ploration embraced  the  northeast  coast  of  the 
present  United  States,  as  far  as  Florida.  5. — In 
the  vicinity  of  the  Floridian  east  coast,  John  Cabot, 
or  one  of  his  lieutenants,  was  detected  by  some 
Spanish  vessel,  in  1498  or  T4Q9.  6. — The  English 
continued  in  1501,  1502,  15^,4,  and  afterwards,  to 
send  ships  to  Newfoundland,  chiefly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  fisheries." — H.  Harrisse,  Discovery  of  North 
America',  pt.  i,  bk.  8,  ch.  5. 

Also  in:  Narrative  and  critical  history  of 
America,  v.  3,  ch.  x.  Critical  essay  (C.  Deane). — 
R.  Biddle,  Memoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  ch.  1-8. — 
G.  E.  Winship,  Cabot  bibliography. — E.  G.  Bourne, 
Spain  in  America,  p.  328. — C.  R.  Beazley,  John 
and  Sebastian  Cabot  (iSqS). — The  principal  Cabot 
documents  are  found  in  translation  in  Markham, 
Journal    of    Christopher    Columbus    (1803). 

1497-1498. — First  voyage  of  Vespucci. — Mis- 
understandings and  disputes  concerning  it. — 
Vindication  of  the  Florentine  navigator. — His 
exploration  of  4,000  miles  of  continental  coasL. 
— "Our  information  concerning  Americus  Vespu- 
cius,  from  the  early  part  of  the  year  1406  until 
after  his  return  from  the  Portuguese  to  the  Span- 
ish service  in  the  latter  part  of  1504,  rests  primarily 
upon  his  two  famous  letters;  the  one  addressed 
to  his  old  patron  Lorenzo  di  Pier  Francesco  de' 
Medici  (a  cousin  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent)  and 
written  in  March  or  April,  1503,  giving  an  ac- 
count of  his  third  voyage;  the  other  addressed  to 
his  old  school-fellow  Piero  Sodcrini  [then  Gon- 
faloniere  of  Florence]  and  dated  from  Libson, 
September  4,  1504.  giving  a  brief  account  of  four 
voyages  which  he  had  made  under  various  com- 
manders in  the  capacity  of  astronomer  or  pilot. 
These  letters  .  .  .  became  speedily  popular,  and 
many  editions  were  published,  more  especially  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  .  .  .  The  letter  to 
Soderini  gives  an  account  of  four  voyages  in  wh:ch 


259 


AMERICA,   1497-1498 


Explorations 
of  Vespucci 


AMERICA,    1497-1498 


the  writer  took  part,  the  first  two  in  the  service 
of  Spain,  the  other  two  in  the  service  of  Portu- 
gal. The  first  expedition  sailed  from  Cadiz,  May 
10,  1497,  and  returned  October  15,  1498,  after 
having  explored  a  coast  so  long  as  to  seem  un- 
questionably that  of  a  continent.  This  voyage, 
as  we  shall  see,  was  concerned  with  parts  of 
.America  not  visited  again  until  1513  and  1517. 
It  discovered  nothing  that  was  calculated  to  invest 
it  with  much  importance  in  Spain,  though  it  by  no 
means  passed  without  notice  there,  as  has  often 
been  wrongly  asserted.  Outside  of  Spain  it  came 
to  attract  more  attention,  but  in  an  unfortunate 
way,  for  a  slight  but  very  serious  error  in  proof- 
reading or  editing,  in  the  most  important  of  the 
Latin  versions,  caused  it  after  a  while  to  be  prac- 
tically identified  with  the  second  voyage,  made 
two  years  later.  This  confusion  eventually  led  to 
most  outrageous  imputations  upon  the  good  name 
of  Americus,  which  it  has  been  left  for  the  present 
century  to  remove.  The  second  voyage  of  Ves- 
pucius  was  that  in  which  he  accompanied  Alonso 
de  Ojeda  and  Juan  de  la  Costa,  from  May  20, 
14QQ,  to  June,  1500.  They  explored  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America  from  some  point  on  what 
we  would  now  call  the  north  coast  of  Brazil, 
as  far  as  the  Pearl  Coast  visited  by  Columbus  in 
the  preceding  year;  and  they  went  beyond,  as 
far  as  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo.  Here  the  squadron 
seems  to  have  become  divided,  Ojeda  going  over 
to  Hispaniola  in  September,  while  Vespucius  re- 
mained cruising  till  February.  ...  It  is  certainly 
much  to  be  regretted  that  in  the  narrative  of  his 
first  expedition,  Vespucius  did  not  happen  to  men- 
tion the  name  of  the  chief  commander.  .  .  .  How- 
ever ...  he  was  writing  not  for  us,  but  for  his 
friend,  and  he  told  Soderini  only  what  he  thought 
would  interest  him.  ...  Of  the  letter  to  Soderini 
the  version  which  has  played  the  most  important 
part  in  history  is  the  Latin  one  first  published 
at  the  press  of  the  little  college  at  Saint-Die  in 
Lorraine,  .April  25  (vij  Kl'  Maij),  1507.  ...  It 
was  translated,  not  from  an  original  text,  but 
from  an  intermediate  French  version,  which  is  lost. 
Of  late  years,  however,  we  have  detected,  in  an 
excessively  rare  Italian  text,  the  origfnal  from 
which  the  famous  Lorraine  version  was  ultimately 
derived.  ...  If  now  we  compare  this  primitive 
text  with  the  Latin  of  the  Lorraine  version  of 
1507,  we  observe  that,  in  the  latter,  one  proper 
name — the  Indian  name  of  a  place  visited  by  .Amer- 
icus on  his  first  voyage — has  been  altered.  In 
the  original  it  is  'Lariab;'  in  the  Latin  it  has  be- 
come 'Parias.'  This  looks  like  an  instance  of  in- 
judicious editing  on  the  part  of  the  Latin  trans- 
lator, although,  of  course,  it  may  be  a  case  of 
careless  proof-reading.  Lariab  is  a  queer-looking 
word.  It  is  no  wonder  that  a  scholar  in  his  study 
among  the  mountains  of  Lorraine  could  make  noth- 
ing of  it.  If  he  had  happened  to  be  acquainted 
with  the  language  of  the  Huastecas,  who  dwelt  at 
that  time  about  the  river  Panuco — fierce  and 
dreaded  enemies  of  their  southern  neighbours  the 
Aztecs — he  would  have  known  that  names  of 
places  in  that  region  were  apt  to  end  in  ab.  .  .  . 
But  as  such  facts  were  quite  beyond  our  worthy 
translator's  ken,  we  cannot  much  blame  him  if  he 
felt  that  such  a  word  as  Lariab  needed  doctoring. 
Parias  (Paria)  was  known  to  be  the  native  name 
of  a  region  on  the  western  shores  of  the  .Atlantic, 
and  so  Lariab  became  Parais.  As  the  distance 
from  the  one  place  to  the  other  is  more  than  two 
thousand  miles,  this  little  emendation  shifted  the 
scene  of  the  first  voyage  beyond  all  recognition, 
and  cast  the  whole  subject  into  an  outer  darkness 
where  there  has  been  much  groaning  and  gnash- 


ing of  teeth.  .Another  curious  circumstance  came 
in  to  confirm  this  error.  On  his  first  voyage, 
shortly  before  arriving  at  Lariab,  Vespucius  saw 
an  Indian  town  built  over  the  water,  'like  Venice.' 
He  counted  44  large  wooden  houses,  'like  bar- 
racks,' supported  on  huge  tree-trunks  and  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  bridges  that  could 
be  drawn  up  in  case  of  danger.  This  may  well 
have  been  a  village  of  communal  houses  of  the 
Chontals  on  the  coast  of  Tabasco;  but  such  vil- 
lages were  afterwards  seen  on  the  Gulf  of  Mara- 
caibo, and  one  of  them  was  called  Venezuela,  or 
'Little  Venice,'  a  name  since  spread  over  a  terri- 
tory nearly  twice  as  large  as  France.  So  the 
amphibious  town  described  by  Vespucius  was  in- 
continently moved  to  Maracaibo,  as  if  there  could 
be  only  one  such  place,  as  if  that  style  of  de- 
fensive building  had  not  been  common  enough  in 
many  ages  and  in  many  parts  of  the  earth,  from 
ancient  Switzerland  to  modern  Siam.  .  .  .  Thus  in 
spite  of  the  latitudes  and  longtitudes  distinctly 
stated  by  Vespucius  in  his  letter,  did  Lariab  and 
the  little  wooden  Venice  get  shifted  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica. .  .  .  We  are  told  that  he  falsely  pretended  to 
have  visited  Paria  and  Maracaibo  in  1407,  in  order 
to  claim  priority  over  Columbus  in  the  discovery 
of  'the  continent.'  What  continent  ?  When  Ves- 
pucius wrote  that  letter  to  Soderini,  neither  he 
nor  anybody  else  suspected  that  what  we  now  call 
.America  had  been  discovered.  The  only  continent 
of  which  there  could  be  any  question,  so  far  as 
supplanting  Columbus  was  concerned,  was  .Asia. 
But  in  1504  Columbus  was  generally  supposed  to 
have  discovered  the  continent  of  .Asia,  by  his  new 
route,  in  1402.  ...  It  was  M.  Varnhagen  who 
first  turned  inquiry  on  this  subject  in  the  right 
direction.  .  .  .  Having  taken  a  correct  start  by 
simply  following  the  words  of  Vespucius  himself, 
from  a  primitive  text,  without  reference  to  any 
preconceived  theories  or  traditions,  M.  Varnhagen 
finds  'that  .Americus  in  his  first  voyage  made  land 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Honduras;  that  he 
sailed  around  Yucatan,  and  found  his  aquatic  vil- 
lage of  communal  houses,  his  little  wooden  Venice, 
on  the  shore  of  Tabasco.'  Thence,  after  a  fight 
with  the  natives  in  which  a  few  tawny  prisoners 
were  captured  and  carried  on  board  the  caravels, 
Vespucius  seems  to  have  taken  a  straight  course 
to  the  Huasteca  country  by  Tampico,  without 
touching  at  points  in  the  region  subject  or  tribu- 
tary to  the  Aztec  confederacy.  This  Tampico 
country  was  what  Vespucius  understood  to  be 
called  Lariab.  He  again  gives  the  latitude  defi- 
nitely and  correctly  as  23°  N.,  and  he  mentions 
a  few  interesting  circumstances.  He  saw  the  na- 
tives roasting  a  'dreadfully  ugly  animal,'  of  which 
he  gives  what  seems  to  be  'an  excellent  descrip- 
tion of  the  iguana,  the  flesh  of  which  i?  to  this  day 
an  important  article  of  food  in  tropical  .Amer- 
ica. .  .  .  .After  leaving  this  country  of  Lariab  the 
ships  kept  still  to  the  northwest  for  a  short  dis- 
tance, and  then  followed  the  windings  of  the  coast 
for  870  leagues.  ,  .  .  After  traversing  the  870 
leagues  of  crooked  coast,  the  ships  found  them- 
selves 'in  the  finest  harbour  in  the  world'  [which 
M.  Varnhagen  supposed,  at  first,  to  have  been 
in  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  afterwards  reached  con- 
clusions pointing  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape 
Caiiaveral.  on  the  Florida  coast] .  It  was  in  June, 
1408,  thirteen  months  since  they  had  started  from 
Spain.  .  .  .  They  spent  seven-and-thirty  days  in 
this  unrivalled  harbour,  preparing  for  the  home 
voyage,  and  found  the  natives  very  hospitable. 
These  red  men  courted  the  aid  of  the  'white 
strangers,'    in    an    attack    which    they    wished    to 


260 


AMERICA,    1497-1498 


Second  Voyage 
of  Cabot 


AMERICA,  1498 


make  upon  a  fierce  race  of  cannibals,  who  inhab- 
ited certain  islands  some  distance  out  to  sea. 
The  Spaniards  agreed  to  the  expedition,  and 
sailed  late  in  August,  taking  seven  of  the  friendly 
Indians  for  guides,  'After  a  week's  voyage 
they  fell  in  with  the  islands,  some  peopled,  others 
uninhabited,  evidently  the  Bermudas,  600  miles 
from  Cape  Hatteras  as  the  crow  flies.  The  Span- 
iards landed  on  an  island  called  Iti,  and  had  a 
brisk  fight,'  "  resulting  in  the  capture  of  more  than 
200  prisoners.  Seven  of  these  were  given  to  the 
Indian  guides,  who  paddled  home  with  them. 
"  'We  also  [wrote  Vespucius]  set  sail  for  Spain, 
with  222  prisoners,  slaves;  and  arrived  in  the  port 
of  Cadiz  on  the  15th  day  of  October,  149S,  where 
we  were  well  received  and  sold  our  slaves.'  .  .  . 
The  obscurity  in  which  this  voyage  has  so  long 
been  enveloped  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  it 
was  not  followed  up  till  many  years  had  elapsed, 
and  the  reason  for  this  neglect  impresses  upon  us 
forcibly  the  impossibility  of  understanding  the 
history  of  the  Discovery  of  America  unless  we 
bear  in  mind  all  the  attendant  circumstances  One 
might  at  first  suppose  that  a  voyage  which  re- 
vealed some  4,000  miles  of  the  coast  of  North 
America  would  have  attracted  much  at- 
tention 'in  Spain  and  have  become  altogether  too 
famous  to  be  soon  forgotten.  Such  an  argument, 
however,  loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  these  early 
voyagers  were  not  trying  to  'discover  America.' 
There  was  nothing  to  astonish  them  in  the  exis- 
tence of  4,000  miles  of  coast  line  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic.  To  their  minds  it  was  simply  the 
coast  of  Asia,  about  which  they  knew  nothing  ex- 
cept from  Marco  Polo,  and  the  natural  effect  of 
such  a  voyage  as  this  would  be  simply  to  throw 
discredit  upon  that  traveller." — J  Fiske,  Discov- 
ery oj  America,  v.  2,  ch.  7. 

The  arguments  against  this  view  are  set  forth 
by  Mr.  Clements  R,  Markham,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  in  1802,  as 
follows:  "Vespucci  was  at  Seville  or  San  Lucar, 
as  a  provision  merchant,  from  the  middle  of  April, 
1497,  to  the  end  of  May,  1598,  as  is  shown  by  the 
official  records,  examined  by  Muiioz,  of  expenses 
incurred  in  fitting  out  the  ships  for  western  ex- 
peditions. Moreover,  no  expedition  for  discovery 
was  despatched  by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  in 
I4Q7;  and  there  is  no  allusion  to  any  such  expedi- 
tion in  any  contempor.iry  record  The  internal  evi- 
dence against  the  truth  of  the  story  is  even 
stronger.  Vespucci  says  that  he  sailed  W.  S.  W.  for 
nearly  1000  leagues  from  Grand  Canary.  This 
would  have  taken  him  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  which 
is  rather  more  than  ooo  leagues  W.  S.  W.  from 
Grand  Canary.  ...  No  actual  navigator  would 
have  made  such  a  blunder.  He  evidently  quoted 
the  dead  reckoning  from  Ojeda's  voyage,  and  in- 
vented the  latitude  at  random.  .  .  .  His  statement 
that  he  went  N.  W.  for  870  leagues  (2,610  miles) 
from  a  position  in  latitude  23°  N.  is  still  more 
preposterous.  Such  a  course  and  distance  would 
have  taken  him  right  across  the  continent  to  some- 
where in  British  Columbia.  The  chief  incidents  in 
the  voyage  are  those  of  the  Ojeda  voyage  in  1409. 
There  is  the  village  built  on  piles  called  Little 
Venice.  .  .  .  There  was  the  encounter  with  na- 
tives, in  which  one  Spaniard  was  killed  and  22 
were  wounded.  These  numbers  are  convincing 
evidence." — C.  R.  Markham,  Columbus  (Royal 
Geographical  Society   Proceedings,   Sept.,    1892). 

Also  in:   J.  Winsor.  Christopher  Columbus,  ch. 

IS- 

1498. — Second  voyage  of  John  Cabot,  some- 
times ascribed  to  his  son  Sebastian. — "Very 
soon  after  his  return,  John  Cabot  petitioned  Henry 

26 


VII.  for  new  letters  patent,  authorizing  him  to 
visit  again  the  country  which  he  had  just  discov- 
ered. The  King  granted  his  request  on  the  3rd 
of  February,  1498.  There  is  no  ground  whatever 
for  the  assertion,  frequently  repeated,  that  John 
Cabot  did  not  command  this  second  expedition,  or 
that  it  was  undertaken  after  his  death.  On  the 
contrary,  Pasqualigo  and  Soncino  mention  him  by 
name  exclusively  as  the  party  to  whom  Henry 
VII.  intended  to  entrust  the  fleet.  Besides,  this 
time,  John  Cabot  is  the  only  grantee,  and  the  new 
letters  patent  omit  altogether  the  names  of  Sebas- 
tian and  of  his  brothers.  Moreover,  John  ex- 
plained in  person  to  Soncino  his  plans  for  the 
second  voyage ;  and  July  25,  1498,  Puebia  and 
Ayala  announced  officially  to  the  Spanish  Sov- 
ereigns that  the  vessels  had  actually  sailed  out  'con 
otro  ginoves  como  Colon,'  which  description  does 
not  apply  certainly  to  Sebastian,  but  to  John  Ca- 
bot, as  we  know  from  corroborative  evidence  al- 
ready stated.  The  fact  is  that  the  name  of  Se- 
bastian Cabot  appears  in  connection  with  those 
voyages,  for  the  first  time,  in  Peter  Martyr's  ac- 
count, printed  twenty  years  after  the  event,  and 
taken  from  Sebastian's  own  lips;  which  ...  is 
not  a  recommendation.  In  England,  his  name 
reveals  itself  as  regards  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World  at  a  still  later  period,  in  John  Stow's 
Chronicle,  published  in  1580.  And,  although  both 
that  historian  and  Hakluyt  quote  as  their  author- 
ity for  the  statement  a  manuscript  copy  of  Robert 
Fabian's  Chronicle,  everything  tends  to  show  that 
the  name  of  Sebastian  Cabot  is  a  sheer  interpola- 
tion. .  .  .  The  expedition  was  composed  of  five 
vessels,  fitted  out  at  the  expense  of  John  Cabot, 
or  of  his  friends:  'paying  for  theym  and  every  of 
theym.'  We  have  not  the  exact  date  when  the 
fleet  sailed.  It  was  after  April  i,  1498,  as  on  that 
day  Henry  VII.  loaned  £30  to  Thomas  Bradley 
and  Louncelot  Thirkill,  'going  to  the  New  Isle.' 
On  the  other  hand,  Pedro  de  Ayala  already  states, 
July  25,  1498,  that  news  had  been  received  of  the 
expedition,  which  was  obliged  to  leave  behind,  in 
Ireland,  one  of  the  ships,  owing  to  a  severe  storm. 
The  vessels  therefore  set  out  (from  Bristol?)  in 
May  or  June.  Puebia  states  that  they  were  ex- 
pected back  in  the  month  of  September  follow- 
ing: 'Dizen  que  seran  venydos  para  el  Sep- 
tiembre;'  yet  the  vessels  had  taken  supplies  for 
one  year:  'fueron  proueydas  por  hun  ano.'  We 
possess  no  direct  information  concerning  this  voy- 
age, nor  do  we  know  when  Cabot  returned  to 
England.  It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that 
the  expeditions  of  1497  and  1408  are  the  only 
ones  which  in  the  fifteenth  century  sailed  to  the 
New  World  under  the  British  flag,  and  comprise, 
therefore,  all  the  transatlantic  discoveries  made 
by  Cabot  before  the  year  1500.  Our  only  data 
concerning  the  north-west  coast,  which  the  Vene- 
tian navigator  may  have  visited  in  the  course  of 
his  second  voyage,  are  to  be  found  in  the  map 
drawn  by  Juan  de  la  Cosa  in  the  year  1500.  .  .  . 
In  that  celebrated  chart,  there  is.  in  the  proximity 
and  west  of  Cuba,  an  unbroken  coast  line,  deline- 
ated like  a  continent,  and  extending  northward  to 
the  extremity  of  the  map.  On  the  northern  por- 
tion of  that  seaboard  La  Cosa  has  placed  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  British  flags,  commencing  at  the 
south  with  the  inscription ;  'Mar  descubierta  por 
ingleses;'  and  terminating  at  the  north  with  'Cape 
of  England: — Cauo  de  ynglaterra.'  Unfortunately, 
those  cartographical  data  are  not  sufficiently  pre- 
cise to  enable  us  to  locate  the  landfalls  with  ade- 
quate exactness  Nor  is  the  kind  of  projection 
adopted,  without  explicit  degrees  of  latitude,  of 
such  a  character  as  to  aid  us  much  in  determining 

I 


AMERICA,   1498-1505 


Later    Voyages 
of  Columbus 


AMERICA,   1498-1505 


positions.  We  are  compelled,  therefore,  to  resort 
to  inferences.  .  .  .  Taking  the  distance  from  the 
equator  to  the  extreme  north  in  La  Cosa's  map 
as  a  criterion  for  measuring  distances,  and  com- 
paring relatively  the  points  named  therein  with 
points  corresponding  for  the  same  latitude  on  mod- 
ern planispheres,  the  last  English  flagstaff  in  the 
southern  direction  seems  to  indicate  a  vicinity 
south  of  the  Carolinas.  .  .  .  This  hypothetical  es- 
timate finds  a  sort  of  corollary  in  Sebastian  Ca- 
bot's account,  as  reported  by  Peter  Martyr.  In 
describing  his  alleged  north-western  discoveries, 
Sebastian  said  that  icebergs  having  compelled  him 
to  alter  his  course,  he  steered  southwardly,  and 
followed  the  coast  until  he  reached  about  the  lati- 
tude of  Gibraltar.  .  .  .  Several  years  afterwards, 
Sebastian  Cabot  again  mentioned  the  matter  in 
his  conversation  with  the  Mantua  gentleman;  but 
this  time  he  extended  the  exploration  of  the  north- 
west coast  five  degrees  further  south,  naming  Flori- 
da as  his  terminus.  .  .  .  Twenty  years  after  .  .  . 
Sebastian  .  .  .  declared,  under  oath  before  the 
Council  of  the.Indies,  December  31,  1535,  that 
he  did  not  know  whether  the  mainland  continued 
northward  or  not  from  Florida  to  the  Bacallaos 
region." — H.  Harrisse,  Discovery  of  America,  pt. 
I,  bk.  2. 

1498-1505. — Third  and  fourth  voyages  of 
Columbus. — Discovery  of  Trinidad,  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  the  shores  of  Central 
America  and  Panama. — When  Columbus  reached 
Spain,  June,  1496,  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella  received 
him  kindly,  gave  him  new  honors  and  promised 
him  other  outfits.  Enthusiasm,  however,  had  died 
out  and  delays  took  place.  The  reports  of  the  re- 
turning ships  did  not  correspond  with  the  pictures 
of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  new-found  world  was 
thought  to  be  a  very  poor  India  after  all.  Most 
people  were  of  this  mind ;  though  Columbus  was 
not  disheartened,  and  the  public  treasury  was  read- 
ily opened  for  a  third  voyage.  Coronel  sailed 
early  in  140S  with  two  ships,  and  Columbus  fol- 
lowed with  six,  embarking  at  San  Lucas  on  the 
30th  of  May.  He  now  discovered  Trinidad  (July 
31),  which  he  named  either  from  its  three  peaks, 
or  from  the  Holy  Trinity ;  struck  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  and  skirted  what  was  later 
known  as  the  Pearl  coast,  going  as  far  as  the 
Island  of  Margarita.  He  wondered  at  the  roaring 
fresh  waters  which  the  Ch-onoco  pours  into  the 
Gulf  of  Pearls,  as  he  called  it,  and  he  h;ilf  be- 
lieved that  its  exuberant  tide  came  from  the  ter- 
restrial paradise.  He  touched  the  southern  coast 
of  Hayti  on  the  30th  of  August.  Here  already  his 
coltjnists  had  established  a  fortified  post,  and 
founded  the  town  of  Santo  Domingo.  His  brother 
Bartholomew  had  ruled  ener.gftically  during  the 
Admiral's  absence,  but  he  had  not  prevented  a  re- 
volt, which  was  headed  by  Roldan.  Columbus  on 
his  arrival  found  the  insurgents  still  defiant,  but 
he  was  able  after  a  while  to  reconcile  them,  and 
he  even  succeeded  in  attaching  Roldan  warmly  to 
his  interests.  Columbus'  absence  from  Spain, 
however,  left  his  good  name  without  sponsors; 
and  to  satisfy  detractors,  a  new  commissioner  was 
sent  over  with  enlarged  powers,  even  with  author- 
ity to  supersede  Columbus  in  general  command, 
if  necessary.  This  emissary  was  Francisco  de  Bo- 
badilla,  who  arrived  at  Santo  Domingo  with  two 
caravels  on  the  23d  of  .August,  1500,  finding  Diego 
in  command,  his  brother,  the  Admiral,  being  ab- 
sent. An  issue  was  at  once  made.  Diego  refused 
to  accede  to  the  commissioner's  orders  till  Colum- 
bus returned  to  judge  the  case  himself;  so  Boba- 
dilla  assumed  charge  of  the  crown  property  vio- 
lently, took  possession  of  the  Admiral's  house,  and 


when  Columbus  returned,  he  with  his  brother  was 
arrested  and  put  in  irons.  In  this  condition  the 
prisoners  were  placed  on  shipboard,  and  sailed 
for  Spain.  The  captain  of  the  ship  offered  to  re- 
move the  manacles;  but  Columbus  would  not  per- 
mit it,  being  determined  to  land  in  Spain  bound 
as  he  was;  and  so  he  did.  The  effect  of  his  degra- 
dation was  to  his  advantage;  sovereigns  and  people 
were  shocked  at  the  sight ;  and  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  hastened  to  make  amends  by  receiving 
him  with  renewed  favor.  It  was  soon  apparent 
that  everything  reasonable  would  be  granted  him 
by  the  monarchs,  and  that  he  couid  have  all  he 
might  wish  short  of  receiving  a  new  lease  of  power 
in  the  islands,  which  the  sovereigns  were  determ- 
ined to  see  pacified  at  least  before  Columbus 
should  again  assume  government  of  them.  The 
Admiral  had  not  forgotten  his  vow  to  wrest  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  from  the  Infidel;  but  the  monarchs 
did  not  accede  to  his  wish  to  undertake  it.  Dis- 
appointed in  this,  he  proposed  a  new  voyage;  and 
getting  the  royal  countenance  for  this  scheme,  he 
was  supplied  with  four  vessels  of  from  fifty  to  sev- 
enty tons  each.  ...  He  sailed  from  Cadiz,  May  9, 
1502,  accompanied  by  his  brother  Bartholomew 
and  his  son  Fernando.  The  vessels  reached  San 
Domingo  June  29.  Bobadilla,  whose  rule  of  a 
year  and  a  half  had  been  an  unhappy  one,  had 
given  place  to  Nicholas  de  Ovando;  and  the  fleet 
which  brought  the  new  governor — with  Maldo- 
nado.  Las  Casas  and  others — now  lay  in  the  har- 
bor waiting  to  receive  Bobadilla  for  the  return 
voyage.  Columbus  had  been  instructed  to  avoid 
Hispaniola;  but  now  that  one  of  his  vessels  leaked, 
and  he  needed  to  make  repairs,  he  sent  a  boat 
ashore,  asking  permission  to  enter  the  harbor.  He 
was  refused,  though  a  storm  was  impending.  He 
sheltered  his  vessels  as  best  he  could,  and  rode  out 
the  gale.  The  fleet  which  had  on  board  Bobadilla 
and  Roldan,  with  their  ill-gotten  gains,  was 
wrecked,  and  these  enemies  of  Columbus  were 
drowned.  The  Admiral  found  a  small  harbor 
where  he  could  make  his  repairs;  and  then,  July 
14,  sailed  westward  to  find,  as  he  supposed,  the 
richer  portions  of  India.  ...  A  landing  was  made 
on  the  coast  of  Honduras,  August  14.  Three  days 
later  the  explorers  landed  again  fifteen  leagues 
farther  east,  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
for  Spain.  Still  east  tLey  went;  and,  in  gratitude 
for  safety  after  a  long  storm,  they  named  a  cape 
which  they  rounded,  Gracias  a  Dios — a  name  still 
preserved  at  the  point  where  the  coast  of  Honduras 
begins  to  trend  southward.  Columbus  was  now 
lying  ill  on  his  bed,  placed  on  deck,  and  was  half 
the  time  in  revery.  Still  the  vessels  coasted  south," 
along  and  beyond  the  shores  of  Costa  Rica ;  then 
turned  with  the  bend  of  the  coast  to  the  northeast, 
until  they  reached  Porto  Bello,  as  we  call  it,  where 
they  found  houses  and  orchards,  and  passed  on  "to 
the  farthest  spot  of  Bastidas'  exploring,  who  had, 
in  1 501,  saileci  westward  along  the  northern  coast 
of  South  America."  There  turning  back,  Colum- 
bus attempted  to  found  a  colony  at  Veragua,  on 
the  Costa  Rica  coast,  where  signs  of  gold  were 
tempting.  But  the  gold  proved  scanty,  the  natives 
hostile,  and,  the  Admiral,  withdrawing  his  colony, 
sailed  away.  "He  abandoned  one  worm-eaten 
caravel  at  Porto  Bello,  and,  reaching  Jamaica, 
beached  two  others.  A  year  of  disappointment, 
grief,  and  want  followed.  Columbus  clung  to  his 
wrecked  vessels.  His  crew  alternately  mutinied 
at  his  side,  and  roved  about  the  island.  Ovando, 
at  Hispaniola,  heard  of  his  straits,  but  only  tardily 
and  scantily  relieved  him.  The  discontented  were 
finally  humbled :  and  some  ships,  despatched  by 
the   Admiral's   agent   in    Santo   Domingo,   at   last 

62 


AMERICA,  1499-1500 


Second  Voyage 
of   Vespucci 


AMERICA,   1499-1500 


reached  him  and  brought  him  and  his  companions 
to  that  place,  where  Ovando  received  him  with 
ostentatious  kindness,  lodging  him  in  his  house  till 
Columbus  departed  for  Spain,  Sept.  12,  1504," 
Arriving  in  Spain  in  November,  disheartened, 
broken  with  disease,  neglected,  it  was  not  until 
the  following  May  that  he  had  strength  enough  to 
go  to  the  court  at  Segovia,  and  then  only  to  be 
coldly  received  by  King  Ferdinand — Isabella  being 
dead.     "While  still  hope  was  deferred,  the  infirmi- 


turers  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second 

voyage  (in  1493)  was  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  Ojeda 
quarrelled  with  the  Admiral  and  returned  to  Spain 
in  1498.  Soon  afterwards,  "he  was  provided  by 
the  Bishop  Fonseca,  Columbus'  enemy,  with  a  frag- 
ment of  the  map  which  the  Admiral  had  sent  to 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  showing  the  discoveries 
which  he  had  made  in  his  last  voyage.  With  this 
assistance  Ojeda  set  sail  for  South  America,  accom- 
panied by   the   pilot,  Juan   de   la   Cosa,  who  had 


FIRST  MAP  SHOWING  AMERICAN  CONTINENT 
Sketch  of  map  drawn  by  La  Costa  in    1500 


ties  of  age  and  a  life  of  hardships  brought  Colum- 
bus to  his  end;  and  on  Ascension  Day,  the  20th 
of  May,  1506,  he  died,  with  his  son  Diego  and  a 
few  devoted  friends  by  his  bedside." — J.  Winsor, 
Narratwe  and  critical  history  of  America,  v.  2, 
cli.  I. — See  also  Venezuela:  1409-1550. 

Also  in:  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific 
states,  V.  I,  ch.  2  atjd  4. — W.  Irving,  Life  and 
voyages  of  Cobimbtis.  bk.  10-18,  v.  2. 

1499-1500. — Voyages  and  discoveries  of  Ojeda 
and  Pinzon. — Second  voyage  of  Vespucci. — One 
of   the   most    daring    and    resolute    of    the    adven- 


accompanied  Columbus  in  his  first  great  voyage  in 
1492,  and  of  whom  Columbus  complained  that, 
'being  a  clever  man,  he  went  about  saying  that  he 
knew  more  than  he  did,'  and  also  by  Amerigo 
Vespucci.  They  set  sail  on  the  20th  of  May,  1499. 
with  four  vessels,  and  after  a  passage  of  27  days 
came  in  sight  of  the  continent,  200  leagues  east  of 
the  Oronoco.  At  the  end  of  June,  they  landed  on 
the  shores  of  Surinam,  in  six  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  proceeding  west  saw  the  mouths  of  the 
Essequibo  and  Oronoco.  Passing  the  Boca  del 
Drago  of  Trinidad,  they  coasted  westward  till  they 


263 


AMERICA,  1500 


Third   Voyage 
of   Vespucci 


AMERICA,   1500-1514 


reached  the  Capo  de  la  Vela  in  Granada.  It  was  in 
this  voyage  that  was  discovered  the  Gulf  to  which 
Ojeda  gave  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  Little  Ven- 
ice, on  account  of  the  cabins  built  on  piles  over 
the  water,  a  mode  of  life  which  brought  to  his 
mind  the  water-city  of  the  Adriatic.  From  the 
American  coast  Ojeda  went  to  the  Caribbee  Islands, 
and  on  the  5th  of  September  reached  Vaguimo,  in 
Hispaniola,  where  he  raised  a  revolt  against  the 
authority  of  Columbus.  His  plans,  however,  were 
frustrated  by  Roldan  and  Escobar,  the  delegates  of 
Columbus,  and  he  was  compelled  to  withdraw  from 
the  island.  On  the  sth  of  February,  1500,  he  re- 
turned, carrying  with  him  to  Cadiz  an  extraordi- 
nary number  of  slaves,  from  which  he  realized  an 
enormous  sum  of  money.  At  the  beginning  of 
December,  1400,  the  same  year  in  which  Ojeda  set 
sail  on  his  last  voyage,  another  companion  of  Co- 
lumbus, in  his  first  voyage,  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon, 
sailed  from  Palos,  was  the  first  to  cross  the  line  on 
the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the 
20th  of  January,  1500,  discovered  Cape  St.  Augus- 
tine, to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Cabo  Santa 
Maria  de  la  Consoiacion,  whence  returning  north- 
ward he  followed  the  westerly  trending  coast,  and 
so  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  which  he 
named  Paricura.  Without  a  month  after  his  de- 
parture from  Palos,  he  was  followed  from  the  same 
port  and  on  the  same  route  by  Diego  de  Lepe,  who 
was  the  first  to  discover,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Oronoco,  by  means  of  a  closed  vessel,  which  only 
opened  when  it  reached  the  bottom  of  the  water, 
that,  at  a  depth  of  eight  fathoms  and  a  half,  the 
two  lowest  fathoms  were  salt  water,  but  all  above 
was  fresh.  Lepe  also  made  the  observation  that 
beyond  Cape  St.  Augustine,  which  he  doubled,  as 
well  as  Pinzon,  the  coast  of  Brazil  trended  south- 
west."— R.  H.  Major,  Life  of  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal,  ch.   lo. 

Also  in:  W.  Irving,  Life  and  voyages  of  Colum- 
bus, I'.  3,  ch.  1-3. 

1500. — Voyages  of  the  Cortereals  to  the  far 
north  and  of  Bastidas  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
— "The  Portuguese  did  not  overlook  the  north 
while  making  their  important  discoveries  to  the 
south.  Two  vessels,  probably  in  the  spring  of 
1500,  were  sent  out  under  Caspar  Cortereal.  No 
journal  or  chart  of  the  voyage  is  now  in  existence, 
hence  little  is  known  of  its  object  or  results.  Still 
more  dim  is  a  previous  voyage  ascribed  by  Cor- 
deiro  to  Joao  Vaz  Cortereal,  father  of  Caspar.  .  .  , 
Touching  at  the  .Azores,  Caspar  Cortereal,  possibly 
following  Cabot's  charts,  struck  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland north  of  Cape  Race,  and  sailing  north 
discovered  a  land  which  he  called  Terra  Verde, 
perhaps  Greenland,  but  was  stopped  by  ice  at  a 
river  which  he  named  Rio  Nevado,  whose  loca- 
tion is  unknown.  Cortereal  returned  to  Lisbon 
before  the  end  of  1500.  ...  In  October  of  this 
same  year  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  sailed  from  Cadiz 
with  two  vessels.  Touching  the  shores  of  South 
America  near  Isla  V'erde,  which  lies  between  Guad- 
alupe and  the  main  land,  he  followed  the  coast 
westward  to  El  Retrete,  or  perhaps  Nombre  de 
Dios,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  in  about  g"  30' 
north  latitude.  Returning  he  was  wrecked  on  Es- 
panola  toward  the  end  of  1501,  and  reached  Cadiz 
in  September,  1502.  This  being  the  first  authentic 
voyage  by  Europeans  to  the  territory  herein  de- 
fined as  the  Pacific  States,  such  incidents  as  are 
known  will  be  given  hereafter." — H.  H.  Bancroft, 
History  of  the  Pacific  states,  v.  i,  p.  113 — "We 
have  Las  Casas's  authority  for  saying  that  Bastidas 
was  a  humane  man  toward  the  Indians.  Indeed, 
he  afterwards  lost  his  life  by  this  humanity;  for, 
when  governor  of  Santa  Martha,  not  consenting  to 


harass  the  Indians,  he  so  alienated  his  men  that  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he  was 
murdered  in  his  bed.  The  renowned  Vasco  Nunez 
[de  Balboa]  was  in  this  expedition,  and  the  knowl- 
edge he  gained  there  had  the  greatest  influence  on 
the  fortunes  of  his  varied  and  eventful  life." — 
Sir  A.  Helps,  Spanish  conquest  of  America,  bk.  5, 
ch.  I. — See  also  Newtoundland:   1501-1578. 

Also  in:  J.  G.  Kohl,  History  of  the  discovery 
of  Maine,  ch.  S- — R.  Biddle,  Memoir  of  Sebastian 
Cabot,  bk.  2,  ch.  3-5. 

1500-1514. — Voyage  of  Cabral. — Third  voyage 
of  Vespucci. — Exploration  of  the  Brazilian 
coast  for  the  king  of  Portugal. — Curious  evolu- 
tion of  the  continental  name  "America."^ 
"Affairs  now  became  curiously  complicated.  King 
Emanuel  of  Portugal  intrusted  to  Pedro  Alvarez 
de  Cabral  the  command  of  a  fleet  for  Hindustan, 
to  follow  up  the  work  of  Gama  and  established  a 
Portuguese  centre  of  trade  on  the  Malabar  coast. 
This  fleet  of  13  vessels,  carrying  about  1,200  men, 
sailed  from  Lisbon  March  9,  1500.  After  passing 
the  Cape  V'erde  Islands,  March  22,  for  some  reason 
not  clearly  known,  whether  driven  by  stormy 
weather  or  seeking  to  avoid  the  calms  that  were 
apt  to  be  troublesome  on  the  Guinea  coast,  Cabral 
took  a  somewhat  more  westerly  course  than  he 
realized,  and  on  April  22,  after  a  weary  progress 
averaging  less  than  60  miles  per  day,  he  found 
himself  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  not  far  beyond  the 
limit  reached  by  Lepe.  .  .  .  Approaching  it  in  such 
a  way  Cabral  felt  sure  that  this  coast  must  fall 
to  the  east  of  the  papal  meridian.  Accordingly  on 
May  day,  at  Porto  Seguro  in  latitude  16°  30'  S.,  he 
took  formal  possession  of  the  country  for  Portu- 
gal, and  sent  Caspar  de  Lemos  in  one  of  tis  ships 
back  to  Lisbon  with  the  news.  On  May  32  Cabral 
weighed  anchor  and  stood  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  .  .  .  Cabral  called  the  land  he  had  found 
Vera  Cruz,  a  name  which  presently  became  Santa 
Cruz;  but  when  Lemos  arrived  in  Lisbon  with 
the  news  he  had  with  ^im  some  gorgeous  paro- 
quets, and  among  the  earliest  names  on  old 
maps  of  the  Brazilian  coast  vve  find  'Land  of  Paro- 
quets' and  'Land  of  the  Holy  Cross.'  The  land 
lay  obviously  so  far  to  the  east  that  Spain  could 
not  deny  that  at  last  there  was  something  for 
Portugal  out  in  the  'ocean  sea.'  Much  interest  "was 
felt  at  Lisbon.  King  Emanuel  began  to  prepare 
an  expedition  for  exploring  this  new  coast,  and 
wished  to  secure  the  services  of  some  eminent  pilot 
and  cosmographer  familiar  with  the  western  wa- 
ters. Overtures  were  made  to  Americus,  a  fact 
which  proves  that  he  had  already  won  a  high 
reputation.  The  overtures  were  accepted,  for 
what  reason  we  do  not  know,  and  soon  after  his 
return  from  the  vovage  with  Ojeda,  probably  in 
the  autumn  of  1500,  Americus  passed  from  the 
service  of  Spain  into  that  of  Portugal.  ...  On 
May  14,  1 501,  Vespucius,  who  was  evidently  prin- 
cipal |)ilot  and  guiding  spirit  in  this  voyage  under 
unkown  skies,  set  sail  from  Lisbon  with  three 
caravels.  It  is  not  quite  clear  who  was  chief  cap- 
tain, but  M.  Varnhagen  has  found  reasons  for 
believing  that  it  was  a  certain  Don  Nuno  Manuel. 
The  first  halt  was  made  on  the  African  coast  at 
Cape  Verde,  the  first  week  in  June.  .  .  .  After  67 
days  of  'the  vilest  weather  ever  seen  by  man'  they 
reached  the  coast  of  Brazil  in  latitude  about  5°  S., 
on  the  evening  of  the  i6th  of  .\ugust,  the  festival- 
day  of  San  Roque,  whose  name  was  accordingly 
given  to  the  cape  before  which  they  dropped  an- 
chor. From  this  point  .they  slowly  followed  the 
coast  to  the  southward,  stopping  now  and  then  10 
examine  the  countrv'.  ...  It  was  not  until  All 
Saints    day,    the    first    of    November,    that    they 


264 


AMERICA,   1500-1514 


Evolution 
of  the  Name 


AMERICA,  1500-1514 


reached  the  bay  in  latitude  13°  S.,  which  is  still 
known  by  the  name  which  they  gave  it,  Bahia  de 
Todos  Santos,  On  New  Year's  day,  1502,  they 
arrived  at  the  noble  bay  where  54  years  later  the 
chief  city  of  Brazil  was  founded.  They  would 
seem  to  have  mistaken  it  for  the  mouth  of  an- 
other huge  river,  like  some  that  had  already  been 
seen  in  this  strange  world;  for  they  called  it  Rio 
de  Janeiro  (River  of  January).  Thence  by  Feb- 
ruary 15  they  had  passed  Cape  Santa  Maria,  when 
they  left  the  coast  and  took  a  southeasterly  course 
out  into  the  ocean.  Americus  gives  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  this  change  of  direction.  .  .  .  Perhaps 
he  may  have  looked  into  the  mouth  of  the  river 
La  Plata,  which  is  a  bay  more  than  a  hundred 
miles  wide ;  and  the  sudden  westward  trend  of  the 
shore  may  have  led  him  to  suppose  that  he  had 
reached  the  end  of  the  continent.  At  any  rate, 
he  was  now  in  longitude  more  than  twenty  de- 
grees west  of  the  meridian  of  Cape  San  Roque, 
and  therefore  unquestionably  out  of  Portuguese 
waters.  Clearly  there  was  no  use  in  going  on  and 
discovering  lands  which  could  belong  only  to 
Spain.  This  may  account,  I  think,  for  the  change 
of  direction."  The  voyage  southeastwardly  was 
pursued  until  the  little  fleet  had  reached  the  icy 
and  rocky  coast  of  the  island  of  South  Georgia, 
in  latitude  54°  S.  It  was  then  decided  to  turn 
homeward.  "Vespucius  .  .  .  headed  straight  N.  N. 
E.  through  the  huge  ocean,  for  Sierra  Leone,  and 
the  distance  of  more  than  4,000  miles  was  made — 
with  wonderful  accuracy,  though  Vespucius-  says 
nothing  about  that — in  33  days.  .  .  .  Thence,  af- 
ter some  further  delay,  to  Lisbon,  where  they  ar- 
rived on  the  7th  of  September,  1502.  Among  all 
the  voyages  made  during  that  eventful  period  there 
was  none  that  as  a  feat  of  navigation  surpassed 
this  third  of  Vespucius,  and  there  was  none,  except 
the  first  of  Columbus,  that  outranked  it  in  his- 
torical importance.  For  it  was  not  only  a  voyage 
into  the  remotest  stretches  of  the  Sea  of  Dark- 
ness, but  it  was  preeminently  an  incursion  into  the 
antipodal  world  of  the  Southern  hemisphere.  .  .  . 
A  coast  of  continental  extent,  beginning  so  near 
the  meridian  of  the  Cape  Verde  islands  and  run- 
ning southwesterly  to  latitude  35°  S.  and  perhaps 
beyond,  did  not  fit  into  anybody's  scheme  of 
things.  ...  It  was  land  unknown  to  the  ancients, 
and  Vespucius  was  right  in  saying  that  he  had 
beheld  there  things  by  the  thousand  which  Pliny 
had  never  mentioned.  It  was  not  strange  that  he 
should  call  it  a  'New  World,'  and  in  meeting  with 
this  phrase,  on  this  first  occasion  in  which  it  ap- 
pears in  any  document  with  reference  to  any 
part  of  what  we  now  call  America,  the  reader 
must  be  careful  not  to  clothe  it  with  the  meaning 
which  it  wears  in  our  modern  eyes.  In  using  the 
expression  'New  World'  Vespucius  was  not  thinking 
of  the  Flor'da  coast  which  he  had  visited  on  a 
former  voyage,  nor  of  the  'islands  of  India'  dis- 
covered by  Columbus,  nor  even  of  the  Pearl  Coast 
which  he  had  followed  after  the  Admiral  in  ex- 
ploring. The  expression  occurs  in  his  letter  to 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  written  from  Lisbon  in  March 
or  April  1503,  relating  solely  to  this  third  voyage 
The  letter  begins  as  follows:  'I  have  formerly 
written  to  you  at  sufficient  length  about  my  return 
from  those  new  countries  which  in  the  ships  and 
at  the  expense  and  command  of  the  most  gracious 
King  of  Portugal  we  have  sought  and  found.  It 
is  proper  to  call  them  a  new  world.'  Observe  that 
it  is  only  the  new  countries  visited  on  this  third 
voyage,  the  countries  from  Cape  San  Roque  south- 
ward, that  Vespucius  thinks  it  proper  to  call  a  new 
world,  and  here  is  his  reason  for  so  calling  them; 
'Since  among  our  ancestors  there  was  no  knowl- 


edge of  them,  and  to  all  who  hear  of  the  affair  it 
is  most  novel.  For  it  transcends  the  ideas  of  the 
ancients,  since  most  of  them  say  that  beyond  the 
equator  to  the  south  there  is  no  continent,  but 
only  the  sea  which  they  call  the  Atlantic,  and  if 
any  of  them  asserted  the  existence  of  a  continent 
there,  they  found  many  reasons  for  refusing  to 
consider  it  a  habitable  country.  But  this  last  voy- 
age of  mine  has  proved  that  this  opinion  of  theirs 
was  erroneous  and  in  every  way  contrary  to  the 
facts.'  .  .  .  This  expression  'Novus  Mundus'  [New 
World],  thus  occurring  in  a  private  letter,  had  a 
remarkable  career.  Early  in  June,  1503,  about  the 
time  when  Americus  was  starting  on  his  fourth 
voyage,  Lorenzo  died.  By  the  beginning  of  1504, 
a  Latin  version  of  the  letter  [translated  by  Gio- 
vanni Giocondo]  was  printed  and  published,  with 
the  title  'Mundus  Novus.'  .  .  .  The  little  four- 
leaved  tract,  'Mundus  Novus,'  turned  out  to  be 
the  great  literary  success  of  the  day.  M.  Harrisse 
has  described  at  least  eleven  Latin  editions  prob- 
ably published  in  the  course  of  1504,  and  by  1506 
not  less  than  eight  editions  of  German  versions  had 
been  issued.  Intense  curiosity  was  aroused  by 
this  announcement  of  the  existence  of  a  populous 
land  beyond  the  equator  and  unknown  (could  such 
a  thing  be  possible)  to  the  ancients," — who  did 
know  something,  at  least,  about  the  eastern  parts 
of  the  Asiatic  continent  which  Columbus  was  sup- 
posed to  have  reached.  The  "Novus  Mundus," 
so  named,  began  soon  to  be  represented  on  maps 
and  globes,  generally  as  a  great  island  or  quasi- 
continent  lying  on  and  below  the  equator.  "Eu- 
rope, Asia  and  Africa  were  the  three  parts  of  the 
earth  [previously  known],  and  so  this  opposite  re- 
gion, hitherto  unknown,  but  mentioned  by  Mela 
and  indicated  by  Ptolemy,  was  the  Fourth  Part. 
We  can  now  begin  to  understand  the  intense  and 
wildly  absorbing  interest  with  which  people  read 
the  brief  story  of  the  third  voyage  of  Vespucius, 
and  we  can  see  that  in  the  nature  of  that  interest 
there  was  nothing  calculated  to  bring  it  into  com- 
parison with  the  work  of  Columbus.  The  two 
navigators  were  not  regarded  as  rivals  in  doing 
the  same  thing,  but  as  men  who  had  done  two  very 
different  things ;  and  to  give  credit  to  one  was  by 
no  means  equivalent  to  withholding  credit  from 
the  other."  In  1507,  Martin  Waldseemiiller,  pro- 
fessor of  geo.;raphy  at  Saint-Die,  published  a  small 
treatise  entitled  "Cosmographie  Introductio,"  with 
that  second  of  the  two  known  letters  of  Vespucci — 
the  one  addressed  to  Soderini,  of  which  an  account 
is  given  above  (1407-1498) — appended  to  it.  "In 
this  rare  book  occurs  the  first  suggestion  of  the 
name  America.  After  having  treated  of  the  di- 
vision of  the  earth's  inhabited  surface  into  three 
parts — Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa — Waldseemiiller 
speaks  of  the  discovery  of  a  Fourth  Part,"  and 
says:  "  'Wherefore  I  do  not  see  what  is  rightly 
to  hinder  us  from  calling  it  Amerige  or  America, 
i.  e.,  the  land  of  Americus,  after  its  discoverer 
Americus,  a  man  of  sagacious  mind,  since  both 
Europe  and  Asia  have  got  their  names  from 
women.'  .  .  .  Such  were  the  winged  words  but  for 
which,  as  M.  Harrisse  reminds  us,  the  western  hem- 
isphere might  have  come  to  be  known  as  Atlantis, 
or  Hesperides,  or  Santa  Cruz,  or  New  India,  or  per- 
haps Columbia.  ...  In  about  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury the  first  stage  in  the  development  of  the  nam- 
ing of  America  had  been  completed.  The  stage 
consisted  of  five  distinct  steps:  i.  Americus  called 
the  regions  visited  by  him  beyond  the  equator  'a 
new  world'  because  they  were  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients; 2.  Giocondo  made  this  striking  phrase 
'Mundus  Novus'  into  a  title  for  his  translation  of 
the  letter.  ...   ;  3.  the  name  Mundus  Novus  got 


^6S 


AMERICA,   1502 


Settlement 
at  Darien 


AMERICA,   1509-1511 


placed  upon  several  maps  as  an  equivalent  for 
Terra  Sanctae  Crucis,  or  what  we  call  Brazil;  4. 
the  suggestion  was  made  that  Mundus  Novus  was 
the  Fourth  Part  of  the  earth,  and  might  properly 
be  named  America  after  its  discoverer;  5.  the  name 
America  thus  got  placed  upon  several  maps  I  the 
first,  so  far  as  known,  being  a  map  ascribed  to 
Leonardo  da  Vinco  and  published  about  1514,  and 
the  second  a  globe  made  in  1515  by  Johann 
Schbner,  at  Nuremberg]  as  an  equivalent  for  what 
we  call  Brazil,  and  sometimes  came  to  stand  alone 
as  an  equivalent  for  what  we  call  South  America, 
but  still  signified  only  a  part  of  the  dry  land  be- 
yond the  Atlantic  to  which  Columbus  had  led  the 
way.  .  .  .  This  wider  meaning  [of  South  America] 
became  all  the  more  firmly  established  as  its  nar- 
rower meaning  was  usurped  by  the  name  Brazil. 
Three  centuries  before  the  time  of  Columbus  the 
red  dye-wood  called  brazil-wood  was  an  article  of 
commerce,  under  that  same  name,  in  Italy  and 
Spain.  It  was  one  of  the  valuable  things  brought 
from  the  East,  and  when  the  Portuguese  found  the 
same  dye-wood  abundant  in  those  tropical  forests 
that  had  seemed  so  beautiful  to  X'espucius,  the 
name  Brazil  soon  became  fastened  upon  the  coun- 
try and  helped  to  set  free  the  name  America  from 
its  local  associations."  When  in  time,  and  by  slow 
degrees,  the  great  fact  was  learned,  that  all  the 
lands  found  beyond  the  Atlantic  by  Columbus  and 
his  successors,  formed  part  of  one  continental  sys- 
tem, and  were  all  to  be  embraced  in  the  concep- 
tion of  a  New  World,  the  name  which  had  become 
synonymous  with  New  World  was  then  naturally 
extended  to  the  whole.  The  evolutionary  process 
of  the  naming  of  the  western  hemisphere  as  a 
whole  was  thus  made  complete  in  1541,  by  Mer- 
cator,  who  spread  the  name  America  in  large  let- 
ters upon  a  globe  which  he  constructed  that  year, 
so  that  part  of  it  appeared  upon  the  northern  and 
part  upon  the  southern  continent. — J.  Fiske,  Dis- 
covery of  America,  ch.  7,  v.  2. 

Also  in:  W.  B.  Scaife,  Americn:  its  geographi- 
cal history,  section  4. — R.  H.  Major,  Life  0/  Prince 
Henry  0/  Portugal,  ch.  ig. — J.  Winsor,  Narrative 
and  critical  history  of  America,  v.  2,  ch.  2,  notes. 
— H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific  states,  v. 
ii  PP-  9Q-II2,  and  123-125. 

Complete  bibliography  of  the  Vespucci  question 
and  of  the  name  America  prepared  by  G.  Fuma- 
galli  for  G.  Uzielli's  new  edition  of  A.  M.  Ban- 
dini.  Vita  di  Amerigo  Vespucci  (1893).  A  good 
modern  critical  discussion  of  the  Vespucci  ques- 
tion is  that  by  Hugues,  in  Raccolta  Columbiana. 
A  good  resume  of  the  diffusion  of  the  name  Amer- 
ica is  L.  Hugues,  La  Vicende  del  yome  "America" 
(i8q8).  Also  in  H.  Ludin,  Naming  of  America, 
{Americana,  v.  6,  Dec,  pp.  1174-1176). 

1502. — Second  voyage  of  Ojeda. — The  first 
voyage  of  .Monzo  de  Ojeda,  from  which  he  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  June  1500,  was  profitable  to 
nothing  but  his  reputation  as  a  bold  and  enterpris- 
ing explorer.  By  way  of  reward,  he  was  given  "a 
grant  of  land  in  Hispaniola,  and  likewise  the  gov- 
ernment of  Coquibacoa,  which  place  he  had  dis- 
covered [and  which  he  had  called  Venezuela]. 
He  was  authorized  to  fit  out  a  number  of  ships 
at  his  own  expense  and  to  prosecute  discoveries 
on  the  coast  of  Terra  Firma.  .  .  .  With  four  ves- 
sels, Ojeda  set  sail  for  the  Canaries,  in  1502,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  from  which 
locality  he  found  his  way  to  Coquibacoa.  Not  lik- 
ing this  poor  country,  he  sailed  on  to  the  Bay  of 
Honda,  where  he  determined  to  found  his  settle- 
ment, which  was,  however,  destined  to  be  of  short 
duration.  Provisions  very  soon  became  scarce; 
and   one   of   his  partners,  who   had  been   sent   to 


procure  supplies  from  Jamaica,  failed  to  return 
until  Ojeda's  followers  were  almost  in  a  state  of 
mutiny.  The  result  was  that  the  whole  colony 
set  sail  for  Hispaniola,  taking  the  governor  with 
them  in  chains.  All  that  Ojeda  gained  by  his 
expedition  was  that  he  at  length  came  off  winner 
in  a  lawsuit,  the  costs  of  which,  however,  left  him 
a  ruined  man." — R.  G.  Watson,  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese Soulli  America,  bk.  i,  ch.  i.  , 

1503-1504.  —  Fourth  voyage  of  Vespucci. — 
First  settlement  in  Brazil. — In  June,  1503, 
■■.\merigo  sailed  again  from  Lisbon,  with  six  ships. 
The  object  of  this  voyage  was  to  discovered  a  cer- 
tain island  called  Melcha,  which  was  supposed  to 
lie  west  of  Calicut,  and  to  be  as  famous  a  mart  in 
the  commerce  of  the  Indian  world  as  Cadiz  was  in 
Europe.  They  made  the  Cape  de  Verds,  and  then, 
contrary  to  the  judgment  of  Vespucci  and  of  all 
the  fleet,  the  Commander  persisted  in  standing  for 
Serra  Leoa."  The  Commander's  ship  was  lost,  and 
\'espucci,  with  one  vessel,  only,  reached  the  coast 
of  the  New  World,  finding  a  port  which  is  thought 
to  have  been  Bahia.  Here  "they  waited  above  two 
months  in  vain  expectation  of  being  joined  by  the 
rest  of  the  squadron.  Having  lost  all  hope  of  this 
they  coasted  on  for  260  leagues  to  the  Southward, 
and  there  took  port  again  in  18°  S.  35  W.  of  the 
meridian  of  Lisbon.  Here  they  remained  five 
months,  upon  good  terms  with  the  natives,  with 
whom  some  of  the  party  penetrated  forty  leagues 
into  the  interior;  and  here  they  erected  a  fort,  in 
which  they  left  24  men  who  had  been  saved  from 
the  Commander's  ship.  They  gave  them  12  guns, 
besides  other  arms,  and  provisions  for  six  months; 
then  loaded  with  brazil  [w-ood],  sailed  homeward 
and  returned  in  safety.  .  .  .  The  honour,  therefore, 
of  having  formed  the  first  settlement  in  this  coun- 
try is  due  to  Amerigo  Vespucci.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  any  further  attention  was  at  this  time 
paid  to  it.  .  .  .  But  the  cargo  of  brazil  which  Ves- 
pucci had  brought  home  tempted  private  adven- 
turers, who  were  content  with  peaceful  gains,  to 
trade  thither  for  that  valuable  wood;  and  this 
trade  became  so  well  known,  that  in  consequence 
the  coast  and  the  whole  country  obtained  the  name 
of  Brazil,  notwithstanding  the  holier  appellation 
[Santa  Cruz]  which  Cabral  had  given  it."— R, 
Southey,  History  of  Brazil,  v.  i,  ch.  i. 

1509-1511. — Expeditions  of  Ojeda  and  Nlcuesa 
to  the  Isthmus. — Settlement  at  Darien.— ''For 
several  years  alter  his  ruinous,  though  successful 
lawsuit,  we  lose  all  traces  of  .\lonzo  de  Ojeda,  ex- 
cepting that  we  are  told  he  made  another  voyage 
to  Coquibacoa  [\'enezucla],  in  1505.  No  record 
remains  of  this  expedition,  which  seems  to  have 
been  equally  unprofitable  with  the  preceding,  for 
we  find  him,  in  1508,  in  the  island  of  Hispaniola  as 
poor  in  purse,  though  as  proud  in  spirit,  as  ever. 
.  .  .  About  this  time  the  cupidity  of  King  Ferdi- 
nand was  preatly  excited  by  the  accounts  by  Co- 
lumbus of  the  gold  mines  of  Veragua,  in  which  the 
admiral  fancied  he  had  discovered  the  Aurea  Cher- 
sonesus  of  the  ancients,  whence  King  Solomon  pro- 
cured the  gold  used  in  building  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem.  Subsequent  voyagers  had  corroborated 
the  opinion  of  Columbus  as  to  the  general  riches 
of  the  coast  of  Terra  Firma ;  King  Ferdinand  re- 
solved, therefore,  to  found  regular  colonies  along 
that  coast,  and  to  place  the  whole  under  some 
capable  commander."  Ojeda  was  recommended  for 
this  post,  but  found  a  competitor  in  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  Spanish  cotirt,  Diego  de  Nicuesa. 
"King  Ferdin^md  avoided  the  dilemma  by  favoring 
both :  not  indeed  by  furnishing  them  with  ships  and 
money,  but  by  granting  patents  and  dignities,  which 
cost   nothing,   and   might  bring   rich   returns.     He 


266 


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Discovery 
of  Florida 


AMERICA,  1512 


divided  that  part  of  the  continent  which  lies  along 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien  into  two  provinces,  the 
boundary  line  running  through  the  Gulf  of  Uraba. 
The  eastern  part,  extending  to  Cape  de  la  Vela, 
was  called  New  Andalusia,  and  the  government 
of  it  given  to  Ojeda.  The  other  to  the  west  [called 
Castilla  del  Oro],  including  Veragua,  and  reaching 
to  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  was  assigned  to  Nicuesa. 
The  island  of  Jamaica  was  given  to  the  two  gov- 
ernors in  common,  as  a  place  whence  to  draw  sup- 
plies of  provisions."  Slender  means  for  the  equip- 
ment of  Ojeda's  expedition  were  supplied  by  the 
veteran  pilot,  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  who  accompanied 
him  as  his  lieutenant.  Nicuesa  was  more  amply 
provided.  The  rival  armaments  arrived  at  San 
Domingo  about  the  same  time  (in  1509),  and  much 
quarreling  between  the  two  commanders  ensued. 
Ojeda  found  a  notary  in  San  Domingo,  Martin  Fer- 
nadez  de  Enciso,  who  had  money  which  he  con- 
sented to  invest  in  the  interprise,  and  who  prom- 
ised to  follow  him  with  an  additional  ship-load  of 
recruits  and  supplies.  Under  this  arrangement 
Ojeda  made  ready  to  sail  in  advance  of  his  com- 
petitor, embarking  Nov.  10,  1509.  Among  those 
who  sailed  with  him  was  Francisco  Pizarro,  the 
future  conqueror  of  Peru.  Ojeda,  by  his  energy, 
gained  time  enough  to  nearly  ruin  his  expedition 
before  Nicuesa  reached  the  scene ;  for,  having 
landed  at  Cartagena,  he  made  war  upon  the  na- 
tives, pursued  them  recklesslj'  into  the  interior  of 
the  country,  with  70  men,  and  was  overwhelmed 
by  the  desperate  savages,  escaping  with  only  one 
companion  from  their  poisoned  arrows.  His  faith- 
ful friend,  the  pilot,  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  was  among 
the  slain,  and  Ojeda  himself,  hiding  in  the  forest, 
was  nearly  dead  of  hunger  and  exposure  when 
found  and  ref-cued  by  a  searching  party  from  his 
ships.  At  this  juncture  the  fleet  of  Nicuesa  made 
its  appearance.  Jealousies  were  forgotten  in  a 
common  rage  against  the  natives  and  the  two  ex- 
peditions were  joined  in  a  attack  on  the  Indian 
villages  which  spared  nothing.  Nicuesa  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Veragua,  while  Ojeda  founded  a  town, 
which  he  called  San  Sebastian,  at  the  east  end 
of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  Incessantly  harassed  by  the 
natives,  terrified  by  the  effects  of  the  poison  which 
these  used  in  their  warfare,  and  threatened  with 
starvation  by  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  its  supplies, 
the  settlement  lost  courage  and  hope.  Enciso  and 
his  promised  ship  were  waited  for  in  vain.  At 
length  there  came  a  vessel  which  certain  piratical 
adventurers  at  Hispaniola  had  stolen,  and  which 
brought  some  welcome  provisions,  eagerly  bought 
at  an  exorbitant  price.  Ojeda,  half  recovered  from 
a  poisoned  wound,  which  he  had  treated  heroically 
with  red-hot  plates  of  iron,  engaged  the  pirates  to 
convey  him  to  Hispaniola,  for  the  procuring  of 
supplies.  The  voyage .  was  a  disastrous  one,  re- 
sulting in  shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  a 
month  of  desperate  wandering  in  the  morasses  of 
the  island.  Ojeda  survived  all  these  perils  and 
sufferings,  made  his  way  to  Jamaica,  and  from 
Jamaica  to  San  Domingo,  found  that  his  partner 
Enciso  had  sailed  for  the  colony  long  before,  with 
abundant  supplies,  but  could  learn  nothing  more. 
Nor  could  he  obtain  for  himself  any  means  of 
returning  to  San  Sebastian,  or  of  dispatching  re- 
lief to  the  place.  Sick,  penniless  and  disheart- 
ened, he  went  into  a  convent  and  died.  Meantime 
the  despairing  colonists  at  San  Sebastian  waited 
until  death  had  made  them  few  enough  to  be  all 
taken  on  board  of  the  two  little  brigantines  which 
were  left  to  them;  then  they  sailed  away,  Pizarro 
in  command.  One  of  the  brigantines  soon  went 
down  in  a  squall;  the  other  made  its  way  to  the 
harbor   of    Cartagena,   where    it   found    the   tardy 


Enciso,  searching  for  his  colony.  Enciso,  under 
his  commission,  now  took  command,  and  insisted 
upon  going  to  San  Sebastian.  There  the  old  ex- 
periences were  soon  renewed,  and  even  Enciso 
was  ready  to  abandon  the  deadly  place.  The  latter 
had  brought  with  him  a  needy  cavalier,  Vasco 
Nufiez  de  Balboa — so  needy  that  he  smuggled  him- 
self on  board  Enciso's  ship  in  a  cask  to  escape 
his  creditors.  Vasco  Nuiiez  who  had  coasted  this 
region  with  Bastidas,  in  1500,  now  advised  a  re- 
moval of  the  colony  to  Darien,  on  the  opposite 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  His  advice,  which 
was  followed,  proved  good,  and  the  hopes  of  the 
settlers  were  raised;  but  Enciso's  modes  of  govern- 
ment proved  irksome  to  them.  Then  Balboa 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that,  when  they 
crossed  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  they  passed  out  of 
the  territory  covered  by  the  patent  to  Ojeda, 
under  which  Enciso  was  commissioned,  and  into 
that  granted  to  Nicuesa.  On  this  suggestion 
Enciso  was  promptly  deposed  and  two  alcaldes 
were  elected,  Balboa  bemg  one.  While  events  in 
one  corner  of  Nicuesa's  domain  were  thus  estab- 
lishing a  colony  for  that  ambitious  governor,  he 
himself,  at  the  other  extremity  of  it,  was  faring 
badly.  He  had  suffered  hardships,  separation 
from  most  of  his  command  and  long  abandonment 
on  a  desolate  coast;  had  rejoined  his  followers  af- 
ter great  suffering,  only  to  suffer  yet  more  in  their 
company,  until  less  than  one  hundred  remained  of 
the  700  who  sailed  with  him  a  few  months  before. 
The  settlement  at  Veragua  had  been  deserted,  and 
another,  named  Nombre  de  Dios  undertaken,  with 
no  improvement  of  circumstances.  In  this  situa- 
tion he  was  rejoiced,  at  last,  by  the  arrival  of  one 
of  his  lieutenants,  Rodrigo  de  Colmenares,  who 
came  with  supplies.  Colmenares  brought  tidings, 
moreover,  of  the  prosperous  colony  at  Darien, 
which  he  had  discovered  on  his  way,  with  an  in- 
vitation to  Nicuesa  to  come  and  assume  the  gov- 
ernment of  it.  He  accepted  the  invitation  with 
delight;  but,  alas,  the  community  at  Darien  had 
repented  of  it  before  he  reached  them,  and  they 
refused  to  receive  him  when  he  arrived.  Permitted 
finally  to  land,  he  was  seized  by  a  treacherous 
party  among  the  colonists — to  whom  Balboa  is 
said  to  have  opposed  all  the  resistance  in  his 
power — was  put  on  board  of  an  old  and  crazy 
brigantine,  with  seventeen  of  his  friends,  and  com- 
pelled to  take  an  oath  that  he  would  sail  straight 
to  Spain.  "The  frail  bark  set  sail  on  the  first  of 
March,  15 11,  and  steered  across  the  Caribbean 
Sea  for  the  island  of  Hispaniola,  but  was  never 
seen  or  heard  of  more." — W.  Irving,  Life  and  voy- 
ages of  Columbus  and  his  companions,  v.  3. 

Also  in:  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific 
stales,  V.  I,  ch.  6. 

1510-1661. — Portuguese  and  Dutch  in  Brazil. 
See  Brazil:  1510-1661. 

1511. — Spanish  conquest  and  occupation  of 
Cuba.     See  Cuba:   1511. 

1512. — Voyage  of  Ponce  de  Leon  in  quest  of 
the  fountain  of  youth,  and  his  discovery  of 
Florida. — "Whatever  may  have  been  the  South- 
ernmost point  reached  by  Cabot  in  coasting 
America  on  his  return,  it  is  certain  that  he  did  not 
land  in  Florida,  and  that  the  honour  of  first  ex- 
ploring that  country  is  due  to  Juan  Ponce  de 
Leon.  This  cavalier,  who  was  governor  of  Puerto 
Rico,  induced  by  the  vague  traditions  circulated 
by  the  natives  of  the  West  Indies,  that  there  was 
a  country  in  the  north  possessing  a  fountain  whose 
waters  restored  the  aged  to  youth,  made  it  an 
object  of  his  ambition  to  be  the  first  to  discover 
this  marvellous  region.  With  this  view,  he  re- 
signed  the  governorship,   and   set   sail   with   three 


267 


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Discovery 
of  the  Pacific 


AMERICA,   1513-1517 


caravels  on  the  3d  of  March  1512.  Steering  N. 
J4  N.,  he  came  upon  a  countr>'  covered  with  flow- 
ers and  verdure ;  and  as  the  day  of  his  discovery 
happened  to  be  Palm  Sunday,  called  by  the  Span- 
iards 'Pasqua  Florida,'  he  gave  it  the  name  of 
Florida  from  this  circumstance.  He  landed  on 
the  2d  of  April,  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Castile.  The  warlike 
people  uf  the  coast  of  Cautio  (a  name  given  by 
the  Indians  to  all  the  country  lying  between  Cape 
Cafiaveral  and  the  southern  point  of  Florida)  soon, 
however,  compelled  him  to  retreat,  and  he  pursued 
his  e.xploration  of  the  coast  as  far  as  30  8'  north 
latitude,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  doubled  Cape 
Caiiaveral.  Then  retracing  his  course  to  Puerto 
Rico,  in  the  hope  of  finding  the  island  of  Bimini, 
which  he  believed  to  be  the  Land  of  Youth,  and 
described  by  the  Indians  as  opposite  to  Florida,  he 
discovered  the  Bahamas,  and  some  other  islands, 
previously  unkown.  Bad  weather  compelling  him 
to  put  into  the  isle  of  Guanima  to  repair  dam- 
ages, he  despatched  one  of  his  caravels,  under  the 
orders  of  Juan  Perez  de  Ortubia  and  of  the  pilot 
Anton  de  Alaminos,  to  gain  information  respecting 
the  desired  land,  which  he  had  as  yet  been  totally 
unable  to  discover.  He  returned  to  Puerto  Rico 
on  the  2ist  of  September;  a  few  days  afterwards, 
Ortubia  arrived  also  with  news  of  Bimini.  He  re- 
ported that  he  had  explored  the  island, — which  he 
described  as  large,  well  wooded,  and  watered  by 
numerous  streams, — but  he  had  failed  in  discover- 
ing the  fountain.  Oviedo  places  Bimini  at  40 
leagues  west  of  the  island  of  Bahama.  Thus  all 
the  advantages  which  Ponce  de  Leon  promised 
himself  from  this  voyage  turned  to  the  profit  of 
geography:  the  title  of  'Adelantado  of  Bimini  and 
Florida,'  which  was  conferred  upon  hira,  was  purely 
honorary ;  but  the  route  taken  by  him  in  order  to 
return  to  Puerto  Rico,  showed  the  advantage  of 
making  the  homeward  voyage  to  Spain  by  the 
Bahama  Channel." — W.  B.  Rye,  Introduction  to 
"Discovery  and  conquest  of  Terra  Florida,  by  a 
gentleman   oj  Elvas"   (Hakluyt  Society,   1851). 

.\i.so  i.v:  G.  R.  Fairbanks.  History  of  Florida. 
ch.  I. — E.  G.  Bourne,  Spain  in  America. — J.  B 
Shea,  Ancient  Florida  in  Winsor,  Narrative  and 
critical  history,  11. 

1513-1517.— Discovery  of  the  Pacific  by  Bal- 
boa.— Pedrarias  Davila  on  the  isthmus. — With 
Enciso  deposed  from  authority  and  Nicuesa  sent 
adrift,  Vasco  Nuiiez  de  Balboa  seems  to  have 
easily  held  the  lead  in  affairs  at  Darien,  though  not 
without  much  opposition ;  for  faction  and  turbu- 
lence were  rife.  Enciso  was  permitted  to  carry 
his  grie%'ances  and  complaints  to  Spain,  but  Bal- 
boa's colleague,  Zamudio,  went  with  him,  and  an- 
other comrade  proceeded  to  Hispaniola,  both  of 
them  well-furnished  with  gold.  For  the  quest  of 
gold  had  succeeded  at  last.  The  Darien  adven- 
turers had  found  considerable  quantities  in  the 
possession  of  the  surrounding  natives,  and  were 
gathering  it  with  greedy  hands.  Balboa  had  the 
prudence  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  neisihhorirg  caciques. 
whose  comely  daughter  he  wedded — according  to 
the  easy  customs  of  the  country — and  whose  ally 
he  became  in  wars  with  the  other  caciques.  By 
gift  and  tribute,  therefore  as  well  as  by  plunder. 
he  harvested  more  gold  than  any  before  him  had 
found  since  the  ransacking  of  the  new  world  be- 
gan. But  what  they  obtained  seemed  little  com- 
pared with  the  treasures  reported  to  them  as  e^xist- 
ing  beyond  the  near  mountains  and  toward  the 
south.  One  Indian  youth,  son  of  a  friendly  ca- 
cique, particularly  excited  their  imaginations  by 
the  tale  which  he  told  of  another  great  sea,  not 


far  to  the  west,  on  the  southward-stretching  shores 
of  which  were  countries  that  teemed  with  every 
kind  of  wealth.  He  told  them,  however,  that  the/ 
would  need  a  thousand  men  to  fight  their  way  to 
this  Sea.  Balboa  gave  such  credence  to  the  story 
that  he  sent  envoys  to  Spain  to  solicit  forces  from 
the  king  for  a  adequate  expedition  across  the  moun- 
tains. They  sailed  in  October,  151 2,  but  did  not 
arrive  in  Spain  until  the  following  May.  They 
found  Balboa  in  much  disfavor  at  the  court.  En- 
ciso and  the  friends  of  the  unfortunate  Nicuesa 
had  unitedly  ruined  him  by  their  complaints,  and 
the  king  had  caused  criminal  proceedings  against 
him  to  be  commenced.  Meantime,  some  inkling 
of  these  hostilities  had  reached  Balboa,  himself, 
conveyed  by  a  vessel  which  bore  to  him,  at  the 
same  time,  a  commission  as  captain-general  from 
the  authorities  in  Hispaniola.  He  now  resolved  to 
become  the  discoverer  of  the  ocean  which  his  In- 
dian friends  described,  and  of  the  rich  lands  bord- 
ering it,  before  his  enemies  could  interfere  with  him. 
"Accordingly,  early  in  September,  1513,  he  set  out 
on  his  renowned  expedition  for  finding  'the  other 
sea,'  accompanied  by  190  men  well  armed,  and  by 
dogs,  which  were  of  more  avail  than  men,  and  by 
Indian  slaves  to  carry  the  burdens.  He  went  by 
sea  to  the  territory  of  his  father-in-law.  King 
Careta,  by  whom  he  was  well  received,  and  ac- 
companied by  whose  Indians  he  moved  on  into 
Poncha's  territory."  Quieting  the  fears  of  this 
cacique,  he  passed  his  country  without  fighting. 
The  next  chief  encountered,  named  Quarequa,  at- 
tempted resistance,  but  was  routed,  with  a  great 
slaughter  of  his  people,  and  Balboa  pushed  on. 
"On  the  25th  of  September,  1513,  he  came  near 
to  the  top  of  a  mountain  from  whence  the  South 
Sea  was  visible.  The  distance  from  Poncha's 
chief  town  to  this  point  was  forty  leagues,  reck- 
oned then  six  days'  journey;  but  Vasco  Xunez  and 
his  men  took  twenty-five  days  to  accomplish  it, 
as  they  suffered  much  from  the  roughness  of  the 
ways  and  from  the  want  of  provisions.  A  little 
before  Vasco  Nuiiez  reached  the  height,  Quarequa's 
Indians  informed  him  of  his  near  approach  to  the 
sea.  It  was  a  sight  in  beholding  which,  for  the 
first  time,  any  man  would  wish  to  be  alone.  Vasco 
Nufiez  bade  his  men  sit  down  while  he  ascended, 
and  then,  in  solitude,  looked  down  upon  the  vast 
Pacific — the  first  man  of  the  Old  World,  so  far  as 
we  know,  who  had  done  so.  Falling  on  his  knees, 
he  gave  thanks  to  God  for  the  favour  shown  to 
him  in  his  being  permitted  to  discover  the  Sea  of 
the  South.  Then  with  his  hand  he  beckoned  to  his 
men  to  come  up.  When  they  had  come,  both  he 
and  they  knelt  down  and  poured  forth  their  thanks 
to  God.  He  then  addressed  them.  .  .  .  Having 
.  .  .  addressed  his  men,  Vasco  Nunez  proceeded  to 
take  formal  possession,  on  behalf  of  the  kings  of 
Castile,  of  the  sea  and  of  all  that  was  in  it;  and 
in  order  to  make  memorials  of  the  event,  he  cut 
down  trees,  formed  crosses,  and  heaped  up  stones. 
He  also  inscribed  the  names  of  the  monarchs  of 
Castile  upon  great  trees  in  the  vicinity."  After- 
war  Is,  when  he  had  descended  the  western  slope 
and  found  the  shore,  "he  entered  the  sea  up  to  his 
thighs,  having  his  sword  on.  and  with  his  shield 
in  his  hand;  then  he  called  the  by-standers  to 
witness  how  he  touched  with  his  person  and  took 
possession  of  this  sea  for  the  kings  of  Castile,  and 
declared  that  he  would  defend  the  possession  ol 
it  against  all  comers.  .After  this,  Vasco  Nunez  made 
friends  in  the  usual  manner,  first  conquering  and 
then  npL'otiati'.-.g  with"  the  several  chiefs  or  caciques 
V  hose  territories  came  in  his  way.  He  explored  the 
Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  finding  much  wealth  of  pearls 
in  the  region,  and  returned  to  Darien  by  a  route 


268 


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Discovery 
of  Mexico 


AMERICA,   1517-1518 


which  crossed  the  isthmus  considerably  farther  to 
the  north,  reaching  his  colony  on  the  2Qth  of  Janu- 
ary, 1514,  having  been  absent  nearly  five  months. 
"His  men  at  Darien  received  him  with  exultation, 
and  he  lost  no  time  in  sending  his  news,  'such  sig- 
nal and  new  news,'  ...  to  the  King  of  Spain,  ac- 
companying it  with  rich  presents.  His  letter,  which 
gave  a  detailed  account  of  his  journey,  and  which, 
for  its  length,  was  compared  by  Peter  Martyr  to 
the  celebrated  letter  that  came  to  the  senate  from 
Tiberius,  contained  in  every  page  thanks  to  God 
that  he  had  escaped  from  such  great  dangers  and 
labours.  Both  the  letter  and  the  presents  were 
intrusted  to  a  man  named  Arbolanche,  who  de- 
parted from  Darien  about  the  beginning  of  March, 
1514.  .  .  .  Vasco  Nunez's  messenger,  Arbolanche, 
reached  the  court  of  Spain  too  late  for  his  master's 
interests."  The  latter  had  already  been  superseded 
in  the  Governorship,  and  his  successor  was  on  the 
way  to  take  his  authority  from  him.  The  new 
governor  was  one  Pedrarias  De  Avila,  or  Davila,  as 
the  name  is  sometimes  written ; — an  envious  and 
malignant  old  man,  under  whose  rule  on  the  isth- 
mus the  destructive  energy  of  Spanish  conquest 
rose  to  its  meanest  and  most  heartless  and  brain- 
less development.  Conspicuously  exposed  as  he 
was  to  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Pedrarias,  Vasco 
Nunez  was  probably  doomed  to  ruin,  in  some 
form,  from  the  first.  At  one  time,  in  1516,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  promise  for  him  of  alliance  with 
his  all-powerful  enemy,  by  a  marriage  with  one 
of  the  governor's  daughters,  and  he  received  the 
command  of  an  expedition  which  again  crossed  the 
isthmus,  carrying  ships,  and  began  the  exploration 
of  the  Pacific.  But  circumstances  soon  arose  which 
gave  Pedrarias  an  opportunity  to  accuse  the  ex- 
plorer of  treasonable  designs  and  to  accomplish 
his  arrest — Francisco  Pizarro  being  the  officer  fitly 
charged  with  the  execution  of  the  governor's  war- 
rant. Brought  in  chains  to  Ada,  Vasco  Nunez  was 
summarily  tried,  found  guilty  and  led  forth  to 
swift  death,  laying  his  head  upon  the  block  (1517). 
"Thus  perished  Vasco  Nuiiez  de  Balboa,  in  the 
forty-second  year  of  his  age,  the  man  who,  since 
the  time  of  Columbus,  had  shown  the  most  states- 
manlike and  warriorlike  powers  in  that  part  of 
the  world,  but  whose  career  only  too  much  re- 
sembles that  of  Ojeda,  Nicuesa,  and  the  other 
unfortunate  commanders  who  devastated  those 
beautiful  regions  of  the  earth." — Sir  A.  Helps, 
Spanish  conquest  in  America,  bk.  6,  v.  1. — "If  I 
have  applied  strong  terms  of  denunciation  to 
Pedrarias  Davila,  it  is  because  he  unquestionably 
deserves  it.  He  is  by  far  the  worst  man  who  came 
officially  to  the  New  World  during  its  early  gov- 
ment.  In  this  all  authorities  agree.  And  all 
agree  that  Vasco  Nunez  was  not  deserving  of 
death." — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific 
states,  v.  I,  ch.  8-12   [foot-note,  p.  458). 

Also  in:  W.  Irving,  Life  and  voyages  of  Co- 
lumbus and  his  companions,  v.  3. — E.  G.  Bourne, 
.Spain  in  America,  pp.  loS-iii,  331. — C.  L.  G. 
Anderson,  Old  Panama  and  Caslilla  del  Oro. 

1515. — Discovery  of  La  Plata  by  Juan  de 
Soils.     See  PARAGUA^■:   7515-1557. 

1517-1518. — Spaniards  find  Mexico. — "An  hi- 
dalgo of  Cuba,  named  Hernandez  de  Cordova, 
sailed  with  three  vessels  on  an  expedition  to  one  of 
the  neighbouring  Bahama  Islands,  in  quest  of  In- 
dian slaves  (Feb.  8,  1517).  He  encountered  a 
succession  of  heavy  gales  which  drove  him  far 
out  of  his  course,  and  at  the  end  of  three  weeks 
he  found  himself  on  a  strange  and  unknown  coast. 
On  landing  and  asking  the  name  of  the  country, 
he  was  answered  by  the  natives  'Tectelan,'  mean- 
ing 'I  do  not  understand  you,'  but  which  the  Span- 


iards, misinterpreting  into  the  name  of  the  place, 
easily  corrupted  into  Yucatan.  Some  writers  give 
a  different  etymology.  .  .  .  Bernal  Diaz  says  the 
word  came  from  the  vegetable  'yuca'  and  'tale,'  the 
name  for  a  hillock  in  which  it  is  planted.  .  .  .  M. 
Waldeck  finds  a  much  more  plausible  derivation 
in  the  Indian  word  'Ouyouckatan,'  'listen  to  what 
they  say.'  .  .  .  Cordova  had  landed  on  the  north- 
eastern end  of  the  peninsula,  at  Cape  Catoche.  He 
was  astonished  at  the  size  and  solid  materials  of 
the  buildings  constructed  of  stone  and  lime,  so  dif- 
ferent from  the  frail  tenements  of  reeds  and  rushes 
which  formed  the  habitations  of  the  islanders. 
He  was  struck  also,  with  the  higher  cultivation  o£ 
the  soil,  and  with  the  delicate  texture  of  the  cotton 
garments  and  gold  ornaments  of  the  natives. 
Everything  indicated  a  civilization  far  superior  to 
anything  he  had  before  witnessed  in  the  New 
World.  He  saw  the  evidence  of  a  different  race, 
moreover,  in  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  people.  .  .  , 
Wherever  they  landed  they  were  met  with  the 
most  deadly  hostility.  Cordova  himself,  in  one  of 
his  skirmishes  with  the  Indians,  received  more  than 
a  dozen  wounds,  and  one  only  of  his  party  es- 
caped unhurt.  At  length,  when  he  had  coasted 
the  peninsula  as  far  as  Compeachy,  he  returned  to 
Cuba,  which  he  reached  after  an  absence  of  sev- 
eral months.  .  .  .  The  reports  he  had  brought  back 
of  the  country,  and,  still  more,  the  specimens  of 
curiously  wrought  gold,  convinced  Velasquez  [gov- 
ernor of  Cuba]  of  the  importance  of  this  discov- 
ery, and  he  prepared  with  all  despatch  to  avail 
himself  of  it.  He  accordingly  fitted  out  a  little 
squadron  of  four  vessels  for  the  newly  discovered, 
lands,  and  placed  it  under  the  command  of  his 
nephew,  Juan  de  Grijalva,  a  man  on  whose  prob- 
ity, prudence,  and  attachment  to  himself  he  knew 
he  could  rely.  The  fleet  left  the  port  of  St. 
Jago  de  Cuba,  May  i,  1518.  .  .  .  Grijalva  soon 
passed  over  to  the  continent  and  coasted  the  pen- 
insula, touching  at  the  same  places  as  his  prede- 
cessor. Everywhere  he  was  struck,  like  him,  with 
the  evidences  of  a  higher  civilization,  especially 
in  the  architecture ;  as  he  well  might  be,  since 
this  was  the  region  of  those  extraordinary  remains 
which  have  become  recently  the  subject  of  so 
much  speculation.  He  was  astonished,  also,  at 
the  sight  of  large  stone  crosses,  evidently  objects 
of  worship,  which  he  met  with  in  various  places. 
Reminded  by  these  circumstances  of  his  own  coun- 
try, he  gave  the  peninsula  the  name  New  Spain, 
a  name  since  appropriated  to  a  much  wider  extent 
of  territory.  Wherever  Grijalva  landed,  he  experi- 
enced the  same  unfriendly  reception  as  Cordova, 
though  he  suffered  less,  being  better  prepared  to 
meet  it."  He  succeeded,  however,  at  last,  in  open- 
ing a  friendly  conference  and  traffic  with  one  of 
the  chiefs,  on  the  Rio  de  Tabasco,  and  "had  the 
satisfaction  of  receiving,  for  a  few  worthless  toys 
and  trinkets,  a  rich  treasure  of  jewels,  gold  orna- 
ments and  vessels,  of  the  most  fantastic  forms  and 
workmanship.  Grijalva  now  thought  that  in  this 
successful  traffic — successful  beyond  his  most  san- 
guine expectations — he  had  accomplished  the  chief 
object  of  his  mission."  He  therefore  dispatched 
Alvarado,  one  of  his  captains,  to  Velasquez,  with 
the  treasure  acquired,  and  continued  his  voyage 
along  the  coast,  as  far  as  the  province  of  Panuco, 
returning  to  Cuba  at  the  end  of  about  six  months 
from  his  departure.  "On  reaching  the  Island,  he 
was  surprised  to  learn  that  another  and  more  for- 
midable armament  had  been  fitted  out  to  follow  up 
his  own  discoveries,  and  to  find  orders  at  the  same 
time  from  the  governor,  couched  in  no  very  cour- 
teous language,  to  repair  at  once  to  St.  Jago.  He 
was  received  by  that  personage,  not  merely  with 


269 


AMERICA,    1519-1524 


Voyage  of 
Magellan 


AMERICA,    1519-1524 


coldness,  but  with  reproaches,  for  having  neg- 
lected so  far  an  opportunity  of  establishing  a 
colony  in  the  country  he  had  visited.'' — W.  H. 
Prescott,  Conquest  of  Mexico,  bk.  2,  cli.  i. 

Also  in:  C.  St.  J.  Fancourt,  History  of  Yuca- 
tan, ch.  1-2. — Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo,  Memoirs, 
V.  I,  cb.  2-19. 

1519-1524. — Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico.  See 
Mexico:  1519  C February- April)  ;  1519-1520;  1520 
(June-July);  1520-1521;  1521  (May-July)  ;  1521 
(July);    1521    (.\ugust)  ;    1521-1524. 

1519-1524. — Voyage  of  Magellan  and  Sebas- 
tian del  Cano.— New  World  passed  and  the 
earth  circumnavigated. — Congress  at  Badajoz. — 
Fernando  Magellan,  or  Magalhaes,  was  "a  disaf- 
fected Portuguese  gentleman  who  had  served  his 
country  for  five  years  in  the  Indies  under  Albu- 
querque, and  understood  well  the  secrets  of  the 
Eastern  trade.  In  1517,  conjointly  with  his  geo- 
graphical and  astronomical  friend,  Ruy  Falerio, 
another  unrequited  Portuguese,  he  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  Spanish  court.  At  the  same  time  these 
two  friends  proposed,  not  only  to  prove  that  the 
Moluccas  were  within  the  Spanish  lines  of  demar- 
cation, but  to  discover  a  passage  thither  different 
from  that  used  by  the  Portuguese.  Their  schemes 
were  listened  to,  adopted  and  carried  out.  The 
Straits  of  Magellan  were  discovered,  the  broad 
South  £ea  was  crossed,  the  Ladrones  and  the 
Phillipines  were  inspected,  the  Moluccas  were 
passed  through,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was 
doubled  on  the  homeward  voyage,  and  the  globe 
was  circumnavigated,  all  in  less  than  three  years, 
from  i5ig  to  1522.  Magellan  lost  his  life,  and 
only  one  of  his  five  ships  returned  [under  Sebas- 
tian del  Cano]  to  tell  the  marvelous  story.  The 
magnitude  of  the  enterprise  was  equalled  only  by 
the  magnitude  of  the  results.  The  globe  for  the 
first  time  began  to  assume  its  true  character  and 
size  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  the  minds  of  men 
began  soon  to  grasp  and  utilize  the  results  of  this 
circumnavigation  for  the  enlargement  of  trade  and 
commerce,  and  for  the  benefit  of  geography,  as- 
tronomy, mathematics,  and  the  other  sciences. 
This  wonderful  story,  is  it  not  told  in  a  thousand 
books?  .  .  .  The  Portuguese  in  India  and  the 
Spiceries,  as  well  as  at  home,  now  seeing  the  in- 
evitable conflict  approaching,  were  thoroughly 
aroused  to  the  importance  of  maintaining  their 
rights.  They  openly  asserted  them,  and  pro- 
nounced this  trade  with  the  Moluccas  by  the  Span- 
ish an  encroachment  on  their  prior  discoveries  and 
possession,  as  well  as  a  violation  of  the  Papal 
Compact  of  1494,  and  prepared  themselves  en- 
ergetically for  defense  and  offense.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Spaniards  as  openly  declared  that 
Magellan's  fleet  carried  the  first  XThristians  to  the 
Moluccas  and  by  friendly  intercourse  with  the 
kings  of  those  islands,  reduced  them  to  Chris- 
tian subjection  and  brought  back  letters  and 
tribute  to  Caesar.  Hence  these  kings  and  their 
people  came  under  the  protection  of  Charles  V. 
Besides  this,  the  Spaniards  claimed  that  the  Moluc- 
cas were  within  the  Spanish  half,  and  were  there- 
fore doubly  theirs.  .  .  .  Matters  thus  waxing  hot. 
King  John  of  Portugal  begged  Charles  V.  to  delay 
dispatching  his  new  fleet  until  the  disputed  points 
could  be  discussed  and  settled.  Charles,  who 
boasted  that  he  had  rather  be  right  than  rich, 
consented,  and  the  ships  were  staid.  These  two 
Christian  princes,  who  owned  all  the  newly  dis- 
covered and  to  be  discovered  parts  of  the  whole 
world  between  them  by  deed  of  gift  of  the  Pope, 
agreed  to  meet  in  Congress  at  Badajos  by  their 
representatives,  to  discuss  and  settle  all  matters 
in  dispute  about  the  division  of  their  patrimony, 


and  to  define  and  stake  out  their  lands  and  waters, 
both  parties  agreeing  to  abide  by  the  decision  of 
the  Congress.  Accordingly,  in  the  early  spring  of 
1524,  up  went  to  this  little  border  town  four- 
and-twenty  wise  men,  or  thereabouts,  chosen  by 
each  prince.  They  comprised  the  first  judges, 
lawyers,  mathematicians,  astronomers,  cosmogra- 
phers,  navigators  and  pilots  of  the  land,  among 
whose  names  were  many  honored  now  as  then — 
such  as  Fernando  Columbus,  Sebastian  Cabot, 
Estevan  Gomez,  Diego  Ribero,  etc.  .  .  .  The  de- 
bates and  proceedings  of  this  Congress,  as  re- 
ported by  Peter  Martyr,  Oviedo,  and  Gomara,  are 
very  amusing,  but  no  regular  joint  decision  could 
be  reached,  the  Portuguese  decUning  to  subscribe 
to  the  verdict  of  the  Spaniards,  inasmuch  as  It 
deprived  them  of  the  Moluccas.  So  each  party 
published  and  proclaimed  its  own  decision  after  the 
Congress  broke  up  in  confusion  on  the  last  day 
of  May,  1524.  It  was,  however,  tacitly  under- 
stood that  the  Moluccas  fell  to  Spain,  while  Brazil, 
to  the  extent  of  two  hundred  leagues  from  Cape 
St.  Augustine,  fell  to  the  Portuguese  .  .  .  How- 
ever, much  good  resulted  from  this  first  geograph- 
ical Congress.  The  extent  and  breadth  of  the 
Pacific  were  appreciated,  and  the  influence  of 
the  Congress  was  soon  after  seen  in  the  greatly 
improved  maps,  globes,  and  charts." — H.  Stevens, 
Historical  and  geographical  notes,  1453-1530. — • 
"For  three  months  and  twenty  days  he  [Magellan] 
sailed  on  the  Pacific  and  never  saw  inhabited 
land.  He  was  compelled  by  famine  to  strip  off 
the  pieces  of  skin  and  leather  wherewith  his 
rigging  was  here  and  there  bound,  to  soak  them 
in  the  sea  and  then  soften  them  with  warm 
water,  so  as  to  make  a  wretched  food;  to  eat  the 
sweepings  of  the  ship  and  other  loathsome  mat- 
ter; to  drink  water  gone  putrid  by  keeping;  and 
yet  he  resolutely  held  on  his  course,  though  his 
men  were  dying  daily.  ...  In  the  whole  his- 
tory of  human  undertakings  there  is  nothing  that 
exceeds,  if  indeed  there  is  anything  that  equals, 
this  voyage  of  Magellan's.  That  of  Columbus 
dwindles  away  in  comparison.  It  is  a  display  of 
superhuman  courage,  superhuman  perseverance." — 
J.  W.  Draper,  History  of  the  intellectual  de- 
velopment of  Europe,  ch.  19. — "The  voyage  [of 
Magellan]  .  .  .  was  doubtless  the  greatest  feat  of 
navigation  that  has  ever  been  performed,  and 
nothing  can  be  imagined  that  would  surpass  it 
except  a  journey  to  some  other  planet.  It  has  not 
the  unique  historic  position  of  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus,  which  brought  together  two  streams 
of  human  life  that  had  been  disjoined  since  the 
Glacial  Period.  But  as  an  achievement  in  ocean 
navigation  that  voyage  of  Columbus  sinks  into 
insignificance  by  the  side  of  it,  and  when  the  earth 
was  a  second  time  encompassed  by  the  greatest 
English  sailor  of  his  age,  the  advance  in  knowledge, 
as  well  as  the  different  route  chosen,  had  much 
reduced  the  difficulty  of  the  performance.  When 
we  consider  the  frailness  of  the  ships,  the  immeas- 
urable extent  of  the  unknown,  the  mutinies  that 
were  prevented  or  quelled,  and  the  hardships 
that  were  endured,  we  can  have  no  hesitation 
in  speaking  of  Magellan  as  the  prince  of  navi- 
gators."— J.  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  v.  2, 
ch.  7. 

.'\i-SO  in:  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley,  First  voyage 
round  the  world  (Hakluyt  Society.  1874). — R. 
Kerr,  Collection  of  voyages,  v.  10. — F.  H.  H.  Guil- 
lemard,  Life  of  Ferdinand  Magellan  and  the  first 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe  (1891). — E.  G. 
Bourne,  Spain  in  America. — C.  R.  Markham, 
Early  Spanish  voyage  (Hakluyt  Society,  2nd 
series,  v.  38,   12). 


270 


AMERICA,    1519-1525 


Voyages  of 
V  errazano 


AMERICA,  1523-1524 


1519-1525. — Voyages  of  Garay  and  Ayllon. — 
Discovery  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. — 
Exploration  of  the  Carolina  coast. — In  1519, 
Francisco  de  Garay,  governor  of  Jamaica,  who 
liad  been  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  on 
his  second  voyage,  having  heard  of  the  richness 
and  beauty  of  Yucatan,  "at  his  own  charge  sent 
•out  four  ships  well  equipped,  and  with  good 
pilots,  under  the  command  of  Alvarez  Alonso  de 
Pineda.  His  professed  object  was  to  search  for 
some  strait,  west  of  Florida,  which  was  not  yet 
certainly  known  to  form  a  part  of  the  continent. 
The  strait  having  been  sought  for  in  vain,  his  ships 
turned  toward  the  west,  attentively  examining  the 
ports,  rivers,  inhabitants,  and  everything  else  that 
seemed  worthy  of  remark;  and  especially  noticing 
the  vast  volume  of  water  brought  down  by  one 
very  large  stream.  At  last  they  came  upon  the 
track  of  Cortes  near  Vera  Cruz.  .  .  .  The  care- 
fully drawn  map  of  the  pilots  showed  distinctly 
the  Mississippi,  which,  in  this  earliest  authentic 
trace  of  its  outlet,  bears  the  name  of  the  Espiritu 
Santo.  .  .  .  But  Garay  thought  not  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  its  valley:  he  coveted  access  to  the 
wealth  of  Mexico;  and,  in  1523,  lost  fortune  and 
life  ingloriously  in  a  dispute  with  Cortes  for  the 
government  of  the  country  on  the  river  Panuco. 
A  voyage  for  slaves  brought  the  Spaniards  in 
1520  still  farther  to  the  north.  A  company  of 
seven,  of  whom  the  most  distinguished  was  Lucas 
Vasquez  de  Ayllon,  fitted  out  two  slave  ships 
from  St.  Domingo,  in  quest  of  laborers  for  their 
plantations  and  mines.  From  the  Bahama  Islands 
they  passed  to  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  which 
was  called  Chicora.  The  Combahee  river  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Jordan ;  the  name  of  St.  Helena, 
whose  day  is  the  iSth  of  August,  was  given  to  a 
cape,  but  now  belongs  to  the  sound."  Luring  a 
large  number  of  the  confiding  natives  on  board 
their  ships  the  adventurers  treacherously  set  sail 
with  them;  but  one  of  the  vessels  foundered  at 
sea,  and  most  of  the  captives  on  the  other  sick- 
ened and  died.  Vasquez  de  Ayllon  was  rewarded 
for  his  treacherous  exploit  by  being  authorized  and 
appointed  to  make  the  conquest  of  Chicora  "For 
this  bolder  enterprise  the  undertaker  wasted  his 
fortune  in  preparations;  in  1525  his  largest  ship 
was  stranded  in  the  river  Jordan ;  many  of  his 
men  were  killed  by  the  natives ;  and  he  himself 
escaped  only  to  suffer  from  the  consciousness  of 
having  done  nothing  worthy  of  honor  Yet  it  may 
be  that  ships,  sailing  under  his  authority,  made 
the  discovery  of  the  Chesapeake  and  named  it  the 
bay  of  St.  Mary;  and  perhaps  even  entered  the 
bay  of  Delaware,  which,  in  Spanish  geography, 
was  called  St.  Christopher's." — G  Bancroft,  History 
of  the   United  States,  pt.   i,  cli.   2. 

Also  in:  H,  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific 
states,  V.  4,  ch.  11,  and  v.  J,  ch.  6-7. — W.  G 
Simms,  History  of  South  Carolina,  bk.  i,  ch.  i. 

1523-1524. — Voyages  of  Verrazano. — First  un- 
dertakings of  France  in  the  New  World. — "It  is 
constantly  admitted  in  our  history  that  our  kings 
paid  no  attention  to  America  before  the  year 
1523  Then  Francis  I.,  wishing  to  excite  the  emu 
lation  of  his  subjects  in  regard  to  navigation  and 
commerce,  as  he  had  already  so  successfully  in 
regard  to  the  sciences  and  fine  arts,  ordered  John 
Verazani,  who  was  in  his  service,  to  go  and  ex- 
plore the  New  Lands,  which  began  to  be  much 
talked  of  in  France  .  .  Verazani  was  accord- 
ingly sent,  in  i,';23,  with  four  ships  to  discover 
North  America ;  Ijut  our  historians  have  not  spoken 
of  his  first  expedition,  and  we  should  be  in  igno- 
rance of  it  now,  had  not  Ramusio  preserved  in  his 
great   collection  a  letter   of  Verazani  himself    ad- 


dressed to  Francis  I.  and  dated  Dieppe,  July  8, 
1524.  In  it  he  supposes  the  king  already  informed 
of  the  success  and  details  of  the  voyage,  so  that 
he  contents  himself  with  stating  that  he  sailed 
from  Dieppe  in  four  vessels,  which  he  had  safely 
brought  back  to  that  port.  In  January,  1524,  he 
sailed  with  two  ships,  the  Dauphine  and  the  Nor- 
mande,  to  cruise  against  the  Spaniards.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  same  year,  or  early  in  the  next, 
he  again  fitted  out  the  Dauphine,  on  which,  em- 
barking with  50  men  and  provisions  for  eight 
months,  he  first  sailed  to  the  island  of  Madeira." — 
Father  Charlevoix,  History  of  New  France  (trans- 
lated by  J.  G.  Shea),  bk.  i.— "On  the  17th  of 
January,  1524,  he  [Verrazano]  parted  from  the 
'Islas  desiertas,'  a  well-known  little  group  of  is- 
lands near  Madeira,  and  sailed  at  first  westward, 
running  in  25  days  500  leagues,  with  a  light  and 
pleasant  easterly  breeze,  along  the  northern  bor- 
der of  the  trade  winds,  in  about  30"  N.  His 
track  was  consequently  nearly  like  that  of  Colum- 
bus on  his  first  voyage.  On  the  14th  of  February 
he  met  'with  as  violent  a  hurricane  as  any  ship 
ever  encountered.'  But  he  weathered  it,  and  pur- 
sued his  voyage  to  the  west,  'with  a  little  deviation 
to  the  north;'  when,  after  having  sailed  24  days 
and  400  leagues,  he  decried  a  new  country  which, 
as  he  supposed,  had  never  before  been  seen 
either  by  modern  or  ancient  navigators.  The 
country  was  very  low.  From  the  above  descrip- 
tion it  is  evident  that  Verrazano  came  in  sight  of 
the  east  coast  of  the  United  States  about  the  loth 
of  March,  1524.  He  places  his  land-fall  in  34° 
N.,  which  is  the  latitude  of  Cape  Fear."  He 
first  sailed  southward,  for  about  50  leagues,  he 
states,  looking  for  a  harbor  and  finding  none. 
He  then  turned  northward.  "I  infer  that  Verra- 
zano saw  little  of  the  coast  of  South  Carolina 
and  nothing  of  that  of  Georgia,  and  that  in  these 
regions  he  can,  at  most,  be  called  the  discoverer 
only  of  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  ...  He 
rounded  Cape  Hatteras,  and  at  a  distance  of  about 
SO  leagues  came  to  another  shore,  where  he  an- 
chored and  spent  several  days.  .  .  .  This  was 
the  second  principal  landing-place  of  Verrazano 
If  we  reckon  50  leagues  from  Cape  Hatteras,  it 
would  fall  somewhere  upon  the  east  coast  of 
Delaware,  in  latitude  38°  N.,  where,  by  some 
authors,  it  is  thought  to  have  been.  But  if,  as 
appears  most  likely,  Verrazano  reckoned  his  dis- 
tance here,  as  he  did  in  other  cases,  from  his  last 
anchoring,  and  not  from  Cape  Hatteras,  we  must 
look  for  his  second  landing  somewhere  south  of 
the  entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  near  the  en- 
trance to  Albemarle  Sound.  And  this  better 
agrees  with  the  'sail  of  100  leagues'  which  Ver- 
razano says  he  made  from  his  second  to  his  third 
landing-place,  in  New  York  Bay.  ...  He  found 
at  this  third  landing  station  an  excellent  berth, 
where  he  came  to  anchor,  well-protected  from 
the  winds,  .  .  .  and  from  which  he  ascended  the 
river  in  his  boat  into  the  interior.  He  found 
the  shores  very  thicklv  settled,  and  as  he  passed 
up  half  a  league  further,  he  discovered  a  most 
beautiful  lake  ...  of  three  leagues  in  circum- 
ference Here,  more  than  30  canoes  came  to  him 
with  a  multitude  of  people,  who  seemed  very 
friendly  .  .  This  description  contains  several  ac- 
counts which  make  it  still  more  clear  that  the 
Bay  of  New  York  was  the  scene  of  these  occur- 
rences"— Verrazano's  anchorage  having  been  at 
Gravesend  Bay,  the  river  which  he  entered  being 
the  Narrows,  and  the  lake  he  found  being  the 
Inner  Harbor  From  New  York  Bay  Verrazano 
sailed  eastward,  along  the  southern  shore  of  Long 
Island,   and   following    the   New    England   coast, 


271 


AMERICA,  1524 


Voyage  of  the 
Dauphine 


AMERICA,  1524 


(ouching  at  or  describing  points  which  are  iden- 
tified with  Narragansett  Bay  and  Newport,  Blocli 
Island  or  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  Portsmouth. 
His  coasting  voyage  was  pursued  as  far  as  50'  N., 
from  which  point  he  sailed  homeward.  "He  en- 
tered the  port  of  Dieppe  early  in  July,  15:4.  Hia 
whole  exploring  expedition,  from  Madeira  and 
back,  had  accordingly  lasted  but  five  and  a  half 
months." — J.  G.  Kohl,  History  of  the  discovery 
of  Maine  (Maine  Historical  Society  Collection, 
2d  Series,  v.  i,  cli.  8) . 

1524. — Verrazano's  voyage  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America. — Letter  of  Bernardo 
Carli  to  his  father  about  Verrazano's  voyage. — 
"So  there  being  here  news  recently  of  the  ar- 
rival of  Captain  Giovanni  da  Verrazano,  our 
Florentine,  at  the  port  of  Dieppe,  in  Normandy, 
with  his  ship,  the  Dauphine,  with  which  he  sailed 
from  the  Canary  islands  the  end  of  last  January, 
to  go  in  search  of  new  lands  for  this  most  serene 
crown  of  France  in  which  he  displayed  very 
noble  and  great  courage  in  undertaking  such  an 
unknown  voyage  with   only   one  ship,  which   was 

a  caraval  of  hardly tons,  with  only  fifty  men, 

with  the  intention,  if  possible,  of  discovering 
Cathay  [China],  taking  a  course  through  other 
climates  than  those  the  Portuguese  use  in  reach- 
ing it  by  the  way  of  Calicut  [Calcutta],  but  going 
towards  the  northwest  and  north,  entirely  believing 
that,  although  Ptolemy,  .-Aristotle  and  other  cos- 
mographers  affirm  that  no  land  is  to  be  found  to- 
wards such  climates,  he  would  find  it  there  never- 
theless. And  so  God  has  vouchsafed  him  as  he 
distinctly  describes  in  a  letter  of  his  to  this 
S.M.;  of  which,  in  this,  there  is  a  copy.  And  for 
want  of  provisions,  after  many  months  spent  in 
navigating,  he  asserts  he  was  forced  to  return 
from  that  hemisphere  into  this,  and  having  been 
seven  months  on  the  voyage,  to  show  a  very  great 
and  rapid  passage,  and  to  have  achieved  a  won- 
derful and  most  extraordinary  feat  according  to 
those  who  understand  the  seamanship  of  the  world. 
Of  which  at  the  commencement  of  his  said  voyage 
there  was  an  unfavorable  opinion  formed,  and 
many  thought  there  would  be  no  more  news  either 
of  him  or  of  his  vessel,  but  that  he 'might  be 
lost  on  that  side  of  Norway,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  ice  which  is  in  that  northern  ocean; 
but  the  Great  God,  as  the  Moor  said,  in  order 
to  give  us  every  day  proofs  of  his  infinite  power 
and  show  us  how  admirable  is  this  worldly  ma- 
chine, has  disclosed  to  him  a  breadth  of  land, 
as  you  will  perceive,  of  such  extent  that  according 
to  good  reasons,  and  the  degrees  of  latitude  and 
longtitude,  he  alleges  and  shows  it  greater  than 
Europe,  Africa  and  a  part  of  Asia;  ergo  mundiis 
novus  [Note. — Translation:  'therefore  a  new 
world.'  Ed]  :  and  this  exclusive  of  what  the 
Spaniards  have  discovered  in  several  years  in 
the  west.  .  .  .  What  this  our  captain  has  brought 
he  does  not  state  in  this  letter,  except  a  very 
young  man  taken  from  those  countries;  but  it  is 
supposed  he  has  brought  a  sample  of  gold  which 
they  do  not  value  in  those  parts,  and  of  drugs 
and  other  aromatic  liquors  for  the  purpose  of 
conferring  here  with  several  merchants  after  he 
shall  have  been  in  the  presence  of  the  Most  Serene 
Majesty.  And  at  this  hour  he  ought  to  be  there, 
and  from  choice  to  come  here  shortly,  as  he  is 
much  desired  in  order  to  converse  with  him; 
the  more  so  that  he  will  find  here  the  Majesty, 
the  King,  our  Lord,  who  is  expected  here  in  three 
or  four  days.  And  we  hope  that  S.M.  will  en- 
trust him  again  with  half  a  dozen  good  vessels 
and  that  he  will  return  to  the  voyage.  And  if 
our    Francisco    Carli    be    returned    from    Cairo, 


advise  him  to  go,  at  a  venture,  on  the  said  voyage 
with  him;  and  I  believe  they  were  acquainted  at 
Cairo  where  he  has  been  several  years;  and  not 
only  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  but  almost  through  all 
the  known  world,  and  thence  by  reason  of  his 
merit  is  esteemed  another  Amerigo  Vespucci;  an- 
other Fernando  Magellan  and  even  more;  and  we 
hope  that  being  provided  with  other  good  ships 
and  vessels,  well  built  and  properly  victualled,  he 
may  discover  some  profitable  traffic  and  matter; 
and  will,  our  Lord  God  granting  him  life,  do 
honor  to  our  country,  in  acquiring  immortal  fame 
and  memory." 

History  of  the  Dauphine  and  its  voyage. — 
Selections  from  a  letter  of  the  Navigator 
Giovanni  da  Verrazano  to  the  King  of  France, 
Francis  I,  Patron  and  Director  of  the  Explora- 
tion, about  the  Voyage  which  He  Made  along  the 
Eastern  Coast  of  the  Present  United  States  and 
during  which  He  Entered  the  Harbor  of  the 
Present  City  of  New  York.) 

From  Madeira  to  the  New  World. — Tempest 
ON  the  ocean. — "From  the  deserted  rock  near  to 
the  island  of  Madeira  of  the  Most  Serene  King 
of  Portugal  a-  (Note  a — commencing  1524.) 
[Lettered  notes  are  the  annotations  found  in 
the  manuscnpt  Ed.j  with  the  said  Dau- 
phine, on  the  XVII  of  the  month  of 
January  past,  with  fifty  men,  furnished  with  vic- 
tuals, arms  and  other  instruments  of  war  and 
naval  munitions  for  eight  months,  we  departed, 
sailing  westward  by  an  east-south-east  wind  blow- 
ing with  sweet  and  gentle  lenity.  In  XXV  days  we 
sailed  eight  hundred  leagues.  The  XXIIII  days 
of  February  ^  (Note  a — perhaps  16  hours)  we 
suffered  a  tempest  as  severe  as  ever  a  man  who 
has  navigated  suffered.  From  which,  with  the 
divine  aid  and  the  goodness  of  the  ship,  adapted 
by  its  glorious  name  and  fortunate  destiny  to 
support  the  violent  waves  of  the  sea,  we  were  de- 
livered. We  pursued  our  navigation  continuously 
toward  the  west,  holding  somewhat  to  the  north 
In  XXV  more  days  we  sailed  more  than  400  leagues 
where  there  appeared  to  us  a  new  land  never  be- 
more  seen  by  anyone,  ancient  or  modern." 

Land  first  seen  in  34°  North  latitude. — "At 
first  it  appeared  rather  low;  having  approached 
to  within  a  quarter  of  a  league,  we  perceived  it, 
by  the  great  fires  built  on  the  shore  of  the  sea, 
to  be  inhabited  We  saw  that  it  ran  toward 
the  south ;  following  it,  to  find  some  port  where 
we  could  anchor  with  the  ship  and  investigate  its 
nature,  in  the  space  of  fifty  leagues  we  did  not 
find  a  port  or  any  place  where  it  was  possible  to 
stay  with  the  ship.  And  having  seen  that  it 
trended  continually  to  the  south^',  (Note  6 — 
in  order  not  to  meet  with  the  Spaniards)  we  de- 
cided to  turn  about  to  coast  it  toward  the  north, 
where  we  found  the  same  place.  (Note — ^That  is, 
to  the  place  where  he  first  came  in  sight  of 
land — about  34  degrees  north  latitude.)  We  an- 
chored by  the  coast,  sending  the  small  boat  to 
land.  We  had  seen  many  people  who  came  to 
the  shore  of  the  sea  and  seeing  us  approach  fled, 
sometimes  halting,  turning  back,  looking  with 
great  admiration.  Reassuring  them  by  various 
signs,  some  of  them  approached,  showing  great 
delight  at  seeing  us,  marvelling  at  our  clothes,  fig- 
ures and  whiteness,  making  to  us  various  signs 
where  we  could  land  more  conveniently  with  the 
small  boat,  offering  to  us  of  their  foods." 

First  landing  and  the  first  indigenes. — "We 
were  on  land,  and  that  which  we  were  able  to  learn 
of  their  life  and  customs  I  will  tell  Your  Majesty 
briefly:  They  go  nude  of  everything  except  that 
.  .  .  they   wear   some  skins  of  little  animals  like 


272 


^S8T?rr-r-.° 


M  U  D&OtsI 


CORTEZ 


AMERICAN  EXPLORERS 


AMERICA,  1524 


Voyage  of  the 
Dauphine 


AMERICA,  1524 


martens,  a  girdle  of  fine  grass  woven  with  various 
tails  of  other  animals  which  hang  around  the 
body  as  far  as  the  knees;  the  rest  nude;  the  head 
likewise.  Some  wear  certain  garlands  of  feathers 
of  birds.  They  are  of  dark  color  not  much  un- 
like the  Ethiopians,  and  hair  black  and  thick, 
and  not  very  long,  which  they  tie  together  back 
on  the  head  in  the  shape  of  a  little  tail.  As  for 
the  symmetry  of  the  men,  they  are  well  propor- 
tioned, of  medium  stature,  and  rather  exceed  us. 
In  the  breast  they  are  broad,  their  arms  well 
built,  the  legs  and  other  parts  of  the  body  well 
put  together.  There  is  nothing  else,  except  that 
they  incline  somewhat  to  broadness  in  the  face ; 
but  not  all,  for  in  more  we  saw  the  face  clear- 
cut.  The  eyes  black  and  large,  the  glance  intent 
and  quick.  They  are  not  of  much  strength,  in 
craftiness  acute,  agile  and  the  greatest  runners. 
From  what  we  were  able  to  learn  by  experience, 
they  resemble  in  the  la.st  two  respects  the  Orien- 
tals, and  mostly  those  of  the  farthest  Sinarian 
regions.  (Note — Ramusio's  text  has  the  'regions 
of  China.')  We  were  not  able  to  learn  with  par- 
ticularity of  the  life  and  customs  of  these  people 
because  of  the  shortness  of  the  stay  we  made  on 
land,  on  account  there  being  few  people  and  the 
ship  anchored  in  the  high  sea."  [Here  follows  a 
description  of  the  country  and  the  climate  in  the 
vicinity   of  the  Carolinas.] 

Sailor  among  the  indigenes. — "We  left  this 
place  continually  skirting  the  coast,  which 
we  found  turned  to  the  east.  Seeing  every- 
where great  fires  on  account  of  the  mul- 
titude of  the  inhabitants,  anchoring  there  off 
the  shore  because  it  did  not  contain  any  port,  on 
account  of  the  need  of  water  we  sent  the  little 
boat  to  land  with  XXV  men.  Because  of  the 
very  large  waves  which  the  sea  cast  up  on  the 
shore  on  account  of  the  strand  being  open,  it  was 
not  possible  without  danger  of  losing  the  boat  for 
any  one  to  land.  We  saw  many  people  on  shore 
making  us  various  signs  of  friendship,  motioning 
us  ashore ;  among  whom  I  saw  a  magnificent 
deed,  as  Your  Majesty  will  hear.  Sending  ashore 
by  swimming  one  of  our  young  sailors  carrying 
to  them  some  trinkets,  such  as  little  bells,  mirrors, 
and  other  favors,  and  being  approached  within  4 
fathoms  of  them,  throwing  the  goods  to  them  and 
wishing  to  turn  back  he  was  so  tossed  by  the 
waves  that  almost  half  dead  he  was  carried  to 
the  edge  of  the  shore.  Which  having  been  seen, 
the  people  of  the  land  ran  immediately  to  him; 
taking  him  by  the  head,  legs  and  arms,  they 
carried  him  some  distance  away.  Where,  the 
youth,  seeing  himself  carried  in  such  way,  stricken 
with  terror,  uttered  very  loud  cries,  which  they 
did  similarly  in  their  language,  showing  him  that 
he  should  not  fear.  After  that,  having  placed  him 
on  the  ground  in  the  sun  at  the  foot  of  a  little 
hill,  they  performed  great  acts  of  admiration,  re- 
garding the  whiteness  of  his  flesh,  examining  him 
from  head  to  foot.  Taking  off  his  shirt  and  hose, 
leaving  him  nude,  they  made  a  very  large  fire 
near  him,  placing  him  near  the  heat.  Which  hav- 
ing been  seen,  the  sailors  who  had  remained  in  the 
small  boat,  full  of  fear,  as  is  their  custom  in  every 
new  case,  thought  that  they  wanted  to  roast  him 
for  food  His  strength  recovered,  having  remained 
with  them  awhile,  he  showed  by  signs  that  he 
desired  to  return  to  the  ship;  who,  with  the 
greatest  kindness,  holding  him  always  close  with 
various  embraces,  accompanied  him  as  far  as  the 
sea,  and  in  order  to  assure  him  more,  extending 
themselves  on  a  high  hill,  stood  to  watch  him 
until  he  was  in  the  boat.  Which  young  man 
learned  of  this  people  that  they  are  thus:  of  dark 


color  like  the  others,  the  flesh  more  lustrous,  of 
medium  stature,  the  face  more  clear-cut,  much 
more  delicate  of  body  and  other  members,  of 
much  less  strength  and  even  of  intelligence.  He 
saw  nothing  else."  [Here  follows  an  annota- 
tion on  the  names  which  Verrazano  gave  to  various 
places  in  this  locality.] 

Three  days  in  'Arcadia'  (Note — Maryland  or 
Delaware) :  A  boy  stolen. — "Having  departed 
thence,  following  always  the  shore  which 
turned  somewhat  toward  the  north,  we  came 
in  the  space  of  fifty  leagues  to  another 
land  which  appeared  much  more  beautiful  and 
full  of  the  largest  forests.  Anchoring  at  which, 
XX  men  going  about  two  leagues  inland,  we  found 
the  people  through  fear  had  fled  to  the  woods. 
Seeking  everywhere,  we  met  with  a  very  old 
woman  and  a  damsel  of  from  XVIII  to  XX  years, 
who  through  fear  had  hidden  themselves  in  the 
grass.  The  old  one  had  two  little  girls  whom  she 
carried  on  the  shoulders,  and  back  on  the  neck 
a  boy,  all  of  eight  years  of  age.  The  young 
woman  had  as  many  .  .  .  but  all  girls.  Hav- 
ing approached  toward  whom,  they  began  to 
cry  out,  [and]  the  old  woman  to  make  signs 
to  us  that  the  men  had  fled  to  the  woods.  We 
gave  them  to  eat  of  our  viands,  which  she  ac- 
cepted with  great  gusto;  the  young  woman  re- 
fused everything  and  with  anger  threw  it  to  the 
ground.  We  took  the  boy  from  the  old  woman 
to  carry  to  France,  and  wishing  to  take  the  young 
woman,  who  was  of  much  beauty  and  of  tall 
stature,  it  was  not  however  possible,  on  account 
of  the  very  great  cries  which  she  uttered,  for 
us  to  conduct  her  to  the  sea.  And  having  to  pass 
through  some  woods,  being  far  from  the  ship,  we 
decided   to    release    her,    carrying    only    the    boy." 

Textile  plants  and  the  grapes:  the  offering 
OF  FIRE. — Here  is  given  a  description  of  the  prod- 
ucts found  in  the  vicinity  of  Maryland  and  Dela- 
ware] "Having  remained  in  this  place  three  days, 
anchored  off  the  coast,  we  decided  on  account  of 
the  scarcity  of  ports  to  depart,  always  skirting  the 
shore''- .  (Note  a — which  we  baptized  Arcadia  on 
account  of  the  beauty  of  the  trees.)  In  Arcadia 
we  found  a  man  who  came  to  the  shore  to  see 
what  people  we  were ;  who  stood  hesitating  and 
ready  for  flight.  Watching  us,  he  did  not  permit 
himself  to  be  approached.  He  was  handsome, 
nude,  with  hair  fastened  back  in  a  knot,  of  olive 
color.  We  were  about  XX  [in  number]  ashore 
and  coaxing  him  he  approached  to  within  about 
two  fathoms,  showing  a  burning  stick  as  if  to 
offer  us  fire.  .\n6  we  made  fire  with  powder  and 
flint-and-steel  and  he  trembled  all  over  with  ter- 
ror and  we  fired  a  shot.  He  stopped  as  if  as- 
tonished and  prayed,  worshipping  like  a  monk,  lift- 
ing his  finger  toward  the  sky,  and  pointing  to  the 
ship  and  the  sea  he  appeared  to  bless  us.  [We 
sailed]  toward  the  north  and  east,  navigating  by 
daylight  and  casting  anchor  at  nights.  (Note  6 — 
we  followed  a  coast  very  green  with  forests  but 
without  ports,  and  with  some  charming  promon- 
tories and  small  rivers.  We  baptized  the  coast 
'di  Lorenna'  on  account  of  the  Cardinal;  the  first 
promontory  'Lanzone,"  the  second  'Bonivetto,'  the 
largest  river  'Vandoma,'  and  a  small  mountain 
which  stands  by  the  sea  'di  S.  Polo'  on  account 
of   the    Count.)" 

Land  of  Angouleme,  Bay  Saint  Margherita 
(New  York),  River  Vendome  (Hudson),  Island 
OF  Queen  Louisa' (Block  Island?). — "At  the  end 
of  a  hundred  leagues  we  found  a  very  agree- 
able situation  located  within  two  small  promi- 
nent hills,  in  the  midst  of  which  flowed  to  the  sea 
a   very   great   river,   which   was   deep   within    the 


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Dauphinc 


AMERICA,  1524 


mouth;  and  iTom  the  sea  to  the  hills  of  that 
[place]  with  the  rising  of  the  tides,  which  we 
found  eight  feet,  any  laden  ship  might  have  passed. 
On  account  of  being  anchored  off  the  coast  in 
good  shelter,  we  did  not  wish  to  adventure  in  with- 
out knowledge  of  the  entrances.  We  were  with 
the  small  boat,  entering  the  said  river  to  the 
land,  which  we  found  much  populated.  The  peo- 
ple, almost  like  the  others,  clothed  with  the 
feathers  of  birds  of  various  colors,  came  toward 
us  joyfully,  uttering  very  great  exclamations  of 
admiration,  showing  us  where  we  could  land  with 
the  boat  more  safely.  We  entered  said  river, 
within  the  land,  about  half  a  league,  where  we 
saw  it  made  a  very  beautiful  lake  with  a  circuit 
of  about  three  leagues;  through  which  they  [the 
Indians]  went,  going  from  one  and  another  part  to 
the  number  of  XXX  of  their  little  barges,  with 
innumerable  [jeoplc,  who  passed  from  one  shore 
and  the  other  in  order  to  see  us.  In  an  instant, 
as  is  wont  to  happen  in  navigation,  a  gale  of  un- 
favorable wind  blowing  in  from  the  sea,  we  were 
forced  to  return  to  the  ship,  leaving  the  said 
land  with  much  regret  because  of  its  commodious- 
ness  and  beauty,  thinking  it  was  not  without  some 
properties  of  value,  all  of  its  hills  showing  indica- 
tions of  minerals.'-  (Note  a — called  Angoleme 
from  the  principality  which  thou  attainedst  in 
lesser  fortune,  and  the  bay  which  that  land  makes 
Santa  Margherita  from  the  name  of  the  sister 
who  vanquishes  the  other  matrons  of  modesty  and 
art.)  The  anchor  raised,  sailing  toward  the  east, 
as  thus  the  land  turned,  having  traveled  LXXX 
leagues  always  in  sight  of  it,  we  discovered  an 
island  triangular  in  form,  distant  ten  leagues  from 
the  continent,  in  size  like  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
full  of  hills,  covered  with  trees,  much  populated 
[judging]  by  the  continuous  fires  along  all  the 
surrounding  shore  which  we  saw  they  made.  W'e 
baptized  it  in  the  name  of  your  most  illustrious 
mother'"  (Note  6 — Aloysia)  ;  not  anchoring  there 
on  account  of  the  unfavorableness  of  the  weather." 
"Refugio,"  the  very  beautiful  port  (New- 
port), AND  ITS  TWO  KINGS. — "We  Came  to  another 
land,  distant  from  the  island  XV  leagues,  where  we 
found  a  very  beautiful  port,  and  before  we  entered 
it,  we  saw  about  XX  barges  of  the  people  who 
came  with  various  cries  of  wonder  round  about  the 
ship.  Not  approaching  nearer  than  fifty  paces, 
they  halted,  looking  at  the  edifice  [that  is,  the 
ship],  our  figures  and  clothes;  then  altogether 
they  uttered  a  loud  shout,  signifying  that  they 
were  glad.  Having  reassured  them  somewhat, 
imitating  their  gestures,  they  came  so  near  that 
we  threw  them  some  little  bells  and  mirrors  and 
many  trinkets,  having  taken  which,  regarding 
them  with  laughter,  they  entered  the  ship  con- 
fidently. There  were  among  them  two  Kings,  of 
as  good  stature  and  form  as  it  would  be  possible 
to  tell;  the  first  of  about  XXXX  years,  the  other 
a  young  man  of  XXIIII  years,  the  clothing  of 
whom  was  thus:  the  older  had  on  his  nude  body 
a  skin  of  a  stag,  artificially  adorned  like  a  damask 
with  various  embroideries;  the  head  bare,  the  hair 
turned  back  with  various  bands,  at  the  neck  a 
broad  chain  ornamented  with  many  stones  of 
diverse  colors.  The  young  man  w.as  almost  in  the 
same  style.  This  is  the  most  beautiful  people 
and  the  most  civilized  in  customs  that  we  have 
found  in  this  navigation.  They  excel  us  in  size; 
they  are  of  bronze  color,  some  inclining  more 
to  whiteness,  others  to  tawnv  color;  the  face 
sharply  cut,  the  hair  long  and  black,  upon  which 
they  bestow  the  greatest  study  in  adorning  it ;  the 
eyes  black  and  alert,  the  bearing  kind  and  gentle, 
imitating    much    the    ancient    [manner].     Of    the 


other  parts  of  the  body  I  will  not  speak  to  Your 
Majesty,  having  all  the  proportions  which  belong 
to  every  well  built  man.  Their  women  are  of  the 
same  beauty  and  charm ;  very  graceful ;  of  comely 
mien  and  agreeable  aspect;  of  habits  and  be- 
havior as  much  according  to  womanly  custom  as 
pertains  to  human  nature;  they  go  nude  with  only 
one  skin  of  the  stag  embroidered  like  the  men, 
and  some  wear  on  the  arras  very  rich  skins  of  the 
lynx;  the  head  bare,  with  various  arrangements 
of  braids,  composed  of  their  own  hair,  which 
hang  on  one  side  and  the  other  on  the  breast. 
Some  use  other  hair-arrangements  like  the  women 
of  Egypt  and  of  S\  ria  use,  and  these  are  they 
who  are  advanced  in  age  and  are  joined  in  wed- 
lock. They  have  in  the  ears  various  pendent 
trinkets  as  the  orientals  are  accustomed  to  have, 
the  men  like  the  women,  among  which  we  saw 
many  plates  wrought  from  copper,  by  whom  it 
is  prized  more  than  gold;  which,  on  account  of 
its  color,  they  do  not  esteem;  wherefore  among 
all  it  is  held  by  them  more  worthless ;  on  the 
other  hand  rating  blue  and  red  above  any  other. 
That  which  they  were  given  by  us  which  they 
most  valued  were  little  bells,  blue  crystals  and 
other  trinkets  to  place  in  the  ears  and  on  the 
neck.  They  did  not  prize  cloth  of  silk  and  of 
gold  nor  even  of  other  kind,  nor  did  they  care 
to  have  them;  likewise  with  metals  like  steel  and 
iron ;  for  many  times  showing  them  our  arms  they 
did  not  conceive  admiration  for  them  nor  ask  for 
them,  only  examining  the  workmanship.  They 
did  the  same  with  the  mirrors;  suddenly  looking 
at  them,  they  refused  them  laughing.  They  are 
very  liberal,  so  much  so  that  all  which  they 
have  they  give  away.  We  formed  a  great  friend- 
ship with  them,  and  one  day,  before  we  had 
ente''ed  with  the  ship  in  the  port,  remaining  on 
account  of  the  unfavorable  weather  conditions 
anchored  a  league  at  sea,  they  came  in  great  num- 
bers in  their  little  barges  to  the  ship,  having 
painted  and  decked  the  face  with  various  colors, 
showing  to  us  it  was  evidence  of  good  feeling, 
bringing  to  us  of  their  food,  signaling  to  us  where 
for  the  safety  of  the  ship  we  ought  anchor  in 
the  port,  continually  accompanying  us  until  we 
cast  anchor  there." 

Fifteen  days  among  the  indigenes  of  "Refu- 
gio."— "In  which  we  remained  XV  days,  supplying 
ourselves  with  many  necessities;  where  every  day 
the  people  came  to  see  us  at  the  ship,  bringing 
their  women,  of  whom  they  are  very  careful ; 
because,  entering  the  ship  themselves,  remaining  a 
long  time,  they  made  their  women  stay  in  the 
barges,  and  however  many  entreaties  we  made 
them,  offering  to  give  them  various  things,  it  was 
not  possible  that  they  would  allow  them  to  enter 
the  ship.  And  one  of  the  two  Kings  (Note — 
When  Roger  Williams  went  to  this  same  country 
over  a  century  later  he  found  that  they  had  two 
chief  kings  or  sachems,  Canonicus  and  Mianto- 
nomo)  coming  many  times  with  the  Queen  and 
many  attendants  through  their  desire  to  see  us, 
at  first  always  stopped  on  a  land  distant  from 
us  two  hundred  paces,  sending  a  boat  to  inform 
us  of  their  coming,  saying  they  wished  to  come 
to  see  the  ship ;  doing  this  for  a  kind  of  safety. 
\nA  when  they  had  the  response  from  us,  they 
came  quickly,  and  having  stood  awhile  to  look, 
hearing  the  noisy  clamor  of  the  sailor  crowd,  sent 
the  Queen  with  her  damsels  in  a  very  light  barge 
to  stay  on  a  little  island  distant  from  us  a  quarter 
of  a  league ;  himself  remaining  a  very  long  time, 
discoursing  by  signs  and  gestures  of  various  fanci- 
ful ideas,  examining  all  the  equipments  of  the 
ship,    asking    especially    their    purpose,    imitating 

274 


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Discovery 
of  Peru 


AMERICA,   1524-1528 


our  manners,  tasting  our  foods,  then  parted  from 
us  benignantly.  And  one  time,  our  people  re- 
maining two  or  three  days  on  a  httle  island  near 
the  ship  for  various  necessities  as  is  the  custom 
of  sailors,  he  came  with  seven  or  eight  of  his 
attendants,  watching  our  operations,  asking  many 
times  if  we  wished  to  remain  there  for  a  long 
time,  offering  us  his  every  help.  Then,  shooting 
with  the  bow,  running,  he  performed  with  his  at- 
tendants various  games  to  give  us  pleasure.  .  .  ." 
[Here  follows  a  description  of  the  land  and  the 
products  in  the  vicinity  of  Newport.  This  is 
followed  by  a  description  of  the  coasts  of  Cape  Cod 
and  those  to  the  north  of  that  cape.  Then  follows 
a  description  of  the  Indians  living  along  those 
coasts.] 

The  return. — "We  departed,  skirting  the  coast 
between  east  and  north.  .  .  .  [Here  follows 
a  description  of  a  coast  with  many  islands,  prob- 
ably the  coast  of  Maine.]  Navigating  between 
east-south-east  and  north-north-east,  in  the  space 
of  CL  leagues  we  came  near  the  land  which  the 
Britons  found  in  the  past,  which  stands  in  fifty 
degrees,  and  having  consumed  all  our  naval  stores 
and  victuals,  having  discovered  six  hundred  leagues 
and  more  of  new  land,  furnishing  ourselves  with 
water  and  wood,  we  decided  to  turn  toward 
France.  .  .  ." 

Object  of  the  voyage. — "My  intention  was  in 
this  navigation  to  reach  Cathay  and  the 
extreme  east  of  Asia,  not  expecting  to  find 
such  an  obstacle  of  new  land  as  I  found ;  and  if 
for  some  reason  I  expected  to  find  it,  I  thought 
it  to  be  not  without  some  strait  to  penetrate  to 
the  Eastern  Ocean.  And  this  has  been  the  opin- 
ion of  all  the  ancients,  believing  certainly  our 
Western  Ocean  to  be  one  with  the  Eastern  Ocean 
of  India  without  interposition  of  land.  This 
Aristotle  affirms,  arguing  by  many  similitudes, 
which  opinion  is  very  contrary  to  the  moderns 
and  according  to  experience  untrue.  Because  the 
land  has  been  found  by  them  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  another  world  with  respect  to  the  one 
which  was  known  to  them,  it  manifestly  shows 
itself  to  be  larger  than  our  Europe  and  Africa  and 
almost  Asia,  if  we  estimate  correctly  its  size; 
as  briefly  I  will  give  Your  Majesty  a  little  ac- 
count of  it." 

New  lands  form  a  great  continent. — [Here 
are  put  some  more  mathematical  calculations.] 
"On  the  other  hand,  we,  in  this  navigation 
made  by  order  of  Your  Majesty  beyond  Q2 
degrees,  etc.,  from  said  meridian  toward  the  west 
to  the  land  we  first  found  in  34  degrees'^,  (Note  a 
— land  near  Temistitan)  navigated  300  leagues 
between  east  and  north  and  almost  400  leagues 
to  the  east  uninterruptedly  along  the  shore  of  the 
land,  attaining  to  54  degrees,  leaving  the  land  that 
the  Lusitanians''  (Note  b — that  is,  Bacalaia,  so 
called  from  a  fish)  found  a  long  time  ago,  which 
they  followed  farther  north  as  far  as  the  Arctic 
circle  leaving  the  end  unknown.  Therefore  the 
northern  latitude  joined  with  the  southern,  that  is, 
54  degrees  with  66  degrees,  make  120  degrees,  more 
latitude  than  Africa  and  Europe  contain,  because 
joining  the  extremity  of  Europe  which  the  limits 
of  Norway  form  [and]  which  stand  in  71  degrees 
with  the  extremity  of  Africa,  which  is  the  Promon- 
tory of  Good  Hope  in  35  degrees,  makes  only  106 
degrees,  and  if  the  terrestrial  area  of  said  land 
corresponds  in  extent  to  the  seashore,  there  is  no 
doubt  it  exceeds  Asia  in  size.  ...  In  such  way 
we  find  the  globe  of  the  Earth  much  larger  than 
the  ancients  have  held  and  contrary  to  the  Mathe- 
maticians who  have  considered  that  relatively  to 
the   water   it    [the   land]    was  smaller,   which   we 


have  found  by  experience  to  be  the  reverse.  And 
as  for  the  corporeal  area  of  space,  we  judge  there 
cannot  be  less  land  than  water,  as  I  hope  on  a 
better  occasion  by  further  reasoning  to  make 
clear    and   proven   to    Your   Majesty." 

New  World  is  isolated. — "All  this  land  or 
New  World  which  above  I  have  described  is  con- 
nected together,  not  adjoining  Asia  nor  Africa 
(which  I  know  to  a  certainty)  ;  it  may  join  Europe 
by  Norway  and  Russia ;  which  would  be  false  ac- 
cording to  the  ancients,  who  declare  almost  all  the 
north  from  the  promontory  of  the  Cimbri  to 
have  been  navigated  to  the  east,  going  around  as 
far  as  the  Caspian  Sea  itself  they  affirm.  It  would 
therefore  remain  included  between  two  seas,  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  the  Western,  and  that,  ac- 
cordingly (secondo),  shuts  off  one  from  the  other; 
because  beyond  54  degrees  from  the  equator  to- 
ward the  south  it  [the  new  land]  extends  toward 
the  east  for  a  long  distance,  and  from  the  north 
passing  66  degrees  it  continues,  turning  toward 
the  east,  reaching  as  far  as  70  degrees.  I  hope  we 
shall  have  better  assurance  of  this,  with  the  aid 
of  Your  Majesty,  whom  God  Almighty  prosper  in 
everlasting  glory,  that  we  may  see  the  perfect 
end  of  this  our  cosmography,  and  that  the  sacred 
word  of  the  evangelist  may  be  accomplished: 
'Their  sound  has  gone  out  into  all  the  earth,'  etc.— 
In  the  ship  Dauphine,  VIII  of  July,  M.  D.  XXIIII. 
Humble  servant,  Janus  Verazanus." 

Also  in:  G.  Dexter,  Corlereal,  Verrazano,  etc. 
(Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  v.  4, 
cli.  i), — Relation  of  Verrazano  (New  York  His- 
torical Society  Collection,  v.  i,  and  new  series,  v. 
I). — J.  C.  Brevoort,  Verrazano  the  Navigator. — 
B.  Suite,  Verrazano  et  Cartier,  Society  geograph- 
ique  Quebec  Bulletin  V,  No.  6,  Nov.,  378-381. — J. 
Fiske,  Dutch  and  Quaker  colonies  I,  58. — H.  C. 
Murphy,  Voyage  of  Verrazano.  Good  discussions 
of  the  Verrazano  question  are  those  of  Hughes 
in  the  Raccolta  Columbiana  and  Harrisse  in  the 
Discovery    of   North    America. 

1524-1528. — Explorations  of  Pizarro  and  dis- 
covery of  Peru. — "The  South  Sea  having  been 
discovered,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Tierra  Firraa 
having  been  conquered  and  pacified,  the  Governor 
Pedrarias  de  Avila  founded  and  settled  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  of  Nata,  and  the  town  of  Nom- 
bre  de  Dios.  At  this  time  the  Captain  Francisco 
Pizarro,  son  of  the  Captain  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  a 
knight  of  the  city  of  Truxillo,  was  living  in  the 
city  of  Panama;  possessing  his  house,  his  farm 
and  his  Indians,  as  one  of  the  principal  people  of 
the  land,  which  indeed  he  always  was,  having 
distinguished  himself  in  the  conquest  and  settling, 
and  in  the  service  of  his  Majesty.  Being  at  rest 
and  in  repose,  but  full  of  zeal  to  continue  his 
labours  and  to  perform  other  more  distinguished 
services  for  the  royal  crown,  he  sought  permis- 
sion from  Pedrarias  to  discover  that  coast  of  the 
South  Sea  to  the  eastward.  He  spent  a  large  part 
of  his  fortune  on  a  good  ship  which  he  built,  and 
on  necessary  supplies  for  the  voyage,  and  he  set 
out  from  the  city  of  Panama  on  the  14th  day  of 
the  month  of  November,  in  the  year  1.S24.  He 
had  112  Spaniards  in  his  company,  besides  some 
Indian  servants.  He  commenced  a  voyage  in 
which  they  suffered  many  hardships,  the  season 
being  winter  and  unpropitious."  From  this  un- 
successful voyage,  during  which  many  of  his  men 
died  of  hunger  and  disease,  and  in  the  course  of 
which  he  found  no  country  that  tempted  his 
cupidity  or  his  ambition,  Pizarro  returned  after 
some  months  to  "the  land  of  Panama,  landing  at 
an  Indian  village  near  the  island  of  Pearls,  called 
Chuchama.     Thence  he  sent  the  ship  to  Panama, 


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European 
Rivalry 


AMERICA,   1528-1648 


for  she  had  become  unseaworthy  by  reason  of  the 
teredo;  and  all  that  had  befallen  was  reported  to 
Pedrarias,  while  the  Captain  remained  behind  to 
refresh  himself  and  his  companions.  When  the 
ship  arrived  at  Panama  it  was  found  that,  a  few 
days  before,  the  Captain  Diego  de  Almagro  had 
sailed  in  search  of  the  Captain  Pizarro,  his  com- 
panion, with  another  ship  and  70  men."  Almagro 
and  his  party  followed  the  coast  until  they  came 
to  a  great  river,  which  they  called  San  Juan  [a 
few  miles  north  of  the  port  of  Buenaventura,  in 
New  Granada].  .  .  .  They  there  found  signs  of 
gold,  but  there  being  no  traces  of  the  Captain 
Pizarro,  the  Captain  Almagro  returned  to  Chu- 
chama,  where  he  found  his  comrade.  They  agreed 
that  the  Captain  Almagro  should  go  to  Panama, 
repair  the  ships,  collect  more  men  to  continue  the 
enterprise,  and  defray  the  expenses,  which 
amounted  to  more  than  10,000  castellanos.  At 
Panama  much  obstruction  was  caused  by  Pedrarias 
and  others,  who  said  that  the  voyage  should  not 
be  persisted  in,  and  that  his  Majesty  would  not 
be  served  by  it.  The  Captain  .Almagro,  with 
the  authority  given  him  by  his  comrade,  was  very 
constant  in  prosecuting  the  work  he  had  com- 
menced, and  .  .  .  Pedrarias  was  forced  to  allow 
him  to  engage  men.  He  set  out  from  Panama 
with  no  men;  and  went  to  the  place  where 
Pizarro  waited  with  another  50  of  the  first  no 
who  sailed  with  him,  and  of  the  70  who  accom- 
panied Almagro  when  he  went  in  search.  The 
other  130  were  dead.  The  two  captains,  in  their 
two  ships,  sailed  with  160  men,  and  coasted  along 
the  land.  When  they  thought  they  saw  signs  of 
habitations,  they  went  on  shore  in  three  canoes 
they  had  with  them,  rowed  by  60  men,  and  so 
they  sought  for  provisions.  They  conlinued  to 
sail  in  this  way  for  three  years,  suffering  great 
hardships  from  hunger  and  cold.  The  greater 
part  of  the  crews  died  of  hunger,  insomuch  that 
there  were  not  50  surviving,  and  during  all  those 
three  years  they  discovered  no  good  land.  All  was 
swamp  and  inundated  country,  without  inhabitants. 
The  good  country  they  discovered  was  as  far  as 
the  river  San  Juan,  where  the  Captain  Pizarro 
remained  with  the  few  survivors,  sending  a  cap- 
tain with  the  smaller  ship  to  discover  some  good 
land  further  along  the  coast.  He  sent  the  other 
ship,  with  the  Captain  Diego  de  Almagro  to 
Panama  to  get  more  men."  At  the  end  of  70  days, 
the  exploring  ship  came  back  with  good  reports, 
and  with  specimens  of  gold,  silver  and  cloths, 
found  in  a  country  further  south.  "As  soon  as  the 
Captain  Almagro  arrived  from  Panama  with  a 
ship  laden  with  men  and  horses,  the  two  .ships, 
with  their  commanders  and  all  their  people,  set 
out  from  the  river  San  Juan,  to -go  to  that  newly- 
discovered  land.  But  the  navigation  was  difficult; 
they  were  detained  so  long  that  the  provisions 
were  exhausted,  and  the  people  were  obliged  to 
go  on  shore  in  search  of  supplies.  The  ships 
reached  the  bay  of  San  Mateo,  and  some  villages 
to  which  the  Spaniards  gave  the  name  of  Santiago. 
Next  they  came  to  the  villages  of  Tacamez  fAta- 
cames,  on  the  coast  of  modern  Ecuador],  on 
the  sea  coast  further  oi\.  These  villages  were 
seen  by  the  Christians  to  be  large  and  well  peo- 
pled: and  when  00  Spaniards  had  advanced  a 
league  beyond  the  villages  of  Tacamez,  more  than 
10,000  Indian  warriors  encountered  them ;  but  see- 
ing that  the  Christians  intended  no  evil,  and  did 
not  wish  to  take  their  goods,  but  rather  to  treat 
them  peacefully,  with  much  love,  the  Indians 
desisted  from  war.  In  this  land  there  were  abun- 
dant supplies,  and  the  people  led  well-ordered 
lives,  the  villages  having  their  streets  and  squares. 


One  village  had  more  than  3,000  houses,  and 
others  were  smaller.  It  seemed  to  the  captains 
and  to  the  other  Spaniaids  that  nothing  could 
be  done  in  that  land  by  reason  of  the  smallness  of 
their  numbers,  which  rendered  them  unable  to  cope 
with  the  Indians.  So  they  agreed  to  load  the 
ships  with  the  supplies  to  be  found  in  the  villages, 
and  to  return  to  an  island  called  Gallo,  where 
they  would  be  safe  until  the  ships  arrived  at 
Panama  with  the  news  of  w-hat  had  been  dis- 
covered, and  to  apply  to  the  Governor  for  more 
men,  in  order  that  the  Captains  might  be  able  to 
continue  their  undertaking,  and  conquer  the  land. 
Captain  .•\lmagro  went  in  the  ships.  Many  per- 
sons had  written  to  the  Governor  entreating  him 
to  order  the  crews  to  return  to  Panama,  saying  that 
it  was  impossible  to  endure  more  hardships  than 
they  had  suffered  during  the  last  three  years. 
The  Governor  ordered  that  all  those  who  wished 
to  go  to  Panama  might  do  so,  while  those  who 
desired  to  continue  the  discoveries  were  at  liberty 
to  remain.  Sixteen  men  stayed  with  Pizarro,  and 
all  the  rest  went  back  in  the  ships  to  Panama. 
The  Captain  Pizarro  was  on  that  island  for  five 
months,  when  one  of  the  ships  returned,  in  which 
he  continued  the  discoveries  for  a  hundred  leagues 
further  down  the  coast.  They  found  many  vil- 
lages and  great  riches;  and  they  brought  away 
more  specimens  of  gold,  silver,  and  cloths  than 
had  been  found  before,  which  were  presented  by 
the  natives.  The  Captain  returned  because  the 
time  granted  by  the  governor  had  expired,  and  the 
last  day  of  the  period  had  been  reached  when  he 
entered  the  port  of  Panama.  The  two  Captains 
were  so  ruined  that  they  could  no  longer  prose- 
cute their  undertaking.  .  .  .  The  Captain  Fran- 
cisco Pizarro  was  only  able  to  borrow  a  little  more 
than  1,000  castellanos  among  his  friends,  with 
which  sum  he  went  to  Castile,  and  gave  an  ac- 
count to  his  Majesty  of  the  great  and  signal 
services  he  had  performed." — F.  de  Xeres  (Secre- 
tary of  Pizarro),  Account  of  the  province  of 
Cuzco;  tr.  and  ed.  by  C.  R.  Markham  (Hakluyt 
society,  1872). 

Also  in:  W.  H.  Prescott,  History  of  the 
conquest  of  Peru,  v.  i,  bk.  2,  ch.  2-4. — J.  H. 
Campe,  Francisco  Pizarro,  translated  from  the 
German  by  P.  Upton  (Life  stories  for  young 
people) . 

1525. — Voyage  of  Gomez.  See  Canada:  The 
name. 

1526-1531. — Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot  and 
attempted  colonization  of  La  Plata.  See  Para- 
guay:   1515-1557- 

1528-1542. — Florida  expeditions  of  Narvaez 
and  Hernando  de  Soto. — Discovery  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi.   See  Florida:   1528-1542. 

1528-1648. — America  and  European  diplomacy, 
to  Treaty  of  MUnster. — "The  history  of  the  strug- 
gle of  the  European  nations  for  participation  in 
the  profits  of  the  American  trade  naturally  falls 
into  three  periods.  In  the  first,  France  was  the 
most  formidable  opponent  of  the  Spanish-Por 
tuguese  monopoly.  Jean  Ango  and  his  pilots  led 
the  attacking  forces.  This  phase  ended  with  the 
treaty  concluded  between  France  and  Spain  at 
Cateau-Cambresis  in  15.^0.  In  the  second  period 
England  took  the  place  of  France  as  the  principal 
antagonist.  Hawkins  and  Drake  were  the  most 
conspicuous  foes  of  Spain.  This  epoch  extended 
to  the  treaty  concluded  between  England  and 
Spain  at  London  in  1604.  In  the  third  period 
commercial  maritime  supremacy  passed  from  Eng- 
land to  the  LTnited  Provinces.  The  Dutch  West 
India  Co.,  organized  within  this  epoch,  played 
a   role   similar   in    many   respects   to   that   of   the 


276 


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European 
Rivalry 


AMERICA,    1528-1648 


French  corsairs  and  English  privateers;  but  in 
addition  posessed  great  administrative  powers. 
This  period  ended  with  the  treaty  concluded  be- 
tween the  United  Provinces  and  Spain  at  Miinster 
in  1648.  Jean  Ango  and  his  pilots,  Hawkins  and 
Drake,  and  the  Dutch  West  India  Co.,  each  at- 
tacked the  Spanish-Portuguese  monopoly  for  the 
sake  of  pecuniary  gain ;  each  represented  a  syndi- 
cate of  capitalists,  and  had  government  support; 
and  the  profits  of  each  were  derived  partly  from 
trade   and    partly    from    booty. 

"Throughout  the  first  period,  to  1559,  France 
and  Portugal  were  at  peace;  while  during  a 
part  of  the  same  interval  France  and  Spain  were 
at  war.  As  between  France  and  Spain,  Portugal 
posed  as  neutral.  This,  however,  clid  not  suft^ce 
to  protect  her  vast  colonial  trade  and  territory, 
which  she  was  unable  to  defend.  Jean  Ango, 
like  the  directors  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Co., 
'dreamed  of  an  empire  in  Brazil.'  But  when  his 
pilots  reached  Brazilian  waters  they  met  the  crud- 
est of  receptions ;  and  their  sufferings  caused  them 
to  undertake  reprisals.  The  complaints  arising 
from  these  reprisals,  which  Portugal,  from  15 10 
onward,  repeatedly  made  to  France,  proved  un- 
availing and  Portugal  endeavored  to  frighten  off 
the  intruders.  In  1526  the  King  of  Portugal  or- 
dered his  subjects  under  pain  of  death  to  run 
down  all  French  vessels  going  to  or  returning  from 
these  distant  territories.  This  and  other  instances 
of  harshness  on  the  part  of  Portugal  and  also  of 
Spain  toward  interlopers  were  defended  chiefly 
on  the  ground  that  thci  intruders  were  pirates,  and 
that  treaties  provided  that  pirates  should  be  put 
to  death.  On  this  pretext  Charles  V  refused  for 
a  time  to  send  back  to  France  the  companions 
of  Fleury  (the  captor  of  Montezuma's  treasure), 
although  the  treaty  of  Cambray  had  provided  for 
the  mutual  return  of  all  prisoners  of  war.  For 
the  same  reason  Philip  II  refused  to  deliver  over 
the  survivors  of  the  Florida  massacre,  although 
the  French  ambassador  protested  that  their  enter- 
prise was  authorized  by  the  Admiral  of  France. 
Under  this  name  Hawkins,  returning  to  England 
after  a  peaceful  trading  voyage,  was  denounced 
by  the  Spanish  ambassador.  Other  instances  might 
be  cited.  But  whatever  the  excuse  for  Portugal's 
treatment  of  French  corsairs,  France  could  not 
tamely  accept  it.  In  1528  Francis  I  affirmed  the 
principle  of  freedom  of  trade  'as  of  all  rights  one 
of  the  most  natural.'  Following  a  practice  then 
in  use,  he  granted  to  Ango  and  to  one  of  his 
associates  letters  of  marque,  giving  them  the  right 
to  reimburse  themselves  for  the  losses  which  they 
had  suffered  from  the  Portuguese.  General  letters 
of  marque  were  also  issued  enjoining  the  French 
admirals  to  permit  all  their  captains,  wherever 
they  should  be,  to  run  down  the  Portuguese,  seize 
their  persons,  goods,  or  merchandise  and  bring 
them  to  France.  In  1531  the  King  of  Portugal 
complained  that  the  French  had  captured  300  of 
his  ships.  Unable  to  defend  himself  by  force,  he 
employed  gold,  and  by  bribing  the  French  admiral 
managed  to  have  Ango's  letters  of  marque  revoked. 
In  obtaining  this  revocation  he  v/as  also  helped 
by  the  intervention  of  the  Emperor,  Charles  V, 
who  in  the  matter  of  defending  the  oversea  trade 
identified  the  interests  of  Portugal  with  his  own. 
The  reasons  for  this  identification  is  not  far  to 
seek — the  Portuguese  Islands  of  Madeira  and  the 
Azores  were  situated  on  or  near  the  routes  of 
ocean  commerce.  The  Spanish  fleets  returning 
from  America  put  in  at  the  Azores,  hence  Spain 
must  always  keep  on  the  best  terms  with  Portu- 
gal. Hence,  also,  the  Emperor's  displeasure  when 
*in   1536  Portugal  concluded  a  treaty  with  France 


which  permitted  the  French  to  bring  their  prizes 
— i.  e.,  Spanish  ships — into  all  Portuguese  havens 
and  had  the  effect  of  making  the  harbors  of  the 
Azores  and  Madeira  as  well  as  of  Portugal  lurk- 
ing places  from  which  the  French  preyed  upon  the 
ocean  shipping  of  Spain.  In  return  Francis  I 
forbade  his  subjects  to  sail  to  Brazil  and  Guinea; 
but  when  a  few  years  later  Portugal's  bribery  of 
the  French  admiral  was  discovered  this  prohibi- 
tion was  revoked.  The  activities  of  Ango's  cap- 
tains were  directed  not  only  against  their  Portu- 
guese friends  but  also  against  their  Spanish  ene- 
mies. The  sensational  capture  made  by  one  of 
them  of  a  part  of  Montezuma's  treasure  has  al- 
ready been  referred  to.  In  1523  and  1525  the 
Cortes  of  Castile  complained  of  the  frequent  and 
intolerable  depredations  committed  by  the  French 
at  sea,  and  their  feeling  appears  to  be  reflected  in 
the  treaty  of  Madrid  in  1526.  The  question  of 
admitting  the  French  to  the  American  trade  seems 
to  have  been  discussed  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
Franco-Spanish  truce  of  1538,  as  it  certainly  was 
in  connection  with  the  treaty  of  1544.  In  1544 
the  Emperor  had  been  greatly  disturbed  by  Car- 
tier's  plan  to  colonize  in  Canada.  Despairing  of 
keeping  the  French  altogether  away  from  the  new 
world,  Charles  V  was  willing  to  come  to  terms 
with  them.  An  article  signed  by  the  French  com- 
missioners in  1544  contained  the  following  stipula- 
tion: That  the  King  of  France,  his  successors  and 
subjects,  would  leave  the  Emperor  and  the  King 
of  Portugal  at  peace  in  all  that  concerned  the 
East  and  West  Indies  and  would  not  attempt  any 
discoveries  or  other  enterprises  there.  French  sub- 
jects might,  for  purposes  of  trade  only,  go  to  both 
the  East  and  the  West  Indies,  but  if  they  com- 
mitted any  acts  of  violence  in  going  or  returning 
they  should  be  punished.  This  article  was  appar- 
ently acceptable  to  the  Emperor  and  Prince  Philip 
and  to  the  president  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies. 
Other  councilors  believed  that  the  permission  to 
trade  would  lead  to  further  trouble,  because  the 
French  would  not  conduct  it  in  accordance  with 
regulations.  The  Council  of  the  Indies  urged  that 
in  this  as  in  former  treaties  matters  pertaining  to 
the  Indies  should  not  be  mentioned  at  all.  If, 
however,  the  French  were  permitted  to  trade  they 
should  be  held  to  the  laws  prohibiting  the  removal 
of  gold  and  silver  from  territory  subject  to  Cas- 
tile, even  in  exchange  for  merchandise,  and  their 
homeward-bound  ships  should  be  obliged  to  ti^uch 
at  Cadiz  or  San  Lucar.  The  King  of  Portugal 
also  objected  to  the  article,  declaring  that  the 
French  went  in  armed  ships  not  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trading  but  in  order  to  rob  with  more 
security.  The  article  seems  never  to  have  been 
ratified.  In  the  truce  between  France  and  Spain 
concluded  in  1556  it  was  agreed  that  during  the 
period  of  the  truce  the  French  should  not  sail  to 
or  trade  in  the  Spanish  Indies  without  license  from 
the  King  of  Spain.  In  a  few  months  the  truce  was 
violated.  The  Venetian  ambassador  ascribed  the 
rupture  partly  to  the  sending  of  French  ships  to 
the  Indies  'to  occupy  some  place  and  hinder  the 
navigation.'  The  reference  is  to  Villegagnon's 
colony  in  Brazil,  which  seemed  a  danger  to  Spain 
as  well  as  to  Portugal.  In  the  negotiations  for 
the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  in  1550,  the  right 
of  the  French  to  go  to  the  Spanish  Indies  was  dis- 
cussed repeatedly  and  at  length.  [See  also  France; 
1547-1550.1  The  Spanish  commissioners  urged  that 
Villegagnon  .should  be  recalled.  They  based  their 
claim  to  a  monopoly  of  the  western  navigation  on 
the  bulls  of  Popes  Alexander  VI  and  Julius  II, 
and  on  the  fact  that  Spain  alone  had  borne  the 
labor  and  expense  of  discovery.    The  French  depu- 


277 


AMERICA,    1528-1648 


European 
Rivalry 


AMERICA,   1528-1648 


ties  argued  that  the  sea  was  common.  They  would 
not  consent  to  exclude  Frenchmen  from  places  dis- 
covered by  them  and  not  actually  subject  to  the 
Kings  of  Portugal  or  Castile.  On  the  other  land, 
they  would  agree  that  the  French  should  keep  away 
from  lands  actually  possessed  by  the  aforesaid 
sovereigns ;  or,  as  an  alternative,  that  the  Indies 
should  not  be  mentioned,  and  if  Frenchmen  were 
found  doing  what  they  should  not  there,  they 
might  be  chastised.  King  Philip  did  not  approve 
of  the  former  alternative.  The  Indies  were  there- 
fore not  mentioned  in  the  treaty,  but  an  oral 
agreement  was  made,  the  precise  wording  of  which 
is  not  known.  .  From  accounts  in  Spanish  and 
French  documents  it  appears  that  it  was  to  the 
effect  that  Spaniards  and  Frenchmen  encountering 
one  another  west  of  the  prime  meridian  might 
treat  each  other  as  enemies,  without  thereby  giv- 
ing ground  for  complaint  of  the  violation  of  exist- 
ing treaties.  The  location  of  the  prime  meridian 
remained  a  matter  of  dispute.  In  1634  the  King 
of  France  placed  it  at  the  island  of  Ferro,  in  the 
Canaries.  Richelieu  stated  that  Spain  preferred 
to  locate  it  farther  west,  in  the  Azores,  because 
ships  captured  west  of  the  prime  meridian  must 
be  declared  good  prize.  The  rule  that  might 
would  be  the  only  right  recognized  between  na- 
tions west  of  the  prime  meridian  was  the  one 
permanent  result  of  Spanish-French  diplomacy  re- 
garding America  up  to  1559,  or  indeed  up  to  1648. 
In  the  treaty  of  Vervins,  in  1508,  no  better  ar- 
rangement could  be  agreed  on.  [See  also  France: 
1593-1508.] 

"During  the  wars  of  religion  in  France  the  mari- 
time strength  of  that  nation  fell  to  its  lowest 
ebb.  Leadership  in  maritime  affairs,  and  hence  in 
the  effort  to  force  an  entrance  into  the  American 
trade,  passed  to  England — the  second  great  an- 
tagonist of  the  Portuguese-Spanish  monopoly.  In 
1553  3  joint-stock  company  was  founded  in  Lon- 
don for  the  Guinea  trade.  This  intrusion  of  the 
English  into  regions  claimed  by  Portugal  led  to 
repeated  complaints  by  the  ambassador  of  Portu- 
gal, who  was  supported  by  the  ambassador  of 
Spain.  Important  negotiations  relative  to  the  com- 
merce with  Portuguese  colonies  were  in  progress 
in  1555,  1561,  1562,  and  from  1569  to  1576.  The 
treaty  signed  in  1576  permitted  the  English  to 
trade  in  Madeira  and  the  Azores,  but  did  not  men- 
tion Barbary,  Guinea,  or  Brazil.  Between  1562 
and  1568  Hawkins  made  three  slave-trading  voy- 
ages to  the  West  Indies.  Subsequently  English 
privateers  played  havoc  with  Spanish  shipping 
there,  and  in  1580  Drake  returned  from  his  voyage 
around  the  globe  with  treasure  e-timated  at  a  mil- 
lion and  a  half  sterling.  The  Spanish  ambassador 
in  London  wrote  that  Drake  was  preparing  for 
another  voyage  and  that  everybody  wanted  to 
have  a  share  in  the  expedition.  He  therefore  con- 
sidered it  in  the  King  of  Spain's  interest  that  or- 
ders be  given  that  no  foreign  sh-'p  should  be 
spared  in  either  the  Spanish  or  the  Portuguese  In- 
dies, but  that  every  one  should  be  sent  to  the  bot- 
tom. War  followed  in  a  few  years.  Peace  nego- 
tiations took  place  in  1588,  1600,  and  1604.  The 
negotiations  of  1588  were  insincere,  at  least  on 
the  part  of  Spain,  in  whose  ports  the  Armada  was 
preparing.  But  they  have  an  interest  as  indicating 
England's  attitude.  Of  her  two  main  grievances 
against  Spain,  one  was  the  restrictions  imposed  by 
Spain  upon  English  trade  to  the  newly  discovered 
lands.  The  instructions  issued  to  Elizabeth's  com- 
missioners also,  in  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the 
West  Indies,  are  of  interest.  For  they  indicate 
that  England  based  her  claim  to  trade  in  the  Indies 
lipon     the     ancient     treaties     concluded     between 


Charles  V  and  Henry  VIII  providing  for  reciprocal 

trade  in  all  of  her  dominions.  On  this  ground,  in 
1566,  Cecil  asserted  a  right  to  the  Indian  trade, 
and  the  claim  seems  to  explain  Philip  II's  reluc- 
tance to  renew  these  treaties.  The  Spanish  view 
was  that  the  Indies  were  a  new  world,  to  which 
treaties  between  European  powers  did  not  apply 
unless  the  Indies  were  indubitably  referring  to 
them. 

"Not  until  after  the  death  of  Elizabeth  could 
peace  be  made.  After  the  accession  of  King  James 
negotiations  were  again  undertaken.  Concerning 
trade  to  the  East  and  West  Indies  an  arrangement 
was  then  effected,  though  no  real  agreement  was 
reached.  The  instructions  of  the  English  commis- 
sioners in  this  matter  were  identical  with  those  for 
the  negotiations  of  1600.  They  sanctioned  only 
one  concession,  that  Englishmen  should  be  pro- 
hibited from  going  to  any  places  in  the  Indies 
where  the  Spaniards  were  actually  'planted' — a 
principle  embodied  in  the  charter  granted  to  the 
English  East  India  Co.  on  December  31,  1600.  It 
was  rejected  by  the  Spaniards,  who  insisted  that 
the  English  should  be  excluded  from  every  part 
of  the  Indies,  either  expressly  or  by  clear  impli- 
cation; or  else  that  the  King  of  England  should 
declare  in  writing  that  his  subjects  would  trade  in 
the  Indies  at  their  own  peril.  These  demands  the 
English  refused.  Cecil  and  Northampton  alleged 
that  an  express  prohibition  to  trade  would  wrong 
James's  honor  since  Spain  had  not  put  it  in  the 
treaties  made  with  France  and  other  princes.  Af- 
ter much  debate  it  was  resolved  that  intercourse 
should  be  permitted  in  those  places  'in  which  there 
was  commerce  before  the  war,  according  to  the 
observance  and  use  of  former  treaties.'  These 
words  were  differently  interpreted  by  each  party. 
Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  Cecil  wrote 
to  the  English  Ambassador  in  France:  'If  it  be 
well  observed  how  the  (ninth)  article  is  couched, 
you  shall  rather  find  it  a  pregnant  affirmative  for 
us  than  against  us;  for,  sir,  where  it  is  written 
that  we  shall  trade  in  all  his  dominions,  that  com- 
prehends the  Indies;  if  you  will  say,  secundum 
tractatus  antiquos,  no  treaty  excluded  it.'  When 
the  Venetian  ambassador  wished  to  hear  from  his 
majesty's  own  lips  how  he  read  the  clause  about 
the  India  navigation,  and  said,  'Sire,  your  sub- 
jects may  trade  with  Spain  and  Flanders,  but  not 
with  the  Indies.'  'What  for  no?'  said  the  king. 
'Because,'  I  replied,  'the  clause  is  read  in  that 
sense.'  'They  are  making  a  great  error  whoever 
they  are  who  hold  this  view,'  said  His  Majesty; 
'the  meaning  is  quite  clear.'  The  Spaniards,  on  the 
other  hand,  resolutely  affirmed  that  the  terms  of 
the  peace  excluded  the  English  from  the  Indies. 
However,  as  was  remarked  in  the  instructions, 
Spain  was  not  able  to  bar  out  the  English  by 
force,  and  the  latter  not  only  continued  their 
trade  in  the  East,  but  in  spite  of  Spanish  opposi- 
tion proceeded  to  colonize  Virginia  under  a  char- 
ter which  allotted  to  the  grantees  a  portion  of 
America  'not  actually  possessed  by  any  Christian 
prince.'  The  memorable  year  of  1580,  which  saw 
Drake's  return  to  England,  witnessed  also  Spain's 
annexation  of  Portugal's  vast  empire  and  trade. 
The  threat  of  Spnin's  sudden  aggrandizement 
brought  France  and  England  together;  and  toward 
the  close  of  the  century  the  United  Provinces 
ioined  the  alliance  against  the  common  enemy. 
Several  treaties  pro-ided  for  joint  naval  opera- 
tions by  England  and  the  United  Provinces  against 
Spain.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch 
outstripped  Spain  in  the  rare  for  commercial  su- 
premacy The  Dutch  East  India  Co.,  founded  in 
1602,  undermined  the  power  of  the  Portuguese  iif 


278 


AMERICA,    1528-1648 


Treaty  of 
Miinster 


AMERICA,   1528-1648 


the  East;  and  in  Guiana,  Brazil,  Guinea,  Cuba,  and 
Hispaniola,  the  Dutch  were  also  prosecuting  an 
active  trade.  In  1607  peace  negotiations  between 
Spain  and  the  United  Provinces  began.  The  hope 
of  expelling  the  Dutch  from  the  forbidden  regions 
was  believed  by  many  to  be  the  principal  motive 
that  induced  Spain  to  treat.  Another  reason  was 
the  project  of  a  Dutch  West  India  Co.  'that  should 
with  a  strong  fleet  carry  at  once  both  war  and 
merchandize  into  America.'  During  the  protracted 
negotiations  one  of  the  main  points  of  dispute  was 
the  India  trade.  Both  sides  regarded  the  question 
as  vital.  The  States  brought  forward  three  al- 
ternative means  of  accommodation ;  peace,  with 
free  trade  to  those  parts  of  the  Indies  not  actually 
possessed  by  Spain;  peace  in  Europe,  and  a  truce 
in  the  Indies  for  a  term  of  years  with  permission 
to  trade  during  that  period;  trade  to  the  Indies 
'at  their  peril'  after  the  example  of  the  French 
and  English.  The  Catholic  deputies  totally  re- 
jected the  first  and  third  propositions,  but  would 
submit  the  second  to  Spain  if  it  were  acceptably 
modilied.  They  wished  the  States  to  declare  ex- 
pressly that  they  would  abstain  from  going  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  that  in  the  East  Indies  they 
would  not  visit  the  places  held  by  the  Portuguese. 
The  Dutch,  who  meanwhile  had  tried  to  frighten 
their  opponents  by  showing  a  renewed  interest  in 
the  West  India  Co.,  finally  drafted  what  was 
deemed  an  acceptable  article,  but  Spain  insisted  on 
their  prompt  withdrawal  from  both  the  East  and 
West  Ind'es  as  one  of  the  two  indispensable  con- 
ditions for  her  recognition  of  their  independence. 
Peace  was  unattainable,  and  negotiations  were 
broken  off.  The  French  ambassador,  however, 
persuaded  the  States  to  revive  negotiations  for  a 
truce  and  to  employ  the  French  and  English  am- 
bassadors as  intermediaries.  The  principal  point 
of  difficulty  was  the  India  trade.  The  French  am- 
bassador labored  for  the  end  desired  by  the  Dutch 
not  because  France  wished  to  strengthen  them  un- 
duly but  because  she  was  unwiUing  to  restore 
Spain  to  her  former  power  or  to  play  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  who  were  believed  to  desire 
the  trade  for  themselves.  An  article  was  finally 
agreed  on  which  was  a  concession  of  the  India 
trade  veiled  by  circumlocutions.  Traffic  was  per- 
mitted in  Spain's  European  lands  and  in  any  other 
of  her  possessions  where  her  allies  were  permitted 
to  trade.  Outside  these  limits  (i.  e.,  in  the  Indies) 
subjects  of  the  States  could  not  traffic  without  ex- 
press permission  from  the  King  in  places  held  by 
Spain,  but  in  places  not  thus  held  they  might  trade 
upon  permission  of  the  natives  without  hindrance 
from  the  King  or  his  officers.  The  agreement  that 
Spain  would  not  hinder  the  subjects  of  the  States 
in  their  trade  'outside  the  limits'  was  also  strength- 
ened by  a  special  and  secret  treaty  in  which  the 
name  Indies  was  again  avoided.  The  name,  how- 
ever, appeared  in  an  act  signed  by  the  French 
and  English  ambassadors,  which  certified  that  the 
archdukes'  deputies  had  agreed  that,  just  as  the 
Dutch  should  not  traffic  in  places  held  by  the  King 
of  Spain  in  the  Indies  v/ithout  his  permission,  so 
subjects  of  the  King  of  Spain  should  not  traffic 
in  places  held  by  the  States  in  the  Indies  with- 
out their  permission.  In  162 1  the  truce  of  1609 
expired  and  Spain  declared  war  on  the  United 
Netherlands.  Between  162 1  and  1625  the  Dutch 
negotiated  with  Denmark,  France,  and  England 
to  secure  their  alliance  against  Spain.  The  States 
General  earnestly  desired  that  these  nations  should 
cooperate  with  the  Dutch  West  India  Co.,  char- 
tered by  the  States  in  162 1  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
tacking Spain's  American  possessions  and  treasure 
fleets   as   well    as   for   trade,   but   the   Danes   and 


French  preferred  rather  to  share  in  the  East  India 
commerce.  In  1621  the  Dutch  and  Danish  com- 
missioners signed  an  agreement  that  in  their  jour- 
neys, trade,  and  nav'^ition  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  Africa,  and  Terra  Australis  subjects  01 
either  party  should  befriend  subjects  of  the  other. 
The  treaty  between  the  Dutch  and  French  merely 
stipulated  that  the  question  of  traffic  to  the  East 
and  West  Indies  should  be  treated  later  by  the 
French  ambassador.  The  offensive  alliance  with 
England  in  1625  enjoined  attacks  by  both  parties 
on  Spain's  dominions  on  both  sides  of  the  line  and 
especially  on  the  treasure  fleets,  and  one  of  the 
results  of  this  treaty  was  the  opening  of  trade 
between  the  Dutch  and  the  English  colonists  in 
North  America.  [See  also  Commerce:  Medieval: 
8th-i6th  (Centuries.]  During  the  20  years  following 
162  T  there  were  repeated  negotiations  for  peace 
between  the  United  Provinces  and  Spain.  The 
most  important  took  place  in  1632  and  1633.  They 
failed  chiefly  because  no  agreement  could  be 
reached  on  colonial  matters,  particularly  those  in 
which  the  Dutch  West  India  Co.  was  involved. 
Since  this  company  had  captured  the  port  of 
Pemambuco,  in  Brazil,  it  looked  forward  to  a 
rapid  extension  of  its  authority  and  trade  in  this 
region  and  to  profits  from  raids  undertaken  thence 
against  the  Spanish  treasure  fleets,  the  West  India 
Islands,  and  Central  America,  Having  acquired  a 
great  fleet  equipped  for  war,  it  opposed  any  peace 
or  truce  with  Spain  that  should  extend  beyond  the 
Line,  unless,  indeed,  Spain  would  permit  the  Dutch 
to  trade  in  both  Indies.  Since  Spain  refused  these 
demands,  negotiations  ended  fruitlessly. 

"The  negotiations  at  Miinster  from  1646  to  1648 
were  carried  on  under  widely  different  circum- 
stances from  those  of  1632,  1633,  just  mentioned. 
In  1646  peace  was  essential  to  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, exhausted  by  its  efforts  against  domestic  and 
foreign  foes.  Moreover,  the  chief  obstacle  to  peace 
had  been  removed  by  her  loss  of  Brazil  and  other 
Portuguese  colonies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Dutch 
East  and  West  India  companies  would  willingly 
have  continued  the  war.  The  West  India  Co.  con- 
sidered that  if  the  two  companies  should  be  united 
it  would  be  more  profitable  to  continue  hostilities 
in  both  Indies  anci  Africa  than  to  conclude  any 
peace  or  truce  with  Spain.  In  case  of  a  peace  or 
truce  the  company  desired  freedom  to  trade  in  all 
places  within  the  limits  of  its  charter  where  the 
King  of  Spain  had  no  castles,  jurisdiction,  or  ter- 
ritory, and  it  further  sought  the  exclusion  of  Span- 
iards from  trade  in  all  places  similarly  held  by  the 
company  unless  like  privileges  were  granted  to  the 
company  in  places  under  the  dominion  of  Spain. 
These  stipulations  were  practically  those  agreed 
to  in  the  truce  of  1600.  Somewhat  modified  they 
were  finally  included  in  the  treaty  of  Miinster,  a 
treaty  in  which  for  the  first  time  Spain  granted 
to  another  nation,  as  a  permanent  concession,  in 
clear  and  explicit  terms,  and  with  mention  of  the 
Indies,  the  right  to  sail  to,  trade,  and  acquire  ter- 
ritory in  America.  By  treaties  concluded  in  1641 
and  1642,  Portugal,  newly  liberated  from  Spain, 
had  legalized  the  trade  which  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish had  previously  established  with  the  African 
coast,  and  recognized  Dutch  possession  of  a  part 
of  Brazil.  Thus,  in  the  fifth  decade  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  the  two  Iberian  powers,  then 
bitterly  estranged  from  each  other,  were  both  com- 
pelled to  concede  to  certain  European  nations  the 
right  to  occupation  and  trade  in  those  oversea 
lands  from  which,  since  the  period  of  discovery, 
they  had  endeavored  to  exclude  them.  But,  as  old 
walls  were  breached,  new  ones  were  erected.  The 
Dutch,  English,  and  French,  having  acquired  much 


279 


AMERICA,   1531-154b 


Explorations 
by  Cartier 


AMERICA,   1534-1535 


oversea  territory  and  commerce,  each  tried  to  use 
them  for  the  exclusive  profit  of  their  respective 
peoples,  or  even  oi  certain  of  their  own  trading 
companies.  Hence  in  1648  the  ideal  of  free  ocean 
commerce  and  navigation,  conceived  long  before 
by  Grotius,  remained  unrealized." — F.  G.  Daven- 
port, American  and  European  diplomacy  to  i64S 
(Annual  Report  American  Historical  Association, 
J915,  pp.  i53>  161). 

1531-1548. — Pizarro's  conquest  of  Peru.  See 
Peru:   i5:'S-i53i;  1531-1533;  and  1533-1548. 

1531-1641.— Republic  of  St.  Paul  in  jrazU. — 
Jesuits. — Mamelukes  in  Brazil.  See  Brazil:  1531- 
1041. 

1533. — Spanish  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of 
Ouito.  See  Ecuador:  Aboriginal  kingdom  of 
Quito.  . 

1534-1535. — Exploration  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  Montreal  by  Cartier. — ".At  last,  ten  years  after 
[the  voyages  of  \'errazano],  Philip  Chabot,  Ad- 
miral of  France,  induced  the  king  [Francis  I.]  to 
resume  the  project  of  founding  a  French  colony 
in  the  New  World  whence  the  Spaniards  daily 
drew  such  great  wealth ;  and  he  presented  to  him 
a  Captain  of  St.  Malo,  by  name  Jacques  Cartier, 
whose  merit  he  knew,  and  whom  that  prince  ac- 
cepted. Cartier  having  received  his  instructions, 
left  St.  Malo  the  2d  of  .April,  1534,  with  two  ships 
of  60  tons  and  122  men.  He  steered  west,  inclin- 
ing slightly  north,  and  had  such  fair  winds  that, 
on  the  loth  of  May,  he  made  Cape  Bonavista,  in 
Newfoundland,  at  46"  north.  Cartier  found  the 
land  there  still  covered  with  snow,  and  the  shore 
fringed  with  ice,  so  that  he  could  not  or  dared  not 
stop.  He  ran  down  si.x  degrees  south-southeast, 
and  entered  a  port  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
St.  Catharine.  Thence  he  turned  back  north.  .  .  . 
After  making  almost  the  circuit  of  Newfoundland, 
though  without  being  able  to  satisfy  himself  that 
it  was  an  island,  he  took  a  southerly  course, 
crossed  the  gulf,  approached  the  continent,  and 
entered  a  very  deep  bay,  where  he  suffered  greatly 
from  heat,  whence  he  called  it  Chaleurs  Bay.  He 
was  charmed  with  the  beauty  of  the  country,  and 
well  pleased  with  the  Indians  that  he  met  and 
with  whom  he  exchanged  some  goods  for  furs.  .  .  . 
On  leaving  this  bay,  Cartier  visited  a  good  part 
of  the  coasts  around  the  gulf,  and  took  possession 
of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  most  Christian 
king,  as  \'erazani  had  done  in  all  the  places  where 
he  landed.  He  set  sail  again  on  the  isth  of  -Au- 
gust to  return  to  France,  and  reached  St.  Malo 
safely  on  the  5th  of  September.  ...  On  the  report 
which  he  made  of  his  voyage,  the  court  concluded 
that  it  would  be  useful  to  France  to  have  a  set- 
tlement in  that  part  of  America ;  but  no  one  took 
this  affair  more  to  heart  than  the  Vice-.Admiral 
Charles  de  Mony,  Sieur  de  la'  Mailleraye.  This 
noble  obtained  a  new  commission  for  Cartier,  more 
ample  than  the  first,  and  gave  him  three  ships 
well  equipped.  This  fleet  was  ready  about  the 
middle  of  May,  and  Cartier  .  .  .  embarked  on 
Wednesday  the  loth.  His  three  vessels  were  sep- 
arated by  violent  storms,  but  found  one  another, 
near  the  close  of  July,  in  the  gulf  which  was  their 
appointed  place  of  rendezvous.  'On  the  ist  of 
-August  bad  weather  drove  him  to  take  refuge 
in  the  port  of  St.  Nicholas,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  on  the  north.  Here  Cartier  planted  a  cross, 
with  the  arms  of  France,  and  remained  until  the 
7th  This  port  is  almost  the  only  spot  in  Canada 
that  has  kept  the  name  given  by  Cartier.  ...  On 
the  loth  the  three  vessels  re-entered  the  gulf,  and 
in  honor  of  the  saint  whose  feast  is  celebrated  on 
that  day,  Cartier  gave  the  gulf  the  name  of  St. 
Lawrence;   or   rather  he  gave  it  to  a  bay   lying 


between  Anticosti  Island  and  the  north  shore, 
whence  it  e-xtended  to  the  whole  gulf  of  which 
this  bay  is  part;  and  because  the  river,  before  that 
called  River  of  Canada,  empties  into  the  same 
gulf,  it  insensibly  acquired  the  name  of  St.  Law- 
rence, which  it  still  bears.  .  .  .  The  three  vessels 
.  .  .  ascended  the  river,  and  on  the  ist  of  Septem- 
ber they  entered  the  river  Saguenay.  Cartier 
merely  reconnoitered  the  mouth  of  this  river,  and 
.  .  .  hastened  to  seek  a  port  where  his  vessels 
might  winter  in  safety.  Eight  leagues  above  Isle 
aux  Coudres  he  found  another  much  larger  and 
handsomer  island,  all  covered  with  trees  and  vines. 
He  called  it  Bacchus  Island,  but  the  name  has  been 
changed  to  Isle  d'Orleans.  The  author  of  the  re- 
lation to  this  voyage,  printed  under  the  name  of 
Cartier,  pretends  that  only  here  the  country  be- 
gins to  be  called  Canada.  But  he  is  surely  mis- 
taken ;  for  it  is  certain  that  from  the  earliest  times 
the  Indians  gave  this  name  to  the  whole  country 
along  the  river  on  both  sides,  from  its  mouth  to 
the  Saguenay.  From  Bacchus  Island,  Cartier  pro- 
ceeded to  a  little  river  which  is  ten  leagues  off, 
and  comes  from  the  north;  he  called  it  Riviere  de 
Ste  Croix,  because  he  entered  it  on  the  14th  of 
September  (Feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy 
Cross)  ;  but  it  is  now  commonly  called  Riviere  de 
Jacques  Cartier.  The  day  after  his  arrival  he  re- 
ceived a  visit  from  an  Indian  chief  named  Donna- 
cona,  whom  the  author  of  the  relation  of  that  voy- 
age styles  Lord  of  Canada.  Cartier  treated  with 
this  cliief  by  names  of  two  Indians  whom  he  had 
taken  to  France  the  year  before,  and  who  knew  a 
little  French.  They  informed  Donnacona  that  the 
strangers  wished  to  go  to  Hochelaga,  which  seemed 
to  trouble  him.  Hochelaga  was  a  pretty  large 
town,  situated  on  an  island  now  known  under  the 
name  of  Island  of  Montreal.  Cartier  had  heard 
much  of  it,  and  was  loth  to  return  to  France  with- 
out seeing  it.  The  reason  why  this  voyage  troubled 
Donnacona  was  that  the  people  of  Hochelaga  were 
of  a  different  nation  from  his,  and  that  he  wished 
to  profit  exclusively  by  the  advantages  which  he 
hoped  to  derive  from  the  stay  of  the  French  in 
his  country.'  Proceeding  with  one  vessel  to  Lake 
St.  Pierre,  and  thence  in  two  boats,  Cartier  reached 
Hochelaga  Oct.  2.  'The  shape  of  the  town  was 
round,  and  three  rows  of  palisades  inclosed  in  it 
about  so  tunnel  shaped  cabins,  each  over  50  paces 
long  and  14  or  15  wide.  It  was  entered  by  a 
single  gate,  above  which,  as  well  as  along  the  first 
palisade,  ran  a  kind  of  gallery,  reached  by  lad- 
ders, and  well  provided  with  pieces  of  rock  and 
pebbles  for  the  defence  of  the  place.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  town  spoke  the  Huron  language.  They 
received  the  French  very  well.  .  .  .  Cartier  visited 
the  mountain  at  the  foot  of  which  the  town  lay, 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  Mont  Royal,  which  has 
become  that  of  the  whole  Island  [Montreal]. 
From  it  he  discovered  a  great  extent  of  country, 
the  sight  of  which  charmed  him.  ...  He  left 
Hochelaga  on  the  5th  of  October,  and  on  the  nth 
arrived  at  Sainte  Croix.'  Wintering  at  this  place, 
where  his  crews  suffered  terribly  from  the  cold  and 
from  scurvy,  he  returned  to  France  the  following 
spring.  'Some  authors  .  .  .  pretend  that  Cartier, 
disgusted  with  Canada,  dissuaded  the  king,  his 
master,  from  further  thoughts  of  it;  and  Cham- 
plain  seems  to  have  been  of  that  opinion.  But 
this  does  not  agree  with  what  Cartier  himself  says 
in  his  memoirs.  .  .  .  Cartier  in  vain  extolled  the 
country  w-hich  he  had  discovered.  His  small  re- 
turns, and  the  wretched  condition  to  which  his 
men  had  been  reduced  by  cold  and  scurvy,  per- 
suaded most  that  it  would  never  be  of  any  use  to 
France.     Great  stress  was  laid  on  the  fact  that  he 


280 


AMERICA,   1535-1540 


Coronado's 
Expedition 


AMERICA,    1540-1541 


nowhere  saw  any  appearance  of  mines;  and  then, 
even  more  than  now,  a  strange  land  which  pro- 
duced' 'neither  gold  nor  silver  was  reckoned  as 
nothing.' " — Father  Charlevoix,  History  oj  New 
France,  bk.  i. 

Also  in:  R.  Kerr,  General  collection  of  voyages, 
pt.  2,  bk.  2,  cli.  12.— F.  X.  Garneau,  History  of 
Canada,  v.  i,  cli.  2.— H.  P.  Biggar,  Precursors 
of  Jacques  Cartier;  Ottawa,  Government  printing 
bureau  213  (Publication  of  the  Canadian  Archives 
No.  S). — H.  B.  Stephens,  Jacques  Cartier  and  his 
four  voyages  to  Canada  (Gives  modern  English 
translations). — J.  Winsor,  America,  v.  4,  pp.  62-68. 
— J.  Winsor,  Cartier  to  Frontenac. — H.  P.  Biggar, 
Early  trading  companies  of  New  France. — For  the 
question  of  Cartier's  route  consult  W.  F.  Ganong, 
Royal  Society  of  Canada's  transactions,  V.,  sect.  2, 
p.  121,  and  Bishop  Howley,  Ibid.,  XII,  sect.  2, 
p.  151. — C.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States, 
V.  I. — R.  G.  Thwaitcs,  France  in  America. — B.  Suite, 
Vcrrazano  et  Cartier  (Societe  Geographique,  Que- 
bec, Bulletin  5,  no.  6,  Nov.,  pp.  37S-381). 

1535-1540. — Introduction  of  printing  in  Mex- 
ico.   See  Printing  and  the  press:   1535-1709. 

1535-1550. — Spanish  conquests  in  Chile.  See 
Chile:    1535-1724- 

1536-1538. — Spanish  conquests  of  New  Gra- 
nada.    See  Colombia;    1536-1731. 

1540-1541. — Coronado  expedition. — "Its  [De 
Soto's  expedition]  only  parallel  is  the  contemporary 
enterprise  of  Coronado,  which  did  for  the  south- 
west what  De  Soto  did  for  the  eastern  and  central 
belt.  If  Cabeqa  de  V'aca's  reports  of  the  riches  of 
Florida  spurred  on  De  Soto  and  his  followers  in 
Spain  they  were  not  less  exciting  in  Mexico. 
There  the  ground  had  been  in  a  measure  prepared 
by  the  fusing  of  an  Indian  folk  tale  of  seven  caves 
with  the  old  geographical  myth  of  the  Seven 
Cities;  and  the  whole  was  made  vivid  by  the 
stories  told  by  an  Indian  of  a  visit  when  a  child 
to  these  seven  towns,  which  he  compared  to  the 
city  of  Mexico.  It  seemed  advisable  to  Mendoza, 
the  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  to  explore  the  region, 
and  he  chose  a  Franciscan,  Friar  Marcos,  of  Nizza, 
or  Nice,  who  had  been  in  Peru  with  Pizarro,  and 
in  Mexico  had  had  some  missionary  experience  in 
the  frontier,  to  make  a  reconnoissance.  He  was 
now  instructed  to  make  careful  observations  of 
the  country,  its  products  and  people,  and  to  re- 
port them  in  detail  to  Mendoza.  The  negro  Ste- 
phen, who  had  come  with  De  Vaca,  was  given 
to  him  to  serve  as  a  guide,  and  he  was  also  at- 
tended by  some  Christianized  Pima  Indians.  Friar 
Marcos  left  Culiacan  in  the  western  frontier  of 
Sinaloa  a  few  weeks  before  De  Soto  landed  in 
Florida.  Following  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Yaqui, 
he  then  went  nearly  due  north,  veering  later 
towards  the  east,  until  he  came  within  sight  of 
the  Zuni  villages  in  western  New  Mexico.  The 
negro  Stephen  had  gone  on  ahead  with  a  retinue 
of  Indians,  and  Friar  Marcos  now  learned  that  he 
had  been  killed  by  the  Indians  of  Cibola,  the  first 
of  the  seven  cities  (which  are  now  usually  identi- 
fied with  the  Zuni  pueblos) .  From  a  distant  point 
of  view,  the  pueblo  seemed  to  the  friar  in  that 
magnifying  atmosphere  as  large  as  the  city  of 
Mexico.  The  magic  of  the  association  with  the 
legend  of  the  'Seven  Cities'  reinforced  the  im- 
pression made  by  the  narrative  of  the  friar,  some 
of  whose  exaggerated  reports  may  have  arisen 
from  imperfectly  understanding  his  informants; 
and  elaborate  preparations  were  at  once  made  to 
invade  the  new  land  of  wonder,  and  to  repeat,  if 
possible,  the  history  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 
The  enterprise  was  placed  in  the  charge  of  Fran- 
cisco  de   Coronado,    the   recently    appointed   gov- 


ernor of  New  Galicia,  the  northern  frontier  prov- 
ince of  New  Spain,  and  a  personal  friend  of  Men- 
doza. The  vigor  and  energy  ot  Mendoza's  gov- 
ernment as  well  as  the  resources  of  New  Spain  at 
that  early  date  are  strikingly  displayed  in  the 
preparations  for  what  is  perhaps  the  most  elabo- 
rate single  enterprise  of  exploration  in  North  .Amer- 
ican history.  The  land  force  under  Coronado  num- 
bered three  hundred  Spaniards  and  eight  hundred 
Indians,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  large  number 
of  extra  horses  and  droves  of  sheep  and  pigs. 
There  was  in  addition  a  sea  force  of  two  ships 
under  Hernando  de  Alarcon  to  cooperate  with 
Coronado  by  following  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
California  and  keeping  in  communication  with  the 
army  and  carrying  some  of  its  baggage.  Alarcon 
discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River,  and 
August  26,  1540,  started  to  explore  it  with  boats. 
In  the  second  of  his  two  separate  trips  he  ap- 
parently got  as  far  as  the  lower  end  of  the  canon, 
about  two  hundred  miles  up,  as  he  estimated  it. 
Coronado  himself  set  out  in  February,  1540,  march- 
ing up  the  west  coast  of  Mexico.  At  Culiacan  he 
left  the  main  force  and  went  ahead  with  about 
fifty  horsemen,  some  foot-soldiers,  and  most  of  the 
Indian  allies.  Passing  across  the  southwestern  sec- 
tion of  .Arizona  they  verged  to  the  eastward  till 
they  came  to  Cibola,  which  was  captured.  Here 
they  were  profoundly  disappointed.  However 
plausible  Friar  Marcos's  comparison  of  the  distant 
view  of  the  pueblo  with  the  city  of  Mexico  may 
be  made  to  seem  in  our  time,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  it  completely  misled  the  men  of  that  day  who 
knew  Mexico.  Coronado  now  sent  back  Melchior 
Diaz  to  order  up  the  main  force.  Diaz  did  so,  and 
then  set  out  to  explore  the  region  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  California.  He  crossed  the  Colorado 
River  and  penetrated  the  country  to  the  west. 
Another  important  side  expedition  during  this  sum- 
mer was  that  of  Pedro  de  Tovar  to  the  province 
of  Tusayan,  northwest  of  Cibola,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  Grand  Cafion  of  the  Colorado  by 
De  Gardenas.  As  they  looked  into  its  depths  it 
seemed  as  'if  the  water  was  six  feet  across,  al- 
though the  Indians  said  it  was  half  a  league 
wide.'  They  tried  to  get  down  to  the  stream,  but 
in  vain.  'Those  who  stayed  above  had  estimated 
that  some  huge  rocks  on  the  sides  of  the  cliffs 
seemed  to  be  about  as  tall  as  a  man,  but  those 
who  went  down  swore  that  when  they  reached 
these  rocks  they  were  bigger  than  the  great  tower 
of  Seville.'  When  the  main  army  reached  Cibola, 
Coronado  moved  with  it  to  about  the  middle  of 
New  Mexico,  where  he  went  into  winter  quarters 
at  Tiguex,  on  the  Rio  Grande.  Here  the  burden 
of  requisitions  for  supplies  and  individual  acts  of 
outrage  against  the  Indians  of  Tiguex  provoked 
them  to  an  attack  on  the  Spaniards,  which  was 
successfully  repelled.  The  cruelty  of  the  reprisals 
inflicted  on  the  Indian  prisoners  exceeded  anything 
done  by  De  Soto,  and  constitutes  a  dark  stain  on 
the  expedition.  In  the  spring  of  1541,  Coronado 
set  out  to  reach  Quivira,  a  town  of  which  an  In- 
dian prisoner  had  given  a  glowing  description.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  thirty-seven  days'  march 
took  them  northeasterly,  but  constantly  verging 
to  the  right,  across  the  plains  until  they  reached 
the  borders  of  the  [former]  Oklahoma  Territory. 
A  further  advance  with  the  main  force  now  seemed 
inadvisable ;  but  to  verify,  if  possible,  the  stories 
about  Quivira,  Coronado  went  on  early  in  June 
with  thirty  horsemen  to  the  northeast.  After  a 
ride  of  about  six  weeks  the  goal  was  reached,  and 
proved  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  village  of  semi- 
nomadic  Indians  in  the  centre  of  the  present  state 
of  Kansas.     A  few  hundred  miles  to  the  southeast 


281 


AMERICA,  1541 


Voyages  of 
Hawkins 


AMERICA,   1562-1567 


De  Soto  at  this  same  time  was  exploring  Arkansas. 
An  Indian  woman  who  had  run  away  from  Cor- 
onado's  army  fell  in  with  De  Soto's  nine  days 
later.  Fertile  as  was  the  soil  of  the  western  pra- 
ries,  the  region  had  nothing  at  that  time  adequate 
to  reward  settlement  so  far  inland;  and  Coronado 
in  the  following  spring  returned  to  New  Spain  with 
all  his  force  save  two  missionaries  and  a  few 
others.  The  expedition,  like  De  Soto's,  failed  of 
its  immediate  object,  but  it  revealed  the  character 
of  a  large  part  of  the  southwest  and  of  the  trans- 
Mississippi  plains;  and  the  branch  expeditions  had 
proved  that  Lower  California  was  a  peninsula  and 
not  an  island." — E.  G.  Bourne,  Spain  in  America, 
pp.  16S-172. — In  regard  to  the  literature  of  south- 
western exploration,  G.  P.  Winship,  Bibliography 
of  the  Coronado  Expedition,  is  a  very  valuable 
guide.  It  was  appended  to  his  edition  of  all  the 
Coronado  documents  in  English  translation,  in- 
cluding the  original  Spanish  text,  not  previously 
ptinted,  of  Castaneda's  narrative,  published  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  EtLnoIogy,  Fourteenth 
Annual  Report  (1896).  The  translations  have 
been  revised  in  G.  P.  Winship 's  Journey  of  Coro- 
nado (1Q04). 

Also  in:  L.  D.  Scisco,  Coronado's  march  across 
the  high  plains  (Americana,  VI,  pp.  237-24S). — • 
C.  F.  Lummis,  Spanish  pioneers. — Coronado's  ex- 
petition  (Papers  of  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation, V.  3,  pp.  168-171). — Report  American  his- 
torical association,  p'p.  83-92,  94  (article  by  C.  P. 
Winship). 

1541. — Spanish  settlement  in  Yucatan.  See 
Yucat.'\n:    Gaographical  description. 

1541-1603. — Cartier's  last  voyage. — Abortive 
attempts  at  French  colonization  in  Canada.^ 
"Jean  Francois  de  la  Roque,  lord  of  Roberval,  a 
gentleman  of  Picardy,  was  the  most  earnest  and 
energetic  of  those  who  desired  to  colonize  the  lands 
discovered  by  Jacques  Carticr.  .  .  .  The  title  and 
authority  of  lieutenant-general  was  conferred  upon 
him ;  his  rule  to  extend  over  Canada,  Hochelaga, 
Saguenay,  Newfoundland,  Belle  Isle,  Carpon,  Lab- 
rador, La  Grand  Baye,  and  Baccalaos.  with  the 
delegated  rights  and  powers  of  the  Crown.  This 
patent  was  dated  the  15th  of  January,  iS40- 
Jacques  Cartier  was  named  second  in  command. 
.  .  .  Jacques  Cartier  sailed  on  the  23d  of  May, 
1 54 1,  having  provisioned  his  fleet  for  two  years." 
He  remained  on  the  St.  Lawrence  until  the  follow- 
ing June,  seeking  vainly  for  the  fabled  wealth  of 
the  land  of  Saguenay,  finding  the  Indians  strongly 
inclined  to  a  treacherous  hostility,  and  suffering  se- 
vere hardships  during  the  winter.  Entirely  dis- 
couraged and  disgusted,  he  abandoned  his  under- 
taking early  in  the  summer  of  1542,  and  sailed 
for  home.  On  the  road  of  St.  John's,  Newfound- 
land, Cartier  met  his  tardy  chief,  Roberval,  just 
coming  to  join  him;  but  no  persuasion  could  in- 
duce the  disappointed  explorer  to  turn  back.  "To 
avoid  the  chance  of  an  open  rupture  with  Rober- 
val, the  lieutenant  silently  weighed  anchor  during 
the  night,  and  made  all  sail  for  France.  This  in- 
glorious withdrawal  from  the  enterprise  paralyzed 
Roberval's  power,  and  deferred  the  permanent  set- 
tlement of  Canada  for  generations  then  unborn. 
Jacques  Cartier  died  soon  after  his  return  to 
Europe."  Roberval  proceeded  to  Canada,  built  a 
fort  at  Ste  Croix,  four  leagues  west  of  Orleans, 
sent  back  two  of  his  three  ships  to  France,  and 
remained  through  the  winter  with  his  colony,  hav- 
ing a  troubled  time.  There  is  no  certain  account 
of  the  ending  of  the  enterprise,  but  it  ended  in 
failure.  For  half  a  century  afterwards  there  was 
little  attempt  made  by  the  French  to  coloni:^e  any 
part  of  New  France,  though   the   French   fisheries 


on  the  Newfoundland  Bank  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  were  steadily  growing  in  actiyity  and 
importance.  "When,  after  fifty  years  of  civil  strife, 
the  strong  and  wise  sway  of  Henry  IV.  restored 
rest  to  troubled  France,  the  spirit  of  discovery 
again  arose.  The  Marquis  de  La  Roche,  a  Breton 
gentleman,  obtained  from  the  king,  in  1598,  a 
patent  granting  the  same  powers  that  Roberval 
had  possessed."  But  La  Roche's  undertakmg 
proved  more  disastrous  than  Roberval's  had  been. 
Yet,  there  had  been  enough  of  successful  fur- 
trading  opened  to  stimulate  enterprbe,  despite 
these  misfortunes.  "Private  adventurers,  unpro- 
tected by  any  special  privilege,  began  to  barter 
for  the  rich  peltries  of  the  Canadian  hunters. 
A  wealthy  merchant  of  St.  Malo,  named  Pont- 
grave,  was  the  boldest  and  most  successful  of 
these  traders ;  he  made  several  voyages  to  Ta- 
dousac,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  bringing 
back  each  time  a  rich  cargo  of  rare  and  valuable 
furs."  In  1600,  Pontgrave  effected  a  partner- 
ship with  one  Chauvin,  a  naval  captain,  w'ho 
obtained  a  patent  from  the  king  giving  him  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade;  but  Chauvin  died  in  1602 
without  having  succeeded  in  establishing  even  a 
trading  post  at  Tadousac.  De  Chatte,  or  De 
Chastes,  governor  of  Dieppe,  succeeded  to  the 
privileges  of  Chauvin,  and  founded  a  company 
of  merchants  at  Rouen  [1603]  to  undertake  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  Canada.  It  was 
under  the  auspices  of  this  company  that  Samuel 
Champlain,  the  founder  of  New  France,  came 
upon  the  scene. — E.  Warburton,  Conquest  of  Can- 
ada, V.  I,  ch.  2-3. — See  also  France:  Colonial  em- 
pire. 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France  in 
the  Xew  World:  Champlain,  ch.  1-2. 

1542-1648. — Jesuit  missionaries.  See  Jesuits: 
1542-164S. 

1562-1567. —  Slave-trading  voyages  of  Haw- 
kins.— Beginnings  of  English  enterprise  in  the 
New  World. — "The  history  of  English  America 
begins  with  the  three  slave-trading  voyages  of  John 
Hawkins,  made  in  the  years  1562,  1564,  and  1S67. 
Nothing  that  Englishmen  had  done  in  connection 
with  .America,  previously  to  those  voyages,  had 
any  result  worth  recording.  England  had 
known  the  New  World  nearly  seventy  years,  for 
John  Cabot  reached  it  shortly  after  its  discovery 
by  Columbus;  and,  as  the  tidings  of  the  dis- 
covery spread,  many  English  adventurers  had 
crossed  the  Atlantic  to  the  .\merican  coast.  But 
as  years  passed,  and  the  excitement  of  novelty 
subsided,  the  English  voyages  to  America  had 
become  fewer  and  fewer,  and  at  length  ceased 
altogether.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  this. 
There  was  no  opening  for  conquest  or  plunder, 
for  the  Tudors  were  at  peace  with  the  Spanish 
sovereigns:  and  there  could  be  no  territorial 
occupation,  for  the  Papal  title  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  to  the  whole  of  the  new  continent 
could  not  be  disputed  by  Catholic  England. 
No  trade  worth  having  existed  with  the  natives: 
and  Spain  and  Portugal  kept  the  trade  with  their 
own  settlers  in  their  own  hands.  ...  As  the 
plantations  in  America  grew  and  multiplied,  the 
demand  for  negroes  rapidly  increased.  The  Span- 
iards had  no  .African  settlements,  but  the  Portu- 
guese had  many,  and,  with  the  aid  of  French  and 
English  adventurers,  they  procured  from  these 
settlements  slaves  enough  to  supply  both  them- 
selves and  the  Spaniards.  But  the  Brazilian  plan- 
tations grew  so  fast,  about  the  middle  of  the 
century,  that  they  absorbed  the  entire  supply,  and 
the  Spanish  colonists  knew  not  where  to  look  for 
negroes.      This    penury    of   slaves    in    the   Spanish 


282 


AMERICA,   1562-1567 


Drake's 
Voyages 


AMERICA,   1572-1580 


Indies  became  known  to  the  English  and  French 
captains  who  fiequcntcd  the  Guinea  coast;  and 
John  Hawkins,  who  had  been  engaged  from  boy- 
hood in  the  trade  with  Spain  and  the  Canaries, 
resolved  in  1502  to  take  a  cargo  of  negro  slaves 
to  Hispaniola.  The  little  squadron  with  which 
he  executed  this  project  was  the  first  English 
squadron  which  navigated  the  Vv'est  Indian  seas. 
This  voyage  opened  those  seas  to  the  English. 
England  had  not  yet  broken  with  Spain,  and  the 
law  excluding  English  vessels  from  trading  with 
the  Spanish  colonists  was  not  strictly  enlorced. 
The  trade  was  profitable,  and  Hawkins  found  no 
difficulty  in  disposing  of  his  cargo  to  great  advan- 
tage. A  meagre  note  .  .  .  from  the  pen  of  Hak- 
luyt  contains  all  that  is  known  of  the  first  Amer- 
ican voyage  of  Hawkins.  In  its  details  it  must 
have  closely  resembled  the  second  voyage.  In  the 
first  voyage,  however,  Hawkins  had  no  occasion 
to  carry  his  wares  further  than  three  ports  on 
the  northern  side  of  Hispaniola.  These  ports, 
far  away  from  San  Domingo,  the  capital,  were 
already  well  known  to  the  French  smugglers.  He 
did  not  venture  into  the  Caribbean  Sea;  and 
having  loaded  his  ships  v>'ith  their  return  cargo, 
he  made  the  best  of  his  way  back.  In  his 
second  voyage  ...  he  entered  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  still  keeping,  however,  at  a  safe  distance 
from  San  Domingo,  and  sold  his  slaves  on  the 
mainland.  This  voyage  was  on  a  much  larger 
scale.  .  .  .  Having  sold  his  slaves  in  the  conti- 
nental ports  [South  American],  and  loaded  his 
vessels  with  hides  and  other  goods  bought  with 
the  produce,  Hawkins  determined  to  strike  out  a 
new  path  and  sail  home  with  the  Gulf-stream, 
which  would  carry  him  northwards  past  the 
shores  of  Florida.  Sparke's  narrative  .  .  . 
proves  that  at  every  point  in  these  expeditions  the 
Englishman  was  following  in  the  track  of  the 
French.  He  had  French  pilots  and  seamen  on 
board,  and  there  is  httle  doubt  that  one  at  least 
of  these  had  already  been  with  Laudonniere  in 
Florida.  The  French  seamen  guided  him  to 
Laudonniere's  settlement,  where  his  arrival  was 
most  opportune.  They  then  pointed  him  the 
way  by  the  coast  of  North  America,  then  uni- 
versally known  in  the  mass  as  New  France,  to 
Newfoundland,  and  thence,  with  the  prevailing 
westerly  winds,  to  Europe.  This  was  the  pioneer 
voyage  made  by  Englishmen  along  coasts  after- 
wards famous  in  history  through  English  colo- 
nization. .  .  .  The  extremely  interesting  narrative 
.  .  .  given  .  .  .  from  the  pen  of  John  Sparke,  one 
of  Hawluns'  gentlemen  companions  .  .  .  contains 
the  first  information  concerning  America  and  its 
natives  which  was  published  in  England  by  an 
English  eye-witness."  Hawkins  planned  a  third 
voyage  in  1566,  but  the  remonstrances  of  the  Span- 
ish king  caused  him  to  be  stopped  by  the  English 
court.  He  sent  out  his  ships,  however,  and  they 
came  home  in  due  time  richly  freighted, — from 
what  source  is  not  known.  "In  another  year's 
time  the  aspect  of  things  had  changed."  England 
was  venturing  into  war  with  Spain,  "and  Haw- 
kins was  now  able  to  execute  his  plans  without 
restraint.  He  founded  a  permanent  fortified  fac- 
tory on  the  Guinea  coast,  where  negroes  might 
be  collected  all  the  year  round.  Thence  he  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies  a  third  time.  Young  Francis 
Drake  sailed  with  him  in  command  of  the  'Judith,' 
a  small  vessel  of  fifty  tons  "  The  voyage  had  a 
prosperous  beginning  and  a  disastrous  ending. 
After  disposing  of  most  of  their  slaves,  they  were 
driven  by  storms  to  take  refuse  in  the  Mexican 
port  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  there  they  were  attacked 
by    a   Spanish    fleet.      Drake    in    the    Judi'l'    and 


Hawkins  in  another  small  vessel  escaped.  But  the 
latter  was  overcrowded  with  men  and  obliged  to 
put  half  of  them  ashore  on  the  Mexican  coast 
I'he  majority  of  those  left  on  board,  as  well  as  a 
majority  of  Drake's  crew,  died  on  the  voyage  home, 
and  it  was  a  miserable  remnant  that  landed  in 
England,  in  January,  1569. — E.  J.  Payne,  Voyages 
of  Elizabethan  seamen  to  America,  ck.  1. 

Also  in;  Hawkins'  voyages;  ed.  by  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham  (Hakluyl  Society,  No.  57). — R.  Southey, 
Lives  of  the  British  admirals,  v.  3. 

1572-1580. — Piratical  adventures  of  Drake  and 
his  encompassing  of  the  world. — "Francis  Drake, 
the  first  of  the  English  Buccaneers,  was  one  of 
the  twelve  children  of  Edward  Drake  of  Tavistock, 
in  Devonshire,  a  staunch  Protestant,  who  had  fled 
his  native  place  to  avoid  persecution,  and  had 
then  become  a  ship's  chaplain.  Drake,  like  Colum- 
bus, had  been  a  seaman  by  profession  from  boy- 
hood; and  .  .  .  had  served  as  a  young  man,  in 
command  of  the  Judith,  under  Hawkins.  .  .  . 
Hawkins  had  confined  himself  to  smuggling:  Drake 
advanced  from  this  to  piracy.  This  practice  was 
authorized  by  law  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  pur- 
pose of  recovering  -debts  or  damages  from  the 
subjects  of  another  nation.  The  English,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  west  country,  were  the  most 
formidable  pirates  in  the  world ;  and  the  whole 
nation  was  by  this  time  roused  against  Spain,  in 
consequence  of  the  ruthless  war  waged  against 
Protestantism  in  the  Netherlands  by  PhiUp  II. 
Drake  had  accounts  of  his  own  to  settle  with  the 
Spaniards.  Though  Elizabeth  had  not  declared 
for  the  revolted  States,  and  pursued  a  shifting 
policy,  her  interests  and  theirs  were  identical;  and 
it  was  with  a  view  of  cutting  off  those  supplies  of 
gold  and  silver  from  America  which  enabled  Philip 
to  bribe  politicians  and  pay  soldiers,  in  pursuit 
of  his  policy  of  aggression,  that  the  famous  voy- 
age was  authorized  by  English  statesmen.  Drake 
had  recently  made  more  than  one  successful  voy- 
age of  plunder  to  the  American  coast."     In  July, 

1572,  he  surprised  the  Spanish  town  of  Nombre 
de  Dios,  which  was  the  shipping  port  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Isthmus  for  the  treasures  of 
Peru.  His  men  made  their  way  into  the  royal 
treasure-house,  where  they  laid  hands  on  a  heap 
of  bar-silver,  70  feet  long,  10  wide,  and  10  high; 
but  Drake  himself  had  received  a  wound  which 
compelled  the  pirates  to  retreat  with  no  very  large 
part    of    the    splendid    booty.      In    the    winter    of 

1573,  with  the  help  of  the  runaway  slaves  on  the 
Isthmus,  known  as  Cimarrones,  he  crossed  the 
Isthmus,  looked  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  approached 
within  sight  of  the  city  of  Panama,  and  waylaid  a 
transportation  party  conveying  gold  to  Nombre 
de  Dios;  but  was  disappointed  of  his  prey  by  the 
excited  conduct  of  some  of  his  men.  When  he  saw, 
on  this  occasion,  the  great  ocean  beyond  the  Isth- 
mus, "Drake  then  and  there  resolved  to  be  the 
pioneer  of  England  in  the  Pacific;  and  on  this 
resolution  he  solemnly  besought  the  blessing  of 
God.  Nearly  four  years  elapsed  before  it  was  exe- 
cuted; for  it  was  not  until  November,  1577,  that 
Drake  embarked  on  his  famous  voyage,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  proposed  to  plunder  Peru  it- 
self. The  Peruvian  ports  were  unfortified.  The 
Spaniards  knew  them  to  be  by  nature  absolutely 
secured  from  attack  on  the  north;  and  they  never 
dreamed  that  the  English  pirates  would  be  daring 
enough  to  pass  the  terrible  straits  of  Magellan  and 
attack  them,  from  the  south.  Such  was  the  plan 
of  Drake;  and  it  was  executed  with  complete 
success."  He  sailed  from  Plymouth,  Dec.  13,  1577, 
with  a  fleet  of  four  vessels,  and  a  pinnace,  but  lost 
one  of  the  ships  after  he  had  entered  the  Pacific, 


283 


AMERICA,  1580 


Guilberfs 
Expedition 


AMERICA,   1584-1586 


in  a  storm  which  drove  him  southward,  and  which 
made  him  the  discoverer  of  Cape  Horn.  Another 
of  his  ships,  separated  from  the  squadron,  re- 
turned home,  and  a  third,  while  attempting  to  do 
the  same,  was  lost  in  the  river  Plate.  Drake,  in 
his  own  vessel,  the  Golden  Hind,  proceeded  to  the 
Peruvian  coasts,  where  he  cruised  until  he  had 
taken  and  plundered  a  score  of  Spanish  ships. 
"Laden  with  a  rich  booty  of  Peruvian  treasure 
he  deemed  it  unsafe  to  return  by  the  way  that  he 
came.  He  therefore  resolved  to  strike  across  the 
Pacific  and  for  this  purpose  made  the  latitude 
in  which  this  voyage  was  usually  performed  by 
the  Spanish  government  vessels  which  sailed  an- 
nually from  Acapulco  to  the  Philippines.  Drake 
thus  reached  the  coast  of  California,  where  the 
Indians,  delighted  beyond  measure  by  presents  of 
clothing  and  trinkets,  invited  him  to  remain  and 
rule  over  them.  Drake  took  possession  of  the 
country  in  the  name  of  the  Queen,  and  refitted  his 
vessel  in  preparation  for  the  unknown  perils  of 
the  Pacific.  The  place  where  he  landed  must  have 
been  cither  the  great  bay  of  San  Francisco  or  the 
small  bay  of  Bodega,  which  lies  a  few  leagues 
further  north.  The  great  seaman  had  already 
coasted  five  degrees  more  to  the  northward  before 
finding  a  suitable  harbour.  He  believed  himself 
to  be  the  first  European  who  had  coasted  these 
shores;  but  it  is  now  well  known  that  Spanish 
explorers  had  preceded  him.  Drake's  circum- 
navigation of  the  globe  was  thus  no  deliberate 
feat  of  seamanship,  but  the  necessary  result  of 
circumstances.  The  voyage  made  in  more  than 
one  way  a  great  epoch  in  English  nautical  history." 
Drake  reached  Plymouth  on  his  return  Sept.  26, 
1580. — E.  J.  Payne,  Voyages  of  the  Elizabethan 
seamen  to  America,  pp.  141-143. 

Also  in:  F.  Fletcher,  World  encompassed  by 
Sir  Drake  (Hakluyt  Society,  1854). — J.  Barrow, 
Life  of  Drake. — R.  Southey,  Lives  of  British  ad- 
mirals, V.  3. — Nuno  de  Silva,  Report  on  a  part 
of  Francis  Drake's  famous  voyage  of  circumnavi- 
gation.— J.  Corbett,  Drake  and  the  Tudor  navy. 
— E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States, 
V.  I,  pp.  116,  133,  141. — L.  G.  Tyler,  England 
in  America,  pp.  10,  13,  25. — Papers  American 
Historical  Association,  v.  2,  p.  168;  v.  5,  pp. 
303,  950. — Reports  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion. 

1580. — Final  founding  of  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ay  res.    See  .Argentina:  i  580-1 777. 

1583. — Expedition  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. — 
Formal  possession  taken  of  Newfoundland. — In 
1578,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  an  English  gentleman, 
of  Devonshire,  whose  younger  half-brother  was 
the  more  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  obtained  from 
Queen  Elizabeth  a  charter  empo'wering  him,  for 
the  next  six  years,  to  discover  "such  remote  heathen 
and  barbarous  lands,  not  actually  possessed  by  any 
Christian  prince  or  people,"  as  he  might  be  shrewd 
or  fortunate  enough  to  find,  and  to  occupy  the 
same  as  their  proprietor.  Gilbert's  'rst  expedi- 
tion was  attempted  the  next  year,  with  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  associated  in  it;  but  misfortunes  drove 
back  the  adventurers  to  port,  and  Spanish  intrigue 
prevented  their  sailing  again.  "In  June,  1583, 
Gilbert  sailed  from  Cawsand  Bay  with  five  vessels, 
with  the  general  intention  of  discovering  and  col- 
onizing the  northern  parts  of  .\merica.  It  was 
the  first  colonizing  expedition  which  left  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain;  and  the  narrative  of  the  expe- 
dition by  Hayes,  who  commanded  one  of  Gil- 
bert's vessels,  forms  the  first  page  in  the  history 
of  English  colonization.  Gilbert  did  no  more  than 
go  through  the  empty  form  of  taking  possession  of 
the  island  of  Newfoundland,  to  which  the  English 


name  formerly  applied  to  the  continent  in  general 
.  .  .  was  now  restricted.  .  .  .  Gilbert  dallied  here 
too  long.  When  he  set  sail  to  cross  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  take  possession  of  Cape  Breton 
and  Nova  Scotia  the  season  was  too  far  advanced; 
one  of  his  largest  ships  went  down  with  all  on 
board,  including  the  Hungarian  scholar  Parmenius, 
who  had  come  out  as  the  historian  of  the  ex- 
pedition ;  the  stores  were  exhausted  and  the  crews 
dispirited;  and  Gilbert  resolved  on  sailing  home, 
intending  to  return  and  prosecute  his  discoveries 
the  next  spring.  On  the  home  voyage  the  little 
ves.sel  in  which  he  was  sailing  foundered ;  and  the 
pioneer  of  English  colonization  found  a  watery 
grave.  .  .  .  Gilbert  was  a  man  of  courage,  piety, 
and  learning.  He  was,  however,  an  indifferent 
seaman,  and  quite  incompetent  for  the  task  of 
colonization  to  which  he  had  set  his  hand.  The 
misfortunes  of  his  expedition  induced  Amadas  and 
Barlow,  who  followed  in  his  steps,  to  abandon  the 
northward  voyage  and  sail  to  the  shores  intended 
to  be  occupied  by  the  easier  but  more  circuitous 
route  of  the  Canaries  and  the  West  Indies." — E.  J. 
Payne,  Voyages  of  Elizabethan  seamen  to  America, 
pp.  173-174. — "On  Monday,  the  gth  of  Septem- 
ber, in  the  afternoon,  the  frigate  [the  'Squirrel'] 
was  near  cast  away,  oppressed  by  waves,  yet  at 
that  time  recovered;  and  giving  forth  signs  of  joy, 
the  general,  sitting  abaft  with  a  book  in  his  hand, 
cried  out  to  us  in  the  'Hind'  (so  oft  as  we  did 
approach  within  hearing),  'We  are  as  near  to 
heaven  by  sea  as  by  land,'  reiterating  the  same 
speech,  well  beseeming  a  soldier  resolute  in  Jesus 
Christ,  as  I  can  testify  he  was.  On  the  same 
Monday  night,  about  twelve  o'clock,  or  not  long 
after,  the  frigate  being  ahead  of  us  in  the  'Golden 
Hind,'  suddenly  her  lights  were  out,  whereof  as  it 
were  in  a  moment  we  lost  the  sight,  and  withal  our 
watch  cried  the  General  was  cast  away,  which  was 
too  true;  for  in  that  moment  the  frigate  was  de- 
voured and  swallowed  up  by  the  sea.  Yet  still  we 
looked  out  all  that  night  and  ever  after,  until  we 
arrived  upon  the  coast  of  England.  ...  In  great 
torment  of  weather  and  peril  of  drowning  it  pleased 
God  to  send  safe  home  the  'Golden  Hind,'  which 
arrived  in  Falmouth  on  the  2 2d  of  September,  bein^ 
Sunday." — E.  Haies,  A  report  of  the  voyage  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  (reprinted  in  Payne's  Voy- 
ages) . 

Also  in:  E.  Edwards,  Life  of  Raleigh,  v.  i,  ch.  5. 
— R.  Hakluyt,  Principal  navigations;  edited  by  E. 
Goldsmid,  v.  12. — L.  G  Tyler,  England  in  Amer- 
ica, pp.  13-21. — E.  Channing,  History  of  the 
United  States,  pp.  122-124. — Prince  Society,  Sir 
Humphrey  Gylberte  and  his  enterprise  of  colo- 
nization in  .'imerica;  edited  by  C.  Slafter. — G.  Pat- 
terson, Royal  Society  of  Canada's  transactions, 
second  series,  p.  113. — W.  G.  Gosling,  Life  of  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert  (Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Col. 
1.S74-1674.  p.  17). 

1584-1586. — Raleigh's  first  colonizing  attempts 
and  failures. — "The  task  in  which  Gilbert  had 
failed  was  to  be  undertaken  by  one  better  qualified 
to  carry  it  out.  If  any  Englishman  in  that  age 
seemed  to  be  marked  out  as  the  founder  of  a 
colonial  empire,  it  was  Raleigh.  Like  Gilbert,  he 
had  studied  books;  like  Drake  he  could  rule 
men.  .  .  .  The  associations  of  his  youth,  and  the 
training  of  his  early  manhood,  fitted  him  to  sym- 
pathize with  the  aims  of  his  half-brother  Gilbert, 
and  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  Raleigh  had 
a  share  in  his  undertaking  and  his  failure.  In 
1584  he  obtained  a  patent  precisely  similar  to 
Gilbert's.  His  first  step  showed  the  thoughtful  and 
well-planned  system  on  which  he  began  his  task. 
Two   ships  were  sent  out,  not   with   any   idea   of 


284 


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Raleigh's 
Colonization 


AMERICA,   1584-1586 


settlement,  but  to  examine  and  report  upon  the 
country.  Their  commanders  were  Arthur  Barlow 
and  Philip  Amidas.  To  the  former  we  owe  the 
extant  record  of  the  voyage:  the  name  of  the 
latter  would  suggest  that  he  was  a  foreigner. 
Whether  by  chance  or  design,  they  took  a  more 
southerly  course  than  any  of  their  predecessors. 
On  the  2d  of  July  the  presence  of  shallow  water, 
and  a  smell  of  sweet  flowers,  warned  them  that  land 
was  near.  The  promise  thus  given  was  amply 
fullilled  upon  their  approach.  The  sight  before 
them  was  far  different  from  that  which  had  met 
the  eyes  of  Hore  and  Gilbert.  Instead  of  the 
bleak  coast  of  Newfoundland,  Barlow  and  Amidas 
looked  upon  a  scene  which  might  recall  the  soft- 
ness of  the  Mediterranean.  .  .  .  Coasting  along 
for  about  120  miles,  the  voyagers  reached  an  inlet 
and  with  some  difficulty  entered.  They  then 
solemnly  took  possession  of  the  land  in  the  Queen's 
name,  and  then  delivered  it  over  to  Raleigh  ac- 
cording to  his  patent.  They  soon  discovered  that 
the  land  upon  which  they  had  touched  was  an 
island  about  20  miles  long,  and  not  above  six 
broad,  named,  as  they  afterwards  learnt,  Roanoke. 
Beyond,  separating  them  from  the  mainland,  lay  an 
enclosed  sea,  studded  with  more  than  a  hundred 
fertile  and  well-wooded  islets."  The  Indians 
proved  friendly,  and  were  described  by  Barlow  as 
being  "most  gentle,  loving  and  faithful,  void  of  all 
guile  and  treason,  and  such  as  live  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  golden  age."  "The  report  which  the 
voyagers  took  home  spoke  as  favourably  of  the 
land  itself  as  of  its  inhabitants.  .  .  .  With  them 
they  brought  two  of  the  savages,  named  Wanchese 
and  Manteo.  A  probable  tradition  tells  us  that  the 
queen  herself  named  the  country  Virginia,  and  that 
Raleigh's  knighthood  was  the  reward  and  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  success.  On  the  strength 
of  this  report  Raleigh  at  once  made  preparations 
for  a  settlement.  A  fleet  of  seven  ships  was  pro- 
vided for  the  conveyance  of  108  settlers.  The 
fleet  was  under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard  Gren- 
ville,  who  was  to  establish  the  settlement  and  leave 
it  under  the  charge  of  Ralph  Lane.  .  .  .  On  the 
gth  of  April  [1585]  the  emigrants  set  sail."  For 
some  reason  not  well  explained,  the  fleet  made  a 
circuit  to  the  West  Indies,  and  loitered  for  five 
weeks  at  the  island  of  St.  John's  and  at  Hispaniola, 
reaching  Virginia  in  the  last  days  of  June.  Quar- 
rels between  the  two  commanders,  Grenville  and 
Lane,  had  already  begun,  and  both  seemed  equally 
ready  to  provoke  the  enmity  of  the  natives.  In 
August,  after  exploring  some  sixty  miles  of  the 
coast,  Grenville  returned  to  England,  promising  to 
come  back  the  next  spring  with  new  colonists  and 
stores.  The  settlement,  thus  left  to  the  care  of 
Lane,  was  established  "at  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  island  of  'Roanoke,  whence  the  settlers 
could  command  the  strait.  There,  even  now, 
choked  by  vines  and  underwood,  and  here  and 
there  broken  by  the  crumbling  remains  of  an 
earthen  bastion,  may  be  traced  the  outlines  of  the 
ditch  which  enclosed  the  camp,  some  forty  yards 
square,  the  home  of  the  first  English  settlers  in 
the  New  World.  Of  the  doings  of  the  settlers 
during  the  winter  nothing  is  recorded,  but  by  the 
next  spring  their  prospects  looked  gloomy.  The 
Indians  were  no  longer  friends.  .  .  .  The  settlers, 
unable  to  make  fishing  weirs,  and  without  seed 
corn,  were  entirely  dependent  on  the  Indians  for 
their  daily  food.  Under  these  circumstances,  one 
would  have  supposed  that  Lane  would  have  best 
employed  himself  in  guarding  the  settlement  and 
improving  its  condition.  He,  however,  thought 
otherwise,  and  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  ex- 
ploring  the   neighbouring   territory."     But   a   wide 


combination  of  hostile  Indian  tribes  had  been 
formed  against  the  English,  and  their  situation  be- 
came from  day  to  day  more  imperilled.  At  the 
beginning  of  June,  1586,  Lane  fought  a  bold  bat- 
tle with  the  savages  and  routed  them ;  but  no  sign 
of  Grenville  appeared  and  the  prospect  looked 
hopeless.  Just  at  this  juncture,  a  great  English 
fleet,  sailing  homewards  from  a  piratical  expedition 
to  the  Spanish  Main,  under  the  famous  Captain 
Drake,  came  to  anchor  at  Roanoke  and  offered 
succor  to  the  disheartened  colonists.  With  one  voice 
they  petitioned  to  be  taken  to  England,  and  Drake 
received  the  whole  party  on  board  his  ships.  "The 
help  of  which  the  colonists  had  despaired  was  in 
reality  close  at  hand.  Scarcely  had  Drake's  fleet 
left  the  coast  when  a  ship  well  furnished  by 
Raleigh  with  needful  supplies,  reached  Virginia, 
and  after  searching  for  the  departed  settlers  re- 
turned to  England.  About  a  fortnight  later  Gren- 
ville himself  arrived  with  three  ships.  He  spent  some 
time  in  the  country  exploring,  searching  for  the 
settlers,  and  at  last,  unwilling  to  lose  possession  of 
the  country,  landed  fifteen  men  at  Roanoke  well 
supplied  for  two  years,  and  then  set  sail  for 
England,  plundering  the  Azores,  and  doing  much 
damage  to  the  Spaniards." — J.  A.  Doyle,  Engliili' 
in  America:  Virginia,  &c.,  ch.  4. — "It  seems  to  be 
generally  admitted  that,  when  Lane  and  his  com- 
pany went  back  to  England,  they  carried  with 
them  tobacco  as  one  of  {he  products  of  the  coun- 
try, which  they  presented  to  Raleigh,  as  the 
planter  of  the  colony,  and  by  him  it  was  brought 
into  use  in  England,  and  gradually  in  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  authorities  are  not  entirely 
agreed  upon  this  point.  Josselyn  says:  'Tobacco 
first  brought  into  England  by  Sir  Tohn  Hawkins, 
but  first  brought  into  use  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
many  years  after.'  Again  he  says:  'Now  (say 
some)  Tobacco  was  first  brought  into  England  by 
Mr.  Ralph  Lane,  out  of  Virginia.  Others  will 
have  Tobacco  to  be  first  brought  into  England 
from  Peru,  by  Sir  Francis  Drake's  Mariners.' 
Camden  fixes  its  introduction  into  England  by 
Ralph  Lane  and  the  men  brought  buck  with  him 
in  the  ships  of  Drake.  He  says:  'And  these  men 
which  were  brought  back  were  the  first  that 
I  know  of,  which  brought  into  England  that 
Indian  plant  which  they  call  Tobacco  and  Nicotia, 
and  use  it  against  crudities,  being  taught  it  by  the 
Indians.'  Certainly  from  that  time  it  began  to  be 
in  great  request,  and  to  be  sold  at  a  high  rate.  .  .  . 
Among  the  108  men  left  in  the  colony  with  Ralph 
Lane  in  1585  was  Mr.  Thomas  Harlot,  a  man  of  a 
strongly  mathematical  and  scientific  turn,  whose 
services  in  this  connection  were  greatly  valued. 
He  remained  there  an  entire  year,  and  went  back 
to  England  in  1586.  He  wrote  out  a  full  account 
of  his  observations  in  the  New  World." — I.  N. 
Tarbox,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  his  colony  iti  Amer- 
ica (Prince  Society,  1884). 

Also  in:  T.  Hariot,  Brief  and  true  report  (re- 
printed in  above-named  Prince  Society  Publica- 
tion).— F.  L.  Hawks,  History  of  North  Carolina,  v 
I  (containing  reprints  of  Lane's  Account,  Harlot's 
Report,  &c. — Original  documents  edited  by  E.  E. 
Hale  (Archa-ologia  Americana,  v.  4). — A.  Brown 
Genesis  of  the  United  States,  v.  i,  p.  i8g. — E.  C 
Breece,  Lounging  in  the  footprints  of  the  pioneers 
(Harper's  Magazine,  v.  2,  p.  730). — T.  Williams 
Surroundings  of  Raleigh's  colony  (Papers  of  the 
American  Historical  Association,  1895,  p.  17).— 
H.  Macmillan,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  lost  colony.— 
L.  G.  Tyler,  England  in  America,  pp.  15-3S1  56-— 
E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States,  v.  i. 
pp.  124-12Q,  141-142,  156. — E.  Edwards,  Life  of 
Raleigh. 


285 


AMERICA,   1587-1590 


Lost  Colony 
of  Roanoke 


AMERICA,   1602-1605 


1587-1590. — Lost  colony  of  Roanoke. — End  of 
the  Virginia  undertakings  of  Raleigh. — 'Ra- 
leigh, undismayed  by  losses,  determined  to  plant 
an  agricultural  state;  to  send  emigrants  with  their 
wives  and  families,  who  should  make  their  homes 
in  the  New  World;  and,  that  life  and  property 
might  be  secured,  in  January,  15S7,  he  granted 
a  charter  for  the  settlement,  and  a  municipal  gov- 
ernment for  the  city  of  'Raleigh.'  John  White 
was  appointed  its  governor;  and  to  him,  with 
eleven  assistants,  the  administration  of  the  colony 
was  intrusted.  Transport  ships  were  prepared  at 
the  expense  of  the  proprietary ;  'Queen  Elizabeth, 
the  godmother  of  Virginia,'  declined  contributing 
'to  its  education.'  Embarking  in  April,  in  July 
they  arrived  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina; 
they  were  saved  from  the  dangers  of  Cape  Fear; 
and,  passing  Cape  Hatteras,  they  hastened  to  the 
isle  of  Roanoke,  to  search  for  the  handful  of  men 
whom  Grenville  had  left  there  as  a  garrison.  They 
found  the  tenements  deserted  and  overgrown  with 
weeds;  human  bones  lay  scattered  on  the  field 
where  wild  deer  were  reposing.  The  fort  was  in 
ruins.  No  vestige  of  surviving  life  appeared.  The 
instructions  of  Raleigh  had  designated  the  place 
for  the  new  settlement  on  the  bay  of  Chesapeake. 
But  Fernando,  the  naval  officer,  eager  to  renew  a 
profitable  traffic  in  the  West  Indies,  refused  his 
assistance  in  exploring  the  coast,  and  White  was 
compelled  to  remain  on  Roanoke.  ...  It  was  there 
that  in  July  the  foundations  ot  the  city  of  Raleigh 
were  laid."  But  the  colony  was  doomed  to  disaster 
from  the  beginning,  being  quickly  involved  in 
warfare  with  the  surrounding  natives.  "With  the 
returning  ship  White  embarked  for  England,  un- 
der the  excuse  of  interceding  for  re-enforcements 
and  supplies.  Yet,  on  the  iSth  of  .\ugust,  nine 
days  previous  to  his  departure,  his  daughter  Eleanor 
Dare,  the  wife  of  one  of  the  assistants,  gave  birth 
to  a  female  child,  the  first  offspring  of  English 
parents  on  the  soil  of  the  United  States.  The 
infant  was  named  from  the  place  of  its  birth.  The 
colony,  now  composed  of  89  men,  17  women,  and 
two  children,  whose  names  are  all  preserved,  might 
reasonably  hope  for  the  speedy  return  of  the  gov- 
ernor, as  he  left  with  them  his  daughter  and  his 
grandchild,  Virginia  Dare.  The  farther  history 
of  this  plantation  is  involved  in  gloomy  uncer- 
tainty. The  inhabitants  of  'the  city  of  Raleigh,' 
the  emigrants  from  England  and  the  first-born  of 
America,  awaited  death  in  the  land  of  their  adop- 
tion. For,  when  White  reached  England,  he  found 
its  attention  absorbed  by  the  threats  of  an  invasion 
from  Spain.  .  .  .  Yet  Raleigh,  whose  patriotism  did 
not  diminish  his  generosity,  found  means,  in  .^pril 
1588,  to  despatch  White  with  supplies  in  two  ves- 
sels. But  the  company,  desiring  a  gainful  voy- 
age rather  than  a  safe  one,  ran  in  chase  of  prizes, 
till  one  of  them  fell  in  with  men  of  war  from 
Rochelle,  and,  after  a  bloody  fight,  was  boarded 
and  rifled.  Both  ships  were  compelled  to  return 
to  England.  The  delay  was  fatal:  the  English 
kingdom  and  the  Protestant  reformation  were  in 
danger;  nor  could  the  poor  colonists  of  Roanoke 
be  again  remembered  till  after  the  discomfiture  of 
the  Invincible  Armada.  Even  then  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  had  already  incurred  a  fruitless  ex- 
pense of  £40,000,  found  his  impaired  fortune  in- 
sufficient for  further  attempts  at  colonizing 
Virginia.  He  therefore  used  the  privilege  of  his 
patent  to  endow  a  company  of  merchants  and  ad- 
venturers with  large  concessions.  Among  the  men 
who  thus  obtained  an  assignment  of  the  proprie- 
tary's rights  in  Virginia  is  found  the  name  of 
Richard  Hakluyt ;  it  connects  the  first  efforts  of 
England  in  North  Carolina  with  the  final  coloniza- 


tion of  Virginia.  The  colonists  at  Roanoke  had 
emigrated  with  a  charter;  the  instrument  of  March, 
1589,  was  not  an  assignment  of  Raleigh's  patent, 
but  the  extension  of  a  grant,  already  held  under 
its  sanction  by  inci  easing  the  number  to  whom 
the  rights  of  that  charter  belonged.  More  th.in 
another  \ear  elapsed  before  White  could  return 
to  search  for  his  colony  and  his  daughter;  and 
then  the  island  of  Roanoke  was  a  desert.  An  in- 
scription on  the  bark  of  a  tree  pointed  to  Croatan; 
but  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  dangers  from 
storms  were  pleaded  as  an  excuse  for  an  immediate 
return.  The  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  that  the 
deserted  colony,  neglected  by  their  own  country- 
men, were  hospitably  adopted  into  the  tribe  [the 
Croatans]  of  Hatteras  Indians.  Raleigh  long  cher- 
ished the  hope  of  discovering  some  vestiges  ol 
their  existence,  and  sent  at  his  own  charge,  and, 
it  is  said,  at  five  several  times,  to  search  for  his 
liege  men.  But  im.agination  received  no  help  in 
its  attempts  to  trace  the  fate  of  the  colony  of 
Roanoke." — G.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United 
Stales,  pt.  I,  V.  I,  ch.  5. — "The  Croatans  of  to-day 
claim  descent  from  the  lost  colony.  Their  habits, 
disposition  and  mental  characteristics  show  traces 
both  of  savage  and  civilized  ancestors.  Their  lan- 
guage is  the  English  of  300  years  ago,  and  their 
names  are  in  many  cases  the  same  as  those  borne 
by  the  original  colonists.  No  other  theory  of  their 
origin  has  been  advanced." — S.  B.  Weeks,  Lost  col- 
ony of  Roanoke  (American  Historical  Association 
Papers,  v.  5,  pt.  4). — "The  last  expedition  [of 
White,  searching  for  his  lost  colony]  was  not  de- 
spatched by  Raleigh,  but  by  his  successors  in  the 
American  patent.  .And  our  history  is  now  to  take 
leave  of  that  illustrious  man,  with  whose  schemes 
and  enterprises  it  ceases  to  have  any  further  con- 
nexion. The  ardour  of  his  mind  was  not  exhausted, 
but  diverted  by  a  multiplicity  of  new  and  not  lesa 
arduous  undertakings.  .  .  .  Desirous,  at  the  same 
time,  that  a  project  which  he  had  carried  so  far 
should  not  be  entirely  abandoned,  and  hoping  that 
the  spirit  of  commerce  would  preserve  an  inter- 
course with  Virginia  that  might  terminate  in  a 
colonial  establishment,  he  consented  to  assign  his 
patent  to  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  and  a  company  of 
merchants  in  London,  who  undertook  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  a  traffic  between  England  and 
Virginia  ...  It  appeared  very  soon  that.  Raleigh 
had  transferred  his  patent  to  hands  very  different 
from  his  own.  .  .  .  Satisfied  with  a  paltry  traffic 
carried  on  by  a  few  small  vessels,  they  made  no  at- 
tempt to  take  possession  of  the  country:  and  at  the 
period  of  Elizabeth's  death,  not  a  single  Englishman 
was  settled  in  .America.'' — J.  Grahame,  History  of 
the  rise  and  progress  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  till  1688,  ch.  i. 

.Also  in:  W.  Stith,  History' of  Virginia,  bk.  i. — 
F.  L.  Hawks,  Hist,  of  Korth  Carolina,  v.  i,  Nos.  7-8. 

17th  century. — British  settlements.  See  British 
empire:  Expansion:   17th  century:  North  .America. 

17th  century. — Colonial  women  in  industry. 
See  Woman's  rights:    1644-1852. 

1602-1605. — Voyages  of  Gosnold,  Pring,  and 
Weymouth. — First  Englishmen  in  New  Eng- 
land.— Batholomew  Gosnold  was  a  West-of-Eng- 
land  mariner  who  had  served  in  the  expeditions 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  the  Virginia  coast.  Un- 
der his  command,  in  the  spring  of  1602,  "with  the 
consent  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  at  the  cost, 
among  others,  of  Henry  Wriothesley,  Earl  of 
Southampton,  the  accomplished  patron  of  Shakes- 
peare, a  small  vessel,  called  the  Concord,  was 
equipped  for  exploration  in  'the  north  part  of  Vir- 
ginia,' with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  a 
colony.    At  this  time,  in  the  last  year  of  the  Tudor 


286 


AMERICA,   1602-1605 


Gosnold,  Pring 
and   Weymouth 


AMERICA,  1609 


dynasty,  and  nineteen  years  after  the  fatal  ter- 
mination of  Gilbert's  enterprise,  there  was  no  Euro- 
pean inhabitant  of  North  America,  except  those 
of  Spanish  birth  in  Florida,  and  some  twenty  or 
thirty  French,  the  miserable  relics  of  two  frus- 
trated attempts  to  settle  what  the;  called  New 
France.  Gosnold  sailed  from  Falmouth  with  a 
company  of  thirty-two  persons,  of  whom  eight 
were  seamen,  and  twenty  were  to  become  planters. 
Taking  a  straight  course  across  the  Atlantic,  in- 
stead of  the  indirect  course  by  the  Canaries  and 
the  West  Indies  which  had  been  hitherto  pur- 
sued in  voyages  to  Virginia,  at  the  end  of  seven 
weeks  he  saw  land  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  probably 
near  what  is  now  Salem  Harbor.  Here  a  boat 
came  off,  of  Basque  build,  manned  by  eight  na- 
tives, of  whom  two  or  three  were  dressed  in  Euro- 
pean clothes,  indicating  the  presence  of  earlier  for- 
eign voyagers  in  these  waters.  Next  he  stood  to 
the  southward,  and  his  crew  took  great  quantities 
of  codfish  by  a  head  land,  called  by  him  for  that 
reason  Cape  Cod,  the  name  which  it  retains. 
Gosnold,  Brereton,  and  three  others,  went  on 
shore,  the  first  Englishmen  who  are  known  to 
have  set  foot  upon  the  soil  of  Massachusetts. 
.  .  .  Sounding  his  way  cautiously  along,  first  in 
a  southerly,  and  then  in  a  westerly  direction,  and 
probably  passing  to  the  south  of  Nantucket,  Gos- 
nold ne.ijt  landed  on  a  small  island,  now  called 
No  Man's  Land.  To  this  he  gave  the  name  of 
Martha's  Vineyard,  since  transferred  to  the  larger 
island  further  north.  .  .  .  South  of  Buzzard's  Bay, 
and  separated  on  the  south  by  the  Vineyard 
Sound  from  Martha's  Vineyard,  is  scattered  the 
group  denoted  on  modem  maps  as  the  Elizabeth 
Islands.  The  southwesternmost  of  these,  now 
known  by  the  Indian  name  of  Cuttyhunk,  was 
denominated  by  Gosnold  Elizabeth  Island.  .  .  . 
Here  Gosnold  found  a  pond  two  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, separated  from  the  sea  on  one  side  by 
a  beach  thirty  yards  wide,  and  enclosing  'a 
rocky  islet,  containing  near  an  acre  of  ground, 
full  of  wood  and  rubbish.'  This  islet  was  fixed 
upon  for  a  settlement.  In  three  weeks,  while  a 
part  of  the  company  were  absent  on  a  trading 
expedition  to  the  mainland,  the  rest  dug  and 
stoned  a  cellar,  prepared  timber  and  built  a  house, 
which  they  fortified  with  palisades,  and  thatched 
with  sedge.  Proceeding  to  make  an  inventory  of 
their  provisions,  they  found  that,  after  supplying 
the  vessel,  which  was  to  take  twelve  men  on  the 
return  voyage,  there  would  be  a  sufficiency  for  only 
six  weeks  for  the  twenty  men  who  would  remain. 
A  dispute  arose  upon  the  question  whether  the 
party  to  be  left  behind  would  receive  a  share  in  the 
proceeds  of  the  cargo  of  cedar,  sassafras,  furs,  and 
other  commodities  which  had  been  collected.  A 
small  party,  going  out  in  quest  of  shell-fish,  was 
attacked  by  some  Indians.  With  men  having  al- 
ready, it  is  likely,  little  stomach  for  such  cheer- 
less work,  these  circumstances  easily  led  to  the 
decision  to  abandon  for  the  present  the  scheme 
of  a  settlement,  and  in  the  following  month  the 
adventurers  sailed  for  England,  and,  after  a  voy- 
age of  five  weeks,  arrived  at  Exmouth.  .  .  .  The 
expedition  of  Gosnold  was  pregnant  with  conse- 
quences, though  their  development  was  slow.  The 
accounts  of  the  hitherto  unknown  country,  which 
were  circulated  by  his  company  on  their  return, 
excited  an  earnest  interest."  The  next  year  (.^pril, 
1603),  Martin  Pring  or  Prynnc  was  sent  out,  by 
several  merchants  of  Bristol,  with  two  small  ves- 
sels, seeking  cargoes  of  sassafras,  which  had  ac- 
quired a  high  value  on  account  of  supposed  medic- 
inal virtues.  Pring  coasted  from  Maine  to  Mar- 
tha's  Vineyard,   secured   his   desired   cargoes,   and 


gave  a  good  account  of  the  country.  Two  years 
later  (March,  1605),  Lord  Southampton  and  Lord 
Wardour  sent  a  vessel  commanded  by  George  Wey- 
mouth to  reconnoitre  the  same  coast  with  an  eye 
to  settlements.  Weymouth  ascended  either  the 
Kennebec  or  the  Penobscot  river  some  50  or  bo 
miles  and  kidnapped  five  natives.  "Except  for 
this,  and  for  some  addition  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  local  geography,  the  voyage  was  fruitless." — 
J.  G.  Palfrey,  Compendious  history  oj  New 
England,  v.  i,  ch.  2. 

Also  in:  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Col- 
lection, id  series,  v.  8  (1843), — J.  McKeen,  On  the 
voyage  of  Geo.  Weymouth  (Maine  Historical  So- 
ciety Collection,  v.  s). — L.  G.  Tyler,  England  in 
America,  pp.  34,  4.-!,  49,  51,  35,  39.— E.  Channing, 
History  of  the  United  States,  v.  i,  pp.  156,  i6q, 
170,  171,  1S7. — Report  American  Historical  Associ- 
ation V.  95,  p.  546. 

1603-1608. — First  French  settlements  in  Arca- 
dia.    See  Canada;   1603-1605. 

1607. — Land  law.     See  Land  titles:   1607. 

1607. — Founding  of  the  English  colony  of 
Virginia,  and  the  failure  in  Maine.  See  British 
empire:  Expansion:  17th  century:  North  America; 
Virginia:  1606-1607,  and  after;  M.aine:   1607-1608. 

1607-1608. — First  voyages  of  Henry  Hudson. 
— "The  first  recorded  voyage  made  by  Henry  Hud- 
son was  undertaken  .  .  .  for  the  Muscovy  or  Rus- 
sia Company  [of  England].  Departing  from 
Gravesenci  the  first  of  May,  1607,  with  the  in- 
tention of  sailing  straight  across  the  north  pole,  by 
the  north  of  what  is  now  called  Greenland,  Hud- 
son found  that  this  land  stretched  further  to  the 
eastward  than  he  had  anticipated,  and  that  a  wall 
of  ice,  along  which  he  coasted,  extended  from 
Greenland  to  Spitzbcrgen.  Forced  to  relinquish  the 
hope  of  finding  a  passage  in  the  latter  vicinity,  he 
once  more  attempted  the  entrance  of  Davis'  Straits 
by  the  north  of  Greeland.  This  design  was  also 
frustrated  and  he  apparently  renewed  the  attempt 
in  a  lower  latitude  and  nearer  Greenland  on  his 
homeward  voyage.  In  this  cruise  Hudson  attained 
a  higher  degree  of  latitude  than  any  previous  navi- 
gator. ...  He  reached  England  on  his  return  on 
the  15th  September  of  that  year  [1607].  ...  On 
the  22d  of  April,  1608,  Henry  Hudson  commenced 
his  second  recorded  voyage  for  the  Muscovy  or 
Russia  Company,  with  the  desi.'n  of  'finding  a 
passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  north-east.' 
...  On  the  3d  of  June,  1608,  Hudson  had  reached 
the  most  northern  point  of  Norway,  and  on  the 
nth  was  in  latitude  75°  24',  between  Spitzbergen 
and  Noza  Zembla."  Failing  to  pass  to  the  north- 
east beyond  Nova  Zembla,  he  returned  to  England 
in  August. — J.  M.  Read,  Jr.,  Historical  inquiry 
concerning  Henry  Hudson,  pp.  133-138. 

Also  is:  G.  M.  Asher,  Henry  Hudson,  the  navi- 
gator  (Hakluyt   Society,   i860). 

1608-1616. — Champlain's  explorations  in  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes. 
See  Canada:   1608-1611,  also  1611-1616. 

1609. — Hudson's  voyage  of  discovery  for  the 
Dutch. — "Henry  Hudson  comes  into  the  historian's 
notice  in  1607,  and  he  disappears  in  the  ice  and 
mist  of  Hudson  Bay  in  161 1.  In  this  brief  period 
he  gained  a  'farther  north'  than  any  other  man 
for  many  a  long  year  and  made  two  memorable 
voyages  which  are  commemorated  in  the  names 
Hudson  River  and  Hudson  Bay.  His  antecedents 
are  unknown,  though  conjectures  have  not  been 
wanting;  J.  R.  Read  [Historical  inquiry  concern- 
ing Henry  Hudson']  gives  many  facts  about  sundry 
Hudsons  who  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I;  but  the  links  connecting  these  persons 
with   the  navigator  are  still  lacking.     The  sources 


287 


AMERICA,  1609 


Henry  Hudson 


AMERICA,  1609 


are  given  in  the  original  and  in  translation  in 
Asher's  Henry  Hudson,  tlie  navigator  (Hakiuyt  So- 
ciety Publications,  i860).  H.  C.  Murphy,  to  whom 
students  of  New  York  history  are  largely  in- 
debted, printed  the  contract  between  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  and  Hudson  in  his  Henry 
Hudson  in  Holland.  For  some  inscrutable  rea- 
son, he  refused  Asher  a  sight  of  the  brochure, 
which  was  designed  for  private  distribution,  nor  is 
there  any  certain  information  as  to  the  reasons  for 
his  voyaging  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  In- 
dia Company.  Unquestionably  he  was  an  English- 
man, and  as  certainly  he  sailed,  in  i6og,  in  search 
of  a  new  waterway  to  India  and  Cathay.  His 
vessel  was  named  the  Half -Moon;  she  was  a  'fly- 
boat,'  or  fast  sailing  vessel  whose  speed  was  secured 
by  making  her  long  in  proportion  to  her  beam ; 
she  carried  eighteen  or  twenty  men.  The  Haif- 
Moon's  crew   was  ill-assorted   of   Englishmen   and 


"On  the  morning  of  the  live-and-twentieth,'  so  the 
chronicler  of  the  expedition  informs  us,  'we  manned 
our  scute  with  four  muskets  and  sixe  men  and  tooke 
one  of  their  shallops  and  brought  it  abroad. 
Then  we  manned  our  boat  and  scute  with  twelve 
men  and  muskets  and  two  stone  pieces  or  mur- 
derers, and  drave  the  savages  from  their  houses, 
and  tooke  the  spoyle  of  them,  as  they  would  have 
done  of  us,' — which  was  quite  likely  after  the  un- 
provoked seizure  of  their  boat.  Once  again,  the 
Halj-Moon  steered  to  the  south  and,  rounding 
Cape  Cod,  made  the  Virginia  coast.  After  coast- 
ing southward  for  a  time,  Hudson  turned  to  the 
north  again  and  possibly  entered  Chesapeake  Bay. 
[Asher's  Hudson,  73,  note  ]  He  certainly  sailed 
into  Delaware  Bay  and,  not  liking  the  looks  of 
the  shoal  water,  soon  ran  out  again,  and,  steer- 
ing northward,  anchored  inside  of  Sandy  Hook. 
On   the   4th   of   August,    i6oq,   a   party   went    on 


HENRY    HUDSON    AND    SON    CAST    ADRIFT    IN    HUDSON    BAY    BY 
MUTINOUS  SAILORS,   161 1 


Dutchmen  and  was  soon  discouraged  by  ice  and 
storms.  Hudson,  therefore,  abandoned  his  north- 
ward course  through  Arctic  seas  and  steered  west- 
ward for  America,  to  which  he  was  drawn  by  the 
knowledge  of  Weymouth's  voyage  and  of  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  Virginia  explorers.  [Murphy's 
Hudson,  pp.  47,  63,  and  .■\sher's  Hudson,  p.  148. 
The  former  is  in  many  ways  to  be  preferred.]  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  this  following  up  of  the  Eng- 
lish explorations  was  in  the  minds  of  Hudson  and 
his  Dutch  employers  before  he  sailed  from  the 
Texel.  In  her  westward  course  across  the  At- 
lantic, the  Half-Moon  encountered  gale  after  gale. 
In  one  of  these  her  foremast  was  injured,  but  on 
she  kept  under  such  sail  as  she  could  carry.  Off 
Newfoundland,  Hudson  sighted  some  French  fish- 
ing vessels,  and  stopped  long  enough  for  his  men 
to  catch  'one  hundred  and  eighteen  great  coddes. 
On  the  17th  of  July,  in  the  heat  and  fog  of  a 
Maine  summer,  he  anchored  in  the  vicinity  of 
Penobscot  Bay.  While  lying  at  his  moorings  the 
natives  came  to  the  ship  in  two  'French  shallops.' 


shore, — tradition  says  on  Coney  Island,  but  the 
landing  might  have  been  at  almost  any  other 
point.  Carefully  exploring  the  Narrows,  Hudson 
navigated  the  Half-Moon  into  the  upper  bay,  and 
then  into  the  mouth  of  the  river  which  now  bears 
his  name.  The  water  was  salt,  and  the  tide 
ebbed  and  flowed  with  great  force.  Here,  at  last, 
seemed  to  be  the  long-looked-for  passage  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  For  eleven  days,  therefore, 
the  Half-Moon  drifted  and  sailed  northwardly. 
The  wonderful  scenery  of  the  Hudson — the  Pali- 
sades, the  Donderberg,  West  Point,  and  the  Cat- 
skills — impressed  the  explorers.  Above  the  site 
of  the  modern  Albany  the  water  became  too  shoal 
for  the  ship,  but  a  boat  party  proceeded  eight 
or  nine  leagues  farther  on.  [Brodhead,  in  his 
New  York  (i,  31),  identifies  localities.]  While 
the  Half-Moon  was  at  anchor  in  one  of  the  north- 
ern reaches,  Hudson  invited  a  party  of  Indians  into 
the  cabin  and  'gave  them  much  wine  and  aqua- 
vitae,  that  they  were  all  merrie.  In  the  ende  one 
of  them  was  drunke.'     As  a  requital  for  this  hos- 


288 


S     -  £ 
►4      S 


AMERICA,    1609-1755 


Capf.  John  Smith 
Plymouth  Colony 


AMERICA,  1620 


pitality,  the  Indians  the  next  day  presented  Hud- 
son with  tobacco,  wampum,  and  venison.  These 
natives  were  Iroquois  of  the  Mohawk  tribe.  A 
traditional  account  of  a  scene  of  revelry  at  the 
first  coming  of  the  whites  was  preserved  among 
them  until  the  American  Revolution;  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  descriptive  of  the  coming  of  Hudson 
and  his  crew,  but  it  may  possibly  refer  to  earlier 
French  explorers.  Two  things,  however,  seem  to 
be  reasonably  certain.  The  first  is  that  the  Iro- 
quois appreciated  the  attentions  of  the  early  Dutch 
navigators  and  fur  traders,  who  supplied  them 
with  fire  water  and  firearms.  [See  New  York  His- 
torical Society's  Collections,  New  Series,  i,  71,  and 
Asher's  Hudson,  173.]  The  other  assured  fact  is 
that  these  Indians  had  had  slight  intercourse  with 
white  men,  or  they  would  not  have  been  so  friendly 
The  natives  of  the  lower  Hudson  showed  their  fa- 
miliarity with  the  whites  by  attacking  the  Half- 
Moon  at  every  good  opportunity.  The  future 
careers  of  the  Half-Moon  and  her  gallant  captain 
were  not  fortunate;  putting  into  Dartmouth, 
England,  Henry  Hudson  was  forbidden  to  remain 
longer  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch,  and  in  April, 
1610,  he  sailed  from  the  Thames  on  his  last  voyage 
in  quest  of  the  Northwest  Passage.  Fourteen 
months  later  he  was  set  adrift  in  a  shallop  in 
Hudson  Bay  by  a  panic-stricken  mutinous  crew, 
and  no  trace  of  him  has  since  been  found.  As 
to  the  Half-Moon,  she  gained  a  Holland  port 
early  in  161 1,  and  four  years  later  was  wrecked  on 
the  shore  of  the  island  of  Mauritius." — E.  Chan- 
ning.  History  of  the  United  States,  v.  i,  pp.  439- 
442. 

Also  in:  G.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United 
States,  ch.  15  (or  pt.  2,  ch.  12  of  "Author's  last 
revision"). — H.  R  Cleveland,  Life  of  Henry  Hud- 
son, ch.  3-4. — R  Juet,  Journal  of  Hudson's  voy- 
age (New  York  Historical  Society  Collection, 
second  series,  v.  i), — J.  V.  N,  Yates  and  J.  W. 
Moulton,  History  of  the  State  of  New  York,  pt.  i. 

1609-1755. — Slavery  in  colonial  New  York. 
See  Slavery:   1600-1755 

1610-1614. — Dutch  occupation  of  New  Neth- 
erlands, and  Block's  coasting  exploration.  See 
New  York  State:   1610-1614. 

1614-1615.— Voyages  of  Capt.  John  Smith  to 
North  Virginia. — Naming  of  the  country  New 
England. — "From  the  time  of  Capt  Smith's  de- 
parture from  Virginia  [see  Virginia:  1607-1610], 
till  the  year  1614,  there  is  a  chasm  in  his  bio- 
graphy. ...  In  1614,  probably  by  his  advice  and 
at  his  suggestion,  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  by 
some  London  merchants,  in  the  expense  of  which 
he  also  shared,  for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  dis- 
covery in  New  England,  or,  as  it  was  then  called 
North  Virginia.  ...  In  March,  1614,  he  set  sail 
from  London  with  two  ships,  one  commanded  by 
himself,  and  the  other  by  Captain  Thomas  Hunt. 
They  arrived,  April  3olh,  at  the  island  of  Man- 
hegin,  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  where  they  built 
seven  boats  The  purposes  for  which  they  were 
sent  were  to  capture  whales  and  to  search  for 
mines  of  gold  or  copper,  which  were  said  to  be 
there,  and,  if  these  failed,  to  make  up  a  cargo  of 
fish  and  furs.  Of  mines,  they  found  no  indi- 
cations, and  they  found  whale-fishing  a  'costly 
conclusion;'  for,  although  they  saw  many,  and 
chased  them  too,  they  succeeded  in  taking  none 
They  thus  lost  the  best  part  of  the  fishing  season ; 
but,  after  giving  up  their  gigantic  game,  they 
diligently  employed  the  months  of  July  and  Au- 
gust in  taking  and  curing  codfish,  an  humble, 
but  more  certain  prey.  While  the  crew  were  thus 
employed.  Captain  Smith,  with  eight  men  in  a 
small  boat,  surveyed  and  examined  the  whole  coast, 


from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod,  trafficking  with  the 
Indians  for  furs,  and  twice  fighting  with  them, 
and  taking  such  observations  of  the  prominent 
points  as  enabled  him  to  construct  a  map  of  the 
country.  He  then  sailed  for  England,  where  he 
arrived  in  August,  within  six  months  after  his 
departure.  He  left  Captain  Hunt  behind  him,  with 
orders  to  dispose  of  his  cargo  of  fish  in  Spain. 
Unfortunately,  Hunt  was  a  sordid  and  unprinci- 
pled miscreant,  who  resolved  to  make  his  coun- 
trymen odious  to  the  Indians,  and  thus  prevent 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  colony,  which 
would  diminish  the  large  gains  he  and  a  few 
others  derived  by  monopolizing  a  lucrative  traffic. 
For  this  purpose,  having  decoyed  24  of  the  natives 
on  board  his  ship,  he  carried  them  off  and  sold 
them  as  slaves  in  the  port  of  Malaga.  .  .  .  Cap- 
tain Smith,  upon  his  return,  presented  his  map  of 
the  country  between  Penobscot  and  Cape  Cod  to 
Prince  Charles  (afterwards  Charles  I.),  with  a  re- 
quest that  he  would  substitute  others,  instead  of 
the  'barbarous  names'  which  had  been  given  to 
particular  places.  Smith  himself  gave  to  the  coun- 
try the  name  of  New  England,  as  he  expressly 
states,  and  not  Prince  Charles,  as  is  commonly 
supposed.  .  .  .  The  first  port  into  which  Captain 
Smith  put  on  his  return  to  England  was  Plymouth. 
There  he  related  his  adventures  to  some  of  his 
friends,  'who,'  he  says,  'as  I  supposed,  were  in- 
terested in  the  dead  patent  of  this  unregarded 
country.'  The  Plymouth  Company  of  adven- 
turers to  North  Virginia,  by  flattering  hopes  and 
large  promises,  induced  him  to  engage  his  services 
to  them."  Accordingly  in  March,  1615,  he  sailed 
from  Plymouth,  with  two  vessels  under  his  com- 
mand, bearing  sixteen  settlers,  besides  their  crew. 
A  storm  dismasted  Smith's  ship  and  drove  her 
back  to  Plymouth.  "His  consort,  commanded  by 
Thomas  Dermer,  meanwhile  proceeded  on  her  voy- 
age, and  returned  with  a  profitable  cargo  in  Au- 
gust ;  but  the  object,  which  was  to  effect  a  per- 
manent settlement,  was  frustrated.  Captain 
Smith's  vessel  was  probably  found  to  be  so  much 
shattered  as  to  render  it  inexpedient  to  repair 
her;  for  we  find  that  he  set  sail  a  second  time 
from  Plymouth  on  the  24th  of  June,  in  a  small 
bark  of  60  tons,  manned  by  30  men,  and  carry- 
ing with  him  the  same  16  settlers  he  had  taken  be- 
fore. But  an  evil  destiny  seemed  to  hang  over 
this  enterprise,  and  to  make  the  voyage  a  succes- 
sion of  disasters  and  disappointments."  It  ended 
in  Smith's  capture  by  a  piratical  French  fleet  and 
his  detention  for  some  months,  until  he  made  a 
daring  escape  in  a  small  boat.  "While  he  had  been 
detained  on  board  the  French  pirate,  in  order,  as 
he  says,  'to  keep  my  perplexed  thoughts  from  too 
much  meditation  of  my  miserable  estate,'  he  em- 
ployed himself  in  writing  a  narrative  of  his  two 
voyages  to  New  England,  and  an  account  of  the 
country.  This  was  published  in  a  quarto  form  in 
June,  1616  .  .  .  Captain  Smith's  work  on  New 
England  was  the  first  to  recommend  that  country 
as  a  place  of  settlement." — G.  S.  Hillard,  Life  and 
adventures  of  Captain  John  Smith,  ch.   14-1S. 

Also  in:  Captam  John  Smith,  Description  of 
New  England. — L.  G.  Tyler,  England  in  America, 
pp.  150-152. — Papers,  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion, V.  4,  p    395- 

1619. — Introduction  of  negro  slavery  into 
Virginia.     See  Virginia:   1610. 

1620. — Planting  of  the  Pilgrim  colony  at 
Plymouth,  and  the  chartering  of  the  council  for 
New  England.  See  Massachusetts:  1620;  New 
England:    1620-1623. 

1620. — Formation  of  the  government  of  Rio 
de  La  Plata.    See  Argentina:  1580-1777. 


289 


AMERICA,   1620-1660 


Grants  and  C/iarters 
Buccaneers 


AMERICA,   1639-1700 


1620-1660.— Puritans    in    New    England.     See 

Puritans:    1620-1660. 

1621. — Conflicting  claims  of  England  and 
France  on  the  north-eastern  coast. — Naming 
and  granting  of  Nova  Scotia.  See  New  Eng- 
land: 1621-1631. 

1629.— Carolina  grant  to  Sir  Robert  Heath.— 
"Sir  Robert  Heath,  attorney-general  to  Charles  I., 
.  obtained  a  grant  of  the  lands  between  the  38th 
[36th?]  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  river  St 
Matheo.  His  charter  bears  date  of  October  s, 
1629.  .  .  .  The  tenure  is  declared  to  be  as  ample  as 
any  bishop  of  Durham  [Palatine],  in  the  kingdom 
of  England,  ever  held  and  enjoyed,  or  ought  or 
could  of  right  have  held  and  enjoyed.  Sir  Rob- 
ert, his  heirs  and  assigns,  are  constituted  the  true 
and  absolute  lords  and  proprietors,  and  the  coun- 
try is  erected  into  a  province  by  the  name  of 
Carolina  [or  Carolana],  and  the  islands  are  to  be 
called  the  Carolina  islands.  Sir  Robert  conveyed 
his  right  some  time  after  to  the  earl  of  Arundel. 
This  nobleman,  it  is  said,  planted  several  parts  of 
his  acquisition,  but  his  attempt  to  colonize  was 
checked  by  the  war  with  Scotland,  and  afterwards 
the  civil  war.  Lord  Maltravers,  who  soon  after, 
on  his  father's  death,  became  earl  of  -Arundel  and 
Sussex  .  .  .  made  no  attempt  to  avail  himself  of 
the  grant.  ...  Sir  Robert  Heath's  grant  of  land, 
to  the  southward  of  Virginia,  perhaps  the  most 
e-xtensive  possession  ever  owned  by  an  individual, 
remained  for  a  long  time  almost  absolutely  waste 
and  uncultivated.  This  vast  extent  of  territory  oc- 
cupied all  the  country  between  the  30th  and  36th 
degrees  of  northern  latitude,  which  embraces  the 
present  states  of  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  [.Alabama],  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and, 
with  very  little  exceptions,  the  whole  state  of 
Louisiana,  and  the  territory  of  East  and  West 
Florida,  a  considerable  part  of  the  state  of  Mis- 
souri, the  Mexican  provinces  of  Texas,  Chiuhaha, 
&c.  The  grantee  had  taken  possession  of  the  coun- 
try, soon  after  he  had  obtained  his  title,  which  he 
afterwards  had  conveyed  to  the  earl  of  Arundel 
Henry  Lord  Maltravers  appears  to  have  obtained 
some  aid  from  the  province  of  Virginia  in  1639, 
at  the  desire  of  Charles  I.,  for  the  settlement  of 
Carolana,  and  the  country  had  since  become  the 
property  of  a  Dr.  Cox;  yet,  at  this  time,  there 
were  two  points  only  in  which  incipient  English 
settlements  could  be  discerned;  the  one  on  the 
northern  shore  of  .Albemarle  Sound  and  the  streams 
that  flow  into  it.  The  population  of  it  was  very 
thin,  and  the  greatest  portion  of  it  was  on  the 
north-east  bank  of  Chowan  river.  The  settlers  had 
come  from  that  part  of  Virginia  now  known  as 
the  County  of  Nansemond.  ,  .  .  They  had  been 
joined  by  a  number  of  Quakers  and  other  sectaries, 
whom  the  spirit  of  intolerance  had  driven  from 
New  England,  and  some  emigrants  from  Bermudas 
.  .  The  other  settlement  of  the  English  was  at 
the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  river;  .  .  those  who 
composed  it  had  come  thither  from  New  England 
in  1659.  Their  attention  was  confined  to  rearing 
cattle.  It  cannot  now  be  ascertained  whether  the 
assignees  of  Carolana  ever  surrendered  the  charter 
under  which  it  was  held,  nor  whether  it  was  con- 
.sidered  as  having  become  vacated  or  obsolete  by 
non-user,  or  by  any  other  means." — F.  X  Martin, 
History  of  North  Carolina,  v.  i,  ch.  $  and  7. 

Also  in:  L.  G.  Tyler,  England  in  America,  p 
120. — C.  McL.  .Andrews,  Colonial  self-government, 
pp.  130,  134. — Papers  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion, V.  5,  p.  443. — Reports  American  Historical 
Association,  190^,  "'.  i,  p.  105, 

1629. — Attempted  settlement  in  the  Bahama 
Islands.    See  Bahama  Islands. 


1629. — Royal  charter  to  the  governor  and 
company  of  Massachusetts  bay.  See  Massachu- 
setts:   1623-1020. 

1629-1631. — Dutch  occupation  of  the  Dela- 
ware.    Sec   Delaware:    1029-1631. 

1629-1632.— English  conquest  and  brief  occu- 
pation of  New  France.     See  Canada:   1628-1635 

1632. — Charter  to  Lord  Baltimore  and  the 
founding  of  Maryland. — Boundaries  of  original 
grant.    See  Marvlaxd:   1632. 

1633-1637.— Charter  to  Cecil,  Lord  Baltimore 
and  the  planting  of  the  colony  at  St.  Mary's. — 
Catholicism.     See  Makvland:    1633-1637 

1638. — Planting  of  a  Swedish  colony  on  the 
Delaware.    See  Delaware:   1638-1640. 

1638-1781.  — Slaves  in  Massachusetts.  See 
Slavery:  163S-17S1. 

1639-1663. — Pioneer  and  unorganized  coloniza- 
tion in  North  Carolina.  See  North  Carolina: 
1639-1663. 

1639-1700, — Buccaneers  and  their  piratical 
warfare  with  Spain.— "The  17th  century  gave 
birth  to  a  class  ol  rovers  wholly  distinct  from  any 
of  their  predecessors  in  the  annals  of  the  worici, 
differing  as  widely  in  their  plans,  organization  and 
exploits  as  in  the  principles  that  governed  their  ac- 
tions ,  ,  .  .After  the  native  inhabitants  of  Haiti 
had  been  exterminated,  and  the  Spaniards  had 
sailed  farther  west,  a  few  adventurous  men  from 
Normandy  settled  on  the  shores  of  the  island, 
for  the  purpose  of  hunting  the  wild  bulls  and  hogs 
which  roamed  at  will  through  the  forests.  The 
small  island  of  Tortugas  was  their  market ;  thither 
they  repaired  with  their  salted  and  smoked  meat, 
their  hides,  &c.,  and  disposed  of  them  in  exchange 
for  powder,  lead,  and  other  necessaries  The  places 
where  these  semi-wild  hunters  prepared  tLe  slaugh- 
tered carcases  were  called  'boucans,'  and  they 
themselves  became  known  as  Buccaneers.  Prob- 
ably the  world  has  never  before  or  since  witnessed 
such  an  extraordinary  association  as  theirs  Un- 
burdened by  women-folk  or  children,  these  men 
lived  in  couples,  reciprocally  rendering  each  other 
services,  and  having  entire  community  of  property 
— a  condition  termed  by  them  niatelotage,  from  the 
word  'matelot,'  by  which  they  addressed  one  an- 
other. ,  ,  ,  A  man  on  joining  the  fraternity  com- 
pletely merged  his  identity  Each  member  received 
a  nickname,  and  no  attempt  was  ever  made  to 
inquire  into  his  antecedents.  When  one  of  their 
number  married,  he  ceased  to  be  a  buccaneer,  hav- 
ing forfeited  his  membership  by  so  civilized  a  pro- 
ceeding He  might  continue  to  dwell  on  the  coast, 
and  to  hunt  cattle,  but  he  was  no  longer  a  'mate- 
lot' — as  a  Benedick  he  had  degenerated  to  a 
'colonist,'  ,  ,  .  L'ncouth  and  lawless  though  the 
buccaneers  were,  the  sinister  signification  now  at- 
taching to  their  name  would  never  have  been 
merited  had  it  not  been  for  the  unreasoning  jeal- 
ousy of  the  Spaniards.  The  hunters  were  actually 
a  source  of  profit  to  that  nation,  yet  from  an  in- 
sane antipathy  to  strangers  the  dominant  race 
resolved  on  exterminating  the  settlers  Attacked 
whilst  dispersed  in  pursuance  of  their  avocations, 
the  latter  fell  easy  victims ;  many  of  them  were 
wantonly  massacred,  others  dragged  into  slavery. 
.  .  Breathing  hatred  and  vengeance,  'the  brethren 
of  the  coast'  united  their  scattered  forces,  and  a 
war  of  horrible  reprisals  commenced.  Fresh 
troops  arrived  from  Spain,  whilst  the  ranks  of 
the  buccaneers  were  filled  by  adventurers  of  all 
nations,  allured  by  love  of  plunder,  and  fired  with 
indignation  at  the  cruelties  of  the  aggressors  ,  .  , 
The  Spaniards,  utterly  failing  to  oust  their  oppo- 
nents, hit  upon  a  new  expedient,  so  short-.sighted 
that  it  reflects  but  little  credit  on  their  statesman- 


290 


.OS" 
■S-SaSa 


©  s 


-■SB I   sls-s^;..*- 

•  H  as  5  i" 


AMERICA,   1639-1700 


Buccaneers 
Colonial  Conflicts 


AMERICA,   1720-1744 


bhip.  This  was  the  extermination  of  the  horned 
cattle,  by  which  the  buccaneers  derived  their  means 
of  subsistence;  a  general  slaughter  took  place,  and 
the  breed  was  almost  extirpated.  .  .  .  The  puffed 
up  arrogance  of  the  Spaniard  was  curbed  by  no 
prudential  consideration ;  calling  upon  every  saint 
in  his  calendar  and  raining  curses  on  the  heretical 
buccaneers,  he  deprived  them  of  their  legitimate 
occupation,  and  created  wilfully  a  set  of  desper- 
ate enemies,  who  harassed  the  colonial  trade  of 
an  empire  already  betraying  signs  of  feebleness 
with  the  pertinacity  of  wolves,  and  who  only  de- 
sisted when  her  commerce  had  been  reduced  to  in- 
significance. .  .  .  Devoured  by  an  undying  hatred 
of  their  assailants,  the  buccaneers  developed  into  a 
new  association — the  freebooters." — C.  H.  Eden, 
West  Indies,  ch.  3. — "The  monarchs  both  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  but  especially  the  former,  con- 
nived at  and  even  encouraged  the  freebooters  [a 
name  which  the  pronunciation  of  French  sailors 
transformed  into  'hlibustiers,'  while  that  corruption 
became  Anglicized  in  its  turn  and  produced  the 
word  filibusters],  whose  services  could  be  obtained 
in  time  of  war,  and  whose  actions  could  be  dis- 
avowed in  time  of  peace.  Thus  buccaneer,  fili- 
buster, and  sea-rover,  were  for  the  most  part  at 
leisure  to  hunt  wild  cattle,  and  to  pillage  and 
massacre  the  Spaniards  wherever  they  found  an  op- 
portunity. When  not  on  some  marauding  expedi- 
tion, they  followed  the  chase."  The  piratical  buc- 
caneers were  first  organized  under  a  leader  in  1630, 
the  islet  of  Tortuga  being  their  favorite  rendezvous. 
"So  rapid  was  the  growth  of  their  settlements  that 
in  1641  we  find  governors  appointed,  and  at  San 
Christobal  a  governor-general  named  De  Poincy, 
in  charge  of  the  French  filibusters  in  the  Indies. 
During  that  year  Tortuga  was  garrisoned  by 
French  troops,  and  the  English  were  driven  out, 
both  from  that  islet  and  from  Santo  Domingo,  se- 
curing harborage  elsewhere  in  the  islands.  Never- 
theless corsairs  of  both  nations  often  made  common 
cause.  ...  In  [1654]  Tortuga  was  again  recap- 
tured by  the  Spaniards,  but  in  1660  fell  once  more 
into  the  hands  of  the  French;  and  in  their  con- 
quest of  Jamaica  in  1655  the  British  troops  were 
reenforced  by  a  large  party  of  buccaneers."  The 
first  of  the  more  famous  buccaneers  (and  appar- 
ently the  most  ferocious  among  them  all,  was  a 
Frenchman  called  Fran(;ois  L'Olonnois,  who  be- 
tween 1600-1665  harried  the  coast  of  Central  Amer- 
ica with  six  ships  and  700  men.  At  the  same  time 
another  buccaneer  named  Mansvelt,  was  rising  in 
fame,  and  with  him,  as  second  in  command,  a 
Welshman,  Henry  Morgan,  who  became  the  most 
notorious  of  all.  In  i6b8,  Morgan  attacked  and 
captured  the  strong  town  of  Portobello,  on  the 
Isthmus,  committing  indescribable  atrocities.  In  1671 
he  crossed  the  Isthmus,  defeated  the  Spaniards  in 
battle  and  gained  possession  of  the  great  and 
wealthy  city  of  Panama — the  largest  and  richest  in 
the  New  World,  containing  at  the  time  30,000  in- 
habitants. The  city  was  pillaged,  fired  and  totally 
destroyed.  The  exploits  of  this  ruffian  and  the 
stolen  riches  which  he  carried  home  to  England 
soon  afterward  gained  the  honors  of  knighthood 
for  him,  from  the  worthy  hands  of  Charles  II. 
In  1680,  the  buccaneers  under  one  Coxon  again 
crossed  the  Isthmus,  seized  Panama,  which  had 
been  considerably  rebuilt,  and  captured  there  a 
Spanish  fleet  of  four  ships,  in  which  thev  launched 
themselves  upon  the  Pacific.  From  that  time 
their  plundering  operations  were  chieflv  directed 
against  the  Pacific  coast.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  war  between  England 
arid  France,  and  the  Bourbon  alliance  of  Spain 
with    France,   brought    about    the    discouragement, 


the  decUne  and  finally  the  extinction  of  the  bucca. 
neer  organization. — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the 
Pacific  states:  Central  America,  v.  2,  ch.  26-30. — 
See  also  Jamaica:  1655;  1655-1796. 

Also  in;  W.  Thornbury,  Tlie  Buccaneers. — A.O. 
Exquemelin,  History  of  the  Buccaneers. — J.  Bur- 
ney,  History  of  the  Buccaneers  of  .Imerica. 

1655. — Submission  of  the  Swedes  on  the 
Delaware  to  the  Dutch.  See  Delaware:  1640- 
1656. 

1660-1776. — Production  of  tobacco  in  Mary- 
land.    See  M.\ryland:   1660-1776. 

1663. — Grant  of  the  Carolinas  to  Monk, 
Clarendon,  Shaftesbury,  and  others.  See  North 
Carolina:   1663-1670. 

1664. — English  conquest  of  New  Netherland. 
See  New  York:   1664. 

1669-1693. — Failure  of  Locke's  Fundamental 
Constitutions  in  America.  See  North  Carolina: 
1669-1693. 

1673. — Dutch  reconquest  of  New  Netherland. 
See  New  York:   1673. 

1673-1682. — Discovery  and  exploration  of  the 
Mississippi,  by  Marquette  and  La  Salle. — 
Louisiana  named  and  possessed  by  the  French. 
See  Canada:   1634-1673;  1669-1687. 

1674. — Final  surrender  of  New  Netherland  to 
the  English.    See  Netherlands:  1674. 

1681. — Proprietary  grant  to  William  Penn. 
See  Pennsylvania:    1681. 

1685. — Trade  with  Bristol.     Sec  Bristol:   1685. 

1688-1780. — Beginning  and  growth  of  anti- 
slavery  sentiment  among  the  Quakers. — Eman- 
cipation in  Pennsylvania.  See  Slavery:  1688- 
17S0. 

1689-1697. — First  inter-colonial  war:  King 
William's  War  (the  War  of  the  League  of 
Augsburg).  See  Canada:  1689-1690;  1692-1697; 
also  Newfoundland:  1694-1697. 

1690. — First  colonial  congress.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1690;   also   Canada:    16S0-1600. 

1698-1712. — French  colonization  of  Louisiana. 
— Broad  claims  of  France  to  the  whole  valley  of 
the  Mississippi.  See  Louisiana:  1698-1712;  1699- 
1763. 

1698-1776. — English  monopoly  of  supply  of 
slaves  to  Spanish  colonies. — Asiento  contract. 
Sec  Slavery:   1698- 1776. 

1699-1763. — French  and  English  trade  with  the 
Indians.    See  Louisiana:   1690- 1763. 

1700-1735. — Spread  of  French  occupation  in 
the  Mississippi  valley  and  on  the  lakes.  See 
Canada:   1700- 173 5 

1702. — Union  of  the  two  Jerseys  as  a  royal 
province.    See  New  Jersey:   1688-1738. 

1702-1713. — Second  inter-colonial  war;  Queen 
Anne's  War  (the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion).— Final  acquisition  of  Nova  Scotia  by  the 
English.  See  Canada:  1711-1713;  New  England: 
1702-1710. 

1704-1729. — Early  newspapers  in  America.  See 
Printing  and  the  press:  1704-1729. 

1713. — Division  of  territory  between  England 
and  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  See 
Canada:   1713;  Utrecht;   1712-1714. 

1713-1776. — English  crown  opposes  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  colonies.  See  Slavery: 
171,^1776. 

1720-1744.— Relations  of  England  with  Span- 
ish America. — "The  imperial  policy,  the  English 
Government's  plans  and  their  execution  are  by  no 
means  of  the  same  importance  in  the  English  colo- 
nies on  the  mainland,  because  these  were  self- 
sufficient  and  independent  enough  to  work  out 
their  own  development,  and  could  easily  confront 
imperial  regulations  by  a  passive  resistance  or  by  a 


291 


AMERICA,   1720-1744 


England  and 
Spanish- America 


AMERICA,   1720-1744 


practical  evasion.  This  method  was  more  difficult 
in  the  West  Indies;  the  islands  had  actually  to 
be  fed  with  Irish  salt  beef,  Old  English  herrings, 
and  New  English  com.  They  were  continually 
subject  to  inspection  by  the  British  fleet,  by  Brit- 
ish mihtary  officers,  and  by  governors  who  were 
not  in  general  liable  to  the  same  pressure  from  their 
assemblies  as  were  those  on  the  continent.  Speaii- 
ing  broadly,  the  continental  colonies  developed 
along  their  own  lines,  hampered  but  not  checked 
permanently  by  restrictive  commercial  and  politi- 
cal regulations.  The  West  Indies  grew  up  under 
the  imperial  shadow,  and  felt  the  influence  of 
Burke's  'winged  messengers  of  vengeance  who  car- 
ried (England's)  bolts  in  their  pounces  to  the  re- 
motest verge  of  the  sea.'  During  our  period  the 
West  Indies  were  important  to  England  on  every 
ground,  popular,  parliamentary,  strategic,  and  com- 
mercial. It  was  in  the  West  Indies  that  Drake 
and  Hawkins  had  reaped  a  golden  harvest,  and 
the  popular  imagination  still  regarded  the  isles  as 
the  outposts  from  which  assaults  could  be  made 
on  the  treasure  houses  of  the  Incas.  Pious  Protes- 
ant  adventurers  could  be  trusted  to  destroy  the 
popish  inquisition  at  the  same  time  that  they  de- 
prived Spain  of  the  gold  of  Eldorado.  To  the  out- 
bursts of  the  mob  and  of  popular  feeling  neither 
of  England's  two  real  rulers  in  this  period  were 
ever  indifferent.  To  parUaraentary  pressure  W'al- 
pole  and  Newcastle  were  even  more  susceptible,  and 
there  were  in  the  House  of  Commons  not  only 
mem'oers  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  but  also  West 
Indian  landlords.  The  West  Indian  archipelago, 
unlike  the  American  continent,  was  in  large  part 
settled  and  exploited  by  men  who  lived  in  England, 
and  who  employed  agents  or  factors  to  manage 
their  West  Indian  estates.  Such  men  often  found 
it  convenient  or  commercially  profitable  to  ob- 
tain seats  in  the  Commons,  and  the  young  Glad- 
stone was  perhaps  the  last  man  who  represented 
the  West  Indian  slavery  interest  in  that  body.  It 
was  as  literally  true  to  say  that  the  West  Indies 
were  represented  in  British  Parliament  as  it  was 
absurd  to  assert  that  the  American  colonies  were. 
Commercial  considerations  were  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all;  in  the  early  eighteenth  century  Eng- 
land judged  colonies  by  the  value  of  their  trade 
even  more  than  by  their  provision  of  materials — 
raw  and  human — for  the  British  Navy.  From 
the  trade  test  the  West  Indies  emerged  triumph- 
antly. The  English  exports  to  the  West  Indies 
differed  so  amazingly  from  the  imports  that  even 
contemporaries  ceased  to  trust  entirely  to  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  as  a  measure  of  value.  By  the 
import  test  the  West  Indian  trade  was  about  equal 
during  this  period  to  that  from  the  northern  colo- 
nies, and  it  brought  more  direct  gains  to  English 
pockets.  Unlike  the  continental  colonies  the  West 
Indies  could  not  rival  English  manufactures,  for 
coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  cotton,  fruits,  and  sugar  were 
all  tropical  products.  The  West  Indies  were  also 
the  center  and  clearing  house  of  that  traffic  in 
negroes,  which  was  so  dear  to  the  hearts  and 
pockets  of  the  merchants  of  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and 
London.  But  more  important  than  all  this,  they 
were  the  subterranean  channel  which  micht  con- 
vey to  England  the  whole  measureless  volume  of 
Spanish  trade,  the  silks  and  tea  of  the  East,  car- 
ried from  .^capulco  to  Mexico  and  thence  to  Vera 
Cruz,  the  Peruvian  gold  piled  high  on  the  quays 
of  Porto  Bello,  the  galleons  laden  with  jewels  and 
plate  which  sailed  from  Cartagena  and  Havana. 
Bv  the  .^siento  treaty  England,  and  England  alone 
of  European  powers,  had  the  opportunity  of  tap- 
ping these  boundless  resources.  This  treaty  gave 
England    the   sole   contract    for   supplying  negroes 


to  Spanish  America  and  also  permission  to  un- 
lade in  Spanish  America  the  cargo  of  one  large 
ship  filled  with  English  goods.  Both  these  privi- 
leges could  be  used  to  open  up  the  Spanish  trade. 
The  limited  right  of  entry  for  English  goods  might 
well  become  an  unlimited  one  under  an  easy-going 
Spanish  governor.  Even  when  he  refused  to  wink 
at  an  illicit  commerce,  he  was  often  quite  unable 
to  police  the  coast  and  suppress  the  smugglers.  An 
enormous  illicit  trade  with  the  Spanish  islands 
and  the  mainland  was  thus  promoted  or  permitted 
by  the  interest,  the  impotence,  or  the  supineness  of 
the  Spanish  governors  themselves.  Other  coun- 
tries were  not  so  fortunate  in  their  attempts  to 
smuggle  goods  into  Spanish  America.  Newcastle 
admitted  to  Keene  (England's  ambassador  to 
Spain)  that  the  'Dutch  trade  in  the  West  Indies 
in  general  is  much  more  confined  than  ours,  and 
that  which  they  carry  on  to  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies is  altogether  an  illicit  one.'  As  their  trade 
was  altogether  illicit  the  poor  Dutch  could  not 
complain  of  confiscated  goods,  but  by  the  .^siento 
it  was  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  the  avowed 
English  trade  and  the  smuggling.  Keene  and  Vil- 
larias  (the  Spanish  foreign  minister)  both  declared 
that  the  French  Government  had  almost  entirely 
stopped  French  illicit  practices  in  the  West  Indies. 
Even  if  we  do  not  altogether  accept  this  state- 
ment it  seems  safe  to  assume  that  the  English 
illicit  trade  with  Spanish  America  was  far  larger 
than  the  French  or  the  Dutch.  It  is  at  least 
worthy  of  note  that  in  1762  the  French  trade  to 
Spanish  America  was  reckoned  at  £1,250,000  and 
the  English  at  ii, 090,000.  This  was  23  years 
after  1730,  the  year  in  which  England's  privileged 
monopoly  practically  ceased,  and  we  must  assume, 
therefore,  that  in  the  interval  the  destruction  of 
English  privilege  enabled  France  to  equalize  mat- 
ters. In  January,  1738,  Horatio  Walpole.  not  the 
most  delightful  of  historical  gossips  but  his  uncle, 
the  most  learned  and  informed  of  contemporary 
English  diplomatists,  wrote  a  famous  secret  me- 
moir for  the  British  Government.  In  it  he  re- 
viewed the  whole  subject  of  the  English  relations 
with  Spanish  .America,  and  his  arguments  formed 
the  basis  of  all  the  diplomacy  which  led  up  to 
the  war  of  1739.  He  begins  by  surveying  the 
treaties  between  Spain  and  England  and  admits 
that  a  beneficial  construction  of  treaties  had  given 
a  large  amount  of  illicit  trade  to  England  until 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  'which  with- 
out doubt  was  by  connivance  and  indulgence  on 
the  part  of  Spain,  by  treating  us  in  a  more  fa- 
vorable manner  than  any  other  country  whatso- 
ever.' Spain  even  extended  their  indulgence,  with 
respect  to  navigation  and  trade,  farther  than  we 
could  pretend  to  claim  by  treaty.'  When  Spain 
ceased  to  be  England's  ally,  beneficial  construc- 
tions ceased  also.  But  in  1713  came  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  (q.v.)  and  the  Asiento,  which  increased 
the  possibility  of  smuggling.  From  1717  to  1710 
and  from  1726  to  1727  there  was  actual  war  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  From  1734  to  1737 
there  was,  however,  again  greater  freedom  of  in- 
tercourse, but  from  1737  onward  a  greater  Span- 
ish severity  than  at  any  previous  period  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  Walpole's  general  conclusion 
as  to  England  issuing  letters  of  reprisal  on  Spain 
in  case  of  war  is  interesting.  He  avows  that  this 
is  not  a  good  plan,  because  the  Spaniards  have 
nothing  worth  taking  even  in  the  galleons;  'two- 
thirds  or  one-half  at  least  of  all  these  rich  load- 
ings belonged  to  the  French.'  Reprisal  mav,  there- 
fore, embroil  against  us  those  nations  'that  have 
a  chief  property  in  the  galleons. '  On  the  other 
hand,    England's    rich    and    valuable    West    Indian 


292 


AMERICA,   1720-1744 


Spanish- America 
American  Colonies 


AMERICA,  1776 


trade  will  be  at  the  mercy  of  all  pirates  and  in- 
terlopers, as  well  as  privateers  in  case  of  reprisal. 
Accordingly  he  does  not  recommend  action  against 
Spain,    but    the    conclusion    of    an    agreement    by 
which  both  nations  should  arrange  to  restrain  by 
legislation  illicit  intercourse  between  their  subjects 
in  the  West  Indies.    Hardwicke  or  Newcastle  wrote 
a  note  on  the   margin   of  the   memoir  as  follow: 
'The   trade   to   the   Spanish   West  Indies,  although 
illicit  by  treaties  between  sovereign  and  sovereign, 
is  so  very  lucrative  that  the  Parliament  will  never 
pass  such   a  law,   and  the   Enghsh   merchant    will 
run  the  hazard  of  carrying  it  on  in  spite  of  treaty.' 
This  aristocratic  Government  was  singularly  defer- 
ential to  the  trader.     Newcastle  complains  how  he 
had  to  endure   threats   from  deputations   of   mer- 
chants 'who   used  in   times  past   to   come   cap  in 
hand  .  .  .  now   and   the   second  word  is  .  .  .  you 
shall   hear   of   it   in   another   place'    (meaning    the 
Commons),  and  the  duke  also  approved  of  'yield- 
ing to  the  times'  (meaning  not  the  newspaper  but 
the  London  mob).     It  was  quite  clear  that  neither 
Newcastle  nor  Walpole  could  oppose  the  Commons 
or  the  capital  too  far,  and  in  fact  the  main  cause 
of  the  war  of  1739  appears  to  have  been  an  out- 
cry of  Parliament  and  people,  stimulated  by  com- 
mercial   influence.      If    we    survey    the    facts,    we 
shall,  I  believe,  find  that  during  173S-3Q,  the  ques- 
tion   of    Spanish-American    trade    dominated    and 
subordinated    to    itself    the    w^hole    domestic    and 
colonial  policy  of  England.     There  was  in  1739  a 
popular   clamor   about    Jenkins   and   his   ear    [see 
England   i 739-1 741],   about   outrages  on   English- 
men by  Spanish  governors,  and  about  the  tortur- 
ing of  Protestants  by  Jesuits.     There  was  also  a 
very  strong  commercial   pressure   on   the   Govern- 
ment to  preserve  the  whole  of  the  existing  illicit 
trade  with  Spain  and  Spanish  America.     None  the 
less  it  remains  a  striking  fact  that,  at  one  point  in 
the  negotiations  to  preserve  peace  in  1738-30,  Wal- 
pole   and    Newcastle    were    willing    to    suppress   a 
large  part  of  that  illicit  trade  with  Spain.     They 
actually  prepared  and  drafted  articles  for  a  treaty 
which   would   have   suppressed  the   illicit   trade   of 
private    adventurers    to    the    Spanish    Indies    and 
mainland.     They   were  not,  however,  prepared  to 
suppress  the  illicit  trade  conducted  by   the  South 
Sea  Co.  under  the  shadow  of  the  .^siento.     They 
were  willing  enough  to  put  pressure  on  private  ad- 
venturers   and    smugglers    because    these    undercut 
the  profits  of  the  South  Sea  Co.,  but  they   abso- 
lutely refused  to  put  any  pressure  on  the  company 
to  force  it  to  trade  fairly.     The  reason   I  believe 
to  be  rather  an  interesting  one.    The  English  Gov- 
ernment was  financially  and  officially  committed  to 
the   support    of    the    South   Sea    Co.,    which    was 
an   English  venture  and  which   had  an  important 
parliamentary    interest.      Private    individuals    who 
smuggled  on  the  Spanish  M^in  were  some  of  them 
perhaps  English,  more  were  West  Indians,  the  ma- 
jority   were    from    the    continental   colonies,    espe- 
cially from.  New   England.     The  continental  colo- 
nies  possessed    very    little    interest    in    Parliament, 
the  West  Indian  smugglers  had  less  than  the  South 
Sea  Co.     Hence,  if  there  was  to  be  a  suppression 
of   illicit   trade    that    of   private    individuals    must 
suffer.     In   a  sense   this  action   was  a  sacrifice   of 
colonial   interests   to   purely    English    ones.      In    a 
way  it  is  a  more  serious  instance  of  such  sacrifice 
than  Walpole's  sugar  act   of   1733.     He  never  at- 
tempted to  enforce  the  prohibitions  of  that  act,  but 
he   did   seriously   contemplate   this    other   suppres- 
sion of  illicit  trade.     Thus  we  see  as  far  back  as 
1730,  a  growing  difference  of  treatment  and  a  pos- 
sible  cause   of   irritation   arising   between   mother- 
land and  her  continental  colonies.    When  the  wars 


were  over,  the  separation  of  commercial  interests 
between  the  two  was  soon  to  be  revealed,  and  to 
set  one  fighting  against  the  other.  But  as  yet  the 
difference  was  hidden  in  ministerial  portofolios. 
W'hen  war  broke  out  in  1739  the  New  Englanders 
fitted  out  ships  and  spent  money  to  aid  the  Old 
Englanders  against  the  Spaniards,  and  side  by  side 
they  shared  the  triumphs  and  treasure  of  Porto 
Bello  and  disease  and  defeat  beneath  the  fever- 
haunted  walls  of  Cartagena." — H.  W.  V.  Temper- 
ley,  Relations  of  England  with  Spanish  America, 
1 720-1 744  (American  Historical  Association,  pp. 
231-237). — See  also  Commerce:  Era  of  geographic 
expansion:  I7th-i8th  centuries:  North  American 
colonies. 

1729. — End  of  the  proprietary  government  in 
North  Carolina.  See  North  Carolina:  1688- 
1729. 

1729-1730. — Founding  of  Baltimore.  See  Mary- 
land:   I  72  Q- I  730. 

1732. — Colonization  of  Georgia  by  General 
Oglethorpe.     See  Georgia:   1732-1739. 

1744-1748. — Third  inter-colonial  war:  King 
George's  war  (War  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion). See  New  England:  1744;  1745;  and  1745- 
174S. 

1748-1760. — Unsettled  boundary  disputes  of 
England  and  France. — Fourth  and  last  inter- 
colonial war,  c.-illed  the  French  and  Indian  War 
(Seven  Years  War  of  Europe) — English  con- 
quest of  Canada.  See  Canada:  1750-1753;  1756; 
1759;  1760;  Nova  Scotia:  1749-1755;  1755;  Ohio 
(Valley):  i 748-1 754;  1754;  1755;  Cape  Breton 
Island:   1758-1760. 

1749. — Introduction  of  negro  slavery  into 
Georgia.     See  Georgia:    1735-1749. 

1750-17S3. — Dissensions  among  the  English 
colonies  on  the  eve  of  the  great  French  war. 
See  U.  S.  A.:   1750-1753. 

1754. — Colonial  congress  at  Albany. — Frank- 
lin's plan  of  union.  See  .'\lbany  plan  of  union; 
U.  S.  A.:   1754. 

1756. — Extent  and  distribution  of  slavery  in 
the  English  colonies.     Sec  Slavery:   1756. 

1762-1803. — Spanish  rule  in  Louisiana.  See 
Missouri:   1762-1803. 

1763. — Peace  of  Paris. — Canada,  Cape  Breton, 
Newfoundland,  and  Louisiana  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi (except  New  Orleans)  ceded  by  France 
to  Great  Britain. — West  of  the  Mississippi  an-d 
New  Orleans  to  Spain. — Florida  by  Spain  to 
Great  Britain.     See  Seven  Years  War. 

1763-1764. — Pontiac's  War.  See  Pontiac's 
War. 

1763-1765. — Growing   discontent   of   the    Eng- 
lish colonies. — Question  of  taxation. — Stamp  Act 
and  its  repeal.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1760-1775,  to  1766. 
1766. — Russians  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
United  States.     See  Oregon:   1741-1S36. 

1766-1769. — Spanish  occupation  of  New  Or- 
leans and  Western  Louisiana,  and  the  revolt 
against  it.  See  Louisiana:  i 766-1 768,  and  1769. 
1769-1785. — Abolition  of  slavery  in  Connect- 
icut and  New  Hampshire.  See  Slavery:  1769- 
178S. 

1774. — Rhode  Island  prohibits  the  introduction 
of  slaves.     See  Sl.avery:   1774. 

1775. — Committee    of    secret    correspondence. 
See  State  Department,  LT^jj^q  States:  1774-1789. 
1775-1783. — Independence  of  the  English  colo- 
nies achieved.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1775  (.'\pril)  to  1783 
(September) . 

1776. — Political  powers  of  Maryland  vested  in 
a  convention.     See  Maryland:   1776. 

1776. — Rhode  Island  declares  its  independence. 
See  Rhode  Island:  1776. 


293 


AMERICA,    CENTRAL 


AMERICAN   ASSOCIATION 


1776.— Erection  of  the  Spanish  vice-royalty 
of  Buenos  Ayres.     See  Arcextina;    1580-1777. 

1776-1784.  —  Maryland's  influence  on  the 
founding  of  the  western  domain.  See  Mary- 
land:   1 776-1 784. 

1776-1784.— Ordinance  of  1784.— Confederation 
and  attitude  of  Maryland.    See  M.\r\i.and:  1776- 

1784. 

1776-1808. — Anti-slavery  sentiment  in  south- 
ern states. — Its  disappearance.  See  Slavery: 
1776-1808. 

1792-1807. — Attempts  to  suppress  the  slave 
trade.     See  Slavery:    17Q2-1S07. 

1803-1812. — Control  of  Louisiana  by  United 
States.     See  Missouri:  1803- 181 2. 

1810-1816. — Revolt,  independence  and  confed- 
eration of  the  Argentine  provinces.  See  Argen- 
tina:  1806-1S20. 

1815.— Declaration  of  the  Powers  against  the 
slave  trade.     See  Slavery:   1815. 

1818. — Chilean  independence  achieved.  See 

Chile:    1S10-181S. 

1820-1821. — Independence  acquired  by  Mex- 
ico and  the  Central  American  states.  See 
Mexico:  1820-1826;  and  Central  America:  1S21- 
1871. 

1823. — Enunciation  of  Monroe  Doctrine.  See 
Monroe  Doctrine. 

1824. — Peruvian  independence  won  at  Aya- 
cucho.     See  Perli;    1S20-1S26. 

1835. — Russian  and  British  claims  in  Oregon. 
— Compromise.     See  Oregox:    1741-1836. 

For  the  detailed  development  of  the  various 
countries  in  both  North  and  South  .America,  sec 
Alaska;  .\rgentina;  Bolhia;  Brazil;  Canada; 
Central  America;  Colombia;  Ecuador;  Mexico; 
Paraguay;  Peru;  U.  S.  A.;  Uruguay;  Venezuela; 
also  American  republics,  International  Union 
of;  Latin  America;  Railroads:  U.  S.  A.:  Inter- 
continental. 

AMERICA,   Central.     See   Central   America. 

AMERICAN  ABORIGINES.  See  Indians, 
.\merican;  also  under  the  names  of  various 
tribes. 

AMERICAN  ACADEMY  IN  ROME,  an  in- 
stitution for  the  cultivation  of  American  talent  in 
the  field  of  art,  founded  in  1865  by  a  group  of 
men  among  whom  were  Charles  F.  McKim,  .Augus- 
tus Saint-Gaudens,  Francis  D.  Millet,  J.  Pier- 
po'nt  Morgan,  and  William  K.  Vanderbilt.  "The 
Academy  offers  fellowships  to  men  and  women 
who  have  already  had  a  preliminary  education  in 
the  arts  and  have  given  evidence  of  being  poten- 
tial creators  of  art  of  the  hiehest  order.  It  holds 
out  to  the  gifted  youth  throughout  the  Union  ex- 
actly the  same  privileges  which  the  French  Acad- 
emy offers  to  the  geniuses  of  France.  Fellows,  or 
prize-holders,  are  given  an  opportunity  of  living 
in  an  artistic  environment  and  meeting  with  great 
minds  in  their  own  and  allied  arts  and  letters. 
That  the  American  .\cademy  fills  a  long-felt  want, 
and  that  the  plan  upon  which  it  was  founded  is 
ideal,  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  during  the  past 
quarter  of  a  century  it  has  produced,  in  the  fine 
arts,  such  men  as  John  Russell  Pope,  Harry  Al- 
len Jacobs,  Paul  Manship,  Herman  A.  MacNeil, 
George  Breck  and  Eugene  Savage.  From  its  classi- 
cal studies  fellowships,  it  has  furnished  our  uni- 
versities and  schools  with  nearly  one  hundred  and 
fifty  professors  trained  in  the  humanistic  as  op- 
posed to  the  pedantic  spirit." — G.  Rene  du  Bois, 
American  Art  (Arls  and  Decoration,  Mar.  25, 
1020.1 

AMERICAN  AIR  SERVICE.  See  .\\x\tion: 
Development  of  airplanes  and  air  service:  1914- 
1918. 


AMERICAN  ALLIANCE  FOR  LABOR 
AND  DEMOCRACY.  See  American  Federa- 
tion or  Labor:   1017-1018. 

AMERICAN  AMBULANCE.  — "During  the 
first  eight  months  of  the  World  War  the  .American 
.Ambulance  continually  hoped  to  extend  its  work 
to  an  .Ambulance  Service  delinitely  connected 
with  the  armies  in  the  field,  but  not  until  April, 
1015,  were  these  hopes  delinitel\'  realized.  The 
history,  however,  of  these  lirst  eight  months  is 
important ;  its  mistakes  showed  the  way  to  suc- 
cess; its  expectations  brought  gilts  of  cars,  in- 
duced volunteers  to  come  from  .America,  and  laid 
the  basis  upon  which  the  present  service  is  founded. 
A  gift  of  ten  ambulances,  whose  bodies  were  made 
out  of  packing-boxes,  enabled  the  .American  Am- 
bulance, at  the  very  outset  of  the  war,  to  take 
part  in  the  transportation  service,  and  as  more  and 
more  donations  were  made,  small  squads  were 
formed  in  an  attempt  to  enlarge  the  work.  ...  In 
.April,  iqi5,  .  .  .  the  French  authorities  made  a 
place  for  American  .Ambulance  Sections  at  the 
front  on  trial.  .A  squad  of  ten  ambulances  was 
sent  to  V'osges,  and  this  croup  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  their  commanding  officers,  who  asked 
that  it  be  increased  by  ten  cars  so  as  to  form  it 
into  an  independent  Sanitary  Section.  -As  soon 
as  this  was  done,  the  unit  took  its  place  in  con- 
junction with  a  French  Section  in  an  important 
Sector  on  the  front  in  .Alsace.  With  this  initial 
success  a  new  order  of  things  began,  and  in  the 
same  month  a  second  Section  of  twenty  cars  was 
formed  and  was  stationed,  again  in  conjunction 
with  an  cxistins  French  service,  in  the  much-bom- 
barded town  of  Pont-a-Mousson.  In  the  mean- 
time, two  squads  of  five  cars  each  had  been  work- 
ing at  Dunkirk.  These  were  now  reenforced  by 
ten  more  and  the  whole  Section  was  then  moved 
to  the  French  front  in  Belgium,  with  the  result 
that  at  the  end  of  the  month  of  .April,  1015,  the 
Field  Service  of  the  American  .Ambulance  had 
really  come  into  existence.  It  comprised  three 
Sections  of  twenty  ambulances,  a  staff  car,  and  a 
supply  car.  .  .  .  The  story  of  the  next  year  is  one 
of  real  achievement,  in  which  the  three  Sections 
emerged  from  the  test  with  a  record  of  having 
fulfilled  the  highest  expectations  of  proving  their 
utility  to  France.  .  .  .  The  ambulances  were 
manned  chiefly  by  .American  college  men  who 
agreed  to  serve  not  less  than  six  months,  and  who 
brought  to  the  work  youth  and  intelligence,  initia- 
tive and  courage.  ...  In  November,  1015,  at  the 
request  of  General  Headquarters,  a  fourth  Section, 
made  possible  through  the  continued  aid  of  gen- 
erous friends  in  .America,  took  its  place  in  the  field 
...  In  Feb:uary,  loib.  Section  2  was  summoned 
to  the  vicinity  of  Verdun  at  the  moment  of  the 
great  battle,  and  in  March  definite  arrangements 
for  a  fifth  Section  was  completed." — H.  S.  Harri- 
son and  S.  Galatti,  Friends  of  France,  pp.  1-4. — By 
the  end  of  the  war,  47  companies  had  been  or- 
ganized with  a  personnel  of  4,760  men.  After 
bringing  the  men  together  and  instructing  them  in 
first-aid.  the  Red  Cross  turned  them  over  to  the 
.Army  Medical  Department  and  they  were  at  once 
mustered  into  service.  All  of  them  were  motor 
companies.  Until  1Q16  the  .Army  had  made  no 
provision  for  such  motorized  companies,  and  ani- 
mal-drawn vehicles  were  used  in  all  cases. 

AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE.  See  Ar- 
chitectire:    Modern:    .America. 

AMERICAN  ART.  See  Painting:  American; 
Sculpture:    Modern:   .American  sculpture. 

AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  LABOR 
LEGISLATION,  an  organization  affiliated  with 
the    International    .Association    for    Labor    Legisia- 


294 


AMERICAN   ASSOCIATION 


AMERICAN    COMMISSION 


tion;  founded  igo6;  interests  itself  chiefly  in  la- 
bor problems  and  endeavors  to  influence  legislation 
for  the  betterment  of  labor  conditions  throughout 
the  country ;  has  been  a  great  influence  in  the  en- 
actment of  federal  and  state  workmen's  compensa- 
tion and  insurance  laws.  The  association  publishes 
a  quarterly,  American  Labor  Legislation  Review. — 
See  also  Labok  legislation:    igo6-iQ2i. 

AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  the  most 
important  American  scientific  society ;  was  organ- 
ized in  Boston  in  1S47.  It  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  Association  of  American  Geologists  and  Natur- 
alists, The  society  is  organized  in  sections,  each 
of  which  holds  its  own  convention  at  the  time  of 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  association.  These  sec- 
tions include:  A,  mathematics  and  astronomy;  B, 
physics;  C,  chemistry;  D.  mechanical  science  and 
engineering;  E,  geology  and  geography;  F,  zool- 
ogy; G,  botany;  H,  anthropology  and  psychology; 
I,  social  and  economic  science;  K,  physiology  and 
experimental  medicine;  L,  education.  Since  igoi 
the  journal  Science  has  been  the  semi-official  organ 
of  the  association. 

AMERICAN  BLACKLIST.  See  Blacklist: 
American. 

AMERICAN  CABINET.  See  Cabinet,  Amer- 
ican. 

AMERICAN-CANADIAN  FISHERIES 
CONFERENCE.     See  Alaska:   1914-1918. 

AMERICAN  CIVIC  ASSOCIATION.— "Or- 
ganized effort  for  the  systematic  makin-^  of  a  beau- 
tiful America  did  not  manifest  itself  until  within 
comparatively  recent  years.  Prior  to  1904  there  had 
been  various  short-lived  state  associations,  a  few 
interstate  societies  and  two  national  organizations, 
working  with  the  same  general  objects  in  view. 
But  at  St.  Louis,  in  1Q04,  the  year  of  the  great 
exposition,  a  merger  of  the  two  national  organiza- 
tions brought  forth  the  American  Civic  Association 
which,  since  that  time,  has  carried  on  with  increas- 
ing success  and  popular  support  the  greatly  needed 
work  for  a-  'More  Beautiful  America';  and  since 
that  time  it  has  been  recognized  as  the  one  great 
national  agency  for  the  furtherance  of  that  work. 
With  its  purpose  as  staled  in  its  constitution 
clearly  before  it,  it  has  constantly  widened  the  circle 
of  its  usefulness  until  recently  they  were  grouped 
under  fifteen  general  departments,  each  department 
headed  by  an  expert  in  his  or  her  particular  spec- 
ialty. In  classifying  its  varied  activities,  the  As- 
sociation announces  that  it  aims  'to  make  Ameri- 
can hving  conditions  clean,  healthful,  attractive; 
to  extend  the  making  of  public  parks;  to  promote 
the  opening  of  gardens  and  playgrounds  for  chil- 
dren and  recreation  centers  for  adults;  to  abate 
public  nuisances — including  objectionable  signs,  un- 
necessary poles  and  wires,  unpleasant  and  wasteful 
smoking  factory  chimneys ;  to  make  the  buildings 
and  the  surroundings  of  railway  stations  and  fac- 
tories attractive;  to  extend  the  practical  influence 
of  schools;  to  protect  existing  trees  and  to  en- 
courage intelligent  tree  planting ;  to  preserve  great 
scenic  wonders  (such  as  Niagara  Falls  and  the 
White  Mountains)  from  commercial  spoliation. 
So  vigorously  has  it  pursued  these  activities  that  it 
has  seen  some  of  them  develop  to  such  proportions 
that  they  were  ready  to  swing  off  from  the  par- 
ent circle  into  spheres  of  their  own.  Such  was 
the  case  with  the  playground  movement,  which  for 
years  was  fostered  most  energetically  by  the  .Ameri- 
can Civic  Association  until  it  grew  into  an  inde- 
pendent organization  known  as  the  National  Play- 
ground Association,  and  which  is  now  an  agency 
of  splendid  achievements  in  its  one  specialized  func- 
tion."— B.    Watrous,    American    Civic    Association 


{American  City,  October,  1909). — During  1913  a 
group  of  the  association's  members  visited  various 
European  countries  to  study  the  civic  progress 
there  and  to  see  what  methods  of  efficient  adminis- 
tration might  be  adapted  to  American  needs.  From 
Oct.  13-15,  1920  the  American  Civic  Association 
held  its  sixteenth  annual  convention  at  Amherst. — 
See  also  Civic  beauty;  City  planning;  Bill- 
boards: Efforts  of  women. 

AMERICAN  CIVIL  WAR.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
i860    (November-December)    and  after. 

AMERICAN  COLONIES.  See  America; 
U.  S.  A.:  1607  and  after. 

Development  of  agriculture.  See  Agricul- 
ture:  Modern  period:    United  States:   Beginnings. 

AMERICAN  COLONIZATION  SOCIETY, 
an  organization  formed  in  1816  for  the  purpose  of 
returning  negroes  to  Africa.  It  had  strong  support, 
especially  in  the  South  and  was  aided  by  some 
state  governments  and  by  federal  appropriations. 
It  formed  a  settlement  called  Liberia  on  the  Af- 
rican coast  to  which  it  sent  out  some  negroes. — See 
also  Liberia;   Early  history. 

Also  in:  H.  T.  McPherson,  History  of  Liberia 
— A.  B.  Hart,  Slavery  and  abolition. 

AMERICAN  COMMISSION  FOR  RELIEF 
IN  BELGIUM.     See  Belgium;   1914. 

AMERICAN  COMMISSION  IN  SYRIA. 
See  International  relief:  Near  East. 

AMERICAN  COMMISSION  TO  NEGO- 
TIATE PEACE.— "The  Paris  Conference  was 
opened  in  January  [1919].  .  .  .  The  President  of 
the  United  States,  Dr.  Woodrow  Wilson,  had  ar- 
rived in  Europe  in  the  previous  month;  and  the 
American  representatives  being  present  in  Paris,  no 
time  was  lost  in  making  arrangements  for  the  Con- 
ference. Dr.  Wilson  was  accompanied  by  Mr. 
Robert  Lansing  (Secretary  of  State),  and  by  Colo- 
nel E.  M.  House,  Mr.  Henry  White,  and  General 
T.  H.  Bliss.  The  last-named  delegate  had  previous- 
ly been  the  American  representative  on  the  Supreme 
War  Council  at  Versailles,  and  hence  he  was,  of 
course,  well-known  in  Paris." — Annual  Register  for 
1919,  p.  ISO. — The  Commission  was  accompanied 
by  a  band  of  expert  advisers.  "As  to  personnel, 
the  problem  proved  to  be  less  difficult  than  at 
first  it  threatened  to  be.  .  .  .  Work  of  such  de- 
tail could  not  be  expected  of  statesmen  and  diplo- 
mats, nor  would  they  have  been  competent  for  it. 
The  need  was  for  men  expert  in  research.  Con- 
sequently the  staff  was  in  the  main  recruited  from 
strong  universities  and  colleges  but  also  from 
among  former  officials,  lawyers,  and  business  men. 
The  studies  that  were  made  during  the  winter, 
spring  and  autumn  of  1918  in  the  geography,  his- 
tory, economic  resources,  political  organization  and 
affiliations,  and  ethnic  and  cultural  characteristics 
of  the  peoples  and  territories  in  Europe,  Africa, 
Asia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  served  as  tests 
for  the  selection  and  elimination  of  workers;  the 
men  making  these  studies  and  reporting  thereon 
were  under  constant  observation,  and  as  a  result 
the  best  fitted  among  them  emerged  and  were  put 
in  charge  of  various  subdivisions  of  the  work  and 
assigned  groups  of  assistants.  As  a  consequence, 
by  the  fall  of  1918  The  Inquiry  was  thus  organ- 
ized: 

"Director,  Dr.  S.  E.  Mezes,  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York. 

"Chief  Territorial  Specialist,  Dr.  Isaiah  Bowman, 
American  Geographical  Society.  (Dr.  Bowman 
was  named  executive  officer  in  the  summer  of 
1918,  after  Mr.  Walter  Lippmann  resigned  as  sec- 
retary to  undertake  intelligence  work  for  the  army 
in  France.) 

"Regional  Specialiits: 


295 


AMERICAN    DRAMA 


AMERICAN    EXPEDITIONARY   FORCES 


For  the  northwestern  frontiers — Dr.  Charles  H. 
Haskins,  Harvard  University. 

For  Poland  and  Russia — Dr.  R.  H.  Lord,  Har- 
vard University. 

For  Austria-Hungary — Dr.  Charles  Seymour, 
Yale  University. 

For  Italian  boundaries — Dr.  W.  E.  Lunt,  Hav- 
erford  College. 

For  the  Balkans — Dr.  Clive  Day,  Yale  Univer- 
sity. 

For  Western  Asia — Dr.  W.  L.  Westermann,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin. 

For  the  Far  East— Capt.  S.  K.  Hornbeck, 
U.  S.  A. 

For  Colonial  Problems — Mr.  George  L.  Beer, 
formerly  of  Columbia  University. 

"Economic  Specialist,  Dr.  A.  A.  Young,  Cornell 
University 

"Librarian  and  Specialist  in  History,  Dr.  James 
T.  Shotwell,  Columbia  University. 

"Specialist  in  Boundary  Geography,  Maj.  Doug- 
las Johnson,  Columbia  University. 

"Chief  Cartographer,  Prof.  Mark  Jefferson,  State 
Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  Michigan. 

"Besides  The  Inquiry  proper,  and  affiliated  with 


they  would  have  on  the  spirits  of  the  allied  peoples, 
and  the  first  division  under  Pershing  was  dis- 
patched. .'\t  the  same  time  steps  were  taken  to 
raise  a  great  army." — J.  S.  Bassett,  Our  u<ar  with 
Germany,  pp.  iSg-igo. — General  Pershing  reached 
Paris  on  June  13,  igi7,  and  the  first  contingent  of 
American  troops  arrived  at  the  port  of  St.  Na- 
zaire,  France,  on  June  25,  igi?.  "The  first  Ameri- 
can artillery  in  France  undertook  a  schedule  of 
studies  in  an  old  French  artillery  post  located  near 
the  Swiss  frontier.  This  place  is  called  Valda- 
hon,  and  for  scores  of  years  had  been  one  of  the 
training  places  for  French  artillery.  But  during 
the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the  war,  nearly  all 
of  the  French  artillery  being  on  the  front,  all  sub- 
sequent drafts  of  French  artillery  received  their 
training  under  actual  war  conditions.  ...  It  was 
after  midnight  that  our  men  reached  the  front 
line.  It  was  the  morning  of  October  23,  igiy,  that 
American  infantrymen  and  Bavarian  regiments  of 
Landwehr  and  Landsturm  faced  one  another  for 
the  first  time  in  front  line  position  on  the  Euro- 
pean front.  .  .  .  The  first  shot  was  fired  at  6:5:10 
[5  minutes  and  10  seconds  after  6  o'clock]  A.  M., 
October  23,  igi7.    The  missle  fired  was  a  75-mil- 


.fi&OV,/  4S00O 

ICMtSTtR  4M0 
veRPOOL  S44(M0 
tSTOL  PORTS     11000 

■ALMOUTM  1000 

^LYMOUTM  1000 

Y/scurnArtpjxM  S70CO 

fyLQNDON  6t00tt 


MOVEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   EXPEDITIONARY   FORCES   TO   EUROPE 


although  distinct  from  it,  were  the  experts  in  in- 
ternational law,  Mr.  David  Hunter  Miller  and 
Major  James  Brown  Scott.  This  body  of  men 
proceeded  to  Paris  at  the  opening  of  December, 
1918,  except  Mr.  Miller,  who  had  gone  in  Oc- 
tober. In  Paris  they  assisted  the  commissioners 
plenipotentiary  with  data  and  recommendations, 
and  themselves  served  on  commissions  dealing  with 
three  types  of  problems:  First,  territorial;  second, 
economic  questions  and  reparation;  third,  interna- 
tional law  and  the  League  of  Nations.  ...  As  it 
turned  out,  the  staff  of  The  Inquiry  were  concerned 
in  Paris,  as  members  of  commissions,  with  delicate 
questions  of  policy,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
decisions  which  they  had  a  part  in  negotiating 
were  only  in  the  rarest  instances  modified  by  the 
supreme  council." — E.  M.  House  and  C.  Seymour, 
What  reallv  happened  in  Paris,  pp.  6-8. 

AMERICAN  DRAMA.  See  American  litera- 
ture:   17S0-1861. 

AMERICAN  EMBARGO  CONFERENCE. 
See  U.  S.  A.:  1014-1017. 

AMERICAN  EXPEDITIONARY  FORCES. 
— "Interviews  with  members  of  the  French  and 
British  missions  that  arrived  in  Washington  in 
April  [191 7]  convinced  the  president  that  we 
ought  to  send   troops    [to  Europe]   for  the  effect 


limetre  or  3-inch  high-explosive  shell.  The  target 
was  a  German  battery  of  iso-millimctre  or  6-inch 
guns  located  two  kilometres  back  of  the  German 
first  line  trenches,  and  one  kilometre  in  back  of 
the  boundary  line  between  France  and  German- 
Lorraine.  The  position  of  that  enemy  battery  on 
(he  map  was  in  a  field  100  metres  west  of  the  town 
which  the  French  still  call  Xaurey,  but  which  the 
Germans  have  called  Scheuris  since  they  took  it 
from  France  in  1870.  Near  that  spot  .  .  .  fell 
the  first  .American  shell  fired  in  the  Great  War.. 
.  .  .  The  first  executive  work  of  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Forces  overseas  was  performed  in  a 
second  floor  suite  of  the  Crillon  Hotel  in  the 
Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris.  This  suite  was  the 
first  temporai-y  headquarters  of  the  American  com- 
mander."— F.  Gibbons,  And  they  thought  we 
■wouldn't  fight,  p.  g6. — "The  American  Expedition- 
ary Force  .  .  .  was  composed  of  forty-two  divi- 
sions, twenty-nine  of  which  were  combat  units. 
In  the  last  week  of  October,  igi8,  when  these 
twenty-nine  were  in  action,  they  held  loi  miles 
of  front,  or  twenty-three  per  cent,  of  the  Allied 
line.  They  advanced  in  battle  485  miles,  and 
captured  63,o7g  prisoners  and  1,378  guns.  The 
part  taken  by  the  American  Expeditionary  Force 
in   the   fighting   on   the   Western   Front    [may   be 


296 


AMERICAN  FABIUS 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


summarized  as  follows:]  .  .  .  The  First  Division 
captured  Cantigny,  in  the  Amiens  sector,  on  May 
28th.  The  Second  Division,  with  elements  of  the 
Third  and  Twenty-eighth,  helped  to  stop  the  Ger- 
man advance  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chateau- 
Thierry.  The  Second  Division  (June  sth-iith) 
took  Bourcsches,  Torcy,  and  Belleau  Wood — a 
brilliant  operation.  Eighty-live  thousand  Ameri- 
can troops  cooperated  in  the  repulse  of  Luden- 
dorff's  Fifth  Offensive — the  Forty-second  Division 
fighting  with  Gouraud,  in  Champagne,  east  of 
Rheims,  and  the  Third  and  Twenty-eighth  fight- 
ing with  de  Mitry  south  of  the  Marne.  Eight  di- 
visions— the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Twenty- 
sixth,  Twenty-eighth,  Thirty-second,  and  Forty- 
second  were  employed  in  Foch's  attack  against  the 
Aisne-Marne  salient,  beginning  July  18th.  Ele- 
ments of  the  Thirty-third  Division  took  part  in 
Haig's  offensive  against  the  Montdidier  salient,  be- 
ginning -August  Sth.  They  helped  the  AustraHans 
to  storm  Chipilly  Ridge,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Somme.  The  Twenty-seventh  and  Thirtieth  di- 
visions were  used  in  conjunction  with  the  Austra- 
lians to  break  the  Hindenburg  Line  about  Le  Cate- 
let  and  in  the  subsequent  advance  toward  Mau- 
beuge.  The  Twenty-eighth,  Thirty-second,  and 
Seventy-seventh  divisions  participated  in  the  first 
stages  of  General  Mangin's  Oise-Aisne  offensive, 
beginning  August  i8th.  The  Twenty-seventh  and 
Thirtieth  divisions,  before  storming  the  Hinden- 
burg Line,  had  helped  to  recapture  Mount  Kem- 
mel.  On  October  31st  two  other  American  divi- 
sions— the  Thirty-seventh  and  Ninety-first — were 
sent  to  Flanders  from  the  Meuse.  They  took  part 
in  the  last  stages  of  the  Ypres-Lys  offensive,  reach- 
ing the  line  of  the  Scheldt." — W.  L.  McPherson, 
Short  history  of  the  great  war,  pp.  385-386. — • 
With  the  termination  of  hostilities  (November  11, 
igiS),  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  took 
over  the  administration  of  the  city  of  Coblenz. 
Out  of  a  total  mobilization  of  4,272,521  fighting 
men,  of  which  more  than  half  comprised  the  A. 
E.  F,,  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  force 
awaiting  orders  to  join  the  A.  E.  F.,  the  total  cas- 
ualties were  274,659.  This  figure  included  the 
67,813  dead,  the  192,483  wounded  and  the  14,363 
prisoners  or  missing.— See  also  Trench  warfare: 
Defensive  weapons;  World  War:  191 7:  VIII. 
United  States  and  the  war:   j. 

Also  in:  W.  R.  Skillman,  A.  E.  P.:  Who  they 
were  I  what  they  did!  how  they  did  it! — B.  Crow- 
ell  and  R.  F.  Wilson,  How  America  went  to  war. 

AMERICAN  FABIUS,  a  sobriquet  bestowed 
upon  George  Washington  for  his  tactics  against 
the  British  forces.  Like  the  old  Roman  Dictator, 
Fabius  Cunctator  (Delayer),  he  harassed  the  en- 
emy, but  avoided  open  battle.  This  policy  was  un- 
popular and  nearly  led  to  Washington's  removal. — 
See  also  U.  S.  A.:   1783   (November-December). 

AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR: 
1881-1886. — Organization. — Early  relations  with 
Knights  of  Labor. — "A  call  was  issued  conjointly 
by  the  'Knights  of  Industry'  and  a  society  known 
as  the  'Amalgamated  Labor  Union' — an  offshoot  of 
the  Knights  of  Labor,  composed  of  disaffected 
members  of  that  order — for  a  convention  to  meet 
in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  on  August  2,  1881.  .  .  .  The 
Terre  Haute  convention  had  for  its  object  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  new  secret  order  to  supplant  the 
Knights  of  Labor,  although  on  the  face  of  the 
call,  its  object  was  stated  to  be  to  establish  a 
national  labor  congress.  There  was  a  large  rep- 
resentation of  delegates  present  from  St.  Louis, 
Cleveland,  Chicago,  and  other  western  cities,  but 
the  only  eastern  city  represented  was  Pittsburgh. 
The  trade  union   delegates  represented  the  largest 


constituency,  but  were  less  in  number  themselves 
than  the  delegates  of  the  other  societies.  But,  by 
the  exercise  of  tact  and  diplomacy,  the  trades 
union  men,  who  were  at  that  time  also  members 
of  the  Kriights  of  Labor,  successfully  opposed  the 
project  of  adding  another  new  organization  to  the 
list  of  societies  already  in  existence,  and,  for  the 
time  being,  the  friends  of  the  proposed  secret  or- 
ganization were  defeated.  A  call  was  published, 
however,  for  subsequent  convention,  to  be  held 
in  Pittsburgh  on  November  15,  1S81,  and  this  gath- 
ering proved  to  be  the  most  important  of  its  kind 
that  had  thus  far  been  held.  .  .  .  There  were  107 
delegates  present  at  the  Pittsburgh  convention,  rep- 
resenting 262,000  workingmen,  A  permanent  or- 
ganization was  formed  and  named  the  Federation 
of  Organized  Trades  and  Labor  Unions  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  A  legislative  commit- 
tee, now  known  as  the  Executive  Council,  was  ap- 
pointed. .  .  .  Knights  of  Labor  assemblies  and 
trades  unions  were  equally  represented,  and  it  was 
thoroughly  understood  that  the  trade  unionists 
should  preserve  their  form  of  organization  and  the 
Knights  of  Labor  should  maintain  theirs,  and  that 
the  two  should  work  hand  in  hand  for  the  thorough 
amalgamation  of  the  working  people  under  one 
of  these  two  heads.  .  .  .  [The  convention  of  1883] 
favored  arbitration  instead  of  strikes.  The  eight- 
hour  rule  was  insisted  upon  and  laws  were  de- 
manded to  limit  the  dividends  of  corporations  and 
to  introduce  governmental  telegraph  systems.  .  .  . 
The  1885  convention  in  Washington  was  princi- 
pally directed  to  strengthening  the  national  or- 
ganization and  preparing  for  the  eight-hour  move- 
ment. .  .  .  The  1886  convention  was  originally 
called  to  meet  in  St.  Louis  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  year,  but  the  stirring  events  incident  to  the 
eight-hour  strikes  and  the  difficulties  existing  with 
the  Knights  of  Labor  led  to  the  memorable  con- 
ference of  the  officers  of  the  trades  unions  on  May 
iS,  when  defensive  measures  were  outlined  to  pro- 
tect the  trades  unions  and  to  secure  harmony  with 
the  Knights  of  Labor.  A  committee  attended  the 
special  session  of  the  Knights'  General  Assembly, 
at  Cleveland,  on  May  26,  and,  after  several  days' 
waiting,  marked  by  long  and  animated  discussions 
...  no  definite  assurances  were  obtained,  and  no 
action  was  taken.  The  trades  union  committee  a 
second  time  met  the  Knights  of  Labor  Executive 
Board  on  September  26,  and  secured  promises  that 
definite  action  would  be  taken  at  the  Richmond 
General  Assembly,  which  would  lead  to  harmony 
between  the  two  organizations.  The  trade  unions 
objected  to  the  admission  to  the  Knights  of  Labor 
of  members  who  had  been  suspended,  expelled,  or 
rejected  for  cause  by  their  own  organization ;  they 
opposed  the  formation  of  Knights  of  Labor  as- 
semblies in  trades  already  thoroughly  organized 
into  trades  unions,  and  complained  of  the  use  of 
Knights  of  Labor  trade-marks  or  labels,  in  com- 
petition with  their  own  labels,  notably  so  in  the 
case  of  the  Cigar  Makers'  International  Union. 
At  the  Richmond  General  Assembly,  the  trade 
union  chiefs  presented  a  mass  of  grievances,  show- 
ing where  their  local  unions  had  been  tampered 
with  by  Knights  of  Labor  organizations,  where 
movements  had  been  made  to  disrupt  them,  and 
where,  in  cases  where  such  disruption  could  not  be 
effected,  antagonistic  organizations  were  formed  by 
the  Knights.  The  General  Assembly,  however,  in- 
stead of  removing  these  alleged  evils  or  giving  sat- 
isfactory redress  to  the  trade  union  element,  ad- 
ministered to  the  Federation  a  slap  in  the  face,  as 
the  latter  understood  it,  by  passing  a  resolution 
compelling  the  members  of  Cigar  Makers'  Interna- 
tional Union  connected  with  the  Knights  of  Labor 


297 


„^«      AMVRICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 
AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR      AMERICAN 


to  withdraw  from  the  order.    The  call  for  the  St. 

^^^-^.a^^^S^^and^f^^ers^^^ 
elected.      Re^ol"''""^^  St-h'^urul?  demanding 

'VY  "'"^''thetssa^e  of  a  compulso'ry  indenture 
of  Congress  the  passage  m  "^        ,    Protective 

deliberation,   a    co"-i  organization 

ganizations,   to   secure      s       establishment   of  na- 

ana    luc    h  .:j;i,„  and  encouragement  ol  tne 

bodies;  and  '^^.^  ^'™",f,3^  .._An.erican    Federation 

iijij'   sitp^  rnnvention,  and  iviay    i, 

S.  It  *..'''"  *,S,..;^». .--»...-; 

Fach  local  union  was  asked  to  vote  on  lue  h 

sSfilliSi 

^-J:eded'L^"Vurn.u.^-^^^^ 
mised  on  nme  hours.     The  Carpente^    ^.^^^   ^^ 
eight   hours   in   seven    cities   and   c      p^^^^  ^^^^^^^^ 
nine  m  eighty-four.  .  .  .  ivia>     ,      \^^         j^v. 

fh";Xgg.e:  "^^rLccessfu,  in  U,  citie.  be.^ 
fitting  47.IP7  ^^"^''"?!"  ,,3,-,tm  go^g  on.     It  was 

strike  for  eight  hours,  and    t  w  ^^^^  ^^ 

through  trade  umon  activity,  the  A.  !■.  oi        i> 


sistently  demanded  the  shorter  work-day  loj^l'L 

r^Ti'^hfa^rTi:s.^t^:ithrre't^ 

tfe^'bu  w't  wholW  dependent  on  the  view- 
.nint  nf  the  federal  official  having  the  power  to 
point  ol   tne  i"ierd.  Congress   enacted    an 

being  enforced.     It  also  was  soon  found  that  th 

■isb"'"  w-"'"  -""""■'  '■'• 

meni      Owing   to  the  emergencies  created  by     he 

^:i:t  wooing  ^^^,,:if  L^-„,^ri:w 

'^nTrcrarv-    tt  "SeV  that ''all    overtime 
hould  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  time  and  a  haf^ 

TWs    mainlined    the  ,eight-hour    principle    while 
meeting  an  emergency^ -/W.,PP^  i°-^ - 
of^S-7i"ghrrgrst°the'mT  iuiance  U 
?'ade  ut^ons  'see  Labor  strikes  a.o  bovcotts: 

'*?^«''°°Trouble    over    Buck    stove    and    range 
boy?ou-'^s7e"tvc^^^   Recent  judicia^^^^^^^^^^^ 
1910.-Admi3sion  of  Negroes.    See  Race  pbob 

"igTl-Union'with  W.  F.  M.     See  Ikousxrial 
WORKERS  OP  THE  WORUK   R-ent  tendencies. 

Wo^d-X-'AtearAuLncelor  Labor  and 
KcrYcy:-War,,.abor    boards     S,ppo^ 

states  support  the  government  but  they  caMmto 
existence   [in  'be  summei^  oj  i   i ,         -Pa^^^   ^^^„ 

ine  weeiv  "  .,,    ,     ^^      organized   labor   m 

served   as   Losalty    \\eeK    d>    "6      pffectivelv    to 

anti-American  propaganda^  -F^L  XV  ar^  lif  labor 


298 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


as  they  got  into  working  order,  the  work  of  the 
Cominiliec  on  Labor  of  the  Council  of  National 
Deleiisc  became,  relatively  at  least,  less  important. 
At  the  outset,  however,  the  whole  work  of  de- 
termining fiindcimEntal  policies  and  of  taking  ac- 
tion to  secure  their  adoption  fell  upon  this  body. 
The  Committee  was  formally  constituted  on  Feb- 
ruary 13,  1917.  The  first  step  taken  by  Mr. 
Gompers  was  to  secure  a  general  agreement  on  the 
part  of  organized  labor  as  to  the  attitude  it  would 
take  towards  the  war  and  the  problems  engen- 
dered by  it.  In  his  capacity  as  President  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  he  iirst  called  a 
preliminary  conference  of  representatives  of  or- 
ganized labor  on  February  28,  and  a  meeting  of 
the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Federation  on 
March  g.  This  was  followed  by  a  general  con- 
ference in  Washington  on  March  9,  1017,  of  the 
executive  officers  of  all  the  leading  labor  organiza- 
tions of  the  United  States.  At  this  meeting,  which 
was  a  very  important  gathering  attended  by  more 
than  ISO  persons,  there  was  adopted  a  formal  dec- 
laration of  principles  setting  forth  the  attitude  of 
union  labor  towards  the  war.  In  this  declaration 
organized  labor  pledged  its  unqualified  support  of 
the  war  and  made  known  its  demands.  Among 
them  were  the  demands  that  Government  should 
take  energetic  steps  to  curb  profiteering,  and  that 
labor  should  have  adequate  representation  in  all 
bodies  created  by  the  Government  for  the  handling 
of  industrial  matters.  This  meeting  of  labor  was 
followed  by  a  general  conference  of  representatives 
of  labor,  employers'  organizations,  and  others 
prominent  in  the  field  of  social  reform  at  Wash- 
ington on  April  2,  1917,  called  by  Mr.  Gompers 
as  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Labor  of  the 
Council  of  National  Defense.  The  persons  invited 
to  participate  in  this  conference,  numbering  from 
180  to  200  persons,  effected  a  permanent  organiza- 
tion as  the  full  Committee  on  Labor  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  National  Defense.  It  thereupon  organized 
itself  into  numerous  subcommittees  to  deal  with 
specific  phases  of  the  labor  problem  and  provided 
for  the  creation  of  an  Executive  Committee  of  11 
members  who  should  act  for  the  whole  Committee. 
This  E.xecutive  Committee  on  April  6,  1917, 
adopted  a  formal  resolution,  the  most  important 
provision  of  which  was  a  recommendation  that 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  should  issue  a 
statement  to  employers  and  employees  in  all  in- 
dustrial establishments  and  transportation  sys- 
tems, advising  that  'neither  employers  nor  em- 
ployees shall  endeavor  to  take  advantage  of  the 
country's  necessities  to  change  existing  standards.'  " 
— W.  F.  Willoughby,  Government  organization  in 
war  time  and  after,  pp.  207-210. — "For  the  pur- 
pose of  formulating  a  national  labor  policy  and 
for  devising  and  providing  a  method  of  labor  ad- 
justment which  would  be  acceptable  to  employers 
and  employes  at  least  for  the  war  emergency  pe- 
riod, the  Wilson  administration  created  on  Janu- 
ary 28,  1918,  the  War  Labor  Conference  Board 
consisting  of  five  representatives  of  employers,  five 
representatives  of  employes,  and  two  of  the  gen- 
eral public.  .  .  .  The  five  representatives  of  the 
employes  were  officials  of  national  and  interna- 
tional labor  unions  whose  members  were  almost 
entirely  engaged  in  war  production.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  board  were  appointed  by  the  Secretary 
of  Labor  upon  nomination  by  the  president  of 
the  National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  an  or- 
ganization of  employers,  and  the  president  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  the  latter  repre- 
senting all  the  more  important  labor  unions  of  the 
country  with  the  exception  of  the  four  railway 
brotherhoods    whose    members    were    engaged    in 


the  operation  of  trains.  Each  of  the  two  groups 
thus  selected  chose  one  of  the  two  representatives 
of  the  public.  This  board  presented  a  formulation 
of  industrial  principles  which  represented  the  Ad- 
ministration's labor  policy  and  which  were  to 
govern  the  relations  between  workers  and  employ- 
ers in  war  industries  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 
These  principles  are  [in  part]  as  follows:  There 
should  be  no  strikes  or  lockouts  during  the  war. 
The  right  of  workers  to  organize  in  trade  unions 
and  to  bargain  collectively  through  chosen  repre- 
sentatives is  recognized  and  affirmed.  [The  ana- 
logous right  of  the  employers  was  also  recognized 
and  affirmed.]  .  .  .  Employers  should  not  dis- 
charge workers  for  membership  in  trade  unions, 
nor  for  legitimate  trade  union  activities.  The 
workers,  in  the  exercise  of  their  right  to  organize, 
shall  not  use  coercive  measures  of  any  kind  to 
induce  persons  to  join  their  organizations,  nor  to 
induce  employers  to  bargain  or  deal  therewith. 
In  establishments  where  the  union  shop  exists  the 
same  shall  continue  and  the  union  standards  as  to 
wages,  hours  of  labor,  and  other  conditions  of 
employment  shall  be  maintained.  .  .  .  Established 
safeguards  and  regulations  for  the  protection  of 
the  health  and  safety  of  workers  shall  not  be  re- 
laxed. If  it  shall  become  necessary  to  employ 
women  on  work  ordinarily  performed  by  men,  they 
must  be  allowed  equal  pay  for  equal  work  and 
must  not  be  allotted  tasks  disproportionate  to 
their  strength.  The  basic  eight  hour  day  is  rec- 
ognized as  applying  in  all  cases  in  which  existing 
law  requires  it.  .  .  .  The  right  of  all  workers,  in- 
cluding common  laborers,  to  a  living  wage  is 
hereby  declared." — F.  J.  Warne,  Workers  at  war, 
pp.  84-87. — "Among  the  most  important  of  these 
[agencies  to  control  labor  relations]  is  the  Na- 
tional War  Labor  Board  recommended  by  the  War 
Labor  Conference  Board  in  its  report  of  March  29 
and  created  by  Presidential  Proclamation  April  8, 
1918.  This  board  had  jurisdiction  over  all  mat- 
ters of  labor  controversies  between  employers  and 
employes  in  all  fields  of  industrial  or  other  activ- 
ity affecting  war  production  where  there  did  not 
already  exist  by  agreement  or  federal  law  a  means 
of  settlement.  Even  where  such  agencies  were 
provided,  jurisdiction  was  with  the  War  Labor 
Board  in  case  these  agencies  failed  to  secure  ad- 
justment. .  .  .  The  War  Labor  Board  consisted  of 
the  same  members  selected  in  the  same  manner 
and  by  the  same  agencies  as  the  War  Labor  Con- 
ference Board." — Ibid.,  pp.  131-132. — "On  Novem- 
ber g  [1919]  a  specially  called  meeting  of  the  ex- 
ecutive council  of  the  American  Federation  of  La- 
bor, representing  114  national  and  international 
unions  and  an  individual  membership  of  more  than 
four  miUion  workers  engaged  in  all  the  occupa- 
tions throughout  the  country,  took  up  considera- 
tion in  a  most  serious  attitude  of  mind  the  coal 
miners'  strike  and  the  action  of  the  Government 
in  relation  to  it.  .  .  .  The  attitude  of  organized 
labor  as  represented  by  this  supreme  advisory  au- 
thority of  the  labor  unions  was  expressed  in  an  'ap- 
peal to  the  public'  containing  among  other  things 
the  following:  .  .  .  'By  all  the  facts  in  the  case 
the  miners'  strike  is  justified.  We  indorse  it.  We 
are  convinced  of  the  justice  of  the  miners'  cause. 
We  pledge  the  miners  the  full  support  of  the 
.American  Federation  of  Labor  and  appeal  to  the 
workers  and  the  citizenship  of  our  country  to  give 
like  endorsement  and  aid  to  the  men  engaged  in 
this  momentous  struggle." — Ibid.,  pp.  172-173. — 
See  also  Labor  p.^rties:   1868-1019. 

1919. — Thirty-ninth  Annual  Convention. — "The 
30th  annual  convention  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  was  held  in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  from 


299 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


June  7  to  June  24,  191Q.  .  .  .  Almost  all  official 
recommendations  were  upheld  by  an  overwhelming 
vote,  the  only  evidence  of  any  dissenting  opinion 
being  the  nature  of  some  of  the  211  resolutions 
introduced  but  always  defeated  when  of  a  radical 
nature.  .  .  .  'The  conflict  for  industrial  democracy 
is  just  beginning,'  declared  Samuel  Gompers,  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  in  his 
openirfg  address  to  the  convention.  .  .  .  Previous 
to  Gompers'  address,  which  was  the  key-note 
speech  of  the  convention  and  sounded  the  new  in- 
ternational relationship  of  labor  thiough  the 
League  of  Nations,  a  cablegram  was  read  from 
President  Wilson,  lauding  Gompers  for  having  es- 
tablished in  international  circles  as  well  as  at  home, 
the  reputation  of  the  .'Vmerican  Federation  of  La- 
bor for  sane  and  helpful  counsel.'  .  .  .  The  after- 
noon of  the  first  day  was  consumed  with  the  read- 
ing of  the  report  of  the  .'\merican  Federation  of 
Labor  Delegation  to  the  Peace  Conference  by 
James  Duncan,  first  vice-president.  .  .  .  Miss  Mar- 
garet Bonfield,  fraternal  delegate  from  the  British 
Trades  Union  Congress,  addressed  the  convention 
bringing  the  greetings  of  the  organized  wage  earn- 
ers of  Great  Britain.  .  .  .  One  of  the  most  note- 
worthy [speeches  was]  an  address  by  Glenn  E. 
Plumb,  counsel  of  the  four  railroad  brotherhoods, 
advocating  the  railroad  workers'  plan  for  govern- 
ment ownership  and  democratic  control  of  the  rail- 
roads. The  executive  council  of  the  Federation 
was  later  instructed  to  take  necessary  steps  toward 
realizing  this  project.  .  .  .  The  one  successful  at- 
tack on  the  administration  was  the  overturn  of 
the  committee  on  resolutions'  recommendation 
'that  the  principle  of  self-determination  of  small 
nations  applies  to  Ireland'  for  the  stronger  amend- 
ment from. the  convention  itself  calling  for  recog- 
nition of  the  Irish  republic  and  later  providing  in 
the  indorsement  of  the  League  of  Nations  that  this 
?hould  not  exclude  Irish  independence.  The  Irish 
nationalists  in  the  convention  backed  by  the  radi- 
cals anxious  to  score  over  the  administration  and 
demonstrate  the  imperialist  character  of  the  peace 
settlement  forced  the  issue  and  defeated  the  com- 
mittee recommendation  ...  by  a  vote  of  181  to 
150  and  adopted  the  amendment  asking  recogni- 
tiofi  for  Ireland  by  the  Peace  Conference.  .  .  . 
This  was  the  only  revolt  of  the  convention,  the 
Irish  being  placated  and  assisting  in  the  condem- 
nation of  the  Russian  Soviet  republic  soon  there- 
after. .  .  .  John  P.  Frey,  secretary  of  the  resolu- 
tions committee,  brought  in  a  recommendation  as 
a  substitute  [for  three  other  resolutions]  urging 
the  Government  to  withdraw  all  troops  from  Rus- 
sia but  refusing  the  endorsement  of  the  Soviet 
Government  or  any  other  Russian  government  un- 
til a  constituent  assembly  has  been  held  to  estab- 
lish 'a  truly  democratic  form  of  government.'  .  .  . 
Vigorous  opposition  .  .  .  failed  to  change  the  re- 
sult and  the  recommendation  of  the  committee  was 
adopted.  .  .  .  One  of  the  favorable  results  of  the 
convention  was  the  support  obtained  by  the  Negro 
workers  from  the  e.\ecutive  council  and  the  con- 
vention, tending  to  break  down  the  bars  against 
admission  of  colored  workers  in  the  international 
unions.  Nearly  fifty  of  the  international  officials 
reported  that  they  raised  no  barrier  against  the 
Negro,  and  the  convention  authorized  the  forma- 
tion of  federal  locals  of  all  colored  workers  re- 
fused membership  in  any  international  union.  .  .  . 
The  most  dramatic  incident  of  the  convention  was 
the  solitary  stand  made  against  the  League  of 
"Nations  covenant  and  the  labor  charter  contained 
in  the  peace  treaty  by  Andrew  Furuseth,  the  sea- 
men's leader.  .  .  .  The  entire  executive  council  of 
the  American  Federation  of  I^abor  and  its  national 


officials  were  re-elected.  .  .  .  Samuel  Gompers  was 
appointed  to  represent  the  Federation  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Trades  Union  International  Congress  in 
Amsterdam  on  July  25." — C.  Laue,  igig  A.  F.  oj 
L.  convention  (American  Labor  Year  Book,  igig- 
ig20,  pp.  I4g-is5), — See  also  Labor  parties;  igiS- 
iQ2o;  R.ULROADs:   igig:   Plumb  plan. 

1920. — Fortieth  Annual  Convention. — Statistics 
of  the  federation. — ^Gompers  and  the  national 
election. — "The  American  Federation  of  Labor 
met  in  annual  convention  for  the  fortieth  time  at 
Montreal,  Canada,  on  June  7,  ig20.  .  .  .  The  most 
contentious  issue  fought  out  on  the  floor  of  the 
convention  during  its  12  days'  session  was  the  ques- 
tion of  Government  ownership  of  the  railroads. 
The  resolution  in  favor  of  Government  ownership 
and  democratic  operation,  which  was  passed  by  a 
vote  of  20,058  to  8,348,  is  as  follows: 

"Resolved,  That  the  Fortieth  Annual  Conven- 
tion of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  go  on 
record  as  indorsing  the  movement  to  bring  about 
a  return  of  the  systems  of  transportation  to  Gov- 
ernment ownership  and  democratic  operation;  and 
be  it  further 

"Resolved,  That  the  executive  Council  be,  and 
are  hereby,  instructed  to  use  every  effort  to  have 
the  transportation  act  of  ig2o  repealed  and  legis- 
lation enacted  providing  for  Government  owner- 
ship and  democratic  operation  of  the  railroad  sys- 
tems and  the  necessary  inland  waterways.  .  .  . 

"The  convention  indorsed  the  covenant  of  the 
League  of  Nations  without  reservations.  'It  is  not 
a  perfect  document  and  perfection  is  not  claimed 
for  it.  It  provides  the  best  machinery  yet  devised 
for  the  prevention  of  war.  It  places  human  rela- 
tions upon  a  new  basis  and  endeavors  to  enthrone 
right  and  justice  instead  of  strength  and  might  as 
the  arbiter  of  international  destinies.'  Other  reso- 
lutions adopted  by  the  convention  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  Compulsory  military  train- 
ing and  military  training  in  schools  were  con- 
demned as  'unnecessary,  undesirable,  and  un- 
.American.'  Public  oflicers  were  urged  to  make  all 
possible  effort  to  release  political  prisoners.  The 
Kansas  court  of  industrial  relations  was  condemned 
and  its  abolition  urged.  Four  resolutions  on  this 
subject  were  referred  to  the  executive  council  of 
the  Federation  for  action  in  bringing  about  the 
repeal  of  the  law  involved.  Congress  was  enjoined 
to  enact  immediately  the  legislation  necessary  to 
establish  the  United  States  Employment  Service  as 
a  permanent  bureau  in  the  Department  of  Labor. 
The  creation  of  a  Federal  compensation  insurance 
fund  for  maritime  workers,  under  the  administra- 
tion of  a  Federal  or  State  compensation  commis- 
sion, was  urged  to  offset  the  recent  decision  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  denying  longshore- 
men the  benefits  of  State  workmen's  compensation 
laws.  Reclassification  of  the  civil  service  was  ad- 
vocated and  the  adoption  of  a  wage  scale  com- 
mensurate with  the  'skill,  training,  and  responsi- 
bility involved  in  the  work  performed.'  Enact- 
ment of  legislation  granting  civil-service  employees 
the  right  to  a  hearing  and  to  an  appeal  from  judg- 
ment in  case  of  demotion  or  dismissal  was  also 
urged.  The  nonpartisan  political  campaign  inau- 
gurated by  the  Federation  at  its  .Atlantic  City  con- 
vention in  igiq  to  defeat  candidates  for  office 
'hostile  to  the  trade-union  movement'  and  'elect 
candidates  who  can  be  relied  upon  to  support 
measures  favorable  to  labor,'  was  indorsed.  A 
fund  of  $20,545.42  was  donated  to  the  campaign 
committee  by  members  of  the  Federation  between 
February  24,  1020,  and  April  30,  ig20.  Repeal  of 
the  Lever  law  and  of  the  espionage  act  and  other 
wartime    legislation    was    demanded.      Legislation 


300 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


AMERICAN  HISTORICAL 


against  profiteering,  in  support  of  the  Women's 
Bureau  and  of  a  Federal  housing  program  was 
advocated,  and  the  strengthening  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  was  urged.  Continued  organization 
of  the  steel  industry  and  particular  attention  to 
organization  of  laundry  workers  and  telephone  op- 
erators were  ordered.  The  Nolan  minimum-wage 
bill  (H.  R.  5726),  providing  a  minimum  wage  of 
$3  a  day  for  Federal  employees,  was  approved. 
The  secession  movement  of  the  'outlaw'  railway 
unions  was  condemned.  The  convention  adopted  a 
resolution  in  favor  of  the  independence  of  Ireland 
and  voted  against  recognition  of  the  Soviet  Gov- 
ernment. Cooperation  between  labor  unions  and 
the  farmers  was  advocated.  A  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  report  upon  the  question  of  health  in- 
surance to  the  IQ2I  convention  of  the  Federation. 
On  the  question  of  Asiatic  immigration,  the  con- 
vention concurred  in  the  resolution  proposed  by 
the  Building  Trades  Council  of  California  urging 
upon  Congress:  'First,  cancellation  of  the  "gentle- 
men's agreement;"  second,  exclusion  of  "picture 
brides"  by  action  of  our  Government;  third,  ab- 
solute exclusion  of  Japanese,  with  other  Asiatics, 
as  immigrants;  fourth,  confirmation  and  legaliza- 
tion of  the  principle  that  Asiatics  shall  be  forever 
barred  from  American  citizenship;  fifth,  amend- 
ment of  section  i  of  Article  XIV  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  providing  that  no  child  born  in  the 
United  States  of  Asiatic  or  Oriental  parents  shall 
be  eligible  to  American  citizenship  unless  both 
parents  are  eligible  for  such  citizenship.'  The  em- 
ployment of  alien  labor  on  the  Panama  Canal  was 
protested.  Fullest  support  was  pledged  to  'rees- 
tablish the  rights  of  free  speech,  free  press,  and 
free  assemblage,'  wherever  denied.  A  congressional 
investigation  into  conditions  in  the  West  Virginia 
coal  fields  was  asked.  Congress  was  urged  to 
make  adequate  provision  for  World  War  veterans. 
Relief  for  the  people  of  Austria,  Serbia,  Armenia, 
and  neighboring  countries  was  urged.  .  .  . 

"Membership  in  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  has  passed  the  four  million  mark.  In  iqoo  it 
was  over  half  a  million,  in  iqo2  over  one  million, 
in  1914  over  two  million,  and  in  igig  over  three 
million.  The  paid-up  and  reported  membership 
of  affiliated  unions  for  the  year  ending  April  30, 
ig20,  was  4,078,740.  This  number  does  not  in- 
clude the  207,065  members  of  the  national  organ- 
izations at  present  suspended  from  the  Federation, 
nor  does  it  include  the  membership  of  those  rail- 
way brotherhoods  partially  affiliated.  The  mem- 
bership of  the  Federation  in  iq2o  represents  an 
increase  of  100.6  per  cent  over  the  membership  in 
igiS,  when  it  was  1,946,347  [having  fallen  slightly 
from  igi4].  There  are  36,741  local  unions  in  the 
no  national  and  international  unions  directly  af- 
filiated with  the  Federation  in  addition  to  the 
1,286  local  trade  and  federal  labor  unions,  which 
are  similarly  affiliated.  The  strike  benefits  paid 
by  the  Federation  to  local  trade  and  federal  unions 
for  the  year  ending  April  30,  ig2o,  totaled  $67,- 
9i2.gs.  A  total  of  $3,213,406.30  in  death  benefits, 
$937,2 ig. 25  in  sick  benefits,  and  $65,026.42  in  un- 
employed benefits,  was  paid  during  the  same  period 
by  affiUated  international  organizations.  These 
figures  do  not  include  the  benefits  paid  by  local 
unions,  many  of  which  provide  death,  sick,  and 
out-of-work  benefits,  and  therefore  represent  but  a 
small  proportion  of  the  aggregate  sum  paid  by 
trade  unions  for  these  purposes." — Monthly  Labor 
Review  (Ihiiled  Stales  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
August,  1920,  pp.  168-171).- — In  line  with  the  fed- 
eration's political  policy  of  "rewarding  its  friends 
and  punishing  its  enemies,"  Mr.  Gompers  during 
the  presidential  campaign  urged  organized  labor  to 


vote  for  James  Cox,  the  Democratic  candidate; 
Cox  received  about  seven  million  votes  fewer  than 
Harding. — See  also  Railroads;  1920:  Esch-Cura- 
mins  .-^ct. 

1921. — Forty-first  Annual  Convention. — The 
federation  held  its  forty-first  annual  convention  at 
Denver,  Colo.,  June  13  to  25,  ig2i.  One  notable 
feature  of  the  convention  was  the  contesting  of 
the  election  for  the  presidency.  John  L.  .Lewis, 
president  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America, 
was  the  opposition  candidate,  but  Samuel  Gompers 
was  reelected  by  a  vote  of  25,022  to  12,324;  not 
voting,  1,984.  This  was  Mr.  Gompers'  fortieth 
election  to  the  presidency  of  the  federation.  At 
one  of  the  opening  sessions,  J.  H.  Thomas,  British 
fraternal  delegate  to  the  convention,  warned  the 
federation  against  encouraging  any  American  in- 
tervention in  the  Irish  question.  This  question 
aroused  much  discussion  at  various  sessions;  Irish 
sympathizers  gradually  divided  into  those  who  fav- 
ored a  resolution  calling  for  American  recognition 
of  Ireland  as  a  republic  and  those  who  favored  a 
resolution  demanding  a  boycott  of  English- 
made  goods.  The  resolution  of  the  "recognition" 
was  finally  adopted.  The  convention  defeated  by 
a  roll  call  vote  of  21,742  to  14,530  a  resolution 
proposing  that  the  war-making  power  be  taken 
from  Congress  and  given  to  the  people  to  be  exer- 
cised through  a  referendum.  The  convention 
adopted  a  resolution  favoring  public  ownership  of 
the  railroads,  after  a  clause  providing  for  govern- 
ment control  of  all  basic  industries  had  been 
stricken  out.  Definite  action  on  the  campaign  for 
a  six-hour  day  was  postponed.  A  resolution  offered 
by  negro  delegates  asking  the  federation  to  take 
steps  toward  abolishing  the  Ku-Klux-Klan  was 
opposed.  The  convention  declined  to  interfere 
with  the  autonomy  of  international  or  national 
unions  in  regard  to  the  membership  of  women  or 
negroes.  It  endorsed  the  Sheppard-Towner  bill 
(to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  maternity  centers), 
called  for  federal  control  and  development  of  na- 
tural resources,  declared  against  universal  military 
training  and  denounced  the  "growing  abuse  of  in- 
junctions in   labor  disputes." 

1921. — Unemployment  statistics.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1921   (May);  Unemployment  figures. 

AMERICAN  FICTION.  See  American  lit- 
erature;   1790-1860. 

AMERICAN  FUR  TRADING  COMPANY. 
See  Oregon:  1808-1826;  TJ'isconsin:  1812-1825; 
WYOi.nxG:    1S07-1833. 

AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  — Executive. 
See  President;  Cabinet  members;  also  department 
heads  under  name  of  department  as.  Labor,  De- 
partment or. 
Judicial.  See  Supreme  court;  Courts,  etc. 
Legislative.  See  Congress  of  the  United 
States;  Federal  government;  Representative 
government. 

state.  See  State  go\'ERNMENt. 
AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  ASSOCIA- 
TION, founded  at  Saratoga  in  18S4.  An  Ameri- 
can Historical  Society  had  been  founded  in  Wash- 
ington in  1835  by  Peter  Force  and  others.  It  had 
had  John  Quincy  Adams,  Lewis  Cass  and  Levi 
Woodbury  as  presidents  and  had  published  one  vol- 
ume of  transactions.  The  call  for  the  meeting  at 
which  the  American  Historical  Association  was  or- 
ganized was  signed  by  John  Eaton,  President,  and 
Frank  B.  Sanborn,  Secretary  of  the  Social  Science 
Association,  Charles  Kendall  Adams  of  Ann  Arbor, 
Moses  Coit  Tyler  of  Ithaca  and  Herbert  B.  Adams. 
About  forty  responded  to  the  call.  A  constitution 
was  prepared  by  C.  K.  Adams,  H.  B.  Adams,  Clar- 
ence W.  Bowen,  Ephraim  Emerton,  M.   C.  Tyler 


301 


AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    REVIEW 


and  William  B.  Weeden.    The  first  paper  was  read 
by    President   Andrew    D.   White    of    Cornell     On 
studies  in  general  history  and  the  history  of  civili- 
zation,"  Mr.  White  was  the  first  and  George  Ban- 
croft the  second  president  of  the  Association^    On 
January   4,    iSSq,   President   Cleveland   signed    the 
act  of  incorporation  of  the  Association  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  "for  the  promotion  of  historica 
studies,  the  collection  and  preservation  of  historical 
manuscripts,  and  for   kindred  purposes  in  the  in- 
terest   of    American    history    and    of    history    in 
America."      This   act    requires    the    Association    to 
have  its  principal  office  in  Washington    and  to  re- 
port annually  to  the  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  concerning  its  proceedings  and  the  con- 
dition of  historical  study  in  America.     The  annual 
reports  were  to  be  published  by  the  public  printer. 
Prior    to    188Q    the    publications    were    known    as 
Papers  of  the  American  Historical  Association.    The 
connection  with  the  government  has  brought  some 
disadvantages,  such   as  the  barring   from  publica- 
tion in  the  annual  reports  of  some  discussions  on 
reUgious  questions  and  the  papers  of  the   Churcti 
History  section.     The  Association  has  a  Historical 
Manuscripts  Commission  which  has  done  much  to 
preserve    valuable    historical    manuscnpt    material. 
Members  of  the  Association  were  prominent  in  the 
founding    of    the    American    Historical    Review    in 
180';       [The  issue   of   October,   ig20,   contains  the 
history  of  its  first   25  years.]     At  the  meeting  m 
i8q6  a  Committee  of  Seven  on  the  teachmg  of  his- 
tory in  secondary  schools  was  appointed  at  the  in- 
stance of  Professor   Henry   Morse  Stephens.     The 
report  of  this  committee  did  much  to  improve  the 
teaching  of  history  in  high  schools  and  acadernics. 
Since  i8q8  the  Association  has  aided  the  Amencan 
Historical   Review    and    distributed    it   to    all    the 
members.      Standing    committees    on    bibliography 
and  publications  and  a  Public   Archives  Cominis- 
.ion    have    done    good    work.      The    Association 
awards   prizes    for    historical    essays.      In    1904    a 
Committee  of  Eight  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  re- 
port on  the  studv  of  history  in  elementary  schools 
after  the  analogy  of  the  Committee  of  Seven. 

"The  Committee  on  History  and  Education  lor 
citizenship  in  the  Schools  was  constituted  in  191 8, 
first  by  the  National  Board  for  Historical  Service 
and  later  bv  the  Association,  in  order  to  consider 
those  extensive  modifications  in  the  methods  of 
historical  teaching  in  the  Schools  which  it  was 
then  felt,  must  be  brought  about  as  a  result  of  the 
Great  War,  in  order  that  history  might  do  its 
full  part  in  training  the  minds  of  the  young  for 
proper  service  to  a  new  era."— Amencan  Historical 
Revie-w.  AprU.  1021,  p.  410-During  the  World 
War  the  Association  rendered  valuable  services  for 
the  Committee  on  Public  Information  and  the 
National  Board  of  Historical  Service. 

AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW.-A 
periodical,  founded  in  1895.  See  American  his- 
torical ASSOCIATION. 

AMERICAN  INDIANS.  See  Indians,  Amer- 
ican; also  under  the  names  of  various  tribes^ 

AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  INTERNA- 
TIONAL AFFAIRS.— "Because  these  facts  [in- 
creasing international  relationships]  are  recognized, 
simultaneous  efforts  are  being  made  [October,  1Q20I 
in  several  nations  to  build  up  institutes  of  inter- 
national affairs.  Such  organizations  have  already 
been  established  in  the  United  States,  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  Japan.  The  American  branch  is 
now  in  the  process  of  reor  ;anization  and  ot  com- 
bination with  the  Council  on  Foreign  Relations 
under  the  title  of  the  American  Institute  of  Inter- 
national Affairs.  The  undertaking,  it  is  significant 
to  note,  arose  out  of  the  informal  meeUngs  which 


AMERICAN  INSTITUTE 

were  held  by  the  experts  of  the  American  and 
British  peace  delegations  at  Paris.  Lmdsay  Russell, 
Chairman  of  the  Council  on  Foreign  Relations,  is 
actively  aiding  the  reorganization.  Concerning  the 
activities  of  the  new  body,  he  said  .  .  .  'What  is 
being  attempted  is  to  establish  a  national  centre 
of  international  thought.  ...  The  Amencan  Insti- 
tute of  which  Whitney  Shepardson  is  secretary, 
has  established  a  nucleus  for  an  international 
library  and  outlined  the  publication  of  monographs 
on  international  topics  which  concern  us  as  a 
nation  The  first  work  of  the  American  Insti- 

tute has  been  to  co-operate  with  the  British  Insti- 
tute in  causin;  to  be  published  a  voluminous  his- 
tory of  the  Peace  Conference  [in  five  volumes, 
edited  bv  H.  W.  V.  Temperleyl.  This  has  been 
distributed  to  libraries.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  the  American  Institute  of  International  Attairs 
is  designed  to  be  a  source  and  centre  of  informa- 
tion, but  not  of  propaganda.  .\s  such,  the  institute 
can  formulate  no  policies.  ...  The  British  were 
wilUng  to  undertake  the  first  work,  that  of  pre- 
paring the  history  of  the  treaty.  The  Americans 
among  them  Thomas  W.  Lamont,  provided  a  part 
of  the  funds  for  the  work."-W.  L.  Chenery,  For 
amitv   of  nations   (New   York   Times,  October  31. 


AMERICAN   INSTITUTE  OF   INTERNA- 
TIONAL   LAW,    "organized    at    Washington    m 
October,   1912,  is  a  body  which  is  likely  to  have 
great   influence   in   promoting   the  peace  and   wel- 
fare of  this  hemisphere.    The  Institute  is  compos°d 
of  five  representatives  from  the  national  society  ot 
international  law  in  each  of  the  twenty-one  Ameri- 
can   republics.      At    the    suggestion    of    Secretary 
Lansing  the  Institute  at  a  session  held  in  the  city 
of  Washington,  January   6,  1Q16,  adopted  a  Dec- 
laration of  the  rights  and  duties  of  Nations,  which 
was  as  follows:     I.  Every  nation  has  the  right  to 
exist  and  to  protect  and  to  conserve  its  existence , 
but   this   right   neither   implies   the   right   nor   jus- 
tifies the  act  of  the  state  to  protect  itself  or  to  con- 
>;erve  its  existence  by  the  commission  of  unlawful 
acts  against  innocent  and  unoffending  states.     U. 
Every  nation  has  the  right  to  independence  in  the 
sense  that  it  has  a  right  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness 
and  is  free  to  develop  itself   without  interference 
or  control  from  other  states,  provided  that  in  so 
doing    it    does   not   interfere    with    or    violate   the 
rights   of    other    states.      HI.  Every    nation    is    m 
law  and  before  law  the  equal  of  every  other  na- 
tion belonging  to  the  society  of  nations,  and  all  na- 
tions have  the  right  to  claim  and   according  to  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  of  the  United  States, 
'to  assume,   among   the   powers   of   '^e  earth    the 
separate  and  equal  station  to  which   the   laws  of 
nature    and    of    nature's    God    entitle    them^      IV. 
Everv  nation  has  the  right  to  territory  within  de- 
fined  boundaries,   and   to   exercise   exclusive   juris- 
diction over  its  territory,  and  all  persons  whether 
native    or    foreign    found    therein       V    Every    na- 
tion entitled  to  a  right  by  the  law   of   nations  is 
entitled  to  have  that  right  respected  and  protected 
bv  all  other  nations,  for  right  and  duty  are  corre- 
lative, and  the  right  of  one  is  the  duty  of  all  to 
observe      VI.  International  law  is  at  one  and  the 
same    time    both    national    a"fi    i"t""'>'!°"^' ' ,  "f  T 
tional  in  the  sense  that  it  is  the  law  of  the  land 
and  applicable  as  such  to  the  decision  of  all  ques- 
tions involving  its  P"nciples .  international  in  the 
sense  that  it  is  the  law  of  the  society  of  nations 
and  applicable  as  such  to  all  questions  bet;yeen  and 
among  the  members  of  the  society  0    n^t'O"^.  ^"- 
vTlving  its  principles.'     This  Declaration  has  been 
criticized   as   being   too    altruistic   for   a    world     n 
which   diplomacy   has  been   occupied   with   selfish 


302 


AMERICAN  KNIGHTS 


AMERICAN   LEGION 


aims." — J.  H.  Latane,  United  States  and  Latin 
America,  pp.  304-306. — See  also  •  Internationai. 
law:    1856-iQog. 

AMERICAN  KNIGHTS,  Order  of.  See 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle. 

AMERICAN  KNIGHTS  OF  LABOR.  See 
American  Federation  of  Labor:  1881-1886; 
Knights  of  Labor. 

AMERICAN  LABOR  PARTY.  See  Labor 
parties:   1Q18-1920. 

AMERICAN  LEAGUE  OF  ANTI-IMPERI- 
ALISTS.— Indianapolis  declaration.  See  U.S.A.: 
1900   (Mav-November) . 

AMERICAN  LEGION,  an  organization  of 
American  veterans  of  the  World  War.  "The  pur- 
pose of  the  American  Legion  is  .  .  .  twofold:  ser- 
vice to  ex-service  persons  and  service  to  the  coun- 
try. The  organization  is  exerting  ...  its  influence 
and  strength  to  the  end  that  all  ex-service  men,  es- 
pecially the  disabled  and  their  dependents,  and  the 
dependents  of  the  those  who  [were  killed,  should] 
receive  that  just  and  fair  treatment  which  they 
have  reason  to  expect  from  a  patriotic  and  Uberal 
country.  In  serving  the  country,  the  organization 
is  endeavoring  to  keep  alive  that  spirit  of  service 
which  induced  all  to  respond  to  the  country's  call 
in  time  of  need.  .  .  .  The  American  Legion  is  not 
a  military  organization,  nor  does  membership 
therein  affect  or  increase  liability  for  military  or 
police  service.  It  is  absolutely  non-political  and 
is  not  to  be  used  for  the  dissemination  of  partisan 
principles  or  for  promoting  the  candidacy  of  any 
person  seeking  public  office  or  preferment.  The 
constitution  of  the  American  Legion  provides  for 
active  membership  only.  There  is  no  honorary 
membership  in  the  Legion.  The  following  are 
eligible  to  membership:  i,  Men  and  women  who 
served  honorably  in  any  branch  of  the  army,  navy, 
or  marine  corps  for  any  length  of  time  between 
April  6,  1917,  and  November  11,  1918.  2,  Men 
and  women  who  served  in  the  naval,  military,  or 
air  forces  of  any  nation  associated  with  the  United 
States  in  the  war,  provided  that  at  the  time  of 
their  entry  into  this  service  they  were  American 
citizens  and  that  they  have  resumed  their  Ameri- 
can citizenship  by  the  time  they  apply  for  mem- 
bership in  the  Legion,  and  received  upon  discharge 
an  Honorable  Discharge  or  its  equivalent." — Facts 
about  the  American  Legion  (Publications  of  the 
A  merifan  Legion ) . 

Women's  Auxiliary. — "The  first  National  Con- 
vention, held  at  Minneapolis,  provided  for  the 
formation  of  an  Auxiliary  Organization  to  be 
governed  by  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed 
by  the  National  Executive  Committee,  to  be 
known  as  the  Women's  Auxiliary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Legion.  Those  eligible  to  this  auxiliary  are 
the  mothers,  wives,  daughters  and  sisters  of  the 
members  of  the  American  Legion;  the  mothers, 
wives,  daughters  and  sisters  of  all  men  and  women 
who  were  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  at  some  time  between  April  6,  1017, 
and  November  11,  1918,  and  died  in  line  of  duty 
or  after  honorable  discharge  and  prior  to  Novem- 
ber II,  1920.  Mothers,  wives,  sisters  and  daugh- 
ters by  law  have  been  ruled  eligible  to  member- 
ship in  this  auxiliary  organization,  on  the  ground 
that  any  person  related  to  any  member  of  the 
Legion,  either  by  birth  or  by  law,  under  the  above 
classification,  is  entitled  to  membership  in  this  or- 
ganization."— Facts  about  the  American  Legion 
(Publications  of  the  American  Legion). 

Organization. — "Each  state  constitutes  a  de- 
partment of  the  ,\merican  Legion  and  has  direc- 
tion of  all  posts  within  its  area.  Each  department 
has  a  department  commander,  a  department  adju- 


tant, and  a  department  executive  committee  and 
such  other  officers  as  the  department  may  deter- 
mine. Post  officers  are  determined  by  the  various 
state  constitutions.  The  organization  is  thoroughly 
democratic.  From  the  Sergeant-at-Arms  of  the 
smallest  post  to  the  national  commander,  every 
Legion  official  in  the  organization  is  chosen  by  ma- 
jority vote  of  the  members  or  their  duly  elected 
representatives.  Any  fifteen  ex-service  persons 
eligible  to  membership  can  form  a  post  on  appli- 
cation to  the  Commander  of  the  department  in 
which  the  post  is  to  be  located.  Any  ex-service 
person  desiring  to  enroll  in  the  Legion  who  does 
not  know  of  a  post  in  his  community  should  write 
the  department  commander.  The  National  Con- 
vention is  the  law-making  body,  the  administrative 
authority  being  vested  in  the  National  Executive 
Committee,  between  conventions.  The  National 
Convention  elects  the  National  commander,  five 
National  vice-commanders,  and  a  National  chap- 
lain. The  National  commander  appoints  the  Na- 
tional adjutant.  The  Executive  Committee  ap- 
points the  National  treasurer  and  such  officials  and 
standing  committees  as  may  be  necessary.  The 
E.xecutive  Committee  is  composed  of  the  National 
commander  and  Vice-commanders  in  office,  and 
one  representative  and  one  alternate  from  each  de- 
partment, to  be  elected  as  such  department  shall 
determine.  The  American  Legion  is  financed  by 
membership  dues,  and  from  such  other  sources  as 
may  be  approved  by  the  National  Executive  Com- 
mittee, as  provided  by  the  Constitution.  The 
Minneapolis  convention  last  year  fixed  the  annual 
dues  for  the  fiscal  year  1920,  at  one  dollar  a  mem- 
ber, this  to  cover  the  cost  of  maintaining  head- 
quarters and  publishing  the  American  Legion 
Weekly." — Facts  about  the  American  Legion  (Pub- 
lications  oj  the  American  Legion). 

Policies. — "The  American  Legion  assembled  in 
convention  at  Minneapolis  November  10,  11  and 
12,  1919,  went  on  record  as  follows: 

"  'Americanism. — That  relief  to  civilian  popula- 
tion of  countries  now  or  lately  our  enemies  be  ex- 
tended only  through  agencies  incorporated  by  Con- 
gress. That  all  foreign  language  papers  be  re- 
quired to  furnish  a  true  and  correct  translation, 
properly  sworn,  to  the  Postmaster-General  of  the 
United  States.  That  proper  punishment  be  meted 
out  to  all  slackers  and  to  those  who  aided  and 
abetted  slackers.  That  any  attempt  at  this  time 
to  resume  relationship  with  German  activities  be 
condemned,  as  well  as  the  resumption  of  German 
operas,  instruction  of  German  in  the  schools  and 
public  performances  of  German  and  Austrian  per- 
formers. That  all  American  Indians  who  served 
in  the  war  be  given  the  full  rights  of  citizenship, 
provided  they  did  not  attempt  to  evade  full  and 
complete  performance  of  such  services.  That  the 
Government's  Thrift,  Savings  and  Investment  Cam- 
paign be  heartily  supported.  That  the  immigra- 
tion policy  be  revised  along  the  lines  of  adaptabil- 
ity of  alien  races  for  American  citizenship.  That 
the  so-called  "Gentlemen's  .'\greement '  with  Japan 
be  abrogated.  That  foreign-born  Japanese  be 
forever  barred  from  American  citizenship.  That 
all  other  aliens  advocating  the  overthrow  of  our 
Government  by  force  and  violence  be  tried  and 
if  possible  convicted  and  deported.  That  a  course 
in  citizenship  be  made  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of 
every  school  in  the  country.  That  the  Department 
of  Justice  be  changed  from  a  passive,  evidence- 
collecting  organization  to  a  militant  and  active 
group  of  workers  whose  findings  shall  be  forcefully 
acted  upon.  That  all  ahens  who  withdrew  appli- 
cation for  American  citizenship  because  of  Ameri- 
ca's participation   in   the  war  be  deported.     That 


303 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


Policies 
Chronology 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


a  list  of  names  of  all  persons  granted  exemption 
from  the  selective  sen'ice  laws  on  the  grounds  of 
alienage  be  compiled  and  published  for  the  Bureau 
of  Naturalization.  That  all  aliens  in  the  United 
States  be  required  to  learn  the  American  language 
and  that  all  instruction  in  the  elementary,  public 
and  private  schools  be  in  the  American  language. 
That  the  War  Department  recall  all  honorable  dis- 
charges granted  to  conscientious  objectors  and  that 
legislation  be  enacted  providing  for  their  prompt 
punishment.      [See   also   Americaniz.mion.] 

"  'Compensation. — That  the  Sweet  Bill,  provid- 
ing increased  compensation  for  disabled  men,  pay- 
ment of  insurance  in  a  lump  sum,  or  installments, 
covering  three  years,  be  passed.  That  war  risk  in- 
surance rates  be  revised  to  actual  mortality  costs. 
That  the  Government  pay  $75.00  a  month  to  all 
ex-service  persons  disabled  by  tuberculosis,  and 
a  special  payment  of  ?5o.oo  a  month  to  all  other 
disabled  men  and  women.  That  all  disabled  of- 
ficers and  enlisted  personnel  be  placed  on  the  same 
basis  as  to  retirement  for  disability  whether  they 
served  in  the  Regular  Army,  National  Guard,  Na- 
tional Army  or  Reserve  Corps.  That  all  ex-service 
persons  suffering  from  the  recurrence  of  disease, 
or  other  disability,  resulting  from  service,  become 
automatically  eligible  to  all  provisions  of  the  War 
Risk  or  Vocational  Rehabilitation  Act.  That  all 
unproductive  lands  be  reclaimed  by  direct  Gov- 
ernment operation  for  settlement  by  service  men 
and  women.  That  Government  credit  be  extended 
for  settlement  of  rural  communities  by  service  men 
and  women.  That  no  child  born  to  parents  in- 
eligible to  citizenship  be  granted  citizenship  in  this 
country.  That  every  public  and  private  school  be 
required  to  devote  at  least  ten  minutes  of  each  day 
to  patriotic  exercises  and  that  the  American  flag 
be  raised  over  each  school  during  the  day,  weather 
permitting.  That  all  aliens  tried,  convicted  or  in- 
terned as  enemies  of  our  Government  be  deported. 
That  the  Government  lend  money  to  service  men 
and  women  for  the  purchase  and  development  of 
farms,  or  for  the  purchase  of  city  homes.  That  the 
obligation  which  the 'Government  owes  to  all  ser- 
vice men  and  women  to  relieve  the  financial  dis- 
advantages incidental  to  their  military  service  be 
left  to  Congress  to  discharge. 

"  'Employment. — That  preference  be  given  to  ex- 
service  men  in  all  civil  service  appointments  and 
to  the  widows  of  those  who  laid  down  their  lives 
in  service,  absolute  preference  being  given  to  those 
physically  disabled.  That  only  ex-service  men  be 
employed  in  the  quartermasters'  depots  and  navy 
commissary  stores. 

"  'Memorial. — That  the  National  Executive  Com- 
mittee select  a  site  for  a  memorial  in  France  and 
organize  a  movement  to  raise  a  popular  subscrip- 
tion fund  for  the  erection  of  such  a  memorial. 
That  the  American  Legion  co-operate  with  the 
G.  A.  R.  and  Confederate  Veterans  in  their  memo- 
rial services.  That  the  bodies  of  the  American 
dead  be  not  returned  from  France  except  where  the 
parents  or  next  of  kin  desire  that  the  Government 
return  them.  That  arrangements  be  made  with  the 
people  of  France  to  maintain  as  permanent  memo- 
rials of  America's  unselfish  service  to  humanity, 
the  graves  of  those  who  made  the  supreme  sacri- 
fice. 

"  'Miscellaneous. — That  the  achievements  of  the 
Boy  Scouts  be  commended  and  the  work  of  the 
organization  aided  by  various  Posts.  [See  Boy 
Scouts:  Cooperation  with  American  legion.]  That 
nurses  should  have  absolute  rank,  with  opportunity 
of  promotion.  That  the  Articles  of  War  and 
Court  Martial  laws  be  revised.  That  a  program 
of  social  and  community  service  be  outlined.    That 


the  efficiency  of  the  Finance  Office  be  improved.' " 
— Facts  about  the  American  Legion  {Publications 
oj  the  American  Legion). — At  the  Minneapolis 
convention  a  committee  of  military  policy  was  ap- 
pointed. The  Legion  favors  military  training  in 
high  schools  and  colleges,  universal  miUtary  train- 
ing with  safeguards  for  civilian  control  and  pro- 
tection against  a  military  caste.  It  favors  measures 
to  eradicate  illiteracy  and  believes  that  "the  only 
agitator  that  eventually  need  be  feared  is  injus- 
tice." The  Legion  stands  unreservedly  for  law 
and  order.  Persons  who  were  not  in  active  ser- 
vice during  the  war  are  not  eligible  to  member- 
ship. Membership  in  the  Students'  army  training 
corps  is  not  sufficient  for  eligibility  to  membership 
in  the  Legion.  Members  of  the  Red  Cross,  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  and  similar  welfare  organizations  are  not 
eligible.  Members  of  exemption  boards  and  the 
public  health  service  board  are  not  eligible. 

Chronology. — "February  15,  1919,  Paris. — Idea 
of  a  war  veteran's  organization  crystalUzed  at  meet- 
ing of  twenty  members  of  the  A.  E.  F. 

"March  15-17,  igig,  Paris. — A.  E.  F.  Caucus,  rep- 
resentatives of  all  divisions  and  S.  O.  S.  sections, 
temporary  constitution  adopted  and  plans  formu- 
lated to  organize  in  the  United  States.  Executive 
Committee  of  one  hundred  elected.    Name  chosen. 

"April  7,  1 91 9,  Paris. — Executive  Committee  or- 
ganized and  appointed  committee  of  fifteen  to 
work  in  the  United  States,  and  also  arranged  for 
exploitation  of  work  in  France. 

"May  8-9-10,  1019,  St.  Louis. — Caucus  of  dele- 
gates representing  troops  at  home,  temporary  con- 
stitution adopted,  general  policies  formulated  and 
plans  perfected  for  organizing  the  Legion  prepara- 
tory to  first  national  convention  on  November  10, 
II,  12,  1919. 

"May  23,  1 91 9,  New  York. — Amalgamation  of 
Paris  and  St.  Louis  Executive  Committee  into 
Joint  National  Executive  Committee  responsible 
for  organization  of  the  American  Legion  on  tem- 
porary basis  preparatory  to  national  convention. 

"June  9,  1919,  New  York. — Formal  amalgama- 
tion of  Paris  and  St.  Louis  sub-committees  ef- 
fected at  meeting  of  Joint  Executive  Committee 
of  thirty-four. 

"September  16,  igig^^Congressional  Charter 
granted,  incorporating  the  American   Legion. 

"November  10-11-12,  igig,  Minneapolis. — First 
national  convention  of  the  American  Legion,  per- 
manent organization  effected,  permanent  consti- 
tution adopted,  policies  projected.  Franklin  D'Olier 
elected   National   Commander. 

"November  24,  1919,  Indianapolis. — Permanent 
National  Headquarters  established  at  Indianapolis 
pursuant  to  mandate  of  National  Convention. 

"December  12,  1919. — Conference  in  Washington 
on   Sweet  Bill. 

"December  19-20,  iqig,  Indianapolis. — First 
meeting  National   Executive   Committee. 

"January  iq,  1920,  Indianapolis. — First  meeting 
of   National   Americanism   Commission. 

"February  9.  1920,  Indianapolis. — Meeting  Mili- 
tary Policy   Committee. 

"February  22,  1020. — Legionnaires  throughout 
country  as  part  of  Washington's  birthday  cere- 
mony, bestowed  French  certificates  on  next  of  kin 
of  those  who  died  in  the  war. 

"March  22-23-24,  1920,  Washington. — Special 
conference  of  Executive  Committee  and  Depart- 
ment representatives  to  discuss  adjusted  compen- 
sation, and  four-fold  plan  was  adopted. 

".April  22-23-24,  IQ20,  Indianapolis. — First  con- 
ference of  Department  Adjutants." 

The  preamble  of  the  National  Constitution  of 
the  American  Legion  is  as  follows: 


304 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


Chronology 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


"For  God  and  Country,  we  associate  ourselves 
together  for  the  following  purposes:  To  uphold 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America ;  to  maintain  law  and  order ;  to  foster 
and  perpetuate  a  one-hundred-per-cent  American- 
ism; to  preserve  the  memories  and  incidents  of 
our  association  in  the  Great  War;  to  inculcate  a 
sense  of  individual  obligation  to  the  community, 
state  and  nation;  to  combat  the  autocracy  of  both 
the  classes  and  the  masses;  to  make  right  the 
master  of  might ;  to  promote  peace  and  good  will 
on  earth;  to  safeguard  and  transmit  to  posterity 
the  principles  of  justice,  freedom  and  democracy; 
to  consecrate  and  sanctify  our  comradeship  by 
our  devotion  to  mutual  helpfulness." — Facts  about 
the  American  Legion  (Publications  of  the  Ameri- 
can Legion). — The  American  Legion's  constitution 
is  drafted  on  a  non-partisan  basis  and  prominent 
members  from  General  Pershing  down  have  stressed 
the  importance  of  keeping  it  non-partisan.  The 
forces  likely  to  bring  the  American  Legion  to  par- 
ticipation in  political  affairs  have  been  thus  pre- 
•sented: — "Can  you  picture  the  American  soldier 
sitting  idle  in  a  crisis?  Did  he  play  a  spectator's 
part  at  Chateau-Therry  ?  Then  can  you  picture 
the  new  civilian  taking  no  part  in  government  at 
a  time  when  it  is  so  obvious  that  the  most  im- 
portant duty  of  an  American  is  to  see  that  chang- 
ing conditions  are  changed  rightly  ?  It  is  too 
pessimistic  a  picture.  Too  large  a  part  of  the 
Nation  is  made  up  of  returned  soldiers.  It  is  hard 
to  see  how  they  can  hold  aloof,  for  there  are  live 
millions  of  them  with  a  similar  point  of  view,  and 
a  body  of  men  of  that  size  would  make  its  influ- 
ence felt  if  it  were  deaf  and  dumb.  In  the  light 
of  many  discussions  at  sea,  it  is  impossible  to  be- 
lieve that  the  soldier  intends  to  neglect  civil  duties 
in  which  he  showed  such  decided  interest.  He  is 
too  good  an  American.  He  feels  too  keenly  that 
he  has  had  an  experience  denied  to  most  men,  and 
is  a  better  man  for  it.  When  the  American  Legion 
decides  to  stay  out  of  politics,  it  must  be  because 
the  former  service  man  has  decided  that  his  ideal 
of  government  cannot  be  achieved  by  'political' 
methods.  Whatever  power  the  American  Legion  is 
to  exercise  will  be  derived  from  the  lessons  learned 
in  military  life.  In  that,  and  in  that,  alone,  the 
returned  soldier  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  popu- 
lation. .  .  .  The  man  in  service  learned  to  work 
his  utmost  at  his  own  job.  He  learned  that  re- 
sults were  the  only  things  which  counted,  and  that 
two  men  doing  one  man's  work  was  a  clear  waste, 
not  of  one  man,  but  of  two,  for  neither  did  it.  He 
learned  that  the  way  to  get  things  done  was  to 
take  up  the  little  things  which  were  wrong  one 
at  a  time  and  get  them  right,  and  not  try  to  win 
the  whole  war  by  his  lonesome.  He  learned  chiefly 
to  do  his  work  and  forget  about  promotion — to  do 
his  bit  for  the  good  of  the  service.  He  came  back 
to  this  side  and  found  that,  as  far  as  he  could 
see,  politicians  were  genuinely  concerned  with  the 
triumph  of  the  party  at  the  next  election.  That 
he  cannot  stomach.  .It  is  in  some  such  way  as 
this  that  the  American  Legion  will  manifest  itself 
in  politics.  For  its  members  had  an  opportunity 
to  see  at  first  hand  the  methods  and  the  results 
of  monarchy.  They  returned  determined  to  take 
more  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  republic." — R.  R. 
Perry,  American  Legion  in  politics   (Outlook,  Jan. 

14,     IQ20). 

September  27-28-25,  1Q20. — The  annual  con- 
vention of  the  American  Legion  was  held  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  September  27,  28  and  20,  1020. 
Eleven  hundred  delegates,  representing  a  milUon 
members,  took  the  following  important  action: 
"Pledged   the   American   Legion   to   continued  ser- 


vice to  the  country  in   accordance  with  the  Pre- 
amble of  its  Constitution,     Reaffirmed  the  cardinal 
principle  that  the  Legion's  first  thought  is  for  the 
sick   and   wounded,   and   Ln   accordance   with   that 
principle  recommended  that  a  new  cabinet  officer 
be  created  to  coordinate  and  direct  the  Bureau  of 
War    Risk    Insurance,    the    United    States    Public 
Health  Service,  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education  and  other  Government  agencies  for  the 
assistance    of   the   sick   and   wounded.     Reiterated 
the  Legion's  intention   to   work   unremittingly   for 
justice  to  all  veterans  by  obtaining  the  enactment 
in  Congress  of  the  fourfold  plan  of  beneficial  legis- 
lation,    based     on     adjusted     compensation.       Re- 
affirmed emphatically  the  Legion's  policy  of  abso- 
lute  political    neutrahty.     Confirmed   the   Legion's 
established  stand   for  impartiality   in   disputes  be- 
tween capital  and  labor,  while  pledged  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  law  and  order.     Recorded  its  support 
of  the  new  Army  act  of  June  4,  1920,  promising  tc 
help  upbuild  under  that  Act  the  National  Guard 
and  Organized  Reserve  and  anticipating  the  adop- 
tion   of    universal    military   service.      Extended   to 
the    Legion's    affiliated    women's    organization    full 
opportunity    and    encouragement    for    independent 
development    and    management.      Condemned    the 
Government  agencies  responsible  for  neglecting  to 
take    proper    steps    for    the    deportation    of    alien 
slackers   and    for    withholding    the    publication    of 
lists  of  known  draft  dodgers  and  deserters.     Voted 
for  the  continuance  of  the  Legion's  work  in  Ameri- 
canism to  assist  aliens  to  become  good  citizens  and 
to  foster  the  growth  of  patriotic  devotion  among 
all  citizens.     Designated  that  the  1921  Convention 
of  the  American  Legion  be  held  in  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,   October   31,   November    i    and    2.     Adopted 
the   Shirley    poppy    as    the    official    flower    of    the 
American     Legion.  .  .  .  The     convention     declared 
with   determination   that  the   Legion  should   press 
ahead   in   its  fight   for  justice   to   all   veterans  by 
continuing  to  champion  before  Congress  the  four- 
fold plan   of  beneficial   legislation,  embodying  ad- 
justed compensation,  which  already  has  passed  the 
House   of   Representatives  and   now   awaits  action 
by  the  Senate.     By  a  vote  practically  unanimous 
the  convention  recorded  itself  in  favor  of  all  four 
of    the    provisions    which    this    bill    contains — for 
aid    in    buying    homes    or    farms,    for    vocational 
training,  for  land  settlement  and  for  adjusted  cash 
compensation  based  on  length  of  service.  .  .  .  Some 
southern    delegates    opposed    the    adjusted    cash 
compensation,   or   'bonus,'   on   the   ground   that  it 
would  have  a  bad  effect  on   the  negro  ex-service 
men,   and   that   it   would   probably   be   spent   un- 
wisely  in    many    cases.  .  .  .  Several    state    delega- 
tions came  instructed  to  secure  some  modification 
of  the  Legion's  constitutional  ban  on  political  ac- 
tivities, and  the   Constitution   Committee  reported 
favorably    what    it    called    a    clarifying   resolution. 
The  delegates,  however,  defeated  the  resolution  by 
a  vote  of  06.^  to  142.    The  defeated  resolution,  after 
reaffirming  the  non-political  and  non-partisan  char- 
acter of  the  Legion,  nevertheless  went  on  to  say: 
'Now   therefore,   be   it   resolved   by   the   American 
Legion  in  National  convention  assembled  that  the 
Legion  is  not  prohibited  by  its  Constitution  and 
charter  from  supporting  and  promoting  those  poli- 
cies and  principles  within  the  purposes  enumerated 
in   the   preamble   to   its   National   Constitution,   as 
interpreted  by  acts  of  its  National  conventions  and 
rulings  of  its  National  Executive  Committee;  and 
be  it   further — Resolved,  that  the   Legion   through 
its    organization    has    the    right    under    its    charter 
and  constitution  to  ascertain,  for  the  information 
of    its    members,    the    attitude    of    candidates    for 
public  office  towards  such  policies  and  principles.' 


305 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE 


The  convention  was  unanimous  in  declaring  the 
Legion's  intention  to  give  serious  and  continued 
support  to  the  new  Army  plan  provided  for  by 
the  Army  reorganization  act  of  June  4,  1920.  It 
expressed  its  belief  that  the  success  of  the  National 
Guard  and  Organized  Reserve  under  that  bill  de- 
pends largely  on  the  cooperation  of  the  American 
Legion  and  pledged  support  for  the  recruiting  and 
the  maintenance  of  these  forces  at  their  proper 
standards.  It  also  declared  in  favor  of  the  policy 
of  universal  military  training  of  young  men  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  this  policy  might  later  be 
legally  adopted  by  a  change  in  the  new  Army  act. 
The  creation  of  a  new  cabinet  position  to  deal 
exclusively  with  the  United  States  Air  Service  was 
advocated,  and  other  recommendations  were 
adopted  favoring  rules  permitting  Army  enlisted 
men  to  retire  on  part  pay  after  ib,  20  and  25 
years  of  service  and  the  extension  of  the  war 
time  system  of  family  allowances  for  the  benefit  of 
the  enlisted  men  of  the  Army  in  peace  time. 

"The  report  of  the  Convention  Committee  on 
Americanism  was  adopted  after  a  lively  debate  on 
a  single  feature — the  recommendation  dealing  with 
Japanese  immigration.  The  committee  merely  re- 
affirmed the  resolution  adopted  at  Minneapolis  the 
previous  year:  'That  we  go  on  record  as  being  in 
favor  of  the  cancellation  of  the  so-called  "gentle- 
men's agreement,"  exclusion  of  "picture  brides," 
and  the  rigorous  exclusion  of  Japanese  as  immi- 
grants,' and  'that  we  enter  a  vigorous  protest 
against  the  demand  of  Japan  that  naturalization 
rights  be  granted  to  its  nationals  now  located  in 
the  United  States  and  that  we  earnestly  request 
the  State  Department  of  the  United  States  in  its 
settlement  of  this  question  not  to  consider  any 
proposition  which  will  grant  rights  of  naturaliza- 
tion to  this  unassimilable  people.'  .  .  .  The  other 
recommendations  of  the  Committee  were  for  the 
Americanization  of  the  Territory  of  Hawaii,  the 
continuance  of  the  Legion's  National  .Americanism 
Commission  and  its  removal  to  headquarters  at 
Indianapolis,  and  for  free  education  in  English, 
.American  history  and  civil  government  for  foreign 
and  native  born  illiterates." — American  Legion 
Weekly,  Oct.  15,  1920. 

October  31,  November  1-2,  1921,  Kansas  City. — 
Third  national  convention  of  The  American  Legion 
decided;  "'To  support  the  \'eterans  Bureau  in 
every  way  to  carry  out  the  plans  for  hospitalization 
and  handling  of  claims,  insisting  that  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  the  law  be  observed  in  decentralizing  the 
agencies  for  the  benefit  of  disabled  ex-service  men 
and  that  politics  must  not  interfere  with  the  bu- 
reau's work.  To  continue  the  Legion's  stand  for 
the  .Adjusted  Compensation  Bill  and  to  fight  for  its 
earliest  possible  enactment.  To  adopt  the  daisy  as 
the  official  flower  in  place  of  the  poppy.  To  con- 
tinue its  opposition  to  immigration  and  naturaliza- 
tion of  Orientals.  To  ask  a  suspension  of  all  immi- 
gration for  five  years,  and  to  ask  the  strictest 
examination  of  immigrants  at  ports  of  embarka- 
tion in  the  absence  of  a  restriction  law.  To  urge 
legal  punishment  for  disloyalty  in  the  schools.  To 
oppose  a  pardon  for  Eugene  V.  Debs  and  to  insist 
on  the  return  and  prosecution  of  Grover  Cleveland 
Bergdoll.  To  support  limitation  of  armaments, 
while  insisting  upon  adequate  military  protection 
for  the  United  States.  To  recognize  officially  La 
Societe  des  40  Hommes  et  8  Chevaux  as  the  "Le- 
gion playground"  and  to  consider  the  establishment 
of  a  Father's  Auxiliary'  The  American  Legion 
Auxiliary  [the  re-christened  Women's  .Auxiliary] 
came  into  being  November  2nd  at  Kansas  City — 
a  perfected  national  organization  .  .  .  The  name 
was  selected  by  delegates  of  the  Women's  Auxiliary 


of  The  American  Legion  from  every  State  but  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  Utah,  West 
Virginia  and  Wyoming,  and  these  seven  States  had 
unofficial  representatives  without  vote  on  the  floor. 
The  Territory  of  Hawaii  was  represented  by  a  duly 
authorized  delegate." — American  Legion  Weekly, 
Nov.  18,  1921. — Hanford  MacNider  of  Mason  City 
was  chosen  national  commander  of  the  American 
Legion. 

AMERICAN  LIBRARY  ASSOCIATION. 
See  Libraries:  Modern:  United  States:  American 
library  association. 

War  service.  See  Libraries:  Modern:  United 
States:  Effects  of  the  World  War;  World  War: 
Miscellaneous  au.xiliary  services:  XIV.  Cost  of  war: 
b,  8. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE:  General  Char- 
acteristics.— "American  literature  is  a  branch  of 
English  literature,  as  truly  as  are  English  books 
written  in  Scotland  or  South  Africa.  Our  litera- 
ture lies  almost  entirely  in  the  nineteenth  century 
when  the  ideas  and  books  of  the  western  world 
were  freely  interchanged  among  the  nations  and. 
became  accessible  to  an  increasing  number  of 
readers.  In  literature  nationality  is  determined  by 
language  rather  than  by  blood  or  geography.  M. 
Maeterlinck,  born  a  subject  of  King  Leopold,  be- 
longs to  French  literature.  Mr.  Joseph  Conrad, 
born  in  Poland,  is  already  an  English  classic. 
Geography,  much  less  important  in  the  nineteenth 
century  than  before,  was  never,  among  modern 
European  nations,  so  important  as  we  sometimes 
are  asked  to  believe.  Of  the  ancestors  of  English 
literature  'Beowulf  is  scarcely  more  significant, 
and  rather  less  graceful,  than  our  tree-inhabiting 
forebears  with  prehensile  toes;  the  true  progeni- 
tors of  English  literature  are  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew, 
Italian,  and  French.  .  .  . 

"American  literature  is  English  literature  made 
in  this  country.  Its  nineteenth-century  character- 
istics are  evident  and  can  be  analyzed  and  dis- 
cussed with  some  degree  of  certainty.  Its  'Ameri- 
can' characteristics — no  critic  that  I  know  has  ever 
given  a  good  account  of  them.  You  can  define 
certain  peculiarities  of  American  politics,  American 
agriculture,  American  public  schools,  even  Ameri- 
can religion.  But  what  is  uniquely  American  in 
.American  literature?  Poe  is  just  as  .American  as 
Mark  Twain ;  Lanier  is  just  as  American  as  Whit- 
tier.  .  .  .  The  ideas  at  work  among  these  English 
men  of  letters  are  world-encircling  and  fly  between 
book  and  brain.  The  dominant  power  is  on  the 
British  Islands,  and  the  prevailing  stream  of  in- 
fluence flows  west  across  the  .Atlantic.  Sometimes 
it  turns  and  runs  the  other  way.  Poe  influenced 
Rossetti;  Whitman  influenced  Henley.  .  .  .  For  a 
century  Cooper  has  been  in  command  of  the  Brit- 
ish literary  marine.  .  .  .  The  catholicity  of  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature  transcends  the  tem- 
poral boundaries  of  States. 

"What,  then,  of  the  'provincialism'  of  the  Ameri- 
can province  of  the  empire  of  British  literature? 
Is  it  an  observable  general  characteristic,  and  is  it 
a  virtue  or  a  vice?  There  is  a  sense  in  which 
.American  literature  is  not  provincial  enough.  .  .  . 
The  welcome  that  we  gave  Whitman  betrays  the 
lack  of  an  admirable  kind  of  provincialism ;  it 
shows  us  defective  in  local  security  of  judgment. 
Some  of  us  have  been  so  anxiously  abashed  by 
high  standards  of  European  culture  that  we  could 
not  see  a  poet  in  our  own  back  yard  until  Euro- 
pean poets  and  critics  told  us  he  was  there.  This 
is  queerly  contradictory  to  a  disposition  found  in 
some  .Americans  to  disregard  world  standards  and 
proclaim  a  third  rate  poet  as  the  Milton  of  Osh- 
kosh  or  the  Shelley  of  San  Francisco.  ...  Of  pro- 


306 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Colonial 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


vincialism  of  the  narrowest  type  American  writers, 
like  other  men  of  imagination,  are  not  guilty  to 
any  reprehensible  degree.  It  is  a  vice  sometimes 
imputed  to  them  by  provincial  critics  who  view 
literature  from  the  office  of  a  London  weekly  re- 
view or  from  the  lecture  rooms  of  American  col- 
leges. Some  American  writers  are  parochial,  for 
e.xample,  Whittier.  Others,  like  Mr.  Henry  James, 
are  provincial  in  outlook,  but  cosmopolitan  in 
experience,  and  reveal  their  provinciality  by  a  self- 
conscious  internationalism." — J.  Macy,  Spirit  oj 
American  literature,  cli.   i, 

1607-1740. — Colonial  literature. — "An  instruc- 
tive impression  of  the  character  of  Hterature  in 
America  during  the  seventeenth  century  may  be 
derived  from  a  glance  at  the  titles  recorded  in  Mr. 
Whitcomb's  'Chronological  Outlines.'  Speaking 
roughly, — and  in  considerations  like  this  minute 
precision  is  of  little  importance, — we  may  say  that 
out  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifteen  of  these 
titles  one  hundred  and  ten  deal  with  matters  which 
may  unquestionably  be  described  as  religious,  and 
that  of  these  all  but  one  name  books  produced  in 
New  England.  The  next  most  considerable  class  of 
writings  includes  matters  which  may  be  called 
historical  or  biographical,  beginning  with  'The 
True  Relation'  of  Captain  John  Smith, — a  work 
hardly  to  be  included  in  any  classification  of 
American  literature  which  should  not  equally  in- 
clude M.  de  Tocqueville's  study  of  our  democracy 
and  Mr.  Bryce's  of  our  contemporary  common- 
wealth; this  list  also  includes  such  biographies  as 
those  of  Cotton  Mather,  whose  main  purpose  was 
quite  as  religious  as  it  was  biographical.  Out  of 
fifty-five  titles  thus  comprehensively  grouped, 
thirty-seven  are  of  New  England  origin ;  the  other 
eighteen,  including  the  separate  works  of  Captain 
John  Smith,  come  either  from  Virginia  or  from 
the  middle  colonies.  Twenty  of  Mr.  Whitcomb's 
titles,  including  such  things  as  'The  Freeman's 
Oath,'  of  163Q,  said  to  have  been  the  first  product 
of  the  press  in  the  United  States,  may  be  called 
political ;  only  three  of  these  twenty  are  not  from 
New  England.  Of  nineteen  other  titles,  including 
almanacs  and  works  of  scientific  character,  which 
may  best  be  classified  with  miscellanies,  all  but 
two  originated  in  this  same  region.  Finally  there 
are  nine  titles  to  which  the  name  of  literature 
may  properly  be  applied,  if  under  the  head  of 
literature  one  include  not  only  the  poems  of  that 
tenth  Muse,  Mrs.  Anne  Bradstrect,  but  the  'Bay 
Psalm  Book,'  and  so  pervasively  theological  a 
poem  as  Michael  Wigglesworth's  'Day  of  Doom,' 
and  the  first  version  of  the  'New  England  Primer.' 
Of  the  nine  books  thus  recorded  only  Sundays's 
translation  of  Ovid  did  not  proceed  directly  from 
Itew  England.  Now,  the  men  who  founded  the 
colonies  of  Virginia  and  of  New  England  were  on 
the  one  hand  men  of  action,  and  on  the  other,  men 
of  God.  It  is  precisely  such  matter  as  their  Eliza- 
bethan prototypes  left  in  books  now  remembered 
only  as  material  for  history  that  the  fathers  of 
America  produced  throughout  the  first  century  of 
our  national  inexperience." — B.  Wendell,  Literary 
history  oj  America,  ch.  4.,  pp.  35-37. 

1750-1861. — Development  of  American  drama. 
— "It  is  possible  to  trace  in  the  development  of 
the  drama  in  this  country  before  the  Civil  War 
certain  fairly  distinct  periods.  The  first  ends  with 
the  closing  of  the  theatres  in  1774  and  has  as  its 
principal  event  the  production  of  The  Prince  oj 
Parthia  in  1767.  The  second,  from  1774  to  1787, 
includes  the  Revolutionary  satirists  and  is  a  tran- 
sition period.  The  third  begins  with  the  produc- 
tion of  The  Contrast  in  1787  and  closes  with  the 
termination  of  Dunlap's  first  period  of  managership 


in  1805.  It  was  a  period  of  tentative  effort,  partly 
under  the  influence  of  German  and  French  models. 
The  fourth  period  from  1805  to  1825  is  one  of 
development,  with  considerable  native  effort,  but 
still  largely  under  foreign  influence,  both  English 
and  Continental.  The  fifth  was  a  significant  and 
creative  period,  from  1825  to  the  Civil  War,  with 
its  climax  in  Francesca  da  Rimini  in  1855.  This 
development  was  interrupted  naturally  by  the  Civil 
War.  What  would  have  been  its  course  had  the 
war  not  occurred  it  is  perhaps  fruitless  to  speculate. 
There  were  signs  of  a  quickening  of  dramatic  in- 
terest in  the  late  fifties  under  the  encouragement  of 
such  managers  as  Lester  Wallack  and  Laura  Keene; 
but  the  domination  of  the  stage  by  Dion  Boucicault 
and  John  Brougham,  while  it  resulted  in  some  sig- 
nificant plays,  especially  in  a  later  period,  was 
not  an  unmixed  blessing  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  production  of  American  drama.  The  dram- 
atization of  English  and  French  novels  with  re- 
sultant long  runs;  indeed  the  very  success  of  Bou- 
cicault's  original  dramas,  made  for  conditions  in 
which  the  work  of  new  play-wrights  became  less 
in  demand.  The  old  days  in  which  a  manager  was 
willing  to  put  on  a  play  for  a  few  nights  were 
going  fast,  and  with  them  went  our  early  drama. 
That  its  significance  in  the  history  of  our  litera- 
ture has  never  been  appreciated  is  due  largely  per- 
haps to  the  fact  that  some  of  its  most  important 
monuments  are  still  unprinted.  But  of  its  signifi- 
cance both  in  itself  and  for  the  later  drama  there 
is  no  shadow  of  doubt." — W.  P.  Trent,  History  oj 
American  literature,  p.  231  ct  seg. 

1775-1789. —  Revolutionary  period. —  "A  wide 
reader  of  Colonial  literature  notes  two  general 
characteristics:  its  narrowness  and  its  isolation. 
Almost  every  writer  dwells  apart  from  the  world; 
his  book  is  as  a  voice  crying  in  the  wilderness; 
and  life  seems  to  him  only  a  pilgrimage,  a  brief 
day  of  preparation  for  eternity.  Hence  poetry, 
history  and  biography  are  all  alike  theological,  that 
is,  they  interpret  the  human  in  terms  of  the  divine 
life.  In  Revolutionary  literature  there  is  no  isola- 
tion, but  rather  a  splendid  sense  of  comradeship, 
strong  and  loyal.  When  the  Colonies  draw  near 
together,  after  the  Stamp  Act,  they  find  themselves 
one  in  spirit.  Otis  and  Henry  voice  the  thought 
and  feeling  of  a  multitude;  Hamilton  and  Jeffer- 
son appeal  not  only  to  the  new  nation  but  to  the 
men  of  every  land  who  have  pondered  the  problems 
of  democracy.  Even  in  the  satires  of  Freneau,  in 
the  ballads  of  Hopkinson  against  the  Tories,  and 
of  Odell  against  the  Patriots,  there  is  no  sense  of 
solitariness;  for  each  writer  is  but  the  voice  of 
a  great  party  which  cherishes  the  same  ideals  and 
follows  the  same  leader.  As  American  literature 
thus  emerges  from  its  isolation,  we  note  instantly 
that  it  has  become  more  practical,  more  worldly, 
more  intent  on  solving  the  problems  of  the  present 
than  of  the  future  life.  In  nearly  all  books  of 
the  period  the  center  of  interest  shifts  from  heaven 
to  earth;  theology  gives  way  to  politics;  and  the 
spiritual  yearnings  of  an  earlier  age,  which  reached 
a  climax  in  Jonathan  Edwards,  are  replaced  by  the 
shrewd,  practical  'philosophy  of  common  sense,' 
with  Benjamin  Franklin  as  its  chief  apostle.  Not 
only  the  spirit  but  the  form  also  of  literature  is 
changed  in  the  Revolutionary  period.  The  great 
social  movement  which  we  have  outlined  gave 
rise  to  numerous  newspapers  and  magazines,  with 
their  poems,  satires,  essays,  stories, — a  bright  and 
varied  array  compared  with  the  Colonial  product. 
More  significant  of  the  new  social  life  are  the 
crude  plays  of  Royall  Tyler  and  William  Dunlap, 
which  were  immensely  popular  in  the  new  play- 
houses,   and    the    romances    of    Charles   Brockden 


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The 

Novel 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Brown,  which  at  the  close  of  this  period  mark 
the  beginning  of  the  American  novel.  Just  as  the 
new  social  life  brought  forth  this  ephemeral  writ- 
ing— a  kind  of  literature  of  amusement,  to  be  en- 
joyed to-day  and  forgotten  to-morrow — so  the 
various  political  movements  had  each  its  distinctive 
form  of  literary  expression.  The  years  following 
the  obnoxious  Stamp  .^ct  saw  the  beginning  of  that 
brilliant  oratory  which  was,  and  still  is,  one  of 
the  great  molding  influences  in  American  Ufe  and 
literature.  The  strife  of  Whigs  and  Tories  is  mir- 
rored in  a  host  of  ballads,  songs  and  satires  in 
verse;  and  the  struggle  between  Federalists  and 
Anti-Federalists  over  the  Constitution  produced, 
in  the  writings  of  John  Adams,  Washington,  Madi- 
son, Jay,  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  and  many  others,  a 
new  form  of  political  writing,  the  first  true  litera- 
ture of  Democracy,  which  had  influence  far  beyond 
the  borders  of  the  American  nation. 

"If  the  lonely  Colonial  writers  impress  us  as 
voices  crying  in  the  wilderness,  the  Revolutionary 
authors  seem  like  men  speaking  in  a  great  as- 
sembly ;  and  their  words  have  power  because  they 
voice  the  thought  and  aspiration  of  a  multitude. 
For  a  new  problem  has  been  suddenly  thrust  upon 
the  Colonies  by  the  Revolution.  It  is  the  problem 
of  forming  one  union  out  of  many  states,  of  mak- 
ing one  government  out  of  many  factions,  of 
bringing  a  multitude  of  all  sorts  and  conditions  of 
men  into  national  peace  and  harmony.  Hence  the 
orators  and  prose  writers,  if  they  are  to  help  solve 
that  mighty  problem,  must  appeal  to  the  love  of 
freedom  and  the  sense  of  justice  which  lie  deep  in 
the  hearts  of  men ;  they  must  emphasize  ideals 
which  are  acknowledged  by  rich  and  poor,  wise 
and  ignorant,  and,  like  Bradford,  they  must  have 
an  eye  single  to  the  truth  in  all  things.  That  they 
felt  their  responsibility,  that  they  used  voice  and 
pen  nobly  in  the  service  of  the  nation,  is  evident 
enough  to  one  who  reads  even  a  part  of  the  prose 
literature  appearing  between  Henry's  impassioned 
'Liberty  or  Death'  speech  and  Washington's  calm 
and  noble  'Farewell  Address'  to  his  people.  Clear- 
ness, force,  restraint ;  here  a  touch  of  humor,  when 
the  crowd  must  be  coaxed;  there  a  sudden  exalta- 
tion of  soul,  when  the  old  Saxon  ideal  of  liberty 
is  presented, — all  the  elements  of  a  fine  prose 
style  are  manifest;  but  it  is  not  so  much  the  form 
as  the  substance  that  appeals  to  us,  and  especially 
the  greatheartedness  of  the  Revolutionary  writers. 
They  gave  the  world  the  first  example  of  what 
has  been  well  called  'citizen  literature,'  that  is,  the 
expression  of  the  ideals  of  a  whole  commonwealth, 
and  to  this  day  their  work  remains  unrivaled  in 
its  own  political  field.  This  Revolutionary  prose 
belongs  largely  to  the  'literature  of  knowledge' 
and  is  seldom  found  in  literary  .textbooks;  but  it 
is  well  to  remember  two  things  concerning  it:  that 
it  began  with  our  national  Ufe ;  and  that  it  re- 
flects a  strong,  original  and  creative  impulse  of 
the  American  mind.  It  was  as  if  Democracy,  si- 
lent for  untold  ages,  had  at  last  found  a  voice, 
and  the  voice  spoke,  not  doubtfully,  fearfully,  but 
in  trumpet  tones  of  prophecy.  It  gave  the  startled 
old  world  something  new  and  vital  to  think  about; 
and  it  is  quite  as  remarkable  in  its  way  as  are  the 
forest  and  sea  romances  of  Cooper,  which  sur- 
prised and  delighted  all  Europe  a  half  century 
later." — W.  J.  Long,  American  literature,  p.  92-qg. 
— "Springing  from  a  common  stock,  the  two 
branches  of  eighteenth-century  English  literature 
showed  many  similarities.  The  charge  of  imita- 
tion and  even  of  plagiarism  has  been  brought 
against  the  American  writers  of  that  period;  but 
it  seems  in  no  way  unsafe  to  point  to  the  single 
origin  as  the  probable  cause  of  the  same  character- 


istics appearing  in  the  literature  produced  here, 
and  that  produced  in  the  mother-country.  No  one 
can  deny,  of  course,  that  not  a  few  of  our  au- 
thors went  to  school  to  Englishmen,  but  the  asser- 
tion that  America  until  recently  has  produced 
nothing  but  pinchbeck  literature  is  as  false  as  it 
is  absurd.  That  like  produces  like  may  be  a  trite 
saying,  but  its  frequent  repetition  does  not  impair 
its  truth.  The  English  mind,  whether  expressing 
itself  at  home  or  in  the  colonies,  naturally  put 
forth  the  same  kind  of  shoots:  that  their  develop- 
ment was  not  in  all  respects  equally  rapid,  that 
in  time  they  became  so  much  unlike  as  to  appear 
unrelated,  can  be  traced,  no  doubt,  to  the  un- 
sheltered fortune  of  the  American  scion  in  early 
days,  and  to  the  complete  removal  of  the  slip 
from  the  parent  stem  in  after-years.  With  this 
thought  in  mind,  the  most  thorough-going  Ameri- 
can may  admit,  without  apologetic  reserve,  that 
the  essayists  of  eighteenth-century  England  have 
counterparts  in  Irving  and  certain  of  his  contem- 
poraries, and  that  those  of  a  slightly  later  date 
have  much  in  common  with  Emerson  and  Thoreau. 
Should  one  feel,  however,  that  excusable  pride  is 
to  be  taken  only  in  those  authors  who  exhibit 
qualities  indigenous  to  America,  one  may  trium- 
phantly mention  Warner,  and  Lowell,  and  Mar- 
garet Fuller;  for,  although  these  essayists  show 
the  racial  instinct  of  English  writers,  they  are 
none  the  less  emphatically  American  in  thought, 
tone,  and  expression." — F.  Stanton,  ed.,  Manual  of 
American   literature,   p.   321. 

1790-1860. — New  tendencies. — Cooper  and  the 
novel. — Bryant  and  the  new  poetry. — Poe,  Haw- 
thorne and  the  short  atory. — -"Aside  from  oratory 
and  politics,  in  spite  of  the  early  literary  superiority 
of  the  Puritan,  the  foundations  of  our  really  na- 
tional literature  were  laid  in  the  Middle  States. 
Poetry  really  found  its  voice,  not  in  the  pretentious 
efforts  of  the  New  En^landers,  Barlow,  Trumbull, 
or  Dwight,  but  in  the  verse  of  the  Philadelphian 
William  Clifton,  or  yet  more  indubitably  in  a  few 
lyrics  of  the  New  Jersey  poet  Philip  Freneau.  In 
romance,  through  the  stories  of  Charles  Brockden 
Brown,  the  Middle  States  were  not  only  in  advance 
of  the  rest  of  the  country,  but  were  practically 
without  a  rival.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  century 
the  leadership  of  the  middle  region  of  the  country 
became  even  more  marked,  and  in  that  great  sec- 
tion New  York  succeeded  Philadelphia  as  a  literary 
center.  .  .  .  From  the  literary  advent  of  Irving  in 
1807  to  the  decisive  entrance  of  Longfellow  and 
Emerson  about  1S36,  the  work  of  our  greatest  men 
of  letters  was  centered  in  New  York.  Two  of  our 
then  most  famous  authors,  Irving  and  Cooper,  were 
sons  of  the  Middle  States;  the  third,  Bryant,  chose 
New  York  city  as  the  sphere  of  his  literary  career. 
Besides  the  greater  lights,  there  were  many  others  of 
lesser  magnitude.  Althou  h  our  literature  thus  had, 
for  the  time,  its  center  in  New  York,  it  must  not  be 
inferred  that  other  parts  of  the  country  were  en- 
tirely unproductive.  While  New  England  could 
boast  of  no  writers  comparable  to  those  in  the 
Middle  States,  we  note  the  signs  of  the  great  litei^ 
ary  awakening  of  New  England  which  was  near  at 
hand.  ...  A  new  spirit,  the  realization  of  the 
beautiful,  was  softening  the  crude  but  intense  and 
vigorous  intellect  of  the  Puritan." — H.  S.  Pancoast, 
Introduction  to  American  literature,  pt.  Ill,  ch.  i. 

"After  the  Revolution  the  novel-reading  habit 
grew,  fostered  by  American  publishers  and  cried  out 
against  by  many  moralists  whose  cries  appeared  in 
magazines  side  by  side  with  moral  tales.  Nearly 
every  grade  of  sophistication  applied  itself  to  the 
problem.  It  was  contested  that  novels  were  lies; 
that   they  served  no  virtuous  purpose ;   that  they 


308 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


New  Poetry 
Bryant 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


melted  rigorous  minds;  that  they  crowded  out  bet- 
ter books;  that  they  painted  adventure  too  roman- 
tic and  love  too  vehement,  and  so  unfitted  readers 
for  solid  reality ;  that,  dealing  with  European  man- 
ners, they  tended  to  confuse  and  dissatisfy  republi- 
can youth.  In  the  face  of  such  censure,  native  nov- 
elists appeared  late  and  apologetically,  armed  for  the 
most  part  with  the  triple  plea  that  the  tale  was  true, 
the  tendency  heavenward,  and  the  scene  devoutly 
American.  Before  1800  the  sweeping  philippic  of 
the  older  school  had  been  forced  to  share  the  field 
of  criticism  with  occasional  efforts  to  distinguish 
good  novels  from  bad.  No  critical  game  was  more 
frequently  played  than  that  which  compared  Field- 
ing and  Richardson.  Fielding  got  some  robust 
preference,  Smollett  had  his  imitators,  and  Sterne 
fathered  much  'sensibility,'  but  until  Scott  had 
definitely  set  a  new  mode  for  the  world,  the  potent 
influence  in  American  fiction  was  Richardson.  .  .  . 
The  amiable  ladies  who  produced  most  of  these 
early  novels  commonly  held,  like  Mrs.  Rowson, 
that  their  knowledge  of  life  had  been  'simply 
gleaned  from  pure  nature,'  because  they  dealt  with 
facts  which  had  come  under  their  own  observation, 
but  like  other  amateurs  they  saw  in  nature  what  art 
had  assured  them  would  be  there.  Nature  and 
Richardson  they  found  the  same.  Whatever  bias 
they  gave  this  Richardsonian  universe  was  due  to 
a  pervading  consciousness  of  the  sex  which  read 
their  novels.  The  result  was  a  highly  domestic 
world,  limited  in  'outlook,  where  the  talk  was  of 
careless  husbands,  grief  for  dead  children,  the  peril 
of  many  childbirths,  the  sentiment  and  the  religion 
which  enabled  women  to  endure  their  sex's  des- 
tiny. Over  all  hangs  the  furious  menace  of  the 
seducer,  who  appears  in  such  multitudes  that  one 
can  defend  the  age  only  by  blaming  its  brutality 
less  than  the  pathetic  example  of  Clarissa  Harlowe. 
Thus  early  did  the  American  novel  acquire  the 
permanent  background  of  neutral  domestic  fiction 
against  which  the  notable  figures  stand  out." — Cam- 
bridge history  of  American  literature,  p.  284,  et  seq. 
—"In  1820,  American  literature,  so  far  as  it  has 
survived,  consisted  of  the  novels  of  Brockden 
Brown  then  ten  years  dead,  and  of  Irving's  Sketch 
Book,  which  had  begun  to  appear  the  year  before. 
Apart  from  these  works,  what  had  been  produced 
in  this  country  was  so  obviously  imitative  as  to  ex- 
press only  a  sense  on  the  part  of  our  numerous  writ- 
ers that  they  ought  to  copy  the  eminent  authors  of 
England.  In  1S20  appeared  the  first  work  of  a 
new  novelist,  soon  to  attain  not  only  permanent 
reputation  in  America,  but  also  European  recogni- 
tion. This  was  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (lySg- 
1851).  His  first  novel  was  Precaution,  his  second 
The  Spy,  published  the  following  year.  When 
The  Spy  was  published,  the  novels  of  Brockden 
Brown  were  already  almost  forgotten;  and  Irving 
had  produced  only  the  Knickerbocker  History  and 
the  admirable  essays  of  his  Sketch  Book.  The 
Spy  is  an  historical  novel  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution. ...  In  The  Pilot  .  .  .  instead  of  laying 
the  scene  on  American  soil.  Cooper  lays  it  for  the 
first  time  in  literature  on  board  an  American  ship. 
.  .  .  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  published  in  1826, 
is  probably  the  best  [of  the  Leatherstocking  sto- 
ries]. .  .  .  These  are,  in  their  order  as  successive 
chapters  in  the  life  of  their  hero:  The  Deer  slayer 
(1841);  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  (1826);  The 
Pathfinder  (1840);  The  Pioneers  (1823);  The 
Prairie  (1827).  .  .  . 

"The  three  writers  .  .  .  Brockden  Brown,  Ir- 
ving, and  Cooper — were  the  only  Americans  who 
between  1708  and  1832  achieved  lasting  names  in 
prose.  Though  they  form  no  school,  though  they 
are  very  different  from  one  another,  two  or  three 


things  may  be  said  of  them  in  common.  They  all 
developed  in  the  Middle  States,  the  names  of  all 
are  associated  with  the  chief  city  of  that  region, 
New  York.  The  most  significant  work  of  all  as- 
sumes a  form  which  in  the  general  history  of  litera- 
ture comes  not  early  but  late, — prose  fiction.  .  .  . 
This  prose  .  .  .  was  the  most  important  literature 
produced  in  New  York,  or  indeed  in  America,  dur- 
ing the  period.  .  .  ." — B.  Wendell  and  C.  N.  Green- 
ough.  History  of  literature  in  America,  pp.  148,  151- 

152,  156-157- 

"By  1851  there  were,  or  had  been,  many  hovel- 
ists  whose  names  could  find  place  only  in  .an  ex- 
tended account  of  American  fiction:  writers  of 
adventure  stories  more  sensational  than  Simms's 
or  of  moral  stories  more  obvious  than  Miss  Sedg- 
wick's and  Mrs.  Childs's,  authors  for  children, 
authors  preaching  causes,  authors  celebrating  fash- 
ionable or  Bohemian  life  in  New  York.  Not  only 
regular  novels  and  romances  but  briefer  tales  mul- 
tiplied. The  period  which  could  boast  in  Cooper 
but  one  novelist  of  first  rank  could  show  three  such 
tale-tellers  as  Irving,  Hawthorne,  and  Poe.  The 
annuals  and  maga^^ines  met  the  demand  for  such 
amusement  and  fostered  it,  but  the  novel  was  en- 
couraged more  than  it  was  hurt  by  the  new  type. 
Prose  fiction,  in  fact,  though  somewhat  late  in 
starting,  had  firmly  established  itself  in  the  United 
States  by  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  Cooper, 
followed  in  Great  Britain  by  the  nautical  romancers, 
and  on  the  Continent  by  such  writers  about  wild 
life  as  Karl  Anton  Postl  ('Charles  Sealsfield'),  Fried- 
rich  Gerstacker,  and  Gustave  Aimard,  and  every- 
where read,  had  become  a  world  figure." — Cam- 
bridge history  of  American  literature,  p.  284,  el  seq. 

"Our  earlier  poets,  that  is,  [those  who  came]  im- 
mediately after  the  Revolution,  but  a.'ain,  and 
especially,  after  the  War  of  181 2,  had  confirmed 
our  sense  of  national  solidarity,  are  much  given 
to  the  utterance  of  their  patriotism.  .  .  .  Key's 
'Star-Spangled  Banner'  (1814),  conceived  at  the 
close  of  the  second  war,  antedates  'The  American 
Flag'  (1819)  of  Drake  by  but  five  years;  these 
two,  with  Hopkinson's  'Hail  Columbia'  (i7g8),  and 
'America'  (1832),  the  well-known  hymn  by  S.  F. 
Smith,  whatever  their  relative  or  obsolute  merits 
as  literature,  remain  our  most  cherished  national 
poems," — L.  Cooper,  Poets,  in  T.  Stanton,  Manual 
of  American  literature,  pp.  244-245. 

"William  Cullen  Bryant  is  designated  by  Eng- 
jiishmen  as  the  first  American  poet,  and  the 
Americans  are  not  disinclined  to  subscribe  to  that 
judgment.  And  since  the  poem  Thanatopsis,  upon 
which  this  judgment  is  based,  appeared  in  1S17, 
that  year  is  straightway  designated  as  the  natal 
year  of  American  poetry.  This  sort  of  criticism 
and  literary  history  presupposes  iron-bound  rules 
of  literary  jesthetics.  For  the  present,  such  r"o  not 
exist  for  us.  One  cannot,  therefore,  go  so  far  as 
to  annihilate  at  a  stroke  the  whole  of  the  some- 
what ample  body  of  poetry  before  Bryant."  Among 
poets  of  this  period  should  be  mentioned  Philip 
Freneau  (1752-1832),  John  Trumbull  (1752-1831), 
J.  H.  Payne  (1791-1852)  author  of  "Home  Sweet 
Home,"  Fitz-Green  Halleck  (1700-1867),  Nathaniel 
Parker  Willis  (1806-1867),  and  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake  (1705-1820).  William  Cullen  Bryant  (1704- 
1878)  was  "by  far  the  most  eminent  man  of  let- 
ters in  our  chief  city  [New  York].  .  .  .  His  first 
published  work — a  very  precocious  one  .  .  .  — had 
appeared  before  Brockden  Brown  died.  .  .  .  Inci- 
dentally, Bryant  was  for  a  full  half-century  at  the 
head  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  ...  a  news- 
paper in  which  from  beginning  to  end  the  editor 
could  feel  honest  pride.  As  a  journalist,  indeed. 
.  Bryant  belongs  to  [a  later  time].  ...  As  a  poet,- 


309 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE  p^^  ^^°'''^j°'^>^^^^g  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


however, — and  it  is  as  a  poet  that  we  are  consid- 
ering him  here, — he  belongs  to  the  earliest  period 
of  American  letters." — B.  Wendell  and  C.  N.  Green- 
ough,  History  oj  literature  in  America,  p.  159. 
— "When  'Thanatopsis'  was  submitted  by  the 
poet's  father  to  The  North  American  Review  (in 
1817),  people  would  hardly  believe  that  such  an 
exalted  strain  had  been  conceived  outside  of  Eng- 
land. .  .  .  'To  a  waterfowl'  was  published  with 
several  other  poems,  including  'Thanatopsis,'  in 
1821.  ,  .  .  By  1S32  he  was  ready  to  publish  an- 
other edition  of  his  'Poems,'  adding  more  than 
eighty  pieces  that  were  new — notably,  the  'Forest 
Hymn,'  the  'Song  of  Marion's  Men,'  and  'The 
Death  of  the  Flowers.'  At  intervals  of  a  few  years 
.  .  .  other  editions  or  volumes  followed.  .  .  .  The 
achievement  of  Bryant's  declining  years  was  his 
translation  of  Homer." — L.  Cooper,  Poets,  in  T. 
Stanton,  Manual  oj  American  literature,  pp.  257- 
260. — "His  work  was  really  the  first  which  proved 
to  England  what  native  American  poetry  might  be. 
The  old  world  was  looking  for  some  wild  mani- 
festation of  this  new,  hardly  apprehended,  western 
democracy.  Instead,  what  it  found  in  Bryant,  the 
one  poetic  contemporary  of  Irving  and  Cooper 
whose  writings  have  lasted,  was  fastidious  over- 
refinement,  tender  sentimentality,  and  pervasive 
luminosity.  ...  In  its  beginning  the  .American  lit- 
erature of  the  nineteenth  century  was  marked 
rather  by  delicacy  than  by  strength,  by  palpable 
consciousness  of  personal  distinction  rather  than 
by  any  such  outburst  of  previously  unphrased 
emotion  as  on  general  principles  democracy  might 
have  been  e.xpected  to  excite." — B.  Wendell,  Lit- 
erary history  oj  America,  p.  203. — "After  Bryant 
it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  a  few  poets,  very 
different  from  him,  and  for  the  most  part  from 
each  other,  whose  contemporaneous  presence  in 
New  York  is  almost  the  only  thing  that  con- 
nects them."  Among  these  are  John  G.  Saxe 
(1816-1887),  Herman  Melville  (i8ig-i8gi),  Alice 
Cary  (1820-1871),  and  her  sister  Phcebe  (1824- 
1871).  "We  turn  to  a  number  of  writers 
whose  careers  are  to  be  more  closely  identified 
with  New  England.  Many  of  these,  like  Rich- 
ard Henry  Dana,  senior  (1787-1870),  of  Boston 
were  only  poets  secondarily.  Dana  was  a  jour- 
nalist and  a  politician."  Others  are  Sprague,  Hill- 
house,  Pierpont,  Warren.  "The  same  genera- 
tion produced  several  women  of  note,  whose 
poetry  demands  some  attention ;  in  particular, 
Lydia  Huntley  Sigoumey  (1701-1865)."  —  L. 
Cooper,  Poets,  in  T.  Stanton,  Manual  oj  Ameri- 
can literature,  pp.  262-265. — Edgar  Allan  Poe 
(1809-1840)  figures  in  American  literature  both  as 
poet  and  prose-writer.  He  it  was  who  developed 
the  short  story  to  its  highest  perfection.  "Born 
fifteen  years  later  than  Bryant  and  dead  twenty- 
nine  years  earlier,  Poe  .  .  .  seems  to  belong  to 
an  earlier  period  of  our  letters;  but  really,  as 
we  have  seen,  Bryant's  principal  work  was  done 
before  1832." — B.  Wendell  and  C.  N.  Greenough, 
History  oj  literature  in  .imerica,  p.  171. — "In  Bos- 
ton in  1827  he  had  published  a  thin  little  book 
called  'Tamerlane  and  Other  Poems.  .  .  .  Two 
years  later  in  Baltimore  he  had  published  what 
was  really  an  enlargement  of  this  first  venture. 
.  .  .  He  began  to  write  short-stories;  and  one  of 
these,  a  tale  of  striking  vigor  and  novelty,  the 
'MS.  found  in  a  Bottle,'  won  him  a  .  .  .  prize.  .  .  . 
At  last  in  1835,  one  of  [his!  friends  got  him  the 
post  of  assistant  editor  of  the  Southern  Literary 
Messenger.  .  .  .  Poe  printed  in  it  his  own  poems 
and  short-stories,  and  thus  began  to  make  himself 
known  as  an  imaginative  writer  of  strange  orig- 
inality  and  power.     As  a  critic  also   he  revealed 


unexpected  strength.  .  .  .  After  leaving  Richmond 
Poe  published,  in  1S38,  the  'Narrative  of  Arthur 
Gordon  Pym,  and  ...  in  1840  .  .  .  the  'Tales  of 
the  Grotesque  and  the  Arabesque,'  the  most  origi- 
nal collections  of  short-stories  written  by  any 
American  author.  ...  As  a  writer  his  reputation 
steadily  rose."  The  "Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue," 
the  "(iold  Bug,"  and  other  stories,  as  well  as  the 
"Raven"  and  other  poems,  added  to  his  in- 
creasing fame.  "By  long  study  he  had  made 
himself  a  master  of  the  tcchnic  of  verse,  and  he 
combined  with  extraordinary  skill  all  the  effects  to 
be  derived  from  lilting  rhythm,  intricate  rhyme, 
artful  repetition,  and  an  aptly  chosen  refrain.  He 
bent  words  to  do  his  bidding,  and  he  made  his 
verse  so  melodious  that  it  had  almost  the  charm  of 
music." — B.  Matthews,  Introduction  to  American 
literature,  pp.  85-86,  00-03. — In  1S37  Nathanial 
Hawthorne  published  his  "Twice-Told  Tales."  "Af- 
ter the  publication  of  this  collection  of  short- 
stories,  Hawthorne  ceased  to  be  what  he  once 
called  himself,  'the  obscurest  man  of  letters  in 
■America.'  ...  It  was  five  years  before  his  next 
book  was  published.  ...  In  1846  [he  published] 
'Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse.'  .  .  .  [HeJ  was  forty- 
six  when  he  sent  forth  the  'Scarlet  Letter'  in 
1850.  With  the  striking  exception  of  'Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,'  no  American  work  of  fiction  has  had  the 
quick  and  lasting  popularity  of  the  'Scarlet  Letter.' 
.  .  .  The  'House  of  Seven  Gables'  was  published  in 
1851." — Ibid.,  pp.  1 15-119. — Other  books  appeared 
in  following  years,  the  "Marble  Faun,"  the  last  to  be 
published  during  his  life-time,  appearing  in  i860. 

1830-1845. — Period  of  New  England  leader- 
ship. —  Oratory.  —  Humanitarian  movements.  — 
"From  about  1830-40  New  England  entered  upon 
a  long  period  of  literary  supremacy.  The  in- 
tellectual awakening  which  preceded  and  accom- 
panied this  literary  period  began  in  Boston  and  its 
vicinity,  and  Boston  rapidly  distanced  New  York 
as  a  literary  center,  as  New  York  had  distanced 
Philadelphia.  Between  1826  and  1S40  nearly  all 
of  the  great  New  England  writers  of  this  period 
had  definitely  begun  their  work.  Longfellow 
published  his  first  collection  of  poems  in  1826. 
Holmes  began  his  work  in  1827,  and  Hawthorne 
in  1828.  Emerson,  Prescott,  Lowell,  Whittier,  and 
Motley  all  followed  between  1830  and  1840.  The 
expression  of  the  New  England  mind  in  the  works 
of  this  group  of  writers  constitutes,  as  a  whole, 
our  most  memorable  contribution  to  literature; 
it  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  lasting  achieve- 
ments of  our  American  civilization." — H.  H.  Pan- 
coast,  Introduction  to  .American  literature,  p.  160. 
• — "During  her  years  of  intellectual  leadership 
New  England  led  the  country  in  oratory  also,  and 
the  work  of  her  succession  of  great  orators  belongs, 
at  least  in  part,  to  literature.  We  have  said  that 
in  the  Revolutionary  period  and  during  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic  the  supremacy  in  ora- 
tory lay  with  the  South.  But  as  the  present  cen- 
tury advanced  and  the  country  passed  into  the 
shadow  of  those  anxious  years  when  sla- 
very threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  Union, 
it  was  New  England  that  gave  America,  in 
Daniel  Webster  (1782-1852),  her  greatest  orator. 
It  was  New  England  also  that  gave  us 
Edward  Everett  (1704-1865),  the  master  of  a 
finished  and  scholarly  eloquence;  Wendell  Phil- 
lips (1811-1884),  and  Charles  Sumner  (1811- 
1874),  the  orators  of  the  Abolitionists.  ...  As 
we  look  back  upon  the  work  of  these  great  ora- 
tors of  New  England  as  a  whole,  from  Web- 
ster to  Sumner  and  Phillips,  as  we  recall  its  ster- 
ling quality  and  its  incaluable  effects  upon  our  na- 
tional history,  we  see  that  it  was  by  no  means  the 


310 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE       Humanitarians       AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


least  important  part  of  New  England's  service  to 
the  country  at  large.    To  all  that  the  Puritan  gave 
us  we  add  this  also.     We  appreciate  that  in  those 
years  of  her   full  strength  New   England   not  only 
wrote  our  greatest  poetry,  our  best  histories,  and 
our    keenest    political    satire ;    that    she    not    only 
charmed  us  with  her  humor,  and  led  the  way  in 
scholarship,    but    that,    besides    all    this,    she   gave 
us  men  who,  in  a  time  of  national  uncertainty  and 
peril,   could   lead   opinions  and   control  events   by 
their  genius  for  speech." — Ibid.,  pi.  lll,cli.  2.  p.  230. 
"There  has  been   but   one  movement  in   the  his- 
tory  of   the   American   mind   which   has  given    to 
literature    a    group    of    writers    having    coherence 
enough  to  merit  the  name  of  a  school.     This  was 
the    great    humanitarian    movement,    or   series    of 
movements,  in  New  England,  which,  beginning  in 
the  Unitarianism  of  Channing,  ran  through  its  later 
phase    in     transcendentalism,    and    spent    its    last 
strength  in  the  anti-slavery  agitation  and  the  en- 
thusiasms  of    the    Civil    War.     The   second    stage 
of    this    intellectual    and    social    revolt    was    tran- 
scendentalism   .  .  .  Ralph   Waldo   Emerson    (1803- 
82)  was  the  prophet  of  the  sect,  and  Concord  was 
its  Mecca;  but  the  influence  of  the  new  ideas  was 
not  confined  to  the  little  group  of  professed  tran- 
scendentalists ;   it  extended  to  all  the  young  writ- 
ers  within   reach,    who   struck   their   roots    deeper 
into  the  soil   that  it  had  loosened  and   freshened. 
We  owe  to  it  in  great  measure,  not  merely  Emer- 
son, [A.  B.]  Alcott,  Margaret  Fuller,  and  Thoreau, 
but  Hawthorne,  Lowell,  Whittier,  and  Holmes.     In 
its  strictest  sense  transcendentalism  was  a  restate- 
ment of  the  idealistic  philosophy,  and  an  applica- 
tion   of    its    beliefs    to    religion,    nature,    and    life. 
But  in  a  looser  sense,  and  as  including  the  more 
outward    manifestations   which    drew    popular    at- 
tention the  most  strongly,  it  was  the  name  given 
to  that  spirit  of  dissent  and  protest,  of  universal 
inquiry   and   experiment,   which   marked  the   third 
and  fourth  decades  of  this  century  in  America,  and 
especially   in  New  England." — H.  A.   Beers,  Short 
hist,  of  Eng.  and  Amer.  literature,  pp.  gS-gb. — "In 
1836,  he  [Emerson]  put  forth  his  first  book,  'Na- 
ture,' and  the  next  year  he  delivered  an  oration  on 
'The  American  Scholar,'     Hitherto  little  had  hap- 
pened to  him   except   the  commonplaces   of   exist- 
ence;   thereafter,    though    his    life    remained    tran- 
quil, he   was  known   to   the   world   at   large.     He 
was  greeted  as  are  all  who  declare  a  new  doctrine ; 
welcomed   by   some,   abused   by    many,   misunder- 
stood by  most.     Proclaiming  the  value  of  self-re- 
liance,  Emerson    denounced   man's   slavery    to   his 
own  worldly  prosperity,  and  set  forth  at  once  the 
duty   and   the   pleasure  of   the   plain   living   which 
permits   high   thinking.  ...  He  never  put   himself 
forward;    and   yet   from   that   time   on   there   was 
no   denying   his   leadership   of   the   intellectual   ad- 
vance   of   the   United   States.      The   most   enlight- 
ened spirits  of  New  England  gathered  about  him; 
and  he  found  himself  in  the  center  of  the  vague 
movement   known   as  'Transcendentalism.'  ...  He 
edited  for  a  while  the  Dial,  a  magazine  for  which 
the    Transcendentalists    wrote,    and    which    existed 
from   1840  to   1844.     But  he  took  no  part  in  an 
experiment    of    communal    life    undertaken    by    a 
group  of  Transcendentalists  at   Brook  Farm   1841 
to   1847.  ...  In   1841   Emerson  published  his  first 
volume  of  his  'Essays';  and  he  sent  forth  a  second 
series    in    1844.      In   his   hands    the   essay    returns 
almost  to  the  form  of  Montaigne  and  Bacon;  it  is 
weighty  and  witty;  but  it  is  not  so  light  at  it  was 
with  Addison  and  Steele,  with  Goldsmith  and  Ir- 
ving.    He   indulged  in   fancies  sometimes,   and  he 
strove  to   take  his  readers  by  surprise,   to  startle 
them,  and  so  to  arouse  them  to  the  true  view  of 


life.  Nearly  all  his  essays  had  been  lectures,  and 
every  paragraph  had  been  tested  by  its  effect  upon 
an  audience.  Thus  the  weak  phrases  were  dis- 
carded one  by  one,  until  at  last  every  sentence, 
polished  by  wear,  rounded  to  a  perfect  sphere, 
went  to  the  mark  with  unerring  certainty.  .  .  . 
Emerson's  first  volume  of  'Poems'  was  published  in 
1846.  Ten  years  before  he  had  written  the  hymn 
sung  at  the  completion  of  the  monument  com- 
memorating the  Concord  fight.  .  .  .  This  is  one  of 
the  best,  and  one  of  the  best  known,  of  the  poems 
of  American  patriotism.  But  Emerson  cared  too  lit- 
tle for  form  often  to  write  so  perfect  a  poem.  .  .  . 
Following  Bryant,  Emerson  put  into  his  verse  na- 
ture as  he  saw  it  about  him — the  life  of  American 
woods  and  fields.  .  .  .  One  of  Emerson's  poems 
most  richly  laden  with  emotion  and  experience  is 
the  'Threnody,'  which  he  wrote  after  the  death  of 
his  first-born.  .  .  .  Certain  of  the  lectures  prepared 
for  delivery  in  England  supplied  the  material  for 
his  next  book — 'Representative  Men' — published  in 
1S50.  Only  two  of  Emerson's  books  have  any 
singleness  of  scheme,  and  this  is  one  of  them." — ■ 
B.  Matthews,  Introduction  to  the  study  of  Ameri- 
can  literature,   pp.   96,    100-103,   106. 

"While  several  of  those  who  composed  the  group 
of  Transcendental  thinkers  in  the  Concord  circle 
became  more  or  less  noted  either  for  eccentricity  or 
utterance,  the  most  remarkable  among  them  all, 
after  Emerson,  was  Henry  David  Thoreau  [1817- 
1862].  A  genuine  lover  of  nature — a  naturalist 
first  of  all — he  was  also  a  philosopher  and  a  poet, 
too,  although  a  crude  one.  .  .  .  His  acquaintance 
with  Emerson  began  early.  ...  In  1845  Thoreau 
built  for  himself  a  cabin  on  the  shore  of  Walden 
Pond,  and  here  for  two  years  he  lived.  ...  It  is 
this  experience  in  his  life  with  its  subsequent  record 
which  has  more  than  anything  else  aroused  interest 
in  the  personality  of  Thoreau.  .  .  .  Walden,  or  Life 
in  the  Woods,  contains  the  stor>'  and  the  thought 
of  these  two  years ;  it  reveals  Thoreau  at  his  best 
and  has  long  since  become  an  American  classic.  .  .  . 
An  earlier  volume  [1840]  .  .  .  was  .  .  .  A  Week 
on  the  Concord  and  Merrimac  Rivers.  His  journal 
was  .  .  .  drawn  up  by  others  after  his  death  .  .  . 
and  published.  .  .  .  Various  articles  by  Thoreau 
were  published  in  The  Dial  and,  through  the  friend- 
ship and  assistance  of  Horace  Greeley,  in  the  New 
York  magazines  as  well  as  in  the  Tribune  itself." — 
W.  E.  Simonds,  Student's  history  of  American  lit- 
erature, pp.   177-180,  1S2. 

"  'The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table'  [by  Oli- 
ver Wendell  Holmes]  has  already  given  evidence 
that  it  will  outlast  'Elsie  Venner'  and  'The  Guar- 
dian Angel';  yet  if  the  miscellanies  of  Dr.  Holmes 
(1809-04)  possess  more  vitality  than  his  novels, 
this  is  in  some  measure  due  to  the  'Autocrat's'  oc- 
casional employment  of  verse.  In  the  'Breakfast- 
Table'  series  appeared  'The  Chambered  Nautilus' 
and  'The  Wonderful  "One-Hoss  Shay," '  which, 
with  his  youthful  'Old  Ironsides,'  and  'The  Broom- 
stick Train,'  have  retained  the  firmest  hold  on  the 
popular  memory.  Holmes  was  pleased  to  trace  his 
ancestry  back  to  Anne  Bradstreet,  the  first  Ameri- 
can poetess.  His  own  poetry  commenced  with  a 
schoolboy  rendering  into  heroic  couplets  from  Vir- 
gil, and  hardly  ended  with  his  tribute  to  the  mem- 
ory of  Whittier  in  1S02.  In  the  standard  edition 
of  his  works  his  poems  occupy  three  volumes. 
Many  of  them,  corresponding  to  his  turn  for  the 
novel,  are  narrative;  for  story-telling  he  had  a 
knack  amounting  to  a  high  degree  of  talent.  His 
sense  of  order  and  proportion  is  stronger  than  that 
of  other  members  of  the  New  England  school,  and 
he  has  a  command  of  at  least  formal  structure. 
One    may    not    unreasonably    attribute    this   com- 


311 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Anti-slavery 
Movement 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


mand  in  part  to  his  studies  in  human  anatomy.  At 
the  same  time  Holmes  is  beset  with  the  temptation 
to  value  manner  and  brilliancy  rather  than  sub- 
stance, and  he  will  go  out  of  his  way  for  a  fanci- 
ful conceit  or  a  striking  expression.  In  the  use  of 
odds  and  ends  of  recondite  lore  his  cleverness  Is 
amazing.  He  had  a  tenacious  memory  and  a  habit 
of  rapid  association,  so  that  as  a  punster  he  is  al- 
most without  a  match.  However,  his  glance  is 
not  deeply  penetrating ;  he  sees  fantastic  resem- 
blances between  things  that  are  really  far  removed 
from  one  another,  not  so  often  the  fundamental 
similarities  in  things  whether  near  or  apart.  .  .  . 
A  constructive  criticism,  however,  will  lay  stress, 
not  on  his  inheritance  of  New  England  provin- 
cialism or  his  slight  tendency  to  be  flippant,  but 
on  his  kindliness,  his  inexhaustible  good  humour, 
his  quick  and  darting  intellectual  curiosity,  and 
on  the  appeal  which  his  sprightly  moralising  makes 
to  the  young.  It  is  not  a  little  thing  to  say  of 
a  wit  and  a  power  of  epigram  like  this  that  they 
were  ever  genial,  and  ever  on  the  side  of  some- 
thing better  than  a  merely  conventional  morality." 
— T.  Stanton,  Manual  of  American  literature,  pp. 
294-295;  207. 

1830-1890. — Antislavery  movement  and  Civil 
War.— "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."— Lincoln.— Whit- 
tier. —  Whitman. —  Longfellow. —  Lowell. —  Many 
of  the  early  "antislavery  men  did  some  of  their 
chief  work  when  the  cause  they  advocated  seemed 
far  from  public  favor.  We  come  to  a  book  pro- 
duced by  the  antislavery  movement,  which  sud- 
denly proved  that  movement  popular.  This  was 
Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe's  (1S12-1896)  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,  published  in  1852,  the  year  after 
Sumner  had  entered  the  Senate  from  Massachusetts, 
and  two  years  after  Webster's  Seventh  of  March 
speech.  ...  At  first  little  noticed,  this  book  rap- 
idly attracted  popular  attention.  During  the  next 
five  years  above  half  a  million  copies  were  sold  in 
the  United  States  alone;  and  it  is  hardly  excessive 
to  say  that  wherever  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  went, 
public  conscience  was  aroused.  Written  carelessly, 
and  full  of  crudities,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  remains  a 
remarkable  piece  of  fiction.  The  truth  is,  that  al- 
most unawares  Mrs.  Stowe  had  in  her  the  stuff  of 
which  good  novelists  are  made.  .  .  .  Should  any 
one  doubt  Mrs.  Stowe's  power  as  a  writer,  re- 
membering only  that  in  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  she 
achieved  a  great  popular  success,  partly  caused  by 
the  changing  public  opinion  of  her  day,  we 
need  only  glance  at  some  of  her  later  work  to  make 
sure  that  she  had  in  her  a  power  which,  if  circum- 
stances had  permitted  its  development,  might  have 
given  her  a  distinguished  place  in  English  fiction. 
Her  best  book  is  probably  Oldtown  Folks  (1S69). 
.  .  .  Mrs.  Stowe  differed  from  most  American 
novelists  in  possessing  a  spark  of 'genius.  Had  this 
genius  pervaded  her  work,  she  might  have  been  a 
figure  of  lasting  literary  importance.  Even  as  it 
was,  she  had  power  enough  to  make  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin  the  most  potent  literary  force  of  the  anti- 
slavery  days. 

"Uncle  'Tom's  Cabin  was  published  in  1852.  To 
its  unprecedented  popularity  may  perhaps  be  traced 
the  final  turn  of  the  public  tide.  [See  also  U.  S.  A.: 
1852:  Appearance  of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."]  With- 
in ten  years  the  conflict  between  the  slave  States 
and  the  free  reached  the  inevitable  point  of  civil 
war.  The  ist  of  January,  1863,  saw  [thel  final 
proclamation  of  emancipation.  .  .  .  We  can  hardly 
speak  of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  without 
touching  for  a  moment  upon  the  great  name  in 
.American  history  of  the  nineteenth  centur\'.  .Abra- 
ham Lincoln  (1800-1865)  proved  himself  in  the 
Lincoln-Douglas  campaign  such  a  master  of  debate. 


and  in  his  inaugural  addresses  and  m  the  famous 
Gettysburg  speech  such  a  master  of  simple  and 
powerfully  eloquent  Enghsh,  that,  aside  from  his 
great  political  services,  any  account  of  American 
oratory  or  of  antislavery  would  be  incomplete  with 
out  some  mention  of  him.  But  Lincoln  s  historical 
importance  is  so  great  that  any  discussion  of  him 
would  lead  us  far  afield.  .  .  .  Among  the  anti- 
slavery  leaders  of  Massachusetts  was  one  who,  with 
the  passing  of  time,  seems  more  and  more  distin- 
guished as  a  man  of  letters.  John  Greenleaf  Whit- 
tier  {1807- 1892),  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts, 
came  of  sound  country  stock,  remarkable  only  be- 
cause for  several  generations  the  family  had  been 
Quakers.  .  .  .  Though  Whittier  was  precocious, 
and  his  Hterary  career  extended  over  more  than 
sixty-five  years,  he  was  not  prolific.  He  never 
wrote  much  at  a  time,  and  he  never  wrote 
anything  long.  .  .  .  His  masterpiece,  if  the  word 
be  not  excessive,  is  'Snowbound,'  written  when  he 
was  about  fifty  years  old.  .  .  .  Such  vividness  as 
distinguishes  the  descriptive  passages  of  'Snow- 
Bound'  appears  throughout  Whittier's  descriptive 
verse,  ...  for  example,  [in]  .  .  .  the  'Prelude' 
which  take  [s]  one  to  the  very  heart  of  our  drowsy 
New  England  summers.  ...  In  general,  of  course, 
the  most  popular  literature  is  narrative.  So  Whit- 
tier's Yankee  ballads  often  seem  his  most  obvious 
works, — 'Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,'  for  example,  ot 
that  artlessly  sentimental  'Maud  Muller.' " — B. 
Wendell,  and  C.  N.  Greenough,  History  of  litera- 
ture in  America,  pp.  284-294.^"At  heart  Whittier 
was  no  more  stirred  than  were  the  other  anti- 
slavery  leaders,  nor  was  he  gifted  with  such  literary 
power  as  sometimes  revealed  itself  in  the  speeches 
of  Parker  or  of  Phillips,  or  as  enlivened  Mrs. 
Stowe's  novel  with  its  gleams  of  creative  genius. 
But  Whittier  surpassed  all  the  rest  in  the  impreg- 
nable simplicity  of  his  inborn  temper,  derived  from 
his  Quaker  ancestry  and  nurtured  by  the  guile- 
lessness  of  his  personal  life." — B.  Wendell,  Literary 
history  of  .America,  pp.  366-367. 

"Walt  VV'hitman  {1819-1892)  was  almost  exactly 
contemporary  with  Lowell.  No  two  lives  could 
have  been  much  more  different.  .  .  .  The  contrast 
between  Whitman  and  Whittier,  however,  is  al- 
most as  marked  as  that  between  Whitman  and 
Lowell.  .  .  .  The  first  edition  of  Whitman's  Leaves 
of  Grass  appeared  in  1855,  the  year  which  pro- 
duced the  Knickerbocker  Gallery.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  served  devotedly  as  an  army  nurse,  .^fter 
the  war,  until  1S73,  he  held  some  small  Govern- 
ment clerkships  at  Washington.  In  i87'3  a  paralytic 
stroke  brought  his  active  life  to  an  end;  for  his 
last  twenty  years  he  lived  an  invalid  at  Camden, 
New  Jersey.  Until  1855,  when  the  first  edition  of 
Leaves  of  Grass  appeared  in  a  thin  folio,  some  of 
which  he  set  up  with  his  own  hands.  Whitman 
had  not  declared  himself  as  a  man  of  letters. 
From  that  time  to  the  end  he  was  constantly  pub- 
lishing verse,  which  from  time  to  time  he  collected 
in  increasing  bulk  under  the  old  title.  He  pub- 
lished, too,  some  stray  volumes  of  prose, — Demo- 
cratic Vistas  (1S71),  Specimen  Days  and  Colled 
(1882-83),  and  the  like.  Prose  and  poetry  alike 
seem  full  of  a  conviction  that  he  had  a  mission  to 
express  and  to  extend  the  spirit  of  democracy, 
which  he  believed  characteristic  of  his  country. 
Few  men  have  ever  cherished  a  purpose  more  lit- 
erally popular.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  any 
man  of  letters  in  this  country  ever  appealed  less 
to  the  masses.  .  .  .  Sometimes,  of  course,  he  was 
more  articulate.  The  Civil  War  stirred  him  to  his 
depths;  and  he  d'-ew  from  it  such  noble  verses 
as  'My  Captain,'  his  poem  on  the  death  of  Lin- 
coln, or  such  little  pictures  as  'Ethiopia  Saluting 


312 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Realism 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


the  Colors.'  Even  in  bits  like  these,  however, 
which  come  so  much  nearer  forra  than  is  usual 
with  Whitman,  one  feels  his  perverse  rudeness  of 
style.  Such  eccentricity  of  manner  is  bound  to 
affect  different  people  in  different  ways.  One  kind 
of  reader,  naturally  eager  for  individuality  and 
fresh  glimpses  of  truth,  is  disposed  to  identify  odd- 
ity and  originality.  Another  kind  of  reader  in- 
stinctively distrusts  literary  eccentricity.  In  both 
of  these  opinions  there  is  an  element  of  truth.  .  .  . 
In  one  aspect  he  is  thoroughly  American.  The 
spirit  of  his  work  is  that  of  world-old  anarchy ; 
his  style  has  all  the  perverse  oddity  of  paralytic 
decadence;  but  the  substance  of  which  his  poems 
are  made — their  imagery  as  distinguished  from 
their  form  or  their  spirit — comes  wholly  from  his 
native  country.  In  this  aspect,  then,  though  prob- 
ably in  no  other,  he  may,  after  all,  l^hrow  light  on 
the  future  of  literature  in  America." — B.  Wendell 
and  C.  N.  Greenough,  History  of  literature  in  Amer- 
ica, pp.  371-378. 

"Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  .  .  .was  born  in 
Portland,  Maine,  February  27,  1807.  ...  At  the 
age  of  thirteen,  Longfellow  printed  four  stanzas, 
'The  Battle  of  Lovell's  Pond,'  in  a  corner  of  The 
Portland  Gazette.  Within  the  next  six  years  he 
wrote  a  considerable  number  of  poems  for  The 
United  States  Literary  Gazette  By  1S33,  in  ad- 
dition to  text-boo.ks  for  his  classes,  he  had,  in  vari- 
ous magazines,  published  original  articles,  stories, 
and  several  reviews;  among  them  an  important 
estimate,  of  poetry,  especially  the  poetry  of  Amer- 
ica, in  a  notice  of  'Sidney's  Defense  of  Poesy' 
contributed  to  The  North  American  Revieiv;  as 
well  as  translations  from  the  Spanish  of  Manrique 
and  others,  with  an  'Introductory  Essay  on  the 
Moral  and  Devotional  Poetry  of  Spain'  (1833). 
'Outre-Mer,'  first  published  as  a  series  of  sketches, 
appeared  in  book  form  in  1835,  'Hyperion'  in 
1830,  and  'Voices  of  the  Night'  in  the  same  year 
as  'Hyperion.'  'Voices  of  the  Night'  made  Long- 
fellow's reputation  as  a  poet ;  the  edition  was  im- 
mediately exhausted.  'Hyperion,'  which  eventu- 
ally EoM  well,  though  at  present  it  is  not  often 
enough  read,  was  at  first  unfortunate,  the  pub- 
lisher failing  before  this  book  had  a  fair  start. 
Of  Longfellow's  better  known  works,  published 
during  the  latter  half  of  his  lifetime,  his  'Ballads 
and  Other  Poems'  appeared  in  1841,  'The  Spanish 
Student.'  in  1843,  'Evangeline'  in  1847,  'Kavanagh,' 
another  prose  romance,  in  1840,  'Hiawatha'  in 
1855,  'The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish'  in  1858, 
'The  Golden  Legend'  in  1872,  and  'Aftermath' 
in  1873.  The  'Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn'  came  out  in 
1863,  1872,  and  1S73,  the  First  Day  separately,  the 
Second  and  Third  Day  in  company  with  other  writ- 
ings. .  .  .  Longfellow  was  the  most  popular  poet 
ever  brought  forth  on  this  continent.  .  .  .  "By  gen- 
eral consent,  Longfellow  is  our  American  poet,  par 
excellence,  Emerson  our  philosopher,  James  Russell 
Lowe!!  our  man  of  letters.  .  .  .  No  one,  however, 
when  his  initial  talents  are  considered,  has  pro- 
duced so  much  poetry  as  Longfellow;  no  one  in 
the  realm  of  philosophic  thought  has  been  so  pa- 
tiently influential  as  Emerson;  and  no  one,  not 
even  Irving,  had  fared  well  in  so  many  avenues 
of  literature  and  popular  scholarship  as  Lowell. 
He  was  poet,  critic,  professor,  editor,  diplomat, 
patriot,  humanist;  and  withal  he  was  a  man  and 
a  friend.  ...  It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  char- 
acterise Lowell  briefly.  An  attempt  to  sum  up  a 
personality  that  chose  so  many  avenues  of  expres- 
sion, and  that  at  bottom  was  not  thoroughly  uni- 
fied, can  hardly  do  justice  to  the  component  parts. 
The  most  striking  thing  about  the  man  was  his 
fertiUty,  if  not  in  great  constructive  ideas,  at   all 


events  in  separate  thoughts.  What  he  writes  is 
full  of  meat.  His  redundancy  is  not  in  the  way  of 
useless  verbiage;  he  wants  to  use  all  the  materials 
that  offer.  A  less  obvious  thing  in  Lowell  is  what 
we  may  term  his  lack  of  complete  spiritual  or- 
ganization. He  lived  in  an  age  of  dissolving  beliefs 
and  intellectual  unrest.  Though  he  was  not  tor- 
mented, as  were  others,  by  fierce  internal  doubts, 
he  yet  failed  ever  to  be  quite  clear  with  himself 
on  fundamental  questions  of  philosophy  and  re- 
ligion. He  was  never  quite  at  one  with  himself. 
As  a  writer,  his  serious  and  his  humorous  moods 
were  continually  interrupting  each  other.  Partly 
on  ..his  account,  he  did  not  possess  an  assured 
style.  .  .  .  The  fact  is  that  he  wrote  mainly  for  his 
own  time,  and  was  bound  to  have  but  a  tempo- 
rary reward.  This  is  not  saying  that  the  reward 
was  not  worth  while.  His  interpretations  of  Spen- 
cer, of  Dante,  of  Milton,  of  the  elder  dramatists, 
sent  to  those  poets  many  a  reader  who  would  not 
otherwise  have  gone;  for  America,  he  opened  the 
road  in  the  study  of  Chaucer;  and  his  own  'Vision 
of  Sir  Launfal'  has  unlocked  many  a  hard  heart  to 
divine  influences.  When  he  wrote  in  dialect,  as  in 
the  'Biglow  Papers,'  he  was  manifestly  writing  for 
a  time;  but  in  their  time  the  second  series  did 
more  to  justify  the  Northern  cause  than  almost 
any  other  publication  that  could  be  mentioned, 
Whittier's  poems  not  excepted  It  may  be  thought 
that  his  wonderful  command  of  dialect,  contrasted 
with  a  less  perfect  and  less  instinctive  success  in 
any  higher  medium,  marks  him  as  above  all  else 
a  satiric  poet  When  he  was  once  sitting  for  his 
portrait,  he  so  denominated  himself,  speaking  gener- 
ally— 'a  bored  satiric  poet.'  Yet  were  we  to  name 
Lowell  the  greatest  of  all  American  satirists,  his 
urgent  poems  of  patrioitism — 'The  Washers  of  the 
Shroud,'  the  'Commemoration  Ode' — his  'Vision  of 
Sir  Launfal,'  and  'The  Cathedral'  would  imme- 
diately proclaim  him  something  greater  than  any 
satiric  poet  could  be  Last  of  all,  nobler  than  the 
sum  of  his  writings  was  the  work  which  he  effected 
in  bringing  together  his  native  land  and  the  mother 
country,  England,  in  a  bond  of  sympathy  unknown 
smce  their  separation." — T.  Stanton,  Manual  of 
American   literature,   pp.    275-290. 

1865-1900.— Literature  after  the  Civil  War.— 
Realistic  school. — American  humor. — "Following 
the  lead  of  certain  great  contemporary  novelists  in 
Russia,  France,  and  Spain,  many  of  our  later  fic- 
tion-writers have  aimed  to  reproduce,  with  an  un- 
relieved and  unswerving  truth  and  minuteness,  just 
those  every-day.  aspects  of  .American  society  which 
their  great  predecessors  instinctively  idealized  or 
ignored.  A  so-calied  'realistic'  school  of  fiction  has 
consequently  risen  up  among  us,  which,  according  to 
one  definition,  'aims  at  em.bodying  in  art  the  com- 
mon landscape,  common  figures,  and  common  hopes 
and  loves  and  ambitions  of  our  common  life.'  In 
nearly  every  great  section  of  our  huge  country 
keen-eyed  observers  have  been  recording  in  fiction 
one  or  another  of  the  almost  innumerable  phases  of 
American  society.  Taken  together,  these  studies 
give  to  the  careful  reader  a  fairly  accurate  notion 
of  our  composite  national  life.  But  life  in  this 
country  is  as  yet  such  a  roughly-pieced  patch- 
work of  local  differences,  that  the  novelist  who 
aims  at  a  faithful  reproduction  of  it  often  gets  no 
further  than  a  study  of  some  particular  locality, 
which  he  paints  over  and  over  again  up  to  the 
extreme  limits  of  endurance.  The  last  thirty 
years  has  given  us  a  long  procession  of  these  local 
studies;  it  has  produced  writers  who  are  practically 
specialists  on  some  particular  and  often  narrow 
plot  of  ground.  We  have  had  experts  on  the  old 
lady  of  the  New  England  village,  on  the  Tennes- 


3^3 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Humor 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


see  mountaineer  and  the  plantation  negro ;  or, 
among  the  novelists  who  have  taken  a  somewhat 
wider  outlook,  we  have  had  elaborate  studies  of 
society  life  in  Boston,  Washington,  Newport,  Phila- 
delphia, or  New  York.  .  .  .  New  England  has  not 
lacked  some  notable  writers  in  recent  years,  some 
of  wh»m  have  been  clearly  leaders  in  the  especial 
line  to  which  they  have  devoted  themselves.  In 
fiction.  New  England  life,  particularly  in  the  coun- 
try districts  and  the  smaller  towns,  has  been  por- 
trayed with  minuteness  and  fidelity  by  such  writers 
as  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps,  Harriet  Prescott  Spof- 
ford,  Sarah  Orne  Jewett,  and  Mary  E.  Wilkins. 
John  Fiske  has  become  widely  known  as  a  scien- 
tist and  philosophical  thinker,  and  more  recently 
as  one  of  our  ablest  writers  on  American  history. 
The  labors  of  a  group  of  writers  in  this  Last-named 
field — Justin  Winsor  (1831-1807),  the  author  of  a 
scholarly  and  elaborate  history  of  America ;  Henry 
Adams,  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  and  others — are  too 
important  to  be  passed  over.  Indeed  it  may  be 
said  here  that  outside  of  New  England  as  well  as 
within  its  limits  an  increasing  attention  to  our 
country's  history  and  institutions  has  been  one  of 
the  distinctions  of  these  later  years.  In  the  South 
the  labors  of  Professor  Herbert  B.  Adams,  of 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  have  been 
instrumental  in  raising  up  a  school  of  capable  stu- 
dents and  historians  of  our  institutions  and  our 
past.  The  Middle  States  have  given  us  the  ad- 
mirable works  of  Professor  [President]  Woodrow 
Wilson,  [formerly]  of  Princeton  University  and 
of  John  Bach  McMaster,  Professor  of  .American 
History  at  the  LTniversity  of  Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 
One  characteristic  feature  of  our  recent  literature 
— its  humor — we  have  reserved  for  a  separate  men- 
tion. Probably  no  other  element  in  our  literature 
is  so  distinctly  and  exclusively  American.  Imita- 
tive as  much  of  our  serious  work  may  be,  our 
humor  is  unmistakably  a  genuinely  national  pro- 
duction. Even  the  English,  while  their  perception 
of  the  American  joke  is  apt  to  be  delayed  and  un- 
certain, admit  that  our  humor  is  ours  alone.  They 
may  call  it  'vulgar.'  or  'rudimentary,'  or  'middle- 
class,'  but  they  acknowledge  that  we  are  at  least 
entitled  to  say  of  it,  'a  poor  thing,  sir,  but  mine 
own.'  A  leading  English  critic  and  essayist,  for  in- 
stance, writes:  'The  Americans  are  of  our  own 
stock,  yet  in  their  treatment  of  the  ludicrous  how 
unlike  us  they  are !  As  far  as  fun  goes,  the  race 
has  certainly  become  differentiated.'  In  fact, 
humor  is  a  charactertistic  clement  in  the  American 
people.  Neither  our  poetry  nor  our  scholarship 
rests  on  such  a  broad  basis  of  popular  apprecia- 
tion Our  sense  of  the  ludicrous  is  not  the  pos- 
session of  a  limited  class;  it  is  a  national  trait. 
It  declares  itself  in  the  funny  columns  of  count- 
less newspapers,  in  our  popular  songs,  our  min- 
strels, our  theatres,  our  slang:  it  is  stamped  on 
thousands  of  funny  stories  that,  handed  on  from 
one  to  another,  traverse  the  whole  country  with 
wonderful  swiftness.  No  wonder,  then,  that  when 
some  of  this  popular  sense  of  humor  gets  into  liter- 
ature we  recognize  in  it  marks  of  a  national  trait." 
— H.  S  Pancoast,  Introduction  to  American  liter- 
ature, pt.  Ill,  ch.  S- 

"Samuel  Langhorne  Clemens,  'Mark  Twain,' 
(1835-1010),  after  an  apprenticeship  to  a  printer, 
became  a  pilot  on  the  Mississipi  River  in  1851. 
Later  he  tried  mining,  and  still  later  journalism 
in  California.  Thence  he  removed  to  Hawaii,  and 
finally  to  Hartford,  Connecticut.  ...  In  1884  he 
founded  the  publishing  firm  of  C.  L.  Webster  S: 
Company;  he  lost  heavily  by  its  failure  His  sub- 
sequent labor  to  pay  its  debts  suggests  the  similarly 
heroic  efforts  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.     His  first  book. 


Tli€  Jumping  Frog  and  Other  Skelcltes,  came  out 
in  1867,  Innocents  Abroad  in  1869,  Adventures  of 
Tom  Sau^yer  in  1876,  Life  on  the  Mississippi  in 
1883,  Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn  in  1885, 
Pudd'n-head  Wilson  in  1894,  snd  Personal  Recol- 
lections of  Joan  of  Arc  in  1805-1896.  The  earlier 
work  of  Mark  Twain  seemed  broadly  comic — only 
another  manifestation  of  that  rollicking  sort  of 
journalistic  fun  which  is  generally  ephemeral.  As 
the  years  .  .  .  passed,  however,  he  .  .  .  slowly  dis- 
tinguished himself  more  and  more  from  anyone  else. 
No  other  .  .  writer,  for  one  thing,  so  completely 
exemplifies  the  kind  of  humor  which  is  most  char- 
acteristically .\merican — a  shrewd  sense  of  fact  ex- 
pressing itself  in  an  inextricable  confusion  of  literal 
statement  and  wild  extravagance,  uttered  with  no 
lapse  from  what  seems  unmoved  gravity  of  man- 
ner."— B.  Wendell  and  C.  N.  Grcenough,  History  of 
literature  in  America,  pp.  421-422. 

"I  suppose  that  Mark  Twain  transcends  all  other 
.American  humorists  in  the  universal  qualities.  He 
deals  very  little  with  the  pathetic,  which  he  never- 
theless knows  very  well  how  to  manage,  .  .  .  but 
there  is  a  poetic  lift  in  his  work,  even  when  he  per- 
mits you  to  recognize  it  only  as  something  satirized. 
There  is  always  the  touch  of  nature,  the  presence 
of  a  sincere  and  frank  manliness  in  what  he  says, 
the  companionship  of  a  spirit  which  is  at  once  de- 
lightfully open  and  deliciously  shrewd  .  .  .  His 
humor  is  at  its  best  the  foamy  break  of  the  strong 
tide  of  earnestness  in  him  But  it  would  be  limiting 
him  unjustly  to  describe  him  as  a  satirist;  and  it  is 
hardly  practicable  to  establish  him  in  people's  minds 
as  a  moralist ;  he  has  made  them  laugh  too 
long.  ...  I  prefer  to  speak  of  Mr.  Clemens's  ar- 
tistic qualities  because  it  is  to  these  that  his  humor 
will  owe  its  perpetuity.  ...  He  portrays  and  inter- 
prets real  types,  not  only  with  exquisite  apprecia- 
tion and  sympathy,  but  with  a  force  and  truth  of 
drawing  that  makes  them  permanent.  .  .  .  One  of 
the  characteristics  I  observe  in  him  is  his  sinle- 
minded  use  of  words.  ...  He  writes  English  as  if 
it  were  a  primitive  and  not  a  derivative  language. 
.  .  .  The  result  is  the  Enghsh  in  which  the  most 
vital  works  of  English  literature  are  cast.  .  .  .  What 
you  will  have  in  him  is  a  style  which  is  as  personal, 
as  biographical  as  the  style  of  any  one  who  has 
written,  and  expresses  a  civilization  whose  courage 
of  the  chances,  the  preferences,  the  duties,  is  not  the 
measure  of  its  essential  modesty.  It  has  a  thing  to 
say,  and  it  says  it  in  the  word  that  may  be  the  first 
or  second  or  third  choice,  but  will  not  be  the  in- 
strument of  the  most  fastidious  car,  the  most  del- 
icate and  exacting  sense,  though  it  will  be  the  word 
that  surely  and  strongly  conveys  intention  from 
the  author's  mind  to  the  reader's.  It  is  the  .^bra- 
ham  Lincolnian  word,  ...  it  is  American,  West- 
ern."— W.  D  Howells,  My  Mark  Twain,  pp.  140- 
141,  143,  169-170. 

"Among  the  representatives  of  the  'New  South,' 
Sidney  Lanier  (1842-81),  musician,  poet,  teacher  of 
English,  is  easily  foremost  .  .  .  The  poor  recep- 
tion given  to  his  'Tiger  Lilies'  (1867),  a  novel 
based  on  experiences  in  the  army,  did  not  dis- 
hearten him.  In  1875  he  definitely  announced  him- 
self by  his  poem  entitled  'Corn,'  published  in  Lip- 
pincolt's  Magazine,  a  vision  of  the  South  restored 
through  agriculture.  This  brought  him  the  oppor- 
tunity of  writing  the  'Centennial  Cantata'  for  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition,  where  he  expressed  the 
faith  he  now  had  in  the  future  of  the  reunited  na- 
tion. The  Cantata  finished,  he  immediately  be- 
gan a  much  longer  centennial  ode,  his  'Psalm  of  the 
West'  (1876),  which  appeared  in  Lippincott's 
Magazine,  and  which,  with  'Corn'  and  'The  Sym- 
phony,' made  part  of  a  small  volume  published  in 


.^14 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


English 
Influence 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE 


the  autumn  of  1876  Lanier's  important  critical 
works  were  the  product  of  the  years  between 
1876  and  his  death.  Some  three  years  after  he  died, 
his  poems  were  collected  and  edited  by  his  wife 
If  we  had  to  rely  upon  one  poem  to  keep  alive  the 
fame  of  Lanier,  thinks  his  biographer,  Mr.  Edwin 
Mims,  we  'could  single  out  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn" 
with  assurance  that  there  is  something  so  individual 
and  original  about  it,  and  that,  at  the  same  time, 
there  is  such  a  roll  and  range  of  verse  in  it,  that 
it  will  surely  live  not  only  in  American  poetry  but 
in  English.  He  is  the  poet  of  the  marshes  as 
surely  as  Bryant  is  of  the  forests.'  " — T.  Stanton, 
Manual  oj  American  literature,  pp.  272-274. 

1894-1915. — Significant  phases. — Howells  and 
James. — "The  death  of  Holmes  in  the  fall  of  1894, 
following  fast  upon  the  deaths  of  Whittier  and  of 
Parkman  and  of  Lowell,  marked  the  close  of  an 
epoch.  The  leaders  of  the  great  New  England 
group  of  authors  had  gone;  and  the  period  of 
American  literature  which  they  had  made  illustri- 
ous was  completed  In  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  literary  center  of  the  United 
States  had  been  in  New  York,  where  were  Irving 
and  Cooper,  Bryant,  Halleck,  and  Drake.  Toward 
the  middle  of  the  century  the  literary  center  had 
shifted  to  Boston,  in  which  city  or  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity  were  the  homes  of  Emerson,  Long- 
fellow, Whittier,  Holmes,  Parkman,  Lowell,  and 
Thoreau.  When  these  had  departed  they  left  no 
successors  there  of  the  same  relative  influence. 
The  nation  has  been  spreading  so  fast  and  the  men 
of  letters  are  so  scattered,  that  there  is  in  the  last 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  no  single  group  of 
authors  whose  position  at  the  head  of  American 
literature  is  beyond  question.  .  .  The  example 
.set  by  Irving  has  been  followed  by  writers  who 
happened  to  have  special  knowledge  of  this  or 
that  portion  of  the  country,  until  there  is  now 
hardly  a  corner  of  the  United  States  which  has 
not  served  as  the  scene  of  a  story  of  some  sort 
Many  of  these  local  fictions  are  short  stories,  but 
some  of  them  are  long  novels.  As  was  natural, 
New  England  is  the  portion  which  has  been  most 
carefully  explored.  But  of  late  the  young  writers 
of  the  South  and  of  the  West  have  been  almost 
more  successful  in  this  department  of  literature 
than  the  writers  of  New  England  and  of  New  York 
In  story  and  in  sketch  we  have  had  made  known 
to  us  the  Southern  gentleman  of  the  old  school, 
the  old  negro  body-servant,  the  field  hand,  and  the 
poor  white.  In  like  manner  we  have  had  faithfully 
observed  and  honestly  presented  to  us  the  more 
marked  types  of  Western  character.  What  gives 
its  real  value  to  these  studies  of  life  in  the  South 
and  in  the  West  is  that  they  are  studies  of  life, 
that  they  have  the  note  of  sincerity  and  of  real- 
ity, that  they  are  not  vain  imaginings  merely,  but 
the  result  of  an  earnest  effort  to  see  life  as  it  is 
and  to  tell  the  truth  about  it — the  whole  truth,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth.  Many  of  these  Southern  and 
Western  tales,  even  more  than  the  New  York  and 
New  England  tales  on  which  they  are  modeled, 
abound  in  humor,  which  sometimes  refines  itself 
into  delicate  character-drawing,  and  which  some- 
times breaks  out  into  more  hearty  fun.  Franklin 
was  perhaps  the  earliest  of  .American  humorists; 
after  him  came  Irving,  and  then  Lowell ;  and  they 
have  to-day  many  followers  not  unworthy  of  them. 

"The  earlier  American  historians,  Prescott  and 
Motley  and  Parkman,  have  also  many  not  un- 
worthy followers,  working  to-day  as  loyally  as 
did  their  great  predecessors.  At  no  time  since  the 
United  States  became  an  independent  nation  has 
there  been  greater  interest  in  historical  study.  At 
no   time    have    more    able    writers   been    devoting 


themselves  to  the  history  of  our  own  country. 
Although  we  have  now  no  essayist  of  the  stipulat- 
ing force  of  Emerson,  and  no  critic  with  the  in- 
sight and  the  equipment  of  Lowell,  yet  there  is 
no  lack  of  delightful  essayists  and  of  accomplished 
critics  Indeed  the  general  level  of  American  criti- 
cism has  been  immensely  raised  since  the  days  of 
Poe.  American  critics  are  far  more  self-reliant  at 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  than  they  were 
at  the  beginning  They  hare  lost  the  colonial  at- 
titude, for  they  no  longer  look  for  light  across  the 
Atlantic  to  England  only.  They  know  now  that 
American  literature  has  to  grow  in  its  own  way  and 
of  its  own  accord  Yet  they  are  not  so  narrow 
as  they  were,  and  they  are  ready  to  apply  far 
higher  standards.  An  American  poet  or  novelist  or 
historian  is  not  now  either  unduly  praised  or 
unduly  condemned  merely  because  he  is  an  Ameri- 
can. He  is  judged  on  his  own  merits,  and  he  is 
compared  with  the  leading  contemporary,  writers 
of  England  and  of  France,  of  Germany,  of  Italy. 
and  of  Spain.  It  is  by  the  loftiest  standards  of 
the  rest  of  the  world  that  .'\merican  literature 
must  hereafter  be  measured  " — B.  Matthews,  In- 
trodiKlion  to  the  study  oj  American  literature,  p. 
229-233. 

"One  who  compares  American  literature  of  the 
last  fifty  years  with  that  of  the  preceding  half 
century  will  be  struck  first  of  all  by  the  scarcity  of 
great  writers,  the  very  large  number  of  minor  au- 
thors, and  the  high  average  of  talent  shown,  espe- 
cially in  prose.  This  literary  talent  is  well  dis- 
tributed. New  England  and  the  Middle  States  hav- 
ing lost  the  preeminence  they  once  had  The  lack 
of  a  literary  metropolis  deprives  .American  authors 
of  a  valuable  stimulus  and  hinders  an  all-Ameri- 
can  point  of  view ;  yet  the  fact  that  our  men  of 
letters  work  alone,  or  in  literary  centres  far  apart 
in  space  and  widely  different  in  temper  and  tradi- 
tions, encourages  originality  and  the  use  of  varied 
material ;  and  if  we  ever  have  a  more  unitary  and 
national  literature,  these  pictures  of  local  condi- 
tions in  North,  South,  and  West  will  prove  to 
have  been  of  much  value  as  preliminary  studies. 
Largely  because  of  such  studies  there  has  emerged 
another  marked  feature  of  the  new  literature,  its 
.Americanism  in  subject  and  spirit.  While  Ameri- 
can writers  are  more  cosmopolitan  than  ever  be- 
fore in  the  sense  of  being  open  to  the  cultures  of 
the  world,  foreign  influence  as  a  whole  is  rela- 
tively less  apparent  than  formerly,  and  American 
literature  is  much  more  the  product  of  American 
soil  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  Civil  War,  which 
brought  the  country  to  a  new  sense  of  its  power 
and  even  of  its  fundamental  unity,  for  during  thai 
struggle  the  men  of  the  East  and  the  West  and 
the  South  came  to  know  one  another  better,  recog- 
nizing in  comrades  and  foes  alike  a  common  .Amer- 
icanism. The  fading  away  of  the  Old  South  as 
a  result  of  the  war,  and  the  disappearance  of  the 
most  picturesque  features  of  the  West  in  the  re- 
cent rapid  expansion  of  population  and  wealth, 
gave  a  heightened  value  to  these  aspects  of  .Ameri- 
can life  in  the  eyes  of  writers  and  readers.  To 
these  causes  has  been  added  of  late  a  growing  feel- 
ing of  independence,  the  natural  result  of  greater 
maturity  and  power.  The  present  generation  cares 
less  than  did  its  forefathers  for  the  censure  or  the 
approval  of  Europe,  and  is  rather  amused  than  ir- 
ritated by  Old  World  misunderstanding  and  con- 
descension, feeling  that  if  it  has  much  to  learn  it 
has  also  much  to  teach" — W.  C.  Bronson,  Short 
history  of  American  literature,  p.  282-283 

"It  is  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  time 
that  recent  tendencies  in  novel  writings  are  in  the 
direction  of  realism  and  character  analysis.    There 


315 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Howells 
and  James 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


have  been  occasional  violent  reactions  in  the  direc- 
tion of  ultra-romanticism,  and  about  the  close  of 
the  century  the  country  suffered  from  an  epidemic 
of  hastily  written  historical  novels.  The  two  most 
distinguished  [contemporary]  American  novelists, 
William  Dean  Howells  [d.  1920]  and  Henry  James 
[d.  1916]  stand,  however,  for  the  study  and  por- 
trayal of  things  as  they  are.  In  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  the  short  story  as  a  distinct  literary  form 
America  has  done  its  full  share,  and  more;  and 
perhaps  American  writers  of  short  stories  are  rela- 
tively more  distinguished  than  American  authors 
in  any  other  field  of  literature.  The  increasing 
number  of  magazines  offers  opportunities  for  the 
publication  of  short  stories,  and  short  stories  in 
turn  help  to  make  the  magazines  possible  and  popu- 
lar. Many  young  persons  with  literary  interests 
have  found  time  to  attempt  the  briefer  form  when 
circumstances  would  have  prevented  them  from 
writing  an  old-fashioned  two  volume  novel;  and 
though  this  has  led  to  the  production  of  an  im- 
mense amount  of  experimental  and  mediocre  work, 
it  has  developed  a  few  writers  who  might  not 
otherwise  have  been  discovered  The  valuable 
achievement  of  the  last  quarter-century  in  poetry 
has  been  small.  The  best  work  has  been  done  by 
writers  who  made  their  reputation  before  1883.  The 
fashion  has  set  toward  short  and  epigrammatic 
lyrics,  and  few  poems  on  an  ambitious  scale  have 
been  attempted.  The  Americans  who  have  had 
most  influence  on  their  latest  successors  are  Em- 
erson and  Whitman.  There  are  many  experiments 
in  the  manner  of  European  poets  and  of  other 
times,  but  there  is  little  that  seems  a  high  and 
genuine  expression  of  to-day.  An  increasing  num- 
ber of  younger  men  have  been  tempted  to  the 
writing  of  plays,  and  some  of  them  have  produced 
work  admirably  suited  to  effective  presentation  by 
the  complex  art  of  the  modern  stage.  There  have, 
however,  been  no  dramas  of  the  first  literary  rank, 
and  few  of  the  second.  The  perpetual  demand  for 
sensational  plays  has  been  filled  by  melodramas 
which  stage-craft  is  able  to  make  more  lurid  than 
ever  before;  but  the  tendency  in  the  drama,  as  in 
prose  fiction,  is  toward  realism.  It  may  be  partly 
as  a  result  of  that  tendency  that  the  sucessful  ac- 
tion plays  written  within  the  last  few  years  have 
been  almost  all  in  prose.  Within  recent  years 
there  have  been  many  writers  of  good  prose  essays, 
but  none  of  preeminent  distinction.  The  sharp  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  short  story  from  the  essay  has 
modified  the  latter,  and  no  recent  writings  are  of 
the  same  order  as  some  of  the  most  charming 
work  of  Addison,  Lamb,  and  Irving.  Essays  on 
various  aspects  of  nature-study  haye  become  popu- 
lar, and  discussions  of  literary  and  artistic  matters 
are  more  widely  read  than  ever  before.  In  the 
better  newspapers  lighter  discussions  of  social 
questions  and  of  evils  of  the  day  have  been  more 
refined  and  more  truly  humorous  than  formerly. 
Though  these  can  hardly  be  classed  as  literature 
their  improvement  indicates  better  popular  taste. 
With  the  development  of  modern  ideals  of  scholar- 
ship the  writings  of  scholars  take  less  and  less 
rank  as  literature.  Thoroughness  of  investigation 
and  impartiality  of  statement  are  the  chief  mer- 
its of  the  monograph  or  treatise;  and  many  in- 
vestigators seem  to  fear  that  literary  graces  are 
to  be  shunned  lest  they  seduce  the  writer  from 
accuracy  in  the  presentation  of  facts." — W.  B. 
Cairns,  History  of  American  literature,  pp.  463- 
465. 

"The  first  thing  which  it  occurs  to  me  to  note  is 
that  the  relation  between  American  and  British  lit- 
erature has  become  closer.  I  say  'British,'  not  for 
the   sake   of  including   more  categorically  Scottish 

3 


and  Irish,  but  because  American  literature  is  neces- 
sarily 'English'  in  the  larger,  which  is  also  the 
truer,  sense  of  the  term.  All  that  is  written  in 
English,  wherever  it  is  written,  is  English  litera- 
ture because  it  descends  <rom  the  same  source — 
viz.,  the  great  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  people  now  poUtically  separated  were  one 
people,  and  because  every  part  of  it  has  continued 
to  affect  and  mold  every  other  part.  To-day  peo- 
ple in  Britain  read  books  published  in  America  and 
Americans  read  books  published  in  Britain,  far 
more  generally  than  was  ever  the  case  before.  The 
taste  and  the  criticism  of  each  country  are  more 
influenced  by  that  of  the  other.  When  living  in  the 
United  States  [as  British  ambassador]  I  was  con- 
stantly struck  by  the  fact  that  a  new  British  writer 
of  some  fresh  quality  was  often  sooner  known  and 
more  promptly  appreciated  there  than  in  his  own 
country.  The  same  thing  happens,  though  less 
markedly,  in  Great  Britain.  ...  As  respects  what 
may  be  called  'solid  literature,'  that  is  to  say  books 
on  history,  philosophy,  economics,  and  all  the  so- 
called  human  or  'social'  sciences,  the  greatest  change 
of  recent  years  is  the  enormously  increased  Amer- 
ican output.  .  .  .  These  books  and  articles  are  emi- 
nently painstaking  and  accurate,  disdaining  no 
facts,  however  trivial  they  may  seem.  Comparatively 
few  large  historical  works  are  produced,  for  the 
writers  are  occupied  not  so  much  in  rearing  edi- 
fices as  in  laying  foundations,  or  perhaps  in  quar- 
rying stones  and  carrying  them  to  the  place  where 
the  building  is  to  be  erected.  They  are  regardful 
rather  of  the  substance  than  of  the  style  and  man- 
ner of  their  compositions,  and  are  right  in  this,  for 
the  work  is  of  a  class  in  which  accuracy  is  the  one 
essential  thing.    Nevertheless,  the  treatises  of  Henry 

C.  Lea,  most  learned  of  all  American  historians,  and 
those  of  Francis  Parkman  and  of  John  Fiske,  were 
of  admirable  quality ;  nor  are  their  successors 
wanting  among  living  writers,  whom  I  do  not  men- 
tion because  selection  would  be  invidious  where 
there  are  several  of  conspicuous  excellence.  Much 
of  this  work  relates  to  local  history  or  State  his- 
tory, and  makes  its  special  appeal  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States.  But  much  also  deals  with 
large  constitutional  questions  and  with  problems  in 
political  science  that  are  of  universal  interest. 
Americans  have  begun  to  realize  that  their  country 
is  both  the  workshop  and  the  laboratory  of  democ- 
racy. In  their  forty-eight  States  and  their  Congress 
they  are  trying  experiments  in  every  form  of  popu- 
lar government  by  which  the  whole  world  may 
profit,  and  indeed  is  profiting.  The  other  field 
from  whose  heavy  soil  a  large  crop  is  being  raised 
is  the  field  of  economics  and  of  the  social  sciences 
in  their  application  to  social  progress.  Here  the  af- 
finities of  American  authors  are  rather  with  Eng- 
land than  with  Germany,  for  the  exaggerated  doc- 
trines of  State  omnipotence  which  German  think- 
ers have  (to  their  own  injury)  embraced  do  not 
commend  themselves  to  English-speaking  men  nur- 
tured in  the  principles  of  liberty.  The  substantial 
identity  of  industrial  problems,  and  social  problems 
generally,  in  Britain  and  the  United  States,  as  v/e\\ 
as  the  similarity  of  spirit  and  aims,  has  made  the 
experiments  and  the  literature  bearing  on  these 
subjects  especially  helpful  to  both  countries.  When 
one  passes  from  these  grave  subjects  to  the  greener 
and  gayer  meadows  of  fiction,  the  change  from 
forty  years  ago  shows  itself  rather  in  quality  than 
in  quantity.  In  the  seventies  few  novels  of  liter- 
ary merit  were  appearing  in  America,  certainly 
very  few  that  won  reputation  in  Europe,  until 
those   who    are   now  illustrious   veterans — Mr.   W. 

D.  Howells  and  Mr.  Henry  James — made  them- 
selves  known.     Isolated   works    of   striking    indi- 

16 


nlph  wa 


\a/a; 
noted  american  writers 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


AMERICAN   POLITICAL   SCIENCE 


viduality  shone  out  now  and  then,  like  the  best  of 
Mark  Twain's,  but  there  was  no  such  number  of 
really  finished  and  artistic  story-tellers  as  America 
has  to-day,  when  at  least  three  novelists  (besides 
the  veterans  just  referred  to)  are  admittedly  equal 
to  the  best  of  their  En  dish  competitors.  The 
American  novel  is  now  no  longer  content  to  de- 
pict phases  of  local  life,  though  that  is  still  ef- 
fectively done,  and  the  romantic  element  that  has 
long  been  associated  with  the  Far  West  is  now 
so  fast  fading  away  that  it  will  soon  cease  to  be 
available  for  local  color.  But  several  of  the  best 
writers  of  to-day  are  grappling  with  the  newer 
issues  of  life,  in  an  imaginative  way,  and  in  a 
more  'continental'  spirit,  so  to  speak,  than  any  of 
their  predecessors.  They  are  less  influenced  by 
French  models  than  most  of  our  English  writers 
have  been;  and  in  their  hands  realism  does  not  so 
much  occupy  itself  with  sm.all  details.  One  is  now 
struck  by  the  presence  of  what  European  travelers 
when  they  return  from  America  used  to  complain 
of  as  wanting  there:  I  mean  delicate  elaboration 
in  workmanship.  This  care  and  finish  are  now 
evident  not  only  in  fiction,  but  in  literary  criti- 
cism also.  Good  criticism  is  almost  as  rare  both 
in  literature  and  in  art,  as  good  original  work; 
and  in  the  United  States  there  was  but  little  of 
it  in  the  seventies  or  eighties,  and  far  less  than 
one  finds  now.  ...  It  is  now  more  than  thirty 
years  since  the  chief  names  in  poetry  were  ceasing 
to  write  both  in  America  and  in  Britain;  and  just 
as  in  the  latter  the  places  left  vacant  by  the  disap- 
pearance of  Tennyson,  Browning,  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, and  Swinburne  have  not  been  filled,  so  neither 
have  any  successors  to  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Emer- 
son, Bryant,  Holmes,  or  Whitticr — some  might  add 
Whitman — attained  an  equally  conspicuous  posi- 
tion. It  is  not  that  in  either  country  people  care 
less  for  poetry — all  the  verses  of  merit  that  appear 
are  eagerly  read — but  not  only  these  two  countries, 
but  the  nations  of  continental  Europe  also,  still 
await  the  great  geniuses  who  will  doubtless,  as 
after  former  periods  of  comparative  quies- 
cence, at  last  swim  into  the  sky.  The  question 
may  also  be  put:  Are  British  and  Amer- 
ican literature  drawing  closer  to  each  other  with 
the  immensely  increased  personal  intercourse 
of  the  two  peoples  and  the  better  knowledge 
each  has  of  the  other?  They  are  doubtless 
more  occupied  with  the  same  subjects  than  they 
used  to  be,  because  the  United  States  is  altogether 
in  fuller  touch  with  the  Old  World.  But  the  dis- 
tinctive color  or  flavor,  whichever  one  is  to  call  it, 
of  the  New  World  is  still  evident.  When  one  opens 
a  book  without  knowing  who  the  author  is  or 
where  it  is  published,  there  is  something  not 
merely  in  the  words  or  style,  but  in  the  way  of 
thinking,  and  in  the  atmosphere  (so  to  speak) 
which  the  thoughts  breathe,  which  reveals  the  au- 
thor's nationality.  The  difference  between  spirit 
and  flavor  of  the  literature  of  the  two  peoples 
seems  to  me  personally  less  marked  than  are  the 
differences  between  their  institutions  and  their  re- 
spective national  characters.  Neveretheless,  it 
exists,  and  it  seems  likely  to  continue.  That  it 
should  continue  is  much  to  be  desired  by  those  who 
value  individuality  and  who  feel  that  the  ideas 
and  tastes  of  mankind  may  some  day  find  them- 
selves in  danger  of  becoming  too  uniform.  The 
more  variety  there  is,  so  much  the  more  progress, 
for  variety  is  stimulating  as  well  as  enjoyable." — 
J.  Brj'ce,  Stray  thoughts  on  American  literature 
(North  American  Review,  March,  1Q15). 

"Both  in  New  York  and  in  New  England  the 
most  popular  form  of  recent  literature  has  prob- 
ably been  the  short  story.     From  influences  in  a 


way  common  to  both  regions,  combined  with  in- 
fluences quite  distinct,  there  have  emerged  mean- 
while the  three  American  novelists  who  have  at- 
tained such  eminence  as  to  demand  separate  con- 
sideration. One — Howells — is  completely  Ameri- 
can; the  other  two — James  and  Crawford — are 
Americans  whose  principal  work  has  been  deeply 
affected  by  European  environment." — B.  Wendell, 
and  C.  N.  Greenough,  History  oj  literature  in 
America,  pp.  395. 

Review  of  the  literature  of  Virginia.  See 
Virginia:   1900. 

AMERICAN  LYCEUM.  See  Education: 
Modern  developments:  Extension  work:  Lyceum. 

AMERICAN  MUSIC.  ^See  Music:  1774-1908; 
also  Folk  music  and  nationalism;  United  States. 
AMERICAN    NATIVE    RACES.— Archaeo- 
logical study.     See  Archaeology:   Importance  of 
American   field. 

AMERICAN  PACIFISTS  BROTHER- 
HOOD OF  RECONCILIATION.  See  Peace 
movements:     Constructive  plans. 

AMERICAN  PAINTING.  See  Painting: 
Modern:  American. 

AMERICAN  PARTY,  or  Know-Nothing 
Party.  See  Massachusetts:  1852-1865;  U.  S.  A.: 
1S52;  1855-1856. 

AMERICAN  PEACE  SOCIETY.— This  soci- 
ety was  founded  1^28  by  William  Ladd  and  in- 
corporated various  organizations  going  back  to 
1815;  it  was  reorganized  in  191 1.  The  program 
of  the  society  calls  for  the  organization  of  the 
nations  of  the  world  with  a  court  and  an  inter- 
national legislature.  The  decrees  of  this  tribunal 
are  to  supplant  armed  force  in  the  settlement  of 
international  disputes.  The  headquarters  of  the 
society  are  in  Washington,  D.  C.  See  League  of 
nations:     Former  projects. 

AMERICAN  POETRY.  See  American  lit- 
erature:  1790-1860. 

AMERICAN  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AS- 
SOCIATION.—In  December,  1902,  "at  the  Phila- 
delphia meeting  [of  the  American  Historical  As- 
sociation, q.  v.]  a  number  of  persons  who  were 
members  either  of  the  Historical  Association  or  of 
the  Economic  Association  met  and  discussed  the 
advisability  of  forming  an  association  devoted  to 
the  study  and  discussion  of  topics  in  political 
science.  It  was  then  decided  to  take  the  matter 
under  advisement  and  to  give  it  serious  consider- 
ation. A  committee,  appointed  at  Philadelphia 
to  investigate  the  subject  and  gather  opinions,  re- 
ported at  New  Orleans  in  favor  of  establishing  an 
organization  not  affiliated  formally  with  either  of 
the  older  associations.  In  accordance  with  that 
recommendation,  a  new  society  called  the  American 
Political  Science  Association  was  formed.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  advance  the  study  of  politics,  public 
law,  administration,  and  diplomacy.  There  was 
a  general  feeling  among  the  men  who  formed  this 
association  that  their  fields  of  work  were  so  de- 
cidedly different  from  the  fields  of  economics  and 
history  that  only  by  the  formation  of  a  separate 
society  could  their  topics  receive  proper  attention 
and  be  sufficiently  discussed." — Meeting  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  at  New  Orleans 
(American  Historical  Review,  April,  1904,  p.  439). 
— "The  need  for  such  an  association  as  this,  which 
should  do  for  political  science  what  the  American 
Economic  and  American  Historical  Associations 
are  doing  for  economics  and  history  respectively, 
had  been  felt  for  a  number  of  years.  ...  At  a 
meeting  of  those  interested,  in  the  Tilton  Memo- 
rial Library  of  Tulane  University,  December  30, 
1903,  there  was  established,  as  has  been  said,  The 
American    Political    Science    Association.      As    its 


317 


AMERICAN    PROTECTIVE 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


first  president  was  elected  Dr.  Frank  J.  Goodnow, 
professor  of  administrative  law  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. .  .  .  Professor  W.  W.  Willoughby  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  was  elected  as  the  -secretary 
and  treasurer." — W.  W.  Willoughby  (American 
Political  Science  Quarterly,  March,  1904,  p.  log- 
in).— Since  that  time  the  Association  has  had, 
through  its  annual  meetings  and  its  publication, 
the  American  PolHical  Science  Review,  a  stimulat- 
ing effect  on  political  thought  and  teaching. 

AMERICAN  PROTECTIVE  ASSOCIA- 
TION, or  A.  P.  A.,  a  secret  order  formed  in 
1887  at  Clinton,  Iowa,  under  the  leadership  of 
Henry  F.  Bowers.  It  was  an  outgrowth  of  the 
Know-Nothing  Party  and  was  opposed  to  Roman 
Catholic  influence  in  politics,  and  in  the  schools.  Its 
influence  was  greatest  in  1896,  after  which  its  power 
declined   rapidly. 

Also  in:  H.  J.  Desmond,  A.  P.  A.  movement. — 
Congressional  Record,  Oct.  31,  1893. 

AMERICAN  PROTECTIVE  LEAGUE.  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  II. 
Espionage:    a,  4. 

AMERICAN  RAILWAY  EXPRESS  COM- 
PANY.   See  R.MLRO.xus:   1916-1920. 

AMERICAN  RAILWAY  UNION.  See  U.S.A.: 
1894:  Strike  at  Pullman. 

AMERICAN  RED  CROSS.  See  Red  cross: 
American  National   Red   Cro?s;    1917-1919;    1919- 

AMERICAN  RELIEF  ADMINISTRATION. 

See    I.VTERN.^TIONAL    RELIEF. 

AMERICAN   REPUBLICS,  Bureau  of.     See 

.American  republics,  International  union  of. 

AMERICAN  REPUBLICS,  International 
Union  of. — South  and  Central  American  na- 
tions: Their  recent  rapid  advance  in  character, 
dignity,  and  importance. — In  iSoo,  when  Mr. 
Blaine,  as  secretary  of  state,  opened  the  first  well- 
planned  erideavor  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  to  put  itstif  into  such  relations  with  them, 
of  friendly  influence,  there  was  little  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  the  movement.  Even  Mr. 
Blaine  did  not  seem  to  be  fully  earnest  and  fully 
sanguine  in  it,  or  else  his  chief  and  his  colleagues 
in  the  government  were  not  heartily  with  him ; 
for  his  admirable  scheme  of  policy  was  almost 
wrecked  in  the  second  year  of  its  working,  by  ill 
feelings  aroused  between  Chile  and  the  United 
States,  casting  suspicion  on  the  motives  with 
which  the  great  republic  of  North  America  had 
made  overtures  of  fraternity  to  the  republics  of 
the  south  and  freshening  an  old  distrust  in  their 
minds.  Happily,  however,  Mr.  Blaine,  in  1890, 
had  brought  about  the  creation  of  a  harmonizing 
and  unifying  agency  which  needed  only  time  to 
effect  great  results.  This  was  the  bureau  of  the 
American  republics,  established  at  Washington,  by 
a  vote  of  the  delegates  from  eighteen  North, 
South  and  Central  .■\merican  governments,  at  an 
International  American  Conference,  held  in  that 
city  in  March  of  the  year  named.  Its  immediate 
purpose  was  the  promotion  of  commercial  inter- 
course; but  the  information  spread  with  that  ob- 
ject, through  all  the  countries  concerned,  has  car- 
ried with  it  every  kind  of  pacific  understanding 
and  stimulation.  The  common  action  with  com- 
mon interests  thus  organized  must  have  had  more 
than  anything  else  to  do  with  the  generating  of  a 
public  spirit  in  the  Spanish-American  countries 
very  different  from  any  ever  manifested  before. 
The  Central  and  South  American  republics  had  so 
little  standing  among  the  nations  that  few  of  them 
were  invited  to  the  Peace  Conference  of  1899, 
and  the  invitation  was  accepted  by  none.  Span- 
ish America  was  represented  by  Mexico  alone.    At 


the  conference  of  1907  at  The  Hague  there  were 
delegates  from  all,  and  several  among  their  dele- 
gates took  a  notably  important  part,  giving  a 
marked  distinction  to  the  peoples  they  represented. 
It  was  by  special  effort  on  the  part  of  our  then 
secretary  of  state  that  they  were  brought  thus  into 
the  council  of  nations.  Mr.  Root  had  great  suc- 
cess, indeed,  in  realizing  the  aim  of  the  policy 
projected  and  initiated  by  Mr.  Blaine.  He  did 
much  to  clear  away  distrust  and  to  win  the  confi- 
dence of  the  .Americans  at  the  middle  and  south  of 
the  hemisphere. 

1890. — First  International  American  Confer- 
ence at  Washington. — Pan-American  Union  and 
its  bureau  created. — .\  "bureau,  or  agency,  repre- 
senting the  Republics  of  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
was  suggested  to  the  delegates  accredited  to  the  In- 
ternational American  Conference  held  in  Wash- 
ington in  18S9-90,  by  the  conference  held  at  Brus- 
sels in  May,  1888,  which  planned  for  an  interna- 
tional union  for  the  publication  of  customs  tar- 
iffs, etc.  .  .  .  On  March  29,  1S90,  the  International 
American  Conference,  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  the 
delegates  of  the  eighteen  countries  there  represented, 
namely:  The  Argentine  Republic,  Bolivia,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Ecuador,  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Paraguay, 
Peru,  Salvador,  United  States,  Uruguay,  and  Vene- 
zuela, provided  for  the  establishment  of  an  asso- 
ciation to  he  known  as  'The  International  Union 
of  .American  Republics  for  the  Prompt  Collection 
and  Distribution  of  Commercial  Information,' 
which  should  be  represented  at  the  capital  of  the 
United  States  by  a  Bureau,  under  the  title  of  'The 
Bureau  of  the  American  Republics.'  This  organ, 
so  to  speak,  of  the  independent  governments  of  the 
New  World  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  and 
was  to  continue  in  existence  for  a  period  of  ten 
years,  and.  if  found  profitable  to  the  nations  par- 
ticipating in  its  advantages,  it  was  to  be  maintained 
for  successive  periods  of  ten  years  indefinitely.  .At 
the  first  session  of  the  Fifty-first  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  that  body,  in  an  '.Act  making  ap- 
propriations for  the  support  of  the  Diplomatic  and 
Consular  Ser\"ice,  etc.,' approved  July  14,1800,  gave 
the  President  authority  to  carry  into  effect  the 
recommendations  of  the  Conference  so  far  as  he 
should  deem  them  expedient,  and  appropriated 
,$36,000  for  the  organization  and  establishment  of 
the  Bureau,  which  amount  it  had  been  stipulated  by 
the  delegates  in  the  Conference  assembled  should 
not  be  exceeded,  and  should  be  annually  advanced 
by  the  United  States  and  shared  by  the  several  Re- 
publics in  proportion  to  their  population.  .  .  .  The 
Conference  had  defined  the  purpose  of  the  Bureau 
to  be  the  preparation  and  publication  of  bulletins 
concerning  the  commerce  and  resources  of  the 
-American  Republics,  and  to  furnish  information  of 
interest  to  manufacturers,  merchants,  and  shippers, 
which  should  be  at  all  times  available  to  persons 
desirous  of  obtaining  particulars  regarding  their 
customs  tariffs  and  regulations,  as  well  as  commerce 
and  navigation." — Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can republics,  June,  1898. — .A  plan  of  government 
for  the  international  union,  by  an  executive  com- 
mittee composed  of  representatives  of  the  .Ameri- 
can nations  constituting  the  union,  was  adopted 
in  1896,  but  modified  at  a  conference  held  in 
Washington,  March  18,  1899.  .As  then  adopted,  the 
plan  of  government  is  as  follows:  "The  Bureau  of 
the  .American  Republics  will  be  governed  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United 
States,  with  the  cooperation  and  advice  of  four  rep- 
resentatives of  the  other  Republics  composing  the 
International  Union,  the  five  persons  indicated  to 


318 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


1901-1902 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


constitute  an  Executive  Committee,  of  which  the 
Secretary  of  State  is  to  be  ex-officio  Chairman,  or, 
in  his  absence,  the  Acting  Secretary  of  State.  The 
other  four  members  of  the  Executive  Committee 
shall  be  called  to  serve  in  turn,  in  the  alphabetical 
order  of  the  official  names  of  their  nations  in  one 
of  the  four  languages  of  the  Union,  previously  se- 
lected by  lot  at  a  meeting  of  the  representatives  of 
the  Union.  At  the  end  of  each  year  the  first  of 
these  four  members  shall  retire,  giving  place  to  an- 
other representative  of  the  Union,  in  the  same  al- 
phabetical order  already  explained,  and  so  on  until 
the  next  period  of  succession.  .  .  .  The  interest 
taken  by  the  various  States  forming  the  Interna- 
tional Union  of  American  Republics  in  the  work  of 
its  organic  bureau  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  for 
the  first  time  since  its  creation  in  i8qo  all  the  re- 
publics of  South  and  Central  America  are  now 
I  iSgg]  represented  in  it.  The  unanimous  recom- 
mendation of  the  International  American  Confer- 
ence, providing  for  the  International  Union  of 
American  Republics,  stated  that  it  should  continue 
in  force  during  a  term  of  ten  years  from  the  date 
of  its  organization,  and  no  country  becoming  a 
member  of  the  union  should  cease  to  be  a  member 
until  the  end  of  said  period  of  ten  years,  and  un- 
less twelve  months  before  the  expiration  of  said 
period  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  union 
had  given  to  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United 
States  official  notice  of  their  wish  to  terminate  the 
union  at  the  end  of  its  first  period,  that  the  union 
should  continue  to  be  maintained  for  another  period 
of  ten  years,  and  thereafter,  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, for  successive  periods  of  ten  years  each. 
The  period  for  notification  expired  on  July  15, 
1899,  without  any  of  the  members  having  given 
the  necessary  notice  of  withdrawal.  Its  mainte- 
nance is  therefore  assured  for  the  next  ten  years." 
— Message  of  the  president  of  the  United  Slates, 
December  5,  1899.— See  also  U.  S.  A.;  1889-1891. 

1901-1902. — Second  International  American 
Conference,  held  at  the  City  of  Mexico. — Its 
proceedings,  conventions,  resolutions,  etc. — On 
the  suggestion  of  President  McKinley  and  on  the 
invitation  of  President  Diaz,  of  Mexico,  a  second 
conference  was  convened  at  the  city  of  Mexico,  on 
October  23,  1901.  The  sessions  of  this  conference 
were  prolonged  until  January  31,  1902.  It  was  at- 
tended by  delegates  from  every  independent  nation 
then  existing  in  America,  being  twenty  in  number ; 
but  the  delegation  of  Venezuela  was  withdrawn  by 
the  government  of  that  state  on  January  14  and 
the  withdrawal  was  made  retroactive  to  and  from 
the  preceding  December  31.  The  delegation  from 
the  United  States  was  composed  of  ex-United 
States  Senator  Henry  G.  Davis;  Mr.  William  I. 
Buchanan,  formerly  envoy  extraordinary  and  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine  Republic ; 
Mr.  John  Barrett,  formerly  minister  resident  of 
the  United  States  to  Siam;  and  Messrs.  Charles  M. 
Pepper  and  Volney  W.  Foster.  The  following  ac- 
count of  the  work  of  the  conference  and  its  re- 
sults is  compiled  from  the  report  made  by  the 
delegates  of  the  United  States  to  the  Department 
of  State:  "Sefior  Raigosa,  chairman  of  the  Mexi- 
can delegation,  was  chosen  temporary  president, 
and  the  Conference  then  proceeded  to  its  perma- 
nent organization  by  the  election  of  his  excellency 
Senor  Lic.Don  Ignaci  Mariscal,  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  of  Mexico,  and  Hon.  John  Hay, 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  honorary 
presidents;  Seiior  Lic.Don  Genaro  Raigosa,  of 
Mexico,  president;  Senor  Don  Jos6  Hygino  Duarte 
Pereira,  of  Brazil,  first  vice-president,  and  Senor 
Doctor  Don  Baltasar  Estupinian,  of  Salvador,  sec- 
ond  vice-president.  .  .  .  Under   the    rules   adopted 


19   committees  were   appointed   and   the  work  of 

the  conference  was  apportioned  among  them.  .  .  . 
Discussion  between  the  representatives  of  the  Re- 
publics that  would  constitute  the  conference  began 
months  previous  to  its  opening  upon  the  subject 
of  arbitration,  and  while  every  desire  was  mani- 
fested then  and  thereafter  by  all  to  see  a  conclusion 
reached  by  the  conference  in  which  all  might  join, 
unsettled  questions  existed  between  some  of  the 
Republics  that  would  participate  in  the  conference 
of  a  character  that  made  their  avoidance  difficult 
in  any  general  discussion  of  the  subject.  .  .  .  This 
difficulty  became  more  apparent  as  the  conference 
proceeded  with  its  work,  ...  It  was  tacitly  agreed 
between  delegations,  therefore,  that  the  discussion 
of  the  subject  should  be  confined,  so  far  as  possible, 
to  a  committee.  .  .  .  There  was  at  no  time  any 
difficulty  with  regard  to  securing  a  unanimous  re- 
port favoring  a  treaty  covering  merely  arbitration 
as  a  principle;  all  delegations  were  in  favor  of  that. 
The  point  of  discussion  was  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  principle  should  be  applied.  Concern- 
ing this,  three  views  were  supported  in  the  confer- 
ence: (a)  Obligatory  arbitration,  covering  all  ques- 
tions pending  or  future  when  they  did  not  affect 
either  independence  or  the  national  honor  of  a 
country;  (b)  Obligatory  arbitration  covering  future 
questions  only  and  defining  what  questions  shall 
constitute  those  to  be  excepted  from  arbitration; 
and  (c)  Facultative  or  voluntary  arbitration,  as 
best  expressed  by  The  Hague  convention.  ...  A 
plan  was  finally  sugested  providing  that  all  dele- 
gations should  sign  the  protocol  for  adhesion  to 
the  convention  of  The  Hague,  as  originally  sug- 
gested by  the  United  States  delegation,  and  that 
the  advocates  of  obligatory  arbitration  sign,  be- 
tween themselves,  a  project  of  treaty  obligating 
their  respective  governments  to  submit  to  the  per- 
manent court  at  The  Hague  all  questions  arising  or 
in  existence,  between  themselves,  which  did  not 
affect  their  independence  or  their  national  honor. 
Both  the  protocol  and  treaty  were  then  to  be 
brought  before  the  conference,  incorporated  in  the 
minutes  without  debate  or  action,  and  sent  to 
the  minister  of  foreign  relations  of  Mexico,  to  be 
officially  certified  and  transmitted  by  that  official 
to  the  several  signatory  governments.  After  pro- 
longed negotiations  this  plan  was  adopted  and  car- 
ried out  as  outlined  above,  all  of  the  delegations 
in  the  conference,  excepting  those  of  Chile  and 
Ecuador,  signing  the  protocol  covering  adherence 
to  The  Hague  convention  before  its  submission 
to  the  conference.  These,  after  a  protracted  debate 
on  a  point  of  order  involving  the  plan  adopted, 
later  accepted  in  open  conference  a  solution  which 
made  them — as  they  greatly  desired  to  be.  in  an- 
other form  than  that  adopted — parties  to  the  proto- 
col. The  project  of  treaty  of  compulsory  arbitra- 
tion was  signed  by  the  delegations  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Bolivia,  Santo  Domingo,  El  Salva- 
dor, Guatemala,  Mexico,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Uruguay, 
and  Venezuela.  .  .  . 

"In  addition  to  accepting  The  Hague  conven- 
tion the  conference  went  further.  It  accepted  the 
three  Hague  conventions  as  principles  of  public 
American  international  law,  and  authorized  and 
requested  the  President  of  the  Mexican  Republic^ 
as  heretofore  explained,  to  enter  upon  negotiations 
with  the  several  American  Governments  looking 
toward  the  most  unrestricted  application  of  arbi- 
tration possible  should  the  way  for  such  a  step 
appear  open.  In  addition  to  the  protocol  and 
treaty  referred  to,  another  step  was  taken  in  the 
direction  of  the  settlement  of  international  con- 
troversies by  the  adoption  and  signing,  on  the  part 
of  every  country  represented  in  the  conference,  of 


319 


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1906 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


a  project  of  treaty  covering  the  arbitration  of 
pecuniary  claims.  Under  this  the  several  repubUcs 
(obligated]  themselves  for  a  period  of  five  years 
to  submit  to  the  arbitration  of  the  court  at  The 
Hague  all  claims  for  pecuniary  loss  or  damage 
which  [might]  be  presented  by  their  respective 
citizens  and  which  [could  not]  be  amicably  ad- 
justed through  diplomatic  channels  when  such 
claims  [were]  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant 
the  expense  of  arbitration.  .  .  . 

"Among  the  most  important  recommendations 
made  by  the  First  International  American  Confer- 
ence, held  in  Washington  in  i88q-Qo,  with  a  view 
to  facilitating  trade  and  communication  between 
the  American  Republics,  was  that  looking  to  the 
construction  of  an  intercontinental  railway,  by 
which  all  of  the  republics  on  the  American  conti- 
nent would  be  put  into  rail  communication  with 
each  other.  In  pursuance  of  the  recommendations 
of  that  conference,  an  international  railway  com- 
mission was  organized,  and  under  its  direction  sur- 
veys were  made  which  showed  that  it  would  be 
entirely  practicable,  by  using,  as  far  as  possible, 
existing  railway  systems  and  filling  in  the  gaps 
between  them.  .  .  .  The  report  of  the  interconti- 
nental railway  commission  showed  that  the  dis- 
tance between  New  York  and  Buenos  .\yres  by 
way  of  the  proposed  line  would  be  10.471  miles, 
of  which  a  little  less  than  one-half  had  then  been 
constructed,  leaving  about  5456  miles  to  be  built. 
Following  up  the  work  of  the  first  conference  and 
the  intercontinental  railway  commission,  the  [sec- 
ond] conference  adopted  a  strong  report  and  a 
series  of  carefully  considered  recommendations  on 
this  subject.  .  .  .  Another  resolution  ...  is  that 
regarding  quarantine  and  sanitary  matters.  In 
dealing  with  this  subject  the  object  of  the  confer- 
ence was  to  malie  sanitation  take  the  place  of 
quarantine.  .  .  . 

"The  conference  fully  recognized  the  value  and 
importance  to  all  the  Republics  of  the  Interna- 
tional Bureau  of  the  American  Republics,  which 
was  established  m  Washington  in  pursuance  of 
the  action  of  the  First  International  .American 
Conference.  .  .  .  With  a  view  to  .rendering  the 
Bureau  still  more  useful  to  all  the  countries  rep- 
resented in  its  administration,  and  making  it  still 
more  valuable  in  establishing  and  maintaining 
closer  relations  between  them,  the  conference 
adopted  a  plan  of  reorganization,  or  rather  of 
broadening  and  expanding  the  existing  organiza- 
tion. .  .  .  The  new  regulations  adopted  [provided] 
that  the  Bureau  [should]  be  under  the  management 
of  a  governing  board  to  be  composed  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  of  the  United  States,  who  [was] 
to  be  its  chairman,  and  the  diplomatic  representa- 
tives in  Washington  of  all  the  other  governments 
represented  in  the  Bureau.  This  governing  board 
[was]  to  meet  regularly  once  a  month,  excepting 
in  June,  July,  and  .August  of  each  year.  ...  In 
order  that  the  archaeological  and  ethnological  re- 
mains existing  in  the  territory  of  the  several  Re- 
publics of  the  Western  Hemisphere  might  be  sys- 
tematically studied  and  preserved,  the  conference 
adopted  a  resolution  providing  for  the  meeting  of 
an  American  international  archaeological  com- 
mission in  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C,  within 
two  years  from  the  date  of  the  adoption  of  the 
resolution.  .  .  .  The  conference  gave  its  most 
hearty  indorsement  to  the  project  for  the  construc- 
tion of  an  interoceanic  canal  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  States.  .  .  .  The  recommendation  of 
the  conference  that  there  be  established  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  New  Orleans, 
Buenos  Ayres,  or  any  other  important  mercantile 
center,  a  bank  with  branches  in  the  principal  cities 


in  the  American  republics,  [was]  in  line  with  the 
similar  resolution  adopted  by  the  First  Interna- 
tional .American  Conference  in  Washington  in  1889- 
QO. 

"In  addition  to  the  protocol  for  the  adhesion  of 
the  American  Republics  to  the  Convention  of  The 
Hague,  the  treaty  of  compulson.'  arbitration  signed 
by  nine  delegations,  and  the  treaty  for  the  arbi- 
tration of  pecuniary  claims,  the  Conference  agreed 
to  and  signed  a  treaty  for  the  extradition  of  crimi- 
nals, .  .  .  including  a  clause  making  anarchy  an 
extraditable  offense  when  it  shall  have  been  de- 
fined by  the  legislation  of  the  respective  countries; 
a  convention  on  the  practice  of  the  learned  pro- 
fessions, providing  for  the  reciprocal  recognition 
of  the  professional  diplomas  and  titles  granted 
in  the  several  Republics;  a  convention  for  the 
formation  of  codes  of  public  and  private  inter- 
national law ;  .  .  .  a  convention  on  literary  and 
artistic  copyrights;  ...  a  convention  for  the  ex- 
change of  official,  scientific,  literary,  and  indus- 
trial publications;  ...  a  treaty  on  patents  of  in- 
vention, etc.;  .  .  .  and  a  convention  on  the  rights 
of  aliens."  The  treaty  on  patents  and  the  conven- 
tion on  the  rights  of  aliens  could  not  be  signed  by 
the  delegates  cf  the  United  States,  for  reasons  set 
forth  in  their  report. — 571'/!  Congress,  isl  Session 
i90i-igo2,  Senate  Document  330. — See  also  Arbi- 
TRATiox,  IxTtRNATioxAL:  Modcm  period:  1902; 
Mexico:  1004-1005. 

1906. — Third  International  American  Confer- 
ence, at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil. — Proceedings, 
conventions,  resolutions. — The  third  international 
conference  of  American  republics  was  held  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  from  July  21  to  August  26,  1906. 
It  was  attended  by  delegates  from  each  of  the 
twenty-one  .'\merican  republics,  excepting  only 
Hayti  and  Venezuela.  The  delegates  from  the 
United  States  of  .America  were  the  Hon.  William  I. 
Buchanan,  chairman,  formerly  envoy  extraordi- 
nary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine 
RepubUc;  Dr.  L.  S.  Rowe,  professor  of  political 
science.  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Hon.  A.  J. 
Montague,  cx-governor  of  Virginia;  Mr.  Tulio  Lar- 
rinaga,  resident  commissioner  from  Porto  Rico  in 
Washington;  Mr.  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  professor  of 
political  science,  university  of  Wisconsin;  Mr.  Van 
Leer  Polk,  ex-consul-general ;  with  a  staff  of  secre- 
taries, etc.,  from  several  departments  of  the  public 
service  at  W'ashington.  The  conference  was  at- 
tended also  by  the  secretary  of  state  of  the  United 
States,  the  Hon.  Elihu  Root,  incidentally  to  an 
important  tour  through  many  parts  of  South 
.America  which  he  made  in  the  months  of  that 
summer.  In  the  course  of  his  journey  he  visited, 
on  invitation,  not  only  Brazil,  but  Uruguay,  Ar- 
gentina, Chile,  Peru,  Panama,  and  Colombia;  and, 
as  stated  in  the  next  annual  message  of  President 
Roosevelt,  "he  refrained  from  visiting  Paraguay, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador  only  because  the  distance  of 
their  capitals  from  the  seaboard  made  it  imprac- 
ticable with  the  time  at  his  disposal.  He  carried 
with  him  a  message  of  peace  and  friendship,  and 
of  strong  desire  for  good  understanding  and  mu- 
tual helpfulness ;  and  he  was  every w  here  received 
in  the  spirit  of  his  message." 

In  the  instructions  to  the  delegates  from  the 
United  States,  prepared  by  Secretary  Root,  this 
wise  admonition  was  conveyed: — It  is  important 
that  you  should  keep  in  mind  and,  as  occasion 
serves,  impress  upon  your  colleagues,  that  such  a 
conference  is  not  an  agency  for  compulsion  or  a 
tribunal  for  adjudication ;  it  is  not  designed  to 
compel  States  to  make  treaties  or  to  observe  trea- 
ties; it  should  not  sit  in  judgment  upon  the  con- 
duct of  any  State,  or  undertake  to  redress  alleged 


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wrongs,  or  to  settle  controverted  questions  of  right. 
A  successful  attempt  to  give  such  a  character  to 
the  Conference  would  necessarily  be  fatal  to  the 
Conference  itself,  for  few  if  any  of  the  States 
represented  in  it  would  be  willing  to  submit  their 
sovereignty  to  the  supervision  which  would  be  ex- 
ercised by  a  body  thus  arrogating  to  itself  supreme 
and  indefinite  powers.  The  true  function  of  such 
a  conference  is  to  deai  with  matters  of  common  in- 
terest which  are  not  really  subjects  of  controversy, 
but  upon  which  comparison  of  views  and  friendly 
discussion  may  smooth  away  differences  of  detail, 
develop  substantial  agreement  and  lead  to  coopera- 
tion along  common  lines  for  the  attainment  of 
objects  which  all  really  desire.  It  follows  from 
this  view  of  the  functions  of  the  Conference  that 
it  is  not  expected  to  accomplish  any  striking  or 
spectacular  final  results;  but  is  to  deal  with  many 
matters  which,  not  being  subjects  of  controversy, 
attract  little  public  attention,  yet  which,  taken  to- 
gether, are  of  great  importance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  friendly  intercourse  among  nations;  and  it 
is  to  make  such  progress  as  may  now  be  possible 
toward  the  acceptance  of  ideals,  the  full  realizStion 
of  which  may  be  postponed  to  a  distant  future. 
All  progress  toward  the  complete  reign  of  justice 
and  peace  among  nations  is  accomplished  by  long 
and  patient  effort  and  by  many  successive  steps; 
and  it  is  confidently  hoped  that  this  Conference 
will  mark  some  substantial  advancement  by  all  the 
American  States  in  this  process  of  developing 
Christian  civilization.  Not  the  least  of  the  bene- 
fits anticipated  from  the  Conference  will  be  the 
establishment  of  agreeable  personal  relations,  the 
removal  of  misconceptions  and  prejudices,  and 
the  habit  of  temperate  and  kindly  discussion  among 
the  representatives  of  so  many  Republics." 

The  following  account  of  the  conference  and 
its  action  is  derived  from  the  subsequent  official 
report  of  the  delegates  of  the  United  States:  — 
"The  sessions  of  the  Conference  were  held  in  a 
spacious  and  ornate  building,  erected  especially  for 
this  purpose  by  the  Brazilian  Government,  and 
situated  on  the  superb  new  boulevard  that  for 
nearly  four  miles  follows  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of 
Rio,  and  at  the  end  of  the  new  Avenida  Central. 
The  building  is  a  permanent  one,  reproduced  in 
granite  and  marble  from  the  plans  of  the  palace 
erected  by  Brazil  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Ex- 
position, at  St.  Louis.  ...  It  was  christened  'The 
Monroe  Palace'  by  special  action  of  the  Brazilian 
Government.  The  Brazilian  Government  installed 
in  the  palace  a  complete  telegraph,  mail,  and  tele- 
phone service,  and  telegrams,  cables,  and  mail  of 
the  different  delegations  and  of  individual  dele- 
gates were  transmitted  free.  .  .  .  The  governments 
of  the  Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and 
Chili  .  .  .  officially  extended,  through  the  director 
of  telegraphs  of  Brazil,  the  courtesy  of  free  transit 
for  all  telegrams  sent  by  delegates  over  the  tele- 
graph lines  of  their  respective  countries.  ...  In 
connection  with  the  work  of  the  Conference,  the 
Brazilian  Government  organized  and  maintained  at 
its  expense  an  extensive  and  competent  'corps  of 
translators,  stenographers,  and  clerical  assistants, 
whose  services  were  at  all  times  at  the  command 
of  the  delegates.  .  .  .  The  palace  was  elaborately 
lighted  and  was  the  center  of  attraction  day  and 
night  for  great  crowds  of  people,  and  nothing  in 
connection  with  its  equipment  and  administration 
or  that  concerned  the  comfort  or  convenience  of 
delegates  was  left  undone  by  the  Brazilian  Govern- 
ment. 

"The  Conference  was  formally  opened  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  large  and  distinguished  audience  on  the 
evening   of   July   23,   IQ06,  by   His  Excellency  the 


Baron  do  Rio  Branco,  the  distinguished  Brazilian 
minister  for  foreign  affairs.  The  approaches  to 
the  palace  were  lined  with  troops,  the  public 
grounds  and  avenues  of  the  city  brilliantly  illumi- 
nated and  packed  with  people.  .  .  .  The  Confer- 
ence unanimously  chose  as  its  president.  His  Ex- 
cellency Seiior  Dr.  Joaquim  Nabuco,  the  BraziUan 
Ambassador  to  the  United  States;  as  honorary 
vice-presidents.  His  Excellency  the  Baron  do  Rio 
Branco,  and  the  Hon.  Elihu  Root,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States,  and  as  its  Secretary- 
General,  His  Excellency,  Senor  Dr.  J.  F.  de  Assis- 
Brasil,  the  Brazilian  envoy  extraordinary  and 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. The  Conference  was  attended  by  delegates 
from  each  of  the  21  American  Republics,  with  the 
exception  of  Haiti  and  Venezuela.  The  extraordi- 
nary session  of  the  Conference  to  receive  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  of  the  United  States  was  held  on 
the  evening  of  July  31  and  was  one  of  great  bril- 
liancy. In  introducing  the  Secretary  of  State  to 
the  Conference,  His  Excellency  Dr.  Joaquim  Na- 
buco, the  BraziUan  Ambassador  to  the  United 
States  and  President  of  the  Conference,  delivered 
a  notable  address,  to  which  the  Secretary  of  State 
replied."  Mr.  Roofs  address  well  deserved  the 
distinction  that  was  accorded  to  it  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  when  he  appended  it 
to  his  message  to  Congress  the  following  Decem- 
ber. Much  of  it  gains  new  significance  from  the 
World  War. 

"I  bring  from  my  country,"  said  the  secretary, 
"a  special  greeting  to  her  elder  sisters  in  the  civi- 
lization of  America.  Unlike  as  we  are  in  many 
respects,  we  are  alike  in  this,  that  we  are  all  en- 
gaged under  new  conditions,  and  free  from  the 
traditional  forms  and  limitations  of  the  Old  World 
in  working  out  the  same  problem  of  popular  self- 
government.  It  is  a  difficult  and  laborious  task 
for  each  of  us.  Not  in  one  generation  nor  in  one 
century  can  the  effective  control  of  a  superior 
sovereign,  so  long  deemed  necessary  to  government, 
be  rejected  and  effective  self-control  by  the  gov- 
erned be  perfected  in  its  place.  The  first  fruits  of 
democracy  are  many  of  them  crude  and  unlovely; 
its  mistakes  are  many,  its  partial  failures  many,  its 
sins  not  few.  Capacity  for  self-government  does 
not  come  to  man  by  nature.  It  is  an  art  to  be 
learned,  and  it  is  also  an  expression  of  character 
to  be  developed  among  all  the  thousands  of  men 
who  exercise  popular  sovereignty.  To  reach  the 
goal  toward  which  we  are  pressing  forward,  the 
governing  multitude  must  first  acquire  knowledge 
that  comes  from  universal  education,  wisdom  that 
follows  practical  experience,  personal  independence 
and  self-respect  befitting  men  who  acknowledge  no 
superior,  self-control  to  replace  that  external  con- 
trol which  a  democracy  rejects,  respect  for  law, 
obedience  to  the  lawful  expressions  of  the  public 
will,  consideration  for  the  opinions  and  interests 
of  others  equally  entitled  to  a  voice  in  the  state, 
loyalty  to  that  abstract  conception — one's  country 
— as  inspiring  as  that  loyalty  to  personal  sovereigns 
which  has  so  illumined  the  pages  of  history,  sub- 
ordination of  personal  interests  to  the  public  good, 
love  of  justice  and  mercy,  of  liberty  and  order. 
All  these  we  must  seek  by  slow  and  patient  effort; 
and  of  how  many  shortcomings  in  his  own  land 
and  among  his  own  people  each  one  of  us  is  con- 
scious! Yet  no  student  of  our  times  can  fail  to 
see  that  not  America  alone  but  the  whole  civilized 
world  is  swinging  away  from  its  old  governmental 
moorings  and  intrusting  the  fate  of  its  civilization 
to  the  capacity  of  the  popular  mass  to  govern.  By 
this  pathway  mankind  is  to  travel,  whithersoever 
it  leads.     Upon  the  success  of  this  our  great  un- 


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dertaking  the  hope  of  humanity  depends.  Nor  can 
we  fail  to  see  that  the  world  makes  substantial 
progress  towards  more  perfect  popular  self-govern- 
ment. ...  It  is  not  by  national  isolation  that 
these  results  have  been  accomplished  or  that  this 
progress  can  be  continued.  No  nation  can  live 
unto  itself  alone  and  continue  to  !'ve.  Each  na- 
tion's growth  is  a  part  of  the  development  of  the 
race.  There  may  be  leaders  and  there  may  be 
laggards,  but  no  nation  can  long  continue  very  far 
in  advance  of  the  general  progress  of  mankind, 
and  no  nation  that  is  not  doomed  to  extinction 
can  remain  very  far  behind.  It  is  with  nations 
as  with  individual  men ;  intercourse,  association, 
correction  of  egotism  by  the  influence  of  others' 
judgment,  broadening  of  views  by  the  experience 
and  thought  of  equals,  acceptance  of  the  moral 
standards  of  a  community  the  desire  for  whose 
good  opinion  lends  a  sanction  to  the  rules  of  right 
conduct — these  are  the  conditions  of  growth  in 
civilization.  ...  To  promote  this  mutual  inter- 
change and  assistance  between  the  American  re- 
publics, engaged  in  the  same  great  task,  inspired 
by  the  same  purpose,  and  professing  the  same 
principles,  I  understand  to  be  the  function  of  the 
American  Conference  now  in  session.  There  is 
not  one  of  all  our  countries  that  cannot  benefit  the 
others;  there  is  not  one  that  cannot  receive  benefit 
from  the  others;  there  is  not  one  that  will  not 
gain  by  the  prosperity,  the  peace,  the  happiness  of 
all.  .  .  .  The  association  of  so  many  eminent  men 
from  all  the  Republics,  leaders  of  opinion  in  their 
own  homes;  the  friendships  that  will  arise  among 
you ;  the  habit  of  temperate  and  kindly  discussion 
of  matters  of  common  interest;  the  ascertainment 
of  common  sympathies  and  aims;  the  dissipation 
of  misunderstandings;  the  exhibition  to  all  the 
American  peoples  of  this  peaceful  and  considerate 
method  of  conferring  upon  international  questions 
— this  alone,  quite  irrespective  of  the  resolutions 
you  may  adopt  and  the  conventions  you  may  sign, 
will  mark  a  substantial  advance  in  the  direction 
of  international  good  understanding.  These  benefi- 
cient  results  the  Government  and  the  people  of 
the  United  States  of  America  greatly  desire.  We 
wish  for  no  victories  but  those  of  peace ;  for  no 
territory  except  our  own ;  for  no  sovereignty  ex- 
cept the  sovereignty  over  ourselves.  We  deem 
the  independence  and  equal  rights  of  the  smallest 
and  weakest  member  of  the  family  of  nations  en- 
titled to  as  much  respect  as  those  of  the  greatest 
empire,  and  we  deem  the  observance  of  that  respect 
the  chief  guaranty  of  the  weak  against  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  strong.  We  neither  claim  nor  desire 
any  rights,  or  privileges,  or  powers  that  we  do 
not  freely  concede  to  every  American  republic. 
We  wi^  to  increase  our  prosperity,  to  expand  our 
trade,  to  grow  in  wealth,  in  wisdom,  and  in  spirit, 
but  our  conception  of  the  true  way  to  accomplish 
this  is  not  to  pull  down  others  and  profit  by  their 
ruin,  but  to  help  all  friends  to  a  common  pros- 
perity and  a  common  growth,  that  we  may  all 
become  greater  and  stronger  together.  Within  a 
few  months,  for  the  first  time  the  recognized  pos- 
sessors of  every  foot  of  soil  upon  the  American 
continents  can  be  and  I  hope  will  be  represented 
with  the  acknowledged  rights  of  equal  sovereign 
states  in  the  great  World  Congress  at  The  Hague. 
This  will  be  the  world's  formal  and  final  accept- 
ance of  the  declaration  that  no  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can continents  is  to  be  deemed  subject  to  coloniza- 
tion. Let  us  pledge  ourselves  to  aid  each  other 
in  the  full  performance  of  the  duty  to  humanity 
which  that  accepted  declaration  implies;  so  that 
in  time  the  weakest  and  most  unfortunate  of  our 
republics  may  come  to  march  with  equal  step  by 


the  side  of  the  stronger  and  more  fortunate.  Let 
us  help  each  other  to  show  that  for  all  the  races 
of  men  the  liberty  for  which  we  have  fought  and 
labored  is  the  twin  sister  of  justice  and  peace. 
Let  us  unite  in  creating  and  maintaining  and  mak- 
ing effective  an  all-American  public  opinion,  whose 
power  shall  influence  international  conduct  and 
prevent  international  wrong,  and  narrow  the  causes 
of  war,  and  forever  preserve  our  free  lands  from 
the  burden  of  such  armaments  as  are  massed  be- 
hind the  frontiers  of  Europe,  and  bring  us  ever 
nearer  to  the  perfection  of  ordered  liberty.  So 
shall  come  security  and  prosperity,  production  and 
trade,  wealth,  learning,  the  arts,  and  happiness  for 
us  all." — See  also  Peace  movement:  Attitude  of 
governments. 

The  fruits  of  the  conference  were  embodied  in 
four  conventions  and  a  number  of  important  reso- 
lutions. One  convention  agreed  to,  established  be- 
tween the  states  signing  it  the  status  of  naturalized 
citizens  who  again  take  up  their  residence  in  the 
country  of  their  origin.  (See  Naturalization.) 
Another,  which  amended  and  extended  the  opera- 
tion of  a  treaty  signed  at  the  second  conference, 
at  Mexico,  in  IQ02,  is  as  follows:  "Sole  article. 
The  treaty  on  pecuniary  claims  signed  at  Mexico 
January  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  two,  shall 
continue  in  force,  with  the  exception  of  the  third 
article,  which  is  hereby  abolished,  until  the  thirty- 
first  day  of  December,  nineteen  hundred  and 
twelve,  both  for  the  nations  which  have  already 
ratified  it,  and  for  those  which  may  hereafter 
ratify  it."  The  third  convention  signed  was  a 
modification  and  extension  of  another  of  the  agree- 
ments of  the  second  conference,  at  Mexico,  having 
relation  to  patents  of  invention,  literary  property, 
etc.  The  fourth  convention  provided  for  an  "in- 
ternational Commission  of  Jurists,  composed  of 
one  representative  from  each  of  the  signatory 
States,  appointed  by  their  respective  Governments, 
which  Commission  shall  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
preparing  a  draft  of  a  code  of  Private  Interna- 
tional Law  and  one  of  Public  International  Law, 
regulating  the  relations  between  the  nations  of 
America  "  The  more  important  of  the  resolutions 
adopted  were  the  following:  "To  ratify  adher- 
ence to  the  principle  of  arbitration ,  and,  to  the 
end  that  so  high  a  purpose  may  be  rendered  prac- 
ticable, to  recommend  to  the  Nations  represented 
at  this  Conference  that  instructions  be  given  to 
their  Delegates  to  the  Second  Conference  to  be 
held  at  The  Hague,  to  endeavor  to  secure  by  the 
said  Assembly,  of  world-wide  character,  the  cele- 
bration of  a  General  Arbitration  Convention,  so 
effective  and  definite  that,  meriting  the  approval 
of  the  civilized  world,  it  shall  be  accepted  and  put 
in  force  by  every  nation.  To  recommend  to  the 
Governments  represented  therein  that  they  consider 
the  point  of  inviting  the  Second  Peace  Conference, 
at  The  Hague,  to  examine  the  question  of  the 
compulsory  collection  of  public  debts,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, means  tending  to  diminish  between  Nations 
conflicts  having  an  exclusively  pecuniary  origin." 
Other  resolutions  of  the  conference  were  directed 
to  a  broadening  of  the  work  and  an  enlargement 
of  the  influence  of  the  international  bureau  of  the 
American  republics ;  to  the  erection  of  a  building 
for  that  bureau  and  for  the  contemplated  library 
in  memory  of  Columbus;  to  the  erection  in  the 
bureau  of  a  section  having  "as  its  chief  object  a 
special  study  of  the  customs  legislation,  consular 
regulations  and  commercial  statistics  of  the  Re- 
publics of  America,"  with  a  view  to  bringing  them 
into  more  harmony,  and  to  securing  the  greatest 
development  and  amplification  of  commercial  re- 
lations  between   American   republics;    to   promote 


322 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


1906-1920 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 


the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  navigation 
lines  connecting  the  principal  ports  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent;  to  bring  about  more  effective  co- 
operation in  international  sanitary  measures;  to 
advance  the  construction  of  lines  that  shall  form, 
connectedly,  the  desired  Pan-American  railway, 
extending  through  the  two  continents. 

1906-1908.  —  Bureau's  increased  efficiency. — 
Building  given  by  Andrew  Carnegie. — The  in- 
ternational bureau  of  the  American  republics  as- 
sumed larger  functions  and  increased  importance 
in  1906,  after  the  return  of  Mr.  Root,  United 
States  secretary  of  state,  from  his  tour  of  visits 
to  the  South  American  states.  The  Hon.  John 
Barrett,  who  had  successively  represented  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  in  Panama,  in  Ar- 
gentina and  in  Colombia,  as  well  as  at  the  second 
Pan-.\merican  conference,  in  Mexico,  was  made 
Director  of  the  Bureau  and  entered  upon  his  duties 
with  a  strong  belief  in  the  possibilities  of  good  to 
be  done  in  the  American  hemisphere  by  an  ener- 
getic promotion  of  more  intimate  relations  be- 
tween its  peoples.  At  the  same  time  a  new  dig- 
nity was  given  to  the  international  union  of  the 
American  republics,  embodied  in  the  work  of  the 
bureau,  by  the  provision  of  a  stately  building  for 
its  use.  Mr.  Root  had  persuaded  Congress  to 
appropriate  $200,000  for  the  site  and  building  of 
such  a  home,  to  be  offered  to  the  union,  and  this 
inadequate  sum  was  supplemented  by  a  generous 
private  gift  from  Andrew  Carnegie,  who  offered 
an  addition  of  $750,000  to  the  fund  for  the  Pan- 
American  building.  The  site  secured  for  the  struc- 
ture was  that  of  the  old  Van  Ness  mansion,  about 
half-way  between  the  State,  War  and  Navy  build- 
ings and  the  Potomac  River.  It  covers  a  tract  of 
five  acres,  facing  public  parks  on  two  sides.  There 
the  corner  stone  of  a  central  seat  of  Pan-American 
cooperations  and  influences  was  laid  in  May,  1908, 
in  the  presence  of  official  representatives  from 
twenty-one  American  republics,  and  under  their 
assembled  flags. — See  also  ABC  Conferenxe. 

1910. — Fourth  International  American  Confer- 
ence, at  Buenos  Aires.  — "It  was  notable  for 
having  finally  dealt  with  all  the  subjects  on  its 
program,  including  treaties  relating  to  patents, 
trademarks,  and  copyrights.  A  treaty  was  also 
made  for  the  indefinite  extension  of  the  agreement 
for  the  arbitration  of  pecuniary  claims.  In  the 
report  of  the  delegates  to  the  fourth  conference 
special  reference  is  made  to  the  harmony  which 
characterized  its  deliberations.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  quite  apart  from  the  actual  work  ac- 
complished, the  free  interchange  of  views  in 
friendly  conference  between  representative  men 
from  all  parts  of  America  cannot  fail  to  create  a 
better  understanding  and  to  draw  closer  the  re- 
lations between  the  countries  concerned.  This  is 
indeed  one  of  the  chief  benefits  of  the  Interna- 
tional American  Conferences.  The  process  of  as- 
similating or  harmonizing  legal  rules  and  remedies 
in  countries  whose  systems  of  jurisprudence  are 
derived  from  different  sources  is  necessarily  slow 
and  uncertain.  But  this  by  no  means  implies  the 
existence  of  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  promotion 
of  a  free  and  beneficial  intercourse." — J.  B.  Moore, 
Principles  of  American  diplomacy,  p.  3Q2. — See 
also  American  Institute  of  Ixternation.al  Law. 
1914. — Pan-American  Neutrality. — On  Dec.  8, 
1914,  a  meeting  of  the  governing  board  of  the  Pan- 
American  Union  was  held  in  Washington  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  Pan-American  neutrality  in 
the  War,  and  appointed  a  committee  to  study  the 
problems  of  the  War. 

1915. — Pan-American    Financial    Conference. 
See  Pan-American  hnancial  conference. 


1915. — Conference  aiming  to  formulate  plans 
for  a  provisional  government  for  Mexico. — 
Recognition  of  Carranza.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1915 
(August-October). 

1915-1916.  —  Pan-American  Scientific  Con- 
gress.    See  Pan-American  scientific  congress 

1915-1920.— Effect     of     World     War.— Closer 
union. — "One  of  the  most  significant  effects  of  the 
war  upon  the  southern  Republics  was  the  change 
which  it  wrought  in  their  relations  with  one  an- 
other.    I  do  nut  refer  to   the   formation   of  such 
political  or  diplomatic  associations  as  the  so-called 
ABC    arbitration    league    of    May,    1915. 
More  significant  and  fundamental,  though  far  less 
spectacular  than  this,  are  the  prosaic  commercial, 
economic,  and  social  bonds  which  have  grown  up 
among  them  during  the  enforced  cessation  of  many 
of  their  contacts  with  the  outside  world  from  1914 
to  1919.     For  the  first  time  in  their  history  they 
were  compelled  to  become  acquainted  with  one  an- 
other, and  the  effects  of  this  are  strikingly  apparent 
to  any  observer  who  has  been  in  a  position  to  com- 
pare prewar  impressions  with  those  of  to-day. 
Just  as  the  preoccupations  of  Europe  in  its  pre- 
vious great  cataclysm,  the  Napoleonic  war,  enabled 
Latin  America  to  achieve  her  political  independence, 
so  has  the  recent  upheaval  in  the  Old  World  giveii 
the  southern  Republics  their  first  real  appreciation 
of   their    own    capacity    for   self-development   and 
interregional  cooperation  along  economic  and  social 
lines.  .  .  .  Since    1918    detailed    plans    or   arrange- 
ments have  bee  1  made  for  the  construction  in  Latin 
America  of  at  least  five  international  railways  and 
six  or  more  international  cable  and  telegraph  lines. 
.  .  .  The   noteworthy    point   is   the   fact    that    the 
majority  of  these  enterprises  are  being  undertaken 
with  local  capital.    Commercial  changes  of  the  same 
sort  are  noticeable  on  every  hand,  due  especially  to 
the  extraordinary  diversification  of  industries  and 
production  in  the  past  six  years.     Since   1914  the 
trade  between  Argentina  and  Brazil  has  grown  500 
per  cent,  and  all  the  latest  statistics  point  to  even 
further    expansion.      Mexican   commerce    with    the 
more  important  South  .'\merican  countries,  includ- 
ing such  items  as  foodstuffs,  oil,  fibers,  and  even 
newsprint  paper,  has  been  more  than  quadrupled 
during   the  war,   and   the  most   rapid  growth  has 
come  in  the  past  two  years.    During  1919  and  1920 
at  least  five  inter-Latin  American  congresses  were 
held,  not  with  the  object  of  exchanging  those  beau- 
tiful expressions  of  fraternal  affection  which  too  fre- 
quently befog  the  atmosphere  of  such  assemblages. 
Quite  the  contrary;  their  subject  matter  in  each  case 
was   prosaic   and   unpicturesque,   but   at   the  same 
time  definite  and  constructive — dairying  and  pas- 
toral  argriculture,  police   regulations,  immigration, 
architecture,    and    physical    education.  .  .  .  Before 
1914  there  was  not  one  American  branch  bank  in 
Latin  America,  while  to-day  there  are  over  a  hun- 
dred; that  there  are  nearly  a  dozen  American  cham- 
bers  of  commerce  in  the  southern   Republics,  the 
oldest   of   them   having   been   founded    about   two 
years  ago;  that  important  new  .American  cable  con- 
nections and  the  valuable  services  of  the  two  great 
American    news-gathering    associations    have    been 
greatly  extended  in  that  field ;  and  that  American 
ships   are   now   sufficiently    numerous   in   southern 
waters  to  carry   nearly   50  per  cent  of  our  trade 
there,  which  is  five  times  the   proportion   carried 
in  1914.    The  Inter-American  High  Commission  has 
since  loiS  been  unostentatiously  but  surely  working 
out  a  definite  and  effective  series  of  bonds  in  the 
shape  of  uniform  commercial  law  and  practice — a 
constructive    program    of    the    highest    value." — J. 
Klein,  Monroe  Doctrine  as  a  regional  understand- 
ing  (Pan-American  Union,  Bulletin,  v.  52,  No.  2, 


323 


AMERICAN   RESCUE  WORKERS 


AMERICANIZATION 


Feb.,  1921,  pp.  140-142). — The  same  author  states: 

"It  would  be  absurd,  of  course,  to  suggest  that 
the  years  1914-iqiS  had  delivered  Latin  America 
from  any  further  economic  dependence  upon 
Europe ;  but  in  view  of  certain  significant  facts  .  .  . 
it  would  be  equally  ridiculous  to  assume  that  Latin 
America  will  continue  to  look  to  Europe,  or  even 
to  the  United  States,  for  the  fulfillment  of  all  of 
her  needs  for  manufactured  commodities,  and  even 
for  capital  and  fuel.  The  amount  of  evidence  on 
this  point  is  ample,  and  instead  of  falling  off  after 
iqi8,  it  has  steadily  increased.  .  .  .  Argentine  citi- 
zens recently  loaned  1,500,000,000  lire  to  the  Italian 
Government ;  the  .'\rgentine  Government  has  ad- 
vanced 140,000,000  to  the  .Mlies." — Ibid. — See  also 
Pan-Americ.a.nism  and  names  of  American  repub- 
lics. 

AMERICAN  RESCUE  WORKERS,  the  out- 
come of  a  secession  movement  from  the  Salvation 
.Army  in  1882.  There  are  2p  organizations  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States. — United  States 
Census,  Religious  bodies.  IQIO,  pt.  2,  p.  35. 

AMERICAN  REVOLUTION.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
177S-1782. 

AMERICAN  RITE.  See  Masonic  socrenEs: 
Masonic  bodies. 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FOR  ORIENTAL 
RESEARCH  IN  JERUSALEM.     See  .Arch^o- 

LOCICAL    IxSIITVTE   OF    .AMERICA. 

AMERICAN  SCULPTURE.  See  Sculpture: 
Modern:    .American. 

AMERICAN  SECRET  SERVICE.  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  II. 
Espionage:  a,  4. 

AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  INTERNA- 
TIONAL LAW.  See  International  law:  1850- 
1Q09. 

AMERICAN  SUGAR  REFINING  COM- 
PANY (the  Sugar  Trust).  See  Trusts:  1907- 
iQog:  Thievery  of  the  sugar  trust;  U.  S.  A.:  1909 
(October-November) . 

AMERICAN  SUPPLY  SERVICE.  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  V. 
Moving  men  and  material:   a. 

AMERICAN  SYSTEM,  a  tariff  system  pro- 
posed by  Henry  Clay,  about  the  time  of  the  be- 
ginning of  protectionism,  by  which  home  manu- 
factures were  to  be  protected  for  the  greater  de- 
velopment of  the  cities,  and  raw  materials  were  to 
be  protected  for  the  advantage  of  western  farmers. 
Such  an  arrangement  would  be  mutually  profit- 
able to  the  North  and  the  West,  but  distinctly  un- 
favorable to  the  South,  where  high  tariffs  on  im- 
ported manufactured  goods  created  strong  opposi- 
tion to  the  .American  system. — See  also  Tariff: 
1808-1824,   1832. 

AMERICAN  TOBACCO  COMPANY:  Su- 
preme  Court   case.     See  Supreme  Court:    1888- 

1913- 

AMERICAN  VOLUNTEERS.  See  S.alvation 
.Ar.mv:    1896-1000. 

AMERICANISM.  See  .American'  Legion:  Pol- 
icies;  also  .America.nization'. 

AMERICANIZATION.— Early  work  for  im- 
migrants.— ".Americanization  is  the  educational 
process  of  unifying  both  native-born  and  foreign- 
born  Americans  in  perfect  support  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  liberty,  union,  democracy,  and  brother- 
hood. It  selects  and  preserves  the  best  qualities  in 
our  past  and  present  .Americanism ;  it  singles  out 
and  fosters  such  traits  of  the  foreign-born  as  will 
contribute  to  the  welfare  of  our  people." — E.  S. 
Bogardus,  Essentials  of  .imericanization.  pp.  11. — 
Most  of  the  early  work  for  immigrants  was  done 
by  churches,  Bible  societies,  etc.  "The  first  and 
most  primitive  form  of   work  among  immigrants 


was  that  of  the  Bible  Society.  The  form  this 
work  took  was  "colportage,'  the  peddling  of  Bibles 
Yet  something  more  than  the  ability  ol  the  book- 
agent  to  make  sales  was  required  of  the  'colporteur'. 
.  .  .  The  men  chosen  to  sell  Bibles  in  immigrant 
communities  were  often  foreigners,  many  of  them 
men  who  were  preparing  themselves  for  mission- 
ary work  in  their  own  countries."  The  Young 
'Women's  Christian  .Association  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  in  the  tield,  working  through  its  depart- 
ment for  foreign  born  women  for  the  mothers  and 
the  industrial  girls  of  foreign  communities.  "In- 
ternational Institutes,"  with  both  .American  and 
foreign-speaking  nationality  workers,  provide  edu- 
cation, recreation,  and  training  in  home-making 
and  citizenship.  "In  point  of  time,  the  first  so- 
cieties for  immigrants  in  the  field  were  those  main- 
tained by  their  own  people.  Their  object  was 
chiefly  benevolent.  The  German  Society  for  ex- 
ample was  organized  in  1784,  the  French  Be.ievo- 
lent  Society  goes  back  to  1809,  the  Irisn  Emigrant 
Society  gives  1841  as  the  date  of  foundation,  the 
Swiss  Benevolent  Society  was  organized  in  1851, 
the  Home  for  Scandinavian  Immigrants  in  1881, 
the  Spanish  Benevolent  Society  in  1882,  the  So- 
ciety for  Italian  Immigrants  in  1901  and  so  on. 
It  is  interesting  that  the  society  administering  the 
Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  for  Roumanian,  Russian 
and  Galician  Immigrants,  as  well  as  the  Hebrew 
Sheltering  and  Immigrant  Aid  Society,  are  the  only 
foreign  societies  which  for  years  have  made  the 
.Americanization  of  immigrants  one  of  the  objects 
of  their  organizations.  Of  course  this  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  immigrants 
handled  by  these  societies  had  a  nationality — to 
gain  and  none  to  lose  in  coming  to  this  country. 
However,  we  now  have  the  swing-back  of  the 
penduluum  and  see  the  Jews  claiming  territorial 
rights  in  Palestine.  .  .  . 

'The  Slavonic  peoples  also  establish  benefit  so- 
cieties for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  needy  among 
their  co-nationals.  Those  coming  from  countries 
where  they  were  deprived  of  the  means  of  educa- 
tion often  pursue  educational  aims.  For  example, 
the  National  Slovak  Society  of  the  United  States 
of  .America  states  as  its  object:  'To  educate  the 
Slovak  immigrants  ...  to  teach  them  to  love 
their  adopted  country  and  to  become  useful  citi- 
zens of  this  republic'  The  non-sectarian  Cleveland 
Slovak  union  insists  that  all  members  become  U.  S. 
citizens  within  six  years  after  arrival.  The  Sokels, 
ostensibly  an  athletic  organization,  have  every- 
where a  strong  national  background.  In  illustra- 
tion of  this,  you  will  find  its  members  in  America 
enlisting  in  the  Polish  .Army,  the  Czecho-Slovak 
Legions,  etc.,  rather  than  under  the  U.  S.  flag. 
Representatives  of  various  nationalities  have  joined 
in  a  League  of  Foreign-born  Citizens  of  which 
Wm.  Fellows  Morgan,  President  of  the  Mer- 
chants .Association,  is  the  head  This  League  con- 
cerns itself  with  the  education  and  naturaliza- 
tion of  the  foreisn  born.  It  is  rather  interesting 
that  one  of  the  earliest  .American  societies  concern- 
ing itself  with  immigrants  was  organized  with  a 
view  to  the  reslrielion  of  immigrations.  This  is 
the  Immigration  Restrictions  League  with  head- 
quarters in  Boston  founded  in  1894.  This  League 
was  one  of  the  warmest  supporters  of  the  Burnett 
bill— or  literacy  test.  It  has  stood  for  a  higher 
head-tax,  the  abolition  of  the  bond,  the  deporta- 
tion of  aliens  without  time-limit,  etc.  In  contrast 
to  this  Leaeue,  we  have  five  corrective  (among 
them),  the  National  LiDeral  Immigration  League, 
which  pleads  for  distribution  and  education  and 
vigorously  opposes  indiscriminate  restriction.  Like 
the  Restrictions  League  it  disseminates  information 


324 


AMERICANIZATION 


Effects  of 
World   War 


AMERICANIZATION 


and  seeks  to  influence  legislation.  Like  the  Restric- 
tion League  it  has  a  racial  axe  to  grind,  with  this 
difference — that  the  Restriction  League  would  de- 
crease the  non-Anglo-Saxon  percentage  of  our 
population,  while  the  Liberal  League  discounten- 
ances all  legislation  unfavorable  to  the  admission 
of  an  oppressed  people  in  Eastern  Europe.  .  .  . 
Like  the  National  Liberal  Immigration  League, 
the  Chicago  Immigrant  Protective  League  was 
founded  in  igo8  with  Judge  Mack  as  President, 
Jane  Addams  as  Vice-president  and  Miss  Grace 
Abbott,  author  of  'The  Immigrant  and  the  Com- 
munity' as  Director.  .  .  .  From  the  beginning  the 
League  has  had  a  staff  of  foreign  visitors.  This 
League  stresses  what  so  many  Americanization 
agencies  either  disregard  or  forget,  and  that  is,  the 
necessity  for  reaching  the  immigrant  in  his  own 
language  before  he  learns  English  and  loses  in  the 
process  the  ideals  of  America  which  he  brought 
with  him.  .  .  . 

"The  foregoing  represent  some  of  the  agencies 
which  for  the  last  decade  or  so  have  been  working 
for  the  gradual  adjustment  of  the  alien  to  Ameri- 
can environment,  without  ever  saying  very  much 
about  Americanization.  Their  chief  concern  has 
been  for  the  immigrant  himself.  The  unemploy- 
ment situation  due  to  the  great  war  drew  the  in- 
terest of  quite  different  organizations  into  the  field 
— whose  chief  concern  became  not  the  immigrant, 
but  the  rest  of  us — America !  Their  entrance  is 
marked  by  such  slogans  as  'America  First';  their 
platform  is  a  common  language,  a  united  citizen- 
ship, an  American  standard  of  living,  a  home-stake 
in  America.  Their  heaviest  emphasis  is  laid  on 
the  teaching  of  English.  Among  them  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  of  the  United  States  has  taken 
tirst  place  and  has  rendered  invaluable  service  in 
the  way  of  publicity  to  the  whole  movement. 
Through  its  Committee  on  Immigration  it  has 
conducted  preliminary  surveys  of  immigration  con- 
ditions in  i6s  industrial  towns." — Address  at  Na- 
tional Training  School,  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  February, 
igig.  —  See  also  Immigration  and  emigration: 
United  States:   iqio-iq2o;  Naturalization. 

Effect  of  World  War  and  later  development. 
— "The  current  emphasis  upon  Americanization 
had  its  origin  in  igi4  when  the  European  War 
started  and  a  renaissance  of  nationalism  oc- 
curred. Americanization  Day  had  its  beginning  on 
July  4,  IQ14,  in  Cleveland,  Ohio;  it  was  fathered 
by  the  'sane  Fourth  committee.'  In  igi5  at  least 
I. so  cities  observed  Americanization  Day.  In  that 
same  year,  the  National  Americanization  Commit- 
tee was  organized  by  the  Committee  for  Immi- 
grants in  America  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  a 
nationalization  movement  that  would  unify  the 
various  peoples  in  the  United  States.  In  iqi8,  the 
government  undertook  specific  Americanization 
work.  In  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  the 
Bureau  of  Education  outlined  an  Americanization 
program  which  has  been  endorsed  and  furthered 
by  the  National  and  State  Councils  of  Defense  and 
which  has  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  county 
Americanization  councils,  and  of  regional  directors 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Division  of  American- 
ization of  the  Bureau  of  Education." — E.  S.  Bo- 
gardus.  Essentials  of  Americanization,  pp.  12. 

The  World  War  brought  increased  recognition 
of  the  importance  of  the  work  of  Americanization. 
The  census  of  loio  had  indicated  an  illiteracy  of 
7  or  8%,  but  investigations  made  at  the  army 
camps  preliminary  to  the  use  of  the  intelligence 
tests  showed  that  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
young  men  were  practically  illiterate,  being  unable 
to  read  the  newspaper  or  to  write  a  letter  home. 
The    proportion    ran    as   high   as    17.18%    in    one 


camp,  and  as  high  as  41.08%  in  another.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  one-fourth  of  the  members 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  were  prac- 
tically illiterate.  This  illiteracy  was  not  confined 
to  any  particular  section  of  the  country.  White 
soldiers  from  the  Soilth  were  almost  as  frequently 
illiterate  as  the  colored  soldiers.  Non-English- 
speaking  illiterate  young  men  from  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  New  England  were  sufticiently 
numerous  to  shake  the  confidence  of  the  North 
in  the  effectiveness  of  its  education.  Illiteracy 
seemed  to  be  a  national  problem.  The  war  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  many  of  our  naturalized  citi- 
zens were  not  truly  American  in  spirit.  Early  in 
the  year  1916  there  was  held  in  Philadelphia  a 
great  national  conference  on  immigration  and 
Americanization,  participated  in  by  many  people 
of  note,  such  as  Mary  Antin,  P.  P.  Claxton,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  Governor 
Brumbaugh  of  Pennsylvania.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  there  are  ten  million  negroes  and  thirteen 
million  white  persons  of  alien  birth  in  the  United 
States,  and  that  330,000  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren born  outside  of  this  country  represent  fifty- 
nine  per  cent  of  the  depositors  in  postal  banks  and 
seventy-two  per  cent  of  the  $70,000,000  deposits. 
Among  the  valuable  results  of  the  conference  was 
the  formation  of  a  National  .Americanization 
Council,  for  the  cooperation  of  public  and  private 
agencies.  Among  the  various  suggestions  were:  a 
Congressional  appropriation  of  $50,000  for  the 
Bureau  of  Education's  work  in  eliminating  illiter- 
acy among  the  foreign ;  a  Federal  picture-poster 
of  welcome  to  women  aliens  as  well  as  to  men; 
Federal  protection  for  women  as  for  men ;  the 
abolition  of  the  head-tax  on  immigrants;  the 
keeping  of  naturalization  courts  open  at  night,  and 
Dr.  Sidney  Gulick's  sane  propositions  for  immi- 
grant registration  and  the  open  door.  Betterment 
of  laws  is  anticipated  to  provide  for  the  education 
of  the  foreigner,  to  guide  him  into  suitable  em- 
ployment, to  give  him  proper  housing  facilities,  to 
protect  him  from  accident  and  industrial  diseases, 
and  furnish  accident  compensation. 

Hyphenism. — On  several  public  occasions  Presi- 
dent Wilson  called  attention  to  the  danger  from 
hyphenated  Americans.  In  May  of  1017  he  spoke 
in  New  York  City  at  the  unveiling  of  a  monument 
to  John  Barry,  the  man  who  held  the  first  com 
mission  in  the  American  Navy.  He  said:  "John 
Barry  was  an  Irishman,  but  his  heart  crossed  the 
Atlantic  with  him.  He  did  not  leave  it  in  Ireland 
Some  Americans  need  hyphens  in  their  names  be- 
cause only  part  of  them  have  come  over,  but  who'i 
the  whole  man  has  come  over,  heart  and  though' 
and  all,  the  hyphen  drops  of  its  own  weight  out 
of  his  name.  This  man  was  not  an  Irish-American, 
but  was  an  Irishman  who  became  an  American.  I 
venture  to  say  that  if  he  voted,  he  voted  with 
regard  to  the  questions  as  they  looked  on  th's 
side  of  the  water,  and  not  on  the  other  side,  and 
that  is  my  infallible  test  of  the  genuine  American 
This  man  illustrates  for  me  all  the  splendid  strength 
which  was  brought  into  this  country  by  the  magnet 
of  freedom.  Men  have  been  drawn  to  this  coun- 
try by  the  same  thing  that  made  them  love  this 
country,  by  the  opportunity  to  live  their  own 
lives  and  to  think  their  own  thoughts  and  to  let 
their  whole  natures  expand  with  the  expansion  of 
this  free  and  mighty  nation.  We  have  brought  out 
of  the  stocks  of  all  the  world  all  the  best  im- 
pulses, and  have  appropriated  them  and  American- 
ized them  and  translated  them  into  the  glory  and 
majesty  of  this  great  country."  In  his  annual 
message  to  Congress  in  iqi6  at  the  opening  of  its 
session  President  Wilson  denounced  the  hyphenates 


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and  asked  for  means  to  restrict  their  activities. 
He  said:  "I  am  sorry  to  say  that  the  gravest 
threats  against  our  national  peace  and  safety  have 
been  uttered  within  our  own  borders.  There  are 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  I  blush  to  admit,  bom 
under  other  flags,  but  welcomed  under  our  gen- 
erous naturalization  laws  to  the  full  freedom  and 
opportunity  of  America,  who  have  poured  the 
poison  of  disloyalty  into  the  very  arteries  of  our 
national  life;  who  have  sought  to  bring  the  au- 
thority and  good  name  of  our  Government  into 
contempt,  to  destroy  our  industries  wherever  they 
thought  it  effective  for  their  vindictive  purposes  to 
strike  at  them,  and  to  debase  our  politics  to  the 
uses  of  foreign  intrigue.  Their  number  is  not  so 
great  as  compared  with  the  whole  number  of 
those  sturdy  hosts  by  which  our  nation  has  been 
enriched  in  recent  generations  out  of  virile  foreign 
stocks;  but  is  great  enough  to  have  brought  deep 
disgrace  upon  us  and  to  have  made  it  necessary 
that  we  should  promptly  make  use  of  processes  of 
law  by  which  we  may  be  purged  of  their  corrupt 
distempers.  ...  A  little  while  ago  such  a  thing 
would  have  seemed  incredible.  Because  it  was  in- 
credible we  made  no  preparation  for  it.  .  .  .  But 
the  ugly  and  incredible  thing  has  actually  come 
about,  and  we  are  without  adequate  Federal  laws 
to  deal  with  it.  I  urge  you  to  enact  such  laws  at 
the  earliest  possible  moment  and  feel  that  in  doing 
so  I  am  urging  you  to  do  nothing  less  than  save 
the  honor  and  self-respect  of  the  nation." 

Theodore  Roosevelt  said:  "There  is  no  room 
in  this  country  for  hyphenated  Americanism. 
When  I  refer  to  hyphenated  Americans,  I  do  not 
refer  to  naturalized  Americans.  Some  of  the  very 
best  Americans  I  have  ever  known  were  natural- 
ized Americans,  Americans  born  abroad.  But  a 
hyphenated  American  is  not  an  American  at  all. 
This  is  just  as  true  of  the  man  who  puts  'native' 
before  the  hyphen  as  of  the  man  who  puts  Ger- 
man or  Irish  or  English  or  French  before  the 
hyphen.  .Americanism  is  a  matter  of  the  spirit 
and  of  the  soul.  Our  allegiance  must  be  purely 
to  the  United  States.  We  must  unsparingly  con- 
demn any  man  who  holds  any  other  allegiance. 
But  if  he  is  heartily  and  singly  loyal  to  this  Re- 
public, then  no  matter  where  he  was  born,  he  is 
just  as  good  an  American  as  any  one  else.  The 
one  absolutely  certain  way  of  bringing  this  na- 
tion to  ruin,  of  preventing  all  possibility  of  its 
continuing  to  be  a  nation  at  all,  would  be  to  per- 
mit it  to  become  a  tangle  of  squabbling  nationali- 
ties, an  intricate  knot  of  German-.Americans,  Irish- 
,'\mericans,  English-.Americans,  Frcnch-.\raericans, 
Scandinavian-Americans,  or  Italian-Americans,  each 
preserving  its  separate  nationality,  each  at  heart 
feeling  more  sympathy  with  purop>eans  of  that 
nationality  than  with  the  other  citizens  of  the 
American  Republic.  The  men  who  do  not  be- 
come Americans  and  nothing  else  are  hyphenated 
Americans;  and  there  ought  to  be  no  room  for 
them  in  this  country.  The  man  who  calls  him- 
self an  American  citizen  and  who  yet  shows  by 
his  actions  that  he  is  primarily  the  citizen  of  a 
foreign  land,  plays  a  thoroughly  mischievous  part 
in  the  life  of  our  body  politic.  He  has  no  place 
here:  and  the  sooner  he  returns  to  the  land  to 
which  he  feels  his  real  heart-allegiance,  the  better 
it  will  be  for  every  good  American.  There  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  hyphenated  American  who  is  a 
good  American.  The  only  man  who  is  a  good 
American  is  the  man  who  is  an  American  and 
nothing  else."— -T.  Roosevelt,  Fear  God  and  take 
your  oicn  part,  pp.  ,^6r-,^63. 

Program  and  methods. — Foreign-born  peoples 
should  be  Americanized  "by  calling  upon  the  fine 


things  that  are  within  them;  by  appreciating  what 
they  have  to  offer  us,  and  by  revealing  to  them 
what  we  have  to  offer  them.  The  best  test  of 
whether  or  not  we  are  Americans  will  come  when 
we,  all  together,  recognize  that  there  are  defects 
in  our  land  and  lacks  in  our  system;  that  our  pro- 
grams are  not  perfect;  that  our  institutions  can 
be  bettered;  but  look  forward  constantly  by  co- 
operation, to  making  this  a  land  in  which  there 
will  be  a  minimum  of  fear  and  a  maximum  of 
hope." — F.  K.  Lane,  (World  Outlook,  Nov.,  1919). 
— "Americanization  is  the  uniting  of  new  with 
native-born  Americans  in  fuller  common  under- 
standing and  appreciation  to  secure  by  means  of 
self-government  the  highest  welfare  of  all.  Such 
Americanization  should  produce  no  unchangeable 
political,  domestic  and  economic  regime  delivered 
once  for  all  to  the  fathers,  but  a  growing  and 
broadening  national  life,  inclusive  of  the  best  wher- 
ever found.  With  all  our  rich  heritages  Ameri- 
canism will  develop  best  through  a  mutual  giv- 
ing and  taking  of  contributions  from  both  newer 
and  older  Americans  in  the  interest  of  the  com- 
mon weal." — Evening  schools  of  New  I'ork  City 
{School  and  Society,  Jan.  12,  1918). — "The  prob- 
lems of  Americanization  usually  are  conceived  as 
questions  of  assimilation  of  the  European  alien. 
.  .  .  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  America 
of  today  has  taken  over  also  the  assimilation  of 
the  Negro,  the  Indian,  the  Creole,  the  Filipino, 
the  Porto  Rican,  the  natives  of  Alaska,  of  Haiti, 
of  San  Domingo,  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  and  of 
Hawaii,  as  well  as  large  numbers  of  Mexican 
peons,  and  a  few  hundred  thousand  Chinese,  Nip- 
ponese and  other  Asiatic  immigrants.  [See  also 
Race  problems.]  It  is  well  to  remind  ourselves 
that  we  have  not  yet  really  set  ourselves  to 
work  in  earnest  at  Americanizing  some  of  our 
native-born,  for  example  the  isolated  mountain 
whites  of  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia,  the  dwell- 
ers in  the  flatlands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
decadents  and  defectives  of  the  New  England 
Hinterland,  the  absentee  director  in  industry,  and 
the  insulated  devotee  to  wealth  and  class." — W. 
Talbot,  Americanization,  p.  74. — The  necessity 
for  Americanization  work  has  been  summarized 
as  follows  by  Howard  C.  Hill,  of  the  School  of 
Education,  University  of  Chicago:  "(i)  There  are 
13,000,000  persons  of  foreign  birth  and  33.000,000 
of  foreign  origin  living  in  the  United  States.  (2) 
Over  100  different  foreign  languages  and  dialects 
are  spoken  in  the  United  States.  (3)  Over  1,300 
foreign-language  newspapers  are  published  in  the 
United  States,  having  a  circulation  estimated  at 
10,000,000.  (4)  Of  the  persons  in  the  United 
States  5,000,000  are  unable  to  speak  English.  (5) 
Of  these  persons  2,000,000  are  illiterate.  (6)  Of 
the  unnaturalized  persons  3,000,000  are  of  mili- 
tary age.  (7)  In  iqio,  34  per  cent  of  alien  males 
of  draft  age  were  unable  to  speak  English;  that  is, 
about  half  a  million  of  the  registered  alien  males 
between  twenty-one  and  thirty-one  years  of  age 
were  unable  to  understand  military  orders  given 
in  English.  ...  (0)  Only  about  13  per  cent  of 
adult  non-English-speaking  aliens  are  reached  by 
the  schools.  (10)  Many  large  schools  in  American 
cities  have  been  spending  more  for  teaching  Ger- 
man to  .American  children  than  for  teaching  Eng- 
lish and  civics  to  aliens." — H.  C  Hill,  Americaniza- 
tion movement  (American  Journal  of  Sociology, 
May,  iqio,  pp.  600-642). — According  to  Henry 
Pratt  Fairchild,  Americanization  is  simply  "assimi- 
lation into  America."  He  sounds  a  warning  against 
our  assuming  that  the  Melting-pot  is  melting  be- 
cause of  the  "readiness  with  which  the  immigrants 
adopt  American  clothes,  the  eagerness  with  which 


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they  attend  the  night  schools,  the  enthusiasm  with 
which  they  sing  The  Star-Spangled  Banner,  and 
the  fluency  with  which  their  children  use  American 
swear  words."  He  says  that  "Americanization  to 
a  foreigner  may  mean  locating  him  within  a  cer- 
tain area,  or  mingling  him  with  a  certain  group 
of  people,  or  conferring  naturalization  upon  him, 
or  imbuing  him  with  a  certain  set  of  ideas  and 
ideals.  It  needs  merely  the  statement  to  make 
plain  that  it  is  the  last  of  these  four  possibilities 
which  constitutes  the  only  Americanization  worth 
talking  about." — H.  P.  Fairchild,  Americanizing  the 
immigrant  (Yale  Review,  July,  1916,  pp.  731-740). 
Problems  of  language  and  segregation. — 
Theodore  Roosevelt  in  his  last  public  message,  writ- 
ten just  before  his  death,  expressed  as  follows  his 
conception  of  the  Americanization  problem;  "There 
must  be  no  discrimination  because  of  creed  or  birth- 
place or  origin  in  the  case  of  any  American  who  be- 
comes an  American  and  nothing  but  an  American. 
But  if  he  tries  to  keep  segregated  with  men  of  his 
own  origin  and  separated  from  the  rest  of  Amer- 
ica then  he  isn't  an  American.  There  can  be  no 
divided  allegiance  here.  Any  man  who  says  he 
is  an  American,  but  something  else  also,  isn't  an 
American  at  all.  We  have  room  for  but  one  flag, 
the  American  flag,  and  this  excludes  the  red 
flag,  which  symbolizes  all  wars  against  liberty  and 
civilization,  just  as  much  as  it  excludes  any  foreign 
flag  of  a  nation  to  which  we  are  hostile.  We 
have  room  for  but  one  language  here,  and  that  is 
the  English  language,  for  we  intend  to  see  that 
the  crucible  turns  our  people  out  as  Americans,  of 
American  nationality,  and  not  as  dwellers  in  a 
polyglot  boarding-house;  and  we  have  room  for 
but  one  soul — loyalty,  and  that  is  loyalty  to  the 
American  people."  Some  students  of  Americaniza- 
tion do  not  share  Mr.  Roosevelt's  opposition  to  a 
foreign  language.  For  example:  "The  persistent 
confusion  exists  in  the  popular  mind  that  no  one 
can  be  an  American  who  does  not  readily  under- 
stand, read  and  speak  the  English  language.  Sen- 
ator Kenyon's  bill  (S.  3315 — entitled  'Americaniza- 
tion of  Aliens')  provides  for  the  expenditure  of 
$6,500,000  annually  after  June  30,  1920,  for  'com- 
pulsory teaching  of  English  to  illiterates  and  those 
unable  to  speak,  read  or  write  the  English  lan- 
guage.' Secretary  Lane  in  his  report  to  the  Presi- 
dent says:  'Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  1,600,000 
men  between  21  and  31  years  of  age  who  were 
first  drafted  into  the  Army  could  not  read  nor 
write  our  language,  and  tens  of  thousands  could 
not  speak  it  nor  understand  it.  To  them  the  daily 
paper  telling  what  Von  Hindenburg  was  doing  was 
a  blur.  To  them  the  appeals  of  Hoover  came  by 
word  of  mouth,  if  at  all.  To  them  the  messages 
of  their  commander-in-chief  were  as  so  much 
blank  paper.  To  them  the  word  of  mother  or 
sweetheart  came  filtering  in  through  other  eyes 
that  had  to  read  their  letters '  While  the  Secre- 
tary's pity  for  some  of  the  foreign-born  may  not 
be  amiss,  it  certainly  cannot  apply  to  those  who 
could  speak,  read,  or  write  some  other  language 
than  English.  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  be- 
cause many  of  the  men  were  ignorant  of  English, 
'the  daily  paper  telling  what  Von  Hindenburg  was 
doing  was  a  blur.'  Thousands  of  those  men  were 
diligently  reading  in  another  tongue  every  move 
made  in  the  theater  of  war.  They  knew,  moreover, 
the  very  territory  over  which  the  Armies  were 
moving  and  had  a  more  vital  interest  in  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Allied  Armies  than  many  of  the  native- 
born  in  this  country  could  ever  conjure  up.  Else 
why  did  tens  of  thousands  of  Czechs,  Slovaks, 
Poles,  Jugoslavs  (Croatians,  Slovakes,  Serbians), 
Italians    and    others   enlist   in   the    United   States 


Army  and  not  wait  for  the  draft?"— S.  P.  Hrb- 
kova,  Bunk  in  Americanization  (Forum,  April, 
1920). — See  also  American  Legion:  Policies. — 
Several  state  legislatures,  however,  took  ac- 
tion designated  to  suppress  the  foreign  language 
newspaper  and  the  teaching  of  foreign  languages 
in  the  schools.  Early  in  1919  Nebraska  passed  the 
Siman  law  which  wiped  out  temporarily  instruc- 
tion in  every  language  except  English.  Oregon  by 
an  act  of  January,  1920,  made  it  unlawful  to  print, 
publish,  circulate,  display,  sell  or  offer  for  sale 
any  newspaper  or  periodical  in  any  language  other 
than  the  English,  unless  the  same  contain  a  hteral 
translation  thereof  in  the  English  language  of  the 
same  type  and  as  conspicuously  displayed,  and 
providing  a  penalty  therefor  of  imprisonment  in 
the  county  jail  not  to  exceed  six  months  or  by 
fine  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  or  by  both 
such  imprisonment  and  fine. 

"The  measure  of  [the  foreigners']  value  as  po- 
tential members  of  American  citizenship  is  some- 
times sought  in  the  rapidity  with  which  such  po- 
tential citizens  give  up  their  methods  of  life,  their 
language,  their  religion,  their  dress,  their  leisure- 
time  predilections.  The  foreigner  who  changes  his 
whole  mode  of  Hfe  with  the  ease  and  carelessness 
with  which  he  takes  off  his  coat  is  erroneously 
considered  a  good  prospective  American.  This 
standard  of  measuring  assimilation  is  as  dangerous 
as  it  is  unfair  to  those  who  preserve  a  certain  loy- 
alty to  their  traditions  and  customs,  etc.,  and 
change  them  only  as  they  become  convinced  that 
the  new  is  better  than  the  old.  'In  Rome  do  as  the 
Romans  do'  is  not  assimilation  but  simulation. 
.  .  .  The  Americanization  movement  should  not 
only  tolerate  these  exotic  manifestations  of  creative 
thought  and  creative  functioning,  but  it  should  con- 
sider the  conservation  of  these  creative  instincts 
as  a  means  of  accelerating  progress  and  of  increas- 
ing the  variability  and  creative  powers  of  the  na- 
tion. Native  music,  native  Uterature,  native  arts 
and  crafts,  the  native  dance,  philosophic  thought, 
political  idealism,  etc.,  are  all  to  be  found  among 
the  foreign  people.  These  represent  potentially 
their  contribution  toward  native  creative  genius, 
they  are  capable  of  new  interpretations  for  their 
own  perfecting,  and  they  may  interpret  America 
from  new  angles  and  with  benefit  to  all.  They 
constitute  an  aspect  of  Americanization  that  will 
save  this  country  from  the  decadence  that  has 
overcome  Spain  and  the  stifling  rigidity  of  the 
Pan-Germanic  chamber  of  horrors.  .  .  .  The  open- 
ing of  adequate  schools  for  the  teaching  of  English, 
the  proper  subsidy  of  all  institutions  of  learning 
which  undertake  the  teaching  of  English  to  both 
adults  and  children,  and  similar  friendly  efforts  are 
the  only  effective  means  of  achieving  this  end. 
Love  of  country  requires  no  special  language,  but 
it  does  require  a  spirit  of  loyalty  and  service  and 
devotion  beyond  the  bounds  of  any  known  tongue. 
.  .  .  The  evidence  seems  to  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  so  far  as  illiteracy  or  the  learning  of  the 
English  language  is  concerned  there  has  been  no 
serious  difficulty  created  by  the  immigrants  them- 
selves. The  main  difficulties,  however,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  lack  of  facilities  for  learning  English, 
the  low  grade  of  teachers  provided,  the  hours  and 
conditions  under  which  teaching  must  be  done,  the 
failure  to  employ  teachers  with  experience  in 
handling  foreign  adults,  and  above  all  the  fact 
that  most  adult  foreigners  during  their  first  years 
in  the  United  States  must  earn  their  living  in 
ill  paid  and  exhausting  occupations  which  leave 
them  physically  unfit  for  any  mental  effort.  With 
about  three  million  persons  still  to  be  trained  in 
the  use  of  the  English  language,  the  federal,  state, 


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and  local  governments  should  develop  well-trained 
teachers  and  proper  conditions  of  teaching  during 
hours  when  mental  effort  is  least  difficult.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  nation  in  the  world  that  is  so 
non-linguistic  as  are  the  natives  of  this  country, 
and  they  should  have  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  difficulties  of  learning  a  new  language,  par- 
ticularly by  people  with  a  limited  education  or  al- 
together without  education.  While  language  is  the 
common  denominator  of  all  social  and  political  ed- 
ucation among  the  people  already  assimilated,  it 
must  be  recognized  that  the  most  important  period 
of  political  and  social  education  in  the  life  of  the 
immigrant  is  during  the  first  twelve  months  or 
two  years  in  this  country.  It  is  then  that  the  im- 
pressions are  strongest  and  count  the  most  in  the 
future  adjustments  to  the  new  environment.  It 
is  obvious,  therefore,  that  a  prohibition  of  the  use 
of  a  foreign  language  in  public  meetings,  and  par- 
ticularly the  abolition  of  the  foreign  press  in  this 
country,  would  be  nothing  short  of  a  calamity. 
They  are  the  channels  through  which  the  foreigner 
can  keep  in  touch  with  conditions,  and  all  leader- 
ship of  the  foreigners  is  impossible  unless  it  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  native  tongue.  To  assume  that  any 
foreigner  can  acquire  a  knowledge  of  English  so 
as  to  listen  to  or  read  intelligently  during  a  period 
of  less  than  two  years  is  to  expect  a  great  deal 
more  than  many  intelligent  American  travelers  have 
been  able  to  achieve  in  their  sojourns  in  foreign 
lands.  .  .  .  We  need  the  music  of  Italy,  the  clear 
thinking  of  France,  the  industry  and  thoroughness 
of  Germany,  the  truthfulness  and  art  of  Russia. 
.  .  .  The  din  of  the  reiterated  panacea  that  the 
distribution  of  immigrants  would  solve  the  Ameri- 
canization problem  is  in  everyone's  ears.  Take 
the  foreigner  out  of  the  congested  cities,  place  him 
in  small  communities  or  on  the  farm,  isolate  him 
from  his  fellow-countrymen,  surround  him  by 
Americans  and  compel  him  to  speak  nothing  but 
Enghsh  and  you  have  solved  the  whole  problem. 
This  method  sounds  so  simple  and  practical  that 
it  is  bound  to  be  impractical  and  inconsistent  with 
the  experience  of  society.  It  is  clear  to  anyone 
familiar  with  immigrant  hfe  that  congestion,  poor 
sanitation,  low  standards  of  living,  are  not  the 
reasons  why  the  immigrants  prefer  the  cities  with 
all  their  attending  evils.  These  conditions  are 
merely  the  commodities  as  they  find  them  when 
they  reach  these  shores,  and  their  control  depends 
not  upon  the  new  arrival  who  has  no  voice  in 
government  and  whose  economic  position  is  too 
precarious  to  afford  a  choice,  but  upon  the  already 
assimilated  people  participating  in  the  conduct  and 
control  of  our  social  and  political  institutions.  The 
Irish  and  the  German  immigrants  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  Italian  and  the  Polish,  and  their 
transition  into  Americanism  took  place  through 
slums  that  were  even  worse  than  what  we  now 
find  on  the  lower  east  side  of  New  York,  or  in 
the  stockyard  district  of  Chicago.  When  we  an- 
alyze the  causes  of  congestion  among  the  immi- 
grants we  find  that  they  are  fundamentally  eco- 
nomic. A  large  proportion  of  our  immigrants  are 
unskilled  workers  or  tradesmen  with  skill  and 
training  which  require  new  adjustments  to  indus- 
tries in  which  the  division  of  tasks,  the  trade  pro- 
cesses, and  the  conditions  of  labor  are  essentially 
different  from  those  found  in  the  same  industries  in 
the  old  country.  Unskilled  trades  and  the  semi- 
skilled trades  employ  large  numbers  of  workers 
and  these  are  largely  open  to  the  immigrant. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  the  language  and  igno- 
rant of  American  methods  of  work  and  employ- 
ment he  must  depend  upon  the  people  of  his 
own  race  or  nationality  for  guidance  and  assistance. 

3 


In  learning  a  new  trade  he  must  be  able  to  under- 
stand instructions,  and  in  looking  for  a  job  he 
must  be  able  to  speak  and  read  the  language  of  his 
employer  or  his  agent.  If  he  desires  to  go  out  on 
the  farm  the  only  choice  he  has  is  day  labor,  a 
very  precarious  occupation  with  all  the  attending 
evils  of  seasonal  employment,  ignorance  of  the 
newer  methods  of  cultivation  and  complete  isola- 
tion from  those  who  in  time  of  need  can  under- 
stand and  help  meet  difficulties.  To  become  a  farm 
owner  requires  capital  and  a  knowledge  of  Ameri- 
can methods  of  cultivation,  marketing,  and  busi- 
ness. For  these  reasons  the  immigrant  remains  in 
his  colony.  He  also  has  certain  social  needs  which 
he  cannot  get  in  an  American  environment.  The 
church,  the  lodge,  the  social  center,  cannot  exist 
except  when  there  are  present  in  the  community 
or  neighborhood  large  enough  groups  of  the  same 
nationality  or  race  to  justify  their  presence  and 
guarantee  their  maintenance.  All  these  institutions 
if  conducted  in  English  are  of  no  value  to  the  im- 
migrant for  at  least  the  first  two  or  three  years  of 
his  stay  in  the  United  States.  Even  evening  schools 
for  foreigners  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  them 
the  English  language  cannot  be  maintained  with 
any  degree  of  efficiency  without  having  a  certain 
amount  of  segregation.  The  very  work  of  Ameri- 
canization cannot  function  unless  it  can  deal  with 
groups  instead  of  individuals.  To  endeavor  Ameri- 
canization by  scattering  individual  immigrants  in 
American  communities  is  to  attempt  Americani- 
zation by  a  process  of  gradual  social  and  eco- 
nomic suffocation."  Aronovici  holds  that  environ- 
ment is  an  important  socializing  factor  in  Ameri- 
canization ;  that  the  workers  for  social  insurance 
and  the  abolishment  of  child  labor  have  done  more 
toward  Americanizing  the  immigrant  than  all  the 
special  leagues,  societies,  and  commissions  organ- 
ized for  Americanization  work.  Concerning  the 
American  overseas  army  he  says:  "A  polyglot 
army  with  differing  traditions,  born  in  every  cor- 
ner of  the  accessible  areas  of  the  globe,  with  re- 
ligious beliefs  representing  every  creed  and  de- 
nomination known  to  the  civilized  world,  fought 
for  democracy  in  the  trenches  of  Europe  They 
were  Yanks  in  spirit  and  in  aspiration,  those  mil- 
lions who  went  overseas  prepared  for  the  supreme 
sacrifice,  but  in  their  veins  flowed  the  blood  of  all 
nations  and  in  their  hearts  were  hidden  treasures 
of  tradition  and  culture  that  have  not  been  and 
will  not  be  discovered  and  developed  until  the 
Americanization  movement  realizes  that  a  new  na- 
tionalism must  be  created  out  of  the  old." — C. 
Aronovici,  Americanization:  its  meaning  and  Junc- 
tion (American  Journal  of  Sociology,  May,  iq2o). 
— Another  student  stresses  the  following  principles 
of  Americanization  work:  "(i)  .Americanization 
cannot  be  defined  as  simply  learning  the  language. 
It  is  exceedingly  broad  in  its  scope,  and  the  learn- 
ing process  continues  throughout  the  life  of  the 
individual.  (2)  Americanization  work  should  not 
be  confined  to  persons  of  non-.\merican  extraction. 
Many  people  born  in  the  United  States  need  to  be 
brought  into  sympathy  with  the  non-American  just 
as  much  as  he  needs  to  be  brought  into  sympathy 
with  them  (3)  The  learning  of  the  language  pro- 
vides only  the  tools  of  contact  to  the  individual, 
so  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  develop  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  .American  conduct  and  ideals.  (4) 
The  menace  of  the  non-English-speaking  alien  is 
so  great  to  his  community  and  to  himself  that  we 
ought  to  consider  carefully  the  desirability  of  in- 
sisting upon  his  learning  the  language  if  he  is  to 
remain  in  the  country  (5)  Those  undertaking 
Americanization  work  should  be  absolutely  sincere 
in  their  purpose,  as  any  scheme  which  bears  even 

28 


AMERICANIZATION 


Libraries 
and  Schools 


AMERICANIZATION 


the  faintest  taint  of  exploitation  will  react  harm- 
fully upon  the  worker  and  upon  the  cause  of 
Americanization.  (6)  It  must  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind  that  no  element  of  condescension  can 
safely  be  introduced  into  Americanization  work. 
There  is  much  that  the  new  American  can  teach 
us  if  we  are  in  the  right  attitude  of  mind,  and  we 
can  teach  him  very  little  if  we  are  not.  (7)  Above 
all  things  avoid  paternalism.  (8)  The  final  pur- 
pose of  all  Americanization  work  is  to  develop  self- 
acting  progressive  Americans,  (g)  Education  is 
primarily  a  public  function  and  the  industry  should 
take  the  initiative  only  where  the  community  has 
failed.  It  should  always  be  ready  to  cooperate. 
(10)  Above  all  things  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  'Americanism'  is  a  state  of  the  heart  as  much 
as  it  is  a  state  of  the  mind.  It  is  a  feeling  as  much 
as  it  is  a  thought." — C.  H.  Paull,  Aims  and  stand- 
ards in  industrial  Americanization  (Industrial  Man- 
agement, Feb.,  iQiQ,  pp.  148-151). — The  view  of  a 
naturalized  American  may  be  seen  in  these  extracts 
from  an  address  by  Edward  A.  Steiner,  Professor 
of  Applied  Christianity,  Grinnell  College,  Iowa: 
"I  am  not  sure  that  we  can,  or  that  we  ought,  to 
accelerate  Americanization.  Thus  far  it  has  been 
a  contagion  with  no  artificial  stimulus.  When  we 
shall  say  'Go  to,  we  will  Americanize  you,'  there 
will  be  organized  efforts  to  resist  us,  and  the  re- 
sistance will  grow  with  our  insistence.  We  have, 
I  am  sure,  lost  many  opportunities  to  interpret 
America  to  the  immigrant,  especially  to  the  adult. 
He  does  not  come  in  contact  with  any  of  our  na- 
tional institutions  except  the  saloon  and  the  police 
court.  If  he  does  become  a  citizen  he  usually  at- 
tains to  that  high  and  holy  privilege  through  the 
venal  politician.  The  whole  process  of  naturaliza- 
tion, which  has  received  some  attention  in  these 
later  years,  needs  to  be  further  revised  and  im- 
proved ;  especially  by  dignifying  it  and  by  making 
the  applicant  realize  that  it  is  a  privilege  which 
he  may  forfeit  if  he  does  not  perform  its  duties 
conscientiously.  I  am  not  sure  that  the  attempt 
to  accelerate  naturalization,  by  making  the  process 
easier,  may  not  end  in  cheapening  it  still  further. 
I  believe  that  every  man  who  wishes  to  become  a 
citizen  ought  to  be  willing  to  take  pains  and  make 
sacrifices,  if  necessary  to  gain  that  end.  Citizen- 
ship is  too  valuable  a  possession  to  be  thrown  at 
people,  and  it  is  a  mistaken  notion  to  believe  that 
because  a  man  has  taken  out  his  naturalization 
papers  he  is  necessarily  a  patriot.  In  fact,  we 
know  that  the  two  are  not  identical,  and  I  can 
easily  imagine  myself  loving  this  country  and  being 
ready  to  sacrifice  myself  for  it,  even  had  I  not  the 
sometimes  doubtful  privilege  of  voting.  .We  should 
apply  a  test  more  searching  than  the  mere  an- 
swering of  a  few  questions  which  may  be  learned 
by  rote.  No  man  should  be  allowed  to  become  a 
citizen  unless  his  conduct,  during  five  years'  resi- 
dence in  this  country,  has  proved  that  he  is  already 
an  American  in  spirit ;  that  he  knows  the  meaning 
of  liberty  and  has  not  abused  it;  and  that  he  is 
capable  of  cooperating  with  others  in  realizing  that 
freedom.  He  ought  to  be  able  to  prove  that  he 
has  left  behind  him  Europe's  racial,  religious  and 
national  animosities  and  prejudices.  He  ought 
not  to  become  a  child  of  this  democracy,  and,  as 
often  happens,  an  added  care,  until  he  has  proved 
that  he  knows  its  meaning  and  has  lived  up  to  it. 
...  A  rigid  insistence  upon  economic  and  social 
justice,  and  the  assurance  that  the  state  looks  upon 
them  as  something  more  than  animated  machines, 
to  be  used  and  abused  at  the  owners'  will,  would 
bind  these  millions  in  gratitude  to  the  country  of 
which  they  know  Httle  or  nothing  except  when 
they  are  punished  for  breaking  its  laws.     I  have 


strongly  urged,  but  thus  far  in  vain,  that  every 
ship  which  carries  in  immigrants  should  have  on 
board  a  United  States  officer  who  would  use  the 
time  of  transit  to  instruct  the  people  coming  to 
us.  They  should  be  told  of  their  privileges  and 
their  duties,  the  nature  of  our  government  and 
the  part  they  may  ultimately  have  in  it.  I  have 
often  acted  voluntarily  in  such  a  capacity,  and 
have  found  that  by  the  aid  of  immigrants  who 
are  returning  to  us,  such  instruction  can  be  effec- 
tively given.  Much  of  the  preliminary  work  of 
inspection  could  thus  be  done.  I  know  there  are 
difficulties  in  the  way,  but  they  are  not  insur- 
mountable. The  immigrant-receiving  station  should, 
not  be  merely  a  heartless  machine  for  this  sifting 
of  human  material.  The  government  ought  to 
do  something  more  for  these  people  than  put  a 
chalk  mark  upon  their  coats,  or  open  the  gate  of 
a  strange  and  new  country  without  a  word  of  ad- 
vice or  warning.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the 
average  American  toward  the  government  of  his 
city  or  country,  the  low  tone  of  our  discussion  of 
public  issues,  the  ridicule*  which  we  heap  upon 
our  officials,  from  which  even  the  chief  magis- 
trate is  not  spared;  the  personal  and  partisan  sel- 
fishness so  strongly  in  evidence  even  in  this  most 
critical  moment  of  our  national  life.  Need  we 
then  wonder  if  every  hyphenated  citizen  does  not 
manifest  the  gracious  unselfishness  of  a  George 
Washington  or  the  sacrificial  devotion  of  an  Abra- 
ham Lincoln?" — E.  A.  Steiner,  Confession  of  a 
hyphenated  American,  pp.  51-63. 

Cooperation  by  the  libraries. — Mr.  George 
B.  Utley,  secretary  of  the  American  Library  Asso- 
ciation, has  summarized  as  follows  what  the  libra- 
ries have  done  to  promote  good  citizenship:  "(i) 
They  have  gained  the  adult  foreigner's  confidence 
and  good  will.  (2)  They  have  educated  themselves 
in  his  needs,  prejudices,  racial  characteristics  and 
native  responses.  (3)  They  have  afforded  him 
democratic,  hospitable  places — libraries — in  which 
the  usefulness  and  the  recreational  quality  of  books, 
magazines  and  newspapers  have  been  discovered 
by  him  and  to  him.  (4)  They  have  cooperated 
with  established  organizations,  local,  state  and  fed- 
eral, for  his  education,  (s)  They  have  instituted 
new  ways  of  procedure  in  helping  him,  such  as 
the  use  of  the  foreign-language  press  as  a  medium 
of  instruction;  of  foreign-language  lectures  for 
teaching  citizenship,  English  language  and  home- 
making.  (6)  They  have  given  or  promoted  home- 
lands exhibits  and  municipal  parties  at  which  re- 
spect and  admiration  have  been  shown  for  his 
handiwork  and  customs  with  an  increase  of  his 
own  self-respect." — Statement  furnished  for  Ameri- 
canization  (Handbook  Series,  p.  344) . 

Cooperation  by  the  public  schools. — In  the 
public  schools  of  many  large  cities*  more  atten- 
tion has  recently  been  given  to  the  teaching  of 
government.  In  the  City  of  New  York  a  required 
course  of  not  less  than  four  periods  a  week  for  one 
half  year  aims  to  acquaint  freshmen  high  school 
pupils  with  the  government  of  their  city  and  its 
state  and  federal  relations.  The  following  are 
among  the  topics  taught. — The  city's  water  supply, 
The  part  of  the  citizen  in  government.  Parties  and 
elections,  etc..  Protecting  the  health  of  the  people, 
Protecting  the  food  of  the  people,  Disposal  of 
city's  wastes.  Regulation  of  buildings.  Lighting, 
Heating,  etc..  Communication  and  transportation, 
Safeguarding  life  and  property.  Public  regulation 
of  work.  Clothing,  Public  provision  for  recreation, 
City  planning,  and  Civic  beauty.  Care  of  the  city's 
wards  (Public  welfare).  Care  of  the  city's  wards 
(Correction),  Public  education,  Making  the  laws, 
Carrying  out  the  laws.  Judicial  action  and  Paying 


329 


AMERICANIZATION 


AMIDA,  SIEGES  OF 


the  city's  bills.  In  the  great  work  of  making  our 
population  American  in  spirit,  we  can  probably  do 
nothing  better  than  to  strengthen  the  agencies  al- 
ready at  work  and  furnish  them  adequate  financial 
support,  particularly  the  public  schools,  the  libra- 
ries, the  churches,  the  social  settlements,  the  com- 
munity centers,  the  immigrant  protective  leagues 
and  the  legal  aid  societies. 

Various  agencies. — Due  to  the  present  univer- 
sahty  of  the  work,  only  a  few  of  the  leading  agen- 
cies are  enumerated  under  each  heading. 

Federal  agencies. — Department  of  the  Interior: 
Bureau  of  Education;  Department  of  Labor: 
Bureau  of  Naturalization;  Bureau  of  Immigration 
(controls  immigration  of  entire  country)  ;  Immi- 
gration  stations. 

Slate  agencies. — Councils  of  national  defense; 
immigrant  commissions;  industrial  departments; 
state   boards  of   education. 

Municipal  agencies. — City  boards  of  education; 
community  councils;  official  municipal  agencies 
[Americanization  committees,  research  bureaus, 
etc.] 

Universities  and  colleges. — [Surveys,  Americani- 
zation training  courses,  etc.  Among  these  are] 
University  of  State  of  New  York  (maintains  di- 
rector of  immigrant  education,  with  a  staff; 
makes  surveys,  .  .  .  conducts  institutes  for  teach- 
ers in  Americanization,  methods  of  teaching  Eng- 
lish to  foreigners,  etc.)  ;  Columbia  University 
(maintains  Columbia  House  ...  for  centralization 
of  American  activities  .  .  .  )  ;  University  of  Wis- 
consin (first  university  to  establish  a  chair  of 
Americanization;   [and  others]. 

Special  immigrant  organizations. — Immigrants' 
Protective  League;  North  American  Civic  League 
for  Immigrants;  Immigration  Restriction  League; 
National  Liberal  Immigration  League;  Immigrant 
Education  Society;  Baron  de  Hirsch  fund  (estab- 
lished for  the  benefit  of  Galician,  Russian  and 
Roumanian  Jews);  Council  of  Jewish  Women; 
Y.  W.  C.  A.;  Y.  M.  C.  A.;  Y.  M.  H.  A.;  National 
Committee  for  Constructive  Immigration  Legisla- 
tion; World  Alliance  for  International  Friendship 
(specially  concerned  with  adjustmert  of  relations 
with  the  Orient);  Hebrew  Sheltering  and  Immi- 
grant Aid  Society  of  America;  Jewish  Agricultural 
and  Industrial  Aid  Society. 

Religious  organizations. — Church  home  mission 
work,  port  work,  recreation,  etc. 

Foreign  organizations. — League  of  Foreign-born 
Citizens  (first  organization  instituted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  helping  the 'foreign-born  to  become  Ameri- 
can citizen  and  appreciate  American  institutions)  ; 
American  Waldensian  Aid  Society;  Armenian 
Colonial  Association;  Ukrainian  National  Alliance; 
Ukrainian  Federation  of  the  United  States;' Greek- 
American  National  Union  ;  Czecho-Slovak  National 
Alliance;  Czecho-Slovak  Sokel  Organizations;  Am- 
erican Lettish  Baptist  Literary  Society;  Slavonic 
Immigrant  Society;  Syrian-American  Club;  Slo- 
vak League  of  America;  Polish  Falcon's  Alliance 
in  America. 

Private  organizations. — Sons  of  the  American 
Revolution;  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion; Educational  Alliance  (Hebrew);  Carnegie 
Corporation;  Conference  of  Social  Work;  General 
Federation   of  Women's   Clubs. 

Women's  Committees.— [C\v\c  and  municipal; 
conduct   classes,  clubs,  lectures,  etc.] 

Miscellaneous. — Chambers  of  commerce;  clubs; 
industries;  libraries;  settlements;  parent-teacher  as- 
sociations.— From  list  compiled  by  division  for  for- 
eign-bom women.  National  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  July 
1919. 
Also  in:  C.  S.  Cooper,  American  jieo/j.— Royal 


Dixon,  Americanization. — H.  P.  Fairchild,  Immi- 
gration: A  world  movement  and  its  American 
significance. — E.  A.  Steiner,  Nationalizing  America. 
— F.  V.  Thompson,  Schooling  of  the  immigrant. 

AMERIGO  VESPUCCI.  See  Vespucci,  Amer- 
igo. 

AMERONGEN,  a  village  in  Holland,  to  which 
the  deposed  German  Emperor  fled  in  November, 
1918,  after  the  collapse  of  his  army.  He  found 
asylum   in   the   chateau   of   Count   Bentinck. 

AMERVAL.  See  World  War:  1918:  II.  West- 
ern front:  s,  1. 

AMES,  Fisher  (1758-1808),  orator,  political 
writer  and  statesman,  graduate  of  Harvard,  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  conspicuous 
in  the  Massachusetts  convention  of  1788  to  ratify 
the  Federal  Constitution;  a  Federalist  leader  in 
Congress  1789-1797;  made  an  able  defense  of  the 
Jay  treaty ;  prominent  member  of  the  Essex  Junto 
(q.v.).  Complete  edition  of  his  works  published 
by  his  son,  Seth  Ames,  1854. 

AMES,  Oakes  (1804-1873),  manufacturer;  Re- 
publican member  of  Congress  from  Massachusetts, 
1862-1873;  censured  by  House"  of  Representatives 
for  his  connection  with  the  Credit  Mobilier  (q.  v.) 
and  later  vindicated  by  Massachusetts  legislature. 
See  Credit  Mobilier  scandal. 

AMETER.  See  Electrical  discoveries:  Meas- 
uring instruments. 

AMHERST,  Jeffrey  Amherst,  Baron  (1717- 
1797),  British  soldier;  in  War  of  Austrian  Suc- 
cession and  Seven  Years'  War;  commanded  expe- 
dition against  Louisburg  1758;  made  Commander- 
in-chief  of  English  forces  in  America  1759;  cap- 
tured Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  and  later 
Montreal;  made  Governor-general  of  British  North 
America;  unsuccessful  in  war  against  Pontiac ;  re- 
fused to  serve  against  .American  colonists  in  the 
Revolution ;  aided  in  suppressing  Gordon  Riots, 
1780.  The  city  of  Amhei'st,  Mass.,  was  named  in 
his  honor  by  Governor  Pownall  in  1759. — See  also 
Canada:  1758;  1759  (July-August);  1763-1774; 
South  Carolina:   i 750-1 761. 

Also  in:  G.  O.  Trevelyan,  American  Revolution, 
V.  2,  pp.  208-218. 

AMHERST,  William  Pitt,  Earl  (i773-i857).  a 
British  diplomat;  Governor-general  of  India  1823- 
1828;  created  earl  in  1826,  in  recognition  of  his 
services  in  the'  first  Burmese  war  in  1824,  which 
resulted  in  the  cession  of  .\rakan  and  Jenasserim 
to  Great  Britain. — See  also  India:  1823-1833. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  Founding  of.  See 
Education,  Modern:  U.  S.  A.:  1821  (Massa- 
chusetts);   UNrVERSITIES    AND    COLLEGES:    1818-182I. 

AMICALES".     See  France:   1919-1920. 

AMICITI.S;.    See  Guilds  of  Flanders. 

AMIDA,  Sieges  of. — The  ancient  city  of  Amida, 
now  Diarbekr,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Upper 
Tigris  was  thrice  taken  by  the  Persians  from  the 
Romans,  in  the  course  of  the  long  wars  between 
the  two  nations.  In  the  first  instance,  A.  D.  359, 
it  fell  after  a  terrible  siege  of  seventy-three  days, 
conducted  by  the  Persian  king  Sapor  in  person, 
and  was  given  up  to  pillage  and  slaughter,  the 
Roman  commanders  crucified  and  the  few  surviv- 
ing inhabitants  dragged  to  Persia  as  slaves.  The 
town  was  then  abandoned  by  the  Persians,  repeo- 
pled  by  the  Romans  and  recovered  its  prosperity 
and  strength,  only  to  pass  through  a  similar  ex- 
perience again  in  502,  when  it  was  besieged  for 
eighty  days  by  the  Persian  king  Kobadh,  carried 
by  storm,  and  most  of  its  inhabitants  slaughtered 
or  enslaved.  A  century  later,  in  60S,  Chosroes 
took  Amide  once  more,  but  with  less  violence. — 
G.  Rawlinson,  Seventh  great  oriental  monarchy,  ch. 
9,  ig  and  24. — See  also  Persia:   (A.  D.)  226-627. 


330 


AMIDEI   FAMILY 


AMORIAN   DYNASTY 


AMIDEI  FAMILY,  Florence:  Rise  of  Guelf 
and  Ghibelline  strife.     See  Italy:   1215. 

AMIENS,  a  city  in  northern  France  81  miles 
from  Paris,  situated  on  the  river  Somme,  a  textile 
manufacturing  center ;  surprised  by  the  Spaniards 
in  15Q7  and  recovered  same  year  by  Henry  IX  (see 
France;  I5g3-I5Q8)  ;  gavv;  its  name  to  the  treaty 
of  1802  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain  and 
Holland  [see  England:  1801-1806;  France:  1801- 
1802];  captured  by  the  Germans  in  1870  (see 
France:  1870-1871)  and  again  in  1914,  when  they 
held  it  for  a  time  in  the  first  advance  on  Paris, 
later  withdrawing ;  was  the  objective  of  some  of 
the  greatest  German  onslaughts  in  1918,  but  was 
held  by  the  Allies.  (See  World  War;  1915:  X. 
War  in  the  air;  1918;  II.  Western  front:  c,  27; 
c,  32;  j.)    For  origin  of  name,  see  Belgae. 

AMIENS,  Cathedral  of,  the  largest  cathedral 
of  France,  begun  in  1220  by  Robert  de  Luzarches 
and  continued  by  Thomas  de  Cormont  and  his  son 
Renault.  The  plan  of  the  building  is  typical  of 
French  Gothic  architecture.  The  groin  rib  and 
pointed  arch  have  taken  the  place  of  the  sex- 
partite  plan  and  the  bays  are  oblong.  While  the 
area  of  Amiens  is  smaller  than  the  Hypostyle  Hall 
at  Karnak  the  height  of  its  nave  is  140  feet  as 
compared  with  80  at  Karnak.  As  in  all  French 
cathedrals  the  west  front  is  a  special  feature  of  the 
exterior.  The  Romanesque  twin  towers  are  con- 
nected by  an  arcade  and  there  is  a  rose  or  wheel 
window  above  the  central  recessed  door.  Speak- 
ing of  its  interior  as  an  example  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, Charles  H.  Caffin  says:  "It  is  as  if  some 
power  had  pulled  the  older  form  upward  into  a 
slenderer,  more  elastic  fabric ;  less  massive,  possi- 
bly less  stately,  but  also  less  inert,  infinitely  alive 
in  its  inspiring  growth,  with  grace  of  movement 
as  well  as  dignity." — C.  H.  Caffin,  How  to  study 
architecture,  p.  284, 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  (1527),  negotiated  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  between  Henry  VIII  of  England 
and  Francis  I  of  France,  establishing  an  alliance 
against  the  emperor,  Charles  V.  The  treaty  was 
sealed  and  sworn  to  in  the  cathedral  church  at 
Amiens,  Aug.  18,  1527.— J.  S.  Brewer,  Reign  of 
Henry  VIII,  v.  2,  ch.  26  and  28. — See  also  Italy: 
1527-1529. 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  (1802).  See  France:  1801- 
1802.  As  affecting  Knights  of  the  Order  of  St. 
John,  see  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem:   1565-1870. 

AMIN  AL,  Caliph,  809-813,  son  and  successor 
of  Harun  al-Rashid.  After  a  troublous  reign,  which 
was  due  to  his  own  misgovernment,  he  was  de- 
feated by  a  revolting  faction,  captured  and  put  to 
death, 

AMINULLAH  KHAN,  Amir.  See  Afghanis- 
tan;  igig. 

AMIR,  also  written  Ameer  and  Emir,  Moham- 
medan title  of  nobility,  especially  used  to  refer  to 
the  rulers  of  Afghanistan  and  Scinde. 

AMIR  TOMAN,  Persian  army  officer.  See 
World  War;  1915;  VII.  Persia  and  Germany. 

AMIRANTES.     See  Mascarene  Islands. 

AMISTAD,  Case  of.— The  Amistad  was  a 
Spanish  vessel  bound  from  Havana  to  Puerto 
Principe  with  a  cargo  of  slaves  in  1839.  The 
slaves  killed  the  whites  and  took  possession  of 
the  ship.  A  United  States  war  vessel  seized  the 
Amistad  off  Long  Island  and  took  it  into  New 
London  harbor.  The  United  States  district  court 
of  Connecticut  held  that  the  slaves  were  "prop- 
erty rescued  from  pirates"  and  that  they  should  be 
returned  to  their  Spanish  owners  according  to  the 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  This 
decision  was  reversed  by  the  Supreme  court  of  the 


United  States.  According  to  this  tribunal  the  ne- 
groes were  free  men,  having  been  kidnapped  from 
a  foreign  country. — See  also  Slavery:  Negro:  19th 
Century. 

AMISUS,  Siege  of.— The  siege  of  Amisus  by 
Lucullus  was  one  of  the  important  operations  of 
the  third  Mithridatic  war.  The  city  was  on  the 
coast  of  the  Black  sea,  between  the  rivers  Halys 
and  Lycus;  it  is  represented  in  site  by  the  modern 
town  of  Samsun.  Amisus,  which  was  besieged  in 
73  B.  C,  held  out  until  the  following  year.  Tyran- 
nion  the  grammarian  was  among  the  prisoners 
taken  and  sent  to  Rome. — G.  Long,  Decline  of  the 
Roman  republic,  v.  3,  ch.  1  and  2. 

AMITABHA.  See  Mythology:  Eastern  Asia: 
Indian  and  Chinese  influences. 

AMMAN,  Palestine.— Captured  by  British 
(1918).  See  World  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish  the- 
ater: c,  5;  c,  13;  c,  20. 

AMMANATI,  Bartolomeo  (1511-1592),  Flor- 
entine architect  and  sculptor;  designed  many 
buildings  in  Rome,  Lucca  and  Florence,  an  addi- 
tion to  the  Pitti  Place  being  one  of  his  most  cele- 
brated works. — See  also  Sculpture:  High  Renais- 
sance. 

AMMANN,  title  of  the  mayor,  or  president  of 
the  Swiss  Communal  Council  or  Gcmeinderat.  See 
Switzerland;   1848-1890. 

AMMISM.  See  Mythology:  Greek  mythology: 
Anthropomorphic  character  of  Greek  myth. 

AMMON,  a  god  of  Egypt.— Power  of  his 
priests.    See  Egypt;  B.C.  1379. 

AMMON,  Temple  and  Oracle  of.— The  Am- 
monium or  Oasis  of  .^mmon,  in  the  Libyan  desert, 
which  was  visited  by  Alexander  the  Great,  has 
been  identified  with  the  oasis  now  known  as  the 
Oasis  of  Siwah.  "The  Oasis  of  Siwah  was  first 
visited  and  described  by  Browne  in  1792;  and  its 
identity  with  that  of  Amnion  fully  established  by 
Major  Rennell  (Geography  of  Herodotus,  pp.  577- 
591).  .  .  .  The  site  of  the  celebrated  temple  and 
oracle  of  Ammon  was  first  discoveted  by  Mr.  Ham- 
ilton in  1853.  Its  famous  oracle  was  frequently 
visited  by  Greeks  from  Cyrene,  as  well  as  from 
other  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world,  and  it  vied  in 
reputation  with  those  of  Delphi  and  Dodona." — 
E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  ancient  geography,  ch. 
8,  sect.  I,  and  ch.  12,  sect,  i  and  note  E. — An  ex- 
pedition of  50,000  men  sent  by  Cambyses  to  Am- 
mon, B.C.  525,  is  said  to  have  perished  in  the 
desert,  to  the  last  man.  See  Egypt:  B.C.  525- 
332- 

AMMONITES. — According  to  the  ■  narrative  in 
Genesis  xix:  30-39,  the  Ammonites  were  descended 
from  Ben-Ammi,  son  of  Lot's  second  daughter,  as 
the  Moabites  came  from  Moab,  the  eldest  daugh- 
ter's son.  The  two  people  are  much  associated  in 
Biblical  history.  "It  is  hard  to  avoid  the  conclu- 
sion that,  while  Moab  was  the  settled  and  civilized 
half  of  the  nation  of  Lot,  the  Bene  Ammon  formed 
its  predatory  and  Bedouin  section." — G.  Grove, 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. — See  also  Amalekites; 
Jews;  Conquest  of  Canaan,  and  Israel  under  the 
Judges;  Moabites;  Christianity:  Map  of  Sinaitic 
peninsula. 

AMMONITI,  political  party.  See  Florence: 
1358. 

AMMONIUS  SACCAS,  Greek  philosopher. 
See  Neoplatonism. 

AMNAS:  Occupied  by  the  British.  See  World 
War;   1917:  VI.  Turkish  theater;   c,  2,  vi. 

AMNESTY  PROCLAMATION.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1863   (December). 

AMOOR.    See  Amur. 

AMORIAN  DYNASTY.  See  Byzantine  em- 
pire: 820-1057. 


331 


AMORIAN  WAR 


AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL 


AMORIAN  WAR.— The  Byzantine  emperor, 
Theophilus,  in  war  with  the  Saracens,  took  and  de- 
stroyed, with  peculiar  animosity,  the  town  of 
Zapetra  or  Sozopetra,  in  Syria,  which  happened  to 
be  the  birthplace  of  the  reigning  caliph,  Motassem, 
son  of  Harun  al-Rashid.  The  caUph  had  conde- 
scended to  intercede  for  the  place,  and  his  enemy's 
conduct  was  personally  insulting  to  him,  as  well 
as  atrociously  inhumane.  To  avenge  the  outrage 
he  invaded  Asia  Minor,  A.  D.  S3S,  at  the  head  of 
an  enormous  army,  with  the  special  purpose  of  de- 
stroying the  birthplace  of  Theophilus.  The  unfor- 
tunate town  which  suffered  that  distinction  was 
Amorium  in  Phrygia, — whence  the  ensuing  war 
was  called  the  .■\morian  War.  Attempting  to  de- 
fend .\morium  in  the  field,  the  Byzantines  were 
hopelessly  defeated,  and  the  doomed  city  was  left 
to  its  fate.  It  made  an  heroic  resistance  for  fifty- 
five  days,  and  the  siege  is  said  to  have  cost  the 
caliph  70,000  men.  But  he  entered  the  place  at  last 
with  a  merciless  sword,  and  left  a  heap  of  ruins 
for  the  monument  of  his  revenge. — E.  Gibbon,  His- 
torv  oj  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire, 
ch.'s--. 

AMORITES.— "The  Hittites  and  Amorites  were 
.  .  .  mingled  together  in  the  mountains  of  Pales- 
tine like  the  two  races  which  ethnologists  tell 
us  go  to  form  the  modern  Kelt.  But  the  Egyptian 
monuments  teach  us  that  they  were  of  very  dif- 
ferent origin  and  character.  The  Hittites  were  a 
people  with  yellow  skins  and  'Mongoloid'  features, 
whose  receding  foreheads,  oblique  eyes,  and  pro- 
truding upper  jaws,  are  represented  as  faithfully 
on  their  own  monuments  as  they  are  on  those  of 
Egypt,  so  that  we  cannot  accuse  the  Egyptian  art- 
ists of  caricaturing  their  enemies.  If  the  Egyp- 
tians have  made  the  Hittites  ugly,  it  was  because 
they  were  so  in  reality.  The  Amorites,  on  the 
contrary,  were  a  tall  and  handsome  people.  They 
are  depicted  with  white  skins,  blue  eyes,  and  red- 
dish hair,  all  the  characteristics,  in  fact,  of  the 
white  race.  Mr.  Petrie  points  out  their  resem- 
blance to  the  Dardanians  of  .\sia  Minor,  who  form 
an  intermediate  link  between  the  white-skinned 
tribes  of  the  Greek  seas  and  the  fair-complexioned 
Libyans  of  Northern  Africa.  The  latter  are  still 
found  in  large  numbers  in  the  mountainous  regions 
which  stretch  eastward  from  Morocco,  and  are 
usually  known  among  the  French  under  the  name 
of  Kabyles.  The  traveller  who  first  meets  with 
them  in  Algeria  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  their 
likeness  to  a  certain  part  of  the  population  in  the 
British  Isles.  Their  clear-white  freckled  skins, 
their  blue  eyes,  their  golden-red  hair  and  tall 
stature,  remind  him  of  the  fair  Kelts  of  an  Irish 
village;  and  when  we  find  that  their  skulls,  which 
are  of  the  so-called  dolichocephalic  or  'long-headed' 
type,  are  the  same  as  the  skulls  discovered  in  the 
prehistoric  cromlechs  of  the  country  they  still  in- 
habit, we  may  conclude  that  they  represent  the 
modern  descendants  of  the  white-skinned  Libyans 
of  the  Egyptian  monuments.  In  Pale=tine  also 
we  still  come  across  representatives  of  a  falr-com- 
plexioned  blue-eyed  race,  in  w'hom  we  may  see  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  .Amorites,  just  a?  we 
see  in  the  Kabyles  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Libyans.  We  know  that  the  .^morite  type  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  Judah  long  after  the  Israelit- 
ish  conquest  of  Canaan  The  captives  taken  from 
the  southern  cities  of  Judah  by  Shishak  in  the  time 
of  Rehoboam,  and  depicted  by  him  upon  the  walls 
of  the  great  temple  of  Karnak,  are  people  of 
Amorite  origin.  Their  'regular  profile  of  sub- 
aquiline  cast,'  as  Mr,  Tomkins  describes  it.  their 
high  cheek-bones  and  martial  expression,  are  the 
features   of    the    .Amorites,    and    not    of   the   Jews. 


Tallness  of  stature  has  always  been  a  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  the  white  race.  Hence  it  was 
that  the  Anakim,  the  Amorite  inhabitants  of  He- 
bron, seemed  to  the  Hebrew  spies  to  be  as  giants, 
while  they  themselves  were  but  'as  grasshoppers' 
by  the  side  of  them  (Num.  xiii:  a).  After  the 
Israelitish  invasion  remnants  of  the  Anakim  were 
left  in  Gaza  and  Gath  and  Ashkelon  (Josh  xi.  22), 
and  in  the  time  of  David,  Goliath  of  Gath  and 
his  gigantic  family  were  objects  of  dread  to  their 
neighbors  (2  Sam.  xxi:  15-22).  It  is  clear,  then, 
that  the  Amorites  of  Canaan  belonged  to  the  same 
white  race  as  the  Libyans  of  Northern  Africa,  and 
like  them  preferred  the  mountains  to  the  hot  plains 
and  valleys  below.  The  Libyans  themselves  be- 
longer  to  a  race  which  can  be  traced  through  the 
peninsula  of  Spain  and  the  western  side  of  France 
into  the  British  Isles.  Now  it  is  curious  that  wher- 
ever this  particular  branch  of  the  white  race  has 
extended  it  has  been  accompanied  by  a  particular 
form  of  cromlech,  or  sepulchral  chamber  built  of 
large  uncut  stones,  ...  It  has  been  necessary  to 
enter  at  this  length  into  what  has  been  discovered 
concerning  the  Amorites  by  recent  research,  in  or- 
der to  show  how  carefully  they  should  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Hittites  with  whom  they  af- 
terwards intermingled.  They  must  have  been  in 
possession  of  Palestine  long  before  the  Hittites  ar- 
rived there.  They  extended  over  a  much  wider 
area." — \.  H.  Sayce,  Hittites,  ch.  i, — -See  also  Ca- 
naan; Jews:    Israel  under  the  Judges, 

AMORTIZATION.  See  Rural  credit:  Amor- 
tization, 

AMOS,  Hebrew  prophet.  See  Jews:  Religion 
and  the  prophets, 

AMO'Y,  Chinese  seaport  on  the  south-eastern 
coast.    See  China:  1839-1842;  Map. 

AMPERE,  Andre  Marie  (1775-1836),  a  French 
physicist,  famous  for  his  service  to  science  in  es- 
tablishing the  relation  between  electricity  and  mag- 
netism. The  unit  of  measurement  of  the  intensity 
of  electric  currents  is  named  "ampere"  after  him. — 
See    also    Electrical    discovery:    1784-1800. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL,  AMPHICTY- 
ONY. — ".An  .Amphiktyonic,  or,  more  correctly,  an 
.■\mphiktionic,  body  was  an  assembly  of  the  tribes 
who  dwelt  around  any  famous  temple,  gathered 
together  to  manage  the  affairs  of  that  temple. 
There  were  other  Amphiktyonic  Assemblies  in 
Greece  [besides  that  of  Delphi],  amongst  which 
that  of  the  isle  of  Kalaureia,  off  the  coast  of 
Argolis,  was  a  body  of  some  celebrity.  The  Am- 
phiktyons  of  Delphi  obtained  greater  importance 
than  any  other  .Amphiktyons  only  because  of  the 
greater  importance  of  the  Delphic  sanctuary,  and 
because  it  incidentally  happened  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  Greek  nation  had  some  kind  of  repre- 
sentation among  them.  But  that  body  could  not 
be  looked  upon  as  a  perfect  representation  of  the 
Greek  nation  which,  to  postpone  other  objections 
to  its  constitution,  found  no  place  for  so  large  a 
fraction  of  the  Hellenic  body  as  the  Arkadians 
Still  the  .\mphiktyons  of  Delphi  undoubtedly  came 
nearer  than  any  other  existing  body  to  the  char- 
acter of  a  general  representation  of  all  Greece. 
It  is  therefore  easy  to  understand  how  the  relig- 
ious functions  of  such  a  body  might  incidentally 
assume  a  political  character.  .  .  .  Once  or  twice 
then,  in  the  course  of  Grecian  history,  we  do  find 
the  .Amphiktyonic  body  acting  with  real  dignity  in 
the  name  of  united  Greece.  .  .  ,  Thouch  the  list 
of  members  of  the  Council  is  eiven  with  some 
slight  variations  bv  different  authors,  all  agree  in 
making  the  constituent  members  of  the  union 
tribes  and  not  cities.  The  representatives  of  the 
Ionic  and  Doric  races  sat  and  voted  as  single  mem 


ii^ 


AMPHILOCHIANS 


AMSTERDAM 


bers,  side  by  side  with  the  representatives  of 
petty  peoples  like  the  Magnesians  and  Phthiotic 
Achaians,  When  the  Council  was  first  formed, 
Dorians  and  lonians  were  doubtless  mere  tribes  of 
northern  Greece,  and  the  prodigious  development 
of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  races  in  after  times  made 
no  difference  in  its  constitution.  .  .  .  The  Amphi- 
ktyonic  Council  was  not  exactly  a  diplomatic  con- 
gress, but  it  was  much  more  like  a  diplomatic  con- 
gress than  it  was  like  the  governing  assembly  of 
any  commonwealth,  kingdom,  or  federation.  The 
Pylagoroi  and  Hieromncmo  were  not  exactly 
Ambassadors,  but  they  were  much  more  like  mem- 
bers of  a  British  Parliament  or  even  an  American 
Congress.  .  .  .  The  nearest  approach  to  the  Am- 
phiktyonic  Council  in  modern  times  would  be  if 
the  College  of  Cardinals  were  to  consist  of  mem- 
bers chosen  by  the  several  Roman  Catholic  nations 
of  Europe  and  America." — E.  A.  Freeman,  History 
of  federal  government,  v.  i,  cli.  3. — See  also 
Greece:  B.  C.  8th  and  6th  centuries:  Economic  con- 
ditions; and  B.C.  357-336;  Ionic  (Pan-Ionic)  Am- 

PHICTYONY. 

AMPHILOCHIANS.     See   Acarnanians. 

AMPHIPOLIS.— This  town  in  Macedonia,  oc- 
cupying an  important  situation  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river  Strymon,  just  below  a  small  lake 
into  which  it  widens  near  its  mouth,  was  originally 
called  "The  Nine  Ways,"  and  was  the  scene  of  a 
horrible  human  sacrifice  made  by  Xerxes  on  his 
march  into  Greece. — Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece, 
ch.  15. — It  was  subsequently  taken  by  the  Athe- 
nians, B.  C.  437,  and  made  a  capital  city  by  them, 
dominating  the  surrounding  district,  its  name  be- 
ing changed  to  Amphipolis.  During  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  B.  C.  424,  the  able  Lacedsmonian 
general,  Brasidas,  led  a  small  army  into  Macedonia 
and  succeeded  in  capturing  Amphipolis,  which 
caused  great  dismay  and  discouragement  at  Athens. 
(See  Athens:  B.C.  426-422)  Thucydides,  the  his- 
torian, was  one  of  the  generals  held  responsible 
for  the  disaster  and  he  was  driven  as  a  conse- 
quence into  the  fortunate  exile  which  produced  the 
composition  of  his  history.  Two  years  later  the 
.Athenian  demagogue-leader,  Cleon,  took  com- 
mand of  an  expedition  sent  to  recover  .Amphipolis 
and  other  points  in  Macedonia  and  Thrace.  It 
was  disastrously  beaten  and  Cleon  was  killed,  but 
Brasidas  fell  likewise  in  the  battle.  Whether 
Athens  suffered  more  from  her  defeat  than  Sparta 
from  her  victory  is  a  question. — Thucydides,  His- 
tory, bk.  4,  sect.  102-135,  bk.  5,  sect.  i-ii. — Am- 
phipolis was  taken  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  B.C. 
358.  See  Greece:  350-358;  Map  of  ancient  Greece. 
AMPHISSA,  Seige  and  capture  by  Philip  of 
Macedon  (B.C.  339-338).  See  Greece:  B.C.  357- 
336. 

AMPHITHEATER,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
building  much  hke  a  double  theater,  circular  in 
plan,  with  the  seats  of  the  spectators  surround- 
ing the  place  of  exhibition.  Wooden  theaters 
seem  to  have  been  numerous,  but  the  first  stone 
one,  the  Coliseum  (q.v.),  was  built  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus.  Amphitheaters  were  later  erected  in 
almost  all  of  the  large  cities,  the  finest  being  at 
Verona,  Capua,  Pozzuoli  and  Nimes.  "There  was 
hardly  a  town  in  the  [Romanl  empire  which  had 
not  an  amphitheatre  large  enough  to  contain  vast 
multitudes  of  spectators.  The  savage  excitement 
of  gladiatorial  combats  seems  to  have  been  almost 
necessary  to  the  Roman  legionaries  in  their  short 
intervals  of  inaction,  and  was  the  first  recreation 
for  which  they  provided  in  the  places  where  they 
were  stationed.  .  .  .  Gladiatorial  combats  were 
held  from  early  times  in  the  Forum,  and  wild 
beasts  hunted  in  the  Circus;  but  until  Curio  built 


his  celebrated  double  theatre  of  wood,  which  could 
be  made  into  an  amphitheatre  by  turning  the  two 
semi-circular  portions  face  to  face,  we  have  no 
record  of  any  special  building  in  the  peculiar  form 
afterwards  adopted.  It  may  have  been,  therefore, 
that  Curio's  mechanical  contrivance  first  suggested 
the  elliptical  shape.  ...  As  specimens  of  architec- 
ture, the  amphitheatres  are  more  remarkable  for 
the  mechanical  skill  and  admirable  adaptation  to 
their  purpose  displayed  in  them,  than  for  any 
beauty  of  shape  or  decoration.  The  hugest  of 
all,  the  Coliseum,  was  ill-proportioned  and  un- 
pleasing  in  its  lines  when  entire." — R.  Burn,  Rome 
and  the  campagna,  introduction. — See  also  Arena; 
Coliseum. 

AMPHORA,  MODIUS.— "The  [Roman]  unit 
of  capacity  was  the  Amphora  or  Quadrantal, 
which  contained  a  cubic  foot  .  .  .  equal  to  5.687 
imperial  gallons,  or  5  gallons,  2  quarts,  i  pint,  2 
gills,  nearly.  The  Amphora  was  the  unit  for  both 
liquid  and  dry  measures,  but  the  latter  was  gen- 
erally referred  to  the  Modius,  which  contained  one- 
third  of  an  Amphora.  .  .  .  The  Culeus  was  equal 
to  20  Amphora." — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of  Roman 
antiquities    cli.   13. 

AMPTHILL,  Ode  William  Leopold  Russell, 
1st  baron  (1829-1884),  British  diplomat.  Held 
various  diplomatic  positions  in  Vienna,  Paris,  Con- 
stantinople, Florence  and  Rome  and  was  British 
ambassador  to  Berlin  from  1871  until  his  death. — • 
See  also  Masonic  societies:  England:  Ideals  of 
Freemasonry. 

AMPUDIA,  Pedro  de,  Mexican  general.  See 
Mexico:    1846-1847. 

AMR-IBN-EL-ASS,  or  Amru  (d.  664),  a  dis- 
tinguished Arabian  general  under  Mohammed  and 
his  immediate  successors.  The  conquest  of  Syria 
and  Egypt  and  the  final  triumph  of  the  Omayyads 
over  the  followers  of  AH  were  due  largely  to  him. 
See  Cai^ii'iiate:  640-646. 

AMRITSAR,  a  city  of  British  India,  in  the 
Punjab;  long  celebrated  as  a  holy  place  of  the 
Sikhs  (q.  v.)  ;  while  the  place  is  one  of  the  rich- 
e;;t  trading  bazars  of  India,  the  most  remarkable 
feature  is  the  great  fortress  built  by  Runjit  Singh 
in  1809.  In  1919  there  were  riots  and  disturb- 
ances which  were  quickly  subdued  by  the  British 
military  under  General  Dyer,  who  was  removed 
from  his  command  and  censured  for  his  severity. 
— See  also  I.n'dia:   1919;  Map. 

AMRU,  Mosque  of,  one  of  the  oldest  mosques 
in  Cairo,  Egypt,  a  splendid  example  of  Moham- 
medan architecture.  It  was  founded  immediately 
after  the  conquest  of  the  country  in  643,  and  con- 
siderably enlarged  in  the  succeeding  periods.  Its 
distinguishing  features  are  "a  square  open  court, 
surrounded  by  arcades,  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
mihrab  and  supported  by  columns  taken  from 
Byzantine  and  Roman  buildings." — C.  H.  Caffin, 
Hoiv   to   study   architecture,  p.   223. 

AMSTERDAM,  the  "most  important  city  of 
Holland,  situated  in  the  province  of  North  Hol- 
land, on  the  Y  river,  an  arm  of  thcZuider  Zee. 
Amsterdam,  or  the  "dyke  of  the  Amste'l,"  is  named 
after  the  Amstel,  the  canalized  river  passing  through 
the  city  to  the  Y.  The  city  has  a  population  of 
almost  640,000.  Between  the  years  1640-1656,  the 
famous  portrait  painter  Rembrandt  lived  in  the 
Jewish  center  of  Amsterdam,  which  also  boasts 
of  the  birth  of  the  philosopher  Spinoza  (1632). 

The  city  was  virtually  founded  by  Giesebrecht 
II  and  III  of  Amstel.  The  former,  in  1204,  found 
.Amsterdam  but  a  fishing  hamlet,  and  constructed 
a  castle  in  the  vicinity.  The  latter,  the  son  of 
the  builder  of  the  castle,  constructed  a  dam  in 
1240  to  keep  the  sea  out.     The  place  passed  out 


333 


AMSTERDAM,  BANK  OF 


ANABAPTISTS  OF  MUNSTER 


of  the  control  of  the  house  of  Amstel  in  i2q6  when 
Giesebrecht  IV  was  found  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
murder  of  Count  Floris  V  of  Holland.  The  fief 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Guy  of  Hainaut  who 
gave  the  town  its  first  charter  (1300).  "The 
town  was  early  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
Hansa  League;  and,  in  1342,  having  outgrown  its 
primary  limits,  required  to  be  enlarged.  For  this 
an  expensive  process,  that  of  driving  piles  into  the 
swampy  plain,  was  necessary ;  and  to  this  circum- 
stance, no  doubt,  it  is  owing  that  the  date  of 
each  successive  enlargement  has  been  so  accurately 
recorded." — \V.  T.  McCullagh,  Industrial  history 
of  free  nations,  v.  2,  ch.  g. — The  walls  about  the 
town  were  built  in  1482.  The  city  began  to  de- 
velop and  prosper  most  rapidly.  With  the  be- 
ginning of  the  i6th  century  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648  proved  most  favor- 
able to  the  city  inasmuch  as,  by  one  of  its  pro- 
visions, the  Scheldt  was  closed,  thereby  bringing 
ruin  upon  Antwerp,  Amsterdam's  commercial 
rival.  Holland's  chief  commercial  center  was  oc- 
cupied successively  by  the  Prussians  in  1787  and 
the  French,  under  Pichegru,  in  1705. — See  also 
Netherlands:  Map  of  the  Netherlands  and  Bel- 
gium. 

1813. — Revolt  against  the  French.  See  Neth- 
erlands:  1 81 3. 

1904. — Congress  of,  International.  See  Inter- 
national:  1Q04. 

1907. — Meeting  of  International  Woman  Suf- 
frage Alliance.     See  Suffrage,  Women. 

AMSTERDAM,  Bank  of.  See  Bank  of  Am- 
sterdam. 

AMSTERDAM,  New.  See  New  York  (State): 
1634;  1653;  1664. 

AMSTERDAM  CANAL.  See  Canals:  Princi- 
pal European  canals:   Holland. 

AMULIUS,  legendary  king  of  Alba  Longa, 
Italy,  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.;  usurped  the 
throne  of  his  younger  brother  Numitor,  whose 
grandchildren,  Romulus  and  Remus,  set  adrift  in 
the  river  Tiber  by  Amulius,  survived  to  slay  the 
usurper  and  to  found  Rome. 

AMUNDSEN,  Roald  (1872-  ),  Norwegian 
arctic  explorer;  made  magnetic  survey  of  North 
Pole  regions  in  IQ03;  achieved  Northwest  Passage 
in  IQ05;  discovered  South  Pole  in  Dec.  14,  1911. 
See  Antarctic  explorations:  igii-iqia;  Map  of 
.Antarctic  regions;  Arctic  explorations:  1901- 
iQoo;  Spitsbergen:   1906-1921. 

AMUR,  or  Amoor,  river  and  district  of  East 
Siberia.  See  Siberia:  Land;  World  War:  igiS: 
III.  Russia:  e,  1;  China:  Map. 

AMURATH.     See  Murad. 

AMYCL.S;,  chief  city  of  Laconia  while  that 
district  of  Peloponnesus  was  occupied  1 .  the 
.•VchcEans,  before  the  Doric  invasion  and  before 
the  rise  of  Sparta.  It  maintained  its  independence 
against  the  Doric  Spartans  for  a  long  period,  but 
succumbed  at  length  under  circumstances  which 
gave  rise  to  a  proverbial  saying  among  the  Greeks 
concerning  "the  silence  of  Amycls."  "The  peace 
of  .Amyclae,  we  are  told,  had  been  so  often  dis- 
turbed by  false  alarms  of  the  enemy's  approach, 
that  .at  length  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  such 
reports,  and  the  silent  citv  was  taken  bv  surprise." 
— C.  Thirlwall,  History  '  of  Greece,  eh.  7.— This 
sforv  is  also  told  of  a  city  of  the  same  name  in 
Latium.   Ttnlv. 

AMYNTAS  I,  king  of  Macedonia  c.  S40-408 
B.  C.  Submitted  to  the  Persians  about  513  B.  C. 
See  Macedonia:  B.C.  700-3^9. 

Amyntas  II  (or  III) ,  king  of  Macedonia  c.  394- 
369  B.C.     See  Macedonia:   B.C.  700-359. 

AN,  City  of.    See  On. 


ANABAPTISTS.— "None  of  the  sects  which 
sprang  up  in  the  wake  of  the  Reformation  pro- 
duced so  great  a  ferment  as  the  Anabaptists.  The 
name,  which  signifies  rebaptizers,  was  affixed  to 
them  by  their  adversaries  for  the  reason  that  they 
rejected  infant  baptism  and  baptised  anew  all  of 
their  number  who  had  received  the  sacrament  in 
infancy.  The  Anabaptists  were  the  radicals  of  the 
Reformation.  They  considered  that  the  Reformers 
had  left  their  work  half  done.  .  .  .  The  Church, 
they  insisted,  must  be  composed  exclusively  of  the 
regenerate,  and  religion  is  not  a  matter  to  be  regu- 
lated and  managed  by  civil  rulers.  Under  the 
name  of  Anabaptists  are  included  different  types 
of  doctrine  and  of  Christian  life.  It  is  a  gross  in- 
justice to  impute  to  them  all  the  wild  and  de- 
structive fanaticism  with  which  a  portion  of  them 
are  chargeable.  This  fanatical  class  are  first  heard 
of  in  Germany,  under  Thomas  Miinzer,  as  a  leader, 
who  ...  in  the  Peasants'  War  in  1525  sought  to 
establish  his  revolutionary  doctrines.  These  in- 
volved the  abolition  of  all  existine  authorities  in 
Church  and  State,  and  the  substitution  of  a  king- 
dom of  the  saints,  in  which  he  was  to  be  the  chief. 
.  .  .  Very  different  from  the  disciples  of  Miinzer, 
however,  were  Grebel  and  other  Anabaptists  who 
organized  themselves  at  Zurich.  .  .  .  They  were  en- 
thusiasts but  not  fanatics.  They  were  peaceful 
in  their  spirit,  and,  as  it  would  appear,  were  sin- 
cerely devout.  These  traits,  however  did  not  pro- 
tect them  from  harsh  and  unwarrantable  treat- 
ment. .  .  .  Some  of  them  were  put  to  death.  .  .  . 
They  went  no  farther,  however,  than  to  maintain 
that  no  Christian  could  be  a  magistrate,  or  take 
part  in  the  infliction  of  capital  punishment.  .  .  . 
in  the  third  and  fourth  decades  of  the  sixteenth 
century  'Anabaptism  spread  like  a  burning  fever 
through  all  Germany ;  from  Swabia  and  Switzer- 
land, along  the  Rhine  to  Holland  and  Friesland. 
from  Bavaria,  Middle  Germany,  Westphalia,  and 
Saxony,  as  far  as  Holstein.'  In  the  Netherlands, 
in  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  Anabaptists  were  guilty 
of  offences  against  decency  and  morality  which 
were  repaid  with  savage  penalties.  Afterwards,  v/e 
find  that  a  numerous  body  who  were  stigmatized 
by  the  same  name  but  were  of  a  totally  different 
spirit  were  organized  under  the  guidance  of  Menno 
Simonis,  a  religious  and  conscientious  man.  .  .  . 
English  Brownists,  or  Independents,  who  came 
over  to  Holland,  were  brought  into  connection  with 
the  Mennonites.  .  .  .  After  1535  many  Anabaptists 
crossed  over  to  England  and  formed  congrega- 
tions. .  .  .  They  were  reinforced  by  certain  Brown- 
ists who  had  espoused  .Anabaptist  opinions  in  Hol- 
land."— G.  P.  Fisher,  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  pp.  424-426. — See  also  .A.vabapiists  of 
Mi'NSTER ;  Baptists;  Mennonites. 

ANABAPTISTS  OF  MUNSTER.— "Munster 
is  a  town  in  Westphalia,  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
walled  round,  with  a  noble  cathedral  and  many 
churches;  but  there  is  one  peculiarity  about  Miin- 
ster  that  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  old  Ger- 
man towns;  it  has  not  one  old  church  spire  in  it. 
Once  it  had  a  great  many.  How  comes  it  that 
it  now  has  none?  In  Miinster  lived  a  draper, 
Knipperdolling  by  name,  who  was  much  excited 
over  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  he  gathered 
many  people  in  his  house,  and  spoke  to  them  bit- 
ter words  against  the  Pope,  the  bishops,  and  the 
clergy.  The  bishop  at  this  time  was  Francis  of 
Waldeck,  a  man  much  inclined  himself  to  Lu- 
theranism;  indeed,  later,  he  proposed  to  suppress 
Catholicism  in  the  diocese,  as  he  wanted  to  seize 
on  it  and  appropriate  it  as  a  possession  to  his 
family.  Moreover,  in  IS44>  he  joined  the  Protest- 
ant princes  in  a  league  against  the  Catholics;  but 


334 


ANABAPTISTS  OF  MUNSTER 


ANESTHETICS 


he  did  not  want  things  to  move  too  fast,  lest  he 
should  not  be  able  to  secure  the  wealthy  See  as 
personal  property.  Knipperdolling  got  a  young 
priest,  named  Rottmann,  to  preach  in  one  of  the 
churches  against  the  errors  of  Catholicism,  and 
he  was  a  man  of  such  fiery  eloquence  that  he 
stirred  up  a  mob  which  rushed  through  the  town, 
wrecking  the  churches.  The  mob  became  daily 
more  daring  and  threatening.  They  drove  the 
priests  out  of  the  town,  and  some  of  the  wealthy 
citizens  tied,  not  knowing  what  would  follow. 
The  bishop  would  have  yielded  to  all  the  religious 
innovations  if  the  rioters  had  not  threatened  his 
temporal  position  and  revenue.  In  1532  the  pas- 
tor, Rottmann,  began  to  preach  against  the  bap- 
tism of  infants.  Luther  wrote  to  him  remonstrat- 
ing, but  in  vain.  The  bishop  was  not  in  the  town; 
he  was  at  Minden,  of  which  See  he  was  bishop  as 
well.  Finding  that  the  town  was  in  the  hands 
of  Knipperdolling  and  Rottman,  who  were  con- 
fiscating the  goods  of  the  churches,  and  exclud- 
ing those  who  would  not  agree  with  their  opin- 
ions, the  bishop  advanced  to  the  place  at  the 
head  of  some  soldiers.  Miinster  closed  its  gates 
against  him.  Negotiations  were  entered  into ;  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  was  called  in  as  pacificator, 
and  articles  of  agreement  were  drawn  up  and 
signed.  Some  of  the  churches  were  given  to  the 
Lutherans,  but  the  Cathedral  was  reserved  for  the 
Cathohcs,  and  the  Lutherans  were  forbidden  to 
molest  the  latter,  and  disturb  their  religious  serv- 
ices. The  news  of  the  conversion  of  the  city  of 
Miinster  to  the  gospel  spread,  and  strangers  came 
to  it  from  all  parts.  Among  these  was  a  tailor 
of  Leyden,  called  John  Bockelson.  Rottman  now 
threw  up  his  Lutheranism  and  proclaimed  him- 
self opposed  to  many  of  the  doctrines  which 
Luther  still  retained.  Amongst  other  things  he  re- 
jected was  infant  baptism.  This  created  a  spHt 
among  the  reformed  in  Miinster,  and  the  disorders 
broke  out  afresh.  The  mob  now  fell  on  the  ca- 
thedral and  drove  the  Catholics  from  it,  and 
would  not  permit  them  to  worship  in  it.  They 
also  invaded  the  Lutheran  churches,  and  filled  them 
with  uproar.  On  the  evening  of  January  28,  1534, 
the  Anabaptists  stretched  chains  across  the  streets, 
assembled  in  armed  bands,  closed  the  gates  and 
placed  sentinels  in  all  directions.  When  day 
dawned  there  appeared  suddenly  two  men  dressed 
Hke  Prophets,  with  long  ragged  beards  and 
flowing  mantles,  staff  in  hand,  who  paced  through 
the  streets  solemnly  in  the  midst  of  the  crowd, 
who  bowed  before  them  and  saluted  them  as 
Enoch  artd  Elias.  These  men  were  John  Bockelson, 
the  tailor,  and  one  John  Mattheson,  head  of  the 
Anabaptists  of  Holland.  Knipperdolling  at  once 
associated  himself  with  them,  and  shortly  the 
place  was  a  scene  of  the  wildest  ecstacies.  Men 
and  women  ran  about  the  streets  screaming  and 
leaping,  and  crying  out  that  they  saw  visions  of 
angels  with  swords  drawn  urging  them  on  to  the 
extermination  of  Lutherans  and  Catholics  alike. 
...  A  great  number  of  citizens  were  driven  out, 
on  a  bitter  day,  when  the  land  was  covered  with 
snow.  Those  who  lagged  were  beaten ;  those  who 
were  sick  were  carried  to  the  market-place  and  re- 
baptized  by  Rottman.  .  .  .  This  was  too  much  to 
be  borne.  The  bishop  raised  an  army  and  marched 
against  the  city.  Thus  began  to  siege  which  was 
to  last  sixteen  months,  during  which  a  multitude 
of  untrained  fanatics,  commanded  by  a  Dutch 
tailor,  held  out  against  a  numerous  and  well-armed 
force.  Thenceforth  the  city  was  ruled  by  divine 
revelations,  or  rather,  by  the  crazes  of  the  dis- 
eased brains  of  the  prophets.  One  day  they  de- 
clared that  all  the  officers  and  magistrates  were  to 


be  turned  out  of  their  offices,  and  men  nominated 
by  themselves  were  to  take  their  places;  another 
day  Mattheson  said  it  was  revealed  to  him  that 
every  book  in  the  town  except  the  Bible  was  to 
be  destroyed;  accordingly  all  the  archives  and  li- 
braries were  collected  in  the  market-place  and 
burnt.  Then  it  was  revealed  to  him  that  all  the 
spires  were  to  be  pulled  down;  so  the  church 
towers  were  reduced  to  stumps,  from  which  the 
enemy  could  be  watched  and  whence  cannon  could 
play  on  them.  One  day  he  declared  he  had  been 
ordered  by  Heaven  to  go  forth,  with  promise  of 
victory,  against  the  besiegers.  He  dashed  forth  at 
the  head  of  a  large  band,  but  was  surrounded  and 
he  and  his  band  slain.  The  death  of  Mattheson 
struck  dismay  into  the  hearts  of  the  Anabaptists, 
but  John  Bockelson  took  advantage  of  the  mo- 
ment to  establish  himself  as  head.  He  declared 
that  it  was  revealed  by  him  that  Mattheson  had 
been  killed  because  he  had  disobeyed  the  heavenly 
command,  which  was  to  go  forth  with  fe.w.  In- 
stead of  that  he  had  gone  with  many.  Bockelson 
said  he  had  been  ordered  in  vision  to  marry  Mat- 
theson's  widow  and  assume  his  place.  It  was  fur- 
ther revealed  to  him  that  Miinster  was  to  be  the 
heavenly  Zion,  the  capital  of  the  earth,  and  he 
was  to  be  king  over  it.  .  .  .  Then  he  had  another 
revelation  that  every  man  was  to  have  as  many 
wives  as  he  liked,  and  he  gave  himself  sixteen 
wives.  This  was  too  outrageous  for  some  to  en- 
dure, and  a  plot  was  formed  against  him  by  a 
blacksmith  and  about  200  of  the  more  respectable 
citizens,  but  it  was  frustrated  and  led  to  the  seizure 
of  the  conspirators  and  the  execution  of  a  number 
of  them.  ...  At  last,  on  midsummer  eve,  1536, 
after  a  siege  of  sixteen  months,  the  city  was  taken. 
Several  of  the  citizens,  unable  longer  to  endure 
the  tyranny,  cruelty  and  abominations  committed 
by  the  king,  helped  the  soldiers  of  the  prince- 
bishop  to  cUmb  the  walls,  open  the  gates,  and  sur- 
prise the  city.  A  desperate  hand-to-hand  fight 
ensued;  the  streets  ran  with  blood.  John  Bockel- 
son, instead  of  leading  his  people,  hid  himself, 
but  was  caught.  So  was  Knipperdolling.  When 
the  place  was  in  his  hands  the  prince-bishop  en- 
tered. John  of  Leyden  and  Knipperdolling  were 
cruelly  tortured,  their  flesh  plucked  off  with  red- 
hot  pincers,  and  then  a  dagger  was  thrust  into 
their  hearts.  Finally,  their  bodies  were  hung  in 
iron  cages  to  the  tower  of  a  church  in  Miinster. 
Thus  ended  this  hideous  drama,  which  produced 
an  indescribable  effect  throughout  Germany. 
Miinster,  after  this,  in  spite  of  the  desire  of  the 
prince-bishop  to  establish  Lutheranism,  reverted  to 
Catholicism,  and  remains  Catholicto  this  day." — 
S.  Baring-Gould,  Slory  of  Germany,  ch.  36. 

Also  in:  L.  von  Ranke,  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in.  Germany,  bk.  6,  ch.  9,  v.  3. — C.  Beard,  Re- 
formation,   (Hibbert   Lectures,    1883). 

ANABASIS,  the  name  given  by  Xenophon  to 
his  account  of  the  retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks  after 
the  battle  of  Cunaxa  (401  B.C.).  See  Persia: 
B.C.  401-400;  also  History:  16. 

ANABASIS  OF  ALEXANDER.    See  Arrian. 

ANACLETUS  (d.  1138),  anti-pope  from  1130 
till  his  death,  maintaining  his  rule  in  Rome  against 
Innocent   II. 

ANACONDA  COPPER  MINE  (Montana). 
See   Montana:    1Q07-1917. 

ANACTORIUM.    See  Corcyra. 

ANAESTHESIA:  In  the  Middle  Ages.  See 
Medical  science:   Ancient:   loth  century. 

AN.a;STHETICS,  Discovery  of.  See  Medicai. 
science:  Modern:  19th  century:  Discovery  of  an- 
aesthetics; Chuvhstry:  Practical  application: 
Drugs. 


335 


ANAFARTA 


ANARCHISM 


ANAFARTA:  Object  of  British  attack.  See 
World  War;  1915:  \'I.  Turkey:  a,  4,  xxxviii. 

ANAH:  Occupied  by  the  British.  See  World 
War:    191S:   VI.  Turkish,  theater:   a,  1. 

ANAHUAC— "The  word  Anahuac  signifies 
'near  the  water.'  It  was,  probably,  first  applied 
to  the  country  around  the  lakes  in  the  Mexican 
Valley,  and  gradually  extended  to  the  remoter  re- 
gions occupied  by  the  Aztecs,  and  the  other  semi- 
civilized  races.  Or,  possibly,  the  name  may  have 
been  intended,  as  Veytia  suggests  (Historical  An- 
tiquities, lib.  I,  cap.  i),  to  denote  the  land  be- 
tween the  waters  of  the  .\tlantic  and  Pacific." — 
W.  H.  Prescott,  Conquest  of  Mexico,  bk.  i,  ch.  i, 
note  II.  See  Mexico:  Aboriginal  inhabitants;  also 
1325-1502. 

ANAKIM.     See  Amorites. 

ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY.  See  Chem- 
istry:  Analytical. 

ANAM.     See  .^nnam. 

ANAPA,  Russia.  Frontier  town  originally  built 
by  the  Turks  for  defense  purposes.  Finally  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1828  and  ceded  to  them  in  the 
treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829.  See  Turkey:  1826- 
1829. 

ANARCHISM.— Definition  and  theory.— An- 
cient theories. — "Anarchism,  as  its  derivation  in- 
dicates, is  the  theory  which  is  opposed  to  every 
kind  of  forcible  government.  It  is  opposed  to 
the  State  as  the  embodiment  of  the  force  employed 
in  the  government  of  the  community.  Such  gov- 
ernment as  Anarchism  can  tolerate  must  be  free 
government,  not  merely  in  the  sense  that  it  is  that 
of  a  majority,  but  in  the  sense  that  it  is  that  as- 
sented to  by  all.  Anarchists  object  to  such  insti- 
tutions as  the  police  and  the  criminal  law,  by 
means  of  which  the  will  of  one  part  of  the  com- 
munity is  forced  upon  another  part.  In  their 
view,  the  democratic  form  of  government  is  not 
very  enormously  preferable  to  other  forms  so  long 
as  minorities  are  compelled  by  force  or  its  poten- 
tiality to  submit  to  the  will  of  majorities.  Lib- 
erty is  the  supreme  good  in  the  Anarchist  creed, 
and  liberty  is  sought  by  the  direct  road  of  abolish- 
ing all  forcible  control  over  the  individual  of  the 
community.  Anarchism,  in  this  sense,  is  no  new 
doctrine.  It  is  set  forth  admirably  by  Chuang 
Tzu,  a  Chinese  philosopher,  who  lived  about  the 
year  300  B.  C.  .  .  .  Ancient  Greece  also  had  its 
anarchistic  philosophers,  of  whom  the  most  im- 
portant was  Zeno  {342-267  B.C.).  Zeno  denied 
omnipotence  such  as  Plato  desired,  to  the  state, 
and  pled  for  the  elevation  of  individual  moral 
law  in  the  place  of  organized  police  power  as 
wielded  by  the  state.  The  modern  Anarchism, 
in  the  sense  in  which  we  shall  be  concerned  with 
it,  is  associated  with  belief  in  the  communal  own- 
ership of  land  and  capital,  and  is  thus  in  an  im- 
portant respect  akin  to  Socialism.  The  doctrine 
is  properly  called  .'\narchist  Communism,  but  as 
it  embraces  practically  all  modern  Anarchism,  we 
may  ignore  individualist  Anarchism  altogether  and 
concentrate  attention  upon  the  communistic  form. 
Socialism  and  .Anarchist  Communism  alike  have 
arisen  from  the  perception  that  private  capital  is 
a  source  of  tyranny  by  certain  individuals  over 
others.  Orthodox  Socialism  believes  that  the  in- 
dividual will  become  free  if  the  State  becomes  the 
sole  capitalist.  Anarchism,  on  the  contrary,  fears 
that  in  that  case  the  State  might  merely  inherit  the 
tyrannical  propensities  of  the  private  capitalist. 
Accordingly,  it  see"ks  for  a  means  of  reconciling 
communal  ownership  with  the  utmost  possible 
diminution  in  the  powers  of  the  State,  and  indeed 
ultimately  with  the  complete  abolition  of  the  State. 
It   has  arisen   mainly   within   the   Socialist  move- 


ment as  its  extreme  left  wing.  " — B.  Russell,  Pro- 
posed roads  to  freedom,  p.  33. — See  also  Socialism: 
Definition  of  terms. 

"In  the  popular  mind  an  anarchist  is  identified 
with  one  who  desires  to  destroy  existing  govern- 
ment through  the  use  of  the  bomb  and  other  vio- 
lent means.  It  is  quite  true  that  many  adherents 
to  this  school  do  advocate  the  use  of  violence  in 
achieving  their  ends.  It  is  important  to  bear  in 
mind,  however,  that  we  are  here  dealing  only  with 
means,  not  the  end  itself.  The  really  important 
thing,  at  least  from  the  standpoint  of  political 
science,  is  the  end  or  the  principle  which  the  users 
of  these  means  seek  to  make  prevail.  The  anar- 
chistic school  represents  the  extreme  school  of  in- 
dividual rights.  There  are  many  persons  who  be- 
long to  this  school  who  do  not  approve  of  the  use 
of  violence.  They  constitute  what  are  known  as 
scientific  anarchists.  Prince  Kropotkin  [died  192 1] 
is  probably  the  most  distinguished  representative 
of  this  class,  and  in  his  writings  one  can  find  the 
best  exposition  of  the  philosophy  of  this  school. 
It  is  the  belief  of  this  school,  not  only  that  the 
principles  for  which  they  stand  are  theoretically 
sound,  but  are  susceptible  of  successful  applica- 
tion in  practice.  It  is  their  belief  that  common 
action  for  the  general  welfare  should  rest  upon 
voluntary  association  rather  than  state  compulsion. 
They  point  to  the  fact  that  great  branches  of  ac- 
tivities are  now  conducted  in  this  way.  Men  form 
all  sorts  of  associations  for  common  action  in  which 
the  principle  of  compulsion  is  absent.  Especially 
is  the  great  success  achieved  in  the  field  of  dis- 
tributive cooperation  in  England  and  Europe  gen- 
erally referred  to  as  an  example  of  what  can  be 
done  through  purely  voluntary  association.  In 
boards  of  trade,  chambers  of  commerce,  trade 
unions,  and  like  organizations,  are  found  other 
illustrations." — W.  F.  Willoughby,  Governments  of 
modern  states,  p.  170. 

1578-1652. — Anarchy  in  Poland.  See  Poland: 
1578-1652. 

1793. — Godwin's  theory. — William  Godwin,  an 
Englishman  (1756-1836),  published  his  famous 
"Enquiry  Concerning  Political  Justice,  and  Its  In- 
fluence on  General  Virtue  and  Happiness,"  in  1793. 
It  contained  the  first  modern  formulation  of  the 
principles  of  anarchism.  He  based  his  theory  on 
the  doctrine  of  natural  rights  and  demanded  the 
abolition  of  all  laws  and  government  as  being 
false  and  unnecessary.  Small,  self-governing  com- 
munities, he  held,  made  up  the  most  equitable  so- 
ciety. From  the  conviction  that  "monarchy  was  a 
species  of  government  unavoidably  corrupt,"  he  ar- 
rived at  the  conclusion  that  "government  by  its 
very  nature  counteracts  the  improvement  of  orig- 
inal mind."  Despite  its  importance  in  the  do- 
main of  political  literature,  however,  Godwin's 
essay  bore  little  fruit,  and  the  history  of  anarchism 
proper  begins  with  Pierre  Joseph  Proudhon  (1809- 
186S). 

1839-1894. — Proudhcn  and  his  doctrines. — Max 
Stirner  and  the  individualistic  school  of  an- 
archists.—"Of  the  Socialistic  thinkers  who  serve 
as  a  kind  of  link  between  the  Utopists  and  the 
school  of  Socialism  of  historical  evolution,  or 
scientific  Socialists,  by  far  the  most  noteworthy 
figure  is  Proudhon,  who  was  born  at  Besanqon 
in  1809.  By  birth  he  belonged  to  the  working 
class,  his  father  being  a  brewer's  cooper,  and  he 
himself  as  a  youth  followed  the  occupation  of  cow- 
herding.  In  1838,  however,  he  published  an  es- 
say on  general  grammar,  and  in  1839  he  gained  a 
scholarship  to  be  held  for  three  years,  a  gift  of 
one  Madame  Suard  to  his  native  town.  The  result 
of  his  advantage  was  his  most  important  though 


33^ 


ANARCHISM,  1839-1894 


ANARCHISM,  1839-1894 


far  from  his  most  voluminous  work,  published 
the  same  year  as  the  essay  which  Madame  Suard's 
scholars  were  bound  to  write:  it  bore  the  title  of 
'What  is  Property?'  {Qu'  est-ce  que  la  propriete?) 
his  answer  being  Property  is  Robbery  (La 
propriete  est  le  vol).  As  may  be  imagined,  this 
remarkable  essay  caused  much  stir  and  indigna- 
tion, and  Proudhon  was  censured  by  the  Besangon 
Academy  for  its  production,  narrowly  escaping  a 
prosecution.  In  1841  he  was  tried  at  Besan(;on 
for  a  letter  he  wrote  to  Victor  Considerant,  the 
Fourierist,  but  was  acquitted.  In  1846  he  wrote 
his  'Philosophie  de  la  Misere'  (Philosophy  of 
Poverty),  which  received  an  elaborate  reply  and 
refutation  from  Karl  Marx.  In  1847  he  went  to 
Paris.  In  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  showed  him- 
self a  vigorous  controversialist,  and  was  elected 
Deputy  for  the  Seine.  .  .  .  After  the  failure  of 
the  revolution  of  '48,  Proudhon  was  imprisoned 
for  three  years,  during  which  time  he  married  a 
young  woman  of  the  working  class.  In  1858  he 
fully  developed  his  system  of  'Mutualism'  in  his 
last  work,  entitled  'Justice  in  the  Revolution  and 
the  Church.'  In  consequence  of  the  publication 
of  this  book  he  had  to  retire  to  Brussels,  but 
was  amnestied  in  i860,  came  back  to  France  and 
died  at  Passy  in  1865."— W.  Morris  and  E.  B.  Bax, 
Socialism,  its  growth  and  outcome,  ch.  18. — "In 
anarchism  we  have  the  extreme  antithesis  of  so- 
cialism and  communism.  The  socialist  desires  so 
to  extend  the  sphere  of  the  state  that  it  shall  em- 
brace all  the  more  important  concerns  of  life. 
The  communist,  at  least  of  the  older  school,  would 
make  the  sway  of  authority  and  the  routine  which 
follows  therefrom  universal.  The  anarchist,  on  the 
other  hand,  would  banish  all  forms  of  authority 
and  have  only  a  system  of  the  most  perfect  lib- 
erty. The  anarchist  is  an  extreme  individualist. 
.  .  .  Anarchism,  as  a  social  theory,  was  first  elabo- 
rately formulated  by  Proudhon.  In  the  first  part 
of  his  work,  'What  is  Property?'  he  briefly  stated 
the  doctrine  and  gave  it  the  name  'anarchy,'  ab- 
sence of  a  master  or  sovereign.  In  that  connec- 
tion he  said:  'In  a  given  society  the  authority  of 
man  over  man  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
stage  of  intellectual  development  which  that  so- 
ciety has  reached.  .  .  .  Property  and  royalty  have 
been  crumbling  to  pieces  ever  since  the  world  be- 
gan. As  man  seeks  justice  in  equality,  so  society 
seeks  order  in  anarchy.'  About  twelve  years  be- 
fore Proudhon  published  his  views  Josiah  War- 
ren reached  similar  conclusions  in  America.  But 
as  the  Frenchman  possessed  the  originality  neces- 
sary to  the  construction  of  a  social  philosophy,  we 
must  regard  him  as  altogether  the  chief  authority 
upon  scientific  anarchism.  .  .  .  Proudhon's  social 
ideal  was  that  of  perfect  individual  liberty.  Those 
who  have  thought  him  a  communist  or  socialist 
have  wholly  mistaken  his  meaning.  .  .  .  Proudhon 
believed  that  if,  the  state  in  all  its  departments 
were  abolished,  if  authority  were  eradicated  from 
society,  and  if  the  principle  of  laissez  faire  were 
made  universal  in  its  operation,  every  form  of  so- 
cial ill  would  disappear.  According  to  his  views 
men  are  wicked  and  ignorant  because,  either  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  they  have  been  forced  to  be 
so:  it  is  because  they  have  been  subjected  to  the 
will  of  another,  or  are  able  to  transfer  the  evil 
results  of  their  acts  to  another.  If  the  individual, 
after  reaching  the  age  of  discretion,  could  be  freed 
from  repression  and  compulsion  in  every  form  and 
know  that  he  alone  is  responsible  for  his  acts  and 
must  bear  their  consequences,  he  would  become 
thrifty,  prudent,  energetic;  in  short  he  would  al- 
ways see  and  follow  his  highest  interests.  He 
would  always   respect   the   rights   of  others;   that 


is,  act  justly.  Such  individuals  could  carry  on 
all  the  great  industrial  enterprises  of  to-day  either 
separately  or  by  voluntary  association.  No  com- 
pulsion, however,  could  be  used  to  force  one  to  ful- 
fil a  contract  or  remain  in  an  association  longer 
than  his  interest  dictated.  Thus  we  should  have  a 
perfectly  free  play  of  enlightened  self-interests: 
equitable  competition,  the  only  natural  form  of 
social  organization.  .  .  .  Proudhon's  theory  is  the 
sum  and  substance  of  scientific  anarchism. 

"Opposed  to  the  communist  anarchism  of  God- 
win and  Proudhon  is  revolutionary  individualist 
anarchism,  of  which  Max  Stirner  (pseudonym 
for  Kaspar  Schmidt)  was  the  ablest  exponent. 
Stirner's  main  thesis  was  the  fullest  development 
of  the  individual,  the  highest  elevation  of  the 
ego — not  of  the  majority  of  men,  but  of  the  bet- 
ter endowed,^and  the  aboUtion  of  morals  in  con- 
nection with  'the  association  of  the  egotists.'  [See 
also  Individualistic  school. 1  .  .  .  How  closely 
have  the  American  anarchists  adhered  to  the  teach- 
ings of  their  master?  One  group,  with  its  centre  at 
Boston  and  with  branch  associations  in  a  few  other 
cities,  is  composed  of  faithful  disciples  of  Proud- 
hon. They  believe  that  he  is  the  leading  thinker 
among  those  who  have  found  the  source  of  evil 
in  society  and  the  remedy  therefor.  They  accept 
his  analysis  of  social  phenomena  and  follow  his 
lead  generally,  though  not  implicitly.  They  call 
themselves  Individualistic  Anarchists,  and  claim 
to  be  the  only  class  who  are  entitled  to  that  name. 
They  do  not  attempt  to  organize  very  much,  but 
rely  upon  'active  individuals,  working  here  and 
there  all  over  the  country.'  It  is  supposed  that 
they  may  number  in  all  some  five  thousand  ad- 
herents in  the  United  States.  .  .  .  They,  like 
Proudhon,  consider  the  government  of  the  United 
States  to  be  as  oppressive  and  worthless  as  any 
of  the  European  monarchies.  Liberty  prevails 
here  no  more  than  there.  In  some  respects  the 
system  of  majority  rule  is  more  obnoxious  than 
that  of  monarchy.  It  is  quite  as  tyrannical,  and 
in  a  republic  it  is  more  difficult  to  reach  the  source 
of  the  despotism  and  remove  it.  They  regard  the 
entire  machinery  of  elections  as  worthless  and  a 
hindrance  to  prosperity.  They  are  opposed  to  po- 
litical machines  of  all  kinds.  They  never  vote  or 
perform  the  duties  of  citizens  in  any  way,  if  it 
can  be  avoided.  .  .  .  Concerning  the.  family  rela- 
tion, the  anarchists  believe  that  civil  marriage 
should  be  abolished  and  'autonomistic'  marriage 
substituted.  This  means  that  the  contracting  par- 
ties should  agree  to  live  together  as  long  as  it 
seems  best  to  do  so,  and  that  the  partnership 
should  be  dissolved  whenever  either  one  desires 
it.  Still,  they  would  give  the  freest  possible  play 
to  love  and  honor  as  restraining  motives.  .  .  . 
[Probably  the  most  influential  American  anarchist 
was  Benjamin  R.  Tucker,  who  was  an  admirer 
and  follower  of  the  economic  doctrines  of  Proud- 
hon, several  of  whose  works  he  translated.  Lib- 
erty, a  leading  anarchist  journal,  was  established 
by  him  in  1881.]  "The  Individualistic  Anarchists 
.  .  .  profess  to  have  very  little  in  common  with 
the  Internationalists.  The  latter  are  Communistic 
.Anarchists.  They  borrow  their  analysis  of  exist- 
ing social  conditions  from  Marx,  or  more  accurately 
from  the  'communistic  manifesto'  written  by  Marx 
and  Engels  in  1847.  In  the  old  International 
Workingman's  association  they  constituted  the  left 
wing,  which,  with  its  leader,  Bakunine,  was  ex- 
pelled in  1872.  Later  the  followers  of  Marx,  the 
socialists  proper,  disbanded,  and  since  1883  the  In- 
ternational in  this  country  has  been  controlled 
wholly  by  the  anarchists.  Their  views  and  meth- 
ods are  similar  to  those  which  Bakunine  wished  to 


337 


ANARCHISM,  1861-1876 


ANARCHISM,  1872-1912 


carry  out  by  means  of  his  Universal  Alliance,  and 
which  exist  more  or  less  definitely  in  the  niinds 
of  [the  former]  Russian  Nihilists.  [See  also 
Nihilism.]  Like  Bakunine,  they  desire  to  organ- 
ize an  international  revolutionary  movement  of 
the  laboring  classes,  to  maintain  it  by  means  of 
conspiracy  and,  as  soon  as  possible,  to  bring  about 
a  general  insurrection.  In  this  way,  with  the  help 
of  explosives,  poisons  and  murderous  weapons  of 
all  kinds,  they  hope  to  destroy  all  existing  insti- 
tutions, ecclesiastical,  civil  and  economic.  Upon 
the  smoking  ruins  they  will  erect  the  new  and 
perfect  society.  Only  a  few  weeks  or  months  will 
be  necessary  to  make  the  transition.  During  that 
time  the  laborers  will  take  possession  of  all  lands, 
buildings,  instruments  of  production  and  distribu- 
tion. With  these  in  their  possession,  and  without 
the  interposition  of  government,  they  will  organize 
into  associations  or  groups  for  the  purpose  of  car- 
rying on  the  work  of  society." — H.  L.  Osgood, 
Scientific  anarchism  {Political  Science  Quarterly, 
March,  i88g). 

Also  in:  F.  Dubois,  Anarchist  peril. 

1861-1876. — Bakunin  and  the  International. — 
"In  the  same  sense  in  which  Marx  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  modern  Socialism,  Ba- 
kunin may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Anarch- 
ist Communism.  .  .  .  Michael  Bakunin  was  born 
in  1814  of  a  Russian  aristocratic  family.  ...  In 
1857,  after  eight  years  of  captivity,  he  was  sent 
to  Siberia.  From  there,  in  1861,  he  succeeded  in 
escaping  to  Japan,  and  thence  through  America  to 
London.  From  this  time  onward,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  spreading  the  spirit  of  Anarchist  revolt, 
without,  however,  having  to  suffer  any  further 
term  of  imprisonment.  For  some  years  he  lived  in 
Italy,  where  he  founded  in  1S64  an  'International 
Fraternity'  or  '.\Uiance  of  Socialist  Revolutionaries.' 
This  contained  men  of  many  countries,  but  ap- 
parently no  Germans.  It  devoted  itself  largely  to 
combating  Mazzini's  nationalism.  In  1867  he 
moved  to  Switzerland,  where  the  following  year 
he  helped  to  found  the  'International  Alliance  of 
Socialist  Democracy,'  of  which  he  drew  up  the  pro- 
gram. This  program  gives  a  good  succinct  resum6 
of  his  opinions:  'The  .Alliance  declares  itself 
atheist ;  it  desires  the  definitive  and  entire  abolition 
of  classes  and  the  political  equality  and  social 
equalization  of  individuals  of  both  sexes.  It  de- 
sires that  the  earth,  the  instrument  of  labor,  like 
all  other  capital,  becoming  the  collective  property 
of  society  as  a  whole,  shall  be  no  longer  able  to  be 
utilized  except  by  the  workers,  that  is  to  say,  by 
agricultural  and  industrial  associations.  It  recog- 
nizes that  all  actually  existing  political  and  au- 
thoritarian States,  reducing  themselves  more  and 
more  to  the  mere  administrative'  functions  of  the 
public  services  in  their  respective  countries,  must 
disappear  in  the  universal  union  of  free  associa- 
tions, both  agricultural  and  industrial.'  The  In- 
ternational Alliance  of  Socialist  Democracy  desired 
to  become  a  branch  of  the  International  Working 
Men's  Association,  but  was  refused  admission  on 
the  ground  that  branches  must  be  local  and  could 
not  themselves  be  international.  The  Geneva  group 
of  the  Alliance,  however,  was  admitted  later,  in 
July,  i86q.  The  International  Working  Men's 
Association  had  been  founded  in  London  in  1864, 
and  its  statutes  and  prograth  were  drawn  up  by 
Marx.  Bakunin  at  first  did  not  expect  it  to  prove 
a  success  and  refused  to  join  it.  But  it  spread 
with  remarkable  rapidity  in  many  countries  and 
soon  became  a  great  power  for  the  propagation  of 
Socialist  ideas.  Originally  it  was  by  no  means 
wholly  Socialist,  but  in  successive  Congresses  Marx 
won  it  over  more  and  more  to  his  views.    At  its 


third  Congress,  in  Brussels  in  September,  1868,  it 
became  definitely  Socialist.  Meanwhile  Bakunin, 
regretting  his  earlier  abstention,  had  decided  to 
join  it,  and  he  brought  with  him  a  considerable 
following  in  French-Switzerland,  France,  Spain 
and  Italy.  At  the  fourth  Congress,  held  at  Basle 
in  September,  1869,  two  currents  were  strongly 
marked.  The  Germans  and  English  followed  Marx 
in  his  belief  in  the  State  as  it  was  to  become  after 
the  abolition  of  private  property;  they  followed 
him  also  in  his  desire  to  found  Labor  Parties  in 
the  various  countries,  and  to  utilize  the  machinery 
of  democracy  for  the  election  of  representatives  of 
Labor  to  Parliaments.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Latin  nations  in  the  main  followed  Bakunin  in 
opposing  the  State  and  disbelieving  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  representative  government.  The  con- 
flict between  these  two  groups  grew  more  and 
more  bitter,  and  each  accused  the  other  of  various 
offences.  The  statement  that  Bakunin  was  a  spy 
was  repeated,  but  was  withdrawn  after  investiga- 
tion. Marx  wrote  in  a  confidential  communication 
to  his  German  friends  that  Bakunin  was  an  agent 
of  the  Pan-Slavist  party  and  received  from  them 
25,000  francs  a  year.  Meanwhile,  Bakunin  be- 
came for  a  time  interested  in  the  attempt  to  stir 
up  an  agrarian  revolt  in  Russia,  and  this  led  him 
to  neglect  the  contest  in  the  International  at  a 
crucial  moment.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
Bakunin  passionately  took  the  side  of  France,  es- 
pecially after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  III.  He  en- 
deavored to  rouse  the  people  to  revolutionary  re- 
sistance like  that  of  1793,  and  became  involved  in 
an  abortive  attempt  at  revolt  in  Lyons.  The 
French  Government  accused  him  of  being  a  paid 
agent  of  Prussia,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  he 
escaped  to  Switzerland.  The  dispute  with  Marx 
and  his  followers  had  become  exacerbated  by  the 
national  dispute.  Bakunin,  like  Kropotkin  after 
him,  regarded  the  new  power  of  Germany  as  the 
greatest  menace  to  liberty  in  the  world.  He  hated 
the  Germans  with  a  bitter  hatred,  partly,  no  doubt, 
on  account  of  Bismarck,  but  probably  still  more 
on  account  of  Marx.  To  this  day.  Anarchism  has 
remained  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  Latin 
countries,  and  has  been  associated  with  a  hatred 
of  Germany,  growing  out  of  the  contests  between 
Marx  and  Bakunin  in  the  International.  The  final 
suppression  of  Bakunin's  faction  occurred  at  the 
General  Congress  of  the  International  at  the  Hague 
in  1872.  The  meeting-place  was  chosen  by  the  Gen- 
eral Council  (in  which  Marx  was  unopposed),  with 
a  view — so  Bakunin's  friends  contend — to  making 
access  impossible  for  Bakunin  (on  account  of  the 
hostility  of  the  French  and  German  governments) 
and  difficult  for  his  friends.  Bakunin  was  expelled 
from  the  International  as  the  result  of  a  report 
accusing  him  inter  alia  of  theft  backed  up  by  in- 
timidation. The  orthodoxy  of  the  International 
was  saved,  but  at  the  cost  of  its  vitality.  From 
this  time  onward,  it  ceased  to  be  itself  a  power, 
but  both  sections  continued  to  work  in  their  vari- 
ous groups,  and  the  Socialist  groups  in  particular 
grew  rapidly.  Ultimately  a  new  International  was 
formed  (1880)  which  continued  down  to  the  out- 
break of  the  [World]  War.  By  this  time  Baku- 
nin's health  was  broken,  and  except  for  a  few  brief 
intervals,  he  lived  in  retirement  until  his  death  in 
i8y6." — B.    Russell,    Proposed    roads    to    jreedom, 

P-  36. 

1872-1912.  —  Kropotkin's  system.  —  Scientific 
anarchism. — "We  do  not  find  in  Bakunin's  works 
a  clear  picture  of  the  society  at  which  he  aimed, 
or  anv  argument  to  prove  that  such  a  society 
could  be  stable.  If  we  wish  to  understand  An- 
archbm  we  must  turn  to  his  followers,  and  espe- 


338 


ANARCHISM,  1878 


ANARCHISM,  1898-1900 


daily  to  Kropotkin  [died  igJi],  like  him,  a  Rus- 
sian aristocrat  familiar  with  the  prisons  of  Europe, 
and,  like  him,  an  Anarchist  who,  in  spite  of  his  in- 
ternationalism, is  imbued  with  a  fiery  hatred  of  the 
Germans.  Kropotkin  has  devoted  much  of  his  writ- 
ing to  technical  questions  of  production.  In  'Fields, 
Factories  and  Workshops'  and  'The  Conquest  of 
Bread'  he  has  set  himself  to  prove  that,  if  produc- 
tion were  more  scientific  and  better  organized,  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  quite  agreeable 
work  would  suffice  to  keep  the  whole  population 
in  comfort.  Even  assuming,  as  we  probably  must, 
that  he  somewhat  exaggerates  what  is  possible  with 
our  present  scientific  knowledge,  it  must  never- 
theless be  conceded  that  his  contentions  contain  a 
very  large  measure  of  truth.  In  attacking  the 
subject  of  production  he  has  shown  that  he  knows 
what  is  the  really  crucial  question.  If  civilization 
and  progress  are  to  be  compatible  with  equality, 
it  is  necessary  that  equality  should  not  involve 
long  hours  of  painful  toil  for  httle  more  than  the 
necessaries  of  life,  since,  where  there  is  no  leisure, 
art  and  science  will  die  and  all  progress  will  be- 
come impossible.  The  objection  which  some  feel 
to  Socialism  and  Anarchism  alike  on  this  ground 
cannot  be  upheld  in  view  of  the  possible  produc- 
tivity of  labor.  The  system  at  which  Kropotkin 
aims,  whether  or  not  it  be  possible,  is  certainly  one 
which  demands  a  very  great  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  production  above  what  is  common  at 
present.  He  desires  to  abolish  wholly  the  system 
of  wages,  not  only,  as  most  Socialists  do,  in  the 
sense  that  a  man  is  to  be  paid  rather  for  his  willing- 
ness to  work  than  for  the  actual  work  demanded 
of  him,  but  in  a  more  fundamental  sense:  there  is 
to  be  no  obligation  to  work,  and  all  things  are 
to  be  shared  in  equal  proportions  among  the  whole 
population.  Kropotkin  relies  upon  the  possibility 
of  making  work  pleasant:  he  holds  that,  in  such 
a  community  as  he  foresees,  practically  everyone 
will  prefer  work  to  idleness,  because  work  will  not 
involve  overwork  pr  slavery,  or  that  excessive 
specialization  that  industrialism  has  brought  about, 
but  will  be  merely  a  pleasant  activity  for  certain 
hours  of  the  day,  giving  a  man  an  outlet  for  his 
spontaneous  constructive  impulses.  There  is  to  be 
no  compulsion,  no  law,  no  government  exercising 
force;  there  will  still  be  acts  of  the  community, 
but  these  are  to  spring  from  universal  consent,  not 
from  any  enforced  submission  of  even  the  smallest 
minority." — B.  Russell,  Proposed  roads  to  freedom, 
p.  51. 

1878. — Anarchist  attempt  to  assassinate  King 
Humbert  of  Italy.  Two  attempts  on  William  I, 
German  emperor. 

1878-1879. — Two  anarchist  attempts  on  life  of 
King  Alfonso  XII  of  Spain. 

1883. — Repudiated  by  Socialists.  See  Social- 
ism: 1874-1901. 

1885. — Anarchists  expelled  from  Switzerland. 

1886. — Chicago  Haymarket  bomb  explosions 
by  anarchists.    See  Chicago:  1886-1887. 

1892. — Bomb  explosions  by  anarchists  in  Italy 
and  Spain. 

1892-1894.— Anarchist  terrorism.— "We  should 
be  doing  more  than  justice  to  Anarchism  if  we 
did  not  say  something  of  its  darker  side,  the  side 
which  has  brought  it  into  conflict  with  the  police 
and  made  it  a  word  of  terror  to  ordinary  citizens. 
In  its  general  doctrines  there  is  nothing  essentially 
involving  violent  methods  or  a  virulent  hatred  of 
the  rich  and  many  who  adopt  these  general  doc- 
trines are  personally  gentle  and  temperamentally 
averse  from  violence.  But  the  general  tone  of  the 
Anarchist  press  and  public  is  bitter  to  a  degree 
thai  seems  scarcely  sane.    One  of  the  most  curious 


features  of  popular  anarchism  is  its  martyrology, 
aping  Christian  forms,  with  the  guillotine  (in 
France)  in  place  of  the  cross.  Many  who  have  suf- 
fered death  at  the  hands  of  the  authorities  on  ac- 
count of  acts  of  violence  were  no  doubt  genuine 
sufferers  for  their  belief  in  a  cause,  but  others, 
equally  honored,  are  more  questionable.  One  of 
the  most  curious  examples  of  this  outlet  for  the 
repressed  religious  impulse  is  the  cult  of  Ravachol, 
who  was  guillotined  in  1S92  on  account  of  various 
dynamite  outrages.  As  was  natural,  the  leading 
Anarchists  took  no  part  in  the  canonization  of  his 
memory ;  nevertheless  it  proceeded,  with  the  most 
amazing  extravagances.  It  would  be  wholly  un- 
fair to  judge  Anarchist  doctrine,  or  the  views  of 
its  leading  exponents,  by  such  phenomena ;  but  it 
remains  a  fact  that  Anarchism  attracts  to  itself 
much  that  lies  on  the  borderland  of  insanity  and 
common  crime.  This  must  be  remembered  in 
exculpation  of  the  authorities  and  the  thoughtless 
public,  who  often  confound  in  a  common  detesta- 
tion the  parasites  of  the  movement  and  the  truly 
heroic  and  high-minded  men  who  have  elaborated 
its  theories  and  sacrificed  comfort  and  success  to 
their  propagation.  The  terrorist  campaign  in 
which  such  men  as  Ravachol  were  active  prac- 
tically came  to  an  end  in  1894.  After  that  time, 
under  the  influence  of  Pelloutier,  the  better  sort 
of  Anarchists  found  a  less  harmful  outlet  by 
advocating  Revolutionary  Syndicalism  in  the 
Trade  Unions  and  Bourses  du  Travail.  [See  also 
Labor  organization:  1867-1912.]  The  economic 
organization  of  society,  as  conceived  by  Anarchist 
Communists,  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that 
which  is  sought  by  Socialists.  Their  difference 
from  Socialists  is  in  the  matter  of  government: 
they  demand  that  government  shall  require  the  con- 
sent of  all  the  governed,  and  not  only  of  a  major- 
ity."—/Wd.,  pp.  51-52. 

1893  (February).^Bomb  explosions  in  Rome. 

1893  (Sept.  23). — At  Barcelona,  a  bomb,  thrown 
among  a  party  of  officers  at  a  military  review  by 
an  anarchist,  killed  Captain-General  Martinez 
Campos  and  a  guard.  For  this  crime  Codina  and 
five  accomplices  were  shot  on  May  21,  1894. 

1893  (Dec.  9). — Vaillant,  an  anarchist  of  Ger- 
man descent  (real  name,  Konigstein),  threw  a 
bomb  from  the  gallery  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  Paris.  A  woman  caught  his  arm  and  the  bomb, 
striking  a  chandelier,  exploded  without  fatal  re- 
sults. A  law  was  passed  making  attempts  of  this 
nature  a  capital  crime,  even  if  no  deaths  ensued, 
and  Konigstein  was  guillotined.  A  week  after  the 
execution  another  anarchist,  Emile  Henry,  threw  a 
bomb  in  the  cafe  of  the  Hotel  Terminus,  Paris,  for 
which  he  suffered  the  death  penalty. 

1894  (June  24). — French  President,  Marie  F. 
Sadi  Carnot,  stabbed  to  death  by  an  Italian  an- 
archist named  Caserio  at  a  banquet  in  Lyons. 
The  same  year  French  government  issued  an  "an- 
archist album"  containing  portraits  of  about  500 
anarchists. — See  also  France:  1804-1895. 

1894  (Nov.  7). — Bomb  thrown  by  an  anarchist 
in  a  Barcelona  theater  killed  thirty  people  and 
wounded  eighty.     The  perpetrator  was  executed. 

1897  (Aug.  8). — Assassination  of  CAnovas  del 
Castillo,  Spanish  premier.  See  Spain:  1897 
(Aug.-Oct.). 

1898  (Sept.  10). — Assassination  of  the  Em- 
press Elizabeth  of  Austria.  See  Austwa-Hun- 
cary:    1808   (September). 

1398  (Nov.  24-Dec.  21). — International  anti- 
anarchist  conference  (in  camera)  held  in  Rome. 
See  Rome:  Modern  city:  1871-1007. 

1898-1900. — Anarchy  in  Italy.  See  Italy:  1898; 
I 899- I 900. 


339 


ANARCHISM,  1900 


ANARCHISM,  1919 


1900  (July  29). — Assassination  of  King  Hum- 
bert of  Italy  at  Monza.  See  Italy:  1899- 1900; 
1900  (July-September)  ;  Rome:  Modem  city:  1871- 
1907. 

1901  (Sept.  6). — Assassination  of  President 
McKinley.     See  McKixlev,  William;  1901. 

1906  (April  17).— Death  of  Johann  Most,  Ger- 
man-American anarchist  editor. 

1906  (May  31).— Attempt  to  assassinate  king 
and  queen  of  Spain  on  their  wedding  day.  See 
Spain:    1900. 

1909. — Barcelona  riots. — Accusation  of  Fran- 
cisco Ferrer  of  anarchistic  propaganda. — His 
execution  (Oct.  12).    See  Spain:   1909. 

1909. — Assassination  of  Colonel  Falcon.  See 
Argentina;   1909;  Assassination  of  Colonel  Falcon. 

1910. — Emma  Goldman's  definition. — "The  phi- 
losophy of  a  new  social  order  based  on  liberty  un- 
restricted by  man-made  law;  the  theory  that  all 
forms  of  government  rest  on  violence,  and  are 
therefore  wrong  and  harmful,  as  well  as  unneces- 
sary. The  new  social  order  rests,  of  course,  on 
the  materialistic  basis  of  life;  but  while  all  An- 
archists agree  that  the  main  evil  today  is  an  eco- 
nomic one,  they  maintain  that  the  solution  of  that 
evil  can  be  brought  about  only  through  the  con- 
sideration of  every  phase  of  life, — individual,  as 
well  as  the  collective;  the  internal,  as  well  as  the 
external  phases.  A  thorough  perusal  of  the  his- 
tory of  human  development  will  disclose  two  ele- 
ments in  bitter  conflict  with  each  other;  elements 
that  are  only  now  beginning  to  be  understood,  not 
as  foreign  to  each  other,  but  as  closely  related  and 
truly  harmonious,  if  only  placed  in  proper  environ- 
ment: the  individual  and  social  instincts.  The  in- 
dividual and  society  have  waged  a  relentless  and 
bloody  battle  for  ages,  each  striving  for  supremacy, 
because  each  was  blind  to  the  value  and  importance 
of  the  other.  The  individual  and  social  instincts, 
— the  one  a  most  potent  factor  for  individual  en- 
deavor, for  growth,  aspiration,  self-realization ;  the 
other  an  equally  potent  factor  for  mutual  helpful- 
ness and  social  well-being.  The  explanation  of 
the  storm  raging  within  the  individual,  and  be- 
tween him  and  his  surroundings,  is  not  far  to 
seek.  The  primitive  man,  unable  to  understand 
his  being,  much  less  the  unity  of  all  life,  felt  him- 
self absolutely  dependent  on  blind,  hidden  forces 
ever  ready  to  mock  and  taunt  him.  Out  of  that 
attitude  grew  the  religious  concepts  of  man  as  a 
mere  speck  of  dust  dependent  on  superior  powers 
on  high,  who  can  only  be  appeased  by  complete 
surrender.  .\l\  the  early  sages  rest  on  that  idea, 
which  continues  to  be  the  leit-motif  of  the  biblical 
tales  dealing  with  the  relation  of  man  to  God,  to 
the  State,  to  society,  .■^gain  and  again  the  same 
motif,  man  is  nothing,  the  powers-  are  everything. 
Thus  Jehovah  would  only  endure  man  on  condi- 
tion of  complete  surrender.  Man  can  have  all  the 
glories  of  the  earth,  but  he  must  not  become  con- 
scious of  himself.  The  State,  society,  and  moral 
laws  all  sing  the  same  refrain:  Man  can  have 
all  the  glories  of  the  earth,  but  he  must  not  be- 
come conscious  of  himself  Anarchism  is  the  only 
philosophy  which  brings  to  man  the  consciousness 
of  himself:  which  maintains  that  God,  the  State, 
and  society  arc  non-existent,  that  their  promises 
arc  null  and  void,  since  they  can  be  fulfilled  only 
through  man's  subordination.  .Anarchism  is  there- 
fore the  teacher  of  the  unity  of  life:  not  merely  in 
nature,  but  in  man.  There  is  no  conflict  between 
the  individual  and  the  social  instincts,  any  more 
than  there  is  between  the  heart  and  the  lungs: 
the  one  the  receptacle  of  a  precious  life  essence, 
the  other  the  repo5itor\'  of  the  element  that  keeps 
the  essence  pure  and  strong.    The  individual  is  the 


heart  of  society,  conserving  the  essence  of  social 
life;  society  is  the  lungs  which  are  distributing 
the  element  to  keep  the  life  essence — that  is,  the 
individual — pure  and  strong.  .Anarchism  is  the 
great  liberator  of  man  from  the  phantoms  that 
have  held  him  captive;  it  is  the  arbiter  and  paci- 
fier of  the  two  forces  for  individual  and  social 
harmony.  To  accomplish  that  unity,  .Anarchism 
has  declared  war  on  the  pernicious  influences  which 
have  so  far  prevented  the  harmonious  blending  of 
individual  and  social  instincts,  the  individual  and 
society.  Religion,  the  dominion  of  the  human 
mind;  Property,  the  dominion  of  human  needs; 
and  Government,  the  dominion  of  human  conduct, 
represent  the  stronghold  of  man's  enslavement  and 
all  the  horrors  it  entails." — Emma  Goldman,  An- 
archism. 

1912. — Assassination  of  Spanish  premier  Can- 
alejas.    See  Sp.«n;  1Q12. 

1913. — Assassination  of  George  I,  king  of  the 
Hellenes,  by  an  anarchist.    See  Greece:  1913- 

1919. — Compatability  with  American  citizen- 
ship.— "Michael  Stuppiello,  an  Italian  by  birth,  a 
cobbler  by  trade  and  an  anarchist  by  profession, 
after  residing  in  the  United  States  for  a  period  of 
fifteen  years,  became  a  naturalized  citizen.  In  his 
declaration  of  intention  and  petition  for  naturaliza- 
tion he  stated  that  he  was  not  an  anarchist  nor 
opposed  to  organized  government.  Later  he  was 
arrested  charged  with  being  an  anarchist,  which, 
upon  his  examination,  he  admitted,  but.  being  a 
citizen,  he  was  released  from  custody.  The  Gov- 
ernment subsequently  brought  an  action  in  the 
Federal  District  Court  for  the  Western  District  of 
New  York  to  cancel  his  naturalization  certificate, 
and  the  decree  was  in  its  favor.  Judge  Hazel,  who 
wrote  the  opinion  of  the  court,  which  is  published 
in  United  States  vs.  Stuppiello,  260  Federal  Re- 
porter, 4S3,  in  discussing  the  case,  said  in  part: 

"  '.At  the  trial  the  defendant  frankly  admitted 
that  he  was  an  anarchist,  coupling  his  admission 
with  the  statement  that  he  did  not  believe  in  the 
use  of  force  or  violence  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
Government,  but  simply  believed  in  philosophical 
anarchy — anarchy  tantamount  to  that  entertained 
by  political  philosophers — or,  as  he  puts  it.  in 
"evolution  by  education,  in  order  to  reach  a  state 
of  education  of  mind  that  it  won't  be  necessary  to 
have  a  Government."  He  limited  his  definition  of 
an  anarchist  to  a  person  who  believed  in  violence 
or  the  destruction  of  the  Government  by  force  of 
arms.  .Although  he  testified  before  the  Bureau  of 
Immigration  that  he  did  not  believe  in  the  form 
of  government  of  the  United  States,  he  now  modi- 
fies such  testimony  by  stating  that  he  believes  it 
necessary  to  have  a  Government  as  society  is  at 
present  organized.  He  was  uncertain  as  to  whether 
or  not  he  entertained  such  views  at  the  time  of 
his  naturalization,  but  finally  admitted  having  them 
for  about  five,  six  or  seven  years.  If  the  de- 
fendant had  declared  on  the  hearing  of  his  ap- 
plication for  citizenship  that  he  was  a  philosophical 
anarchist,  as  distinguished  from  a  dynamic  or  ni- 
hilistic anarchist,  or  one  who  believes  in  destroying 
the  Government  by  violence,  and  a  disbeliever  in 
organized  Government  as  now  constructed,  it  is 
inconceivable  that  his  application  would  have  been 
granted. 

"  'In  a  popular  sense,  it  is  true,  an  anarchist  is 
regaided  as  one  who  seeks  to  overturn  by  violence 
all  constituted  forms  of  society  and  government, 
including  all  law  and  order  and  all  rights  of  prop- 
erty, without  intending  to  establish  any  other  sys- 
tem of  order  in  place  of  that  destroyed. — Century 
Dictionary.  Yft  the  word  is  also  defined  as  one 
who   advocates   the   absence   of   government   as   a 


340 


ANASTASIS 


ANCRUM  MOOR 


political  ideal — a  believer  in  an  anarchic  theory  of 
society.  In  using  the  word  "anarchist"  without 
qualification  Congress  intended  to  include  all 
aliens  who  had  in  mind  a  theory  of  anarchy,  or 
the  absence  of  all  direct  government,  in  opposition 
to  that  of  organized  government.  The  former  is 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  latter,  and  the  philo- 
sophical anarchist  who  exploits  and  expounds  his 
views  is  none  the  less  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of 
the  country  than  the  anarchist  who  believes  in 
overthrowing  or  destroying  the  Government  by 
force  or  violence.  The  means  of  accomplishing  the 
end,  though  different,  are  both  destructive ;  one 
consisting  of  insidious  propaganda  to  arouse  senti- 
ment in  opposition  to  the  Government,  and  the 
other  to  incite  violence  and  disorder.  Both  are 
designed  to  discredit  constituted  authority.'  " — 
New   York   Times. — See  also   Naturalization. 

1920. — Legislation  against  alien  anarchists  in 
United  States.     See  U.  S.  A.:   1920  (June). 

1921. — Anarchism  in  Spain.  See  Spain;  1921: 
Political  outlook  in  Spain. 

Also  in:  P.  Kropotkin,  Anarchist  communism: 
its  basis  and  principles. — P.  Eltzbacher,  Anarchism. 
— G.  B.  Shaw,  Impossibilities  of  anarchism. — B.  R. 
Tucker,  Instead  of  a  book:  a  fragmentary  exposi- 
tion of  phiiosophical  anarchism. — Also  the  writings 
of  Bakunin,  Proudhon,  Tolstoi,  Zenker,  Max 
Stirner,   Staatenlose   Oekonomie. 

ANASTASIS,  sacred  building  of  Jerusalem  con- 
taining the  Holv  Sepulcher.     See  Holy  Land. 

ANASTASltlS  I,  pope,  399-401. 

Anastasius  II,  pope,  4961-498. 

Anastasius  III,  pope,  911-913. 

Anastasius  IV,  pope,  1153-1154. 

Anastasius  I,  Roman  emperor  (Eastern),  491- 
518.     See  Rome:  400-518. 

Anastasius  II,  Roman  emperor  (Eastern), 
713-716. 

ANATOLIA,  name  for  Asia  Minor.  See  Asia 
Minor;  also  Turkey:  Land,  and  1915-1916;  Map 
of  Asia  Minor. 

ANATOLIA  RAILROAD.  See  Railroads: 
1899-1916. 

ANATOMY.  See  Medical  science:  Ancient: 
2nd  century;  Ancient:  Hindu;  Modern;  i8th  cen- 
tury: Work  of  John  Hunter  in  surgery  and  anatomy, 
also  Physiological  views  of  Bichat;  Science;  Mid- 
dle Ages  and  the  Renaissance:   i6th  centurv. 

ANAXAGORAS  (c.  500-428  B.C.),  Greek  phi- 
losopher, ■  whose  advanced  teachings  on  scientific 
subjects  led  to  his  arrest  and  banishment  from 
Athens.  See  Evolution:  Historical  evolution  of 
the  idea. 

ANAXIMANDER,  Greek  philosopher.  See 
Evolution;  Historical  evolution  of  the  idea; 
Miletus:    ico-1920. 

A.  N.  C.  (ante  navitatem  Christi),  an  abbrevi- 
ation occasionally  used  in  place  of  A.  C    or  B.  C. 

ANCA  INDIANS.    See  Pampas  tribes. 

ANCALITES,  a  tribe  of  ancient  Britons  whose 
home  was  near  the  Thames, 

ANCASTER,  England,  Origin  of.  See  Cau- 
senn.»;. 

ANCEANS,  Manners  and  customs.  See  Af- 
rica:   Races   of   .Africa:    Prehistoric   peoples. 

ANCESTOR  WORSHIP.  See  Church  and 
state:  Totemism. 

Africa.  See  Mythology:  Latin  American  myth- 
ology:  African  mythology. 

Aryans.     See   Religion:    B.C.    1000. 

China.    See  China:  Religion  of  the  people. 

Japan.  See  Mythology:  Japan:  Characteristics 
of  Japanese  Kami  or  gods, 

ANCHORITES,  HERMITS.  —  "The  fertile 
and    peaceable    lowlands    of    England  .  .  .  offered 


few  spots  sufficiently  wild  and  lonely  for  the  habi- 
tation of  a  hermit ;  those,  therefore,  who  wished 
to  retire  from  the  world  into  a  more  strict  and 
solitary  life  than  that  which  the  monastery  af- 
forded were  in  the  habit  of  immuring  themselves, 
as  anchorites,  or  in  old  English  'Ankers,'  in  little 
cells  of  stone,  built  usually  against  the  wall  of 
a  church.  There  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun; 
and  similar  anchorites  might  have  been  seen  in 
Egypt,  500  years  before  the  time  of  St.  Antony, 
immured  in  cells  in  the  temples  of  Isis  or  Serapis. 
It  is  only  recently  that  antiquaries  have  discovered 
how  common  this  practice  was  in  England,  and 
how  frequently  the  traces  of  these  cells  are  to  be 
found  about  our  parish  churches." — C.  Kingsley, 
Hermits,  p.  329. — The  term  anchorites  is  applied, 
generally,  to  all  religious  ascetics  who  lived  in 
solitary  cells. — J.  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the 
Christian  church,  bk.  7,  ch.  i,  sect.  4. — "The  es- 
sential difference  between  an  anker  or  anchorite 
and  a  hermit  appears  to  have  been  that,  whereas 
the  former  passed  his  whole  life  shut  up  in  a 
cell,  the  latter,  although  leading  indeed  a  solitary 
life,  wandered  about  at  liberty." — R.  R.  Sharpe, 
Introduction  to  "Calendar  of  wills  in  the  court 
of  busting,  London,"  v.  2,  p.  21.— See  also  Chris- 
tianity: 312-337;   Church  and  the  Empire. 

ANCIEN  REGIME.— The  political  and  social 
system  in  France  that  was  destroyed  by  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789  is  commonly  referred  to  as  the 
"ancien  regime."  Some  writers  translate  this  in 
the  Uteral  English  form — "the  ancient  regime"; 
others  render  it  more  appropriately,  perhaps,  the 
"old  regime."  Its  special  application  is  to  the  state 
of  things  described  under  France:    1789. 

ANCIENTS,  Council  of  the,  governing  body 
provided  for  by  the  Constitution  of  the  year  III. 
See  France:  1795  (June-September);  1797  (Sep- 
tember); 1799  (November). 
ANCON,  Treaty  of.  See  Chile;  1894-1900. 
AN  CON  A,  Italian  city  and  seaport  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  The  place  played 
a  minor  part  in  the  World  War  as  the  chief  Ital- 
ian naval  base  for  operations  a,'ainst  Austria. — See 
also  Adriatic  question. 

1814. — Surrender  to  Murat.  See  Italy: 
1814. 

1832. — Occupied  by  France.  See  Austria: 
1815-1846. 

1914. — Revolutionary  riots.  See  Italy:  191 2- 
1914;  Labor  strikes  and  boycotts:   19x4. 

1915. — Bombarded  by  Austrians.  See  World 
War;   1915:  IX.  Naval  operations:  b,  2. 

ANCONA,  an  Italian  steamship,  which  while 
sailing  from  Genoa  with  Americans  on  board,  was 
shelled  and  torpedoed  by  an  Austro-Hungarian 
submarine  in  November,  1Q15,  before  the  crew  and 
passengers  had  been  put  in  a  place  of  safety  or 
even  given  suflicient  time  to  leave  the  vessel. 
After  two  protests  by  the  American  Secretary  of 
State  Lansing,  the  Austro-Hungarian  government 
acknowledged  "that  hostile  private  ships,  in  so 
far  as  they  do  not  flee  or  offer  resistance,  may 
not  be  destroyed  without  the  persons  on  board 
having  been  placed  in  safety,"  and  agreed  to  in- 
demnify the  American  sufferers. — See  also  U.  S.  A.: 
1915  (December). 

ANCRE,  the  name  of  a  region  and  river  of 
France,  the  scene  of  intense  fighting  during  the 
World  War  See  World  War;  1916:  II.  Western 
front:  c,  1 ;  c,  4;  d,  3;  d,  16;  d,  17;  e;  e,  1;  e,  4; 
1917:  II.  Western  front;  a;  1918:  II.  Western 
front;  c,  18;  k,  1. 

ANCRUM  MOOR,  Battle  of.— A  success  ob- 
tained by  the  Scots  over  an  English  force  making 
an    incursion    into    the    border    districts    of    their 


341 


ANGUS  MARCIUS 


ANDESIANS 


country  in  1545.— J.  H.  Burton,  History  of  Scot- 
land, ch.  35,  V.  3. 

ANGUS  MARGIUS  (640-616  B.C.),  fourth 
legendary  king  of  Rome;  conquered  the  Latins, 
fortified  the  Janiculum,  founded  the  port  of  Ostia. 
As  builder  of  a  bridge  across  the  Tiber,  he  may  be 
a  priestly  duplicate  of  Numa,  and  his  second  name 
is  Numa  Marcius. — See  also  Rome:  Ancient  king- 
dom:  753-5IO- 

ANCYRA.    See  Angora. 

ANDALUSIA:  Name.— "The  Vandals,  .  .  . 
though  they  passed  altogether  out  of  Spain,  have 
left  their  name  to  this  day  in  its  southern  part, 
under  the  form  of  Andalusia,  a  name  which,  under 
the  Saracen  conquerors,  spread  itself  over  the 
whole  peninsula." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Historical  geog- 
rapky  of  Europe,  ch.  4,  sect.  3. — See  also  Baltica; 
Vandals:  428. — Roughly  speaking,  Andalusia  rep- 
resents the  country  known  to  the  ancients,  first  as 
Tartessus,  and  later  as  Turdetania. 

1702. — Resistance  to  English  and  Dutch  dur- 
ing the  sacking  of  Gadiz.     See  Cadiz:   1702. 

ANDALUSIAN  SCHOOL.— A  Spanish  school 
of  painting,  "came  into  existence  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Its  chief  centre  was  at 
Seville,  and  its  chief  patron  the  church  rather  than 
the  king.  Vergas  (1502-1568)  was  probably  the 
real  founder  of  the  school,  though  De  Castro  and 
others  preceded  him." — J.  C.  Van  Dyke,  Text-book 
of  the  history  of  painting,  p.  180. — Other  promi- 
nent members  of  this  school  were  Cespedes,  Roe- 
las,  Pacheco,  Herrera  the  Elder,  Zurbaran,  Cano, 
and  Murillo. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  in  number  204,  mentioned  by 
Marco  Polo.  The  British  government  established 
a  penal  colony  there  in  1858.  See  India:  Inhabi- 
tants,  Aboriginal. 

ANDASTES.  See  Iroquois  confederacy; 
Shawanese;  Susquehannas. 

ANDEGAVI,  the  ancient  name  of  the  city  of 
Angers,  France,  and  of  the  tribe  which  occupied 
that   region. 

ANDEGHY,  town  of  France  south-east  of 
Amiens.  See  World  War:  1915:  II.  Western  front: 
j,  6;  1918:  II   Western  front:  c,  22. 

ANDERIDA,  or  Anderida  Sylva,  or  An- 
dredsweald. — A  ^reat  forest  which  anciently 
stretched  across  Surrey,  Sussex  and  into  Kent 
(southeastern  England)  was  c::lled  Anderida  Sylva 
by  the  Romans  and  .^ndredsweald  by  the  Saxons. 
It  coincided  nearly  with  the  tract  of  country  called 
in  modern  times  the  Weald  of  Kent,  to  which  it 
gave  its  name  of  the  Wald  or  Weald.  On  the 
southern  coast-border  of  the  Anderida  Sylva  the 
Romans  established  the  important  fortress  and 
port  of  Anderida,  which  has  been  identified  with 
modern  Pevensey.  Here  the  Romano-Britons  made 
an  obstinate  stand  against  the  Saxons,  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  Anderida  was  only  taken  by  Ella 
after  a  long  siege.  In  the  words  of  the  Chronicle, 
the  Saxons  "slew  all  that  were  therein,  nor  was 
there  henceforth  one  Briton  left." — J.  R.  Green, 
Making  of  England,  ch.   1. 

hiso  in:  T.  Wright,  Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon, 
ch.  5. 

ANDERSON,  Judge  Albert  Barnes  (1857-  ). 
— Acquittal  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  See 
Tri'sts:  U.  S.  a.  1Q04-1000. 

ANDERSON,  John  (1833-iqoo).  —  Scottish 
scientist.  Professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at 
Calcutta   Medical   College   1S64-1886. 

ANDERSON,  Robert  (1805-1871),  defender  of 
Fort  Sumter  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 
See  U  S  A  :  i860  (December)  ;  1861  (March- 
AprU);   186S   (February:   South  Carolina) 


ANDERSON,  General  Thomas  M.  McArthur 
(1836-1917). — Correspondence  with  Aguinaldo. 
See  U.  S.  A.:  1898  (April-July)  ;  1898  (July- 
August  :   Philippines) . 

ANDERSON  v.  UNITED  STATES  (1869- 
1870).    See  U.  S.  A.:  1869-1872. 

ANDERSONVILLE  PRISON-PENS.  See 
Prisons  and  prison-pens.  Confederate. 

ANDES,  or  Andi,  or  Andecavi.    See  Veneh  of 

WESTERN    CAUL. 

ANDESIANS.— "The  term  Andesians  or  An- 
tesians,  is  used  with  geographical  rather  than  eth- 
nological Umits,  and  embraces  a  number  of  tribes. 
First  of  these  are  the  Cofan  in  Equador,  east  of 
Chimborazo.  They  fought  valiantly  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  in  times  past  killed  many  of  the 
missionaries  sent  among  them.  Now  they  are 
greatly  reduced  and  have  become  more  gentle.  The 
Huamaboya  are  their  near  neighbors.  The  Jivara, 
west  of  the  river  Pastaca,  are  a  warlike  tribe,  who, 
possibly  through  a  mixture  of  Spanish  blood,  have 
a  European  cast  of  countenance  and  a  beard.  The 
half  Christian  Napo  or  Quijo  and  their  peaceful 
neighbors,  the  Zaporo,  live  on  the  Rio  Napo.  The 
Yamco,  living  on  the  lower  Chambiva  and  cross- 
ing the  Maraiion,  wandering  as  far  as  Saryacu,have 
a  clearer  complexion.  The  Pacamora  and  the  Yu- 
guarzongo  live  on  the  Maraiion,  where  it  leaves  its 
northerly  course  and  bends  toward  the  east.  The 
Cochiquima  live  on  the  lower  Yavari;  the  Mayo- 
runa,  or  Barbudo,  on  the  middle  Ucayali  beside 
the  Campo  and  Cochibo,  the  most  terrible  of  South 
American  Indians ;  they  dwell  in  the  woods  between 
the  Tapiche  and  the  Maraiion,  and  like  the  Jivaro 
have  a  beard.  The  Pano,  who  formerly  dwelt  in 
the  territory  of  Lalaguna,  but  who  now  live  in 
villages  on  the  upper  Ucayali,  are  Christians.  .  .  . 
Their  language  is  the  principal  one  on  the  river, 
and  it  is  shared  by  seven  other  tribes  called  col- 
lectively by  the  missionaries  Manioto  or  May- 
no.  ..  .  Within  the  woods  on  the  ri.-ht  bank  live 
the  Amahuaca  and  Shacaya.  On  the  north  they 
join  the  Remo,  a  powerful  tribe  who  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  the  others  by  the  custom  of 
tattooing.  Outside  this  Pano  linguistic  group  stand 
the  Campa,  Campo,  0/  Antis  on  the  east  slope  of 
the  Peruvian  Cordillera  at  the  source  of  the  Rio 
Beni  and  its  tributaries.  The  Chontaquiros,  or 
Piru,  now  occupy  almost  entirely  the  bank  of  the 
Ucayali  below  the  Pachilia.  The  Mojos  or  Moxos 
live  in  the  Bolivian  province  of  Moxos  with  the 
small  tribes  of  the  Baure,  Itonama,  Pacaguara.  A 
number  of  smaller  tribes  belonging  to  the  Antesian 
group  need  not  be  enumerated.  The  late  Pro- 
fessor James  Orton  described  the  Indian  tribes  of 
the  territory  between  Quito  and  the  river  Amazon. 
The  Napo  approach  the  type  of  the  Quichua.  .  .  . 
Among  all  the  Indians  of  the  Provincia  del  Oriente, 
the  tribe  of  Jivaro  is  one  of  the  largest.  These 
people  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of  sub- 
tribes.  All  of  these  speak  the  clear  musical  Jivaro 
language.  They  are  muscular,  active  men.  .  .  . 
The  Morona  are  cannibals  in  the  full  sense  of  the 
word.  .  .  .  The  Campo,  still  very  little  known,  is 
perhaps  the  largest  Indian  tribe  in  Eastern  Peru, 
and,  according  to  some,  is  related  to  the  Inca  race, 
or  at  least  with  their  successors.  They  are  said 
to  be  cannibals,  though  James  Orton  does  not  think 
this  possible.  .  .  .  The  nearest  neighbors  of  the 
Campo  are  the  Chontakiro,  or  Chontaquiro,  or 
Chonquiro,  called  also  Piru,  who,  according  to  Paul 
Marcoy,  are  said  to  be  of  the  same  origin  with  the 
Campo;  but  the  language  is  wholly  different.  .  .  . 
.Among  the  Pano  people  are  the  wild  Conibo ;  they 
are  the  most  interesting,  but  are  passing  into  ex- 
tinction " — Standard  natural  history  (J.  S.  Kings- 
ley,  ed.),  V.  6,  pp.  227-331. 


342 


ANDEVANNE 


ANGARIA 


ANDEVANNE:  1918.— Taken  by  allies.  See 
World  War:  iqiS:  II.  Western  front:  v,  10;  x,  4. 
ANDORRA,  a  little  semi-republic  in  the  Span- 
ish Pyrenees.  Enjoying  a  certain  self-government 
since  the  French  Revolution,  it  is  practically  a  part 
of  Spain.  The  inhabitants  are  exempt,  however, 
from  Spanish  conscription. 

ANDOVER,  a  town  and  borough  of  Hamp- 
shire, England.  Site  of  several  Roman  villas  and 
early  earthworks,  and  of  the  traditional  meeting 
between  /Ethelrcd  and  Olaf  the  Dane;  meeting 
place  of  the  Witenagemot. 

ANDRADA  E  SYLVA,  Bonifacio  Joze  d' 
{ 1 765-1838),  Brazilian  statesman.  Was  made  min- 
ister of  the  interior  and  of  foreign  affairs  when  the 
independence  of  Brazil  was  declared  in  1822,  but 
was  banished  to  France  in  1823  because  of  his 
democratic  principles  and  lived  there  in  exile  till 
i82g. 

ANDRASSY,  Count  Julius  (1823-1800),  fa- 
mous Hungarian  statesman.  Prominent  adherent 
of  the  revolution  of  1S4S;  member  of  the  Diet, 
1861 ;  prime  minister  after  reconstruction  of  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary  on  a  dual  basis,  1867 ;  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  1871 ;  with  Bismarck  drew  up  the 
famous  "Andrassy  note,"  1S76;  chief  representa- 
tive of  .\ustria-Hungary  at  the  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin, 1878;  largely  responsible  for  the  making  of 
the  Hungarian  state  and  constitution. — See  also 
Austria:  1866-1867;  Berlin,  Congress  of;  Hun- 
gary: 1856-1868;  Triple  Alliance:  Austro-Ger- 
man  Alliance  of  1879. 

ANDRASSY,  Count  Julius  (i860-  ),  Hun- 
garian political  leader,  son  of  the  foregoing  Count 
Andrassy.  Minister  of  interior,  iQo6-igoq,  in 
Wekerle  cabinet;  as  Austrian  delegate  tried  to  pre- 
vent Balkan  War,  1Q12;  opposition  leader,  igi2- 
igi8. — See  also  Austria-Hungary:  i903-igo5; 
igos-igo6;  igi4-igis;  Hungary:  1918  (Novem- 
ber). 

ANDRE,  John  (1751-1780),  British  soldier. 
Negotiated  with  Benedict  Arnold  in  1780  for  the 
betrayal  of  West  Point;  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Americans  and  hanged  as  a  spy  October  2,  1780. 
—See  also  U.  S.  A.:   1780  (August-September). 

ANDREA,  Johann  Valentin  (1586-1654),  Ger- 
man theologian.     See  Rosicrucians:  Illuminati. 

ANDREA  DEL  SARTO  (1487-1531),  Floren- 
tine pamter  of  the  Renaissance.  The  Last  Supper, 
Madonna  de  Sacco,  and  the  Apparition  of  the  An- 
gel to  Zaeliarias  are  among  his  most  celebrated 
\yorks.     See  Painting:  Italian:  Early  Renaissance. 

ANDREANI,  Andrea  (c.  1540-1023),  Italian 
engraver  on  wood,  in  chiaroscuro.  Among  others 
the  most  remarkable  of  his  works  are  Mercury 
and  Ignorance,  the  Deluge,  and  Pharaoh's  host 
drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 

ANDREDSWEALD.  See  Anderida,  Anber- 
IDA  Sylva.  a  ndredsweald. 

ANDR^E,  Solomon  August  (1854-1807), 
Swedish  engineer  and  aeronaut.  See  Aviation: 
Development  of  balloons  and  dirigibles:   i87o-igi3. 

ANDREEV,  Leonid  (Andreieff,  Leonid  Niko- 
laevich'),  Russian  writer.  See  Russian  literature: 
i883-igo5. 

ANDREW  I,  king  of  Hungary,  1046-1060. 

Andrew  II  (1175-1235),  king  of  Hungary, 
1205-1235;  participated  in  the  fifth  Crusade  in 
1217;  forced  by  Hungarian  barons  to  sign  the 
Golden  Bull,  the  Magna  Carta  of  Hungary,  in 
1222.  See  Crusades:  I2i6-i22g;  Hungary:  1116- 
1301. 

Andrew  III,  king  of  Hungary,  i2go-i30i.  See 
Hungary:   1116-1301. 

Andrew,  prince  of  Hungary,  murder  of.  See 
Italy  (Southern)  :    1343-1389. 


ANDREW,  John  Albion  (1818-1867),  Amer- 
ican statesman ;  prominent  as  the  Republican  war 
governor  of  Massachusetts  (1861-1866)  ;  was  one 
of  the  first  northern  governors  to  send  troops  to 
the  war;  organized  the  first  colored  regiment 
(1863). 

ANDREWS,  Thomas  (1813-1885),  Irish  chem- 
ist and  physicist.  Studied  medicine  and  the  physi- 
cal sciences  at  Glasgow,  Paris,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin ;  professor  of  chemistry  in  Queens  Col- 
lege, Belfast,  i845-i87g;  made  important  discov- 
eries on  the  liquefaction  of  gases.  See  Chemistry; 
Physical. 

ANDRONICUS  1  (Comnenus)  (c.  1110-1185), 
Roman  emperor  in  the  East,  1183-1185.  See  By- 
zantine empire:   1203-1204. 

Andronicus  II  (Palseologus  (1260-1332), 
Roman  emperor  in  the  East,  1282-1328. 

Andronicus  III  (1296-1341),  Roman  emperor 
in  the  East,  1328-1341. 

ANDRONICUS  OF  CYRRHUS,  Greek  archi- 
tect and  astronomer.  Lived  in  the  first  century 
B.  C.  He  erected  at  Athens  the  so-called  Tower 
of  the  Winds  on  which  was  a  turning  figure  of 
Triton  with  his  spear,  the  prototype  of  the  later 
weathercock. 

ANDROPHAGI  ("man-eaters"),  a  race  of 
northern  cannibals  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  It  is 
supposed  that  they  were  related  to  the  Finns. 

ANDROS,  Sir  Edmund  (1637-1714),  English 
colonial  governor  in  America.  Served  in  the  army 
of  Prince  Henry  of  Nassau,  appointed  governor 
of  New  York  and  the  Jerseys,  1674;  capable  but 
unpopular  governor.  Recalled  1681.  Knighted, 
1678;  governor  of  the  "Dominion  of  New  Eng- 
land," i686-i68g  (see  also  Connecticut:  1685- 
1687)  ;  deposed  by  the  colonists  after  the  over- 
throw of  James  II;  governor  of  Maryland,  i6g3- 
i6g4;  governor  of  Guernsey,  1704-1706. — See  also 
Massachusetts:  i686-i68g;  New  York:  1688; 
U.  S.  A.:    1678-1780;   1686-1689. 

ANDROS,  the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  situated 
in  the  /Egean  sea  southeast  of  Euboea.  The  island 
supplies  ships  to  Xerxes  in  480  B.C.  In  408  B.C. 
the  inhabitants  of  Andros  successfully  withstood 
an  Athenian  attack.  Subsequently  it  became,  in 
turn,  the  possession  of  Athens,  Macedon,  Pergamus 
and  Rome. 

ANECDOTE,  Early  use  of.  See  Arabic  lit- 
erature, 

ANEGADA  ISLAND.     See  Virgin  islands. 

ANERIO,  Felice  (1560-1630?),  Italian  com- 
poser of  the  Roman  school.  A  boy  soprano  in  the 
papal  choir  (1575-1579);  upon  the  death  of  Pal- 
estrina  succeeded  him  as  composer  to  the  choir  in 

1504. 

ANFU  CLUB,  the  name  of  a  political  faction 
prominent  in  the  affairs  of  northern  China,  during 
the  troublous  times  following  the  overthrow  of  the 
Manchu  dynasty  in  iqi2.  The  name  is  made  up 
of  the  first  syllables  of  the  names  of  the  provinces 
Anhwei  and  Fukien,  and  was  meant  to  symbolize 
the  combination  of  the  leaders  controlling  the  Chi- 
nese army  and  navy.  The  idea  back  of  this  union 
is  similar  to  that  which  in  Japan  brou  ht  about 
the  famous  Sat-Cho  combination.  Traditionally, 
the  Japanese  army  is  controlled  by  the  Satsuma 
clan,  and  the  navy,  by  the  clan  of  Choshu.  Hence, 
the  Anfu  Club  has  been  regarded  as  typifying  a 
military  clique,  dominating  the  country  by  force. — 
See  also  China:  1920. 

ANGA,  Bengal.    See  Bengal. 

ANGARIA,  a  relay  system  of  mounted  couriers 
for  the  transmission  of  intelligence,  adopted  under 
the  Roman  empire  from  the  example  of  the  an- 
cient Persians. 


343 


ANGARY,  RIGHT  OF 


ANGLES 


ANGARY,  Right  of  (Lat,  jus  angarice),  the 
right  of  a  belligerent  to  commandeer  and  seize 
any  sort  of  enemy  or  neutral  property  on  belliger- 
ent territory  if  needed  for  military  use.  This  right 
has  been  exercised  from  the  earliest  times,  and  is 
recognized  by  articles  53  and  54  of  the  Hague 
regulations  of  i8gg,  which  further  state  that  at 
the  conclusion  of  peace  the  property  must  be  re- 
stored and  indemnity  paid  for  its  use.  The  seiz- 
ure of  Dutch  merchantmen  in  IQ18  by  the  United 
States  was  defended  as  being  in  conformity  with 
the  right  of  angary. 

ANGAS,  George  Fife  (i78g-i879),  a  founder 
of  South  Australia,  who  devised  a  system  of  land 
settlement.     See  South  .Australia:   1834-1836. 

ANGELES,  Felipe,  Mexican  revolutionary  gen- 
eral.    Executed,  1520. 

ANGELICO,  Fra  (1387-1455),  Italian  painter. 
Entered  Dominican  order  in  1408.  Angelico's  art 
is  essentially  pietistic.  Two  of  the  subjects  he 
most  frequently  painted  were  the  Last  Judgment 
and  the  Annunciation.— See  also  Painting:  ItaUan: 
Early  Renaissance. 

ANG^LIQUE  (Arnauld,  Jacqueline  Marie 
Angelique)  (1591-iobi),  abbess  at  Port  Royal. 
See  Port  Royal  and  the  Jansenists:  1002-1700. 

ANGELL,  George  Thorndike  (1823-1909), 
American  educator  and  philanthropist.  Founded 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Animals  and  American  Humane  Education  So- 
ciety. 

ANGELL,  James  Burrill  (1829-1916),  Ameri- 
can educator  and  diplomat,  professor  of  modern 
languages  of  Brown  University,  1853-1860;  editor 
of  Providence  Journal,  1860-1866;  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont,  1866-1871,  and  of  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  1871-1909;  United  States  minister 
to  China,  1880-1SS1  and  to  Turkey,  1897-1898; 
made  president  emeritus  of  University  of  Michigan 
in   1909. 

ANGELL,  James  Rowland  (1869-  ),  psy- 
chologist and  educator,  son  of  James  Burrill  Angell ; 
professor  of  psychology  at  University  of  Chicago, 
190S;  dean  of  the  university  faculties,  1911; 
acting  president,  191S-1919;  president  of  Yale, 
1921. 

ANGELL,  Norman,  pseud.  See  Lane,  Ralph 
Norman  Angell. 

ANGELO,  Michael.    See  Michelangelo. 

ANGELUS,  Isaac,  emperor  in  the  East.  See 
Byzantine  empire:    1203-1204. 

ANGERS,  Origin  of.  See  Veneti  of  Western 
Gaul. 

ANGEVIN  KINGS  AND  ANGEVIN  EM- 
PIRE.— The  Angevin  kings  of  England  were  so- 
called  since  their  family,  the  Plantagenets,  came 
from  .■\njou  in  France.  (See  England:  1154-11S9.) 
About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  Anjou 
was  bestowed  on  Charles,  son  of  Louis  VIII  of 
France,  who  became  the  founder  of  the  Angevin 
kings  in  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1266.  See  Anjou: 
1206-1442. 

Defeat  of  the  Angevins  in  Naples.  See  Italy 
(Southern):    1386-1414. 

Defeat  of  the  Angevins  by  Alphonao.  See 
Italy:    1412-1447. 

ANGHIARI,  Battle  of  (1425).  See  Italy: 
1412-1447. 

ANGKOR,  a  group  of  ruins  in  Cambodia,  relics 
of  the  ancient  Khmer  civilization.  They  include 
remains  of  the  town  of  ,\ngkor-Thom  and  the 
temple  of  Angkor- Vat.  The  ornamentation  con- 
sists of  reliefs  of  men,  gods  and  animals  displayed 
on  every  flat  surface ;  the  stones  are  cut  in  huge 
blocks  carefully  fitted  together  without  the  use  of 
cement. 


ANGLES.— The  mention  of  the  Angles  by  Tac- 
itus is  in  the  following  passage:  "Next  [to  the 
Langobardi]  come  the  Reudigni,  the  Aviones,  the 
Anglii,  the  Varini,  the  Eudoses,  the  Suardones,  and 
Nuithones,  who  are  fenced  in  by  rivers  or  forests. 
None  of  these  tribes  have  any  noteworthy  fea- 
ture, except  their  common  worship  of  Ertha,  or 
mother-Earth,  and  their  belief  that  she  interposes 
in  human  affairs,  and  visits  the  nations  in  her  car. 
In  an  island  of  the  ocean  there  is  a  sacred  grove, 
and  within  it  a  consecrated  chariot,  covered  over 
with  a  garment.  Only  one  priest  is  permitted  to 
touch  it.  He  can  perceive  the  presence  of  the  god- 
dess in  this  sacred  recess,  and  walks  by  her  side 
with  the  utmost  reverence  as  she  is  drawn  along 
by  heifers.  It  is  a  season  of  rejoicing,  and  fes- 
tivity reigns  wherever  she  deigns  to  go  and  be  re- 
ceived. They  do  not  go  to  battle  or  wear  arms; 
every  weapon  is  under  lock;  peace  and  quiet  are 
welcomed  only  at  these  times,  till  the  goddess, 
weary  of  human  intercourse,  is  at  length  restored 
by  the  same  priest  to  her  temple.  Afterwards  the 
car,  the  vestments,  and,  if  you  like  to  believe  it, 
the  divinity  herself,  are  purified  in  a  secret  lake. 
Slaves  perform  the  rite,  who  are  instantly  swal- 
lowed up  by  its  waters.  Hence  arises  a  mysteri- 
ous terror  and  a  pious  ignorance  concerning  the 
nature  of  that  which  is  seen  only  by  men  doomed 
to  die.  This  branch  indeed  of  the  Suevi  stretches 
into  the  remoter  regions  of  Germany." — Tacitus, 
Germany;  translated  by  Church  and  Brodribb, 
ch.  40. — "In  close  neighbourhood  with  the  Saxons 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  were  the 
Angli,  a  tribe  whose  origin  is  more  uncertain  and 
the  application  of  whose  name  is  still  more  a  mat- 
ter of  question.  If  the  name  belongs,  in  the  pages 
of  the  several  geographers,  to  the  same  nation,  it 
was  situated  in  the  time  of  Tacitus  east  of  the 
Elbe;  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  it  was  found  on  the 
middle  Elbe,  between  the  Thuringians  to  the  south 
and  the  Varini  to  the  north;  and  at  a  later  period 
it  was  forced,  perhaps  by  the  growth  of  the  Thu- 
ringian  power,  into  the  neck  of  the  Cimbric  penin- 
sula. It  may,  however,  be  reasonably  doubted 
whether  this  hypothesis  is  sound,  and  it  is  by  no 
means  clear  whether,  if  it  be  so,  the  Angli  were 
not  connected  more  closely  with  the  Thuringians 
than  with  the  Saxons.  To  the  north  of  the  Angli, 
after  they  had  reached  their  Schleswig  home,  were 
the  Jutes,  of  whose  early  history  we  know  nothing, 
except  their  claims  to  be  regarded  as  kinsmen  of 
the  Goths  and  the  close  similarity  between  their 
descendants  and  the  neighbour  Frisians." — W. 
Stubbs,  Constitutional  history  of  England,  v.  i,  ch. 
3. — "Important  as  are  the  Angles,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  they  are  only  known  through 
their  relations  to  us  of  England,  their  descendants; 
indeed,  without  this  paramount  fact,  they  would 
be  liable  to  be  confused  with  the  Frisians,  with  the 
Old  Saxons,  and  with  even  Slavonians.  This  is 
chiefly  because  there  is  no  satisfactory  trace  or 
fragment  of  the  Angles  of  Germany  within  Ger- 
many ;  whilst  the  notices  of  the  other  writers  of 
antiquity  tell  us  as  little  as  the  one  we  find  in 
Tacitus.  And  this  notice  is  not  only  brief  but 
complicated.  ...  I  still  think  that  the  Angli  of 
Tacitus  were — i:  The  Angles  of  England;  2:  Oc- 
cupants of  the  northern  parts  of  Hanover;  3: 
At  least  in  the  time  of  Tacitus;  4:  .\nd  that  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  territory  in  Holstein,  which 
was  Frisian  to  the  west,  and  Slavonic  to  the  east. 
Still  the  question  is  one  of  great  magnitude  and 
numerous  complications." — R.  G.  Latham,  Ger- 
many of  Tacitus;  Epilegomena.  sect.  49. — See  also 
Aviones;  Saxons. — The  conquests  and  settlements 
of   the  Jutes   and   the   Angles   in   Britain   are   de- 


344 


ANGLESEY 


ANGLO-JAPANESE  ALLIANCE 


scribed  under  Barbarian  invasions:  5th-6th  cen- 
turies; England:  547-633;  see  also  Europe:  Eth- 
nology: Migrations:  Map. 

Anglic  kingdom  of  Bernicia.  See  Scotland: 
7th  century. 

Also  in:  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  History  of  England 
under  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  v.  i,  pp.  89-95. 

ANGLESEY,  Arthur  Annesley,  1st  earl  of, 
(1014-1686);  English  statesman,  member  of  Crom- 
well's parliament  of  1658;  president  of  council  of 
state  1660,  and  aided  in  restoration  of  Charles 
II;  lord  privy  seal   1672-1682. 

ANGLESEY,  Henry  William  Paget,  1st  mar- 
quess of  (1768-1854),  English  field-marshal  and 
statesman;  served  in  Spain  and  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries 1 808- 1 809,  and  commanded  British  cavalry  at 
Waterloo;  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1828-1829  and 
1830-1833. 

ANGLESEY,  Ancient.  See  Normans:  8th-9th 
Centuries. 

ANGLI.     See  Aviones. 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH.  See  Church  or 
England. 

Orders  of. — Declared  invalid  by  Pope  Leo 
XIII.     See  Papacy:    1896  (September). 

ANGLO-ABYSSINIAN  TREATY.  See 
Abyssinia:   1896-1897. 

ANGLO-BELGIAN  CONVERSATIONS.  See 
World  War:   Diplomatic  background:   35. 

ANGLO-DUTCH  WAR:  1652-1654.  See  Eng- 
land:  1652-1654. 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  CONDOMINIUM.  See 
Sudan  or  Soudan:  1899. 

ANGLO-FRENCH  AGREEMENT:  1890. 
See  Madagascar. 

1904.  See  Entente  Cordiale;  Nigeria,  protec- 
torate of:  1901-1913. 

ANGLO-FRENCH  MILITARY  CONSUL- 
TATIONS. See  World  War:  Diplomatic  back- 
ground: 56. 

ANGLO-FRENCH  RELATIONS:  Entente 
Cordiale  (1904).     See  England:   1912. 

ANGLO-FRENCH  WARS:  1294-1297.  See 
France:   1285-1314. 

1337-1453.  See  France:  1337-1360;  1360-1380; 
1415;    1417-1422;   1429-1431;   1431-1453. 

1491-1492. — Henry  VII  engaged  in  a  war  with 
France  because  Charles  VIII  annexed  Brittany. 
The   Peace   of   Estaples   ended   the   war 

1495. — Edward  IV  invaded  France  in  league  with 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  laid  claim  to  the  French 
crown.  War  was  ended  without  a  battle  by  the 
Peace  of  Pequigny   (1475). 

1512-1515.     See  France:   1513-1515. 

1557-1558.     See   France:    1547-1559. 

1626-1630.     See  France:  1627-1628. 

1689-1697.  See  England:  1690;  1692;  Canada: 
1689-1690;  1692-1697;  France:  1689-1690;  1689- 
1691;  1692;  1693;  1694;  1695-1696;  1697;  New- 
foundland: 1694-1697. 

1740-1748.  See  France:  173 8- 17 70;  Austria:  1740. 

1755-1763.  See  Canada;  1755;  (June-Sept.); 
1756-1757;  1758;  1759;  1760;  Ohio:  1755;  Mi- 
norca: 1756;  Germany:  1757  (July-Dec);  1759 
(April-August);  1760;  1761;  1762;  Cape  Breton 
Island:  1758-1760;  India:  1758-1761;  England: 
I7S4-I75S;   1757-1760;    1758;   1759. 

1778-1783.    See  U.  S.  A.:  1778;  1780;  1782 ;  1783. 

1793-1802.  See  France:  1792-1793;  1794  (March- 
July);  1794-1795  (October-May);  1796  (Septem- 
ber); 1798  ( May- August ) ;  1798-1799;  1799;  1800; 
1801-1802. 

1803-1814.  See  France:  1802-1803;  1805;  1806- 
1810;  1814-1815;  Spain:  1809-1810;  1810-1812; 
1812;   1812-1814. 

1815.    See  France:  1815. 


ANGLO-GERMAN  CONVENTION  (1890). 
See  Africa:  Modern  European  occupation:  1884- 
1889. 

ANGLO-GERMAN  RELATIONS.  See  Eng- 
land: 1912;  1912-1914;  World  War:  Diplomatic 
background:   71  x. 

ANGLO-JAPANESE  ALLIANCE.— "Great 
Britain  was  the  first  to  welcome  Japan  into  ttie 
ranks  of  the  Great  Powers.  In  1902  a  treaty  of 
friendship  had  been  signed  by  the  two  island  na- 
tions [see  Japan;  1895-1902;  1894-1Q14];  in  1905 
this  compact  was  greatly  strengthened  by  a  treaty 
of  alliance  [see  Japan:  1902-1905].  The  latter 
provided  for  (1)  the  preservation  of  peace  in 
Eastern  Asia  and  India;  (2)  the  maintenance  of 
the  integrity  of  China  and  of  the  principle  of  the 
'open  door';  and  (3)  the  defense  of  the  territorial 
rights  of  each  party  in  Eastern  Asia  and  India. 
This  treaty,  which  was  renewed  in  1911,  gave 
Japan  a  free  hand  in  the  Far  East,  so  far  as 
England  was  concerned,  in  return  for  Japan's  prom- 
ise to  safeguard  British  rule  in  India." — J.  S. 
Schapiro,  Modern  and  contemporary  European 
history,  pp.  670-671. 

The  text  of  the  1911  treaty  between  England  and 
Japan  continuing  the  alliance  for  a  ten-year  period, 
is  as  follows: 

"Preamble. — The  Government  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  Government  of  Japan,  having  in  view  the 
important  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
situation  since  the  conclusion  of  the  Anglo-Japa- 
nese Agreement  of  the  12th  August,  1905,  and  be- 
lieving that  a  revision  of  that  Agreement  respond- 
ing to  such  changes  would  contribute  to  general 
stability  and  repose,  have  agreed  upon  the  follow- 
ing stipulations  to  replace  the  Agreement  above 
mentioned,  such  stipulations  having  the  same  ob- 
ject as  the  said  Agreement,  namely: — (a)  The  con- 
solidation and  maintenance  of  the  general  peace 
in  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and  of  India;  (b) 
The  preservation  of  the  common  interests  of  all 
Powers  in  China  by  insuring  the  independence  and 
integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire  and  the  principle 
of  equal  opportunities  for  the  commerce  and  in- 
dustry of  all  nations  in  China;  (c)  The  mainte- 
nance of  the  territorial  rights  of  the  High  Con- 
tracting Parties  in  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and 
of  India,  and  the  defence  of  their  special  interests 
in  the  said  regions.  Article  I.  It  is  agreed  that 
whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  either  Great  Britain 
or  Japan,  any  of  the  rights  and  interests  referred 
to  in  the  preamble  of  this  Agreement  are  in  jeop- 
ardy, the  two  Governments  will  communicate  with 
one  another  fully  and  frankly,  and  will  consider 
in  common  the  measures  which  should  be  taken 
to  safeguard  those  menaced  rights  or  interests. 
Article  II.  If  by  reason  of  unprovoked  attack  or 
aggressive  action,  wherever  arising,  on  the  part  of 
any  Power  or  Powers,  either  High  Contracting 
Party  should  be  involved  in  war  in  defence  of  its 
territorial  rights  or  special  interests  mentioned  in 
the  preamble  of  this  Agreement,  the  other  High 
Contracting  Party  will  at  once  come  to  the  as- 
sistance of  its  ally,  and  will  conduct  the  war  in 
common,  and  make  peace  in  mutual  agreement 
with  it.  Article  III.  The  High  Contracting  Par- 
ties agree  that  neither  of  them  will,  without  con- 
sulting the  other,  enter  into  separate  arrange- 
ments with  another  Power  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
objects  described  in  the  preamble  of  this  Agree- 
ment. .Article  IV.  Should  either  High  Contract- 
ing Party  conclude  a  treaty  of  general  arbitration 
with  a  third  Power,  it  is  agreed  that  nothing  in 
this  Agreement  shall  entail  upon  such  Contract- 
ing  Party  an  obligation   to  go  to  war  with  the 


345 


ANGLO-JAPANESE  TREATY 


Power  with  whom  such  treaty  of  arbitration  is  in 
force.  Article  V.  The  conditions  under  which 
armed  assistance  shaU  be  afforded  by  either  Power 
to  the  other  in  the  circumstances  mentioned  in  the 
present  Agreement,  and  the  means  by  w^J'^^  such 
assistance  is  to  be  made  available,  will  be  ar- 
ranged by  the  Naval  and  MiUtary  ^"'h^"^'"  °^ 
the  High  Contracting  Parties,  who  «';ll/'^°°i  .^""^ 
to  time  consult  one  another  fully  and  freely  upon 
all  questions  of  mutual  interest.  Article  \  I.  ihe 
nresenl  Agreement  shall  come  into  effect  immedi- 

^[ely  after  the  date  of  its  ^-^^-^'r^' ^T  iT^s. 
in  force  for  ten  years  from  that  date  I"  "se 
Neither  0  the  High  Contracting  Parties  should 
Save  notified  twelve  months  before  the  expira  ion 
of  the  said  ten  years  the  intention  of  termmating 
it  it  shall  remain  binding  until  the  expiration  of 
CM  year  from  the  day  on  which  either  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have  denounced  it. 
But  if  when  the  date  fixed  for  its  expiration  ar- 
rives either  allv  is  actually  engaged  in  war,  the 
alliailce  shall,  ipso  f'^to,  continue  until  peace  is 
concluded.  lli  faith  whereof  the  Undersigned,  duly 
authorized  by  their  respective  Governments  have 
signed  this  Agreement,  and  have  affixed  thereto 
their  Seals  Done  in  dupUcate  at  London,  the  13th 
dS  of  Juy-'9ii."-E.C.Stowell,D,/-/«m«o'  of  the 
7ar  0  il\,PP.  S4i-542.-See  also  PAcmc  "cea^. 
iqi8-iQ:!i ;  U.  S.  A.:  1Q19-1921 ;  World  War.  1914- 
V    Tapan;  b;  Washington  Conference 

1921 -Question  of  its   renewal.     See  British 
EMPIRE-  Colonial  and  Imperial  conferences:  1921. 

ANGLO-JAPANESE  TREATY.    See  Anglo- 

JTNGL0^'PA1L1STINE  COMPANY,  Ltd.    See 

Tews-   Zionism;    20th  century. 

ANGLO-PERSIAN  TREATY,  an  agreement 
concluded  between  Great  Britain  and  Persia  on 
August  Q,  1919.  In  this  treaty  the  British  govern- 
ment agreed  to  respect  the  independence  and  m- 
tegrity  of  Persia ;  to  supply  expert  advisers  tor  tne 
various  civil  departments  and  the  army;  to  grant 
a  substantial  loan;  to  aid  in  rai  vyay  and  road 
building  and  in  tariff  revLsion.  Although  Great 
Britain  denied  any  intention  of  absorbing  Persia, 
many  foreign  observers  regarded  the  treaty  as 
amounting  to  a  protectorate.  However,  on  Feb.  27 
1 92 1,  the  treaty  was  abrogated.— See  also  Persia. 

'7nGLO-PORTUGUESE       CONVENTION 
(1891).     See   Africa:    Modern   European   occupa- 

''°ANGLO-RUSSIAN  AGREEMENT  OF  1895. 

'InGLoTuSSiInAGREEMENT  of  1907. 
—Convention  between  Great  Britain  and  Rus- 
sia,   containing    arrangements    on    the    subject 
of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet.-Parallel  with 
the  Agreements-thc  "Entente  Cordide  —of   1904 
between  England  and  France,  in  its  purpose  and 
in    its   importance    to    Europe,    was   the    Conven- 
tion between  England  and  Russia  in  1007,  which 
harmonized    the    interests    and   the    policy    of    the 
two  nations  in  matters  relating  to  Persia,  Afghanis- 
tan   and  Tibet.     In  each  case  the  dictating  motive 
looked  not  so  much  to  a  settlement  of  the  particu- 
lar questions  involved,  as  to  a  general  cxtingmsh- 
ment  of  possible  causes  of  contention  which  might 
at  some  time  disturb  the  peaceful  or  fnendlv-  rela- 
tions of  the  peoples  concerned.    Taken  together,    he 
two     formallv     expressed    understandings,    Anglo- 
French  and  Anglo-Russian,  added  to  the  Franco- 
Russian    Alliance    of    '^o?  .  '^'=<=,  Fx*^^"'^-     '^''S) 
constituted,   not    a   new   Triple    Alliance,   set   over 
against    that    of    Germany,    Austria-Hungary,    and 
Italy,  but  an  amicable  conjunction  which  bore  sug- 


ANGLO-RUSSIAN  AGREEMENTS 

eestions  of  alliance,  and  which  introduced  a  coun- 
terweight in  European  politics  that  made  undoubt- 
edly for  peace.  The  Anglo-Russian  Convention, 
signed  August  31,  i907.  contained  three  distinct 
"Arrangements,"  under  a  common  preamble,  as 
follows: 


"His  Majesty  the  King  of  the  United  Km:dom 
of  Great  Britain  and   Ireland  and  of  the   British 
Dominions   beyond    the   Seas,   Emperor    ol    India, 
and  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  AH  the  Russias 
animated  by  the  sincere  desire  to  settle  by  mutual 
agreement  different  questions  concerning  the  inter- 
ests of  their  States  on  the  Continent  of  Asia,  have 
determined    to    conclude    Agreements    destined    to 
nrevent    all    cause    of    misunderstanding    between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  in  regard  to  the  questions 
referred  to,  and  have  nominated  for  this  purpose 
their    respective    Plenipotentiaries.      .  .  Who,   hav- 
ing communicated  to  each  other  their  full  powers, 
found  in  good  and  due  form,  have  agreed  on  the 
following: 

"ARRANGEilENT    CONCERNING    PERSIA 

"The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia 
having  mutually  enga-.ed  to  respect  the  mtegrity 
and  independence  of  Persia,  and  smcerely  desurmg 
'he  preservation  of  order  throughout  that  country 
and  its  peaceful  development,  as  weU  as  the  per- 
manent establishment  of  equal  advantages  for  the 
trade  and  industry  of  all  other  nations; 

"Considering   that   each   of   them   has,   for   geo- 
graphical and  economic  reasons,  a  special  mterest 
in  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order  m  certam 
provinces  of  Persia  adjoining,  or  in  the  neighbour- 
hood  of,  the   Russian   frontier   on   the   one   hand, 
and  the  frontiers  of   Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan 
on  the  other  hand;  and  being  desirous  0    avoiding 
all  cause  of  conflict  between  their  .'^'^^P^t^t,'"!": 
esls  in  the  above-mentioned  Provinces  of  Persia, 
"Have  agreed  on  the  following  terms: 
"I    Great  Britain  engages  not  to  seek  for  hersell, 
and  not  to  support  in  favour  of  British  subjects 
or  in  favour  of  the  subjects  of  third  Powers    any 
Concessions  of  a  political  or  commercial  nature— 
Sih  as  Concessions  for  railways,  banks,  telegraphs 
roads     transport,    insurance,    &c.-beyond    a    Ime 
tart^g  fror^  K^sr-i-Shirin,  passing  through  Isfa- 
han, Yezd,  Kakhk  and  ending  at  ^^  P"""'  °"  ^= 
Persian  frontier  at  the  intersection  of  the  Russian 
and  Afghan  frontiers,  and  not  to  oppose,  directly 
or  indirectly,  demands  for  ^iniUar   Concessions  in 

this   region   which   are   ^"PP-'^^f  ,^^    '^1 '^.boTe 
Government.      It    is   understood  .^^l'^^^^^^ 
mentioned    places   are    •"^'"'^'^'i. '"    '^1  \he  Con" 
which  Great  Britain  engages  not  to  seek  tne  «-on 

"^^irRliSron'her  part,  engages  not  to  s«k  for 

mmmm 

telegraphs,  roads^transport^nsurance,^&c^  J^  ^^ 
a  line  going  from  the  A'snan  ^^^^ 

Gazik,  Birjand,  ^"'"^"; /"I'uy  or  indirectly. 
Abbas,  and  not  to  "PP^^^'^f^^f ''m^'tlns  region 
demands    for    similar    Concession  ^^^^^^„t 

which  are  ="PP-^^^^  ^^^'^/bo,.' mentioned  places 
It    s  understood  that  tne  auu  „      :     engages 

are  included  in  the  region  in  wh^h  Russia  engag 

British  subjects  in  the   regions  of  Persia   situatea 


346 


ANGLO-RUSSIAN  AGREEMENTS 


ANGLO-RUSSIAN  AGREEMENTS 


between  the  lines  mentioned  in  Articles  I  and  II. 
Great  Britain  undertakes  a  similar  engagement  as 
regards  the  grant  of  Concessions  to  Russian  sub- 
jects in  the  same  regions  of  Persia.  All  Conces- 
sions existing  at  present  in  the  regions  indicated  in 
Articles  I  and  II  are  maintained. 

"IV.  It  is  understood  that  the  revenues  of  all 
the  Persian  customs,  with  the  exception  of  those 
of  Farsistan  and  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  revenues 
guaranteeing  the  amortization  and  the  interest  of 
the  loans  concluded  by  the  Government  of  the 
Shah  with  the  'Banque  d'Escompte  et  des  Prets  de 
Perse'  up  to  the  date  of  the  signature  of  the  pres- 
ent Arrangement,  shall  be  devoted  to  the  same  pur- 
pose as  in  the  past.  It  is  equally  understood  that 
the  revenues  of  the  Persian  customs  of  Farsistan 
and  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
fisheries  on  the  Persian  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  those  of  the  Posts  and  Telegraphs,  shall  be 
devoted,  as  in  the  past,  to  the  service  of  the  loans 
concluded  by  the  Government  of  the  Shah  with  the 
Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  up  to  the  date  of  the 
signature  of  the  present  Arrangement. 

"V.  In  the  event  of  irregularities  occurring  in 
the  amortization  or  the  payment  of  the  interest  of 
the  Persian  loans  concluded  with  the  'Banque 
d'Escompte  et  des  Prets  de  Perse'  and  with  the 
Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  up  to  the  date  of  the 
signature  of  the  present  Arrangement,  and  in  the 
event  of  the  necessity  arising  for  Russia  to  estab- 
lish control  over  the  sources  of  revenue  guarantee- 
ing the  regular  service  of  the  loans  concluded  with 
the  first-named  bank,  and  situated  in  the  region 
mentioned  in  Article  II  of  the  present  Arrange- 
ment, or  for  Great  Britain  to  establish  control  over 
the  sources  of  revenue  guaranteeing  the  regular 
service  of  the  loans  concluded  with  the  second- 
named  bank,  and  situated  in  the  region  mentioned 
in  Article  I  of  the  present  Arrangement,  the  British 
and  Russian  Governments  undertake  to  enter  be- 
forehand into  a  friendly  exchange  of  ideas  with  a 
view  to  determine,  in  agreement  with  each  other, 
the  measures  of  control  in  question  and  to  avoid 
all  interference  which  would  not  be  in  conformity 
with  the  principles  governing  the  present  Arrange- 
ment. 

"Convention  Concerning  Aeghanistan 

"The  High  Contracting  Parties,  in  order  to  ensure 
perfect  security  on  their  respective  frontiers  in 
Central  Asia  and  to  maintain  in  these  regions  a 
solid  and  lasting  peace,  have  concluded  the  follow- 
ing Convention: 

"Article  I.  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment declare  that  they  have  no  intention  of  chang- 
ing the  political  status  of  Afghanistan.  His 
Britannic  Majesty's  Government  further  engage 
to  exercise  their  influence  in  Afghanistan  only  in 
a  pacific  sense,  and  they  will  not  themselves  take, 
nor  encourage  Afghanistan  to  take,  any  measures 
threatening  Russia.  The  Russian  Government,  on 
their  part,  declare  that  they  recognize  Afghanistan 
«s  outside  the  sphere  of  Russian  influence,  and  they 
engage  that  all  their  political  relations  with  Afghan- 
istan shall  be  conducted  through  the  intermediary 
of  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Government;  they  fur- 
ther engage  not  to  send  any  Agents  into  Afghan- 
istan. 

"Article  II.  The  Government  of  His  Britannic 
Majesty  having  declared  in  the  Treaty  signed  at 
Kabul  on  the  21st  March,  1905,  that  they  recog- 
nize the  Agreement  and  the  engagements  concluded 
with  the  late  Ameer  Abdur  Rahman,  and  that  they 
have  no  intention  of  interfering  in  the  internal 
government  of  Afghan  territory.  Great  Britain  en- 
gages neither  to  annex  nor  to  occupy  in  contra- 


vention of  that  Treaty  any  portion  of  Afghanistan 
or  to  interfere  in  the  internal  administration  of  the 
country,  provided  that  the  Ameer  fulfils  the  en- 
gagements already  contracted  by  him  towards  His 
Britannic  Majesty's  Government  under  the  above- 
mentioned  Treaty. 

"Article  III.  The  Russian  and  Afghan  author- 
ities, specially  designated  for  the  purpose  on  the 
frontier  or  in  the  frontier  provinces,  may  establish 
direct  relations  with  each  other  for  the  settlement 
of  local  questions  of  a  non-political  character. 

"Article  IV.  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment and  the  Russian  Government  affirm  their 
adherence  to  the  principle  of  equality  of  commer- 
cial opportunity  in  Afghanistan,  and  they  agree 
that  any  facilities  which  may  have  been,  or  shall 
be  hereafter  obtained  for  British  and  British-Indian 
trade  and  traders,  shall  be  equally  enjoyed  by  Rus- 
sian trade  and  traders.  Should  the  progress  of 
trade  establish  the  necessity  for  Commercial  Agents, 
the  two  Governments  will  agree  as  to  what  meas- 
ures shall  be  taken,  due  regard,  of  course,  being 
had  to  the  Ameer's  sovereign  rights. 

"Article  V.  The  present  Arrangements  will 
only  come  into  force  when  His  Britannic  Majesty's 
Government  shall  have  notified  to  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment the  consent  of  the  Ameer  to  the  terms 
stipulated  above. 

"Arrangement  Concerning  Tibet 

"The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia 
recognizing  the  suzerain  rights  of  China  in  Thibet, 
and  considering  the  fact  that  Great  Britain,  by 
reason  of  her  geographical  position,  has  a  special 
interest  in  the  maintenance  of  the  status  quo  in  the 
external  relations  of  Thibet,  have  made  the  follow- 
ing Arrangement: — 

"Article  I.  The  two  High  Contracting  Parties 
engage  to  respect  the  territorial  integrity  of  Thibet 
and  to  abstain  from  all  interference  in  its  internal 
administration. 

"Article  II.  In  conformity  with  the  admitted 
principle  of  the  suzerainty  of  China  over  Thibet, 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  engage  not  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  Thibet  except  through  the  inter- 
mediary of  the  Chinese  Government.  This  engage- 
ment does  not  exclude  the  direct  relations  between 
British  Commercial  Agents  and  the  Thibetan  au- 
thorities provided  for  in  Article  V  of  the  Con- 
vention between  Great  Britain  and  Thibet  of 
the  7th  September,  1Q04,  and  confirmed  by 
the  Convention  between  Great  Britain  and  China 
of  the  27th  April,  iqo6;  nor  does  it  mod- 
ify the  engagements  entered  into  by  Great  Britain 
and  China  in  Article  I  of  the  said  Convention  of 
1906. 

"It  is  clearly  understood  that  Buddhists,  subjects 
of  Great  Britain  or  of  Russia,  may  enter  into  chrect 
relations  on  strictly  religious  matters  with  the  Dalai 
Lama  and  the  other  representatives  of  Buddhism 
in  Thibet;  the  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  engage,  as  far  as  they  are  concerned,  not 
to  allow  those  relations  to  infringe  the  stipulations 
of  the  present  Arrangement. 

"Article  III.  The  British  and  Russian  Govern- 
ments respectively  engage  not  to  send  Representa- 
tives to  Lhassa. 

"Article  IV.  The  two  High  Contractini?  Parties 
engage  neither  to  seek  nor  to  obtain,  whether  for 
themselves  or  their  subjects,  any  Concessions  for 
railways,  roads,  telegraphs,  and  mines,  or  other 
rights  in  Thibet. 

"Article  V.  The  two  Governments  agree  that 
no  part  of  the  revenues  of  Thibet,  whether  in  kind 
or  in  cash,  shall  be  pledged  or  assiirned  to  Great 
Britain  or  Russia  or  to  any  of  their  subjects. 


347 


ANGLO-RUSSIAN  AGREEMENTS 


ANGOLA 


"Annex  to  the  Arrangement  between  Great 
Britain  and  Russia  Concerning  Tibet 

"Great  Britain  reaffirms  the  Declaration,  signed 
by  his  Excellency  the  Viceroy  and  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  India  and  appended  to  the  ratification  of 
the  Convention  of  the  7th  September,  1904,  to  the 
effect  that  the  occupation  ol  the  Chumbi  Valley 
by  British  forces  shall  cease  after  the  payment  of 
three  annual  instalments  of  the  indemnity  of  25,- 
000,000  rupees,  provided  that  the  trade  marts  men- 
tioned in  Article  II  of  that  Convention  have  been 
effectively  opened  for  three  years,  and  that  in  the 
meantime  the  Thibetan  authorities  have  faithfully 
complied  in  all  respects  with  the  terms  of  the  said 
Convention  of  1904.  It  is  clearly  understood  that 
if  the  occupation  of  the  Chumbi  Valley  by  the 
British  forces  has,  for  any  reason,  not  been  ter- 
minated at  the  time  anticipated  in  the  above 
Declaration,  the  British  and  Russian  Governments 
will  enter  upon  a  friendly  exchange  of  views  on 
this  subject." 

As  an  Inclosure  with  the  Convention,  Notes  were 
exchanged  by  the  Plenipotentiaries,  of  which  that 
from  Sir  A.  Nicolson  was  in  the  following  words, 
M.  Isvolsky  replying  to  the  same  effect. 

"St.  Petersburg,  .\ugust  18  (31),  1907. 

"M.    LE    MlNISTRE, 

"With  reference  to  the  .Arrangement  regarding 
Thibet,  signed  to-day,  I  have  the  honour  to  make 
the  following  Declaration  to  your  E.xcellency;  — 

••  'His  Britannic  Majesty's  Government  think  it 
desirable,  so  far  as  they  are  concerned,  not  to  allow, 
unless  by  a  previous  agreement  with  the  Russian 
Government,  for  a  period  of  three  years  from  the 
date  of  the  present  communication,  the  entry  into 
Thibet  of  any  scientific  mission  whatever,  on  con- 
dition that  a  like  assurance  is  given  on  the  part 
of  the  Imperial  Russian   Government. 

"  'His  Britannic  Majesty's  Government  propose, 
moreover,  to  approach  the  Chinese  Government 
with  a  view  to  induce  them  to  accept  a  similar 
obligation  for  a  corresponding  period;  the  Russian 
Government  will  as  a  matter  of  course  take  sim- 
ilar action. 

"  'At  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  three  years 
above  mentioned  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment will,  if  necessary,  consult  with  the  Russian 
government  as  to  the  desirability  of  any  ulterior 
measures  with  regard  to  scientific  expeditions  to 
Thibet.'  I  avail,  &c. 

(Signed)        A.  Nicolson." 

In  authorizing  Sir  A.  Nicolson  to  sign  the  above 
Convention,  Sir  Edward  Grey,  the  British  Secretary 
for  Foreign  .Affairs,  wrote,  on  .August  29,  as  fol- 
lows: 

"I  have  to-day  authorized  your  Excellency  by 
telegraph  to  sign  a  Convention  with  the  Russian 
Government  containing  .Arrangements  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Persia,  .Afghanistan,  and  Thibet. 

"The  Arrangement  respecting  Persia  is  limited 
to  the  regions  of  that  country  touching  the  re- 
spective frontiers  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia  in 
Asia,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  is  not  part  of  those 
regions,  and  is  only  partly  in  Persian  territory. 
It  has  not  therefore  been  considered  appropriate 
to  introduce  into  the  Convention  a  positive  decla- 
ration respecting  special  interests  possessed  by  Great 
Britain  in  the  Gulf,  the  result  of  British  action  in 
those  waters  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

"His  Majesty's  Government  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  this  question  will  not  give  rise  to  diffi- 
culties between  the  two  Governments,  should  de- 
velopments   arise    which    make    further    discussion 


affecting  British  interests  in  the  Gulf  necessary. 
For  the  Russian  Government  have  in  the  course 
of  the  negotiations  leadins  up  to  the  conclusion  of 
this  Arrangement  explicitly  stated  that  they  do  not 
deny  the  special  interests  of  Great  Britain  in  the 
Persian  Gulf — a  statement  of  which  His  Majesty  s 
Government  have  formally  taken  note. 

"In  order  to  make  it  quite  clear  that  the  present 
.Arrangement  is  not  intended  to  affect  the  position 
in  the  Gulf,  and  does  not  imply  any  change  of 
policy  respecting  it  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain, 
His  Majesty's  Government  think  it  desirable  to 
draw  attention  to  previous  declarations  of  British 
poUcy,  and  to  reaffirm  generally  previous  state- 
ments as  to  British  interests  in  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the   importance   of   maintaining   them. 

"His  Majesty's  Government  will  continue  to 
direct  all  their  efforts  to  the  preservation  of  the 
status  quo  in  the  Gulf  and  the  maintenance  of 
British  trade;  in  doing  so,  they  have  no  desire  to 
exclude  the  legitimate  trade  of  any  other  Power." — 
Parliamentary  Papers  by  Command.  Russia.  No. 
I.  1907    (Cd.  3750). 

ANGLO-RUSSIAN  RELATIONS.  See  Triple 
Entente:    1007;   England:    1907. 

ANGLO-RUSSIAN  TREATY,  1825.  See 
Alaskan  boundary  question:  Claims  of  both 
sides. 

ANGLO-SAXON,  a  term  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  compound  of  .Angle  and  Saxon,  the 
names  of  the  two  principal  Teutonic  tribes  which 
took  possession  of  Britain  and  formed  the  English 
nation  by  their  ultimate  union.  As  thus  regarded 
and  used  to  designate  the  race,  the  language  and 
the  institutions  which  resulted  from  that  union,  it 
is  only  objectionable,  perhaps,  as  being  superfluous, 
because  English  is  the  accepted  name  of  the  people 
of  England  and  all  pertaining  to  them.  But  the 
term  .Anglo-Saxon  has  also  been  more  particularly 
employed  to  designate  the  early  English  people  and 
their  language,  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  as 
though  they  were  .Anglo-Saxon  at  that  period  and 
became  English  afterwards.  Modern  historians  arc 
making  strong  protests  against  this  use  of  the  term. 
Mr.  Freeman  {Norman  conquest,  v.  i,  note  A) 
says:  "The  name  by  which  our  forefathers  really 
knew  themselves  and  by  which  they  were  known 
to  other  nations  was  English  and  no  other.  '.Angli,' 
'Engle,'  '.Angel-cyn,'  'Englisc'  are  the  true  names 
by  which  the  Teutons  of  Britain  knew  themselves 
and  their  language.  ...  As  a  chronological  term, 
.Anglo-Saxon  is  equally  objectionable  with  faxon. 
The  'Anglo-Saxon  period,'  as  far  as  there  evei  was 
one,  is  going  on  still.  I  speak  therefore  of  our 
forefathers,  not  as  'Saxons,'  or  even  as  '.Anglo- 
Saxons,'  but  as  they  spoke  of  themselves,  as  Eng- 
lishmen—'.Angli,'  'Engle,'— 'Anjelcyn.'  "—See  also 
.Angles  :  Saxons. 

ANGLO-SAXON  CHRONICLE:  See  Ballad: 
Ballad  and  history;  English  liter.\ture:  6th-i:th 
centuries:  History:   19. 

ANGLO-SAXON  LITERATURE.     See  Eng 
lish   liter.\ture:    6th- nth  centuries. 

ANGLON,  Battle  of  (543) —Fought  in  Arme- 
nia between  the  Romans  and  the  Persians. 

ANGOLA,  the  name  now  given  to  the  territory 
which  the  Portuguese  have  occupied  on  the  western 
coast  of  South  .Africa  since  the  sixteenth  century, 
extending  from  Belgian  Congo,  on  the  north,  to 
Damaraland,  on  the  south,  with  an  interior  bound- 
ary that  is  somewhat  indefinite.  It  is  divided 
into  fovr  districts.  Congo,  Loando,  Benguela.  and 
Mossamedc?  For  modern  developments,  railroads, 
etc.,  see  .Africa:  Modern  European  occupation: 
Summary  of  European  occupation:  Modern  railway 
and  industrial  development  of  .Africa;  Map. 


348 


ANGORA 


ANJOU 


ANGORA  or  Ancyra,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  fa- 
mous in  ancient  times  for  its  culture  and  trade. 
On  the  walls  of  the  beautiful  Greek  temple  dedi- 
cated to  the  emperor  Augustus  was  found  in  1553 
the  celebrated  "Inscription  of  Ancyra"  commemo- 
rating his  exploits.  Goats  and  similar  animals  in 
this  district  are  famous  for  their  long  silky  hair, 
due  apparently  to  peculiar  conditions. 

1402. — Battle  of  Angora.  See  Timur  or  Ti- 
mour;  Turkey:   1389-1403. 

1915. — Massacre  by  Turks.  See  World  War; 
1915:   VI.  Turkey:   d,  1. 

1921. — Seat  of  Turkish  Nationalist  govern- 
ment in  Asia  Minor. — War  against  Greece.  See 
Greece:  1921;  Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1921:  Near  East 
conference;  also  Bagdad  railway:  Plan;  Turkey: 
Map  of  Asia  Minor. 

ANGOSTURA,  or  Buena  Vista,  Battle  of.  See 
Mexico:   1846-1847. 

ANGOULEME,  Charles  De  Valois,  Due  d' 
(1573-1650),  French  statesman  and  general;  il- 
legitimate son  of  Charles  IX  and  Marie  Touchet ; 
became  Due  d'Angouleme  in  1619,  three  years 
after  his  release  from  the  Bastille,  where  he  spent 
eleven  years  for  a  conspiracy  against  Henry  IV. 

ANCOUMOIS,  an  old  province  of  France, 
ceded  to  England,  1360.    See  France:  1337-1360. 

ANGRA  PEQUENA,  a  harbor  on  the  coast  of 
what  later  became  German  South  West  Africa  (now 
Southwest  Africa  Protectorate)  ;  German  flag  first 
raised  on  African  soil  there,  in  1884. 

ANGREAU:  1918.— Taken  by  British.  See 
World  War:   1918:  II.  Western  front:  w,  2. 

ANGRES,  France:  1917.— Occupied  by  Brit- 
ish. See  World  War:  191 7:  II.  Western  front: 
c,  9. 

ANGRIA,  division  of  ancient  duchy  of  Saxony. 
See  Saxony. 

ANGRIVARII.— The  Angrivarii  were  one  of 
the  tribes  of  ancient  Germany.  Their  settlements 
were  to  the  west  of  the  Weser.     See  Bructeri. 

ANGRO-MAINYUS,  spirit  of  evil  in  dual  doc- 
trine of  Zoroaster.     See  Zoroastrians. 

ANHALT,  a  free  state,  was  a  duchy  of  Ger- 
many and  a  state  of  the  empire  after  1871.  It 
was  formed  of  Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen  and  Anhalt- 
Bernburg  in  1863.  Originally  (in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury) a  part  of  Saxony  [see  Saxony:  ii 78-1 183], 
it  became  united  to  the  margravate  of  Branden- 
burg in  the  twelfth  century  by  Albert  the  Bear, 
witfi  whom  the  ruling  dynasty  of  the  duchy 
originated.  In  12 18,  when  Prince  Henry  became 
count  of  Anhalt,  it  was  separated  from  Saxony, 
and  was  later  divided  by  his  sons  into  the  three 
principalities  of  Bernburg,  .Aschersleben  and 
Zerbst.  After  a  subsequent  reunion  in  1570,  it 
became  again  divided  in  1603  into  Dessau, 
Bernburg,  Plbtzkau,  Zerbst,  and  Cbthen.  This  al- 
ternation of  split  and  reunion  continued  until  the 
interference  of  the  Prussian  rulers  and  the  gradual 
extinction  of  the  individual  lines  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  joint  constitution  in  1859,  and  a  final 
unification  under  Leopold  IV,  in  1863.  The  last 
reigning  duke  was  Edward,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  April  21,  1918.  On  July  18,  1919,  An- 
halt became  a  free  state.  Its  constitution  provides 
for  a  diet  to  be  elected  by  the  people  every  three 
years  and  for  a  state  council  of  live  members,  the 
chairman  of  which  bears  the  title  of  president. 
It  is  divided  by  Prussian  Saxony  into  Eastern  and 
Western  Anhalt  (the  latter  also  called  Upper  Duchy 
or  Ballenstedt),  and  b  surrounded  by*  the  Prussian 
territories  of  Potsdam,  MasFdcbursr  and  McrseburK 
and  by  Brunswick  along  five  miles  on  the  west. 
Its  principal  river  is  the  Elbe,  which  intersects  its 
eastern  part  from  east   to  west,   and  is  joined  by 


the  Saale  and  the  Mulde,  and  minor  tributaries. 
It  is  mountainous  in  the  southwest  of  its  western 
part,  to  which  the  Harz  range  extends,  and  becomes 
level  as  it  approaches  the  Elbe.  E.xcept  for  the 
portion  east  of  the  Elbe,  which  to  a  great  extent 
is  a  sandy  plain,  the  soil  is  rich.  In  1910,  of  the 
total  area  of  888  miles,  sixty  per  cent  of  the  land 
was  cultivated ;  seven  per  cent  is  pasture  land, 
which  stretches  along  the  Elbe,  and  twenty-five 
per  cent  is  forest-covered.  The  chief  yields  are 
rye,  wheat,  potatoes  and  oats.  Vegetables,  corn, 
fruits,  beets,  tobacco,  flax,  hops  and  linseed  are 
also  grown.  The  forests  abound  in  game  and  the 
rivers  in  fish.  Its  chief  mineral  resources  are  salts 
of  different  kinds  and  lignite.  Before  the  World 
War  almost  half  of  the  population  was  occupied 
in  the  mineral  and  manufacturing  industries.  The 
country  is  crossed  by  180  miles  of  railway.  Its 
largest  cities  are  Dessau,  the  capital,  Bernburg, 
Cothen,  Zerbst,  and  Rosslau.  According  to  the 
census  of  1910  its  population  is  331,128.  The 
greater  majority  are  Protestants;  12,755  are  Catho- 
lics, and   1,383  Jews. 

Also  in:  W.  Mueller,  Die  Entsteliung  der  an- 
haitischen  Slddte  (Halle,  1912). — F.  Knoke,  An- 
haltisclie  Gesckichle  (Dessau,  1893). — Siebigk,  Das 
Herzogtiium  Anhalt  historisch,  geographisch  und 
statisthch   dargestellt   (Dessau,  1867). 

ANHALT-DESSAU,  Leopold  I,  prince  of 
(1676-1747),  distinguished  Prussian  field-marshal; 
served  with  Frederick  the  Great  and  gained  im- 
portant victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Kesselsdorf, 
1745. — See  also  Austria:   1744- 1745. 

ANI,  an  ancient  Armenian  city,  stormed  by 
Turks  (1064).    See  Turkey:  1063-1073. 

ANIDO,  Martinez,  governor  of  Barcelona.  See 
Spain:   192  i. 

ANILINE  DYES.  See  Chemistry:  Practical 
application:   Dyes. 

ANIMAL  BOUNTIES.  See  Bounties:  State 
bounties  on  animals. 

ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  Bureau  of.  See  Agri- 
culture, Department  of. 

ANIMALS,  Domestic.  See  Agriculture: 
Early  period. 

ANIMISM.  See  Babylonia:  Religion:  From  an- 
imism to  polytheism;  Egypt:  Religion;  Religion: 
Universal  elements;  Mythology:  Egypt:  Kinship 
to  savage;  Mythology:  India:  Primitive  elements; 
Mythology:   Rome. 

ANIMUCCIA,  Giovanni  (d.  1571),  Italian  com- 
poser; was  choirmaster  at  St.  Peter's  (1555-1571), 
filling  the  interval  between  Palestrina's  terms;  com- 
posed the  famous  "Laudi, "  which  were  sung  at  the 
Oratorio  of  St.  Filippo  after  the  regular  office,  and 
out  of  which  the  oratorio  is  said  to  have  developed 

ANJOU,  Frangois  (Hercule)  de  France,  due 
d',  duke  of  Brabant,  1554-1584.  See  Netherlands: 
1577-1581,   1581-1584. 

ANJOU,  a  former  province  in  the  west  of 
France,  now  Maine-et-Loire.  In  ancient  times  in- 
habited by  the  Andecavi ;  became  a  center  of  power 
under  Geoffrey  Martel  (1040-1060);  a  possession 
of  the  English  crown  during  the  Plantagenet  mon- 
archy (11 54- 1 203);  seized  by  Philip  .Augustus. 
United  with  Provence  under  the  rule  of  the  king 
of  Naples;  anne.xed  to  the  royal  dominions  by 
Louis  XI  in  1480. 

Counts  and  dukes  of  (Summary). — Line  orig- 
inated with  Ingelgerius,  seneschal  of  Gatinais,  who 
received  the  countship  from  Charles  the  Bald  in 
870.  Among  his  descendants  were  Fulk  V,  count 
of  Anjou,  king  of  Jerusalem  in  1131;  Geoffrey  IV, 
le  Plantagenet,  who  married  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Henry  I  of  England,  and  Henry,  son  of  Geoffrey 
and  grandson   of   Fulk  V,  who  as  Henry   II  was 


349 


ANJO0 


ANJOU 


the  first  Plantagenet  king  of  England.  In  the 
reign  of  King  John  of  England,  the  title  of  Anjou 
passed  to  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  who  granted 
it  to  Charles,  the  brother  of  Louis  IX. 

Creation  of  the  county. — Origin  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets. — "It  was  the  policy  of  this  unfairly  de- 
preciated sovereign  [Charles  the  Bald,  grandson  of 
Charlemagne,  who  received  in  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Carlovingian  empire  the  Neustrian  part,  out 
of  which  was  developed  the  modern  kingdom  of 
France,  and  who  reigned  from  840  to  877 J,  to  re- 
cruit the  failing  ranks  of  the  false  and  degenerate 
Frankish  aristocracy,  by  calling  up  to  his  peerage 
the  wise,  the  able,  the  honest  and  the  bold  of  ig- 
noble birth.  ...  He  sought  to  surround  himself 
with  new  men,  the  men  without  ancestry ;  and  the 
earliest  historian  of  the  House  of  Anjou  both  de- 
scribes this  system  and  affords  the  most  splendid 
example  of  the  theory  adopted  by  the  king.  Pre- 
eminent amongst  these  parvenus  was  Torquatus 
or  Tortulfus,  an  Armorican  peasant,  a  very  rustic, 
a  backwoodsman,  who  lived  by  hunting  and  such 
like  occupations,  almost  in  solitude,  cultivating  his 
'quillets,'  his  'cueillettes,'  of  land,  and  driving  his 
own  oxen,  harnessed  to  his  plough.  Torquatus 
entered  or  was  invited  into  the  service  of  Charles- 
le-Chauve,  and  rose  high  in  his  sovereign's  confi- 
dence: a  prudent,  a  bold,  and  a  good  man.  Charles 
appointed  him  Forester  of  the  forest  called  'the 
Blackbird's  Nest,'  the  'nid  du  merle,'  a  pleasant 
name,  not  the  less  pleasant  for  its  familiarity.  This 
happened  during  the  conflicts  with  the  Northmen. 
Torquatus  served  Charles  strenuously  in  the  wars, 
and  obtained  great  authority.  Tertullus,  son  of 
Torquatus,  inherited  his  father's  energies,  quick 
and  acute,  patient  of  fatigue,  ambitious  and  as- 
piring; he  became  the  liegeman  of  Charles;  and  his 
marriage  with  Petronilla  the  King's  cousin.  Count 
Hugh  the  Abbot's  daughter,  introduced  him  into 
the  very  circle  of  the  royal  family.  Chateau  Lan- 
don  and  other  benefices  in  the  Gastinois  were  ac- 
quired by  him,  possibly  as  the  lady's  dowry.  Sen- 
eschal, also,  was  Tertullus,  of  the  same  ample  Gas- 
tinois territory.  Ingelger,  son  of  Tertullus  and 
Petronilla,  appears  as  the  first  hereditary  Count  of 
Anjou  Outre-Maine, — Marquis,  Consul  or  Count  of 
Anjou, — for  all  these  titles  are  assigned  to  him. 
Yet  the  ploughman  Torquatus  must  be  reckoned 
as  the  primary  Plantagenet:  the  rustic  Torquatus 
founded  that  brilliant  family." — F.  Palgrave,  His- 
tory of  Normandy  and  England,  bk.  i,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:  K.  Norgate,  England  under  the  An- 
gevin kings,  V.  I,  ck.  2. 

987-1129. — Greatest  of  the  old  counts. — "Fulc 
Nerra,  Fulc  the  Black  [987-1040]  is  the  greatest 
of  the  Angevins,  the  first  in  whom  we  can  trace 
that  marked  type  of  character  which  their  house 
was  to  preserve  with  a  fatal  constancy  through  two 
hundred  years.  He  was  without  natural  affection. 
In  his  youth  he  burned  a  wife  at  the  stake,  and 
legend  told  how  he  led  her  to  her  doom  decked 
out  in  his  gayest  attire.  In  his  old  age  he  waged 
his  bitterest  war  against  his  son,  and  exacted  from 
him  when  vanquished  a  humiliation  which  men 
reserved  for  the  deadliest  of  their  foes.  'You  are 
conquered,  you  are  conquered!'  shouted  the  old 
man  in  fierce  exultation,  as  Geoffry,  bridled  and 
saddled  like  a  beast  of  burden,  crawled  for  pardon 
to  his  father's  feet.  .  .  .  But  neither  the  wrath 
of  Heaven  nor  the  curses  of  men  broke  with  a 
single  mishap  the  fifty  years  of  his  success.  At 
his  accession  Anjou  was  the  least  important  of  the 
greater  provinces  of  France.  At  his  death  it  stood, 
if  not  in  extent,  at  least  in  real  power,  first  among 
them  all.  .  .  .  Hb  overthrow  of  Brittany  on  the 
field  of  Conquereux  was  followed  by  the  gradual 


absorption  of  Southern  Touraine.  .  .  .  His  great 
victory  at  Pontlevoi  crushed  the  rival  house  of 
Blois;  the  seizure  of  Saumur  completed  his  con- 
quests in  the  South,  while  Northern  Touraine  was 
won  bit  by  bit  till  only  Tours  resisted  the  Ange- 
vin. The  treacherous  seizure  of  its  Count,  Herbert 
Wake-dog,  left  Maine  at  his  mercy  ere  the  old 
man  bequeathed  his  unfinished  work  to  his  son. 
As  a  warrior,  Geoffry  Martel  was  hardly  inferior 
to  his  father.  A  decisive  overthrow  wrested  Tours 
from  the  Count  of  Blois;  a  second  left  Poitou  at 
his  mercy ;  and  the  seizure  of  Le  Mans  brought 
him  to  the  Norman  border.  Here  .  .  .  his  advance 
was  checked  by  the  genius  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  with  his  death  the  greatness  of  Anjou 
seemed  for  the  time  to  have  come  to  an  end. 
Stripped  of  Maine  by  the  Normans,  and  weakened 
by  internal  dissensions,  the  weak  and  profligate  ad- 
ministration of  Fulc  Rechin  left  Anjou  powerless 
against  its  rivals  along  the  Seine.  It  woke  to  fresh 
energy  with  the  accession  of  his  son,  Fulc  of  Jeru- 
salem. .  .  .  Fulc  was  the  one  enemy  whom  Henry 
the  First  really  feared  It  was  to  disarm  his  rest- 
less hostility  that  the  King  yielded  to  bis  son,  Geof- 
fry the  Handsome,  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Ma- 
tilda."— J.  R.  Green,  Short  history  of  the  English 
people,  ch.  2,  sect.  7. 

Also  in:  K.  Norgate,  England  under  the  Ange- 
vin kings,  V.    I,  ch.  2-4. 

1154. — Counts  become  kings  of  England.  See 
England:    ii 54-1 189. 

1154-1360. — Extent  of  territory.  See  France: 
Maps  of  medieval  period:  1154-1300. 

1204. — Wrested  from  the  English  King  John. 
See  France:    1180-1224.  . 

1206-1442. — English  attempts  to  recover  the 
county. — Third  and  fourth  houses  of  Anjou. — 
Creation  of  the  dukedom. — King  John,  of  Eng- 
land, did  not  voluntarily  submit  to  the  sentence 
of  the  peers  of  France  which  pronounced  his  for- 
feiture of  the  fiefs  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  "since  he 
invaded  and  had  possession  of  Angers  again  in 
1206,  when.  Gothlike,  he  demolished  its  ancient 
walls.  He  lost  it  in  the  following  year,  and  .  .  . 
made  no  further  attempt  upon  it  until  1213.  In 
that  year,  having  collected  a  powerful  army,  he 
landed  at  Rochelle,  and  actually  occupied  Angers, 
without  striking  a  blow.  But  .  .  .  the  year  12 14 
beheld  him  once  more  in  retreat  from  .Anjou,  never 
to  reappear  there,  since  he  died  on  the  19th  of 
October,  12 16.  In  the  person  of  King  John  ended 
what  is  called  the  'Second  House  of  Anjou.'  In 
1204,  after  the  confiscations  of  John's  French  pos- 
sessions, Philip  Augustus  established  hereditary 
seneschals  in  that  part  of  France,  the  first  of  whom 
was  the  tutor  of  the  unfortunate  Young  .Arthur 
[of  Brittany],  named  William  des  Roches,  who  was 
in  fact  Count  in  all  except  the  name,  over  Anjou, 
Maine,  and  Tourraine,  owing  allegiance  only  to 
the  crown  of  France.  The  Seneschal,  William  des 
Roches,  died  in  1222.  His  son-in-law,  Amaury  de 
Craon,  succeeded  him,"  but  was  soon  afterwards 
taken  prisoner  during  a  war  in  Brittany  and  in- 
carcerated. Henry  III.  of  England  still  claimed 
the  title  of  Count  of  Anjou,  and  in  1230  he  "dis- 
embarked a  considerable  army  at  St.  Malo,  in  the 
view  of  re-conquering  Anjou,  and  the  other  for- 
feited possessions  of  his  crown.  Louis  IX  ,  then 
only  fifteen  years  old  .  .  .  advanced  to  the  attack 
of  the  allies:  but  in  the  following  year  a  peace  was 
concluded,  the  province  of  Guienne  having  been 
ceded  to  the  English  crown.  In  1241,  Louis  gave 
the  counties  of  Poitou  and  Auvergne  to  his  brother 
.Alphonso;  and.  in  the  year  1246,  he  invested  his 
brother  Charles,  Count  of  Provence,  with  the  coun- 
ties of  Anjou  and  Maine,  thereby  annulling  the 


350 


ANJOU 


ANNALS 


rank  and  title  of  Seneschal,  and  instituting  the 
Third  House  of  Anjou.  Charles  I.,  the  founder 
of  the  proud  fortunes  of  this  Third  House,  was 
ambitious  in  character,  and  events  long  favoured 
his  ambition.  Count  of  Provence,  through  the  in- 
heritance of  his  consort,  had  not  long  been  in- 
vested with  Anjou  and  Maine,  ere  he  was  invited 
to  tie  conquest  of  Sicily  [see  Italy  (Southern): 
1250-1268)."  The  third  house  of  Anjou  ended 
in  the  person  of  John,  who  became  king  of  France 
in  1,350.  In  1356  he  invested  his  son  Louis  with 
Anjou  and  Maine,  and  in  13O0  the  latter  was  cre- 
ated the  first  duke  of  Anjou.  The  fourth  house 
of  Anjou,  which  began  with  this  first  duke,  came 
to  an  end  two  generations  later  with  Rene, 
or  Regnier — the  "good  King  Rene"  of  history 
and  story,  whose  kingdom  was  for  the  most 
part  a  name,  and  who  is  best  known  to  English 
readers,  perhaps,  as  the  father  of  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  the  stout-hearted  queen  of  Henry  VI.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  Louis,  the  second  duke, 
Rene  became  by  his  father's  will  count  of  Guise, 
his  elder  brother,  Louis,  inheriting  the  dukedom. 
In  1434  the  brother  died  without  issue  and  Rene 
succeeded  him  in  Anjou,  Maine  and  Provence.  He 
had  already  become  duke  of  Bar,  as  the  adopted 
heir  of  his  great-uncle,  the  cardinal-duke,  and  duke 
of  Lorraine  (1430),  by  designation  of  the  late 
duke,  whose  daughter  he  had  married.  In  1435  he 
received  from  Queen  Joanna  of  Naples  the  doubt- 
ful legacy  of  that  distracted  kingdom,  which  she 
had  previously  bequeathed  first,  to  Alphonso  of 
Aragon,  and  afterwards — revoking  that  testament 
— to  Rene's  brother,  Louis  of  Anjou.  King  Rene 
enjoyed  the  title  during  his  life-time,  and  the  actual 
kingdom  for  a  brief  period;  but  in  1442  he  was 
expelled  from  Naples  by  his  competitor  Alphonso 
(see  Italy:  1412-1447). — M.  A.  Hookham,  Life 
and  times  of  Margaret  of  Anjou,  introduction  and 
ch.  1-2. 

1282. — Loss  of  Sicily. — Retention  of  Naples. 
See  Italy   (Southern):   1282-1300. 

1204-1311.  —  Rule  in  Athens.  See  Athens: 
1205-1308. 

1310-1382. — Possession  of  the  Hungarian 
throne.    See  Hungary:   1301-1442. 

1370-1384. — Acquisition  and  loss  of  the  crown 
of  Poland.     See  Poland:   1333-1572. 

1381-1384. — Claims  of  Louis  of  Anjou. — His 
expedition  to  Italy  and  his  death.  See  Italy: 
(Southern):    1343-1389, 

1480. — Forced  to  recognize  power  of  the 
crown.     See  France:  1461-1468. 

1492-1515.— Claims  to  throne  of  Sicily.  See 
France:   1492-1515. 

ANJOU,     Genealogical    table.      See     France 

ANJUMAN,  or  Enjumen,  a  term  which  seems 
to  signify  in  Persia  either  a  local  assembly  or  a 
Ijolitical  association  of  any  nature.  See  Persia: 
iqo8-iaoq. 

ANKARSTROM,  or  Anckarstrom,  Jakob 
Johan  ( 1 761 -1 792),  the  assassin  of  King  Gustavus 
III  of  Sweden. 

ANICENDORFF,  Battle  of.  See  Germany: 
1807   (Februar>'-June). 

ANLEY,  Frederick  Gore  (1864-  ),  British 
brigadier-general  at  battle  of  Ypres.  See  World 
War:    1914:   I.  Western  front:   w,  13. 

ANN  ARUNDEL  COUNTRY.  See  Mary- 
land:  1643-1640. 

ANNA  AMALIA  (1739-1807),  duchess  of  Saxe- 
Weimar;  a  patroness  of  art  and  literature;  made 
Weimar  the  center  of  culture  in  Germany ;  is  com- 
memorated in  Goethe's  work  "Zum  Andenken  der 
FUrstin  Anna-Amalia." 

ANNA   IVANOVNA   (1693-1740),  empress  of 


Russia  1730-1740;  participated  in  War  of  Polish 
Succession  and  was  successful  against  the  Turks 
in  the  Crimean  War  (1736-1739);  reformed  the 
army,  and  granted  greater  liberty  to  the  landed 
gentry. — See  also  Russia:    1725-1739. 

ANNAHAWAS.     See  Siouan  family:  Sioux. 

"ANNALES"  (of  'William  Camden).  See  His- 
tory: 23. 

ANNALS,  from  the  Latin  annus,  year,  a  rela- 
tion of  events  in  chronological  order,  wherein  each 
event  is  recorded  under  the  year  in  which  it  oc- 
curred. In  a  broader  sense,  the  word  is  not  in- 
frequently used  by  writers  to  designate  history  in 
general,  as,  for  instance,  "the  most  tremendous 
event  in  our  annals."  In  the  singular,  annal,  it 
may  signify  a  record  of  a  single  event.  Annals 
differ  from  chronicles  in  that  they  are  original 
records  set  down  from  day  to  day,  perhaps  by 
different  writers,  whereas  by  chronicles  we  under- 
stand a  complete  written  or  edited  narrative; 
which  may  be  the  work  of  one  author  and  bear 
the  impress  of  his  individuality.  Thus,  to  draw  a 
comparison,  Hayden's  "Dictionary  of  Dates"  con- 
tains the  annals  of  the  world;  the  "American 
Year  Book"  and  the  ".Annual  Register"  each 
present  the  chronicles  (a  connected  narrative)  of 
a  certain  year.  Annals  are  of  Roman,  chronicles 
of  Greek,  origin;  the  latter  term  is  derived  from 
chronos,  meaning  both  time  and  year.  Originally 
signifying  a  chronological  table,  the  word  chronicle 
during  the  Middle  Ages  came  to  include  every  form 
of  history. 

Roman  annals.  —  Ennius.  —  Livy.  —  Tacitus. 
— "The  Romans  did  not  begin  to  write  the  history 
of  their  city  until  about  200  B.  C.  Even  then  the 
first  histories  were  meager  annals.  For  the  early 
centuries  the  composers  found  two  kinds  of  ma- 
terial,— scant  official  records  and  unreliable  family 
chronicles.  .  .  .  From  such  sources,  early  in  the 
second  century  B.  C,  Fabius  Pictor  wrote  the  first 
connected  history  of  Rome.  He  and  his  succes- 
sors (mostly  Greek  slaves  or  adventurers)  trimmed 
and  patched  their  narratives  ingeniously  to  get  rid 
of  gross  inconsistencies ;  borrowed  freely  from  in- 
cidents in  Greek  history,  to  fill  gaps;  and  so  pro- 
duced an  attractive  story  that  hung  together  pretty 
well  in  the  absence  of  criticism.  These  early  works 
are  now  lost;  hut,  two  hundred  years  later,  they 
furnished  material  for  Livy  and  Dionysius,  whose 
accounts  of  the  legendary  age  were  accepted  as 
real  history  until  after  iSoo  A.D." — W.  M.  West, 
Ancient  world,  pp.  262-263. — "There  grew  up  in 
Rome  (as  in  other  Italian  towns)  two  important 
'colleges'  of  city  priests, — pontiffs  and  augurs.  The 
six  pontiffs  had  a  general  oversight  of  the  whole 
system  of  divine  law,  and  they  were  also  the  guar- 
dians of  human  science.  Their  care  of  the  exact 
dates  of  festivals  made  them  the  keepers  of  the 
calendar  and  of  the  rude  annals;  they  had  over- 
sight of  weights  and  measures;  and  they  themselves 
described  their  knowledge  as  'the  science  of  all 
things  human  and  divine.'" — Ibid.,  pp.  272-273. — 
The  Romans  called  these  writings  the  annales 
pontificum  or  annales  maximi,  on  account  of  their 
being   issued  by   the  pontifex   maximns. 

"Ennius  possessed  great  power  over  words,  and 
wielded  that  power  skillfully.  He  improved  the 
language  in  its  harmony  and  its  grammatical  forms, 
and  increased  its  copiousness  and  power.  What 
he  did  was  improved  upon,  but  was  never  un- 
done, and  upon  the  foundations  he  laid  the  taste 
of  succeeding  ages  erected  an  elegant  and  beauti- 
ful superstructure.  His  great  epic  poem — the  'An- 
nals'— gained  him  the  attachment  and  admiration 
of  his  countrymen.  In  this  he  first  introduced  the 
hexameter  to  the  notice  of  the  Romans,  and  de- 


351. 


ANNALS 


Roman 
Medieval 


ANNALS 


tailed  the  rise  and  progress  of  their  national  glory, 
from  the  earliest  legendary  period  down  to  his 
own  times.  The  fragments  of  this  work  which 
remain  are  amply  sufficient  to  show  that  he  pos- 
sessed picturesque  power,  both  in  sketching  his 
narratives  and  in  portraying  his  characters,  which 
seem  to  live  and  breathe ;  his  language,  dignified, 
chaste  and  severe,  rises  as  high  as  the  most  ma- 
jestic eloquence,  but  it  does  not  soar  to  the  sub- 
limity of  poetry." — A.  C.  L.  Botta,  Hand  book  oj 
universal  literature,  p.  132. — "Livy  (5Q-i8  B.C.) 
.  .  .  was  a  warm  and  open  admirer  of  the  ancient 
institutions  of  the  country,  and  esteemed  Pompey 
as  one  of  its  greatest  heroes;  but  Augustus  did 
not  allow  political  opinions  to  interfere  with  the 
regard  which  he  entertained  for  the  historian.  His 
great  work  is  a  history  of  Rome,  which  he  mod- 
estly terms  'Annals,'  in  142  books,  of  which  35 
are  extant.  Besides  his  history,  Livy  is  said  to 
have  written  treatises  and  dialogues,  which  were 
partly  philosophical  and  partly  historical." — Ibid., 
p.  i$i. — The  historical  writings  of  Tacitus  deal- 
ing with  events  befoie  his  time  are  called  the 
Annates;  those  treating  of  his  own  period,  events 
that  happened  within  his  own  experience,  bear  the 
name  Hislorice,  though  it  is  doubted  whether  this 
distinction  was  drawn  by  Tacitus  himself  or  later 
editors. —  "The  'Annals'  consist  of  sixteen  books; 
they  commence  with  the  death  of  Augustus,  and 
conclude  with  that  of  Nero  (14-68  A.  D.).  The 
object  of  Tacitus  was  to  describe  the  influence 
which  the  establishment  of  tyranny  on  the  ruins 
of  liberty  exercised  for  good  or  for  evil  in  bring- 
ing out  the  character  of  the  individual.  In  the 
extinction  of  freedom  there  still  existed  in  Rome 
bright  examples  of  heroism  and  courage,  and  in- 
stances not  less  prominent  of  corruption  and  deg- 
radation. In  the  annals  of  Tacitus  these  indi- 
viduals stand  out  in  bold  relief,  either  singly  or 
in  groups  upon  the  stage,  while  the  emperor  forms 
the  principal  figure,  and  the  moral  sense  of  the 
reader  is  awakened  to  admire  instances  of  patient 
suffering  and  determined  bravery,  or  to  witness 
abject  slavery  and  remorseless  despotism." — Ibid., 
p.  167. — See  also  Latin  liter.'ITure. 

Medieval  annals. — Roman  prototype. — Eccle- 
siastical annals. — Sources  of  local  history. — 
Froissart. — De  Commines. — The  famous  Chron- 
ographus  or  Calendar,  an  official  document  of  the 
Roman  empire,  was  completed  in  354,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  prototype  of  the  long  catalogue 
of  medieval  annals.  The  range  of  its  contents  is 
quite  remarkable:  It  is  an  official  calendar  and  a 
universal  chronicle  (the  latter  to  the  year  338)  ; 
it  contains  a  record  of  consular  annals,  a  list  of 
the  popes  to  Liberius  (352-366),  and  the  paschal 
tables  worked  out  up  to  the  year  412.  .^nglo-Saxon 
missionaries  introduced  the  custom  of  compiling 
chronological  lists  into  Germany  and  Gaul  dur- 
ing the  seventh  century.  Paschal  tables,  fixing  the 
dates  for  Easter,  were  in  use  very  early  in  the  Brit- 
ish Isles.  Notes  of  important  events  were  added 
down  the  margins  opposite  the  years  in  which  they 
occurred,  and  thus  arose  the  institution  of  annals. 
Elaborations  of  and  additions  to  the  list  of  popes 
in  the  Chroiwgraphns  gave  rise  to  the  Pontificale 
Romantim,  better  known  as  the  Lilier  Pontifitalis, 
from  which  there  sprang  a  number  of  similar  rec- 
ords compiled  in  monasteries,  abbeys,  and  cathe- 
drals, dealing  in  the  main  with  local  affairs.  In 
the  course  of  time  these  documents  were  copied, 
passed  around  and  compared ;  discrepancies  were 
brought  into  harmony ;  omissions  were  inserted 
and  errors  rectified.  When  these  data  had  been 
arranged  in  chronological  order,  they  represented  a 
mine    of    original   sources   and   contemporary    evi- 


dence for  future  historians  to  explore  and  delve 
in. 

"Froissart  (1337-1410)  was  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
day,  but  little  in  his  life  or  writings  bespeaks  the 
sacred  calling.  Having  little  taste  for  the  duties 
of  his  profession,  he  was  employed  by  the  Lord 
of  Montfort  to  compose  a  chronicle  of  the  wars 
of  the  time;  but  there  were  no  books  to  tell  him 
of  the  past,  no  regular  communication  between 
nations  to  inform  him  of  the  present ;  so  he  fol- 
lowed the  fashion  of  knights  errant,  and  set  out 
on  horseback,  not  to  seek  adventures,  but,  as  an 
itinerant  historian,  to  find  materials  for  his  chroni- 
cle. He  wandered  from  town  to  town,  and  from 
castle  to  castle,  to  see  the  places  of  which  he  would 
write,  and  to  learn  events  on  the  spot  where  they 
transpired.  His  first  journey  was  to  England; 
here  he  was  employed  by  Queen  Philippa  of  Hai- 
nault  to  accompany  the  Duke  of  Clarence  of  Milan, 
where  he  met  Boccaccio  and  Chaucer.  He  after- 
wards passed  into  the  service  of  several  of  the 
princes  of  Europe,  to  whom  he  acted  as  secretary 
and  poet,  always  gleaning  material  for  historic 
record.  His  book  is  an  almost  universal  history 
of  the  different  states  of  Europe,  from  1322  to 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  He  troubles  him- 
self with  no  explanations  or  theories  of  cause 
and  effect,  nor  with  the  philosophy  of  state  policy ; 
he  is  simply  a  graphic  story-teller.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  called  Froissart  his  master." — Ibid.,  p.  264- 
265. 

"Philippe  de  Commines  (i445-i5og)  was  a  man 
of  his  age,  but  in  advance  of  it,  combining  the 
simplicity  of  the  15th  century  with  the  sagacity 
of  a  later  period.  An  annalist,  like  Froissart,  he 
was  also  a  statesman,  and  a  political  philosopher; 
embracing,  like  Machiavelli  and  Montesquieu,  the 
remoter  consequences  which  flowed  from  the  events 
he  narrated  and  the  principles  he  unfolded.  He 
was  an  unscrupulous  diplomat  in  the  service  of 
Louis  XL,  and  his  description  of  the  last  years 
of  that  monarch  is  a  striking  piece  of  history, 
whence  poets  and  novelists  have  borrowed  themes 
in  later  times.  But  neither  the  romance  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  nor  the  song  of  Beranger  does  jus- 
tice to  the  reality,  as  presented  by  the  faithful 
Commines." — Ibid.,  p.  265. 

English  annals. — The  more  important  annals  in 
England  developed  from  the  tables  of  Bede  and 
the  paschal  cycles.  Among  these  the  chief  are 
the  .-iunales  Cantuarienses  (Canterbury  Annals)  of 
6i8-6qo;  the  .Innales  Nordhumbrani  (Northumber- 
land) of  734-802;  the  Hisloria  Eliensis  Ecclesice 
(Church  of  Ely)  dated  700;  the  .Annates  Cam- 
brice  (Welsh  Annals)  of  440  to  the  Norman  Con- 
(|uest  in  1066,  and  the  .Annaies  Lindisjarnenses 
(Holy  Island)  of  532-oq3.  The  science  of  history 
writing  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  in  England 
dates  from   1066. 

Irish  annals. — "Among  the  various  classes 
of  persons  who  devoted  themselves  to  literature 
in  ancient  Ireland,  there  were  special  Annalists, 
who  made  it  their  business  to  record,  with  the 
utmost  accuracy,  all  remarkable  events  simply 
and  briefly,  without  any  ornament  of  language, 
without  exaggeration,  and  without  fictitious  em- 
bellishment. The  extreme  care  they  took  that 
their  statements  should  be  truthful  is  shown  by 
the  manner  in  which  they  compiled  their  books. 
As  a  general  rule  they  admitted  nothing  into  their 
records  except  either  what  occurred  during  their 
lifetime,  and  which  may  be  said  to  have  come 
under  their  own  personal  knowledge,  or  what 
they  found  recorded  in  the  compilations  of  previ- 
ous annalists,  who  had  themselves  followed  the 
same  plan      These  men  took  nothing  on  hearsay: 


352 


ANNALS 


Irish 


ANNALS 


and  in  this  manner  successive  annalists  carried 
on  a  continued  ctironicle  from  age  to  age,  thus 
giving  the  whole  series  the  force  of  contempo- 
rary testimony.  We  have  still  preserved  to  us 
many  books  of  native  Annals.  .  .  .  Most  of  the 
ancient  manuscripts  whose  entries  are  copied  into 
the  books  of  Annals  we  now  possess  have  been 
lost;  but  that  the  entries  were  so  copied  is  ren- 
dered quite  certain  by  various  expressions  found 
in  the  present  existing  Annals,  as  well  as  by  the 
known  history  of  several  of  the  compilations. 
The  Irish  Annals  deal  with  the  affairs  of  Ireland — 
generally  but  not  exclusively.  Many  of  them  re- 
cord events  occurring  in  other  parts  of  the  world; 
and  it  was  a  common  practice  to  begin  the  work 
with  a  brief  general  history,  after  which  the  An- 
nalist takes  up  the  affairs  of  Ireland." — P.  W. 
Joyce,  Social  history  of  ancient  Ireland,  p.  224. 
— "The  Irish  Annals  record  about  twenty-five 
eclipses  and  comets  at  the  several  years  from 
A.  D.  496  to  1066.  The  dates  of  all  these  are 
found,  according  to  modem  scientific  calculation 
and  the  records  of  other  countries,  to  be  correct. 
This  shows  conclusively  that  the  original  records 
were  made  by  eye-witnesses,  and  not  by  calculation 
in  subsequent  times:  for  any  such  calculation 
would  be  sure — on  account  of  errors  in  the  meth- 
ods then  used — to  give  an  incorrect  result.  A 
well-known  entry  in  the  Irish  account  of  the  Bat- 
tle of  Clontarf,  fought  A.  D.  1014,  comes  under 
the  tests  of  natural  phenomena.  The  author  of 
the  account,  who  wrote  soon  after  the  battle, 
states  that  it  was  fought  on  Good  Friday,  the  23rd 
of  April,  1014;  and  that  it  began  at  sunrise,  when 
the  tide  was  full  in.  To  test  the  truth  of  this 
.  .  .  after  a  laborious  calculation.  Dr.  [Rev.  Sam- 
uel] Haughton  found  that  the  tide  was  at  its  height 
that  morning  at  half-past  five  o'clock,  just  as  the 
sun  was  coming  over  the  horizon:  a  striking  con- 
firmation of  the  truth  of  this  part  of  the  narra- 
tive. It  shows,  too,  that  the  account  was  writ- 
ten by,  or  taken  down  from,  an  eye-witness  of 
the  battle.  Whenever  events  occurring  in  Ireland 
in  the  Middle  Ages  are  mentioned  by  British  or 
Continental  writers  they  are  always — or  nearly 
always — in  agreement  with  the  native  records. 
Irish  bardic  history  relates  in  much  detail  how 
the  Picts  landed  on  the  coast  of  Leinster  in  the 
reign  of  Eremon,  the  first  Milesian  king  of  Ireland, 
many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  After 
some  time  they  sailed  to  Scotland  to  conquer  a 
territory  for  themselves:  but  before  embarking 
they  asked  Eremon  to  give  them  Irish  women  for 
wives,  which  he  did,  but  only  on  this  condition, 
that  the  right  of  succession  to  the  kingship  should 
be  vested  in  the  female  progeny  rather  than  in  the 
male.  And  so  the  Picts  settled  in  Scotland  with 
their  wives.  Now  all  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
Venerable  Bede,  who  says  that  the  Picts  obtained 
wives  from  the  Scots  (i.e.,  the  Irish)  on  condition 
that  when  any  difficulty  arose  they  should  choose 
a  king  from  the  female  royal  line  rather  than  from 
the  male;  'which  custom,'  continues  Bede,  'has 
been  observed  among  them  to  this  day.'  ...  All 
the  Irish  Annals  record  a  great  defeat  of  the  Danes 
near  Killarney  in  the  year  812.  This  account  is 
fully  borne  out  by  an  authority  totally  unconnected 
with  Ireland,  the  well-known  Book  of  Annals,  writ- 
ten by  Eginhard  (the  tutor  of  Charlemagne),  who 
was  living  at  this  very  time.  Under  AD.  812  he 
writes: — 'The  fleet  of  the  Northmen,  having  in- 
vaded Hibernia,  the  island  of  the  Scots,  after  a 
battle  had  been  fought  with  the  Scots,  and  after 
no  small  number  of  the  Norsemen  had  been  slain, 
they  basely  took  to  flight  and  returned  home.' 
.  .  .  References   by   Irishmen   to   Irish   affairs  are 


found  in  numerous  volumes  scattered  over  all 
Europe: — Annalistic  entries,  direct  statements  in 
tales  and  biographies,  marginal  notes,  incidental 
references  to  persons,  places,  and  customs,  and 
so  forth,  written  by  various  men  at  various  times; 
which,  when  compared  one  with  another,  and  with 
the  home  records,  hardly  ever  exhibit  a  disagree- 
ment. The  more  the  ancient  historical  records  of 
Ireland  are  examined  and  tested,  the  more  their 
truthfulness  is  made  manifest.  Their  uniform 
agreement  among  themselves,  and  their  accuracy, 
as  tried  by  the  ordeals  of  astronomical  calcula- 
tion and  of  foreign  writers'  testimony,  have 
drawn  forth  the  acknowledgments  of  the  greatest 
Irish  scholars  and  archaeologists,  that  ever  lived." — 
Ibid.,  pp.  225-228. 

"The  following  are  the  principal  books  of  Irish 
Annals  remaining.  The  'Synchronisms  of  Flann,' 
who  was  a  layman,  Ferleginn  or  chief  professor  of 
the  school  of  Monasterboice ;  died  in  1056.  He 
compares  the  chronology  of  Ireland  with  that  of 
other  countries,  and  gives  the  names  of  the  mon- 
archs  that  reigned  in  the  principal  ancient  king- 
doms and  empires  of  the  world,  with  the  Irish 
kings  who  reigned  contemporaneously.  Copies  of 
this  tract  are  preserved  in  the  Books  of  Lecan  and 
Ballymote.  The  'Annals  of  Tighernach'  (Teerna): 
Tighernach  O'Breen,  the  compiler  of  these  annals, 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  was  abbot 
of  the  two  monasteries  of  Clonmacnoise  and  Ros- 
common. He  was  acquainted  with  the  chief  his- 
torical writers  of  the  world  known  in  his  day,  com- 
pares them,  and  quotes  from  them ;  and  he  made 
use  of  Flann's  Synchronisms,  and  of  most  other 
ancient  Irish  historical  writings  of  importance.  His 
work  is  written  in  Irish  mixed  a  good  deal  with 
Latin;  it  has  lately  been  translated  by  Dr.  Stokes. 
He  states  that  authentic  Irish  history  begins  at  the 
foundation  of  Emania,  and  that  all  preceding  ac- 
counts are  uncertain.  Tighernach  died  in  10S8. 
The  'Annals  of  Innisfallen'  were  compiled  about 
the  year  1215  by  some  scholars  of  the  monastery 
of  Innisfallen,  in  the  Lower  Lake  of  Killarney. 
The  'Annals  of  Ulster'  were  written  in  the  little 
island  of  Senait  MacManus,  now  called  Belle  Isle, 
in  Upper  Lough  Erne.  The  original  compiler  was 
Cathal  (Cahal)  Maguire,  who  died  of  small-pox 
in  1408.  They  have  lately  been  translated  and 
published.  The  'Annals  of  Lough  Ce'  (Key)  were 
copied  in  1588  for  Bryan  MacDermot,  who  had 
his  residence  on  an  island  in  Lough  Key,  in  Ros- 
common. They  have  been  translated  and  edited 
in  two  volumes.  The  'Annals  of  Connaught,'  from 
1224  to  1562.  The  'Chronicon  Scotorum'  (Chroni- 
cle of  the  Scots  or  Irish),  down  to  A.  D.  113S, 
was  compiled  about  1650  by  the  great  Irish  anti- 
quary Duald  MacFirbis.  These  annals  have  been 
printed  with  translation.  The  'Annals  of  Boyle,' 
from  the  earliest  time  to  1253,  are  written  in  Irish 
mi.xed  with  Latin;  and  the  entries  throughout  are 
very  meagre.  The  'Annals  of  Clonmacnoise,'  from 
the  earliest  period  to  1408.  The  original  Irish  of 
these  is  lost ;  but  we  have  an  English  translation 
by  Connell  MacGeoghegan  of  Westmeath,  which 
he  completed  in  1627.  The  'Annals  of  the  Four 
Masters,'  also  called  the  Annals  of  Donegal,  are  the 
most  important  of  all.  They  were  compiled  in  the 
Franciscan  monastery  of  Donegal,  by  three  of  the 
O'Clerys,  Michael,  Conary,  and  Cucogry,  and  by 
Ferfesa  O'Mulconry.  who  are  now  commonly 
known  as  the  Four  Masters.  They  began  in  1632, 
and  completed  the  work  in  1636.  The  '.'\nn3ls  of 
the  Four  Masters'  was  translated  with  most  elabo- 
rate and  learned  annotations  by  Dr.  John  O'Dono- 
van ;  and  it  was  published — Irish  text,  translation, 
and  notes — in  seven  large  volumes.  A  book  of  an- 


353 


ANNALS 


ANNAPOLIS  CONVENTION 


nals  called  the  'Psalter  of  Cashcl,'  was  compiled 
by  Cormac  MacCullenan,  but  this  has  been  lost. 
He  also  wrote  "Cormac's  Glossary-,'  an  explanation 
of  many  old  Irish  words.  This  work  has  been 
translated  and  printed.  The  Annals  noticed  so  far 
are  all  in  the  Irish  language,  occasionally  mixed 
with  Latin ;  but  besides  these  there  are  Annals  of 
Ireland  wholly  in  Latin;  such  as  those  of  Clyn, 
Dowling,  Pembridge.  Multylarnham,  etc..  most  of 
which  have  been  published." — Ibid.,  pp.  228-230. 

"None  of  the  Irish  writers  of  old  times  conceived 
the  plan  of  writing  a  general  history  of  Ireland. 
The  first  history  of  the  whole  country  was  the 
'Forus  Feasa  ar  Erinn,'  or  History  of  Ireland, 
from  the  most  ancient  times  to  the  Anglo-Norman 
invasion,  written  by  Dr.  Geoffrey  Keating  of 
Tubbrid  in  Tipperary,  a  Catholic  priest:  died  1644. 
Keating  was  deeply  versed  in  the  ancient  language 
and  literature  of  Ireland;  and  his  history,  though 
containing  much  that  is  legendary,  is  very  interest- 
ing and  valuable.  The  genealogies  of  the  princi- 
pal families  were  most  faithfully  preserved  in  an- 
cient Ireland.  Each  king  and  chief  had  in  his 
household  a  Shanachy  ur  Historian,  whose  duly 
it  was  to  keep  a  written  record  of  all  the  ancestors 
and  of  the  several  branches  of  the  family.  Many 
of  the  ancient  genealogies  are  preserved  in  the 
Books  of  Leinster.  Lecan,  Ballymote,  etc.  But 
the  most  important  collection  of  all  is  the  great 
Book  of  Genealogies  compiled  in  the  years  1050 
to  loob  in  the  College  of  St.  Nicholas  in  Galway, 
by  Duald  MacFirbis.  In  this  place  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Dmnsenchus  ( Din-Shan'shus),  a  topo- 
graphical tract  giving  the  legendary  history  and 
the  etymology  of  the  names  of  remarkable  hills, 
mounds,  caves,  cams,  cromlechs,  raths.  duns, 
plains,  lakes,  rivers,  fords,  islands,  and  so  forth. 
The  stories  are  mostly  fictitious,  invented  to  suit 
the  really  existing  names:  nevertheless  this  tract  is 
of  the  utmost  value  for  elucidating  the  topography 
and  antiquities  of  the  country.  Copies  of  it  are 
found  in  several  of  the  old  Irish  Books  of  mis- 
cellaneous literature,  as  already  mentioned.  .An- 
other very  important  tract — one  about  the  names 
of  remarkable  Irish  persons,  called  Coir  .-Knmann 
('Fitness  of  Names'),  corresponding  with  the  Dinn- 
senchus  for  place-names,  has  been  published  with 
translation  by  Dr.  Stokes." — Ibid.  pp.  230-232. — See 
also  Books:  Books  in  medieval  times;  Celts:  An- 
cient  Irish  sagas. 

French,  German,  Italian  and  Spanish  annals. 
— Early  in  the  8th  century  annals  of  Frankish 
origin  began  to  appear.  The  German  historian 
G.  H.  Pertz  (1705-1876),  in  one  of  his  numerous 
literarv-  exploration  journeys,  discovered  some  valu- 
able annals  in  a  manuscript  of  the  St.  Germain- 
des-Pres  church  in  Paris,  founded  by  King  Childe- 
bert  in  542  or  543.  This  collection  of  annals  begin 
with  some  short  annotations  from  Lindisfarne  in 
the  years  643-604  and  from  Canterbury  for  673- 
600.  The  manuscript,  it  appears,  was  brought 
from  England  by  .\lcuin,  adviser  of  Charlemagne 
and  the  most  distinguished  scholar  of  the  8th  cen- 
tury, to  that  monarch's  court.  From  782  to  787 
.Alcuin  had  inserted  for  each  year  the  names  of  the 
places  where  Charlemagne  had  spent  the  Easter- 
tide. The  monks  of  St.  Germain-des-pres  had 
during  later  years  added  matter  taken  from  the 
ancient  annals  of  St.  Denis  up  to  887.  The  earli- 
est annals  of  the  Carolingian  period  are  divided  by 
historians  into  three  groups:  the  Annales  S.  Amandi, 
and  their  derivatives;  those  which  grew  out  of  the 
historical  annotations  of  the  convent  of  Laurissa 
or  Lorsch  in  Germany;  and  the  Annales  Murba- 
censes  (Murbach  in  .Msace).  These  are  all  bald 
records  of  events  arranged  in  chronological  order. 


During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  annals  as- 
sumed something  of  an  official  stamp  and  began 
to  develop  a  real  historical  character  under  patron- 
age of  the  court.  To  distinguish  them  from  the 
ecclesiastic  annals,  they  were  styled  Reichsannaien, 
or  "annals  of  the  state."  They  betray  a  wide  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  state  affairs,  while  unpleas- 
ant facts  are  diplomatically  omitted.  These  stata 
annals  begin  from  the  year  741  and  contain  much 
material  borrowed  from  earlier  documents,  notably 
the  Liber  Pontificalis,  Gesla  Francorum,  Bede's 
Little  Chronicle,  and  the  chronicles  of  Fredegarius 
and  of  Isidor  of  Seville.  Under  the  Roman  Em- 
peror Louis  the  Pious  (778-S40)  and  his  successors 
the  Annales  Fitldenses  were  brought  out,  containing 
the  history  of  the  realm,  with  matter  taken  from 
the  Annales  Lanrissenses  minores  and  others  to  fill 
in  the  history  between  711  and  829.  The  Annales 
S.  Bertini  (,830-835)  are  more  ambitious  in  scope 
and  appear  to  have  been  heavily  drawn  upon  in 
the  production  of  the  Chronicon  de  gestis  Korman- 
noriim  in  Francid.  .Another  important  collection 
of  the  oth  century  arc  the  so-called  Annales  Ein- 
hardi  and  the  Annales  Laiiresliamenses.  Frotn  this 
stage  the  annals  begin  to  develop  into  chronicles, 
or  carefully-written  histories.  They  passed  from 
hand  to  hand  as  death  removed  the  authors  and 
became  merged  in  latter  compilations  under  other 
names.  In  Italy  and  Spain  the  output  was  poor 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  northern  countries. 
The  principal  Italian  contributions  are  the  Chronica 
Sancti  Benedict!  Casinensis  (014-934)  ;  the  chroni- 
cle of  Bendict  of  St.  .Andrew  (q6S)  ;  the  Construc- 
tio  Farfensis  (about  848)  ;  and  the  more  famous 
Chronicon  Salernilanum  (074).  The  chief  Spanish 
products  are:  the  De  Sex  aetatibus  tnundi  (from 
B.C.  38).  and  the  Chronicon  of  Bishop  Idatius 
(S70). 

.^Lso  in:  S.  R.  Gardiner  and  J.  B.  Mullinger,  In- 
troduction to  the  study  of  English  history. — C.  W. 
-N'itzsch,  Die  romische  .innalistik — L  O.  Brocker, 
Moderne  Quellenforscher  iind  antike  Geschicht- 
schreiber. — Monod,  Etude  critique  sur  les  sources 
de  Vhistoire  carolinginne. — Wibel.  Beilriige  zur 
Kritik  der  Annales  Regni  Francorum  und  .\nnales 
qui  dicuntur  Einhardi. 

ANNAM,  or  Anam,  a  French  colony  in  south- 
eastern .\sia,  part  of  French  Indo-China ;  became 
a  French  protectorate  June  6,  1884.  It  is  ruled 
by  King  Khai-Dink  who  came  to  the  throne  in 
1Q16.  Internal  affairs  are  administered  by  .\n- 
namite  officials  in  accordance  with  the  advice  of 
the  French  government. — See  also  Fr.*N'CE:  1875- 
iSSo. 

Ancient  mythology.  See  Mythology:  Eastern 
Africa:   Indian  and  Chinese  influences. 

French  trade  with  China.  See  Indo-China: 
1787-1801. 

Government.     Sec  Indo-Ciiina. 

Native  rule.  See  Indo-Ciiina:  B.C.  2i8-.\.  D. 
1886. 

ANNAPOLIS,  Attack  on  (1744)  See  New 
Excl-\nd:    1744. 

ANNAPOLIS  (Port  Royal):  1713.— Relin- 
quished to  Great  Britain.  See  Newtoundland, 
DOMi.NioN-  ok:   171  ( 

ANNAPOLIS    ACADEMY.      See    Annapolis 

NaV.^I,    .\C.-\DEMV. 

ANNAPOLIS  CONVENTION.— The  necessity 
for  amending  the  articles  of  confederation  became 
patent  immediately  after  peace  was  declared  in 
1783  The  weakness  of  the  union  was  emphasized 
by  the  many  inadjustable  causes  of  difference  be- 
tween the  states;  commercial  regulations  were  from 
the  beginning  mutually  incompatible,  and  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  Madison  finally  convinced  the 


354 


ANNAPOLIS  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


ANSON 


Virginia  legislature  of  the  only  possible  remedy: 
calling  the  other  states  to  a  convention  for  com- 
mon action.  He  finally  succeeded  in  this  purpose — 
delegates  were  to  be  sent  from  all  states  to  con- 
sider commercial  regulations.  "The  place  was  to 
be  Annapolis,  remote  from  New  York,  where  con- 
gress then  sat,  and  far  away  from  any  large  port 
whose  merchants  might  influence  its  deliberations. 
The  time  of  meeting  was  to  be  September  ii,  178b. 
This  convention,  be  it  remembered,  was  to  be  a 
creature  of  the  states,  to  report  to  them,  and  was 
not  concerned  with  the  continental  congress.  At 
the  appointed  time  delegates  assembled  from  Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  New  York,  and 
New  Jersey;  and  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
New  Hampshire,  and  North  Carolina  named  dele- 
gates who  did  not  attend.  The  other  states, 
Georgia,  South  Carolina,  Maryland,  and  Connecti- 
cut, took  no  notice  of  the  call.  More  discourag- 
ing than  these  absences  was  the  fact  that  no  real 
good  could  be  accomplished  unless  a  power  existed 
strong  enough  to  enforce  common  regulations,  if 
they  were  made.  The  convention,  therefore,  gave 
up  the  task  before  it  and  issued  an  address  to  the 
states  urging  them  to  call  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion to  meet  in  Philadelphia  the  second  Monday 
in  May.  Its  action  was  to  be  binding  when  ap- 
proved by  congress  and  confirmed  by  all  the  state 
legislatures." — J.  S.  Bassett,  Short  history  of  the 
United  States,  pp.  241-242. 

ANNAPOLIS  NAVAL  ACADEMY.— "Estab- 
lished  at  Annapolis  |  Maryland!  in  1845,  while 
George  Bancroft,  the  historian,  was  Secretary  of 
the  Navy.  It  began  on  a  small  scale,  by  execu- 
tive order ;  and  Congress  gradually  provided  it 
with  buildings  and  funds.  Its  graduates  enter  the 
Navy  with  commissions  as  ensigns.  By  the  act  of 
February  15,  igi6,  three  midshipmen  may  be  ap- 
pointed each  year  to  the  academy  for  each  Sena- 
tor, Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Congress, 
while,  by  a  later  act  of  the  same  year,  the  number 
of  annual  appointments  at  large  was  made  15,  that 
from  among  enlisted  men  of  the  Navy  25,  and 
the  appointment  of  4  Filipinos  was  authorized. 
Finally,  by  the  act  of  .^pril  25,  IQ17,  the  appoint- 
ment of  one  additional  midshipman  for  each  Sena- 
tor, Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Congress 
[was]  authorized  for  the  year  1Q17-1S.  (At  that 
time]  the  possible  maximum  enrollment  of  the 
academy  [was]  about  2,200.  The  selection  of 
candidates  for  nomination  from  any  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  congressional  district  is  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  member  of  Congress  entitled  to  the 
appointment,  but  these  appointments  are  now 
made  upon  the  basis  of  competitive  examination. 
A  person  securing  such  appointment  must  stand 
rigid  physical  and  mental  examinations  before  be- 
ing admitted  to  the  academy." — War  cyclopedia, 
p.  184. 

ANNATES,  or  First-fruits.  —  "A  practice 
had  existed  for  some  hundreds  of  years,  in  all 
the  churches  of  Europe,  that  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, on  presentation  to  their  sees,  should  trans- 
mit to  the  pope,  on  receiving  their  bulls  of  in- 
vestment, one  year's  income  from  their  new  prefer- 
ments. It  was  called  the  payment  of  .Annates,  or 
first-fruits,  and  had  originated  in  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  as  a  means  of  providing  a  fund  for  the 
holy  wars.  Once  established  it  had  settled  into 
custom,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  the 
papal  revenue  " — J.  A.  Froude,  History  of  England, 
ch.  4. — "The  claim  [by  the  pope]  to  the  first- 
fruits  of  bishoprics  and  other  promotions  was  ap- 
parently first  made  in  England  by  Alexander  IV. 
in  1256,  for  five  years;  it  was  renewed  by  Clement 
V.  in  1306,  to  last  for  two  years;  and  it  was  in  a 


measure  successful.  By  John  XXII.  it  was  claimed 
throughout  Christendom  for  three  years,  and  met 
with  universal  resistance.  .  .  .  Stoutly  contested  as 
it  was  in  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  frequently 
made  the  subject  of  debate  in  parliament  and 
council  the  demand  must  have  been  regularly  com- 
plied with." — W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  history  of 
England,  ch.  iq,  sect.  718. — The  papal  exaction  was 
abolished  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  later,  during  the  same  reign,  right  to  annates 
was  annexed  by  the  crown. 

ANNE  (1665-1714),  queen  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  1702-1714;  last  of  the  house  of  Stuart; 
sided  with  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  the  revolution 
of  1688  against  her  father;  successful  participa- 
tion in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and 
the  union  of  Scotland  and  England  in  1707  were 
the  most  important  events  in  her  reign.— See  also 
England:    1702-1714,  and  after. 

ANNE  BOLEYN.  See  Boleyn,  Anne;  Eng- 
land:   I527-I534>  and   1536-154.^ 

ANNE  OF  AUSTRIA  (1601-1666),  queen  of 
France  (1615-1006)  through  marriage  to  Louis 
XIII;  was  concerned  in  conspiracies  of  Chalais 
(1628)  and  Cinq-Mars  (1642)  against  Richelieu; 
regent  (1643-1661)  for  her  son,  Louis  XIV. — See 
also  France:  1042-1043,  and  1651-1653. 

ANNE  OF  BRITTANY  (1477-1514),  queen 
of  France;  by  her  marriage  to  Charles  VIII  in 
1491,  Brittany,  the  last  of  the  great  fiefs,  was 
permanently  united  to  the  crown  of  France.  Sec 
Brittany:    1491. 

ANNE  OF  CLEVES  (1515-1557),  queen  of 
England,  fourth  wife  of  Henry  VIII ;  was  divorced 
in  the  year  of  her  marriage.    See  England:  1536-1543. 

ANNEUX,  France:  1917.— Taken  by  British. 
See  World  War:   1917:  II.  Western  front:  g,  5. 

1918. — Region  of  fighting.  See  World  Wah: 
1918:  II.  Western  front:  o,  1. 

ANNO,  or  Hanno,  Saint  (c.  1010-1075),  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  Prominent  in  the  government 
of  Germany  during  the  minority  of  Henry  IV.  .^i 
the  synod  of  Mantua  1064,  declared  Alexander  II 
the  rightful  pope. 

ANNOBON  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  ol 
Guinea,  belonging  to  Spain.  Discovered  in  1471 
bv  the  Portuguese;   ceded  to  Spain  in   1778. 

ANNUNZIO,  Gabriele  d'.  See  D'Annunziu, 
Gabriele. 

ANSBACH.     See  Br.'^ndenburc:   1417-1640. 

ANSCHAR,  Saint.    See  Ansgar,  Saint. 

ANSELM  (c.  1033-1109),  early  scholastic  philos- 
opher. .\  monk  under  Lanfranc,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  prior  of  Bee.  In  1092  he  was  called  to 
England  to  become  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in- 
volving a  dispute  over  investiture  lasting  until 
1107.  He  advanced  the  ontological  proof  of  the 
existence  of  God,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
first  of  the  schoolmen. — See  also  Abbot;  England: 
1087-1135. 

ANSGAR  or  Anskar,  Saint  (801-865),  French 
preacher,  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  North"  be- 
cause of  his  labors  to  bring  Christianity  to  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Northern  Germany ;  first  arch- 
bishop of  Hamburg.  See  Christianity:  gth-iith 
centuries;  Swf.dk.n:    uth-i2th  centuries. 

ANSON,  George  Anson,  Baron  (1697-1762), 
English  admiral  and  navigator.  Fought  against 
Spain  in  the  South  Sea,  1740-1744;  during  this  pe- 
riod circumnavigated  the  globe  and  added  much 
to  the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  geography ;  in 
1747  defeated  the  French  at  Cape  Finisterre. — See 
also  England:  1745-1747;  Pacific  ocean:  1513- 
1764. 

ANSON,  Sir  William  Reynell  (1843-1Q14), 
English   jurist.    Member   of    Parliament;    identified 


355 


ANTALCIDAS,  PEACE  OF 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


with  educational  movements;  active  in  the  estab- 
lishment ot  a  school  of  law  at  Oxford;  author  of 
many  standard  books  on  legal  subjects. 

ANTALCIDAS,  Peace  of  (386  B.C.),  named 
after  the  Spartan  statesman  who  defeated  the 
Athenians.  It  was  ratified  by  all  the  Greek  states, 
and  gave  to  Persia  the  Greek  towns  on  the  main- 
land of  Asia  Minor  and  guaranteed  independence 
to  all  others. — See  also  Greece;  3Qq-3S7  B.C. 

ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION:  Problem 
or  discovery. — Area. — Though  quite  as  important 
from  the  geographical  and  scientitic  point  of  view 
as  the  North  Pole,  the  ."Vntarctic  regions  and  the 
South  Pole  had  been  comparatively  neglected  un- 
til modern  times.  While  the  northern  portion  of 
this  planet  has  been  practically  overrun  by  ex- 
plorers and  expeditions  during  the  past  300  years 
and  more,  the  south  had  long  remained  a  terra 
incognita.  So  far  as  is  known,  the  southern  ocean 
was  first  navigated  by  Magellan  during  the  first 
quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Circumnavigat- 
ing the  earth  in  1774,  Captain  Cook  proved  the 
e.xistence  of  a  circumpolar  ocean,  and  concluded 
that  there  was  a  great  mass  of  land  there.  The 
most  striking  information  he  gathered  was  the  iso- 
lation of  the  mythical  Antarctic  continent,  and 
that  the  strongest  evidence  of  the  presence  of  land 
pointed  to  about  no  deg.  W.  long,  and  71  deg.  S. 
lat.  More  definite  knowledge,  however,  was  hid- 
den from  human  ken  until  the  Australian  whaling 
fleet  made  incursions  into  those  unknown  waters. 
It  seems  that  the  extent  of  land  diminished  as  in- 
vestigations progressed;  whalers  discovered  land 
close  to  the  Antarctic  circle  a  hundred  years  ago. 
The  honor  of  original  discovery  of  the  Antarctic 
continent — or  of  the  fact  that  it  really  is  a  con- 
tinent— has  been  variously  credited  to  the  Rus- 
sian, Capt.  von  Bellingshausen  (1S20-1822)  ;  to  an 
American,  Capt.  N.  B.  Palmer  (1821)  ;  and  the 
Englishman,  Capt.  John  Biscoe  (1831).  Of  more 
than  passing  interest  is  the  following  excerpt  from 
the  Annual  Register  of  1821,  p.  686:  "In  Octo- 
ber, i8ig,  the  brig  Williams,  of  Blythe,  Northum- 
berland, Smith,  master,  on  a  voyage  from  Buenos 
Ayres  to  Valparaiso,  stretching  to  the  south,  from 
contrary  winds,  discovered  land,  on  which  the  cap- 
tain landed,  and  performed  the  usual  formalities  of 
taking  possession,  in  the  name  of  his  late  majesty, 
George  III."  In  183Q  began  a  systematic  and  in- 
ternational attack  upon  the  South.  British,  Ameri- 
can, French  and  Russian  expeditions  had  already 
been  dispatched,  each  returning  with  its  quota  of 
useful  results. 

"Since  the  introduction  of  steam  power  in  ships, 
the  facilities  for  fuller  explorations  have  been 
utilized,  so  that  data,  somewhat  scanty,  exist  for 
the  outlining  of  the  regions  as.  a  whole.  Among 
distinguished  scientists  who  have  attempted  to 
solve  this  indeterminate  equation.  Sir  John  Mur- 
ray, of  the  Challenger,  is  the  most  advanced  and 
definite.  Basing  his  conclusions  on  a  study  of  sedi- 
ments from  the  southern  sea,  he  outlined  ...  a 
new  southern  continent,  christened  Antarctica." — 
A.  W.  Greely,  Handbook  of  polar  discoveries,  p. 
276. — -According  to  Prof.  T.  W.  Edgeworth  David, 
of  the  University  of  Sydney,  who  has  given  con- 
siderable study  to  the  .Antarctic  continent,  the  area 
of  the  land  definitely  known  is  estimated  at  5,000,- 
000  square  miles.  The  coast  line,  Prof  David  had 
calculated  measures  14,000  miles  long.  This  estimate 
includes  the  seaward  boundary  of  thick  fast  ice,  a 
large  part  of  which,  however,  remains  still  undis- 
covered The  Antarctic  region  opens  up  an  im- 
mense field  for  research  in  meteorology.  When 
science  acquires  a  more  thoroueh  knowledge  of 
glaciology,  oceanography   and  meteorology  of  this 


region,  the  cycle  of  weather  conditions  over  all  the 
hemisphere  will  be  understood  much  more  readily. 

1519-1819. — Early  exploration. — Magellan. — 
Drake.  —  Bouvet.  —  Duf resne. — Captain  Cook. — 
"The  hbtory  of  .Antarctic  discovery  may  be  di- 
vided at  the  outset  into  two  categories.  In  the 
first  of  these  I  would  include  the  numerous  voy- 
agers who,  without  any  definite  idea  of  the  form 
or  conditions  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  set  their 
course  toward  the  South,  to  make  what  landfall 
they  could.  These  need  only  be  mentioned  briefly 
before  passing  to  the  second  group,  that  of  Ant- 
arctic travellers  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
who,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  form  of  the  earth,  set 
out  across  the  ocean,  aiming  to  strike  the  Antarc- 
tic monster — in  the  heart,  if  fortune  favoured 
them.  .  .  .  We  then  meet  with  the  greatest  of  the 
older  explorers,  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  Portuguese 
by  birth,  though  sailing  in  the  service  of  Spain. 
Setting  out  in  1510,  he  discovered  the  connection 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  in  the 
strait  that  bears  his  name.  No  one  before  him 
had  penetrated  so  far  South — to  about  lat.  52" 
S.  One  of  his  ships,  the  Victoria,  accompUshed  the 
first  circumnavigation  of  the  world,  and  thus  es- 
tabhshed  in  the  popular  mind  the  fact  that  the 
earth  was  really  round.  From  that  time  the  idea 
of  the  Antarctic  regions  assumed  definite  shape. 
There  must  be  something  in  the  South:  whether 
land  or  water  the  future  was  to  determine.  In 
1578  we  come  to  the  renowned  English  seaman, 
Sir  Francis  Drake.  ...  He  rounded  Cape  Horn 
and  proved  that  Tierra  del  Fuego  was  a  great 
group  of  islands  and  not  part  of  an  Antarctic 
continent,  as  many  had  thought.  .  .  .  The  French- 
man, Bouvet  (1738),  was  the  first  to  follow  the 
southern  ice-pack  for  any  considerable  distance,  and 
to  bring  reports  of  the  immense,  flat-topped  .Ant- 
arctic icebergs.  In  1756  the  Spanish  trading-ship 
Leon  came  home  and  reported  high,  snow-covered 
land  in  lat.  55^  S.  to  the  east  of  Cape  Horn.  The 
probabiUty  is  that  this  was  what  we  now  know 
by  the  name  of  South  Georgia.  The  Frenchman, 
Marion-Dufresne,  discovered,  in  1772,  the  Marion 
and  Crozet  Islands.  In  the  same  year  Joseph  de 
Kergu^len-Tremarec — another  Frenchman — reached 
Kerguelen  Land.  This  concludes  the  series  of 
expeditions  that  I  have  thought  it  proper  to  class 
in  the  first  group.  .  .  .  [See  Pacific  ocean:  1513- 
1764.] 

"Captain  James  Cook — one  of  the  boldest  and 
most  capable  seamen  the  world  has  known — opens 
the  series  of  Antarctic  expeditions  properly  so 
called.  The  British  .Admiralty  sent  him  out  with 
orders  to  discover  the  great  southern  continent,  or 
prove  that  it  did  not  exist.  The  expedition,  con- 
sisting of  two  ships,  the  Resolution  and  the  Ad- 
venture, left  Plymouth  on  July  13,  1772.  ...  In 
the  course  of  his  voyage  to  the  south  Cook  passed 
300  miles  to  the  south  of  the  land  reported  by 
Bouvet,  and  thereby  estabhshcd  the  fact  that  the 
land  in  question — if  it  existed — was  not  continu- 
ous with  the  great  southern  continent.  On  Janu- 
ary 17,  1773,  the  Antarctic  Circle  was  crossed  for 
the  first  time — a  memorable  day  in  the  annals  of 
.Antarctic  exploration.  Shortly  afterwards  a  solid 
pack  was  encountered,  and  Cook  was  forced  to  re- 
turn to  the  north.  .A  course  was  laid  for  the 
newly  discovered  islands — Kerguelen,  Marion,  and 
the  Crozets — and  it  was  proved  that  they  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  great  southern  land.  In 
the  course  of  hi?  further  voyages  in  .Antarctic 
waters  Cook  completed  the  most  southerly  cir- 
cumnavigation of  the  globe,  and  showed  that 
there  was  nn  connection  between  any  of  the  lands 
or  islands  that  had  been  discovered  and  the  great 


356 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


mysterious  'Antarctica.'  His  highest  latitude 
(January  30,  1774)  was  71"  10'  S.  Cook's  voy- 
ages had  important  commercial  results,  as  his  re- 
ports of  the  enormous  number  of  seals  round 
South  Georgia  brought  many  sealers,  both  English 
and  American,  to  those  waters,  and  these  sealers, 
in  turn,  increased  the  field  of  geographical  dis- 
covery. In  i8iq  the  discovery  of  the  South 
Shetland?  by  the  Englishman,  Captain  William 
Smith,  is  to  be  recorded.  And  this  discovery  led 
to  that  of  the  Palmer  Archipelago  to  the  south  of 
them." — R.  Amundsen,  South  Pole,  v.  i,  pp.  3-7. — 
See  also  New  Zealand:   1642-1814. 

1819-1838.  —  Bellingshausen.  —  Weddell.  — 
d'Urville. — Wilkes. — "The  next  scientific  expedi- 
tion to  the  Antarctic  regions  was  that  despatched 
by  the  Emperor  Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Thaddeus  von  Bellingshausen. 
It  was  composed  of  two  ships,  and  sailed  from 
Cronstadt  on  July  15,  i8iq.  To  this  expedition 
belongs  the  honour  of  having  discovered  the  first 
land  to  the  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle — Peter  I. 
Island  and  Alexander  I.  Land." — Ibid.,  p.  8. 

"In  1823  Capt.  James  Weddell  discovered  and 
named  the  South  Orkneys  and  penetrated  240 
miles  nearer  the  South  Pole  than  any  previous  ex- 
plorers. Among  other  valuable  observations  he  no- 
ticed the  same  slow  vibrations  of  the  compass 
which  Peary  had  noticed  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

"The  English  firm  of  shipowners,  Endcrby 
Brothers,  plays  a  not  unimportant  part  in  Ant- 
arctic exploration.  The  Enderbys  had  carried  on 
sealing  in  southern  waters  since  1785.  They  were 
greatly  interested,  not  only  in  the  commercial,  but 
also  in  the  scientific  results  of  these  voyages,  and 
chose  their  captains  accordingly.  In  1830  the  firm 
sent  out  John  Biscoe  on  a  sealing  voyage  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  with  the  brig  Tula  and  the  cutter 
Lively.  The  result  of  this  voyage  was  the  sight- 
ing of  Endeiby  Land  in  lat.  66°  25'  S.,  long.  4q' 
18'  E.  In  the  following  year  Adelaide,  Biscoe,  and 
Pitt  Islands,  on  the  west  coast  of  Graham  Land 
were  chartered,  and  Graham  Land  itself  was  seen 
for  the  first  time.  .  .  .  We  then  come  to  the  cele- 
brated French  sailor.  Admiral  Jules  Sebastien  Du- 
mont  d'Urville.  He  left  Toulon  in  September, 
1837,  with  a  scientifically  equipped  expedition,  in 
the  ships  Astrolabe  and  Zelee.  The  intention  was 
to  follow  in  Weddell's  track,  and  endeavour  to 
carry  the  French  flag  still  nearer  to  the  Pole,  Early 
in  1838  Louis  Philippe  Land  and  Joinville  Island 
were  discovered  and  named.  Two  years  later  we 
again  find  d'Urville's  vessels  in  Antarctic  waters, 
with  the  object  of  investigating  the  magnetic  con- 
ditions in  the  vicinity  of  the  South  Magnetic  Pole, 
land  was  discovered  in  lat.  66"  3c'  S.  and  long. 
138°  21'  E.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  bare  islets, 
the  whole  of  this  land  was  completely  covered 
with  snow.  It  was  given  the  name  of  Adelie  Land, 
and  a  part  of  the  ice-barricr  lying  to  the  west  of 
it  was  called  Cote  Clarie,  on  the  supposition  that 
it  must  envelop  a  line  of  coast. 
*  "The  American  naval  officer,  Lieutenant  Charles 
Wilkes,  sailed  in  August,  1S38,  with  a  fleet  of  six 
vessels.  The  expedition  was  sent  out  by  Congress, 
and  carried  twelve  scientific  observers.  In  Febru- 
ary, iS3g,  the  whole  of  this  imposing  Antarctic 
fleet  was  collected  in  Orange  Harbour  in  the  south 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  where  the  work  was  divided 
among  the  various  vessels.  As  to  the  results  of 
this  expedition  it  is  difficult  to  express  an  opin- 
ion. [The  land  claimed  to  have  been  discovered 
by  Wilkes  has  never  been  found.!  Certain  it  is 
that  Wilkes  Land  has  subsecjuently  been  sailed 
over  in  many  places  by  several  expeditions.  Of 
what  may  have  been  the  cause  of  this  inaccurate 


cartography  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  opinion. 
It  appears,  however,  from  the  account  of  the  whole 
voyage,  that  the  undertaking  was  seriously  con- 
ducted."— Ibid.,  pp.  8-10. 

1839-1845.— Ross.— "Then  the  bright  star  ap- 
pears,— the  man  whose  name  will  ever  be  remem- 
bered as  one  of  the  most  intrepid  polar  explor- 
ers and  one  of  the  most  capable  seamen  the  world 
has  produced — Admiral  Sir  James  Clark  Ross.  The 
results  of  his  expedition  are  well  known.  Ross 
himself  commanded  the  Erebus  and  Commander 
Francis  Crozier  the  Terror.  The  former  vessel,  of 
370  tons,  had  been  originally  built  for  throwing 
bombs;  her  construction  was  therefore  extraordi- 
narily solid.  The  Terror,  340  tons,  had  been  previ- 
ously employed  in  Arctic  waters,  and  on  this  ac- 
count had  been  already  strengthened.  In  pro- 
visioning the  ships  every  possible  precaution  was 
taken  against  scurvy,  with  the  dangers  of  which 
Ross  was  familiar  from  his  experience  in  Arctic, 
waters.  The  vessels  sailed  from  England  in  Sep- 
tember, 183Q,  calling  at  many  of  the  Atlantic  Is- 
lands, and  arrived  in  Christmas  Harbour,  Kergue- 
len  Land,  in  the  following  May.  Here  they  stayed 
two  months,  making  magnetic  observations,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Hobart.  Sir  John  Franklin,  the 
eminent  polar  explorer,  was  at  that  time  Governor 
of  Tasmania,  and  Ross  could  not  have  wished  for 
a  better  one.  Interested  as  Franklin  naturally  was 
in  the  expedition,  he  afforded  it  all  the  help  he 
possibly  could.  During  his  stay  in  Tasmania  Ross 
received  information  of  what  had  been  accom- 
plished by  Wilkes  and  Dumont  d'Urville  in  the 
very  region  which  the  Admiralty  had  sent  him  to 
explore.  The  effect  of  this  news  was  that  Rosa 
changed  his  plans,  and  decided  to  proceed  along 
the  170th  meridian  E.,  and  if  possible  to  reach  the 
Magnetic  Pole  from  the  eastward.  .  .  .  After  call- 
ing at  the  Auckland  Island  and  at  Campbell  Island, 
Ross  again  steered  for  the  South,  and  the  Antarctic 
Circle  was  crossed  on  New  Year's  Day,  1841.  The 
ships  were  now  faced  by  the  ice-pack,  but  to  Ross 
this  was  not  the  dangerous  enemy  it  had  appeared 
to  earlier  explorers  with  their  more  weakly  con- 
structed vessels.  Ross  plunged  boldly  into  the 
pack  with  his  fortified  ships,  and,  taking  advantage 
of  the  narrow  leads,  he  came  out  four  days  later, 
after  many  severe  buffets,  into  the  open  sea  to  the 
South.  ...  It  was  in  lat.  60°  15'  S.  and  long. 
176°  15'  E.  that  Ross  found  the  open  sea.  On  the 
following  day  the  horizon  was  perfectly  clear  of 
ice.  .  .  .  The  course  was  set  for  the  Magnetic  Pole, 
and  the  hope  of  soon  reaching  it  burned  in  the 
hearts  of  all.  Then — just  as  they  had  accustomed 
themselves  to  the  idea  of  open  sea,  perhaps  to  the 
Magnetic  Pole  itself — the  crow's-nest  reported 
'High  land  right  ahead.'  This  was  the  mountain- 
ous coast  of  South  Victoria  Land.  What  a  fairy- 
land this  must  have  seemed  to  the  first  voyagers 
who  approached  it!  Mighty  mountain-ranges  with 
summits  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet  high,  some 
covered  with  snow  and  some  quite  bare — lofty  and 
rugged,  precipitous  and  wild.  It  became  apparent 
that  the  Magnetic  Pole  was  some  500  miles  distant 
— far  inland,  behind  the  snow-covered  ridges.  On 
the  morning  of  January  12  they  came  close  under 
a  little  island,  and  Ross  with  a  few  companions 
rowed  ashore  and  took  possession  of  the  country. 
They  could  not  reach  the  mainland  itself  on  account 
of  the  thick  belt  of  ice  that  lay  along  the  coast. 
The  expedition  continued  to  work  its  way  south- 
ward, making  fresh  discoveries.  On  January  28 
the  two  lofty  summits.  Mount  Erebus  and  Mount 
Terror,  were  sighted  for  the  first  time.  The  for- 
mer was  seen  to  be  an  active  volcano,  from  which 
smoke  and  fiames  shot  up  into  the  sky.    It  must 


357 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


have  been  a  wonderfully  fine  sight,  this  flaming 
fire  in  the  midst  of  the  white,  frozen  landscape. 
Captain  Scott  has  since  given  the  island,  on  which 
the  mountains  lie,  the  name  of  Ross  Island,  after 
the  intrepid  navigator.  .  .  .  From  Ross  Island,  as 
far  to  the  eastward  as  the  eye  could  see,  there 
extended  a  lofty,  impenetrable  wall  of  ice.  .  .  . 
.Ml  they  could  do  was  to  try  to  get  round  it. 
.\nd  then  began  the  first  examination  of  that  part 
of  the  great  .•\ntarctic  Barrier  which  has  since  been 
named  the  Ross  Barrier.  The  wall  of  ice  was  fol- 
lowed to  the  eastward  for  a  distance  of  250  miles. 
Its  upper  surface  was  seen  to  be  perfectly  flat. 
The  most  easterly  point  reached  was  long.  107  '  W., 
and  the  highest  latitude  78°  4'  S.  No  opening 
having  been  found,  the  ships  returned  to  the  west, 
in  order  to  try  once  more  whether  there  was  any 
possibility  of  reaching  the  Magnetic  Pole.  But  this 
attempt  soon  had  to  be  abandoned  on  account  of 
the  lateness  of  the  season,  and  in  April,  1841,  Ross 
returned  to  Hobart.  His  second  voyage  was  full 
of  dangers  and  thrilling  incidents,  but  added  little 
to  the  tale  of  his  discoveries.  On  February  22, 
1842,  the  ships  came  in  sight  of  the  Barrier,  and, 
following  it  to  the  east,  found  that  it  turned  north- 
eastward. Here  Ross  recorded  an  'appearance  of 
land'  in  the  very  region  in  which  Captain  Scott, 
sixty  years  later,  discovered  King  Edward  VII. 
Land.  On  December  17,  1842,  Ross  set  out  on  his 
third  and  last  .Antarctic  voyage.  His  object  this 
time  was  to  reach  a  high  latitude  along  the  coast 
of  Louis  Philippe  Land,  if  possible,  or  alterna- 
tively by  following  Weddell's  track.  Both  attempts 
were  frustrated  by  the  ice  conditions.  On  sighting 
Joinville  Land,  the  officers  of  the  Terror  thought 
they  could  see  smoke  from  active  volcanoes,  but 
Ross  and  his  men  did  not  confirm  this.  About 
fifty  years  later  active  volcanoes  were  actually  dis- 
covered by  the  Norwegian,  Captain  C.  A.  Larsen, 
in  the  Jason.  .^  few  minor  geographical  discov- 
eries were  made,  but  none  of  any  great  impor- 
tance. This  concluded  Ross's  attempts  to  reach 
the  South  Pole.  .\  magnificent  work  had  been 
achieved,  and  the  honour  of  having  opened  up  the 
way  by  which,  at  last,  the  Pole  was  reached  must 
be  ascribed  to  Ross. 

"The  Pagoda,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Moore, 
was  the  next  vessel  to  make  for  the  South.  Her 
chief  object  was  to  make  magnetic  observations 
in  high  latitudes  south  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
first  ice  was  met  with  in  lat.  $y  30'  S.,  on  Janu- 
ary 25,  1845.  On  February  5  the  .\ntarctic  Circle 
was  crossed  in  long,  .^o'  45'  E.  The  most  south- 
erly latitude  attained  on  this  voyage  was  67'  50' 
in  long.  30'  41'  E. 

"This  was  the  last  expedition  to  visit  the  .Ant- 
arctic regions  in  a  ship  propelled  by  sails  alone. 
.  .  .  Less  known,  but  no  less  efficient  in  their  work, 
were  the  whalers  round  the  South  Shetlands  and  in 
the  regions  to  the  south  of  them.  .  .  ." — Ibid.,  pp. 
10-15. — Sec  also  Pacific  ocean:   1764-1850. 

1892-1893. — In  i8Q2-i8g3  occurred  the  whaling 
voyage  of  the  Dundee  vessels,  the  Balaena,  Active, 
Diana  and  Polar  Star,  equipped  for  geographical 
observation  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and 
others  interested,  carrying  William  S.  Bruce,  C.  W. 
Donald,  and  W.  G.  Burn  Murdoch.  They  were 
accompanied  by  the  Norwegian  sealer  Jaseii.  under 
Captain  Larsen.  South  Shetlands  and  Graham 
Land  were  visited  and  valuable  observations  made. 

1894-1895. — ".\  most  important  whaling  expedi- 
tion ...  is  that  of  the  Antarctic,  under  [the  Nor- 
wegian] Captain  Leonard  Kristensen.  Kristensen 
was  an  extraordinarily  capable  man,  and  achieved 
the  remarkable  record  of  being  the  first  to  set  foot 
on  the  sixth  continent,  the  great  southern  land — 


'Antarctica.'  " — Ibid.,  p.  18. — This  commercial  ex- 
pedition was  sent  out  by  Captain  Svcnd  Foyii. 
fitted  out  by  H.  J.  Bull,  and  carried  the  scientist 
Carsten  E.  Borchgrevink.  The  valuable  right  whale 
was  not  found,  but  large  beds  of  guano  were  dis- 
covered in  Victoria  Land,  where  a  landing  was 
made  near  Cape  .'\dare. 

1897. — "An  epoch-making  phase  of  .\ntarctic  re- 
search is  now  ushered  in  by  the  Belgica,  under  the 
leadership  of  Commander  .Adricn  de  Gerlache. 
Hardly  any  one  has  had  a  harder  fight  to  set  his 
enterprise  on  foot  than  Gerlache.  He  was  success- 
ful, however,  and  on  .\ugust  16,  1807,  the  Belgica 
left  .Antwerp.  The  scientific  staff  had  been  able  to 
secure  the  services  of  exceedingly  able  men.  His 
second  in  command.  Lieutenant  G.  Lecointe,  a  Bel- 
gian, possessed  every  qualification  for  his  difficult 
position.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Belgica's 
company  was  as  cosmopolitan  as  it  could  be — Bel- 
gians, Frenchmen,  .Americans,  Norwegians,  Swedes, 
Rumanians,  Poles,  etc. — and  it  was  the  business  of 
the  second  in  command  to  keep  all  these  men  to- 
gether and  get  the  best  possible  work  out  of  them. 
.And  Lecointe  acquitted  himself  admirably ;  amiable 
and  firm,  he  secured  the  respect  of  all.  .  .  .  The 
object  of  the  expedition  was  to  penetrate  to  the 
South  Magnetic  Pole,  but  this  had  to  be  abandoned 
at  an  early  stage  for  want  of  time." — Ibid.,  p.  18. — 
Near  .Alexander  I  Land  the  Belgica  caught  in  the 
ice  pack  and  held  for  a  year,  drifting  as  far  south 
as  lat.  71°  36',  in  long.  87°  30'  W.  Finally  re- 
leased by  the  cutting  of  a  canal  through  the  ice. 
This  dreary  winter  was  the  first  spent  by  men  far 
enough  south  to  lose  sight  of  the  sun.  The  con- 
tinent found  to  be  mountainous,  glaciated,  and 
without  land  animals  except  a  few  insects,  though 
sea  fowl  abounded.  One  flowering  grass,  and  a  few 
mosses,  rock  lichens,  and  fresh-water  algae  consti- 
tute the  flora.     Some  500  miles  of  coast  charted. 

1897. — -Anglo-.Australasian  .Antarctic  conference 
was  held  in  London. 

1898. — Conference  on  .Antarctic  exploration  held 
in  the  rooms  of  the   Royal  Society,  London,  Feb. 

24- 

Carsten  E.  Borchgrevink,  the  Norwegian  ex- 
plorer, who  had  led  an  expedition  to  the  .Antarctic 
in  1894-1805,  led  another  in  i8q8.  The  latter  was 
equipped  by  the  late  Sir  George  Newncs,  and  was 
absent  nearly  two  years.  Borchgrevink  penetrated 
to  the  farthest  point  south  that  had  ever  been 
reached,  Lat.  78'  50'  S.,  and  fixed  the  magnetic 
position  of  the  South  Pole  at  about  latitude  73 
degrees  20  minutes  south,  and  146  east. 

1898-1899. — German  expedition  for  deep-sea  ex- 
ploration in  .Antarctic  waters,  in  charge  of  Prof. 
Carl  Chun,  on  the  Valdivia.  Southern  ocean 
found   to  be   of  great   depth. 

1901-1909. — English,  German,  Swedish,  and 
Scottish  expeditions. — Successes  of  Lieutenant 
Shackleton. — In  .April  1001.  several  expeditions  to 
the  .Antarctic  region  were  reported  as  being  under 
preparation,  in  England,  Germany,  and  Sweden. 
The  English  expedition,  for  which  the  ship  Dis- 
covery was  being  fitted  out,  sailed  on  .August  6. 
iQoi,  under  the  command  of  Capt  Robert  F.  Scott, 
with  Lieut.  Ernest  H.  Shackleton  of  the  British 
navy  as  second  in  command.  Its  object  was  a 
further  exploration  of  the  ^real  mountainous  re- 
gion named  Victoria  Land,  which  Capt  James 
Ross  had  disrovrred  half  a  ccntur)-  before.  This 
coast  the  Discovery  reached  in  January  1Q02.  and 
followed  it  southward,  to  and  beyond  the  Erebus 
volcano,  skirting  the  great  ice  barrier  which 
stretches  far  eastward,  seeming  to  forbid  a  pene- 
tration of  the  frozen  territory  it  hems  in.  In  this 
survey  the  British  explorers  reached  an  unvisited 


358 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


section,  which  t'hey  named  King  Edward  Land. 
They  wintered  that  year  near  Mount  Erebus,  push- 
ing sledge  expeditions  southward  over  the  snow 
fields,  finding  a  more  upheaved  and  broken  sur- 
face of  land,  less  ice-capped,  than  is  the  common 
feature  of  the  Arctic  polar  zone.  In  the  longest 
of  these  sledge-trips  the  latitude  of  82'  17'  S. 
was  attaiiied, — far  beyond  any  previous  approach 
to  the  southern  pole,  but  still  more  than  500  miles 
from  that  goal.  Through  a  second  winter  the  Dis- 
covery was  held  fast  in  the  ice,  with  considerable 
sickness  among  officers  and  men,  notwithstanding 
which  important  additions  to  their  survey  of  the 
region  were  made.  In  Januar>'  1Q04,  they  were 
reached  by  two  relief  ships,  and  escaped  from  the 
ice  in  the  following  month,  arriving  at  New  Zea- 
land not  long  after. 

The  German  expedition  commanded  by  Dr. 
Drygalski,  left  Kiel  August  11,  looi,  borne  by 
the  steamer  Gauss,  built  specially  for  battling  with 
ice.  In  January  1Q02,  it  took  on  stores  at  Ker- 
guelen  island,  and  proceeded  thence  to  a  point  in 
the  Antarctic  circle  far  eastward  of  that  chosen 
by  the  British  explorers,  being  within  the  region 
of  the  discoveries  made  by  Captain  Wilkes,  about 
sixty  years  before,  and  indefinitely  named  Wilkes 
Land.  It  was  the  purpose  of  Dr.  Drygalski  to 
establish  a  station  on  the  section  of  this  unex- 
plored territory  known  as  Termination  Land  and 
from  thence  make  thorough  surveys.  He  failed, 
however,  to  find  the  supposed  land  in  its  expected 
place,  and  was  unfortunately  frozen  in  for  a  year, 
with  sledge  expeditions  baffled  by  the  violence  of 
winter  storms.  In  geographical  exploration  the 
Gauss  party  seem  to  have  accomplished  little,  but 
they  made  rich  collections  of  scientific  data.  As 
soon  as  they  were  freed  from  the  ice  they  received 
orders  from  Berlin  to  return  home. 

The  Swedish  expedition,  under  Dr.  Otto  Nor- 
denskjold  [nephew  of  the  famous  discoverer  of  the 
Northeast  Passage],  left  Europe  in  October  igoi, 
in  the  ship  Antarctk,  destined  for  Graham  Land, 
south  of  the  South  .American  continent.  There, 
on  the  east  coast  of  that  land,  in  Admiralty  inlet. 
Dr.  Nordenskjold  established  winter  quarters  in 
February  IQ02,  and  the  Antarctic  was  sent  to  South 
America,  to  return  thence  some  months  later. 

A  Scottish  expedition,  under  Dr.  W.  S.  Bruce, 
in  the  steamer  Scotia,  was  sent  out  in  October 
iqo,!,  for  special  oceanographic  investigations  in 
Weddell  sea, — south  of  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

All  previous  Antarctic  explorations  were  eclipsed, 
in  igoS-iqoQ,  by  that  of  Lieutenant  Shackleton, 
commanding  the  barkentine  Nimrod.  a  converted 
whaling  vessel,  much  smaller  than  the  Discovery, 
on  which  Lieutenant  Shackleton  had  accompanied 
Captain  Scott  to  the  same  region  some  years  be- 
fore. The  Nimrod  sailed  from  England  in  July 
IQ07,  and  from  New  Zealand  on  New  Year  Day, 
IQ08,  going  to  the  same  section  of  the  Arctic  cir- 
cle that  the  Discovery  had  sought.  Winter  quar- 
ters were  established  at  a  point  abort  twenty  miles 
north  of  the  spot  where  Scott  and  Shackleton  had 
wintered  in  1Q02-1Q03.  One  of  the  first  achieve- 
ments of  the  party  was  the  ascent  of  Mount  Ere- 
bus by  six  of  the  scientists  of  the  expedition,  who 
began  their  difficult  climb  on  March  5.  Caught  in  a 
blizzard  on  the  second  day  of  their  undertaking, 
they  had  to  lie  in  their  sleeping-bags  for  thirty 
hours;  but  they  made  their  way  to  the  summit 
and  looked  down  into  the  live  fire  of  the  crater. 
The  party  making  this  ascent  were  Lieutenant 
Adams,  R.  N.  R.  (geologist).  Sir  Philip  Brockle- 
hurst  (surveyor  and  map  maker) ,  Professor  David, 
of  Sydney  University,  Mr.  A.  Forbes  Mackay,  as- 
sistant  surgeon,   Mr.    Eric   Marshall,   surgeon    and 


cartographer,  and  Mr.  Marson  a  scientist  of  Ade- 
laide. Early  in  the  spring  the  sledging  journeys 
were  begun. 

Speaking  at  a  reception  given  to  him  by  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land in  June  igog.  Lieutenant  Shackleton  gave 
a  brief  account  of  the  most  important  of  these 
journeys,  led  by  himself,  with  Lieutenant  .Adams, 
geologist.  Surgeon  Eric  Marshall,  and  a  third  com- 
panion named  Wild.  The  march  of  the  party  was 
directly  toward  the  Pole: 

On  December  3  they  climbed  a  mountain  4,000 
feet  high,  and  from  its  summit  saw  what  they 
believed  to  be  a  royal  road  to  the  Pole — an  enor- 
mous glacier  stretching  southwards.  There  was 
only  one  pony  left  at  this  time,  and,  taking  this 
animal  with  them,  they  started  the  ascent  of  the 
glacier,  which  proved  to  be  seamed  with  crevasses. 
Progress  became  very  slow,  for  disaster  threatened 
at  every  step.  On  December  7  the  remaining  pony 
was  lost  down  a  crevasse,  very  nearly  taking  Wild 
and  a  sledge  with  it.  Finally  the  party  gained  the 
inland  plateau,  at  an  altitude  of  over  10,000  feet, 
and  started  across  the  great  white  snow  plain  to- 
ward the  Pole. 

They  were  short  of  food,  and  had  cut  down 
their  rations  to  an  absolute  minimum;  the  tempera- 
ture at  the  high  altitude  was  extremely  low,  and  all. 
their  spare  clothing  had  been  deposited  lower  down 
the  glacier  in  order  to  save  weight.  On  January 
6  [1900],  they  reached  latitude  88°  8'  south,  after 
having  taken  the  risk  of  leaving  a  depot  of  stores 
on  the  plateau,  out  of  sight  of  all  land.  Then  a 
blizzard  swept  down  upon  them,  and  for  two  days 
they  were  unable  to  leave  their  tent,  while,  owing 
to  their  weakened  condition  and  the  intense  cold, 
they  suffered  from  frostbite  even  in  their  sleeping 
bags.  When  the  blizzard  moderated  on  January  q 
they  felt  that  they  had  reached  their  limit  of  endur- 
ance, for  their  strength  was  greatly  reduced  and  the 
food  was  almost  done.  They  therefore  left  the  camp 
standing,  and  pushing  on  for  five  hours,  planted 
Queen  .Alexandra's  flag  in  88'  23'  south,  took  pos- 
session of  the  plateau  for  the  King,  and  turned 
their   faces   north   again. 

Lieut.  Shackleton  described  the  difliculties  of  the 
journey  back  to  the  coast,  when  the  men  were 
desperately  short  of  food  and  nearly  worn  out, 
and  attacks  of  dysentery  added  to  their  troubles. 
One  day  on  the  Barrier  they  were  unable  to 
march  at  all,  being  prostrated  with  dysentery,  and 
they  reached  each  depot  with  their  food  finished. 
On  February  23,  however,  they  reached  a  depot 
prepared  for  them  by  a  party  from  the  ship,  and 
on  March  i.  Lieut.  Shackleton  and  Wild  reached 
the  Nimrod.  Lieut.  Shackleton  at  once  led  a  relief 
party  back  to  get  .Adams  and  Marshall,  the  latter 
having  been  unable  to  continue  the  march  owin;  to 
dysentery,  and  on  March  4  all  the  men  were  safe 
on  board. 

The  following  excerpts  from  the  diary  kept  by 
the  leader  of  the  party  are  taken  from  E.  H. 
Shacklcton's  Heart   of  the   Antarctic,  pp.   208-210. 

"January  8.  .Again  all  day  in  our  bags,  suffering 
considerably  y^hysically  from  cold  hands  and  feet, 
and  from  hunger,  but  more  mentalh-,  for  we  can- 
not get  on  south,  and  we  simply  lie  here  shivering. 
Every  now  and  then  one  of  our  party's  feet  go, 
and  the  unfortunate  beggar  has  to  take  his  leg  out 
of  the  sleeping-bag  and  have  his  frozen  foot  nursed 
into  life  again  by  placing  it  inside  the  shirt,  against 
the  skin  of  his  almost  equally  unfortunate  neigh- 
bour. We  must  do  something  more  to  the  south, 
even  though  the  food  is  going,  and  we  weaken 
lying  in  the  cold,  for  with  72'  of  frost  the  wind  cuts 
through  our  thin  tent,  and  even  the  drift  is  find- 


359 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ing  its  way  in  and  on  to  our  bags,  which  are  wet 
enough  as  it  is.  Cramp  is  not  uncommon  every 
now  and  then,  and  the  drift  all  round  the  tent  has 
made  it  so  small  that  there  is  hardly  room  for  us 
at  all.  The  wind  has  been  blowing  hard  all  day ; 
some  of  the  gusts  must  be  over  seventy  or  eighty 
mi'es  an  hour.  This  evening  it  seems  as  though 
it  were  going  to  ease  down,  and  directly  it  does 
we  shall  be  up  and  away  south  for  a  rush.  I  feel 
that  this  march  must  be  our  limit.  We  are  so 
short  of  food,  and  at  this  high  altitude,  ii,6oo  ft., 
it  is  hard  to  keep  any  warmth  in  our  bodies  be- 
tween the  scanty  meals.  We  have  nothing  to  read 
now,  having  depoted  our  little  books  to  save 
weight,  and  it  is  dreary  work  lying  in  the  tent  with 
nothing  to  read,  and  too  cold  to  write  much  in 
the  diary. 

"January  g.     Our  last  day  outwards.     We  have 


We  stayed  only  a  few  minutes,  and  then,  taking  the 
Queen's  flag  and  eating  our  scanty  meal  as  we 
went,  we  hurried  back  and  reached  our  camp 
about  3  p.  m.  We  were  so  dead  tired  that  we  only 
did  two  hours'  march  in  the  afternoon  and  camped 
at  5.30  p.  m.  The  temperature  was  minus  10 
Fahr.  Fortunately  for  us,  our  tracks  were  not 
obliterated  by  the  blizzard;  indeed,  they_ stood  up, 
making  a  trail  easily  followed.  Homeward  bound 
at  last.  Whatever  regrets  may  be,  we  have  done 
our  best." 

1908-1910. — Charcot  expeditions. — In  iqo8  the 
French  physician  and  explorer  Dr.  Jean  Baptiste 
Charcot  led  his  second  scientific  expedition  to  the 
Antarctic.  The  following  account  of  the  voyage 
of  his  ship  the  Potirquoi-pas?  (Why  Not?)  is 
translated  from  the  explorer's  first  published  ac- 
count:    "On  leaving  Deception  Island  (lat.  62  deg. 


Photograph  by  Hurley 
MEMBERS    OF   SHACKLETON'S    PARTY  Toderwood  4  Underwood 

Abandoning   the  sinking   "Endurance,"   they   hiked    1,000  miles   to   the   nearest  Norwegian  whaling  station 


shot  our  bolt,  and  the  tale  is  latitude  88^  23'  South, 
longitude  162°  East.  The  wind'  eased  down  at  i 
a.  m.,  and  at  2  a.  m.  we  were  up  and  had  break- 
fast. At  4  a.  m.  started  south,  with  the  Queen's 
Union  Jack,  a  brass  cylinder  containing  stamps 
and  documents  to  place  at  the  further  south  point, 
camera,  glasses  and  compass.  At  o  a.  m.  we  were 
in  88°  23'  South,  half  running  and  half  walking 
over  a  surface  much  hardened  by  the  recent  bliz- 
zard. It  was  strange  for  us  to  go  along  without 
the  nightmare  of  a  sledge  dragging  behind  us.  We 
hoisted  Her  Majesty's  flag  and  the  other  Union 
Jack  afterwards,  and  took  possession  of  the  pla- 
teau in  the  name  of  His  Majesty.  While  the  Union 
Jack  blew  out  stiffly  in  the  icy  gale  that  cut  us  to 
the  bone,  we  looked  south  with  our  powerful 
glasses,  but  could  see  nothins;  but  the  dead  white 
snow  plain.  There  was  no  break  in  the  plateau  as  it 
exlnded  towards  the  Pole,  and  we  feel  sure  that 
the  goal  we  have  failed  to  reach  lies  on  this  plain. 


55  min.  S.),  we  made  our  way  to  Port  Lockray, 
where  we  commenced  our  work.  From  here  I 
made  a  trip  of  observation  with  Godcfroy  and 
Gourdon  to  Wandel,  in  order  to  study  the  lay  of 
the  ice,  which  would  save  both  coal  and  time. 
This  little  journey  of  forty  miles  was  exciting 
enough,  and  the  final  result  of  it  was  satisfactory. 
Some  days  later  we  arrived  with  the  Pourquoi-pas? 
at  Wandel.  .  .  .  The  creek  w'as  rather  small  for 
our  vessel ;  we  had  not  had  the  time  to  install  a 
satisfactory  barrage,  and  the  small  ice  did  not  pro- 
tect us.  For  a  week  we  were  in  danger  there-r^ 
unable  to  come  out,  assailed  by  enormous  ice- 
blocks,  which  had  to  be  pushed  off  or  lashed  up 
night  and  day.  ...  On  January  i,  Godefroy, 
Jacques,  Gourdon,  and  I  made  a  reconnaissance  to 
find  a  better  shelter  ...  at  Petcrmann  Island.  .  .  . 
A  few  days  after  we  brought  the  Pourquoi-pas? 
round,  having  escaped  from  Wandel  without  suf- 
fering   any    serious   damage    by    gently    wriggling 


360 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


round  the  icebergs.  I  set  out  the  same  day  with 
Godefroy  and  Gourdon  to  explore  the  south,  chiefly 
to  climb  some  eminence  to  see  whether  we  had 
any  channels  to  pass  with  the  Pourquois-pas?  be- 
tween Biscoe  Islands  and  the  coast.  As  we  reck- 
oned upon  returning  the  same  day  we  had  taken 
neither  supplies  nor  change  of  clothes.  Our  mis- 
sion was  easily  fulfilled,  and  we  saw  that  the  coast 
was  blocked ;  but  when  we  wanted  to  retrace  our 
steps  we  found  that  our  path  was  also  blockaded 
by  the  ice.  During  a  four  days'  blinding  snow- 
storm we  struggled  to  liberate  ourselves — I  will 
pass  over  the  details  of  that  trail.  We  were  in 
peril  of  succumbing  from  hunger  and  cold;  on  the 
fourth  day  we  shouldered  our  traps  and  determined 
to  attempt  some  point  of  vantage  on  the  ice  cliffs, 
whence  our  signals  might  be  observed  by  our  com- 
rades, when  the  Pourquoi-pas?  came  to  our  rescue, 
skilfully  guided  by  Bongrain  and  Rouch,  whose 
operations  on  the  syren  could  be  heard  through 
the  fog  and  snow.  On  the  journey  back,  unfor- 
tunately, the  vessel  stranded  violently  upon  one 
of  the  innumerable  reefs  level  with  the  water ;  we 
had  to  unload,  and,  after  three  days'  and  three 
nights'  incessant  labour,  we  got  her  off  again.  But 
we  had  to  leave  behind  a  large  piece  of  her  prow, 
and  it  was  with  this  vessel  that  we  accomplished 
the  whole  of  our  expedition.  From  Petermann  Is- 
land we  went  towards  the  South,  skirting  the  coast, 
and  completing  the  chart  of  the  Fran(;ais  [his  ship 
of  the  1903  expedition].  We  found  the  bay  again 
which  was  marked  by  Pendleton,  American  whaler, 
and  discovered  to  the  north  of  Adelaide  Island  a 
large  bay,  which  we  have  since  named  Matha  Bay. 
We  next  took  hydrographic  observations  of  Ade- 
laide Island,  which  has  a  very  peculiar  configura- 
tion. But  instead  of  being  eight  miles  in  length, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  the  configuration  has  a 
length  of  seventy  miles!  South  of  Adelaide,  in  a 
region  neither  explored  nor  even  seen,  we  discov- 
ered a  great  bay,  which  I  have  named  Marguerite. 
We  entered  here,  despite  the  reefs  and  compact  ice, 
and  anchored  at  a  little  isle  which  I  named  'Jenny,' 
after  Bongrain's  wife.  We  now  encountered  such 
violent  weather  for  four  days  that  it  was  a  mira- 
cle the  vessel  escaped.  An  enormous  iceberg  ap- 
peared in  front  of  us,  from  which  only  a  very  rapid 
tacking  manoeuvre  saved  us.  .  .  .  To  the  south  of 
Marguerite  Bay  we  were  continually  fighting  our 
way  through  ice  and  icebergs,  but  we  managed  to 
explore  the  sea  bottom  round  120  miles  of  un- 
known coast.  After  two  attempts  to  find  our 
way  across  the  ice  to  Alexander  Land,  we  decided 
to  abandon  the  project  till  the  following  summer. 
.  .  .  Our  winter  station  was  organised  as  comfort- 
ably as  possible.  .  .  .  During  the  autumn  we  made 
numerous  excursions.  We  saw  no  sun  for  five 
days;  the  wind  blew  strongly  from  N.E.,  and  the 
snow  fell  heavily.  The  ice  floes  were  continually 
shifting.  Many  icebergs  passed.  Despite  all  pre- 
cautions, our  barrage  was  frequently  broken.  The 
ship  was  often  in  danger,  and  her  rudder  was 
smashed;  we  constructed  a  new  one  by  cutting 
up  a  spar.  ...  An  expedition  to  cross  Graham's 
I>and  was  prepared  with  great  care.  I  intended  to 
lead  it  myself,  but  I  was  disabled  by  scurvy. 
Gourdon  took  my  place,  setting  out  with  six  com- 
panions. They  brought  back  some  interesting  ob- 
servations, but  without  being  able  to  scale  the  in- 
surmountable barrier  of  granite  and  ice.  Other 
excursions  were  also'  made.  After  considerable 
trouble,  towards  the  end  of  November,  we  were 
able  to  release  the  vessel.  We  returned  to  Decep- 
tion Island,  where  we  found  some  whalers  who  had 
been  held  up  by  ice  and  bad  weather.  .  .  .  From 
Deception  Island   I  wanted  to  make  for  Joinville 


Land  to  seek  for  fossils,  but  the  ice  very  quickly 
compelled  me  to  change  my  plan.  We  did  not  wish 
to  compromise  our  journey  southward  or  to  suffer 
the  fate  which  befell  the  Antarctic  in  the  same  lati- 
tude. After  a  brief  struggle  we  were  beaten  back 
to  Bridgeman  Island,  where  we  landed;  then  to 
Admiralty  Bay  and  the  south  coast  of  the  Shet- 
lands,  where  we  did  some  good  work.  Thence  we 
set  out  to  the  south,  the  weather  all  along  being 
bad  and  misty,  and  the  ice  and  icebergs  abundant. 
Nevertheless,  we  were  able  to  go  beyond  all  the 
latitudes  attained  to  the  south-west  of  Alexander 
Land,  and  to  complete  the  chart.  We  then  dis- 
covered a  series  of  new  lands  to  the  south  and 
west  of  Alexander  Land,  in  an  unexpected  place, 
thus  solving  an  important  problem.  The  deplor- 
able ice-belt  barred  our  nearer  approach;  in  one 
hour  we  got  no  further  than  ten  yards!  We 
continued  our  route  by  following  the  ice  barrier 
until  we  reached  Peter  I.  Island,  which  has  not 
been  seen  since  Bellingshausen  discovered  it. 
There  we  were  overwhelmed  by  a  tempest  and 
thick  mist,  during  which  we  had  to  steer  care- 
fully among  the  icebergs.  They  were  so  numer- 
ous that  I  estimated  we  saw  more  than  5000  of 
them  in  less  than  a  week.  We  had  to  drift  with- 
out steam,  all  the  time,  through  a  fog  so  dense 
that  we  could  not  see  further  than  twenty  yards 
ahead.  Despite  this  and  the  strong  gusts  of  wind 
we  reached  the  126th  deg.  long.  W.,  having  sailed 
from  the  place  where  the  Belgica  set  out,  between 
6g  deg.  and  71  deg.  lat.,  that  is  to  say,  well  to 
the  south  of  both  Cook  and  Bellingshausen.  Our 
stock  of  coal  being  exhausted,  the  health  of  several 
of  the  party  became  alarming.  We  had  to  turn 
our  faces  northward;  for  a  long  time  the  icebergs 
had  been  innumerable,  but  they  gradually  dimin- 
ished, and  then  we  saw  the  last.  The  crossing  of 
the  Antarctic  to  Cape  Pillar  was  extremely  rapid, 
thanks  to  an  uninterrupted  series  of  southwesterly 
and  northwesterly  winds,  but  the  sea  was  terrific. 
In  ten  days  we  arrived  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Magellan  Straits,  where  we  encountered  severe 
weather.  .  .  .  We  anchored  at  Punta  Arenas,  where 
we  were  heartily  received  after  fourteen  months' 
absence." — London  Standard,  March  30,  igio. 

Also  in:  J.  B.  Charcot,  Denxiemc  expedition 
antarctiqne  franfoise  igo8-igio;  and  Pourquoi- 
pas?  dans  r Antarctiqne. 

1910-1913. — Scott's  expedition;  discovery  of 
the  Pole;  fatal  termination. — Results  of  the  Ter- 
ra Nova  expedition. — "We  find  Captain  Ro'uert  F. 
Scott  in  the  spring  of  1910  busily  occupied  in  fur- 
thering the  departure  of  another  British  Antarctic 
expedition.  Captain  Scott  had  planned  this  expe- 
dition with  the  utmost  detail  and  thoughtfulness. 
Through  the  public  press  he  had  explained  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  desired  to  conduct  his  enterprise, 
and  aided  by  the  members  of  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society  and  other  learned  bodies,  a  subscrip- 
tion fund  of  $200,000  was  raised  to  promote  the 
expedition.  The  Terra  Nova,  a  Dundee  whaling 
ship,  was  selected  and  refitted.  Prior  to  her  last 
voyage  she  had  made  several  trips  to  Arctic  waters 
and  had  proved  her  efficiency  in  ice  navigation. 
Captain  Scott  made  every  preparation  for  the 
equipment  towards  achieving  the  great  results  he 
hoped  from  his  undertaking.  He  carried  with  him 
three  newly  devised  motor  sledges  intended  for  ice 
travel,  as  well  as  the  usual  dog  sledges.  The  'prob- 
lem of  reaching  the  South  Pole  from  a  wintering 
station  is  purely  one  of  transport,'  wrote  Captain 
Scott  before  his  departure.  'The  distance  to  be 
covered  there  and  back  is  about  1,500  miles.  The 
time  at  the  disposal  of  an  explorer  in  a  single  sea- 
son never  exceeds  150  travelling  days.     An  average 


361 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


of  ten  miles  a  day  can  easily  be  maintained  by 
men  of  good  physique,  provided  adequate  trans- 
port facilities  are  made.'  Accompanying  him  was 
a  carefully  selected  crew,  and  a  highly  efficient 
scientific  staff.  Scott's  plan  was  to  arrange  two 
parties,  one  to  leave  King  Edward  Land,  the  other 
to  leave  McMurdo  Sound,  to  converge  on  the  Pole. 
Captain  Scott  purposed  to  follow  his  own  track 
and  that  of  Sir'  Ernest  Shackleton,  except  for  the 
last  hundred  miles.  The  Terra  Nova  left  England 
June  I,  loio,  and  sailed  for  New  Zealand.  Cap- 
tain Scott  joined  the  party  at  Port  Chalmers,  near 
Christchurch,  and  the  final  departure  southward 
was  made  November  2g,  iqio.  The  personnel  of 
the  shore  party  and  crew  numbered  fifty  men,  of 
which  twenty-four  officers  and  men  were  of  the 
Royal  Navy,  one  from  the  Army  and  two  from  the 
Public  Services  of  India.  The  Terra  Nova  encoun- 
lered  bad  weather  and  heavy  seas  from  the  outset, 
and  was  over  three  weeks  in  pushing  her  way 
through  380  miles  of  pack  ice.  By  January  1st, 
iqii,  she  stood  in   open  water  in   Ross  Sea  and 


to  establish  a  supply  depot  at  Corner  Camp.  On 
the  outward  journey  they  passed  the  ponies  going 
well.  Again  blizzards  delayed  the  return  to  camp 
and  when  Scott  returned  he  found  the  animals  had 
suffered  so  severely  that  a  prompt  retreat  to  Hut 
Point  was  at  once  ordered.  .  .  .  The  Western  Geo- 
graphical party  which  landed  at  Butter  Point,  be- 
low Farrar  Glacier,  January  27,  iqn,  had  made  a 
depot  at  Cathedral  Rocks,  and  from  this  base  they 
took  a  sledge  journey  westward  for  miles  down 
the  glacier.  At  an  altitude  of  twenty-four  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  glacier  a  crater  was  discovered 
and  basalt  flows  in  places  eighty  feet  in  depth 
From  the  glacier  they  entered  a  dry,  snow-free 
valley  trending  toward  the  sea.  A  freshwater 
lake  was  discovered  estimated  about  four  miles  in 
length.  On  February  13th,  they  returned  down  the 
Farrar  Glacier  and  crossed  the  dangerous  ice  of 
New  Harbor  .  .  .  and  finally  reached  Discovery 
Hut  after  an  absence  of  six  weeks.  The  Western 
party  again  set  out  on  November  7,  iqii,  for 
Granite  Harbor.    Owing  to  the  exceptionally  heavy 


EARNEST  HENRY  SHACKLETON 


ROALD  AMUNDSEN 


ROBERT  F.  SCOTT 


sighted  the  Admiralty  Mountains,  Victoria  Land 
two  days  later.  Pushing  her  way  southward  she 
passed  Cape  Crozier  and  reached  McMurdo  Sound, 
where  winter  quarters  were  established  distant 
about  fourteen  miles  north  of  Discovery  Station, 
where  the  first  Scott  expedition  had  wintered,  and 
eight  miles  to  the  south  of  Cape  Royds,  The 
work  of  landing  stores  proved  exceedingly  arduous 
as  the  distance  of  transportation  was  a  mile  and 
a  half.  Ponies,  dogs  and  motor  sledges  were  util- 
ized by  the  men  to  assist  in  transportation  and  at 
the  end  of  a  week  the  main  work  had  been  com- 
pleted and  the  building  of  the  house  was  begun. 
The  Terra  Nova  left  Scott  making  ready  for  his 
preliminary  journeys  southward.  She  steamed 
eastward  and  surveyed  the  Great  Ice  Barrier  as 
far  as  170°  West  longitude,  when  a  gale  forced 
her  to  make  for  Cape  Colbeck,  where  her  further 
progress  to  the  east  was  prevented  by  the  pack. 
On  the  4th  of  February  the  Terra  Nova  entered  the 
Bay  of  Whales  and  there  found  the  Fram  of  the 
Amundsen  Antarctic  Expedition.  She  then  returned 
to  the  depot-laying  party  and  found  all  well.      .  . 

"From  the  first  Captain  Scott  seemed  to  have 
worked  against  great  odds.  The  depot-laying  party 
where  left  Cape  Evans  January  25,  igii,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  men,  eight  ponies,  and  two  dog 
teams,  made  the  most  difficult  progress  over  the 
soft  surface  of  the  barrier  and  experienced  a  bliz- 
zard which  exhausted  both  men  and  beasts  and  re- 
sulted in  the  loss  of  two  ponies  On  Februan,'  24th, 
Captain  Scott  started  with  men  and  a  single  pony 


loads  which  they  carried,  they  made  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  about  five  miles  a  day,  being  forced  to  re- 
lay the  distance  to  a  cape  about  nine  miles  inside 
the  harbor.  Building  a  stone  hut  and  erecting  a 
store  as  a  base  for  scientific  operations  they  devoted 
the  next  two  months  to  exploring  the  northern 
shores  and  sledging  around  West  Harbor  where 
remarkably  large  mineral  deposits  such  as  topaz 
were  discovered.  Another  curious  discovery  at  their 
headquarters  was  that  of  myriads  of  wingless  in- 
sects of  two  distinct  varieties  which  clustered  in  a 
half-frozen  condition  under  every  stone.  Mean- 
while Captain  Scott  had  been  completing  his 
preparations  for  his  final  journey  to  the  Pole,  On 
November  2,  iqii,  the  final  start  was  made. 
.  .  .  Bad  weather  seemed  to  persist  from  the  out- 
set. It  soon  became  necessary  to  sacrifice  some  of 
the  ponies  to  feed  the  dogs.  December  4,  iqii, 
the  party  had  reached  83.24,  about  twelve  miles 
distant  from  Mount  Hope.  Day  by  day  these  men 
plodded  on,  in  the  face  of  snows,  storms  and  gales. 
...  As  the  main  party  advanced,  sections  of  the 
supporting  parties  turned  back.  Day  and  Hooper, 
who  had  left  Scott  first,  returned  safely  to  Camp, 
January  21st;  a  week  later,  Atkinson,  Wright, 
Gerrard  and  Keohane  showed  up.  On  December 
2ist,  Captain  Scott  had  reached  just  beyond  85° 
South,  longitude  163  04  East,  and  an  altitude  6,800 
feet.  On  January  3,  iqi2,  he  was  within  150 
miles  of  the  South  Pole,  when  he  sent  back  the 
following  message:  'I  am  going  forward  with  a 
party  of  five  men,  sending  three  back  under  Lieu- 


362 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


tenant  Evans  with  this  note.  The  names  and  de- 
scriptions of  the  advance  party  are:  Capt.  Scott, 
R.  N.,  Dr.  Wilson,  Chief  of  the  scientil'ic  staff; 
Captain  Gates,  Inniskillen  Dragoons,  in  charge  of 
the  ponies  and  mules;  Lieutenant  Bowers,  Royal 
Indian  Marine,  commissariat  ofticer;  Petty  Ofticer 
Evans,  R.  N.,  in  charge  of  sledges  and  equipment. 
The  advance  party  goes  forward  with  a  month's 
provisions  and  the  prospects  of  success  seem  good, 
providing  the  weather  holds  and  no  unforeseen 
ob.itacles  arise.  It  has  been  very  difficult  to  choose 
the  advance  party,  as  every  one  was  fit  and  able 
to  go  forward.  Those  who  return  are  naturally 
much  disappointed.  Every  one  has  worked  his 
hardest.  The  weather  on  the  plateau  has  been 
good,  on  the  whole.  The  sun  has  never  deserted 
us,  but  the  temperatures  are  low,  now  about  minus 
twenty  degrees,  and  the  wind  pretty  constant.  How- 
ever, we  are  excellently  equipped  for  such  condi- 
tions, and  the  wind  undoubtedly  improves  the  sur- 
face. So  far  all  arrangements  have  worked  out  most 
satisfactorily.  It  is  more  than  probable  no  further 
news  will  be  received  from  us  this  year,  as  our  re- 
turn must  necessarily  be  late.' " — H.  S.  Wright, 
SeveuUi  continent,  pp.  330-336. 

In  the  light  of  subsequent  events  there  is  some- 
thing very  touching  in  this  last  message  before  the 
final  dash  to  the  Pole.  Lieutenant  Evans  and  his 
companions  bore  it  painfully,  faithfully,  in  the  face 
of  .scurvy  and  sickness,  back  over  the  frozen  ice 
sheets  through  snow  and  storm  to  the  Discovery 
Hut.  "Our  return  must  necessarily  be  late" — -the 
words  were  a  prophecy  which  he  bravely  fultilled. 
On  February  10,  1Q13,  the  news  was  flashed  all 
over  the  world  that  Captain  R,  L.  Scott  and  his 
four  companions,  who  were  returning  to  their  base 
after  reaching  the  South  Pole  Ion  Jan.  18,  iqi2] 
and  finding  Amundsen's  records  there,  had  per- 
ished from  starvation  and  cold  within  11  miles 
of  a  food  depot  and  only  150  miles  from  their 
headquarters.  According  to  Captain  Scott's  diary, 
which  he  kept  up  to  the  day  of  his  death  I  March 
25,  IQ12],  the  party  had  been  caught  in  a  nine- 
days'  blizzard  which  prevented  traveling  until  sup- 
plies were  exhausted  and  death  was  caused  by  ex- 
posure. 

"The  British  Museum  has  undertaken  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Natural  History  results  of  the  British 
.Antarctic  Expedition  of  iqio,  better  known  as  the 
Terra  Nova  Expedition.  .  .  .  .An  especial  interest 
attaches  to  the  small  collection  of  geological  speci- 
mens that  were  retrieved  after  the  tragic  death  of 
Captain  Scott  and  his  heroic  associates,  and  the 
present  publication  I  part  I,  dealing  with  fossil 
plants]  bears  ample  testimony  to  the  fact  that 
iheir  efforts  have  not  only  furnished  the  world 
with  a  lasting  monument  to  British  pluck  and  man- 
hood but  have  also  yielded  facts  of  the  greatest 
scientific  interest. 

"Although  determinable  fossil  plants  are  few  in 
number  traces  were  seen,  as  well  as  numerous  car- 
bonaceous laminae  and  small  seams  of  coal,  at  a 
number  of  widely  separated  localities,  particularly 
in  what  is  called  the  Beacon  sandstone,  which  at 
latitude  85°  S.  is  1,500  feet  thick".  This  com- 
prises an  upper  500  feet  of  sandstone  resting  on 
300  feet  of  interbedded  standstone  and  shale  with 
several  seams  of  coal,  underlain  by  700  feet  of 
similar  sandstone  conglomeratic  at  the  base.  The 
character  of  the  grains  in  the  sandstone  suggests 
wind  action,  and  sun  cracks  and  ripple  marks 
have  also  been  observed.  This  extensive  forma- 
tion has  been  traced  from  Mt.  Nansen  as  far 
south  as  latitude  S5',  a  distance  of  over  700  miles. 
The  most  significant  plants  are  those  representing 
the  genus  GUn^npteri'i  found  at  Mount  Buckley  or 


Buckley  Island  which  is  situated  just  west  of  the 
Beardmore  Glacier  in  latitude  85°.  These  are 
partly  referred  to  the  wide-spread  Glossopteris  in- 
dica  Schimper  and  in  part  described  as  a  new  va- 
riety of  that  species.  There  are  also  represented 
objects  identified  as  those  of  Vertebraria  and  rep- 
resenting the  axial  organs  of  Glossopteris,  and 
others  doubtfully  correlated  with  the  scale  leaves  of 
the  latter  genus.  From  the  Priestley  Clacier  rather 
indifferently  preserved  wood  is  described  under  the 
name  Antarcticoxyhn  Priestleyi  and  considered  as 
a  new  type  probably  Araucarian  in  its  relation- 
ship. Winged  pollen  grains  are  described  as  Pity- 
osporiles  antarcticus.  These  are  suggestive  of  the 
Abietineae,  but  may  be  those  of  the  Po- 
docarpineae.  The  remainder  of  the  collection  has 
little  interest  beyond  its  indication  of  the  presence 
of  arboreal  forms  in  high  southern  latitudes.  The 
exact  age  of  these  plant-containing  beds  can  not 
be  definitely  determined  from  the  present  collec- 
tions, although  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  le- 
gitimacy of  the  author's  conclusion  that  the  Bea- 
con sandstone  is  probably  Permo- Carboniferous 
in  age  with  the  further  po.ssibility  that  its  upper 
part  may  be  early  Mesozoic.  The  demonstration 
of  the  former  presence  of  Glossopteris  in  Antarc- 
tica is  of  the  greatest  importance.  ...  Its  pres- 
ence in  Antarctica  supplies  an  important  link  in 
the  chain  connecting  the  now  isolated  land  masses 
of  the  southern  hemisphere  and  also  suggests  the 
possibility  of  this  flora  having  originated  on  the 
broad  bosom  of  the  Antarctic  continent." — E.  W. 
Berry,  Scientific  results  of  the  Terra  Nova  expedi- 
tion   (Science,  June   4,    1Q15,  pp.   830-831). 

1911.  —  A  Japanese  expedition.  —  Lieutenant 
Shirase  of  the  Japanese  navy  headed  an  expedi- 
tion which  sailed  from  Wellington,  New  Zealand, 
on  Feb,  11,  igii,  with  the  object  of  reaching  the 
South  Pole.  Owing  to  insufficient  equipment  the 
expedition  was  obliged  to  turn  back  a  few  months 
later. 

1911-1912. — Amundsen's  successful  expedition 
to  the  South  Pole. — "Amundsen  as  a  veteran  Polar 
explorer  and  successful  navigator  of  the  North- 
west Pa.ssage,  had  accompanied  a  previous  expe- 
dition to  the  South  Polar  regions.  His  original 
plan,  however,  in  equipping  another  expedition  for 
scientific  research  in  Polar  waters  was  not  to  ven- 
ture south  but  to  continue  work  beyond  the  Arc- 
tic Circle.  How  the  change  of  program  was  in- 
augurated which  finally  resulted  in  one  of  the 
greatest  achievements  on  record  is  best  told  by 
himself.  T  was  preparing  my  trip  toward  the 
North  Polar  regions,'  Amundsen  has  explained,  'it 
may  be  to  the  North  Pole — in  iqoo.  It  was  not 
very  easy  to  start  an  expedition  from  Norway,  for 
it  was  hard  work  among  us  to  raise  money  and  I 
was  preparing  this  expedition  slowly.  Then  sud- 
denly the  news  flashed  all  over  the  world  that  the 
North  Pole  had  been  attained,  that  Admiral  Peary 
had  planted  the  Stars  and  Stripes  up  there.  The 
money  which  had  been  scarce  now  went  down  to 
nothing.  I  could  not  get  a  cent  more,  and  I  was 
in  the  midst  of  my  preparations.  One  of  the  last 
mysterious  points  of  the  globe  had  been  discov- 
ered. The  last  one  still  remained  undiscovered, 
and  then  it  was  that  I  took  the  decision  to  turn 
from  the  north  toward  the  south  in  order  to  try 
to  discover  this  last  problem  in  the  polar  regions.' 
.Amundsen's  party  made  a  successful  landing  on 
the  Ross  Barrier  in  longtitude  162"  W.  about  fifty 
miles  to  the  west  of  King  Edward  Land.  He 
established  his  winter  quarters  at  a  station  which 
he  appropriately  called  fafttr  his  ship,  the  Fram\ 
Framheim.  and  there  in  good  health  and  spirits  he 
and  his  slunh    companions  parsed  a  cheerful  and 


3'^\3 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


busy  season.  .  .  .  The  Norwegian  expedition  relied 
on  the  most  primitive  methods  for  its  success,  fa- 
vored by  unusually  good  conditions  of  weather  and 
ice.  'Amundsen's  victory  is  not  due,'  says  Nansen, 
'to  the  great  inventions  of  the  present  day  and  the 
many  new  appliances  of  every  kind.  The  means 
used  are  of  immense  antiquity,  the  same  as  were 
known  to  the  nomad  thousands  of  years  ago  when 
he  pushed  forward  across  the  snow-covered  plains 
of  Siberia  and  Northern  Europe.  But  everything, 
great  and  small,  was  thoroughly  thought  out,  and 
the  plan   was  splendidly  executed.     It  is  the  man 


of  these  canine  friends  who  occupied  every  avail- 
able foot  of  room  upon  the  decks  and  were 
tethered  upon  the  bridge  as  well.  .Amundsen's 
previous  experience  in  the  .Arctic  as  well  as  his  Nor- 
wegian training  as  a  disciple  of  Nansen  had 
convinced  him  of  the  importance  depending  on 
dogs  in  all  human  efforts  to  reach  high  latitudes. 
Their  superiority  over  ponies  was  demonstrated  by 
their  being  able  to  cross  more  easily  the  snow 
ridges  that  span  the  dangerous  crevasses  of  the 
Barrier.  .  .  .  .Another  important  factor  in  favor  of 
dog  teams  is  the  fact  that  dog  eats  dogs  in  case  of 


v£)  Uoited  PTewBDaperB,  London 
From  Underwood  A  I'nderwood 


AMUNDSEN   T.AKING   OBSERVATIONS  AT   THE    SOUTH    I'OLE, 
DECEMBER   14.  1911 


that  matters,  here  as  everywhere.  .  .  .  Both  the 
plan  and  its  execution  are  the  ripe  fruit  of  Nor- 
wegian life  and  experience  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,'  and  he  comments,  'Like  ever\thing  great, 
it  all  looks  so  plain  and  simple.'  Amundsen  had 
placed  his  chief  reliance  for  transportation  of  equip- 
ment and  supplies  on  the  service  of  dogs.  Nearly 
one  hundred  of  these  animals  had  been  secured 
from  Greenland,  and  these  had  increased  in  num- 
bers during  the  long  voyage  of  nearly  16,000  miles 
through  many  waters  and  climes.  The  slogan  'Dogs 
first  and  all  the  time,'  seems  to  have  inspired  the 
men  from  the  start  and  the  greatest  care  was  taken 


emergency,  whereas  extra  food  must  be  carried  to 
support  'poni»s  during  the  entire  journey.  .  _.  . 
From  Amundsen's  winter  quarter?  at  Framheim 
to  the  South  Pole  was  a  distance  of  870  miles. 
To  cover  this  distance  and  return,  the  party  of 
five  men  took  provision?  for  four  months,  with 
four  sledges,  drawn  by  lifty-two  dogs.  .Amundsen 
left  Framheim  on  October  20,  igii,  and  was  ab- 
sent three  month?  and  five  days,  returning  to  head- 
quarters with  two  sledges  and  eleven  dogs  Jan- 
uary 25,  1912.  When  one  recalls  the  uneven 
surfaces  over  which  the  route  was  followed,  the 
high  altitude  of  the  undulating  plateau,  the  moun- 


364 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


tainous  rcRion  to  be  crossed  before  the  goal  could 
be  reached  and  the  herculean  exertions  which 
Shackleton  had  made  to  reach  that  goal,  and  been 
obliged  to  turn  back,  one  marvels  that  these  Nor- 
wegian vikings  returned  with  any  dogs  at  all; 
nevertheless,  men  and  beasts  not  only  returned 
safely  but  in  excellent  condition.  To  be  sure 
Amundsen  was  singularly  favored.  There  were 
few  accidents.  Nevertheless  they  encountered  bliz- 
zards and  were  weather-bound  in  their  tents  on 
more  than  one  occasion.  On  December  the  qth 
they  passed  the  record  of  the  'Furthest  South," 
Amundsen  writes  .  .  .  'eighty-eight  degrees  and 
23  minutes  was  passed ;  we  were  further  south  than 
any  human  being  had  been.  No  other  moment  of 
the  whole  trip  affected  me  like  this.  We  all  shook 
hands  with  mutual  congratulations;  we  had  won 
our  way  far  by  holding  together  and  we  would 
go  further  yet — to  the  end.'  The  distant  horizon 
which  Shackleton  had  seen  with  regretful  eyes 
Amundsen  now  saw.  The  road  was  straight  ahead, 
there  to  the  south  lay  their  goal.  As  was  the  case 
in  Peary's  final  success,  so  it  was  with  Amundsen, 
nothing  untoward  happened.  No  obstacles  hin- 
dered them,  the  weather  favored  them  and  on  De- 
cember 14th  [iQii],  the  greatest  day  of  all,  they 
experienced  that  sense  of  nervousness  incident  to 
great  expectations  that  were  soon  to  be  realized." 
On  this  day  Amundsen  and  his  party  reached  the 
South  Pole,  only  four  weeks  before  Captain  Scott 
arrived  at  the  same  destination. — H.  S.  Wright, 
Seventh  continent,  pp.  337-342. 

"Up  to  this  moment  the  observations  and  our 
reckoning  had  shown  a  surprising  agreement.  We 
reckoned  that  we  should  be  at  the  Pole  on  De- 
cember 14.  On  the  afternoon  of  that  day  we  had 
brilliant  weather — a  light  wind  from  the  south- 
east with  a  temperature  of  —  10°  F.  The  sledges 
were  going  very  well.  The  day  passed  without  any 
occurrence  worth  mentioning,  and  at  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon  we  halted,  as  according  to  our 
reckoning  we  had  reached  our  goal.  We  all  as- 
sembled about  the  Norwegian  flag — a  handsome 
silken  flag — which  we  took  and  planted  all  together, 
and  gave  the  immense  plateau  on  which  the  Pole 
is  situated  the  name  of  'King  Haakon  VII's  Pla- 
teau.' It  was  a  vast  plain  of  the  same  character 
in  every  direction,  mile  after  mile.  During  the  af- 
ternoon we  traversed  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
camp,  and  on  the  following  day,  as  the  weather 
was  fine,  we  were  occupied  from  six  in  the  morn- 
ing till  seven  in  the  evening  in  taking  observations, 
which  gave  us  8g"  55'  as  the  result.  In  order  to 
take  observations  as  near  the  Pole  as  possible,  we 
went  on,  as  near  true  south  as  we  could,  for  the 
remaining  nine  kilometres.  On  December  16  we 
pitched  our  camp  in  brilliant  sunshine,  with  the 
best  conditions  for  taking  observations.  Four  of 
us  took  observations  every  hour  of  the  day — twen- 
ty-four in  all.  .  .  .  We  have  thus  taken  observa- 
tions as  near  to  the  Pole  as  was  humanly  possible 
with  the  instruments  at  our  disposal.  We  had  a 
sextant  and  artificial  horizon  calculated  for  a  radius 
of  8  kilometres.  On  December  17  we  were  ready 
to  go.  We  raised  on  the  spot  a  little  circular 
tent,  and  planted  above  it  the  Norwegian  flag 
and  the  Frnin's  pennant.  The  Norwegian  camp 
at  the  South  Pole  was  given  the  name  of  'Polheim.' 
The  distance  from  our  winter  quarters  to  the  Pole 
was  about  870  English  miles,  so  that  we  had  cov- 
ered on  an  average  15'/^  miles  a  day.  We  began 
the  return  journey  on  December  17.  The  weather 
was  unusually  favourable,  and  this  made  our  re- 
turn considerably  easier  than  the  march  to  the  Pole. 
We  arrived  at  'Fraraheim,'  our  winter  quarters,  in 
January,  1912,  with  two  sledges  and  eleven  dogs. 


all  well.  On  the  homeward  journey  we  covered 
an  average  of  22^2  miles  a  day.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature we  observed  on  this  trip  was  —  24°  F., 
and  the  highest  +  23"  F.  The  principal  result — 
besides  the  attainment  of  the  Pole — is  the  deter- 
mination of  the  extent  and  character  of  the  Ross 
Barrier.  Next  to  this,  the  discovery  of  a  connec- 
tion between  South  Victoria  Land  and,  probably. 
King  Edward  VII  Land  through  their  continua- 
tion in  huge  mountain-ranges,  which  run  to  the 
southeast  and  were  seen  as  far  south  as  lat.  88  8', 
but  which  in  all  probability  are  continued  right 
across  the  Antarctic  Continent.  We  gave  the  name 
of  'Queen  Maud's  Mountains'  to  the  whole  range 
of  these  newly  discovered  mountains,  about  530 
miles  in  length.  The  expedition  to  King  Edward 
VII  Land,  under  Lieutenant  Prostrud,  has  achieved 
excellent  results.  Scott's  discovery  was  confirmed, 
and  the  examination  of  the  Bay  of  Whales  and 
the  Ice  Barrier,  which  the  party  carried  out,  is 
of  great"  interest.  Good  geological  collections 
have  been  obtained  from  King  Edward  VII  Land 
and  South  Victoria  Land.  The  Fram  arrived  at 
the  Bay  of  Whales  on  January  g,  having  been 
delayed  in  the  'Roaring  Forties'  by  easterly  winds. 
.  .  .  We  are  all  in  the  best  of  health." — R.  Amund- 
sen, South  Pole,  Norwegian  Antarctic  expedition 
with  the  Fram,  1910-1012,  pp.  17-IQ. 

1911-1913. — Dr.  Mawson's  Australasian  expe- 
dition.— An  Antarctic  expedition,  financed  by  grants 
amounting  to  $130,000  from  the  Australian,  New 
Zealand  and  British  governments,  set  out  from 
Adelaide,  South  Australia,  in  the  ship  Aurora  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Dr.  D,  Mawson  on  Nov.  20, 
IQII.  The  expedition  was  provided  with  an  oceon- 
ographical  equipment  contributed  by  the  prince 
of  IVIonaco.  Dr.  Mawson  returned  to  Sydney  in 
the  early  spring  of  1913,  after  having  successfully 
mapped  about  a  thousand  miles  of  Termination 
Land.  Two  members  of  the  expedition  lost  their 
lives — Lieutenant  Innes,  who  fell  into  a  deep  ice 
crevasse,  and  Dr.  Merz,  who  died  from  exposure. 

1913. — Return  of  the  German  expedition  under 
Filchner. — "News  was  received  by  tele  Taph  on 
January  7  of  the  return  of  Lieut.  Filchner  in  the 
Deutschland  to  Buenos  Aires.  The  return  was 
somewhat  earlier  than  had  been  anticipated,  for 
.  .  .  the  original  programme  had  in  view  a  com- 
plete crossing  of  the  South  Polar  area  from  the 
Weddell  to  the  Ross  Sea;  and  though  this  was 
afterwards  abandoned,  it  was  hoped  to  push  a 
long  way  south  into  the  unknown  region  between 
the  Weddell  Sea  and  the  Pole.  According  to  the 
scanty  telegrams  made  public  at  the  time  of  writ- 
ing, the  farthest  south  reached  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  79"  S.  Even  this  marks 
an  important  advance  on  the  farthest  previously 
reached  on  this  side  of  the  globe,  or  in  fact  in  any 
part  of  the  Antarctic  region  apart  from  the  Ross 
Sea,  and  the  lands  to  the  south  of  it;  no  previous 
navigator  having  crossed  75°  S.,  except  in  the  lat- 
ter region — i.  e.  within  the  60°  of  longitude  between 
i.=;o"  E.  and  150"  W.  .^ftcr  crossing  an  ice-belt 
1200  (sic;  probably  120)  miles  wide,  the  expedi- 
tion is  said  to  have  discovered,  in  76°  35'  S.,  30° 
W.,  a  new  land  which  continued  as  far  as  70.  To 
this  land  Lieut.  Filchner  gives  the  name  Prince  Re- 
gent Luitpold  Land,  after  the  late  Regent  of  Ba- 
varia, while  an  ice-barrier  to  the  west  has  been 
named  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Barrier.  From  the  po- 
sition assigned  to  the  new  discovery  it  might  seerrt 
to  be  a  south-westward  continuation  of  Coats 
Land,  discovered  by  Bruce  in  1004.  The  state- 
ment that  in  78°  S.  the  Weddell  Sea  forms  its 
southern  boundary  is  somewhat  puzzling,  for  even 
were   the   new   land   an   island,   the   Weddell  Sea 


365 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


would,  of  course,  be  mainly  north  of  it.  Possibly 
there  is  some  mistake  in  the  telegram,  and  the 
meaning  intended  is  that  the  land  forms  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  Weddell  Sea.  Lieut.  Filchner 
hopes  to  return  south  to  continue  his  explorations." 
— Geographical  Journal,  February,   1913,   p.  I73- 

1914-1916. — Shackleton's  second  Antarctic  ex- 
pedition.— "In  February,  1014,  Sir  Ernest  Shackle- 
Ion  presented  before  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety of  London  his  program  for  a  new  ■'\ntarctic 
Expedition,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  cross  the 
South  Polar  Continent  from  the  Weddell  Sea  to  the 
Ross  Sea.  Such  a  journey  was  a  stupendous  un- 
dertaking, but  Shackleton  hoped  that  from  the 
geographical  point  of  view  the  complete  conti- 
nental nature  of  the  Antarctic  might  be  solved.  It 
was  the  purpose  of  the  expedition  to  take  con- 
tinuous magnetic  observations  from  Weddell  Sea 
right  across  the  Pole,  and  to  follow  conscien- 
tiously all  branches  of  science,  with  the  hoped-for 
result  of  greatly  adding  to  the  sum  total  of  human 
knowledge.  To  carry  out  his  bold  project  of  a 
trans-.\ntarctic  expedition  Shackleton  had  planned 
to  go  with  his  party  to  the  coast  line  on  the  Wed- 
dell Sea,  while  Captain  Mackintosh  and  nine  com- 
panies [in  the  Aurora']  were  to  start  from  the  coast 
nf  Ross  Sea,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pole,  and 
meet  Shackleton's  party  at  a  point  far  inland. 
Having  received  the  encouragement  and  support  of 
the  scientific  world.  Sir  Ernest  left  Buenos  ,\ires 
on  board  the  Endurance  October  ;5th,  1014,  and 
the  last  word  was  heard  from  him  in  February 
of  the  following  year.  In  May,  1Q16,  Shackleton 
cabled  his  arrival  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  bringing 
with  him  an  account  of  his  failure  to  reach  his 
destination,  through  adverse  ice  conditions.  No  at- 
tempt at  a  trans-Antarctic  journey  could  be  made 
— the  Endurance  was  beset  in  January,  and  from 
then  on  drifted  at  the  mercy  of  the  elements, 
reaching  the  farthest  South  of  77^  in  longitude 
.VS"  West.  Then  a  zizzag  drift  was  made  across 
Weddell  Sea  and  she  continued  Northwest.  In- 
tense ice  pressure  was  experienced  in  June  when 
the  ridges  of  ice  reached  the  height  of  twenty  feet 
near  the  ship,  and  during  July  they  reached  twice 
that  height.  It  was  not  until  October,  however, 
that  the  pressure  against  the  hull  of  the  Endurance 
became  too  much  for  the  ship,  and  she  was  finally 
crushed  by  the  ice;  all  hands  abandoned  her,  tak- 
ing to  boats  and  sledges,  with  a  part  of  their  pro- 
visions. After  a  drift  northward  for  two  months, 
the  ice  became  strong  enough  to  travel  over  it 
and  the  march  was  pursued  through  deep  snow. 
During  the  next  few  months  the  party  lived  on  the 
ice  floes,  narrowly  escaping  death  on  more  than 
one  occasion.  In  April,  loifi,  the  ice  suddenly 
opened  beneath  them  and  forced  them  to  take  to 
the  open  sea  in  boats.  They  made  their  way  to 
F^lephant  Island  and  here  they  found  themselves 
in  such  dire  straits  that  Sir  Ernest  with  five  men 
in  a  small  boat  started  for  South  Georgia  1750 
miles]  for  assistance.  This  amazing  journey,  ac- 
compHshed  under  such  hazardous  conditions,  is 
one  of  the  most  daring  and  heroic  feats  in  Ant- 
arctic history.  .^fter  reaching  the  Falklands, 
Shackleton  made  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
rescue  his  men  left  on  Elephant  Island.  The  first 
was  made  from  South  Georgia  on  May  :3rd  in  a 
whaling  vessel  furnished  by  a  Norwegian  whal- 
ing station.  The  boat  could  not  penetrate  the 
pack  ice  and  was  obliged  to  return  to  the  Falkland 
Islands,  reaching  Port  Stanley  on  May  31st.  On 
the  8th  of  June  a  second  attempt  was  made  in 
the  steamer  InslHufn  Pesca  of  the  Uruguayan 
Bureau  of  Fisheries  which  loft  Montevideo,  stop- 
ping en  route  at  Port  Stanley,  June  17th,  to  pick 


up  Shackleton.  It  was  found  impossible  lo  reacli 
Elephant  Island  because  of  the  ice  and  the  trip 
was  abandoned  June  2Sth.  The  ship  had  aji 
proached  to  within  twenty  miles  of  the  Island, 
and  it  was  ascertained  that  penguins  abounded  in 
the  vicinity,  giving  reasonable  assurance  that  the 
men  would  be  able  to  subsist  until  help  came,  al 
though  when  their  leader  had  left  them  they  had 
only  five  weeks'  rations.  Shackleton's  third  at- 
tempt was  made  July  13th,  when  he  set  sail  from 
Punta  Arenas  on  the  schooner  Emma.  The 
schooner  was  forced  back  by  the  terrific  gales  and 
ice  fields;  with  engines  injured  and  a  battered  hull 
she  returned  to  the  Falkland  Islands  on  August 
4th.  Undaunted  by  repeated  failures,  worn  in 
body  and  mind  from  exhaustion  and  anxiety,  this 
heroic  explorer  renewed  every  effort  to  rescue  the 
twenty-two  marooned  men  whose  trust  in  him  had 
never  wavered,  and  again  set  out  upon  his  quest. 
The  fourth  and  successful  journey  was  made  from 
Punta  Arenas,  where  Sir  Ernest  chartered  a  steamer 
and  finally  reached  his  men,  when  they  had  all 
but  given  up  hope  of  rescue.  The  party  had  en- 
dured many  hardships  during  the  [seventeen 
weeks'!   absence  of  Shackleton.  .  .  . 

"Disaster  had  likewise  pursued  Captain  Mackin- 
tosh and  his  party.  The  Aurora,  in  which  he  bad 
sailed,  broke  away  in  a  blizzard  off  Ross  Barrier, 
leaving  Mackintosh  and  his  men  stranded  on  shore. 
The  ship  drifted  to  New  Zealand,  where  she  was 
repaired  and  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton  sailed  in  her 
to  the  final  rescue  of  the  remaining  band  of  ad- 
venturous men.  In  their  isolation  of  twenty 
months  three  of  their  number  had  died,  including 
Captain  Mackintosh,  the  leader,  A.  P.  Spencer 
Smith,  and  Victor  G.  Hayward.  Part  of  the  pro- 
gram of  the  Ross  Sea  party  had  been  to  lay 
depots  on  the  Ross  barrier  ice,  for  the  use  of  the 
Shackleton  party  when  it  came  down  from  the 
.Antarctic  plateau.  This  they  did,  in  spite  of  their 
abandonment,  the  last  depot  being  made  in  Oc- 
tober, at  Mount  Hope  (83  ^  i^  S.),  at  the  foot  of 
Beardman  Glacier.  .  .  "Though  at  every  turn  dis- 
aster and  misfortune  followed  Shackleton's  last  ex 
pedition  to  Antarctica,  the  indomitable  courage, 
heroism,  and  faith  exhibited  by  leader  and  men 
will  ever  stand  in  this  story  of  'failure'  as  an  ex 
ample  to  all  and  stir  the  heart  with  the  deepest 
admiration  and  enthusiasm." — H.  S.  Wright,  Sev- 
enth  continent,  pp.  372-378. 

Scientific  observations. — Problems  of  the  ice 
age. — "Recent  .Antarctic  explorations  and  researches 
have  yielded  significant  evidence  regarding  the 
problems  of  the  Ice  .Age,  and  of  the  similarity  of 
the  succession  of  geological  climates  in  polar  with 
those  in  other  latitudes.  These  researches  have 
been  prosecuted  to  the  ultimate  limit  of  courage, 
devotion  to  duty  and  endurance — the  noble  sacri- 
fice of  life — as  in  the  cases  of  Captain  Scott,  R.N., 
and  his  devoted  companions  and  members  of  the 
expedition  of  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton.  The  data 
secured  by  these  expeditions  are  alone  sufficient  to 
establish  the  following  premises:  (1)  That  Ant- 
arctic ice,  although  covering  areas  several  times 
larger  than  all  other  ice  covered  areas,  is  slowly 
decreasing  in  extent  and  depth  (.')  That  the  same 
succession  of  genlneiral  rlimates  have  prevailed  in 
.Antarctic  as  in  other  latitudes.  So  vital  arc  these 
evidences  of  the  retreat  of  .Antarctic  ice  that  it 
may  be  well  to  briefly  quote  or  refer  to  the  most 
prominent  instances:  All  these  evidences  and  many 
others  .  .  .  lead  up  to  one  great  fact — namely,  that 
the  glaciation  of  the  .Antarctic  regions  is  receding. 
The  ice  is  everywhere  retreating.  The  high  level 
morains  decrease  in  height  above  the  present  sur- 
face of  the  ice,  the  debris  being  two  thousand  feet 


366 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


up  near  the  coast  and  only  two  hundred  feet 
above  near  the  plateau. 

"This  observation  applies  to  an  icc-covercd  area 
nf  over  116,000  square  miles.  ...  In  speaking  of 
the  evidence  of  ice  retreat  over  Antarctic  areas  ex- 
plored by  him,  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton  said;  'Some 
time  in  the  future  these  lands  will  be  of  use  to 
humanity.'  This  impressive  and  conclusive  evi- 
dence is  corroborated  by  the  greater  and  still  more 
impressive  evidences  of  the  comparatively  recent 
uncovering  of  temperate  land  areas,  and  the  pro- 
gressive retreat  of  the  snow  line  to  higher  eleva- 
tions in  temperate  and  tropical  latitudes  and 
towards  the  poles  at  sea  level,  being  far  greater  in 
Arctic  than  in  Antarctic  regions.  We  are  there- 
fore confronted  with  the  conclusions;  (i)  That 
the  disappearance  of  the  Ice  Age  is  an  active  pres- 
ent process  and  must  be  accounted  for  by  activities 
and  energies  now  at  work,  and  that  the  use  of  as- 
sumptions and  hypotheses  is  not  permissible;  (2) 
That  the  rates  and  lines  of  retreat  are  and  have 
been  determined  by  exposure  to  solar  energy  and 
the  temperatures  established  thereby ;  and  by  the 
difference  in  the  specific  heat  of  tTie  land  and  water 
hemispheres;  (3)  That  the  lines  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  ice  are  not  conformable  with  those  of  its 
deposition,  and  mark  a  distinctly  different  exposure 
and  climatic  control  from  that  which  prevailed 
prior  to  the  culmination  of  the  Ice  Age.  (4)  This 
retreat  also  marks  a  rise  in  mean  surface  tempera- 
ture along  these  new  lines,  manifestly  due  to  re- 
cently inaugurated  exposure  to  solar  radiation 
and  also  the  inauguration  of  the  trapping  of 
heat  derived  from  such  exposure ;  which  pro- 
cess is  cumulative  and  has  a  maximum  not  yet 
reached. 

"The  researches  under  the  direction  of  Captam 
Scott  and  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton  have  therefore 
very  rigidly  conditioned  any  inquiry  as  to  the 
causes  of  glacial  accumulation  and  retreat.  These 
conditions  are  corrective  and  directive — correct- 
ive, in  that  they  have  entirely  removed  any 
doubts  as  to  the  alternate  glaciation  of  the  poles 
under  the  alternate  occurrence  of  aphelion  and 
perihelion  polar  winters  by  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  as  advanced  by  Croll;  directive,  in  that 
they  have  imposed  an  appeal  to  energies  now  active 
as  causes  of  retreat,  and  divested  the  problem  of 
resorts  to  the  fascinating  but  dangerous  uses  of 
suppositions  and  hypotheses. 

"They  have,  moreover,  pointed  out  with  unerring 
accuracy  the  vital  conclusion  that  the  same  ener- 
gies which  have  but  recently  converted  the  glacial 
lake  beds  of  Canada  into  the  most  productive 
grain  fields  of  the  world  will  in  time  convert  the 
tundras  of  to-day  into  the  grain  fields  of  to-mor- 
row. The  bearing  of  this  conclusion  upon  the  ul- 
timate development  of  the  human  race  is  so  far- 
reaching  in  its  consequences  that  the  great  sacrifice 
of  life  attendant  upon  the  prosecution  of  these 
researches  stands  forever  as  a  memorial  in  the 
correction  of  the  erroneous  and  wide  spread  con- 
ception that  the  earth  is  in  a  period  of  refrigera- 
tion, desiccation  and  decay ;  and  establishes  the 
conclusion  that  it  is  in  the  spring  time  of  a  new 
climatic  control  during  which  the  areas  fitted  for 
man's  uses  are  being  extended  and  that  the  moss  of 
polar  wastes  will  be  replaced  by  rye  and  wheat." — 
M.  Manson,  Bearing  of  the  facts' revealed  by  Ant- 
arctic research  upon  the  problems  of  the  ice  age 
(^Science.   Dec.   28,   iqi;,   pp.  639-640). 

Climatic  conditions.— Fauna. — "The  great  se- 
verity of  climate  in  South  Polar  regions,  the  lack 
of  vegetation,  the  desolation  of  unpeopled  lands 
upon  which  no  quadrupeds  are  to  be  found,— lands 
that  are  mere  barren  wastes  of  snow  and  ice,  so 


different  from  the  more  hospitable  coasts  and  val- 
leys of  the  Arctic,  where  at  equal  distances  from 
the  equator  are  found  lands  green  with  vegetation, 
abounding  with  animal  life  and  the  habitat  of  the 
hardy  Esquimaux, — is  accounted  for  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  sea  in  the  South  Polar  regions.  The 
vast  continental  masses  in  the  north  are  warmed 
by  the  summer  sun  rays  and  become  centers  of 
radiating  heat;  while  the  Antarctic  lands  are  iso- 
lated in  the  midst  of  frigid  waters  and  constantly 
chilled  by  cold  sea  winds  'which  act  at  every  sea- 
son as  refrigerators  of  the  atmosphere.' 

"  'In  the  north,'  writes  Hartwig,  'the  cold  currents 
of  the  Polar  Ocean,  with  their  drift-ice  and  bergs, 
have  but  the  two  wide  gates  of  the  Greenland  Sea 
and  Davis  Strait  through  which  they  can  emerge 
to  the  south,  so  that  their  influence  is  confined 
within  comparatively  narrow  limits,  while  the  gelid 
streams  of  the  Antarctic  seas  branch  out  freely  on 
all  sides,  and  convey  their  floating  ice-masses  far 
and  wide  within  the  temperate  seas.  It  is  only  to 
the  west  of  Newfoundland  that  single  icebergs  have 
ever  been  known  to  descend  as  low  as  39°  of 
latitude ;  but  in  the  southern  hemisphere  they  have 
been  met  with  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (35°  S.  lat.)  near  Tristan  da  Cunha,  oppo- 
site to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and 
within  a  hundred  leagues  of  Tasmania.  In  the 
north,  finally,  we  find  the  gulf  stream  conveying 
warmth  even  to  the  shores  of  Spitsbergen  and 
Novaya  Zemblya ;  while  in  the  opposite  regions  of 
the  globe,  no  traces  of  warm  currents  have  been 
observed  beyond  55°  of  latitude.  Thus  the  pre- 
dominance of  vast  tracts  of  flat  land  in  the  boreal 
hemisphere,  and  of  an  immense  expanse  of  ocean 
in  the  Antarctic  regions,  sufficiently  accounts  for 
the  istival  warmth  of  the  former,  and  the  com- 
paratively low  summer  temperature  of  the  latter. 
In  182Q  .  ,  .  the  Chanticleer,  Captain  Foster,  was 
sent  to  New  Shetland  for  the  purpose  of  making 
magnetic  and  other  physical  observations,  and  re- 
mained for  several  months  at  Deception  Island, 
which  was  selected  as  a  station  from  its  affording 
the  best  harbour  in  South  Shetland.  Though  these 
islands  are  situated  at  about  the  same  distance 
from  the  Pole  as  the  Faroe  Islands,  which  boast 
nf  numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  and  where  the  sea 
never  freezes,  yet,  when  the  Chanticleer  ap- 
proached Deception  Island,  on  January  5  (a 
month  corresponding  to  our  July),  so  many  ice- 
bergs were  scattered  about  that  Foster  counted  at 
one  time  no  fewer  than  eighty-one.  A  gale  having 
arisen,  accompanied  by  a  thick  fog,  great  care 
was  needed  to  avoid  running  foul  of  these  float- 
ing cliffs.  After  entering  the  harbour — a  work  of 
no  slight  difficulty,  from  the  violence  of  the  wind 
— the  fogs  were  so  frequent  that,  for  the  first  ten 
days,  neither  sun  nor  stars  were  seen;  and  't  was 
withal  so  raw  and  cold,  that  Lieutenant  Kendall, 
to  whom  we  owe  a  short  narrative  of  the  expedi- 
tion, did  not  recollect  having  suffered  more  at  any 
time  in  the  .Arctic  regions,  even  at  the  lowest  range 
of  the  thermometer.  In  this  desolate  land,  frozen 
water  becomes  an  integral  portion  of  the  soil;  for 
this  volcanic  island  is  composed  chiefly  of  alter- 
nate la\  crs  of  ashes  and  ice,  as  if  the  snow  of  each 
winter,  during  a  series  of  years,  had  been  prevented 
from  melting  in  the  following  summer  b.\-  the 
ejection  of  cinders  and  ashes  from  some  part  where 
volcanic  action  still  goes  on.  .  .  .'  The  absence  of 
quadrupeds  south  of  60°  has  already  been  noted, 
but  mention  should  be  made  of  innumerable  sea- 
birds  which,  though  they  belong  to  the  same  fami- 
lies as  those  of  the  north,  are  a  'distinct  genera  or 
species,  for  with  rare  exceptions  no  bird  is  found 
to  inhabit  both  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions.'  " — 


367 


ANTESIGNANI 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


H.  S.  Wright,  Seventh   continent,  pp.  92-g4. — See 
also  Arctic  exploration. 

Also  in:  H.  R.  Mill,  Siege  of  the  South  Pole.— 
K.  Fricker,  Antarctic  regions. — C.  E.  Borchgrevink, 
First  on  the  Antarctic  continent. — .Antarctic  man- 
ual (iQOi). — O.  Nordenskjold  and  J.  G.  Andersson, 
Antarctica. — E.  H.  Shacklcton,  Heart  of  the  Ant- 
arctic.— Capt.  R.  F.  Scott,  Voyage  of  the  Discov- 
ery.— L.  Bernacchi,  To  the  South  Polar  regions. 

ANTESIGNANI.— "In  each  cohort  [of  the 
Roman  legion,  in  Caesar's  time]  a  certain  number 
of  the  best  men,  probably  about  one-fourth  of  the 
whole  detachment,  was  assigned  as  a  guard  to  the 
standard,  from  whence  they  derived  their  name 
of  Antesignani." — C.  Merivale,  History  of  the 
Romans  tinder  the  empire,  ch.  15. 

ANTHEMIUS,  Roman  emperor  (Western), 
467-472.     See  Rome:   455-476. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  BrowBell  (1820-1906), 
American  teacher,  author,  and  woman  suffragist. 
Took  a  prominent  part  in  temperance  and  anti- 
slavery  agitation;  devoted  herself  especially  to 
woman's  rights;  published  a  weekly  paper.  The 
Revolution,  edited  by  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton; 
vice-president  of  the  National  Woman's  Suffrage 
Association,  1860-1892;  became  its  president.  She 
drafted  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  extend- 
ing suffrage  to  women,  which  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress in  igig  and  ratified  by  the  necessary  thirty- 
six  states  in  1920. — See  also  Suffrage,  Woman: 
United  States. 

ANTHRACITE  COAL:  Control  by  railroads. 
— Commodities  clause  of  Hepburn  Act.  See 
Railroads:   100S-190Q. 

ANTHRACITE  COAL  COMBINATION.  See 
Trusts:   1Q07-1912. 

ANTHRACITE  COAL  STRIKE  COMMIS- 
SION, appointed  by  President  Roosevelt.  See 
Arbitration  and  conciliation.  Industrial:  U.  S. 
A.:  1902-1920;  Labor  strikes  and  boycotts:  1877- 
1911;  U.  S.  A.:   1Q02   (October). 

ANTHROPOLOGY:  Deanition.— Early  re- 
searches.— The  simplest  definition  of  anthropology 
is  found  in  the  derivation  of  the  word.  "Anthro- 
pos"  is  the  Greek  word  for  man;  "logos"  in  Greek 
means  science  or  discourse ;  therefore  anthropology 
is  the  science  of  man.  Aristotle  is  supposed  to  be 
the  first  f)erson  to  use  the  term.  After  that  it  is 
not  met  with  again  until  the  i6th  century  when 
the  Latin  word  "anthropologium"  is  used  to  desig- 
nate the  study  of  bodily  structure.  In  fact  an- 
thropological research  in  Europe  until  very  re- 
cently was  limited  to  the  field  now  called  physical 
anthropology.  The  development  and  growth  of 
anthropology  into  the  comprehensive  science  that 
it  is  to-day,  is  closely  connected  with  the  general 
scientific  development  of  Europe  .during  the  17th, 
i8th  and  19th  centuries.  "In  earlier  days  certain 
philosophers  had  been  spoken  of  as  anthropologists, 
and  again  in  later  times,  i.  e.  in  the  iSth  century, 
Anthropology  was  treated  (by  Kant  and  others) 
as  a  branch  of  philosophy,  rather  than  of  biology. 
The  latter  end  of  the  17th  century  was  a  most 
important  epoch  in  the  history  of  Physical  An- 
thropology, using  the  term  in  the  sense  which  it 
has  now  acquired  and  which  will  presently  be  ex- 
plained. In  the  year  1699,  Dr.  Edward  Tyson,  a 
member  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge, 
published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Society 
a  treatise  entitled  'Orang-Outang,  siva  Homo  Syl- 
vestris.  Or,  the  Anatomy  of  a  Pygmie  compared 
with  that  of  a  Monkey,  an  Ape,  and  a  Man.' 
Without  entering  upon  detailed  criticism  of  this 
Tifork,  it  will  suffice  to  remark  that  it  constitutes 
a  most  remarkable  anticipation  of  modern  methods 
of  research,  and  still  serves  as  a  model  for  investi- 


gations into  the  structure  of  Man  and  Apes. 
Nevertheless,  although  so  important  in  these  re- 
spects, the  work  was  not  described  as  one  on  An- 
thropology, nor  is  it  certain  that  Tyson  made  use 
of  the  term  in  connection  with  it.  The  i8th  cen- 
tury in  turn  affords  several  notable  names  in  the 
hi5tor>'  of  Physical  Anthropology.  The  chief  con- 
tributors to  the  subject  were  Linnzeus,  Daubenton, 
Camper,  Hunter,  Soemmering  and  Blumenbach. 
The  Systema  Naturae  of  Linnaeus  (of  which  the 
first  edition  appeared  in  1735)  will  remain  for  ever 
memorable  to  anthropologists  from  the  fact  that 
Man  was  therein  restored  definitely  to  a  place  with 
other  animals  in  a  scheme  of  comparative  zoology. 
Daubenton  (1764),  a  colleague  of  Buff  on,  is  to  be 
credited  with  the  first  strictly  scientific  memoir  in 
which  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  skull  was 
studied  by  means  of  angular  measurements. 
Camper's  great  work  was  first  published  in  1770. 
Born  at  Leyden  in  1722,  Camper  had  attained  the 
age  of  sixty-seven  when  he  died.  But  for  the  work 
of  Tyson,  that  of  Camper  would  hold  the  place  of 
honour  as  anticipating  the  soundest  and  most  pro- 
ductive methods  of  modern  physical  anthropology. 
Camper's  researches  dealt  with  the  comparative 
anatomy  of  the  Orang-utan  (a  chapter  being  de- 
voted specially  to  its  comparison  with  Man),  with 
the  different  varieties  of  anthropoid  apes,  with  the 
organs  of  speech  in  the  Orang-utan,  with  the  sig- 
nificance and  origin  of  pigmentation  in  the  negro 
races,  and  finally  with  the  comparative  study  of 
skulls.  In  this  connection,  special  reference  is  due 
to  the  method  employed,  for  it  was  based  on  the 
principle  of  projections,  i.  e.,  the  comparison  of 
forms  and  contours  drawn  in  rectilinear  projection. 
Errors  due  to  perspective,  such  as  occur  when  the 
object  is  viewed  in  the  ordinary  way,  were  thus 
eliminated.  In  the  same  treatise,  Camper  defines 
and  explains  the  use  of  the  facial  angle  which  he 
devised,  and  through  which  his  name  will  be  per- 
petuated in  the  literature  of  craniometry.  The 
work  of  John  Hunter  (172S-1793)  stands  in  a  cate- 
gory apart  from  all  others.  If  not  avowedly  an- 
thropological, the  researches  carried  out  by  Hunter 
in  Comparative  Anatomy  define  the  field  or  extent 
of  the  larger  part  of  modern  Physical  Anthro- 
pology. For  the  rest,  it  must  be  added  that  while 
in  Hunter's  work  the  anatomical  notes  are  num- 
bered in  thousands,  the  physiological  background 
is  never  lost  to  view.  Herein,  it  is  fair  to  believe, 
a  clue  will  be  found  to  Hunter's  success.  This 
vitalizing  principle  was  rigidly  maintained  and 
may  be  studied  to-day,  not  only  in  the  literary 
monuments  left  by  Hunter,  but  also  in  the  noble 
Collection  by  which  his  memory  is  perpetuated. 
The  accomplished  anatomist  Soemmering  published 
in  1785  a  monograph  on  the  anatomy  of  a  Negro, 
which  has  become  classical.  The  author  extended 
the  comparative  methods  employed  by  Camper  in 
the  case  of  the  external  characters,  to  the  details 
of  every  part  and  structure  of  the  body.  In  this 
research  again,  we  may  notice  the  substitution  of 
exact  and  precise  information  for  speculative  sur- 
mise. Not  the  least  important  point  made  by 
Soemmering  was  his  observation  that  the  brain- 
weight  of  his  subject  exceeded  that  of  most  Euro- 
peans. This  very  paradox  (as  it  seemed  even  then 
to  Soemmering)  led  him  to  anticipate  (in  part  at 
least)  important  researches  carried  out  a  century 
later  by  Snell  and  Dubois.  For  Soemmering  found 
that  while  the  Negro's  brain  exceeded  that  of  the 
European  in  weight,  it  held  nevertheless  a  more 
lowly  position  when  judged  by  a  comparison  of 
its  size  with  the  combined  mass  of  the  cerebral 
nerves.  The  absolute  weight  taken  alone  is  thus 
deprived   of   value  as  an  index   of  developmental 


368 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Scope  and 
Methods  of  Study 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


status.  It  is  further  shewn  that  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  significance  of  the  brain-weight,  the 
size  and  complexity  of  the  organs  supplied  by  those 
nerves  must  be  held  accountable  for  a  certain  part 
(now  called  the  'corporeal  concomitant').  And 
finally,  it  is  on  the  part  which  remains  over,  called 
by  Soemmering  the  'superfluous  quantity,'  that 
judgment  as  to  the  real  'size'  of  the  brain  is  to 
be  passed.  [See  also  Ary.^ns:  Distribution.] 
Blumenbach  is  distinguished  particularly  by  his 
studies  in  comparative  human  craniology.  Bom  at 
Gotha  in  1752,  ...  he  studied  ...  at  Jena  and 
at  Gottingen,  at  which  latter  University  he  ob- 
tained a  professorial  chair;  and  at  Got- 
tingen Blumenbach  died  in  1840.  Three  charac- 
teristics seem  to  be  prominent  before  all  others 
in  the  character  of  this  remarkable  man.  His 
extraordinary  versatility  in  scientific  pursuits  has 
rarely  been  surpassed,  even  in  the  fatherland 
of  Goethe,  Helmholtz,  and  Virchow.  Scarcely  less 
impressive  was  his  enormous  range  of  literary  ac- 
quaintance. A  third  point  is  that  he  was  emi- 
nently a  laboratory  worker  ...  for  he  travelled 
but  little.  Blumenbach's  principal  contributions 
to  science  consist  of  a  treatise  on  the  'Natural 
Varieties  of  the  Human  Species'  and  of  numerous 
craniological  descriptions,  to  which  must  be  added 
certain  essays  on  the  Natural  History  of  Man,  in- 
cluding an  anatomical  comparison  of  Man  with 
other  animals.  And  the  chief  advances  determined 
by  these  researches  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows: (i)  The  employment  of  the  word  'an- 
thropology' as  descriptive  of  morphological  studies. 

(2)  Recognition  of  the  fact  that  no  sharp  lines 
demarcate  the  several  varieties  of  Mankind,  the 
transition   from   type  to  type  being  imperceptible. 

(3)  The  clear  enunciation  of  a  classificatory  scheme 
of  the  varieties  of  Mankind,  admittedly  arbitrary, 
but  devised  with  the  object  of  facilitating  study: 
the  classification  was  based  on  considerations  of 
the  characters  of  the  skin,  the  hair,  and  the  skull. 

(4)  A  clear  enunciation  of  the  external  causes  in 
producing  and  perpetuating  variations  in  animals, 
including  Man;  recognition  of  the  origin  of  varie- 
ties through  'degeneration';  Blumenbach  thus  very 
nearly  anticipated  some  important  discoveries  re- 
served for  Darwin  at  a  later  date.  All  differences 
in  the  cranial  forms  of  Mankind  were  referred 
either  to  environment  or  to  artificial  interference. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  suggested  that  artificial 
modifications  may  in  time  be  inherited  (cf.  Blu- 
menbach's Works,  p.  121)." — W.  L.  H.  Duckworth, 
Morphology  and  anthropology,  pp.  1-5. — See  also 
Europe:  Prehistoric  period:  Earliest  remains,  etc.; 
PAcrnc  ocean:  People. 

Scope  of  study. — Historical  method. — In- 
fluence of  evolutionary  theories. — "This  brings 
us  to  the  point  when  anthropology  begins  to  as- 
sume a  wider  aspect.  Although  in  earlier  periods 
men  noticed  the  differences  in  physical  appearance 
and  culture  existing  among  various  peoples,  the 
discussions  of  such  facts  were  not  within  the  field 
of  anthropology.  Observation  of  racial  differences 
are  recorded  on  Egyptian  monuments  and  in  the 
tales  of  early  travellers.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  mention  it  and  later  in  the  travels  of  Marco 
Polo  and  explorers  of  the  isth,  i6lh  and  17th  cen- 
turies there  are  very  accurate  accounts  of  primi- 
tive customs.  'At  the  present  time  anthropologists 
occupy  themselves  with  problems  relating  to  the 
physical  and  mental  life  of  mankind  as  found  in 
varying  forms  of  society  from  the  earliest  times  up 
to  the  present  period  and  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.'  In  this  way  Franz  Boas,  the  leader  of 
American  anthropologists  outlines  the  scope  of  an- 
thropology.    Naturally   it   is   impossible    for    one 


person  to  command  such  a  range  of  knowledge, 
and  so  distinct  fields  of  specialization  have  sprung 
up.  The  two  main  divisions  are  physical  ancl  cul- 
tural anthropology,  the  latter  often  termed  eth- 
nology. Under  physical  anthropology  are  included 
all  studies  relating  to  the  physical  characteristics  of 
man,  his  place  in  nature,  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology,  the  antiquity  of  man  as  shown  in 
fossil  remains,  which  evidences  are  correlated  with 
the  findings  of  geology  and  a  comparative  study 
of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  different  races 
and  subdivisions  of  races.  Cultural  anthropology 
or  ethnology  deals  with  the  antiquity  of  man  as 
shown  by  remains  of  his  handiwork,  a  comparative 
study  of  the  arts  and  industries  of  man,  specula- 
tion as  to  their  origin;  their  development  and 
geographical  distribution.  On  the  sociological  side 
we  have  the  social  and  political  organization  of 
various  peoples;  their  ethics  and  religion.  The 
psychological  side  of  life  is  studied  through  the 
languages  and  mythologies.  And  finally  when 
these  surveys  are  finished,  the  different  peoples  of 
the  world  can  be  arranged  into  ethnic  groups  ex- 
hibiting a  certain  degree  of  uniformity  of  cul- 
ture. (See  also  Ethnology.)  In  anthropology 
two  distinct  methods  of  research  have  developed, 
the  historical  method  which  aims  to  reconstruct 
the  actual  history  of  mankind,  the  other  is  the 
generalizing  method  which  attempts  to  establish 
the  laws  of  its  development. 

"About  this  time  the  historical  aspect  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature  took  hold  of  the  minds  of 
investigators  in  the  whole  domain  of  science.  Be- 
ginning with  biology,  and  principally  through  Dar- 
win's powerful  influence,  it  gradually  revolutionized 
the  whole  method  of  natural  and  mental  science 
and  led  to  a  new  formulation  of  their  problems. 
The  idea  that  the  phenomena  of  the  present  have 
developed  from  previous  forms  with  which  they 
are  genetically  connected  and  which  determine 
them,  shook  the  foundations  of  the  Old  principles 
of  classification  and  knit  together  groups  of  facts 
that  hitherto  had  seemed  disconnected.  Once 
clearly  enunciated,  the  historical  view  of  the  natu- 
ral sciences  proved  irresistible  and  the  old  problems 
faded  away  before  the  new  attempts  to  discover 
the  history  of  evolution.  From  the  very  begin- 
ning there  has  been  a  strong  tendency  to  combine 
with  the  historical  aspect  a  subjective  valuation 
of  the  various  phases  of  development,  the  present 
serving  as  a  standard  of  comparison.  The  oft- 
observed  change  from  simple  forms  to  more  com- 
plex forms,  from  uniformity  to  diversity,  was  in- 
terpreted as  a  change  from  the  less  valuable  to 
the  more  valuable  and  thus  the  historical  view 
assumed  in  many  cases  an  ill-concealed  teleological 
tinge.  The  grand  picture  of  nature  in  which  for 
the  first  time  the  universe  appears  as  a  unit  of 
ever-changing  form  and  color,  each  momentary 
aspect  being  determined  by  the  past  moment  and 
determining  the  coming  changes,  is  still  obscured 
by  a  subjective  element,  emotional  in  its  sources, 
which  leads  us  to  ascribe  the  highest  value  to  that 
which  is  near  and  dear  to  us.  The  new  historical 
view  also  came  into  conflict  with  the  generalizing 
method  of  science.  It  was  imposed  upon  that  older 
view  of  nature  in  which  the  discovery  of  general 
laws  was  considered  the  ultimate  aim  of  investi- 
gation. .  .  .  Anthropology  also  felt  the  quicken- 
ing impulse  of  the  historic  point  of  view,  and  its 
development  followed  the  same  lines  that  may  be 
observed  in  the  history  of  the  other  sciences.  The 
unity  of  civilization  and  of  primitive  culture  that 
had  been  divined  by  Herder  now  shone  forth  as  a 
certainty.  The  multiplicity  and  diversity  of  cu- 
rious customs  and  beliefs  appeared  as  early  steps 


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Evolutionary 
Theories 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


in  the  evolution  of  civilization  from  simple  forms 
of  culture.  The  strlkinc  similarity  between  the 
customs  of  remote  districts  was  the  proof  of  the 
uniform  manner  in  which  civilization  had  de- 
veloped the  world  over.  The  laws  according  to 
which  this  uniform  development  of  culture  took 
place  became  the  new  problem  which  engrossed 
the  attention  of  anthropologists.  This  is  the  source 
from  which  sprang  the  ambitious  system  of  Her- 
bert Spencer  and  the  ingenious  theories  of  Edward 
Burnett  Tylor.  The  underlying  thought  of  the 
numerous  attempts  to  systematize  the  whole  range 
of  social  phenomena  or  one  or  the  other  of  its 
features — such  as  religious  belief,  social  organiza- 
tion, forms  of  marriage — has  been  the  belief  that 
one  definite  system  can  be  found  according  to 
which  all  culture  has  developed,  that  there  is  one 
type  of  evolution  from  a  primitive  form  to  the 
highest  civilization  which  is  applicable  to  the  whole 
of  mankind,  that  notwithstanding  many  varations 
caused  by  local  and  historical  conditions,  the  gen- 


tian and  Gcorg  Gerland.  Both  were  impressed  by 
the  sameness  of  the  fundamental  traits  of  culture 
the  world  over.  Bastian  saw  in  their  sameness  an 
effect  of  the  sameness  of  the  human  mind  and 
terms  these  fundamental  traits  'Elementargedanken' 
[elementary  thoughts  I,  declining  all  further  con- 
sideration of  their  origin,  since  an  inductive  treat- 
ment of  this  problem  is  impossible.  For  him  the 
essential  problem  of  anthropology  is  the  discovery 
of  the  elementary  ideas,  and  in  further  pursuit  of 
the  inquiry,  their  modification  under  the  influence 
of  geographical  environment.  Gerland's  views 
agree  with  those  of  Bastian  in  the  emphasis  laid 
upon  the  influence  of  geographical  environment  on 
the  forms  of  culture.  In  place  of  the  mystic  ele- 
mentary idea  of  Bastian,  Gerland  assumes  that  the 
elements  found  in  many  remote  parts  of  the  world 
are  a  common  inheritance  from  an  early  stage  of 
cultural  development.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  both 
these  views  the  system  of  evolution  plays  a  second- 
ary  part   only,  ajid   that  the  main  stress  is  laid 


CHIMPANZEE 


COMPARISON  OF  SKELETONS   OF  VERTEBRATES.   SHOWING   EVOLUTIONARY  SIMILARITfES 

Krom    specimens   in    Royal    College    of   Surgeons,    London 


cral  type  of  evolution  is  the  same  everywhere. 
This  theory  has  been  discussed  most  clearly  by 
Tylor,  who  finds  proof  for  it  in  the  sameness  of 
customs  and  beliefs  the  world  over.  The  typical 
similarity  and  the  occurrence  of  certain  customs  in 
definite  combinations  are  explained  by  him  as  due 
to  their  belonging  to  a  certain  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  civilization.  They  do  not  disappear  sud- 
denly, but  persist  for  a  time  in  the  form  of  sur- 
vivals. These  are,  therefore,  wherever  they  occur, 
a  proof  that  a  lower  stage  of  culture  of  which 
these  customs  are  characteristic  has  been  passed 
through.  .  .  .  The  generalized  view  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  culture  in  all  its  different  phases  which  is 
the  final  result  of  this  method  may  be  subjected  to 
a  further  analysis  regarding  the  psychic  causes 
which  bring  about  the  regular  sequence  of  the 
stages  of  culture.  Owing  to  the  abstract  form  of 
the  results,  this  analy.sis  must  be  deductive.  It 
can  not  be  an  induction  from  empirical  psychologi- 
cal data.  In  this  fact  lies  one  of  the  weaknesses 
of  the  method  which  led  a  number  of  anthropolo- 
gists to  a  somewhat  different  statement  of  the 
problem.     I  mention  here  particularly  Adolf  Bas- 


on the  causes  which  bring  about  modifications  of 
the  fundamental  and  identical  traits.  There  is 
a  close  connection  between  this  direction  of  an- 
thropology and  the  old  geographical  school.  Here 
the  psychic  and  environmental  relations  remain 
amenable  to  inductive  treatment,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  fundamental  hypotheses  exclude 
the  origin  of  the  common  traits  from  further  in- 
vestigation. The  subjective  valuation  which  is 
characteristic  of  most  evolutionary  systems,  was 
from  the  very  beginning  part  and  parcel  of  evo- 
lutionary anthropology.  It  is  but  natural  that  in 
the  study  of  the  history  of  culture  our  own  civiliza- 
tion should  become  the  standard,  that  the  achieve- 
ments of  other  times  and  other  races  should  be 
measured  by  our  own  achievements.  In  no  case 
is  it  more  difficult  to  lay  aside  the  'Culturbrille' 
[cultural  spectacles] — to  use  Von  den  Steinen's  apt 
term — than  in  viewing  our  own  culture  For  this 
reason  the  literature  of  anthropology  abounds  in 
attempts  to  define  a  number  of  stages  of  culture 
leading  from  simple  forms  to  the  present  civiliza- 
tion, from  savagery  through  barbarism  to  civiliza- 
tion, or  from  an  assumed  pre -savagery  through  the 


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same  stages  to  enlightenment.  The  endeavor  to 
establish  a  schematic  hne  of  evolution  naturally 
led  back  to  new  attempts  at  classification  in  which 
each  group  bears  a  genetic  relation  to  the  other. 
Such  attempts  have  been  made  from  both  the  cul- 
tural and  the  biological  point  of  view." — F.  Boas, 
History  oj  anthropology  (Science,  Oct.  21,  1904). 
— See  also  Evolution:  Historical  development,  etc. 

After  this  brief  summary  of  the  general  method 
of  anthropology  it  is  perhaps  best  to  take  each 
branch  of  the  science  separately  and  show  its  de- 
velopment, bearing  in  mind  the  aims  of  the  entire 
subject. 

Linguistics. — The  point  of  view  of  the  student 
of  linguistics  depends  very  much  on  his  back- 
ground. If  he  comes  from  physical  anthropology 
he  is  interested  in  correlating  the  phonetic  system 
with  the  structure  of  the  organs  of  speech ;  the 
ethnologist  studies  language  to  gain  light  on  ethnic 
affinity  and  cultural  contact,  or  if  he  is  interested 
in  psychology,  to  learn  categories  of  thought  and 
the  trend  of  mental  processes.  The  study  of  lin- 
guistics was  first  directed  to  the  investigation  of 
the  "Aryan"  question.  "The  connection  between 
linguistics  and  anthropology  assumed  its  greatest 
importance  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  discoveries  and  theories  of  philol- 
ogists were  adopted  wholesale  to  explain  the 
problems  of  European  ethnology,  and  the  Aryan 
controversy  became  the  locus  of  disturbance 
throughout  the  Continent.  No  other  scientific 
question,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution,  was  ever  so  bitterly  discussed 
or  so  infernally  confounded  at  the  hands  of  Chau- 
vinistic or  otherwise  biased  writers." — A.  C.  Had- 
don,  History  of  anthropology,  p.  144. 

In  recent  years  linguistics  has  assumed  a  broader 
outlook  and  is  studied  by  the  anthropologist  to- 
day principally  in  the  unwritten  languages  of  prim- 
itive people.  "The  origin  of  language  was  one  of 
the  much-discussed  problems  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  owing  to  its  relation  to  the  develop- 
ment of  culture,  it  has  a  direct  anthropological 
bearing.  The  intimate  ties  between  language  and 
ethnic  psychology  were  expressed  by  no  one  more 
clearly  than  by  Stcinthal,  who  perceived  that  the 
form  of  thought  is  molded  by  the  whole  social 
environment  of  which  language  is  part.  Owing 
to  the  rapid  change  of  language,  the  historical 
treatment  of  the  linguistic  problem  had  developed 
long  before  the  historic  aspect  of  the  natural 
sciences  was  understood.  The  genetic  relationship 
of  languages  was  clearly  recognized  when  the  ge- 
netic relationship  of  species  was  hardly  thought  of. 
With  the  increasing  knowledge  of  languages  they 
were  grouped  according  to  common  descent,  and 
when  no  further  relationship  could  be  proved,  a 
classification  according  to  morphology  was  at- 
tempted. To  the  linguist  whose  whole  attention  is 
directed  to  the  study  of  the  expression  of  thought 
by  language,  language  is  the  individuality  of  a 
people,  and  therefore  a  classification  of  languages 
must  present  itself  to  him  as  a  classification  of 
peoples.  No  other  manifestation  of  the  mental  life 
of  man  can  be  classified  so  minutely  and  definitely 
as  language.  In  none  are  the  genetic  relations 
more  clearly  established.  It  is  only  when  no 
further  genetic  and  morphological  relationship  can 
be  found,  that  the  linguist  is  compelled  to  coordi- 
nate languages  and  can  give  no  further  clue  re- 
garding their  relationship  and  origin.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  this  method  was  used  to  classify  man- 
kind, although  in  reality  the  linguist  classified  only 
languages.  The  result  of  the  classification  seems 
eminently  satisfactory  on  account  of  its  definiteness 
as    compared    with   the    results    of    biological    and 


cultural   classifications." — F.   Boas,   History   of  an- 
thropology (Science,  Oct.  21,  1904). 

The  study  of  linguistics  together  with  the  de- 
velopment of  physical  anthropology  brought  about 
theories  which  connected  race  and  language.  The 
modern  anthropologists  have  fought  valiantly  to 
show  why  any  such  theory  is  untenable.  "Mean- 
while the  methodical  resources  of  biological  or 
somatic  anthropology  had  also  developed  and  had 
enabled  the  investigator  to  make  nicer  distinctions 
between  human  types  than  he  had  been  able  to 
make.  The  landmark  in  the  development  of  this 
branch  of  anthropology  has  been  the  introduction 
of  the  metric  method,  which -owes  its  first  strong 
development  to  Quetelet.  ...  A  clearer  definition 
of  the  terms  'type'  and  'variabihty'  led  to  the 
application  of  the  statistical  method  by  means  of 
which  comparatively  slight  varieties  can  be  dis- 
tinguished satisfactorily.  By  the  application  of 
this  method  it  soon  became  apparent  that  the  races 
of  man  could  be  subdivided  into  types  which  were 
characteristic  of  definite  geographical  areas  and  of 
the  people  inhabiting  them.  The  same  misinterpre- 
tation developed  here  as  was  found  among  the 
linguists.  As  they  identified  language  and  people, 
so  the  anatomists  identified  somatic  type  and 
people  and  based  their  classification  of  peoples 
wholly  on  their  somatic  characters.  The  two  prin- 
ciples were  soon  found  to  clash.  Peoples  genetic- 
ally connected  by  language,  or  even  the  same  in 
language,  were  found  to  be  diverse  in  type,  and 
people  of  the  same  type  were  found  to  be  diverse  in 
language.  Furthermore,  the  results  of  classifica- 
tions according  to  cultural  groups  disagreed  with 
both  the  linguistic  and  the  somatic  classifications. 
In  long  and  bitter  controversies  the  representatives 
of  these  three  directions  of  anthropological  research 
contended  for  the  correctness  of  their  conclusions. 
This  war  of  opinions  was  fought  out  particularly 
on  the  ground  of  the  so-called  .Aryan  question,  and 
only  gradually  did  the  fact  come  to  be  understood 
that  each  of  these  classifications  is  the  reflection  of 
a  certain  group  of  facts.  The  linguistic  classifica- 
tion records  the  historical  fates  of  languages  and 
indirectly  of  the  people  speaking  these  languages; 
the  somatic  classification  records  the  blood  rela- 
.  tionships  of  groups  of  people  and  thus  traces  an- 
other phase  of  their  history ;  while  the  cultural 
classification  records  historical  events  of  still  an- 
other character,  the  diffusion  of  culture  from  one 
people  to  another  and  the  absorption  of  one  cul- 
ture by  another.  Thus  it  became  clear  that  the 
attempted  classifications  were  expressions  of  his- 
torical data  bearing  upon  the  unwritten  history  of 
races  and  peoples,  and  recorded  their  descent,  mix- 
ture of  blood,  changes  of  language  and  develop- 
ment of  culture.  Attempts  at  generalized  classifi- 
cations based  on  these  methods  can  claim  validity 
only  for  that  group  of  phenomena  to  which  the 
method  applies.  An  agreement  of  their  results, 
that  is,  original  association  between  somatic  type, 
language  and  culture,  must  not  be  expected." — 
F.  Boas,  History  of  anthropology  (Science,  Oct. 
21,   1004). 

Just  as  the  languages  of  Europe  have  been 
grouped  into  a  great  family,  so  linguists  have  at- 
tempted to  do  the  same  for  .America.  The  atti- 
tude toward  this  question  as  far  as  .American  posi- 
tion can  best  be  seen  in  the  following  summary: 
"As  symptomatic  of  the  synthetic  tendency  so 
pronounced  in  recent  years  may  be  cited  the  sig- 
nificant utterance  of  one  of  the  most  competent 
collaborators,  E.  Sapir,  to  the  effect  that  the  fifty- 
seven  linguistic  families  hitherto  officially  recog- 
nized will  be  ultimately  reduced  to  not  more  than 
about  sixteen.     On  the  other  hand,  a  more  skep- 


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tical  attitude  is  maintained  editorially.  In  his 
'Introductory'  statement  Boas  explains  that  while 
far-reaching  morphological  resemblances  may  be 
based  on  community  of  origin  the  absence  of  his- 
torical data  for  primitive  languages  precludes  t"he 
evidence  from  becoming  demonstrative;  what  is 
interpreted  by  some  as  the  result  of  an  ultimate 
connection  may  be  due  merely  to  assimilation  re- 
sulting from  contact.  Accordingly,  Boas  regards 
the  minute  study  of  dialectic  differentiation  as  af- 
fording a  more  promising  field  for  research  than 
the  quest  for  remote  relationships.  He  likewise 
calls  attention  to  the  study  of  literary  form  as  a 
well-nigh  neglected  but  extremely  fruitful  task  for 
the  linguist.  In  spite  of  all  methodological  warn- 
ings the  consolidation  of  languages  once  reckoned 
as  distinct  is  progressing  merrily,  especially  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  Yuki  now  remains  as  the  solitary 
isolated  form  of  speech,  all  others  having  been 
linked  with  larger  groups." — University  oj  Cali- 
fornia publications,  {American  Archaeology  and 
Ethnology,  v.  13,  no.  1) . — See  also  Indians,  Amer- 
ican: Linguistic  characteristics. 

In  a  similar  way  Father  Schmidt,  the  editor  of 
Anthropos,  a  German  anthropological  periodical, 
has  worked  on  the  languages  of  Australia,  and 
British  colonial  offices  and  government  ethnolo- 
gists like  N.  W.  Thomas  are  preparing  the  native 
languages  of  Africa. 

Physical  anthropology. — Physical  anthropology 
deals  with  man  past  and  present.  In  the  late 
years  of  the  iqth  century  several  remarkable  finds 
of  remains  of  fossil  man  were  made  in  Western 
Europe.  Famous  among  these  are  the  Heidelberg 
jaw,  the  Neanderthal  skull,  the  Grunaldi  and  Cro- 
magnon  skeletons  of  Southern  France  and  the  Pilt- 
down  man  of  England.  Still  more  important  is 
the  Pithecanthropus  Erectus  found  in  iSgS  bv  E. 
DuBois  near  the  Frimil  River  in  Java.  From  these 
fossil  remains  physical  anthropologists  try  to  re- 
construct the  appearance  of  prehistoric  man.  Af- 
ter the  pioneers  mentioned  by  Duckworth,  there  is 
a  group  of  distinguished  men  in  the  loth  century 
who  each  contributed  something  vital  to  physical 
anthropology.  Among  them  are  A.  de  Quatrefages, 
Topinard  and  Bertillon  in  France,  Virchow  in  Ger- 
many and  Sergi  in  Italy  and  Galton  and  Pearson 
in  England.  Bertillon  first  used  the  term  anthro- 
pometry to  designate  a  system  of  identification  de- 
pending on  the  unchanging  character  of  certain 
measurements  of  parts  of  the  human  frame.  His 
methods  were  applied  principally  to  criminology 
and  have  been  replaced  by  the  finger  print  system 
invented  by  Francis  Galton.  Craniometry  was 
begun  very  early  by  artists  who  wished  to  get  more 
accurate  measurements  of  the  human  figure.  Ex- 
act measuring  of  the  head  was  developed  further 
by  Anders  Retzius,  w'ho  worked  out  the  system 
of  comparing  various  measurements  of  the  skull  in 
indices  and  classifying  objects  accordincly.  The 
best  known  of  these  indices  is  the  cephalic  index, 
the  formula  of  which  is: 

Width    of   skull   in   millimeters   x    100 
Length  of  skull  in   millimeters  x   100 

This  gives  a  percentage  index  and  these  indices 
are  classified: 

X  -  74.g  dolichocephalic  (long) 
75.0  -  7Q.q  mesocephalic  (medium) 
80.0  -  X  brachyccphalic  (short) 

Karl  Pearson's  contribution  to  physical  anthro- 
pology is  the  application  of  the  methods  of  statis- 
tical science  in  dealing  with  large  numbers  of  bio- 
metric  data. 


Ethnology. — .'Mtho  the  earliest  ethnologists 
were  Herodotus,  Strabo  and  Lucretius,  it  was  only 
comparatively  recently  that  real  ethnologies  were 
written.  In  1850  there  appeared  one  of  the  first 
synthetic  works  which  is  still  valuable  to-day, 
Waetz,  'Anthropologic  der  Naturvolker.'  In  1885 
Ratzel  began  to  publish  his  \  blkerkunde.  Later 
Kean's  'Ethnology'  and  Deruber's  book  were  de- 
voted to  an  account  of  a  single  people.  This  sort 
of  monograph  is  becoming  more  and  more  com- 
prehensive and  is  advocated  especially  by  the  his- 
torical school  of  anthropologists,  for  it  gives  those 
small  blocks  from  which  to  build  up  culture.  In 
America  especially  these  monographs  have  been 
produced  with  great  success.  A  good  ethnological 
monograph  must  include:  arts  and  industries  witn 
exact  descriptions  of  techniques  employed;  food, 
how  secured  and  its  preparation;  type  of  shelter, 
how  built,  materials  used;  clothing  and  personal 
decoration;  social  organization,  political  organiza 
tion,  religions,  ceremonials;  mythologv',  folk  tale, 
and  customs;  relations  to  neighboring  peoples;  pas^ 
history  obtained  through  archeology  if  possible. 
When  an  account  like  this  is  available  for  large 
areas  then  generalizations  about  economic  life, 
social  and  religious  developments,  etc,  can  be 
made.  Before  this  comprehensive  ethnology  was 
developed  loth  century  writers  spent  much  time 
in  the  various  fields  of  ethnology.  In  theories 
about  social  organizations  the  names  of  Bachofen. 
Morgan  and  ilcl.ennan  must  be  mentioned.  In 
primitive  religion  Tylor,  Herbert  Spencer,  Frazer 
and  Durkheim  all  figure  as  the  authors  of  valu- 
able treatises,  the  first  three  as  exponents  of  the 
evolutionary  theory  of  culture.  Economic  life 
and  ethics  have  also  been  studied  separately.  The 
former  is  a  monumental  work  by  Halen  and  the 
latter  by  Westermarck  on  the  'Origin  and  Develop- 
ment of  Moral  Ideas'  and  Hobhouse's,  'Morals  in 
Evolution.'  Folklore  and  mythology  is  not  con- 
fined to  primitive  peoples  but  probably  received 
its  first  stimulations  from  the  collection  of  Euro- 
pean fairy  tales  made  by  the  Grimm  Brothers. — 
See  also  Ethnology;  Mythology:  Meaning  of 
word.  This  summary  of  the  progress  of  anthro- 
pology can  best  be  closed  by  quoting  what  Franz 
Boas  considers  the  outlook  and  value  of  anthro 
pology: 

".\  last  word  as  to  the  value  that  the  anthropo- 
logical method  is  assuming  in  the  general  system 
of  our  culture  and  education.  I  do  not  wish  to 
refer  to  its  practical  value  to  those  who  have  to 
deal  with  foreign  races  or  with  national  questions 
Of  greater  educational  importance  is  its  power  to 
make  us  understand  the  roots  from  which  our 
civilization  has  sprung,  that  it  impresses  us  with 
the  relative  value  of  all  forms  of  culture,  and  thus 
serves  as  a  check  to  an  exaggerated  valuation  of 
the  standpoint  of  our  own  period,  which  we  are 
only  too  liable  to  consider  the  ultimate  goal  of 
human  evolution,  thus  depriving  ourselves  of  the 
benefits  to  be  gained  from  the  teachings  of  other 
cultures  and  hindering  an  objective  criticism  of 
our  own  work." — F.  Boas,  History  of  anthropology 
(Science.  Oct.  21,  IQ04). — See  also  Africa:  Races 
of  Africa:  Prehistoric  peoples;  Haw.^han  Islands: 
Anthropology  of  the  islands;  Indians,  American; 
Origins  of  the  American  Indian ;  M.\lav,  Malaysian 
OR  BROWN  race;  Matriarchate ;  Mexico:  Aborig- 
inal peoples;  New  Zealand:  1375-1642;  Super- 
stitions. 

Also  in:  F.  Boas,  Mind  of  primitive  man. — 
R.  H.  Lowie,  Primitive  society. ^Ibid.,  Culture  and 
ethnology. — R.  R.  Marett,  Anthropology .—K.  F. 
Osborn,  Men  of  the  old  Stone  Age. — E.  B.  Tylor, 
Primitive  culture. 


372 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM 


ANTI-FEDERALISTS 


ANTHROPOMORP,HISM:     Greek    religion. 

See    Mvthology:     Greek    mythology:    Anthropo- 
morphic character  of  Greek  myth. 

ANTI-ADIAPHORISTS.  See  Germany: 
1546-1552. 

ANTI-BOLSHEVISM:  Russia.  See  Russia: 
iQi8-ig20,   1920,   1920   (October-November). 

ANTI-BOYCOTT  LAWS.  See  Boycott:  Re- 
cent judicial  decisions. 

ANTI-CLERICALISM,  in  European  politics, 
the  doctrine  of  those  opposing  the  influence  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  secular  affairs.  In 
France  and  Italy  the  anti-clerical  elements  have 
perhaps  been  stronger  than  in  other  Catholic  coun- 
tries, but  their  influence  in  Germany,  Spain  and 
Portugal  has   been   considerable. 

ANTI-COMBINE  LAWS:  Canada.  See 
Trusts:   Canada;    1010-1912. 

ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE,  an  organiza- 
tion in  England  which  began  to  e.xercise  great  in- 
fluence in  politics  about  1838,  Richard  Cobden  and 
John  Bright  being  its  leading  spokesmen.  The 
corn  laws  had  for  many  years  imposed  heavy 
duties  on  grain,  especially  wheat.  The  agitation 
conducted  by  the  league  and  its  able  leaders  helped 
to  bring  about  the  reduction  of  the  duties  in  1846, 
and  their  practical  abolition  in  1849.  At  this 
period,  free  trade  began  to  be  adopted  as  the  gen- 
eral policy  for  the  United  Kingdom. — See  also 
Tariff:  1836-1841;  1S45-1S46. 

ANTICOSTI:  1763.— Added  to  government 
of  Newfoundland.     See  Canada:    i 763-1 774. 

ANTIETAM,  Battle  of.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1862 
(September:  Maryland) :  Lee's  first  invasion: 
Harper's   ferry. 

ANTI-FEDERALISTS,  a  political  party  in  the 
United  States  opposed  to  the  ratification  of  the 
constitution,  led  by  Patrick  Henry  and  George 
Clinton,  and  others.  Their  opposition  was  mani- 
fested, though  feebly,  during  the  session  of  the 
First  Congress.  "At  one  extreme  of  the  Anti- 
federal  party  was  a  body  of  men,  numerous,  re- 
spectable, and  not  without  influence,  who  leaned 
toward  monarchy  and  were  for  setting  up  a  king. 
They  could,  they  protested,  see  no  way  out  of 
the  ills  that  lay  so  thick  on  either  hand  but  by 
abandoning  the  attempt  at  republican  government, 
and  taking  refuge  in  that  very  system  they  had 
with  so  much  difficulty  just  thrown  off.  At  the 
other  extreme  were  to  be  found  many  men  of  note ; 
almost  all  the  first  characters  in  the  country,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  community.  They  ab- 
horred, they  said,  the  idea  of  a  monarchy;  they 
would  never  give  up  the  idea  of  a  republic.  But 
they  were  convinced  that  no  one  republican  gov- 
ernment could  rule  harmoniously  over  so  vast  a 
country,  and  over  such  conflicting  interests.  They 
were  therefore  for  three  separate  confederations, 
marked  off  by  such  boundaries  as  difference  of  cli- 
mate, diversity  of  occupations,  and  the  natural 
products  of  the  soil  required.  Everybody  knew 
that  the  eastern  men  were  fishers  and  shippers  and 
merchants,  while  the  southern  men  were  planters 
and  farmers.  The  late  discussion  over  the  Mis- 
sissippi had  shown  how  impossible  it  was  to  recon- 
cile the  interests  of  men  so  variously  employed. 
It  was  better,  therefore,  that  they  should  part ;  and 
that,  as  Massachusetts  built  her  ships  and  Virginia 
raised  her  tobacco  and  her  slaves  under  different 
climates,  they  should  do  so  under  different  flags. 
They  hoped  there  would  be  three  republics:  a 
republic  of  the  East,  a  republic  of  the  Middle 
States,  and  a  republic  of  the  South.  .  .  .  And  now 
the  minority  published  an  address.  It  was  not, 
they  said,  till  the  termination  of  the  late  glorious 
contest   that   any   defects   were   discovered  in   the 


Confederation.  Then  of  a  sudden  it  was  found 
to  be  in  such  a  shocking  condition  that  a  conven- 
tion was  called  by  Congress  to  revise  it.  To  this 
convention  came  a  few  men  of  the  first  character, 
some  men  more  noted  for  ambition  and  cunning 
than  for  patriotism,  and  some  who  had  always 
been  enemies  to  the  independence  of  the  States. 
The  session  lasted  four  months,  and  what  took 
place  during  that  time  no  one  could  tell.  Tue 
doors  were  closed.  The  members  were  put  under 
the  most  solemn  engagements  of  secrecy.  The  jour- 
nals of  the  conclave  were  still  hidden.  Yet  i  was 
well  known  that  the  meeting  was  far  from  peace- 
ful. Some  delegates  had  quitted  the  hall  before 
the  work  was  finished;  some  had  refused  to  lend 
their  names  to  it  when  it  was  done.  But  the  plan 
came  out  in  spite  of  this,  and  was  scarce  an  hour 
old  when  petitions,  approving  of  the  system  and 
praying  the  Legislature  to  call  a  convention,  were 
to  be  found  in  every  coffee-house  ^nd  tavern  in 
the  city.  No  means  were  spared  to  frighten  the 
people  against  opposing  it.  The  newspapers  teemed 
with  abuse;  threats  of  tar  and  feathers  were  lib- 
erally made.  The  petitions  came  in,  the  conven- 
tion was  called  by  a  Legislature  made  up  in  part 
of  members  who  had  been  dragged  to  their  seats 
to  make  a  quorum,  and  so  early  a  day  set  for  the 
election  of  delegates  that  many  people  did  not 
know  of  it  till  the  time  had  passed.  The  lists  of 
voters  showed  that  seventy  thousand  freemen  were 
entitled  to  vote  in  Pennsylvania,  yet  the  conven- 
tion had  been  elected  by  but  thirteen  thousand. 
Forty-six  members  had  ratified  the  new  plan,  yet 
these  represented  but  six  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred voters.  Some  freemen  had  kept  away  from 
the  polls  because  of  ignorance  of  the  plan,  some 
because  they  did  not  think  the  convention  had 
been  legally  called,  and  some  because  they  feared 
violence  and  insult.  The  ratification  was  in  their 
opinion  worthless.  Twenty-one  of  the  twenty- 
three  put  their  names  to  the  address.  .  .  .  But  the 
Antifederalists  were  not,  they  maintained,  to  be 
misled  by  the  glamour  of  grea't  names.  They  had 
seen  names  as  great  as  any  at  the  foot  of  the 
Constitution  subscribed  to  the  present  reprobated 
Articles  of  Confederation.  Nay,  some  of  the  very 
men  who  had  put  their  hands  to  the  one  had  also 
put  their  hands  to  the  other.  Had  not  Roger 
Sherman  and  Robert  Morris  recommended  the 
Confederation  ?  If  these  patriots  had  erred  once, 
was  there  any  reason  to  suppose  that  they,  or  a 
succeeding  set,  could  not  err  a  second  time?  Had 
a  few  years  added  to  their  age  made  them  in- 
faUible?  Was  it  not  true  that  the  Federalists,  who 
so  warmly  supported  the  new  plan  and  would 
force  it  down  the  throats. of  their  fellows  because 
Franklin  had  signed  it,  affected  to  despise  the  Con- 
stitution of  Pennsylvania  which  was  the  work  of 
no  one  so  much  as  of  that  same  venerable  patriot? 
What,  then,  was  the  value  of  these  boasted  great 
names?  Many  of  the  signers,  it  was  quite  true, 
had  done  noble  deeds.  No  one  could  forget  the 
debt  of  gratitude  the  continent  owed  to  the  il- 
lustrious Washington.  But  it  was  well  known  that 
he  was  more  used  to  command  as  a  soldier  than 
to  reason  as  a  politician.  Franklin  was  too  old. 
As  for  Hamilton  and  the  rest  of  them,  they  were 
mere  boys.  These  unkind  remarks  called  forth  the 
highest  indignation  from  the  Federalists.  But  party 
spirit  ran  high,  and  it  was  not  long  before  one  of 
their  antagonists  went  so,  far  as  to  assert,  that  to 
talk  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Great  Commander  and 
the  Great  Philosopher  was  to  talk  nonsense;  for 
Washington  was  a  fool  from  nature,  and  Franklin 
was  a  fool  from  age." — J.  C.  McMaster,  History 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  v.  i,  pp.  393, 


373 


ANTIGONID  KINGS 


ANTIOCH 


473,  406-467. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1787-1789;  1789- 
1792. 

Also  in  a  broadside  entitled,  Address  and  rea- 
sons of  dissent  of  the  minority  of  the  convention 
of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  to  their  constituents. 

ANTIGONID  KINGS.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  307- 

197- 

ANTIGONUS  CYCLOPS  (382-301  B.C.), 
Macedonian  king.  See  M.acedonxa ;  B.  C.  323-316, 
315-310,  310-301  ;  Rhiioks,  Island  of:  B.  C.  304. 

ANTIGONUS  GONATUS  (c.  319-239  B.C.), 
Macedonian  king.  See  .\ihe.ns:  B.C.  288-263; 
M.ACEuu.sn:    B.C.  277-244. 

ANTIGUA,  one  of  the  British  West  Indian 
islands.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  settled 
by  the  British  in  1632 ;  in  1834  slavery  was  abol- 
i.<ihed. 

ANTI-IMPERIALISTS,  League  of  American. 
See  U.  S.  A.:   1000   (Mav-Xovember) . 

ANTI-JAPANESE  AGITATION:  Califor- 
nia.    See  R.ACE  problems:   1913-1021. 

ANTILLES,  ANTILIA.— "Familiar  as  is  the 
name  of  the  ."Vntilles,  few  are  aware  of  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  word ;  while  its  precise  significance 
>ets  etymology  at  defiance.  Common  consent 
identified  the  Antilia  of  legend  with  the  Isle  of  the 
Seven  Cities.  In  the  year  734,  says  the  story,  the 
.■\rabs  having  conquered  most  of  the  Spanish  pen- 
insula, a  number  of  Christian  emigrants,  under 
the  direction  of  seven  holy  bishops,  among  them 
the  archbishop  of  Oporto,  sailed  westward  with  all 
that  they  had,  and  reached  an  island  where  they 
founded  seven  towns.  .\rab  geographers  speak  of 
an  .Atlantic  island  called  in  Arabic  El-tennyn,  or 
.■M-tin  (Isle  of  Serpents),  a  name  which  may  f>os- 
sibly  have  become  by  corruption  Antilia.  .  .  .  The 
seven  bishops  were  believed  in  the  i6th  century 
to  be  still  represented  by  their  successors,  and  to 
preside  over  a  numerous  and  wealthy  people.  Most 
geographers  of  the  15th  century  believed  in  the 
e.xistence  of  .Antilia.  It  was  represented  as  lying 
west  of  the  .\zores.  ...  .As  soon  as  it  became 
known  in  Europe  that  Columbus  had  discovered  a 
large  island,  Espanola  was  at  once  identified  with 
.Antilia,  .  .  .  and  the  name  .  .  .  has  ever  since 
been  applied  generally  to  the  West  Indian  islands." 
— -E.  J.  Payne,  History  of  the  \ew  World  called 
America,  v.  i,  p.  98 — See  also  West  Indies. 

ANTILLES,  U.  S.  army  transport  sunk  by  sub- 
marine. See  World  W.\r:  1917:  IX.  Naval  opera- 
tions:   c,  2. 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  American,  a  party 
opposed  to  secret  societies,  especially  to  Free  Ma- 
sons. The  deeper  causes  of  this  movement  are 
probably  to  be  found  in  the  desire  for  social  and 
political  reorganization  which  came  with  the  new 
democratic  awakening  after  1814,  In  1826,  Wil- 
liam Morgan,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  threatened  to 
reveal  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic  order.  He  was 
arrested  and  a  judgment  was  obtained  against  him 
for  debt.  .After  being  taken  to  Niagara  in  a 
closed  carriage,  he  was  never  again  heard  of.  In 
western  New  York  there  developed  an  organized 
opposition  to  freemasonry  as  subversive  of  religion 
and  good  citizenship.  A  number  of  .Anti-Masons 
were  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  there  followed 
legislative  investigations  of  the  Morgan  incident 
and  of  freemasonry  in  general.  In  1830,  Thurlow 
Weed  founded  the  Albany  Evening  Journal,  which 
became  the  leading  .Anti-Masonic  newspaper  The 
Anti-Masonic  party  soon  displaced  the  National 
Republicans  as  opponents  of  the  Democrats  in 
New  York,  its  leaders  being  William  H  Seward, 
Thurlow  Weed  and  Millard  Fillmore.  The  party 
was  strong  enough  in  some  other  states  to  affect 
the    elections,   notablv    in    Pennsylvania    and    Ver- 


mont. In  their  national  convention  in  183 1,  the 
first  of  the  national  nominating  conventions,  the 
.Anti-Masons  nominated  William  Wirt  and  Amos 
Ellmaker,  hoping  to  force  Clay,  who  was  a  Mason, 
out  of  the  field.  Wirt  addressed  the  convention, 
declared  that  he  was  a  Mason  and  offered  to  with- 
draw if  he  had  been  named  under  any  misappre- 
hension. The  nomination  was  then  unanimously 
reaffirmed.  Some  of  the  more  radical  of  the  parts 
were  alienated  by  Wirt's  nomination.  In  several 
states  the  National  Republicans  indorsed  the  Anti- 
Masonic  electoral  ticket,  although  Clay  was  Jack- 
son's chief  opponent  in  the  country  at  large.  Ver- 
mont was  the  only  state  to  give  its  electoral  vote 
to  Wirt.  After  1832  the  party  rapidly  declined,  as 
it  split  on  the  questions  of  the  United  States  Bank 
and  the  tariff. — See  also  Masonic  societies:  Anti- 
Masonic  agitations;  U.  S.  A.:   1832. 

In  Mexico.     See  Me.xico:   1822-1828. 

ANTI-MILITARISM,  the  spirit  of  opposition 
to  large  standing  armies  and  extensive  armaments 
and  to  the  growth  of  a  military  caste.  In  con- 
tinental Europe  during  the  years  between  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  and  the  World  War  the  anti- 
militarists,  including  socialists  and  philosophical 
pacificists,  denounced  conscription — universal  on 
the  continent — and  the  increased  production  oi 
arms  and  munitions.  They  condemned  the  spend- 
ing of  huge  sums,  the  withdrawal  of  men  from 
industry  and  the  tendency  to  exalt  the  military 
over  the  civil  power,  and  held  that  it  was  prepara- 
tion for  war  that  brought  war.  The  sentiment 
of  anti-militarism  has  always  been  prevalent  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  the  country  has  never  been  prepared 
for  any  of  the  wars  in  which  it  has  engaged. 
America  has  always  clung  to  a  small  standing 
army,  has  kept  down  expenditures  for  arms  and 
munitions,  has  not  developed  a  military  caste  as 
known  in  Europe  and  has  adopted  conscription 
only  in  the  two  critical  emergencies  of  the  Civil 
War  and  the  World  War. — See  also  Pe.^ce  move- 
ment; Intern'.^tion.al:   i8Sq, 

ANTI-MONOPOLY  PARTY  IN  lO'WA.  See 
Io\v.\:    1871- 1874. 

ANTINOMIAN  CONTROVERSY:  Anne 
Hutchinson  in  conflict  with  the  Puritans.  See 
M.ASSAfiu-SKiT^s:    1636-1038 

ANTIOCH,  (mod.  Antakia)  a  city  near  what 
is  now  .Aleppo,  Syria,  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
son  of  .Antiochus,  (301  B.C.)  (See  Macedonia, 
etc.:  310-301  B.C.;  Seleucid.ic,  Empire  of  the; 
Syria:  B.C.  332-167.)  As  the  capital  of  Syria 
(until  the  year  65  B.C.),  the  city  rose  to  great 
splendor.  It  became  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of 
Christianity  during  the  period  33- 100  (See 
Christianity:  AD.  33-52.  According  to  tradition 
the  city  was  evangelized  by  Peter  It  is  also  said 
that  the  converts  were  the  first  to  be  called 
"Christians."  .Antioch,  more  than  any  other 
ancient  city,  suffered  keenly  from  sporadic  earth- 
(|uakes. 

A.  D.  115. — Great  earthquake.— "Early  in  the 
year  115,  according  to  the  most  exact  chronology, 
the  splendid  capital  of  Syria  was  visited  by 
an  earthquake,  one  of  the  most  disastrous  appar- 
ently of  all  the  similar  inflictions  from  which  that 
luckless  city  has  periodically  suffered.  .  .  .  The 
calamity  was  enhanced  by  the  presence  of  unusual 
crowds  from  all  the  cities  of  the  east,  assembled 
to  pay  homage  to  the  Emperor  [Trajan],  or  to 
take  part  in  his  expedition  [of  conquest  in  the 
eastl.  .Among  the  victims  were  many  Romans  of 
distinction  .  .  Trajan,  himself,  only  escaped  by 
creeping  through  a  window." — C.  Merivale,  History 
of  the  Romans,  ch.  65. 


374 


ANTIOCHUS 


ANTI-TRUST  DECISIONS 


260. — Surprise,  rriassacre  and  pillage  by  Sha- 
pur,  king  of  Persia.  See  Persia:  226-627. 
272.— Battle  of  Antioch.  See  Palmyra. 
526. — Destruction  by  earthquake. — During  the 
reign  of  Justinian  (518-565)  the  cities  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  "were  overwhelmed  by  earthquakes 
more  frequent  than  at  any  other  period  of  history. 
Antioch,  the  metropolis  of  Asia,  was  entirely  de- 
stroyed, on  the  20th  of  May,  526,  at  the  very  time 
when  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  country  were 
assembled  to  celebrate  the  festival  of  the  Ascen- 
sion; and  it  is  affirmed  that  250,000  persons  were 
crushed  by  the  fall  of  its  sumptuous  edifices." — 
J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
ch.  10. 

Also  in:  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  43. 

638. — Surrender  to  the  Arabs.  See  Caliphate: 
632-639. 

969. — Recapture  by  the  Byzantines. — After 
having  remained  328  years  in  the  possession  of  the 
Saracens,  Antioch  was  retaken  in  the  winter  of 
96Q  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Nicephorus  Phocas, 
and  became  again  a  Christian  city.  Three  years 
later  the  Moslems  made  a  sreat  effort  to  recover 
the  city,  but  were  defeated.  The  Byzantine  arms 
were  at  this  time  highly  successful  in  the  never 
ending  Saracen  war,  and  John  Tzimisces,  succes- 
sor of  Nicephorus  Phocas,  marched  triumphantly 
to  the  Tigris  and  threatened  even  Bagdad  But 
most  of  the  conquests  thus  made  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia  were  not  lasting. — G.  Finlay,  History 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  A.  D.  716-1007,  bk.  2, 
ch.  2. — See  also  Byzantine  empire:   963-1025. 

1097-1098.— Siege  and  capture  by  the  Cru- 
saders.    See  Crusades:    ioq6-ioqq. 

1268. — Extinction  of  the  Latin  Principality. — 
Total  destruction  of  the  city. — Antioch  fell,  be- 
fore the  arms  of  Bibars,  the  sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  the  Latin  principality  was  bloodily 
extinguished,  in  1268.  "The  first  seat  of  the  Chris- 
tian name  was  dispeopled  by  the  slaughter  of  sev- 
enteen, and  the  captivity  of  one  hundred  thousand 
of  her  inhabitants."  This  fate  befell  Antioch  only 
twenty-three  years  before  the  last  vestige  of  the 
conquests  of  the  crusaders  was  obliterated  at  Acre. 
— E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, ch.  50. — "The  sultan  halted  for  several  weeks 
in  the  plain,  and  permitted  his  soldiers  to  hold  a 
large  market,  or  fair,  for  the  sale  of  their  booty. 
This  market  was  attended  by  Jews  and  pedlars 
from  all  parts  of  the  East.  ...  'It  was,'  says  the 
Cadi  Mohieddin,  'a  fearful  and  heart-rending  sight. 
Even  the  hard  stones  were  softened  with  grief.' 
He  tells  us  that  the  captives  were  so  numerous 
that  a  fine  hearty  boy  might  be  purchased  for 
twelve  pieces  of  silver,  and  a  little  girl  for  five. 
When  the  work  of  pillage  had  been  completed, 
when  all  the  ornaments  and  decorations  had  been 
carried  away  from  the  churches,  and  the  lead  torn 
from  the  roofs,  Antioch  was  fired  in  different 
places,  amid  the  loud  thrilling  shouts  of  'Allah 
.\cbar,'  'God  is  Victorious.'  The  great  churches  of 
St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  burnt  with  terrific  fury  for 
many  days." — C.  G.  Addison,  The  Knights  Tem- 
plars, ch.  6. 

With  the  exception  of  the  colossal  ruins  of  the 
Roman  walls  and  aqueducts  modern  Antakia  holds 
little  of  the  ancient  city.  Although  superseded  by 
Aleppo  as  capital  of  N.  Syria,  Antakia  is  con- 
stantly growing  in  importance.  Its  present  popu 
lation  is  25,000. — See  also  Syria. 

ANTIOCHUS,  the  name  of  thirteen  kings  of 
the  Seleucid  dynasty  of  Syria.  The  most  famous 
are  Antiochus  III  (223-187  B.C.)  who  sheltered 
Hannibal  and  made  war  on  Rome  (See  Seleuci- 


dae:  224-187  B.C.),  and  Antiochus  IV  (176-164 
B.  C.)  who  attempted  the  suppression  of  Judaism 
by  persecution.  See  Jews;  B.C.  332-167;  166- 
40. 

ANTIPATER  (c.  398-319  B.C.),  Macedonian 
general  under  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great. 
Assisted  the  latter  in  establishing  his  kingdom;  re- 
gent of  Macedonia  during  Alexander's  Eastern  ex- 
pedition (334-323),  and  was  left  as  ruler  on  the 
death  of  the  king. — See  also  Greece:  B.C.  323- 
322,  321-312. 

ANTIPHONAL  SINGING.  See  Music:  An- 
cient:  B.C.  4-A.  D.  397. 

ANTI-POPE.  See  Papacy:  1056-1122  and 
after. 

ANTIQUITIES.  See  Arch.^solocical  re- 
search; ARcii.toLOGY ;  also  names  of  countries, 
subhead  Antiquities. 

"ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS"   (by  Jo- 
sephus).    See  History:   14. 
ANTI-RENTERS.    See  Livingston  Manor. 
ANTI-SALOON    LEAGUE,    United    States. 
See  Liquor  problem:   United  States:   1913-1019. 

ANTI-SEMITISM,  a  policy  of  agitation  against 
the  Jews,  on  religious,  political,  social  and  eco- 
nomic grounds.  The  anti-semitism  of  the  hall- 
century  preceding  the  World  War  had  its  origin 
in  Germany  and  Austria  and  for  many  years 
played  a  great  part  in  parliamentary  struggles.  (See 
Austria:  1895-1806,  and  after;  Jews:  Germany: 
1914-1920.)  In  Russia  and  in  Rumania  it  led 
to  severe  persecutions.  In  France  anti-semitism 
culminated  in  the  notorious  Dreyfus  case  (1894- 
1899)  in  which  justice  was  finally  done.  (See 
France:  1804-1906.)  Since  the  World  War,  agi- 
tation against  the  Jews  has  been  overshadowed  in 
all  countries  by  other  political  and  social  prob- 
lems. (See  Jews:  20th  Century.)  In  1919  and 
1920,  however,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  re- 
crudescence of  anti-semitism  in  Hungary  and  Po- 
land.— See  also  Jews:  i8th-i9th  centuries;  1914- 
1920. 

In  Austria. — 1919.  See  Austria:  1919  (Septem- 
ber). 

In  England.  See  Jews:  England:  1189;  Jews: 
England:    nth  century. 

In  France.    See  Jews:  France:  1791. 
In  Poland.     See  Poland:    igig-1920:   Status  of 
Jews. 

In  Russia.  See  Beiliss  case;  Jews:  Russia: 
1728-1880;  1817-1913;  Jews:  Russia:  Ukraine; 
Russia:    1903   (April)  ;   1913. 

In  Spain.     See  Jews:  Spain:   7th  centurv. 
ANTISEPTICS:    In  the   Middle   Ages.     See 
Medical  science:  Ancient:   loth  century. 

Lister's  reforms.  See  Medical  science:  Mod- 
ern: 19th  century:  Antiseptic  surgery  and  obstet- 
rics. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  MOVEMENT.  See  Slav- 
ER\  :    1688-1780,  and  after. 

ANTISTHENES:  Philosophy.  See  Ethics: 
.Ancient  Greece:   B.C.  4th  century. 

ANTI-TOXINS,  complex  soluble  chemical  com- 
pounds occurring  in  the  blood,  normally  or  under 
special  conditions,  that  have  the  property  of  neu- 
tralizing some  specific  poison,  usually  those  pro- 
duced in  the  human  body  by  pathogenic  bacteria ; 
they  usually  confer  immunity  or  facilitate  recovery 
from  the  disease  cau.sed  by  the  bacteria. — See  also 
Medical  science:  Modern:  19th  century:  Anti- 
toxin. 

ANTI-TRUST  ACT,  or  Sherman  Act.  See 
Sherman  anti-tri'St  act. 

ANTI-TRUST  DECISIONS,  in  United  States 
Courts.  See  Supreme  Court:  1887-1914;  1888- 
1913;  1Q14-1921;  Trusts:  1901-1Q06. 


375 


ANTI-TRUST  LEGISLATION 


ANTWERP 


ANTI-TRUST  LEGISLATION.  See  Trusts: 
1901-1Q06,  igi4. 

ANTIUM. — "Antium,  once  a  flourishing  city  of 
the  V'olsci,  and  afterwards  of  the  Romans,  their 
conquerors,  is  at  present  reduced  to  a  small  num- 
ber of  inhabitants.  Originally  it  was  without  a 
port ;  the  harbour  of  the  Antiates  having  been  the 
neighbouring  indentation  in  the  coast  of  Ceno,  now 
Nettuno,  distant  more  than  a  mile  to  the  eastward. 
.  .  .  The  piracies  of  the  ancient  Antiates  all  pro- 
ceeded from  Ceno,  or  Cerio,  where  they  had  22 
long  ships.  These  Numicius  took;  .  .  .  some  were 
taken  to  Rome  and  their  rostra  suspended  in  tri- 
umph in  the  Forum.  ...  It  [Antium]  was  reck- 
oned 260  stadia,  or  about  3^  miles,  from  Ostia." — 
Sir  W.  Cell,  Topography  of  Rome,  v.  i. 

ANTIVARI:  1915. — Promised  to  territory  of 
Croatia,  Serbia  and  Montenegro  by  Treaty  of 
London.    See  London,  Treaty  or  Pact  of. 

ANTIVESTjEUM.     See  Brit.mn:  Celtic  tribes. 

ANTOFOGASTA:  Trouble  of  Chile  and  Bo- 
livia over  town.    See  Bolivia:   1020-1021. 

ANTOINE  DE  BOURBON,  king  of  Navarre. 
ii;54-i5ti2.    See  Navarre:  1528-1563. 
'ANTOING,     Belgium:     1918.— Captured     by 
British.    See  World  War:  1918:  II.  Western  front: 
w,  2. 

ANTONELLI,  Giacomo  (1806-1876),  Italian 
cardinal.  Adviser  of  Pius  IX,  serving  as  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  state  in  1847 ;  premier  of 
the  first  constitutional  ministry  of  Pius  IX;  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1848.  Opposed  all  liberalism  and 
especially  the  Risorgimento.  See  Rome:  Modem 
city:  1850-1870. 

ANTONELLO  DA  MESSINA  (1430-1479), 
Italian  painter,  introduced  Flemish  tendencies  and 
invention  into  Italian  painting.  His  work  com- 
prises renderings  of  "Ecce  Homo,"  Madonnas, 
saints,  and  half-length  portraits,  many  of  them 
painted  on  wood.  The  nameless  picture  of  a  man 
in  the  Berlin  Museum  is  said  to  be  the  finest  of 
them  all. 

ANTONINES.    See  Rome:  A.  D.  138-180. 

ANTONINUS,  Marcus  Aurelius.  See  Mas- 
cus  Aurelius  .\ntoninus. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Roman  emperor,  A.  D. 
138-161.    See  Rome:  Empire:  138-180. 

ANTONIO,  known  as  "The  Prior  of  Crato" 
'(1531-1595)1  a  Portuguese  monk,  claimant  of  the 
Ihrone  of  Portugal.  Routed  by  the  Duke  of  Alva 
in  15S0  at  Alcantara  (See  also  Portugal:  1579- 
1580)  ;  fled  to  France  and  later  to  England,  whence 
in  1590  he  accompanied  Drake  and  Norris  to  Por- 
tugal in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  provoke  an 
uprising   against  Philip  II. 

ANTONIUS,  the  name  of  many  prominent  cit- 
izens of  Rome,  of  the  gens  Antonia.  The  most 
important  are  the  following: 

Antonius,  Lucius,  brother  of  the  triumvir. 
Tribune  of  the  people  in  44;  supported  his  brother 
after  Caesar's  murder;  consul  in  41.  As  defender 
of  those  who  suffered  by  the  land  distribution  of 
the  triumvirate,  entered  the  Persian  War;  defeated 
and  sent  to  Spain  as  governor  by  Octavius. 

Antonius  Marcus  (143-87  B.C.),  a  distini;uished 
orator;   praetor  in   Cilicia;   consul  in   99   B.C. 

Antonius  Marcus  (d.  72-71  B.C.),  a  military 
leader,  who  failed  in  his  operations  against  the 
pirates  and  against  the   Cretans. 

Antonius  Marcus  (S3 -30  B.  C),  known  as  Mark 
Antony,  the  triumvir.  Raised  to  power  by  Csesar; 
triumvir  with  Octavius  and  Lepidus,  his  province 
being  Gaul ;  fell  a  victim  to  the  charms  of  Cleo- 
patra ;  by  a  new  division  of  the  empire,  ruled  the 
East,  where  he  attempted  to  eubdue  the  Parthians. 
In  32  B.  C.  the  senate  deprived  him  of  power  and 


declared  war  on  Cleopatra.  Antony,  fighting  in 
her  behalf,  was  defeated  at  Actium,  31  B.C.  and 
both  committed  suicide. — See  also  Egypt:  B.C.  48- 
30;  Rome:  Republic:  B.C.  50-49,  48,  44-42,  44-31, 
44:  After  Ca-sar's  death,  31. 

ANTRIM,  a  county  of  Ulster  in  the  north-east 
corner  of  Ireland.    See  Ireland:  Historical  map 

ANTRUSTIONES.— In  the  Salic  law,  of  the 
Franks,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  recognized  order 
of  nobility.  "We  meet,  however,  with  several  titles 
denoting  temporary  rank,  derived  from  offices  po- 
litical and  judicial,  or  from  a  position  about  the 
person  of  the  king.  Among  these  the  Antrustiones, 
who  were  in  constant  attendance  upon  the  king, 
played  a  conspicuous  part.  .  .  .  Antrustiones  and 
Convivae  Regis  [Romans  who  held  the  same  posi- 
tion] are  the  predecessors  of  the  Vassi  Dominici 
of  later  times,  and  like  these  were  bound  to  the 
king  by  an  especial  oath  of  personal  and  perpetual 
service.  They  formed  part,  as  it  were,  of  the 
king's  family,  and  were  expected  to  reside  in  the 
palace,  where  they  superintended  the  various  de- 
partments of  the  royal  household." — W.  C.  Perry, 
The  Franks,  ch.  10. — See  also  Franks:   500-768. 

ANTUNG-MUKDEN  RAILWAY.  See 
Ciuna:   1905-1909. 

ANTWERP.— Principal  seaport  and  fortress  of 
Belgium  and  one  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
the  world.  It  is  situated  on  the  Scheldt  sixty 
miles  from  the  North  sea  and  twenty-eight  north 
of  Brussels. 

Name  of  the  city. — Its  commercial  greatness 
in  the  16th  century. — "The  city  was  so  ancient 
that  its  genealogists,  with  ridiculous  gravity,  as- 
cended to  a  period  two  centuries  before  the  Tro- 
jan war,  and  discovered  a  giant,  rejoicing  in  the 
classic  name  of  Antigonus,  established  on  the 
Scheld.  This  patriarch  exacted  one  half  the  mer- 
chandise of  all  navigators  who  passed  his  castle, 
and  was  accustomed  to  amputate  and  cast  into  the 
river  the  right  hands  of  those  who  mfringed  this 
simple  tariff.  Thus  'Hand-werpen,'  hand-throwing, 
became  Antwerp,  and  hence,  two  hands,  in  the  es- 
cutcheon of  the  city,  were  ever  held  up  in  heraldic 
attestation  of  the  truth.  The  giant  was,  in  his  turn, 
thrown  into  the  Scheld  by  a  hero,  named  Brabo, 
from  whose  exploits  Brabant  derived  its  name. 
.  .  .  But  for  these  antiquarian  researches,  a  sim- 
pler derivation  of  the  name  would  seem  'an  t'  werf,' 
'on  the  wharf.'  It  had  now  [in  the  first  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century]  become  the  principal  en- 
trepot and  exchange  of  Europe  .  .  .  the  commer- 
cial capital  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Venice,  Nuremburg, 
."Xugsburg,  Bruges,  were  sinking,  but  .Antwerp,  with 
its  deep  and  convenient  river,  stretched  its  arm  to 
the  ocean  and  caught  the  golden  prize,  as  it  fell 
from  its  sister  cities'  grasp.  .  .  .  No  city,  except 
Paris,  surpassed  it  in  population,  none  approached 
it  in  commercial  splendor." — J.  L.  Motley,  Rise  of 
the  Dutch  republic.  Historical  introduction,  sect. 
13. — See  also  Netherlands:  Map  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  Belgium. 

16th  century. — Commercial  importance.  See 
Commerce:  Era  of  geographic  expansion:  i6th-i7th 
centuries:  Netherlands;  and  ComiiIekce:  Medieval: 
8th-i6th  centuries. 

16th  century. — Famous  school  of  art.  See 
Painting:  Flemish. 

1566. — Riot  of  the  image-breakers  in  the 
churches.     See  Netherlands:   1566. 

1576. — Spanish  Fury.    See  Netherlands:  iS7S- 

1577. 

1577. — Deliverance  of  the  city  from  its  Span- 
ish garrison. — Demolition  of  the  citadel.  See 
Netherlands:    1577-1581. 

1583. — Treacherous   attempt   of   the   duke   of 


376 


ANTWERP,  SCHOOL  OF 


APALACHEE  INDIANS 


Anjou. — French  Fury.     See  Netherlands:   1581- 
1584- 

1584-1585. — Siege  and  reduction  by  Alexander 
Farnese,  duke  of  Parma. — Downfall  of  pros- 
perity.    See  Netherlands;   15S5. 

1706. — Surrendered  to  Marlborough  and  the 
Allies.    See  Netherlands:  1706-1707. 

1832. — Siege  of  the  citadel  by  the  French. — 
Expulsion  of  the  Dutch  garrison.  See  Belgium: 
1830-1S32. 

1914. — German  occupation. — At  the  time  of  the 
German  invasion  of  Belgium,  August,  1914,  Ant- 
werp would  have  been  the  natural  place  of  debark- 
ation of  the  British  Expeditionary  forces,  but  this 
would  have  been  a  violation  of  international  law 
because  the  seaward  approaches  of  Antwerp  (the 
mouths  of  Scheldt)  lay  in  neutral  Dutch  territory. 
After  the  fall  of  Brussels  the  entire  Belgian  de- 
fense centered  about  Antwerp.  On  September  28, 
1914,  the  Germans  opened  fire  upon  the  outer 
forts.  On  October  5  the  Belgian  army  began  to 
withdraw  from  the  city,  and  the  Germans  occupied 
it  on  October  q,  1914.^-See  also  World  War:  1914: 
Western  front:   c,  1;  also  Western  front. 

1916-1918. — German  rule. — Retaken  by  the 
Allies.  See  World  War:  X,  German  rule  in  north- 
ern France  and  Belgium:  b,  1;  1918;  XI.  End  of 
war:  c;  d,  1. 

Modern  aspects. — For  centuries  the  city  has 
been  regarded  as  one  of  the  strongest  fortiiied 
places  in  Europe  and  during  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  fortifications  were  modern- 
ized by  the  celebrated  Belgian  engineer  Brialmont. 
The  waterfront  of  Antwerp  was  largely  rebuilt  by 
Napoleon,  but  of  the  vast  docks  and  basins  which 
he  constructed  but  few  remain  in  their  original 
form.  The  new  wharves  which  have  been  built 
since  1S77  are  over  three  miles  in  length,  so  that 
the  modern  harbor  ranks  with  that  of  Hamburg  as 
the  best  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  famous 
citadel  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century  was  razed 
in  1 8  74.  The  most  recent  of  the  modern  con- 
structions of  the  city  is  the  great  stadium  specially 
erected  for  the  Olympic  games  of  1920. — See  also 
Belgium:    1920:  Olympic  games. 

ANTWERP,  School  of,  a  sbtteenth  century 
school  of  Flemish  painters  begun  with  Matsys. 
The  pupils  of  this  school,  Mabuse,  Frans  Floris, 
Bernard  van  Orley,  Peter  Pourbus,  and  Antonio 
Moro  went  to  Italy  and  eventually  became  Italian- 
ized.— See  also  Painting:  Flemish. 

ANZAC,  cove  on  the  north-western  coast  of 
Gallipoli,  so-called  because  of  the  landing  of  the 
Anzacs.  See  World  War:  1915:  VI.  Turkey:  a,  4, 
XX ;  a,  6. 

ANZACS,  a  composite  word  used  to  designate 
the  British  colonial  troops  engaged  in  the  World 
War,  made  by  taking  the  initial  letters  of  the 
words  Australia-New  Zealand  army  corps. — See 
also  Australia:  1914-1915;  World  War:  1915:  VI. 
Turkey:  a,  4,  xvii;  1917:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c, 
1,  ii;  c,  1,  iv. 

AOSTA,  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Duke  of  (i86g-  ), 
Italian  general,  cousin  of  Kin;  Victor  Emmanuel 
III  and  a  grandson  of  King  Amadeus  of  Spain; 
commanded  the  Italian  3d  army  in  a  well-conducted 
retreat  to  the  Piave  river  after  the  Caporetto  dis- 
aster of  1917.  See  World  War:  1917:  IV.  Austro- 
Italian  front:  e;  d,  1. 

Against  Austrian  offensive.  See  World  War: 
191S:   I\^  .'\ustro-Italian   theater:   b. 

APA  SAHIB  (d.  1840) :  Revolts  in  India.  See 
India:   1816-1810. 

APACHE  INDIANS.— Under  the  general  name 
of  the  Apaches  "I  include  all  the  savage  tribes 
roaming  through  New  Mexico,  the  north-western 


portion  of  Texas,  a  small  part  of  northern  Mexico, 
and  Arizona.  .  .  .  Owing  to  their  roving  procU\'- 
ities  and  incessant  raids  they  are  led  first  in  oat 
direction  and  then  in  another.  In  general  terms 
they  may  be  said  to  range  about  as  follows:  The 
Comanches,  Jetans,  or  Nauni,  consisting  of  three 
tribes,  the  Comanches  proper,  the  Yamparacks,  andi 
Tenawas,  inhabiting  northern  Texas,  eastern  Chi^ 
huahua,  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  Durango,  and  por- 
tions of  SQuth-western  New  Mexico,  by  language 
allied  to  the  Shoshone  family ;  the  Apaches,  who 
call  themselves  Shis  Inday,  or  'men  of  the  woods,' 
and  whose  tribal  divisions  are  the  Chiricaguis, 
Coyoteros,  Faraones,  Gileiios,  Lipancs,  Llaneros, 
Mescaleros,  Mimbreiios,  Nata'.:es,  Pclones,  Pina- 
leiios,  Tejuas,  Tontos,  and  Vaqueros,  roaming  over 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Northwestern  Texas,  Chi- 
huahua and  Sonora,  and  who  are  allied  by  lan- 
guage to  the  great  Tinneh  family;  the  Navajos,  or 
Tenuai,  'men,'  as  they  designate  themselves,  having 
linguistic  affinities  with  the  Apache  nation,  with 
which  they  are  sometimes  classed,  living  in  and 
around  the  Sierra  de  los  Mimbres;  the  Mojaves, 
occupying  both  banks  of  the  Colorado  in  Mojave 
Valley ;  the  Hualapais,  near  the  head-waters  of  Bill 
Williams  Fork;  the  Yumas,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Colorado,  near  its  junction  with  the  Rio  Gila; 
the  Cosninos,  who,  like  the  Hualapais,  are  some- 
times included  in  the  Apache  nation,  ranging 
through  the  Mogollon  Mountains;  and  the  Yam- 
pais,  between  Bill  Williams  Fork  and  the  Rio  Has- 
sayampa.  .  .  .  The  Apache  country  is  probably  the 
most  desert  of  all.  ...  In  both  mountain  and  des- 
ert the  fierce,  rapacious  Apache,  inured  from  child- 
hood to  hunger  and  thirst,  and  heat  and  cold,  finds 
safe  retreat.  .  .  .  The  Pueblos  .  .  .  are  nothing  but 
partially  reclaimed  Apaches  or  Comanches." — H.  H. 
Bancroft,  Native  races  of  the  Pacific  states,  v.  1, 
eh.  5. — Dr.  Brinton  prefers  the  name  Yuma  for  the 
whole  of  the  Apache  group,  confining  the  name 
Apache  (that  being  the  Yuma  word  for  "fightine, 
men")  to  the  one  tribe  so  called.  "It  has  also  beeni 
called  the  Katchan  or  Cuchan  stock." — D.  G.  Brin- 
ton, The  American  race,  p.  109. — See  also  Atha- 
pascan faiuly;  Indians,  American:  Cultural  areaS' 
in  North  America;  Southwest  area. 

Subjugation.  See  Arizona:  1877;  Indians, 
American:   1S86;  U.  S.  A.:   1S66-1876. 

APALACHEE  INDIANS.— "Among  the  ab- 
original tribes  of  the  United  States  perhaps  none  is 
more  enigmatical  than  the  Apalaches.  They  are 
mentioned  as  an  important  nation  by  many  of  the 
early  French  and  Spanish  travellers  and  historians, 
their  name  is  preserved  by  a  bay  and  river  on  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  by  the  great 
eastern  coast  ran;e  of  mountains,  and  has  been 
applied  by  ethnologists  to  a  family  of  cognate  na- 
tions that  found  their  hunting  grounds  from  the 
Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic  and  from  the  Ohio  river 
to  the  Florida  Keys;  yet,  strange  to  say,  their  own 
race  and  place  have  been  but  guessed  at."  The 
derivation  of  the  name  of  the  Apalaches  "has  been 
a  'questio  vexata'  among  Indianologists."  We  must 
"consider  it  an  indication  of  ancient  connections 
with  the  southern  continent,  and  in  itself  a  pure 
Carib  word  '.^paliche'  in  the  Tamanaca  dialect  of 
the  Guaranay  stem  on  the  Orinoco  signifies  'man,* 
and  the  earliest  application  of  the  name  in  the 
northern  continent  was  as  the  title  of  the  chief 
of  a  country,  'I'homme  par  excellence,'  and  hence, 
like  very  many  other  Indian  tribes  (.Apaches,  Lenni 
Lenape,  Illinois),  his  subjects  assumed  by  eminence 
the  proud  appellation  of  'The  Men.'  .  .  .  We  have 
.  .  .  found  that  though  no  general  migration  took 
place  from  the  continent  southward,  nor  from  the 
islands  northward,  yet  there  was  a  considerable  in- 


377 


APALACHEN 


APOLLO 


tcrcourse  in  both  directions;  that  not  only  the 
natives  of  the  greater  and  lesser  Antilles  and  Yu- 
catan, but  also  numbers  of  the  Guaranay  stem  of 
the  southern  continent,  the  Caribs  proper,  crossed 
the  Straits  of  Florida  and  founded  colonies  on  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  that  their  customs 
and  language  became  to  a  certain  extent  grafted 
upon  those  of  the  early  possessors  of  the  soil;  and 
to  this  foreign  language  the  name  Apalache  be- 
longs. As  previously  stated,  it  was  used  as  a  gen- 
eric title,  applied  to  a  confederation  of  many  na- 
tions at  one  time  under  the  domination  of  one 
chief,  whose  power  probably  extended  from  the 
Alleghany  mountains  on  the  north  to  the  shore  of 
the  Gulf;  that  it  included  tribes  speaking  a  tongue 
closely  akin  to  the  Choktah  is  evident  from  the 
fragments  we  have  remaining.  .  .  .  The  location  of 
the  tribe  in  alter  years  is  very  uncertain.  Dumont 
placed  them  in  the  northern  part  of  what  is  now 
Alabama  and  Georgia,  near  the  mountains  that  bear 
their  name.  That  a  portion  of  them  did  live  in 
this  vicinity  is  corroborated  by  the  historians  of 
South  Carolina,  who  say  that  Colonel  Moore,  in 
1703,  found  them  'between  the  headwaters  of  the 
Savannah  and  .Mtamaha.'  .  .  .  .According  to  all  the 
Spanish  authorities,  on  the  other  hand,  they  dwelt 
in  the  region  of  country  between  the  Suwannee  and 
Apalachicola  rivers — yet  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  .Apalachicolos.  .  .  .  They  certainly  had  a 
large  and  prosperous  town  in  this  vicinity,  said  to 
contain  1,000  warriors.  ...  I  am  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  these  were  different  branches  of  the  same 
confederacy.  ...  In  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury they  suffered  much  from  the  devastations  of 
the  English,  French  and  Greeks.  [From  1702-1708 
English  from  Carolina  invaded  .•Xpalaches  territory 
and  nearly  exterminated  the  tribe.  The  mission 
churches  (Spanish)  were  burned,  the  missionaries 
slain,  and  over  a  i.ooo  Indians  were  sold  into 
slavery.]  .  .  .  .\bout  the  time  Spain  regained  pos- 
session of  the  soil,  they  migrated  to  the  West  and 
settled  on  the  Bayou  Rapide  of  Red  River  Here 
they  had  a  village  numbering  about  50  souls." — D. 
G.  Brinton,  Notes  on  the  Floridian  peninsula,  ch.  2. 
— See  also  Muskhocean  family. 

APALACHEN.  See  Canada:  Names. 
APAMEA. — Apamea,  a  city  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator  on  the  Euphrates,  the  site  of  which 
is  occupied  by  the  modern  town  of  Bir,  h:id  be- 
come, in  Strabo's  time  (near  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era)  one  of  the  principal  centers  of  Asi- 
atic trade,  second  only  to  Ephesus.  Thapsacus,  the 
former  customary  crossing-place  of  the  Euphrates, 
had  ceased  to  be  so,  and  the  passage  was  made  at 
Apamea.  A  place  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
river  was  called  Zeugma,  or  "the  bridge."  Bir  "is 
still  the  usual  place  at  which  travellers  proceed- 
ing from  .^ntioch  or  .Meppo  towards  Bagdad  cross 
the  Euphrates." — E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  an- 
cient geography,  ch.  22,  sect,  i,  v.  2,  pp.  298  and 
317. 
APANAGE.  See  Appanage. 
APATURIA.- An  annual  family  festival  of  the 
.Mhenians,  celebrated  for  three  days  in  the  early 
part  of  the  month  of  October  (Pyanepsion) .  "This 
was  the  characteristic  festival  of  the  Ionic  race; 
handed  down  from  a  period  anterior  to  the  con- 
stitution of  Kleisthcnes,  and  to  the  ten  new  tribes 
each  containing  so  many  denies,  and  bringing  to- 
gether the  citizens  in  their  primitive  unions  of 
family,  gens,  phratry,  etc.,  the  aggregate  of  which 
had  originally  constituted  the  four  Ionic  tribes, 
now  superannuated.  .\t  the  Apaturia,  the  family 
ceremonies  were  gone  through ;  marriages  were  en- 
rolled, acts  of  adoption  were  promulgated  and  cer- 
tified, the  names  of  youthful  citizens  first  entered 


on  the  gentile  and  phratric  roll;  sacrifices  were 
jointly  celebrated  by  these  family  assemblages  to 
Zeus  Phratrius,  .\thenc,  and  other  deities,  accom- 
panied with  much  festivity  and  enjoyment." — G 
Grotc,  History  oj  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  64,  v.  7. 

APELDERN,  Albert  von:  Founder  of  town 
of  Riga.     See  Livonia:   I2th-i3th  centuries. 

APELLA,  Spartan  assembly.  See  Sparta:  Con- 
stitution ascribed  to  Lycurgus. 

APELLES,  Greek  painter  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury EC;  friend  of  .Alexander,  who  sat  for  him 
frequently ;  his  most  famous  works  were  mytho- 
logical or  allegorical;  considered  the  greatest 
painter  of  ancient   times. — See  also  Cos. 

APHEK,  Battle  of  (845  B.C.),  a  great  victory 
won  by  .\hab,  king  of  Israel,  over  Benhadad,  king 
of  Damascus. — H.  Ewald,  History  oj  Israel,  bk.  4, 
sect.  I. 

APHET.ffi:.  See  Greece:  B.C.  480:  Persian 
wars:   .\rtcmisium. 

APHRODITE,  or  Venus,  the  Greek  goddess 
of  love  and  beauty ;  often  connected  with  the  sea, 
the  lower  world,  and  productivity  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdom.  Her  oriental  prototype 
was  Astarte  or  .\5ht0reth, 

APIA,  principal  town  in  the  Samoan  islands, 
scene  (March  15.  iSSb)  of  a  hurricane  which  de- 
stroyed one  American  and  two  German  war  ves- 
sels. Seized  in  IQ14  by  an  expeditionary  force 
from  New  Zealand. 

APIU.    See  Thebes,  Egypt. 

APOCALYPSE,  the  last  book  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, known  as  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the 
Divine.     See  Christianity:   ?5-6o. 

APOCRYPHAL  LITERATURE,  works  which 
claim  to  be  sacred,  although  excluded  from  ca- 
nonical scriptures.  These  books  are  purported  to 
have  been  kept  secret  because  they  revealed  events 
unfulfilled  at  the  time  of  their  writing.  The  apoc- 
ryphal books  found  in  the  Greek  text  but  not  in  the 
Hebrew  or  .\ramaic  are  as  follows:  Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Baruch,  Epistle  of  Jeremiah, 
Tobit,  Judith,  First  and  Second  Maccabees,  sec- 
tions of  Esther  and  sections  of  Daniel.  These 
were  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and, 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1546,  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church  declared  them  deutcrocanonical  or  in- 
spired, but  the  Protestant  churches  and  the  Greek 
Catholic  (after  the  iSth  century)  pronounced  them 
apocryphal.  Other  books  considered  apocryphal 
are  First.  Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Esdras  and 
the  Prayer  of  Manasses. 

APODACA,  Juan  Ruiz  de  (1770-1835),  Span- 
ish soldier  and  viceroy  of  Mexico.  See  Mexico: 
1820-1826. 

APODECT.ffi.— "When  Aristotle  speaks  of  the 
officers  of  government  to  whom  the  public  reve- 
nues were  delivered,  who  kept  them  and  distributed 
them  to  the  several  administrative  departments, 
these  are  called,  he  adds,  apodectfe  and  treasurers. 
In  .\thens  the  apodectje  were  ten  in  number,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  number  of  the  tribes.  They 
were  appointed  by  lot  .  They  had  in  their  pos- 

session the  lists  of  the  debtors  of  the  state,  re- 
ceived the  money  which  was  paid  in,  registered  an 
account  of  it  and  noted  the  amount  in  arrear,  and 
in  the  council  house  in  the  presence  of  the  council, 
erased  the  names  of  the  debtors  who  had  paid  the 
demands  against  them  from  the  list,  and  deposited 
this  again  in  the  archives.  Finally,  they,  tofjether 
with  the  council,  apportioned  the  sums  received." 
—A.  Boeckh,  Public  economy  oj  the  .Athenians 
(tr.  by  Lamb),  bk.  2,  ch.  4. 

APOLLO,  Greek  divinity  of  the  sun,  second  in 
importance  only  to  Zeus;  of  his  many  attributes 
the  most  important  were  those  of  prophecy,  music 


378 


APOLLO,  ORACLES  OF 


APPONYI 


and  song;  there  arc  innumerable  representations 
of  him  in  art,  notably  in  the  temples  of  Delphi, 
Naucratis,  Palatine,  and  Tolosa;  of  the  many  con- 
ceptions of  him  embodied  in  sculpture  one  ex- 
treme is  represented  by  the  Riant  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  the  other  by  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  found 
at  Frascati  in  1455  and  now  in  the  Vatican. — See 
also  Mythology:  Greek  mythology:  Anthropo- 
morphic character  of  Greek  myth;  Religion:  B.C. 
7SO-A.  D.  30;  Delos. 

APOLLO,  Oracles  of.    See  Oracles. 

APOLLODORUS,  of  Damascus,  a  famous 
Greek  architect  of  the  second  century  A.  D.  See 
P.mmino:    Greek. 

APOLLONIA,  an  important  group  of  more 
than  thirty  ancient  cities  in  lllyria,  founded  by  the 
Corinthians.  (See  CorcvRj\.)  They  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  wars  against  Philip  of  Mac- 
edon  and  the  struggle  between  Pompey  and 
Caesar  for  Roman  supremacy.  This  group  was  the 
important  center  of  culture  and  learning  towards 
the  close  of  the  Roman  republic,  and  was  famed 
for  Calamis'  statue  of  Apollo,  which  was  removed 
to  Rome. 

APOLOGISTS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  See 
Christianity:  100-300:  Period  of  growth  and 
struggle. 

APOSTASION.    See  Polet.?;, 

APOSTLES.    See  CHRisnANiTv:  33-52,  33-70; 

Miracles  of.     See  Miracles:    ist  century. 
APOSTOLIC  BRETHREN.     See  Dulcinists. 
APOSTOLIC   CHRISTIAN   CHURCH.     See 

Evangelistic  associations. 

APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.  See  Evangelistic 
associations. 

APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE 
CURIA.    See  Papacy:  1008. 

APOSTOLIC  FAITH  MOVEMENT.  See 
Evangelistic  associations. 

APOSTOLIC  INQUISITION.  See  Inquisi- 
tion. 

APOSTOLIC  SEDIS,  papal  bull.  See  Bulls, 
Papal:   1800. 

APOTHEOSIS.— Deification  of  a  human  be- 
ing, thus  raising  him  to  the  rank  of  a  god;  closely 
allied  with  ancestor  worship.  The  ancients  often 
deified  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  or  a  city.  Sev- 
eral Roman  emperors  received  divine  honors  after, 
and  sometimes  even  before,  death,  by  vote  of  the 
Senate,  and  many  Christians  suffered  martyrdom 
for  refusing  to  recognize  such  an  apotheosis. 

APPA  SAHIB.     See  Apa  Sahib. 

APPAM.— "The  Appam.  a  British  merchant 
vessel,  was  captured  by  the  German  cruiser  Mowe 
on  January  15,  iqi6,  and  was  brought  by  a  Ger- 
man crew  into  Newport  News,  Va.  The  German 
government  claimed  that  under  certain  provisions 
of  the  treaty  of  1700  between  Prussia  and  the 
United  States,  carried  over  into  the  treaty  of 
1828,  the  vessel  might  remain  as  long  as  it  pleased 
in  American  waters.  Secretary  Lansing  held  that 
inasmuch  as  the  provisions  in  question  were  con- 
trary to  general  principles  of  international  law, 
they  must  be  strictly  construed,  and  that  they  did 
not  give  a  German  prize  the  right  to  enter  Ameri- 
can ports  unattended  by  the  capturing  vessel.  The 
same  view  was  adopted  by  Judge  Waddell,  of  the 
United  States  District  Court,  and,  on  appeal,  by 
the  Supreme  Court  (Mar.  6,  IQ17)." — War  cyclope- 
dia, p.  17. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  igi6  (February- 
October);  World  War:  iqi6:  IX.  Naval  opera- 
tions:  c. 

APPANAGE.— "The  term  appanage  denotes 
the  provision  made  for  the  younger  children  of  a 
king   of   France.     This  always  consisted  of  lands 


and  feudal  superiorities  held  of  the  crown  by  the 
tenure  of  peerage.  It  is  evident  that  this  usage,  as 
it  produced  a  new  class  of  powerful  feudataries, 
was  hostile  to  the  interests  and  policy  of  the  sov- 
ereign, and  retarded  the  subjugation  of  the  ancient 
aristocracy.  But  an  usage  coeval  with  the  mon- 
archy was  not  to  be  abrogated,  and  the  scarcity 
of  money  rendered  it  impossible  to  provide  for 
the  younger  branches  of  the  royal  family  by  any 
other  means.  It  was  restrained  however  as  far 
as  circumstances  would  permit." — H.  Hallam,  Mid- 
dle Ages,  cli.  I,  pt.  2. — "From  the  words  'ad'  and 
'panis,'  meaning  that  it  was  to  provide  bread  for 
the  person  who  held  it.  A  portion  of  appanage 
was  now  [in  the  reign  of  Louis  VIII,  i223-i22()j 
given  to  each  of  the  king's  younger  sons,  which 
descended  to  his  direct  heirs,  but  in  default  of  them 
reverted  to  the  crown."— T.  Wright,  History  of 
France,  v.  i,  p.  308,  twte. — The  creation  of  the 
appanage  was  an  unfortunate  reenforcement  of 
feudalism.  It  opened  the  way  to  strife  among  the 
members  of  the  king's  family  and  retarded  the 
consolidation  of  the  kingdom.  See  France:  1226- 
1270. 

APPELLANTS.    See  Convulsionists. 

APPELOUSAS.  See  Texas:  Aboriginal  inhab- 
itants. 

APPERT,  Benjamin  Nicholas  Marie  (1797- 
1847),  French  philanthropist  and  educator.  Gave 
much  time  and  study  to  the  question  of  educating 
inmates  of  schools,  prisons,  and  hospitals;  it  is 
asserted  that  he  taught  at  least  100,000  soldiers 
to  read  and  write. 

APPIAN  WAY.— Appius  Claudius,  called  the 
Blind,  who  was  censor  at  Rome  from  312  to  308 
B.C.  (See  Rome:  B.C.  312),  constructed  during 
that  time  "the  Appian  road,  the  queen  of  roads, 
because  the  Latin  road,  passing  by  Tusculum,  and 
through  the  country  of  the  Hernicans,  was  so 
much  endangered,  and  had  not  yet  been  quite  re- 
covered by  the  Romans:  the  Appian  road,  passing 
by  Terracina,  Fundi  and  Mola,  to  Capua,  was  in- 
tended to  be  a  shorter  and  safer  one.  .  .  .  The 
Appian  road,  even  if  .Appius  did  carry  it  as  far  as 
Capua,  was  not  executed  by  him  with  that  splen- 
dour for  which  we  still  admire  it  in  those  parts 
which  have  not  been  destroyed  intentionally:  the 
closely  joined  polygons  of  basalt,  which  thousands 
of  years  have  not  been  able  to  displace,  arc  of  a 
somewhat  later  origin.  Appius  commenced  the 
road  because  there  was  actual  need  for  it ;  in  the 
year  A.  U.  457  [207  B.  C]  peperino,  and  some 
years  later  basalt  (silex)  was  first  used  for  paving 
roads,  and,  at  the  beginning,  only  on  the  small 
distance  from  the  Porta  Capena  to  the  temple  of 
Mars,  as  we  are  distinctly  told  by  Livy.  Roads 
constructed  according  to  artistic  principles  had 
previously  existed." — B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Lectures  on 
the  history  of  Rome,  led.  45. 

Also  in:  Sir  W.  Gell,  Topography  of  Rome,  v.  i. 
— -H.  G.  Liddell,  History  of  Rome,  v.  i,  p.  251. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS,  surnamed  Caecus,  Ro- 
man censor.  312-308  B.C.;  consul  in  307  and  2q6; 
leader  of  the  spirited  opposition  of  Rome  to  the 
invasion  of  Pyrrhus;  began  the  construction  of 
the  .Appian  Wav;  in  312  extended  the  franchise  t') 
landless  citizens. — See  also  Rome:   Republic:    B.C. 

312- 

APPOLONIUS,  Phodius  (c.  235  B.C.),  libra- 
rian. See  Alexandria:  B  C.  282-246:  Reign  of 
Ptolemv   Philadelphus 

APPOMATTOX  COURT  HOUSE:  Surren- 
der of  confederates.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1865  (April: 
Virginia) . 

APPONYI,  Count  Albert  (1846-  ),  Hungar- 
ian statesman.     Chosen  President  of  Chamber  of 


379 


APPORTIONMENT 


APPRENTICES,  STATUTE  OF 


Deputies  by  Liberals,  igoi;  minister  of  education, 
1906,  in  Wekerle  cabinet;  delegate  to  World's  Peace 
Conference  in  America,  191 1;  leader  of  Constitu- 
tional Democrats,  IQ17;  minister  of  education  in 
Hungarian  cabinet,  1917. — See  also  Austria-Hun- 
gary: 1900-1903;  IQ04;  1905-1906;  Hungary: 
1914;  1918:  End  of  the  War;  Slovaks. 

APPORTIONMENT.— "Several  methods  of 
apportioning  or  distributing  legislative  representa- 
tives have  been  followed.  One  is  to  distribute  them 
among  the  political  divisions  of  the  'State  with- 
out regard  to  their  population,  or  at  least  without 
exclusive  regard  to  it.  In  all  the  important  fed- 
eral unions  except  the  [former]  German  Empire 
and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  the  principle  ot 
equality  of  representation  among  the  component 
members  prevails  in  the  construction  of  the  upper 
chambers.  In  the  German  Biindesratli  the  number 
of  votes  to  which  each  state  of  the  empire  [wasl 
entitled  varied  from  one  to  seventeen ;  and  in  the 
Canadian  House  of  Lords  the  number  varies  from 
four  to  twenty-four,  the  latter  being  the  number 
allowed  the  province  of  Quebec.  In  the  French 
Republic  the  number  of  senators  from  each  depart- 
ment varies  from  one  to  ten.  Another  method  of 
distribution  is  to  apportion  the  representatives 
among  the  political  divisions  of  the  state  with  some 
regard  to  the  amount  or  value  of  property  in 
each.  The  chief  merit  of  such  a  method  is  that 
it  takes  into  consideration  one  of  the  important 
elements  which  enter  into  the  physical  make-up 
of  the  state.  The  doctrine  that  taxation  should  go 
hand  in  hand  with  representation  has  long  been  a 
cherished  political  theor>'  of  the  people  of  .'\merica 
and  England,  and  perhaps  no  better  system  could 
be  devised  for  protecting  the  rights  of  property 
than  by  giving  it  a  share  of  representation  in  the 
legislative  branch.  For  other  reasons,  however,  it 
has  not  commended  itself  to  the  people  of  demo- 
cratic states;  and  outside  of  a  few  European  mon- 
archies where  property  is  taken  into  consideration 
to  some  extent  in  organizing  representation  in  the 
upper  chambers,  the  system  no  longer  prevails. — 
In  no  state  is  property  to-day  the  sole  basis  of 
representation  in  either  chamber,  and  the  few  re- 
maining traces  of  the  principle  that  have  survived 
the  nineteenth  centurs'  will  doubtless  disappear  in 
the  course  of  time.  Another  principle  is  that 
which  bases  representation  on  the  total  popula- 
tion, citizens  and  aliens,  male  and  female,  en- 
franchised and  unenfranchised  alike,  and  not  on 
the  number  of  voters  merely.  This  is  now  the  al- 
most universal  rule  governing  the  apportionment 
of  representation  in  lower  chambers,  and  in  some 
states  it  is  also  the  basis  of  representation  in  the 
upper  chambers.  It  possesses  the  element  of  sim- 
plicity and  uniformity  and  is  regarded  as  being 
more  in  harmony  with  presenl  day  notions  of 
representative  government.  The  ratio  of  repre- 
sentation varies  widely  among  different  states.  .  .  . 
The  same  variety  prevails  among  the  individual 
states  composing  the  federal  republic  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  principle  of  apportionment  on 
the  basis  of  population  is  generally  the  rule  for 
the  constitution  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  cham- 
bers. Perhaps  an  ideal  system  would  be  one 
which  would  take  into  consideration  the  elements 
of  population,  geographical  area,  and  property  com- 
bined, if  there  are  any  criteria  for  determining  the 
relative  weight  which  should  be  given  to  each  of 
these  elements.  As  yet  no  satisfacton,-  scheme  of 
this  kind  has  been  devised.  For  convenience  in 
choosing  representatives  it  is  customary  to  divide 
the  state  into  electoral  circumscriptions  or  districts. 
The  entire  body  of  representatives  might  be  chosen 
from  the  state  at  large  on  a  general  ticket,  each 


elector  being  allowed  to  cast  a  vote  for  the  entire 

number;  but  in  states  of  considerable  geographi- 
cal area,  where  several  hundred  members  are  to 
be  elected,  such  a  method  would  obviously  be  im- 
practicable. The  time  and  effort  involved  in  vot- 
ing such  a  ticket  would  be  very  great;  and,  what 
is  of  more  importance,  the  ignorance  of  the  elec- 
tor concerning  the  candidates  from  distant  parts 
of  the  state  would  be  so  great  that  an  election 
under  such  circumstances  would  be  largely  a  farce. 
The  practice  of  all  states,  therefore,  is  to  divide 
their  territory  into  electoral  districts  or  to  utilize 
for  this  purpose  the  political  subdivisions  already 
in  existence.  In  constituting  electoral  districts  two 
methods  are  employed:  one  is  to  parcel  the  state 
into  as  many  districts  as  there  are  representatives 
to  be  chosen  and  allow  a  single  member  to  be 
chosen  from  each ;  the  other  is  to  create  a  smaller 
number  of  districts,  from  each  of  which  a  number 
of  representatives  is  chosen  on  the  same  ticket. 
The  former  is  known  as  the  single  member  dis- 
trict plan ;  the  latter,  as  the  general  ticket  method. 
Each  has  been  employed  by  most  states  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  their  history,  though  nearly  all 
have  come  at  last  to  the  single  member  district 
method." — J.  W.  Garner,  Introduction  to  political 
science,  pp.  440-443. — See  also  Suffr.age;  Elec- 
tions, Presidential;  Congress  of  the  U.  S.: 
House:  Reapportionment;  U.  S.  A.:  1901  (Jan- 
uary). 

APPRENTICE  SCHOOLS,  IndustriaL  See 
Education:  Modern  developments:  Vocational  edu- 
cation: Industrial  education  in  the  U.  S. 

APPRENTICES,  Statute  of.— "The  Statute  of 
Apprentices  (1562)  fin  England]  was  unquestion- 
ably the  most  notable  embodiment  of  the  policies 
that  dominated  industrial  life  until  the  Industrial 
Revolution  was  far  advanced.  It  was  in  a  meas- 
ure a  codification  of  older  statutes  which  had 
been  imperfectly  administered,  and  the  dominant 
purpose  seems  to  have  been  to  prevent  change 
rather  than  to  make  innovations.  In  fact,  how- 
ever, the  statute  made  a  number  of  important  in- 
novations. It  was  hoped  that  the  statute  would 
check  the  decline  of  the  corporate  towns,  provide 
for  more  adequate  training  of  village  artisans,  as- 
sure a  more  considerable  supply  of  agricultural 
labor,  and  afford  some  guarantee  that  wages 
would  be  adjusted  to  the  'advancement  of  prices 
of  all  things  belonging  to  said  servants  and  la- 
borers.' Few  social  concerns  were  not  in  some 
measure  affected  by  this  great  codification  of 
industrial  and  social  legislation.  Thirty-two  crafts, 
including  all  the  more  important  and  frequent 
occupations,  are  enumerated  in  the  articles  refer- 
ring to  the  length  of  term  for  which  such  crafts- 
men should  be  hired.  These  crafts  were  later  desig- 
nated as  crafts  to  be  taught  in  corporate  and  mar- 
ket towns  to  the  sons  of  freeholders.  The  mercers, 
drapers,  goldsmiths,  ironmongers,  and  clothiers 
were  forbidden  to  take  any  person  as  apprentice 
whose  father  or  mother  was  not  possessed  of  a 
forty-shilling  freehold.  These  were  crafts  whose 
masters  were  characteristically  employers  so  that 
this  distinction  is  significant.  In  another  article 
twenty-one  crafts  are  enumerated  which  were  al- 
lowed to  be  taught  either  in  towns  or  in  the  coun- 
try; all  of  these  crafts  were  to  be  open  to  persons 
whose  parents  had  no  property  at  all.  There  are 
thus  implications  that  a  wage-earning  class  was 
alreadv  established:  it  is  assumed  by  the  statute 
that  the  larger  proportion  of  artisans  work  for  hire, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  regulation  of 
the  waees  of  town  artisans  became  a  matter  of 
solicitude.  The  wages  of  agricultural  laborers  and 
of  certain  'artificers'  had  long  been  regulated  by 


380 


APRAKSIN 


AQUEDUCTS 


justices  of  the  peace,  but  these  'artiiicers'  seem 
to  have  been  the  masons,  smiths,  carpenters,  and 
the  like  who  were  recognized  as  being  a  distinctly 
rural  group.  The  artisans  of  the  towns  had  not 
been  included  in  earlier  statutes,  partly  because 
their  interests  were  presumed  to  be  in  charge  of 
the  municipality,  but  partly  because  they  had  not 
been  mere  wage-earners.  The  statute  must  have 
tended  to  accentuate  the  changes  that  were  taking 
place  because  the  status  of  the  various  classes 
was  so  specilically  defined.  The  conditions  of 
entrance  into  the  crafts  practiced  in  towns 
amounted  to  a  real  restriction.  Every  person  was 
ordered  to  adopt  a  definite  profession  or  calling. 
Excepting  persons  owning  property,  persons  of 
gentle  birth,  and  scholars,  every  one  must  needs 
choose  between  the  sea,  the  crafts,  and  agricul- 
ture. Any  person  failing  to  make  a  decision  could 
be  required  to  work  at  agriculture.  Freedom  of 
movement  was  likewise  curtailed:  no  person 
might  leave  the  town  or  parish  in  which  he  had 
been  employed  unless  he  obtained  a  formal  testi- 
monial from  appropriate  authorities  or  from  two 
householders.  These  restrictions  destroyed  the  con- 
ditions that  had  made  craft  autonomy  possible  in 
the  earlier  period.  In  so  far  as  craft  organizations 
continued  to  exist  they  were  mere  shadows  of 
what  they  had  been  formerly.  The  wage-fixing 
clauses  constitute  perhaps  the  most  famous  por- 
tion of  the  statute  and  their  place  in  the  history 
of  the  centuries  that  followecl  shows  how  great 
a  change  had  taken  place  in  the  position  of  the 
craftsmen.  The  intent  of  these  clauses,  however, 
was  other  than  might  be  supposed.  The  provisions 
were  designed  to  assure  the  payment  of  not  merely 
a  living  wage,  but  an  equivalent  of  the  wages 
that  had  prevailed  before  the  rise  in  prices.  The 
clauses  were  not  intended  to  guarantee  an  im- 
provement in  the  relative  well-being  of  the  artisan, 
but  to  protect  him  in  his  existing  state  against  the 
unfavorable  effects  of  the  price  revolution.  The 
justices  of  the  peace  were  presumed  to  ascer- 
tain the  cost  of  maintaining  the  appropriate  stand- 
ards of  life  and  to  regulate  wages  accordingly. 
The  notions  underlying  the  statute  were  in  some 
respects  similar  to  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
phrase  a  'Uving  wage,'  but  there  was  no  implica- 
tion that  the  artisan  had  not  been  getting  an 
appropriate  living." — A.  P.  Usher,  Industrial  his- 
tory of  England,  pp.  192-194. — See  also  Guilds  or 
gilds:   Operation. 

APRAKSIN,  Theodor  Matvyeevich  (1671- 
1728),  Russian  admiral,  friend  and  advisor  of 
Peter  the  Great.  Creator  of  the  Russian  navy; 
in  1708,  saved  St.  Petersburg  from  the  Swedes. 
His  victories  in  17 13  gained  the  Baltic  Provinces 
for  Russia  at  the  peace  of  Nystad. 

APRIES,  an  Egyptian  king  of  the  Twenty- 
sixth  Dynasty,  580  to  570  B.  C.  Aided  the  Jews 
in  their  resistance  to  Nebuchadrezzar;  warded  off 
a  Babylonian  attack  upon  Egypt.  Dethroned  by 
Amasis.— See  also  Egypt:  B.  C.  670-525. 

APRIL  MOVEMENT,  Netherlands.  See 
Netherlands:   1853. 

APROS,  Battle  of  (1307).  See  Catalan  Grand 
Company. 

APSE,  "a  projecting  room  or  wing  of  a  build- 
ing having  its  plan  rounded  or  polygonal  at  the 
outer  end.  In  early  Chri-stian  churhes  an  apse 
at  one  end  generally  contained  the  bishop's  throne 
and  seats  of  the  clergy,  and  sometimes  a  high  altar. 
In  later  churches  the  apse  is  a  mere  curved  end- 
ing of  the  choir,  not  often  used  in  England  but 
commonly  on  the  continent." — R.  Sturgis,  Short 
history  of  architecture:  Europe,  p.  548. — Some  ec- 
clesiastical edifices,  as  for  instance  the  cathedrals  of 


Pisa,   Monreale   and   Worms,   have  several   apses. 

APULIA,  _,e.:tiLiu  of  Italy  along  the  Adriatic; 
allied  with  Rome  in  326  B.  C,  but  generally  un- 
friendly durin;  i^unic  Wars.  Much  of  the  second 
Punic  War  was  fought  in  Apulia,  where  the  battle 
of  Cannae  occurred.  After  Hannibal's  defeat 
Apulia  was  subjugated  by  Rome. — See  also  Rome: 
Map  of  ancient  Italy, 

1042-1127. — nlorman  conquest  and  dukedom. — 
Union  with  Sicily.  See  Italy  (Souiiiern):  io8i- 
1194;  1282-ijoo. 

15th  century.— -Venetians  acquire  five  cities. — 
Settlement  of  Jews  from  Spain.  See  Venice: 
1494-1503. 

APULIANS.    See  Sabines  or  Sabellians. 

APURIMAC  RIVER.     See  Amazon:  Course. 

AQUA  CLAUDIA.    See  Aquedticis:  Roman 

AQU^     GRATIN.S;     (Ancient     name).      See 

AlX-LES-BAINS. 

AQVJE  SEXTI.^;,  or  Aix.    See  Aix;  Salyes. 

Battle  of.  See  Barbarian  invasions:  B.C.  113; 
CiMBRi  and  Teutokls:  B.  C.  113-101. 

AQVM  SOLIS.— The  Roman  name  of  the 
long  famous  watcr.ng-place  known  in  modern  Eng- 
land as  the  city  of  Bath.  It  was  splendidly  adorned 
in  Roman  times  with  temples  and  other  edifices. — 
T.  Wright,  Celt.  Roman  and  Saxon,  ch.  5. 

AQUAS  CALIENTES:  1914.— Convention  at. 
See  Mexico:   1014-1915. 

AQUAVIVA,  Clodio  (1543-1615),  fifth  general 
of  the  Jesuits.    See  Jesuits:  1542-1648. 

AQUAVIVA,  Ottavio  (c.  1560-1612),  arch- 
bishop of  Naples  and  patron  of  learning.  See  Edu- 
cation:  Modern:   1540- 1756.  ; 

AQUEDUCTS,  conduits  for  conveying  water 
from  a  distant  source  to  a  city,  the  pipes  usually, 
but  not  necessarily,  being  laid  along  elevated  ma- 
sonry for  a  considerable  distance.  Aqueducts  of 
this  kind,  as  well  as  inverted  syphons  (by  means 
of  which  water  is  sent  through  pipes  below  the 
surface  of  the  earth  under  pressure)  were  built 
by  the  ancients — the  Persians,  Phoenicians  and 
Greeks  using  the  subterranean  type  for  the  most 
part,  the  Romans  coming  eventually  to  use  the 
arched    aqueduct    exclusively. 

Peruvian. — rhe  Indians  of  ancient  Peru  built 
aqueducts  that  are  unequaled  elsewhere.  The  best 
account  of  these  is  to  be  found  in  an  article  by 
O.  F.  Cook,  Staircase  farms  of  the  ancients  (Na- 
tional Geographic  Magazine,  May,  1916). — Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Cook  the  construction  of  chan- 
nels presented  an  engineering  work  perhaps  not 
equaled  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  .According 
to  Garcilasso,  an  early  Spanish  writer,  one  of  them 
was  360  miles  long  and  12  feet  deep.  Many  miles 
of  the  channels  were  paved  with  stones.  'Tunnels 
were  drilled  in  the  mountains  and  channels  cut  in 
the  cliffs.  Waters  from  these  aqueducts  seemed 
to  have  been  used  for  shower  baths. — See  also, 
Peru:    1200-1527. 

Roman. — Between  312  B.  C.  and  A.  D.  226  eleven 
main  aqueducts  were  built  to  supply  the  city  of 
Rome  with  water.  The  most  famous  of  these — the 
Aqua  Claudia,  begun  by  Caligula  in  A.  D.  38  and 
completed  by  Claudius  in  A.  D.  52,  was  forty-five 
miles  long,  of  which  ten  miles  are  still  in  a  re- 
markable state  of  preservation.  Roman  aqueducts 
are  still  to  be  found  in  Europe  wherever  ihe 
empire  extended.  The  most  remarkable  of  these- 
are  at  Nimes  (Pont  du  Gard)  and  Segovia.  (See 
also  Architecture:  Etruscan.')  Three  tiers  of 
arches  are  superimposed  upon  one  another  to  form 
a  bridse  over  the  valley  of  the  river  Gard  at 
Nimes,  the  whole  structure  reaching  a  height  of 
160  feet  The  Segovian  aqueduct  also  crosses  a. 
river  and  consist  of  two  tiers  102  feet  high. — See 


381 


AQUEDUCTS 


AQUEDUCTS 


also  Rome:  Modern  city:  Population  and  water 
supply. 

Byzantine. — The  work  of  the  Romans  was  con- 
tinued by  the  Byzantine  emperors  Valens  and  Jus- 
tinian, the  latter  providing  many  eastern  cities 
with   aqueducts. 

Gothic. — The  great  viaduct  at  Spoleto  is  the 
work  of   the  Goths. 

Moorish. — The  Spanish  Moors  took  up  the 
building  ol  aqueducts  which  the  Goths  had  be- 
gun in  Spain,  the  most  notable  of  which  was  the 
aqueduct  of   Elvas. 

Middle  Ages. — During  the  Middle  .Ages  the 
building  of  aqueducts  was  more  or  less  inactive. 
The  best  e.xamples  of  the  period  are  the  aque- 
ducts  at  Solmona   and   Constances. 

Renaissance. — The  Roman  popes  of  the  six- 
teenth century  revived  the  construction  of  aque- 
ducts. 


the  great  artificial  covered  channel  which  leads  the 
water  from  the  .\shokan  reservoir  into  the  city 
[New  York].  Owing  to  the  varied  character  of 
country  lying  between  the  mountains  and  the 
city,  the  aqueduct  is  made  up  of  several  types 
of  conduit.  Some  portions  are  of  plain  Portland 
cement  concrete  built  in  trenches  and  covered  with 
earth,  known  as  cut-and-cover ;  other  portions  are 
tunnels  through  the  mountains  and  hills  or  be- 
neath the  broad,  deep  valleys;  while  still  other 
portions  are  of  steel  and  cast-iron  pipes.  It  is  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  deliver  water  at  the  rate  of 
about  600.000,000  gallons  daily  into  the  city,  so 
that  even  if  out  of  service  for  short  periods  oc- 
casionally for  cleaning,  inspection  or  repair,  the 
average  rate  of  delivery  will  be  equivalent  to 
500,000,000  gallons  daily.  Alpng  the  aqueduct 
provisions  have  been  made  for  storing  a  large 
quantity   of   water  near  the  c'ly  in  Kensico  reser- 


ANCIENT  ROMAN  AQUEDUCT,  SEGOVIA,  SPAIN 


Modern. — In  1613  Marie  de  Medici  built  the 
Arceuil  at  Paris  and  Louis  XIV  that  of  Mante- 
non.  The  great  aqueduct  at  Caserta  was  built 
by  Charles  III  (of  Spain)  in  1753  and  the  forty- 
mile  aqueduct  of  Marseilles  was  begun  in  1S47. 
From  1855  to  1800  an  aqueduct  was  built  from 
Loch  Catrine  to  Glasgow,  and  in  1868  an  aqueduct 
supplying  Dublin  was  completed.  In  1881  and 
1885  conduits  were  built  to  supply  Manchester  and 
Liverpool.  In  1873  'he  fifty-five  mile  aqueduct  at 
Vienna  was  completed,  and  in  1800  the  second 
Franz-Kaiser-Joseph  aqueduct  was  begun  to  take 
the  place  of  the  inadequate  .system  by  the  same 
name. 

American  (1800-1013). — Notable  aqueducts  were 
built  for  the  following  cities  in  the  United  States: 
New  York,  1842  fOld  Croton),  1800  (New  Cro- 
ton)  ;  Boston,  1848,  1878,  1807;  Brooklyn,  1850; 
Baltimore,  1862,  1880:  Washington,  1863,  1883; 
St.  Louis,  1S03:  Jersey  Citv.  1004;  Los  Angeles, 
IQ13;   New  York,   1013    (Catsklll  aouedurt) 

Catskill  aqueduct. — "The  Catskill  aqueduct  is 


voir;  for  equalizing  the  steady  draft  from  Kensico 
reservoir  against  the  hourly  fluctuating  demands  ol 
the  city,  by  means  of  Hill  View  reservoir;  for 
storing  a  few  days'  supply  on  Staten  Island  as 
a  local  safeguard;  for  improving  the  quality  01 
the  water  by  aeration,  filtration  and  other  means; 
and  for  measuring  all  the  water  drawn  from  the 
reservoirs  and  sent  into  the  City  .  .  .  From  the 
.■\shokan  reservoir  it  is  almost  a  three-days'  jour- 
ney for  the  water  at  the  average  velocity  to  flow 
through  the  aqueduct  to  the  Silver  Lake  terminal 
reservoir  on  Staten  Island,  in  the  course  of  which 
it  flows  along  many  a  steep  hillside,  crosses  sev- 
eral broad  plains,  pierces  mountains,  descends  be- 
neath rivers  and  wide,  deep  valleys,  traverses  the 
Boroughs  of  The  Bronx.  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn, 
and  crosses  the  Narrows  of  New  York  harbor. 
.  .  .  For  surveys,  real  estate,  construction,  engi- 
neering and  general  supervision,  and  all  other  items 
except  intere'^t  on  the  bonds,  the  total  cost  of  the 
completed  Catskill  system  will  be  about  .•?: 77,000.- 
000,    of    which    $22,000,000    are    for    th"    Sthohari 


382 


AQUEDUCTS 


AQUINAS 


works.  .  .  .  The  cut-and-cover  aqueduct  and  the 
tunnels  are  more  than  big  enough  for  railroad 
trains  to  pass  through  them  with  ease.  Catskill 
aqueduct  is  twice  as  long  as  the  two  Croton  aque- 
ducts put  end  to  end.  .  .  .  The  water  used  by 
New  York  City  each  day  weighs  about  eight  times 
as  much  as  its  population.  The  two  deepest  .shafts 
of  the  City  tunnel  of  the  Catskill  aqueduct,  one 
at  the  corner  of  Clinton  and  South  streets,  and 
the  other  at  the  corner  of  Delancey  and  Eldridgc 
streets,  Manhattan,  are  each  as  deep  as  the  tower 
of  the  Woolworth  Building  is  high.  If  the  Eiffel 
Tower  could  be  stood  with  its  foundations  in  the 
Hudson  River  tunnel,  its  top  would  not  appear 
above  the  river  surface,  or  if  two  Woolworth  Build- 
ings were  stood  one  on  top  of  the  other,  the  lower 


AQUILA,  Battle  of  (1424).  See  Italy:  1412- 
1447- 

AQUILEIA. — Aquileia,  at  the  time  of  the  de- 
struction of  that  city  by  the  Huns,  A.  D.  452, 
was,  "both  as  a  fortress  and  a  commercial  em- 
porium, second  to  none  in  Northern  Italy.  It  was 
situated  at  the  northernmost  point  of  the  gulf  of 
Hadria,  about  twenty  miles  northwest  of  Trieste, 
and  the  place  where  it  once  stood  is  now  in  the 
Austrian  dominions,  just  over  the  border  which 
separates  them  from  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In 
the  year  iSi  B.  C.  a  Roman  colony  had  been 
sent  to  this  far  corner  of  Italy  to  serve  as  an  out- 
post against  pome  intrusive  tribes,  called  by  the 
vague  name  of  Gaul.  .  .  Posse.ssing  a  good 
harbour,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  a  naviga- 


CATSKILL  AQUEDUCT.  NEW  YORK 
Steel   pipe   siphon,  mortar-lined  and  concrete-jacketed 


one  having  its  foundation  in  the  Hudson  River 
tunnel,  the  top  of  the  upper  one  would  just  reach 
the  level  at  which  the  water  flows  away  through 
the  mountain  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  al- 
ter rising  in  the  shafts  from  the  tunnel  beneath 
the  river.  If  the  Catskill  aqueduct  should  be 
out  of  service,  Croton  water  could  be  admitted 
to  the  city  tunnel  and  conduits  and  delivered  to 
any  of  the  boroughs,  but  of  course  only  at  the 
lower  pressure  of  the  Croton  system." — Annual 
report,  Department  of  Water  Supply,  gas  and  elec- 
tricity, City  of  New  York,  IQ16. — See  also  New 
York  city:   igos-iqiq. 

Hetch  Hetchv  water  project  for  San  Fran- 
cisco.   See  Hetch  Hetchy  water  dam  project. 

Owen  river,  Los  Angeles.  See  Los  Angeles: 
1Q05-100Q. 

AQUIDAY,  or  Aquetnet,  the  native  name  of 
Rhode  Island.     See  Rhode  Island:    1638-1640. 


ble  river,  .Aquileia  gradually  became  the  chief  en- 
trepot for  the  commerce  between  Italy  and  what 
are  now  the  lllyrian  provinces  of  Austria." — 
T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  invaders,  bk.  2,  ch.  4. 
— See  also  Europe:  Ethnology:  Migrations:  Map 
showing  barbaric  invasions. 

238. — Siege  by  Maximin.     See  Rome:   102-284. 

388.— Overthrow  of  Maximus  by  Theodosius. 
See  Rome:    FJmpire:   i/Q-.^Q.s. 

452.— Destruction  by  the  Huns.  See  Barb.arian 
invasions:  423-455;  Huns:  452. 

AQUILLIUS,  Manius,  Roman  general,  con- 
sul in  loi  B.  C.  Put  down  a  revolt  of  the  slaves 
in  Sicily.  In  88  acted  as  legate  against  Mith- 
radates  the  Great ;  defeated  and  imprisoned  by 
him. — See  also  Mithradatic  Wars. 

AQUINAS,  Thomas,  St.  (c.  1227-1274I,  great 
lihilosopher  and  scholar.  Made  profound  studies 
in    theology    in    Naples,    Cologne,    Paris,    London, 


383 


AQUITAINE 


AQUITAINE 


Rome,  Bologna  and  other  centers  of  learning;  ex- 
ercised great  influence  on  the  theological  teachings 
of  the  Western  church,  his  doctrines  remaining 
authoritative  to  this  day  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church;  in  philosophy  a  follower  of  Aristotle;  en- 
dorsed by  various  popes  as  a  sound  leader  in  re- 
ligious doctrine  and  scholastic  philosophy. — See 
also  Averroism;  Astronomy:  130-1609;  Capital- 
ism: In  antiquity;  Universities  and  colleges: 
■  1348-1826. 

AQUITAINE,  or  Aquitania:  Ancient  tribes.^ 
The  Roman  conquest  of  Aquitania  was  achieved, 
56  B.  C,  by  one  of  Caesar's  lieutenants,  the 
Younger  Crassus,  who  first  brought  the  people 
called  the  Sotiatcs  to  submission  and  then  de- 
feated their  combined  neighbors  in  a  murderous 
battle,  where  three-fourths  of  them  are  said  to 
have  been  slain.  The  tribes  which  then  sub- 
mitted "were  the  Tarbelli,  Bigerriones,  Preciani, 
\'ocates,  Tarusates,  Elusates,  Garites,  Ausci,  Ga- 
rumni,  Sibuzates  and  Cocosates.  The  Tarbelli 
were  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Adour.  Their 
chief  place  was  on  the  site  of  the  hot  springs  of 
Dax.  The  Bigerriones  appear  in  the  name  Bi- 
gorre.  The  chief  place  of  the  Elusates  was  Elusa, 
Eause;  and  the  town  of  Auch  on  the  river  Gers 
preserves  the  name  of  the  Ausci.  The  names 
Garites,  if  the  name  is  genuine,  and  Garumni 
contain  the  same  element,  Gar,  as  the  river  Ga- 
rumna  [Garonne]  and  the  Gers.  It  is  stated  by 
Walckenaer  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
part  of  Les  Landes  are  still  called  Cousiots. 
Cocosa,  Causseque,  is  twenty-four  miles  from 
Dax  on  the  road  from  Dax  to  Bordeaux." — G. 
Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  republic,  v.  4,  ch.  6. 
— "Before  the  arrival  of  the  brachycephalic  Li- 
gurian  race,  the  Iberians  ranged  over  the  greatest 
part  of  France.  ...  If,  as  seems  probable,  we  may 
identify  them  with  the  Aquitani.  one  of  the  three 
races  which  occupied  Gaul  in  the  time  of  Caesar, 
they  must  have  retreated  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Pyrenees  before  the  beginning  of  the  his- 
toric period." — I.  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans, 
ch.  2,  seel.  5. — See  also  Gaul:  Caesar's  description. 
681-768. — Independent  dukes  and  their  subju- 
gation.— "The  old  Roman  Aquitania,  in  the  first 
division  of  the  spoils  of  the  Empire,  had  fallen 
to  the  Visigoths,  who  conquered  it  without  much 
trouble.  In  the  struggle  between  them  and  the 
Merovingians,  it  of  course  passed  to  the  victorious 
party.  But  the  quarrels,  so  fiercely  contested  be- 
tween the  different  members  of  the  Frank  mon- 
archy, prevented  them  from  retaining  a  distant 
possession  within  their  grasp ;  and  at  this  period 
[681-71S,  when  the  mayors  of  the  Palace,  Pepin 
and  Carl,  were  gathering  the  reins  of  government 
over  the  three  kingdoms — .^ustrasia,  Neustria  and 
Burgundy — into  their  hands],  £udo,  the  duke  of 
Aquitaine,  was  really  an  independent  prince.  The 
population  had  never  lost  its  Roman  character; 
it  was,  in  fact,  by  far  the  most  Romanized  in 
the  whole  of  Gaul.  But  it  had  also  received  a 
new  element  in  the  Vascones  or  Gascons  a  tribe 
of  Pyrenean  mountaineers,  who  descending  from 
their  mountains,  advanced  towards  the  north  until 
their  progress  was  checked  by  the  broad  waters  of 
the  Garonne.  .At  this  time,  however,  they  obeyed 
Eudo"  This  duke  of  Aquitaine.  Eudo,  allied 
himself  with  the  Neustrians  against  the  ambitious 
Austrasian  Mayor,  Carl  Martel,  and  shared  with 
them  the  crushing  defeat  at  Soissons,  718,  which 
established  the  Hammerer's  power.  Eudo  acknowl- 
edged allegiance  and  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
dukedom.  But.  half-a-centurv  afterwards,  Carl's 
son,  Pepin,  who  had  pushed  the  "faineant"  Mero- 
vingians from  the  Frank  throne  and  seated  himself 


upon  it,  fought  a  nine  years'  war  with  the  then 
duke  of  Aquitaine,  to  establish  his  sovereignty. 
"The  war,  which  lasted  nine  years  [760-768],  was 
signalized  by  fiightlul  ravages  and  destruction 
of  life  upon  both  sides,  until,  at  last,  the  Franks 
became  masters  of  Berri,  Auvergne,  and  the  Limou- 
sin, with  their  principal  cities.  The  able  and  gal- 
lant Guaifer  [or  W'aifer]  was  assassinated  by  his 
own  subjects,  and  Pepin  had  the  satisfaction  of 
finally  uniting  the  grand-duchy  of  Aquitaine  to 
the  monarchy  of  the  Franks." — J.  G.  Sheppard, 
Fall  of  Rome,  led.  8. — See  also  Germany:  687-800. 

.'\lso  in;  P.  Godwin,  History  of  France:  Ancient 
Gaul,  ch.  14-15. — W.  H.  Perry,  Franks,  ch.  5-6. 

732, — Ravaged  by  the  Moslems.  See  Cali- 
phate:  715-732. 

781. — Erected  into  a  separate  kingdom  by 
Charlemagne. — In  the  year  781  Charlemagne 
erected  Italy  and  .Aquitaine  into  separate  king- 
doms, placing  his  two  infant  sons,  Pepin  and  Lud- 
wig  or  Louis  on  their  respective  thrones.  "The 
kingdom  of  Aquitaine  embraced  Vasconia  [Gas- 
cony],  Septimania,  .Aquitaine  proper  (that  is,  the 
country  between  the  Garonne  and  the  Loire)  and 
the  county,  subsequently  the  duchy,  of  Toulouse, 
Nominally  a  kingdom,  .Aquitaine  was  in  reality  a 
province,  entirely  dependent  on  the  central  or  per- 
sonal government  of  Charles.  .  .  .  The  nominal 
designations  of  king  and  kingdom  might  gratify 
the  feelings  of  the  Aquitanians,  but  it  was  a 
scheme  contrived  for  holding  them  in  a  state  of 
absolute  dependence  and  subordination." — J.  I. 
Mombert,  History  of  Charles  the  Great,  bk.  2,  ch. 
II. 

884-1151. — End  of  the  nominal  kingdom. — 
Disputed  ducal  title. —  'Carloman  [who  died  884], 
son  of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  was  the  last  of  the 
Carlovinsians  who  bore  the  title  of  king  of  Aqui- 
taine. This  vast  state  ceased  from  this  time  to 
constitute  a  kingdom.  It  had  for  a  lengthened 
period  been  divided  betueen  powerful  families,  the 
most  illustrious  of  which  are  those  of  the  Counts 
of  Toulouse,  founded  in  the  ninth  century  by 
Fredelon,  the  Counts  of  Poitiers,  the  Counts  of 
.Auvergne,  the  Marquises  of  Septimania  or  Gothia, 
and  the  Dukes  of  Gascony.  King  Eudes  had  given 
William  the  Pius,  Count  of  .Auvergne,  the  inves- 
titure of  the  duchy  of  .Aquitaine.  On  the  extinc- 
tion of  that  family  in  02S,  the  Counts  of  Toulouse 
and  those  of  Poitou  disputed  the  prerogatives  and 
their  quarrel  stained  the  south  with  blood  for  a 
long  time.  .At  length  the  Counts  of  Poitou  ac- 
quired the  title  of  Dukes  of  Aquitaine  or  Guy- 
enne  [or  Guienne, — supposed  to  be  a  corruption 
of  the  name  of  .Aquitaine,  which  came  into  use 
during  the  Middle  Ages],  w'hich  remained  in  their 
house  up  to  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine 
with  Henry  Plantagenet  I.  [Henn.'  II],  King  of 
England  (1151)." — E.  De  Bonnechose,  History  of 
France,  bk.  2,  ch.  3,  foot-note. — "The  duchy  .Aqui- 
taine, or  Guyenne,  as  held  by  Eleanor's  predeces- 
sors, consisted,  roughly  speaking,  of  the  territory 
between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne.  More  ex- 
actly, it  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  .Anjou 
and  Touraine,  on  the  east  by  Berry  and  .Auvergne, 
on  the  south-east  by  the  Qnercy  or  County  of 
Cahors,  and  on  the  south-west  by  Gascony,  which 
had  been  united  with  it  for  the  last  hundred 
years.  The  old  Karolingian  kingdom  of  Aquitania 
had  been  of  far  greater  extent;  it  had,  in  fact, 
included  the  whole  country  between  the  Loire, 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Rhone  and  the  ocean.  Over  all 
this  vast  territory  the  Counts  of  Poitou  asserted 
a  theoretical  claim  of  overlord^hip  by  virtue  of 
their  ducal  title:  they  had,  however,  a  formidable 
rival  in  the  house  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse." — 


384 


• 


n 


AQUITAINE 


ARABIA 


K.  Norgate,  England  under  the  Angevin  kings,  v. 
I,  ch.  10. — See  also  Toulouse:  loth  and  nth  cen- 
turies. 

1034. — Origin  of  Truce  of  God.  See  Truce  of 
God;  France:  Maps  of  medieval  period:  1154-1360. 

1137-H52. — Transferred  by  marriage  from 
the  crown  of  France  to  the  crown  of  England. — 
In  1137,  "the  last  of  the  old  line  of  the  dukes 
of  Aquitaine — William  IX.,  son  of  the  gay  cru- 
sader and  troubadour  whom  the  Red  King  had 
hoped  to  succeed — died  on  a  pilgrimage  at  Compo- 
stella.  His  only  son  was  already  dead,  and  be- 
fore setting  out  for  his  pilgrimage  he  did  what 
a  greater  personage  had  done  ten  years  before: 
with  the  consent  of  his  barons,  he  left  the  whole 
of  his  dominions  to  his  daughter.  Moreover,  he 
bequeathed  the  girl  herself  as  wife  to  the  young 
king  Louis  [VII]  of  France.  This  marriage  more 
than  doubled  the  strength  of  the  French  crown. 
It  gave  to  Louis  absolute  possession  of  all  western 
Aquitaine,  or  Guyenne  as  it  was  now  beginning 
to  be  called;  that  is  the  counties  of  Poitou  and 
Gascony,  with  the  immediate  overlordship  of  the 
whole  district  lying  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Rhone  and  the  ocean: — a  territory 
five  or  six  times  as  large  as  his  own  royal  do- 
main and  over  which  his  predecessors  had  never 
been  able  to  assert  more  than  the  ;Tierest  shadow 
of  a  nominal  superiority."  In  1:52  Louis  ob- 
tained a  divorce  from  Eleanor,  surrendering  all  the 
great  territory  which  she  had  added  to  his  do- 
minions, rather  than  maintain  an  unhappy  union. 
The  same  year  the  gay  duchess  was  wedded  to 
Henry  Plantagenet,  then  Duke  of  Normandy,  af- 
terwards Henry  II.  King  of  England.  By  this 
marriage  Aquitaine  became  joined  to  the  crown 
of  England  and  remained  so  for  three  hundred 
years. — K.  Norgate,  England  under  the  Angevin 
kings,  V.  I,  ch.  8. 

1360-1453. — Full  sovereignty  possessed  by  the 
English  kings. — Final  conquest  and  union  with 
France. — "By  the  Peace  of  Bretigny  [see  France: 
1337-1360]  Edward  III.  resigned  his  claims  on  the 
crown  of  France ;  but  he  was  recognized  in  re- 
turn as  independent  Prince  of  Aquitaine,  without 
any  homage  or  superiority  being  reserved  to  the 
French  monarch.  When  Aquitaine  therefore  was 
conquered  by  France,  partly  in  the  14th,  fully  in 
the  15th  century  [see  France:  1360- 1380],  it  was 
not  the  'reunion'  of  a  forfeited  fief,  but  the 
absorption  of  a  distinct  and  sovereign  state.  The 
feelings  of  Aquitaine  itself  seem  to  have  been  di- 
vided. The  nobles  to  a  great  extent,  though  far 
from  universally,  preferred  the  French  connexion. 
It  better  fell  in  with  their  notions  of  chivalry, 
feudal  dependency,  and  the  like;  the  privileges  too 
which  French  law  conferred  on  noble  birth  would 
make  their  real  interests  lie  that  way.  But  the 
great  cities  and,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  the 
mass  of  the  people,  also,  clave  faithfully  to  their 
ancient  Dukes;  and  they  had  good  reason  to  do 
so.  The  English  Kings,  both  by  habit  and  by  in- 
terest, naturally  protected  the  municipal  liberties 
of  Bourdeaux  and  Bayonne,  and  exposed  no  part 
of  their  subjects  to  the  horrors  of  French  taxation 
and  general  oppression." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Franks 
and  the  Gauls  (Historical  Essays,  1st  series,  no.  7). 

ARAB  BUABIN:  1917.— Occupied  by  British. 
— Reoccupied  by  Turks.  See  World  War:  1Q17: 
VI.  Turkish  theater:   a,  2. 

ARABESQUE,  a  word  technically  used  to  de- 
note "a  fanciful,  painted,  modelled  or  carved  orna- 
mentation, composed  of  plant  forms,  often  com- 
bined with  human,  animal  and  grotesque  forms. 
Used  by  the  Romans  and  revived  by  the  Renais- 
sance decorators.    It  was  ako  used  by  the  Arabs — 


hence  the  name — for  a  flatly  modelled  and  coloured 
ornament  of  intricate  design,  without  human  or, 
generally,  animal  forms." — C.  H.  Coffin,  How  to 
study   architecture,  pp.  479-480. 

ARABI  pasha,  Ahmed  (1839-1911),  an 
Egyptian  soldier  and  nationalist  revolutionary 
leader;  said  to  have  been  a  descendant  of  Mo- 
hammed; was  the  figure-head  leader  of  a  military 
insurrection  fomented  by  an  oposition  party  to 
Anglo-French  domination;  defeated  at  Tel-el- 
Kebir  (1882)  by  the  British  and  e.xiled  to  Ceylon, 
1883;  permitted  to  return  in  iqoi.  See  Egypt: 
1875-1882;    1882-1883. 

ARABIA,  ARABS. — Arabia  is  a  large  peninsula 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Syria  and  the  Sinai  peninsula,  on  the 
west  by  the  Red  sea,  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
and  the  Indian  ocean,  and  east  by  the  Persian 
gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman.  The  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  1,000,000  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  approximately  8,000,000.  More  than 
a  third  of  this  territory  is  desert;  the  rest  is 
dotted  with  rich,  fertile  tracts,  settled  and  culti- 
vated. A  large  number  of  the  population  lead  a 
nomadic  life  driving  their  cattle  and  carrying 
their  tents  from  place  to  place.  These  itinerant 
Arabs,  known  as  Bedouins  or  Bedawi,  entertain 
a  profound  contempt  for  house-dwellers  and  are 
not  averse  to  combining  the  pursuit  of  guerrilla 
warfare  and  robbery  with  the  ideals  of  a  peace- 
ful, pastoral  existence.  The  two  principal  regions 
on  the  west,  covering  almost  the  entire  length  of 
the  Red  sea,  are  known  as  the  Hejaz  and  the  Ye- 
men ;  they  have  an  area  of  about  100,000  and  7S,- 
000  square  miles  respectively.  The  portions  of 
the  country  capable  of  cultivation  produce  wheat, 
barley,  dates,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  cof- 
fee and  spices.  Dates  and  coffee  are  the  most  im- 
portant exports.  Arabia  is  a  country  better  suited 
for  grazing  than  agriculture  and  is  famous  for  its 
horse-breeding,  but  in  spite  of  this,  the  most 
useful  and  characteristic  animal  of  the  peninsula 
is  the  camel.  The  mineral  resources  of  the  coun- 
try are  iron,  copper,  lead  and  precious  stones. 

Political  divisions. — (1)  The  Hedjaz  or  Hejaz, 
with  a  population  of  about  1,000,000,  emerged 
from  the  World  War  as  an  independent  Arab 
kingdom  under  the  rule  of  Hussein  Ibn  Ali  Pasha, 
the  Grand  Shereef  of  Mecca,  who  in  June  T916 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  the  Turkish 
rule  and  formally  entered  the  war  on  the  Allied 
side;  (2)  The  imamate  of  Yemen,  with  the  capi- 
tal at  Sana,  is  ruled  by  an  imam  of  the  Zeidi  sect 
who  traces  his  descent  from  the  prophet's  daugh- 
ter; (3)  Jcbel  Shammar,  an  emirate  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  peninsula,  with  a  capital  at  Hail,  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  Bedouin  tribes;  (4)  Nejd 
and  Hasa,  an  emirate  of  the  fanatical  Wahhabite 
tribes  of  the  eastern  oases,  has  its  center  at  Riadh; 
(5)  Asir,  on  the  Red  sea,  is  ruled  by  an  Arab 
prince  of  the  Idrisi  family;  (6)  The  British  pro- 
tectorate of  Aden,  on  the  gulf  of  that  name;  (7) 
Koweit,  a  sultanate  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
the  Persian  gulf,  is  under  British  protection;  and 
(8)  Oman,  a  sultanate,  the  independence  of  which 
is  guaranteed  by  Great  Britain  and  France,  on 
the  gulf  of  Oman. 

Name. — "There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
name  of  the  Arabs  was  .  .  .  given  from  their  liv- 
ing at  the  westermost  part  of  Asia ;  and  their  own 
word  'Gharb,'  the  'West,'  is  another  form  of  the 
original  Semitic  name  Arab." — G.  Rawlinson, 
Notes  to  Herodotus,  v.  2,  p.  71, 

Ancient  succession  and  fusion  of  races. — 
"The  population  of  Arabia,  after  long  centuries, 
more  especially  after  the  propagation  and  triumph 


8.=; 


ARABIA 


Fusion  of 
Races 


ARABIA 


of  Islamism,  became  uniform  throughout  the  pen- 
insula. .  .  .  But  it  was  not  always  thus.  It  was 
very  slowly  and  gradually  that  the  inhabitants 
of  the  various  parts  of  Arabia  were  fused  into 
one  race.  .  .  .  Several  distinct  races  successively 
immigrated  into  the  peninsula  and  remained  sepa- 
rate for  many  ages.  Their  distinctive  character- 
istics, their  manners  and  their  civilization  prove 
that  these  nations  were  not  all  of  one  blood. 
Up  to  the  time  of  Mahomet,  several  different  lan- 
guages were  spoken  in  Arabia,  and  it  was  the  in- 
troduction of  Islamism  alone  that  gave  predomi- 
nence  to  that  one  amongst  them  now  called  Arabic. 
The  few  Arabian  historians  deserving  of  the  name, 
who  have  used  any  discernment  in  collecting  the 
traditions  of  their  country,  Ibn  Khaldoun,  for  ex- 
ample, distinguish  three  successive  populations  in 
the  peninsula.  They  divide  these  primitive,  sec- 
ondary, and  tertiary  Arabs  into  three  divisions, 
called     Ariba,     Motareba,     and     Mostareba.  .  .  . 


advanced  civilisation  analogous  to  that  of  Chaldaea, 
professing  a  religion  similar  to  the  Babylonian ;  a 
nation,  in  short,  with  whom  material  progress 
was  allied  to  great  moral  depravity  and  obscence 
rites.  ...  It  was  about  eighteen  centuries  before 
our  era  that  the  Joktanites  entered  Southern 
Arabia.  .  .  .  According  to  all  appearances,  the  in- 
vasion, like  all  events  of  a  similar  nature,  was 
accomplished  only  by  force.  .  .  .  After  this  in- 
vasion, the  Cushite  element  of  the  population, 
being  still  the  most  numerous,  and  possessing  great 
superiority  in  knowledge  and  civilisation  over  the 
Joktanites,  who  were  still  almost  in  the  nomadic 
state,  soon  recovered  the  moral  and  material  su- 
premacy, and  political  dominion.  A  new  empire 
was  formed  in  which  the  power  still  belonged  to 
the  Sabsans  of  the  race  of  Cush.  .  .  .  Little  by 
little  the  new  nation  of  .\d  was  formed.  The  cen- 
tre of  its  power  was  the  country  of  Shcba  proper, 
where,  according  to  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis, 


TOMB  OF  EVE  AT  njEDn.'\H  (HEJAZ) 
(From  Arab  Legend) 


The  Ariba  were  the  first  and  most  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  Arabia.  They  consisted  principally  of 
two  great  nations,  the  Adites,  sprung  from  Ham, 
and  the  .'\maHka  of  the  race  of  Aram,  descend- 
ants of  Shem,  mixed  with  nations  of  secondary 
importance,  the  Thamudites  of  the  race  of  Ham, 
and  the  peo[3le  of  the  Tasm,  and  Jadis,  of  the 
family  of  Aram.  The  Motareba  were  tribes  sprung 
from  Joktan,  son  of  Eber,  always  in  Arabian  tra- 
dition called  Kahtan.  The  Mostareba  of  more 
modern  origin  were  Ismaelitish  tribes.  .  .  .  The 
Cushites,  the  first  inhabitants  of  Arabia,  are 
known  in  the  national  traditions  by  the  name  of 
Adites,  from  their  progenitor,  who  is  called  Ad, 
the  grandson  of  Ham.  All  the  accounts  given 
of  them  by  Arab  historians  are  but  fanciful  le- 
gends. ...  In  the  midst  of  all  the  fabulous  traits 
with  which  these  legends  abound,  we  may  perceive 
the  remembrance  of  a  powerful  empire  founded 
by  the  Cushites  in  very  early  ages,  apparently  in- 
cluding the  whole  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  not  only 
Yemen  proper.  We  also  find  traces  of  a  wealthy 
nation,   constructors   of   great   buildings,   with    an 


there  was  no  primitive  Joktanite  tribe,  although 
in  all  the  neighbouring  provinces  they  were  al- 
ready settled.  ...  It  was  during  the  first  centuries 
of  the  second  .^dite  empire  that  Yemen  was  tem- 
porarily subjected  by  the  Egyptians,  who  called 
it  the  land  of  Pun.  .  .  .  Conquered  during  the 
minority  of  Thothmes  III,  and  the  regency  of  the 
Princess  Hatasu,  Yemen  appears  to  have  been 
lost  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  troublous  times  at  the 
close  of  the  eichtcenth  dynasty.  Ramcses  II  re- 
covered it  almost  immediately  after  he  ascended 
the  throne,  and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  the 
effeminate  kings  of  the  twentieth  dynasty,  that 
this  splendid  ornament  of  Egyptian  power  was 
finally  lost.  .  .  .  The  conquest  of  the  land  of  Pun 
under  Hatasu  is  related  in  the  elegant  bas-reliefs 
of  the  temple  of  Deir-el-Bahari,  at  Thebes,  pub- 
lished by  M.  Duemichen.  .  .  .  The  bas-reliefs  of 
the  temple  of  Deir-el-Bahari  afford  undoubted 
proofs  of  the  existence  of  commerce  between  In- 
dia and  Yemen  at  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  ex- 
pedition under  Hatasu.  It  was  this  commerce, 
much  more  than  the  fertility  of  its  own  soil  and 


386 


ARABIA 


Ancient  Trade 
Sabaeans 


ARABIA 


its  natural  productions,  that  made  Southern  Arabia 
one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world.  .  .  .  For 
a  long  time  it  was  carried  on  by  land  only,  by 
means  of  caravans  crossing  Arabia ;  for  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Red  Sea,  much  more  difficult  and 
dangerous  than  that  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  was 
not  attempted  till  some  centuries  later.  .  .  .  The 
caravans  of  myrrh,  incense,  and  balm  crossing 
Arabia  towards  the  land  of  Canaan  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  in  the  history  of  Joseph,  which  be- 
longs to  a  period  very  near  to  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  Canaanites  in  Syria.  As  soon  as  com- 
mercial towns  arose  in  Phcenicia,  we  find,  as  the 
prophet  Ezekiel  said,  'The  merchants  of  Sheba 
and  Raamah,  they  were  thy  merchants:  they  oc- 
cupied in  thy  fairs  with  chief  of  all  spices,  and 
with  all  precious  stones  and  gold.'  ...  A  great 
number  of  Phanician  merchants,  attracted  by  this 
trade,  established  themselves  in  Yemen,  Hadramaut, 
Oman,  and  Bahrein.  Phoenician  factories  were  also 
established  at  several  places  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 
amongst  others  in  the  islands  of  Tylos  and  Arvad, 
formerly  occupied  by  their  ancestors.  .  .  .  This 
commerce,  extremely  flourishing  during  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty,  seems,  together  with  the  Egyptian 
dominion  in  Yemen,  to  have  ceased  under  the 
feeble  and  inactive  successors  of  Ramses  III.  .  .  . 
Nearly  two  centuries  passed  away,  when  Hiram 
and  Solomon  despatched  vessels  down  the  Red 
Sea.  .  .  .  The  vessels  of  the  two  monarch?  were  not 
content  with  doing  merely  what  had  once  before 
been  done  under  the  Egyptians  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  namely,  fetching  from  the  ports  of  Ye- 
men ■  the  merchandise  collected  there  from  India. 
They  were  much  bolder,  and  their  enterprise  was 
rewarded  with  success.  Profiting  by  the  regularity 
of  the  monsoons,  they  fetched  the  products  of 
India  at  first  hand,  from  the  very  place  of  their 
shipment  in  the  ports  of  the  land  of  Ophir.  or  Ab- 
hira.  These  distant  voyages  were  repeated  with 
success  as  long  as  Solomon  reigned.  The  vessels 
going  to  Ophir  necessarily  touched  at  the  ports 
of  Yemen  to  take  in  provisions  and  await  favour- 
able winds.  Thus  the  renown  of  the  two  allied 
kings,  particularly  of  the  power  of  Solomon,  was 
spread  in  the  land  of  the  Adites.  This  was  the 
cause  cf  the  journey  made  by  the  queen  of  Sheba 
to  Jerusalem  to  see  Solomon.  .  .  .  The  sea  voy- 
ages to  Ophir,  and  even  to  Yemen,  ceased  at  the 
death  of  Solomon.  The  separation  of  the  ten 
tribe?,  and  the  revolutions  that  simultaneously  took 
place  at  Tyre,  rendered  any  such  expeditions  im- 
practicable. .  .  .  The  empire  of  the  second  Adites 
lasted  ten  centuries,  during  which  the  Joktanite 
tribes,  multiplying  in  each  generation,  lived 
amongst  the  Cushite  Sabaeans.  .  .  .  The  assimila- 
tion of  the  Joktanites  to  the  Cushites  was  so  com- 
plete that  the  revolution  which  gave  political  su- 
premacy to  the  descendants  of  Joktan  over  those 
of  Cush  produced  no  sensible  change  in  the  civilisa- 
tion of  Yemen.  But  although  using  the  same  lan- 
guage, the  two  elements  of  the  population  of  South- 
ern Arabia  were  still  quite  distinct  from  each 
other,  and  antagonistic  in  their  interests.  .  ,  .  Both 
were  called  Sabasans,  but  the  Bible  always  care- 
fully distinguishes  them  by  a  different  orthog- 
raphy. .  .  .  The  majority  of  the  Saba?an  Cushites, 
however,  especially  the  superior  castes,  refused  to 
submit  to  the  Joktanite  yoke.  A  separation,  there- 
fore, took  place,  giving  rise  to  the  Arab  proverb, 
'divided  as  the  Sabaeans,'  and  the  mass  of  the  Adites 
pmisrated  to  another  country.  According  to  M. 
C.TUEsin  de  Perceval,  the  passage  of  the  Sabsans 
into  Abyssinia  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  conse- 
quences of  the  revolution  that  established  Jok- 
tanite supremacy  in  Yemen.  .  .  .  The  date  of  the 


passage  of  the  Sabaeans  from  Arabia  into  Abys- 
sinia is  much  more  difficult  to  prove  than  the 
fact  of  their  having  done  so.  .  .  .  Y'arub,  the  con- 
queror of  the  Adites,  and  founder  of  the  new 
monarchy  of  Joktanite  Arabs,  was  succeeded  on 
the  throne  by  his  son,  Yashdjob,  a  weak  and 
feeble  prince,  of  whom  nothing  is  recorded,  but 
that  he  allowed  the  chiefs  of  the  various  prov- 
inces of  his  states  to  make  themselves  indepen- 
dent. Abd  Shems,  surnamed  Sheba,  son  of  Yashd- 
job, recovered  the  power  his  predecessors  had  lost. 
.  .  .  Abd  Shems  had  several  children,  the  most 
celebrated  being  Himyer  and  Kahlan,  who  left  a 
numerous  posterity.  From  these  two  personages 
were  descended  the  greater  part  of  the  Yemenite 
tribes,  who  still  existed  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of 
Islamism.  The  Himyarites  seem  to  have  settled  in 
the  towns,  whilst  the  Kahlanites  inhabited  the 
country  and  the  deserts  of  Yemen.  .  .  .  This  is 
the  substances  of  all  the  information  given  by  the 
Arab  historians." — F.  Lenormant  and  E.  Chevalier, 
Manual  of  ancient  history  of  the  East,  bk.  7,  ch. 
1-2,  V.  2. — See  also  Semites. 

Sabseans. — "For  some  time  past  it  has  been 
known  that  the  Himyaritic  inscriptions  fall  into 
two  groups,  distinguished  from  one  another  by 
phonological  and  grammatical  differences.  One  of 
the  dialects  is  philologically  older  than  the  other, 
containing  fuller  and  more  primitive  grammatical 
forms.  The  inscriptions  in  this  dialect  belong  to  a 
kingdom  the  capital  of  which  was  at  Ma'in,  and 
which  represents  the  country  of  the  Mina^ans  of 
the  ancients.  The  inscriptions  in  the  other  dialect 
were  engraved  by  the  princes  and  people  of  Saba, 
the  Sheba  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Sabaeans  of 
classical  geography.  The  Sabcean  kingdom  lasted 
to  the  time  of  Mohammed,  when  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  advancing  forces  of  Islam.  Its  rulers  for 
several  generations  had  been  converts  to  Judaism, 
and  had  been  engaged  in  almost  constant  warfare 
with  the  Ethiopic  kingdom  of  Axum,  which  was 
backed  by  the  influence  and  subsidies  of  Rome 
and  Byzantium.  Dr.  Glaser  seeks  to  show  that 
the  founders  of  this  Ethiopic  kingdom  were  the 
Habasa,  or  Abyssinians,  who  migrated  from  Him- 
yar  to  Africa  in  the  2d  or  ist  century  B.  C.  [See 
also  Africa:  Ancient  and  medieval  civilization: 
Arab  occupation] ;  when  we  first  hear  of  them  in 
the  inscriptions  they  are  still  the  inhabitants  of 
Northern  Yemen  and  Mahrah.  More  than  once  the 
Axumites  made  themselves  masters  of  Southern 
Arabia.  About  A.  D.  300,  they  occupied  its  ports 
and  islands,  and  from  350  to  378  even  the  Sabaean 
kingdom  was  tributary  to  them.  Their  last  suc- 
cesses were  gained  in  525,  when,  with  Byzantine 
help,  they  conquered  the  whole  of  Yemen.  But  the 
Sabsean  kingdom,  in  spite  of  its  temporary  sub- 
jection to  Ethiopia,  had  long  been  a  formidable 
State.  Jewish  colonies  settled  in  it,  and  one  of  its 
princes  became  a  convert  to  the  Jewish  faith.  His 
successors  gradually  extended  their  dominion  as 
far  as  Ormuz,  and  after  the  successful  revolt  from 
Axum  in  37S,  brought  not  only  the  whole  of  the 
southern  coast  under  their  sway,  but  the  western 
coast  as  well,  as  far  north  as  Mekka.  Jewish  in- 
fluence made  itself  felt  in  the  future  birthplace  of 
Mohammed,  and  thus  introduced  those  ideas  and 
beliefs  which  subsequently  had  so  profound  an  ef- 
fect upon  the  birth  of  Isalm.  The  Byzantines 
and  Axumites  endeavoured  to  counteract  the  in- 
fluence of  Judaism  by  means  of  Christian  colonies 
and  prosclytism.  The  result  was  a  conflict  between 
Saba  and  its  assailants,  which  took  the  form  of  a 
conflict  between  the  members  of  the  two  religions. 
A  violent  persecution  was  directed  against  the 
Christians   of   Yemen,   avenged   by   the    Ethiopian 


387 


ARABIA,  5TH-8TH   CENTURIES       Sabaeans 

Chronology 


ARABIA,  1908-1916 


conquest  of  the  countr>-  and  the  removal  of  its 
capital  to  San'a.  The  intervention  of  Persia  in 
the  struggle  was  soon  followed  by  the  appearance 
of  Mohammedanism  upon  the  scene,  and  Jew, 
Christian,  and  Parsi  were  alike  overwhelmed  by 
the  flowing  tide  of  the  new  creed.  The  epigraphic 
evidence  makes  it  clear  that  the  origin  of  the 
kingdom  of  Saba  went  back  to  a  distant  date.  Dr. 
Glaser  traces  its  history  from  the  time  when  its 
princes  were  still  but  Makarib,  or  'Priest?,'  like- 
Jethro,  the  Priest  of  Midian,  through  the  ages 
when  they  were  'kings  of  Saba.'  and  later  still 
'kings  of  Saba  and  Raidan,'  to  the  days  when  they 
claimed  imperial  supremacy  over  all  the  princi- 
palities of  Southern  .Arabia.  It  was  in  this  later 
period  that  they  dated  their  inscriptions  by  an  era, 
which,  as  Halevy  first  discovered,  corresponds  to 
15  B.  C.  One  of  the  kings  of  Saba  is  mentioned 
in  an  inscription  of  the  Assyrian  king  Sargon 
(B.C.  715),  and  Dr.  Glaser  believes  that  he  has 
found  his  name  in  a  'Himyaritic'  text.  When  the 
last  priest,  Samah'ali  Darrahh.  became  king  of 
Saba,  we  do  not  yet  know,  but  the  age  must  be 
sufficiently  remote,  if  the  kingdom  of  Saba  already 
existed  when  the  Queen  of  Sheba  came  from 
Ophir  to  visit  Solomon.  The  visit  need  no  longer 
cause  astonishment,  notwithstanding  the  long  jour- 
ney by  land  which  lay  between  Palestine  and  the 
south  of  Arabia.  ...  As  we  have  seen,  the  in- 
scriptions of  Ma'in  set  before  us  a  dialect  of  more 
primitive  character  than  that  of  Saba.  Hitherto 
it  had  been  supposed,  however,  that  the  two  dia- 
lects were  spoken  contemporaneously,  and  that  the 
Minasan  and  Sabsan  kingdoms  existed  side  by 
side.  But  geography  offered  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  such  a  belief,  since  the  seats  of  the  Minaean 
power  were  embedded  in  the  midst  of  the  Sabaean 
kingdom,  much  as  the  fragments  of  Cromarty  are 
embedded  in  the  midst  of  other  counties.  Dr. 
Glaser  has  now  made  it  clear  that  the  old  suppo- 
sition was  incorrect,  and  that  the  Minsean  king- 
dom preceded  the  rise  of  Saba.  We  can  now  un- 
derstand why  it  is  that  neither  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment nor  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  do  we  hear 
of  any  princes  of  Ma'in,  and  that  though  the 
classical  writers  are  acquainted  with  the  Minsan 
people  they  know  nothing  of  a  Minaean  kingdom. 
The  Minaean  kindgom,  in  fact,  with  its  culture 
and  monuments,  the  relics  of  which  still  survive, 
must  have  flourished  in  the  gre>  dawn  of  history, 
at  an  epoch  at  which,  as  we  have  hitherto  imag- 
ined, Arabia  was  the  home  only  of  nomad  bar- 
barism. .And  yet  in  this  remote  age  alphabetic 
writing  was  already  known  and  practised,  the  al- 
phabet being  a  modification  of  the  Phcenician  writ- 
ten vertically  and  not  horizontally.  To  what  an 
early  date  are  we  referred  for  the  origin  of  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  itself !  The  Minsan  Kingdom 
must  have  had  a  long  existence.  The  names  of 
thirty-three  of  its  kings  are  already  known  to  us. 
...  A  power  which  reached  to  the  borders  of 
Palestine  must  necessarily  have  come  into  contact 
with  the  great  monarchies  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  army  of  .^^lius  Callus  was  doubtless  not  the 
first  which  had  sought  to  gain  possession  of  the 
cities  and  spice-gardens  of  the  south.  One  such 
invasion  is  alluded  to  in  an  inscription  which  was 
copied  by  M.  Halevy.  .  .  .  But  the  epigraphy  of 
ancient  .Arabia  is  still  in  its  infancy.  The  inscrip- 
tions already  known  to  us  represent  but  a  small 
proportion  of  those  that  are  yet  to  be  discovered. 
.  .  .  The  dark  past  of  the  .Arabian  peninsula  has 
been  suddenly  lighted  up,  and  we  find  that  long 
before  the  days  of  Mohammed  it  was  a  land  of 
culture  and  literature,  a  seat  of  powerful  king- 
doms and   wealthv   commerce,   which   cannot    fail 


to  have  exercised  an  influence  upon  the  general 
history  of  the  world."— A.  H.  Sayce,  Ancient  Arabia 
(Contemporary  Review,  Dec,   1889). 

Ancient  Arabian  calender.  See  Chronolocv  : 
Arabian   and  Mohammedan  system. 

Early  Arabian  medical  schools.  See  Science: 
.Ancient:   .Arabian  science. 

5th-8th  centuries. — Commerce.  See  Commerce: 
Medieval:  sth-Sth  centuries. 

6th  century. — Partial  conquest  by  the  Abys- 
sinians.     See  .Abvssi\-i.\:   oth-ioth  Centuries. 

7th  century. — Arab  occupation  of  Africa.  See 
.Africa:  .Ancient  and  medieval  civilization:  .Arab 
occupation. 

7th-llth  centuries. — Medical  progress.  See 
Medical  science:  .Ancient:  7th-iith  centuries: 
Medical  art  of  the  .Arabs. 

632-634. — Conquest  of  Syria.  See  Caliph.'Vte: 
032-030. 

636. — Arab  invasion  of  Armenia.  See  Ar- 
menia: 387-000. 

640-646. — Islamite  conquest  of  Egypt.  See 
Calip.l^te:  640-640. 

647-709. — Arab  conquest  of  North  Africa.  See 
Caliphate:    647-700. 

698. — Conquest  of  Carthage.  See  Carthage: 
6q8. 

698. — Conquest  of  Morocco.  See  Morocco: 
047-1800. 

8th  century. — Paper  industry.  See  Printi.nu 
AND  THE  press:   Before   14th  century. 

700-1200. — Development  of  music.  See  Music: 
.Ancient:   B.C.   2000-.A.  D..  1200. 

711-713. — Conquest  of  Spain.  See  Spain:- 711- 
713- 

711-828. — Invasion  into  India.    See  Indu:  B.C. 

240- .A.  D.  I2Q0. 

823. — Conquest  of  Crete.     See  Crete:  823. 

834-855.— Conquest  of  Zotts.     See  Gypsies. 

870. — Conquest  of  Malta.  See  Malta,  Island 
of:  870-1530. 

961-963. — Loss  of   Crete.     See  Crete:   961-063. 

1517. — Brought  under  the  Turkish'  sovereign- 
ty.   SeeTi'RKEv:   14S1-1520. 

1609. — Expulsion  of  Arabs  from  Spain.  See 
Moors  or  Mauri:   1402-1600. 

1811-1918. — Wahhabi  movement  and  influence. 
— Capture  of  Mecca  and  Medina  by  Wahbabis. 
See  Wahhabis. 

1827. — Beginning  of  missionary  work.  See 
Missions,  Christian:   N'ear  East. 

1899. — Arab  slave  trade  in  Belgian  Congo.  See 
Belgian  Co.ngo:   1S85-1902. 

1903-1905.— "Holy  War"  with  the  sultan.  See 
TiTfKEv:  1003-1905. 

1908-1916. — Events  leading  up  to  the  Arabian 
revolt. — "Up  to  1870  the  .Arab  tribes  were  left 
almost  entirely  alone  by  the  Turks.  The  Sultan 
was  recognized,  but  not  obeyed.  Tribes  were  of- 
ten at  war  with  each  other,  the  one  under  Idriz 
havin?  been  during  the  last  fifteen  years  the  most 
powerful.  During  the  same  period  an  almost  con- 
tinuous attempt  has  been  made  to  make  Turkish 
rule  effective,  but  it  is,  and  always  has  been,  hate- 
ful to  the  .Arabs.  The  Governors  who  have  been 
sent  from  Constantinople  abused  their  position 
mainly  to  fill  their  own  pockets.  The  distance 
from  Constantinople,  the  absence  of  railways  or 
other  roads,  except  an  unsafe  desert  track,  in- 
fested always  by  robbers,  were  so  great  that  Turk- 
ish officials  were  able  to  plunder  the  .Arabs  with 
impunity.  When  the  Revolution  in  1Q08  occurred, 
it  was  alleged  that  the  Governor  had  made  an 
arrangement  with  a  small  .Arab  tribe  which  com- 
manded the  route  between  Medina  and  Mecca,  the 
two  most  Holy  Places,  by  which  no  one  was  al- 


388 


ARABIA,  1913 


Arab   Revolt 
Causes 


ARABIA,  1916 


lowed  to  pass  unless  he  paid  at  least  one  Turkish 
pound  (i8s.  2d.),  half  of  which  was  alleged  to 
go  into  the  pocket  of  the  Governor.  While  the 
Arab  tribes  were  often  at  war  with  one  another, 
they  were  all  hostile  to  the  Turks.  This  hostility 
extended  from  Aden  northward  into  Syria,  where 
Christian  as  well  as  Moslem  Arabs  have  been 
abominably  treated.  [See  also  Aden.]  A  constant 
series  of  revolts  against  the  Turks  have  occurred 
during  the  last  ten  years,  and  troops  were  sent  from 
various  parts  of  the  Empire  to  attack  the  rebels. 
The  troops  disliked  the  service,  because  the  Arabs 
fought  bravely,  and  the  Turks  suffered  badly  from 
the  climate.  Almost  immediately  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  July,  igo8,  Ratib  Pasha,  with  the  Turk- 
ish troops  under  him,  revolted  against  the  Commit- 
tee of  Union  and  Progress,  and  joined  the  rebels. 
The  Hedjaz  Railway,  however,  was  opened  on 
September  ist,  iqo8,  and  Ratib  himself  was  cap- 
tured. The  Committee  promised  various  reforms, 
and  for  a  few  months  no  revolt  took  place.  In- 
deed, an  honest  attempt  was  made  by  the  Young 
Turks  to  make  arrangements  in  the  Hedjaz  which 
would  produce  good  government  among  the  tribes. 
A  careful  project  was  drawn  up,' which  is  said 
to  have  been  satisfactory  to  all  the  Arab  leaders. 
Then  there  came  a  change  of  government.  Kiamil 
lost  his  position,  and  his  successor  opposed  the 
project,  largely  because  it  had  been  brought  for- 
ward by  the  e.x-Grand  Vizier.  No  serious  improve- 
ments were  made  to  secure  Arab  loyalty.  Among 
the  many  big  blunders  which  the  Committee  made, 
the  greatest  was  that  of  attempting  to  Turkify  the 
whole  country  by  forcing  upon  it  the  use  of  Turk- 
ish instead  of  Arabic  or  Albanian  or  any  other 
of  the  native  languages.  So  far  as  all  the  Arabs 
of  the  Empire  were  concerned,  it  was  an  act  of 
madness.  Arabic  is  the  language  of  the  Koran. 
Turkish  is  detested,  not  merely  as  a  barbarous 
tongue,  but  as  that  of  their  oppressors.  The  feel- 
ing of  hostility  between  Arabs  and  Turks  was  in- 
tensified. The  Turk  is  a  Moslem,  on  whom  his 
religion  sits  somewhat  lightly ;  the  Arab  is  a  fa- 
natic. ...  So  long  as  the  Arabs  were  let  alone 
by  the  Turks  they  do  not  seem  to  have  greatly 
objected  to  Turkish  domination,  and  they  had 
grown  used  to  the  exactions  of  their  Turkish  Gov- 
ernors; but  when  the  Young  Turks  set  aside  the 
arrangements  which  Kiamil  and  Hilmi  and  other 
leading  statesmen  in  Turkey  had  made  and  their 
own  leaders  approved,  they  readily  believed  that 
the  Turkish  'unbelievers,'  as  they  were  persuaded 
the  Young  Turks  were,  intended  to  gain  the  upper 
hand.  They  were  then  always  ready  for  revolt." — 
E.  Pears,  Arab  revolt  (Living  Age,  Aug.  12,  1916, 
pp.  438-440). — See  also  Turkey:  igoq. 

1913. — Syrian  Arab  congress  at  Paris. — Pro- 
gram.    See  Syria:   iqo8-iq2i. 

1913-1920. — Relations  with  Abyssinia.  See 
Abyssinia:  1913-1920. 

1915. — Arab  revolt. — Shortly  after  the  surren- 
der of  General  Townshend  at  Kut,  the  Shereef 
of  Mecca  informed  the  British  government  that 
the  Arabs  could  no  longer  submit  to  Turkish 
rule  and  tyranny.  He  asked  for  assistance  in 
arms,  food  and  money,  which  were  duly  promised 
by  the  Allies.  Almost  from  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  an  attempt  had  been  in  progress  under 
German  direction  to  preach  a  jehad  or  holy  war. 
"It  was  represented  that  the  Kaiser  was  a  con- 
vert to  Islam,  and  that  presently  the  Khalif  would 
order  a  Jehad  against  the  infidel.  Stories  were 
told  of  the  readiness  of  the  Mohammedan  sub- 
jects of  Britain,  Russia  and  France  to  revolt  at 
this  call,  and  preparations  were  made  for  the 
manufacture  of  Indian  military  uniforms  at  Aleppo 


to  give  proof  to  the  Syrians  that  the  Indian  faith- 
ful were  on  their  side.  Egypt,  which  had  long 
been  the  hunting-ground  of  German  emissaries, 
was  considered  ripe  for  revolt,  and  the  Khedive 
[Abbas  Hilmi  II,  deposed  in  1914]  was  known  to 
be  friendly.  .  .  .  [The  Young  Turk  Party]  en- 
visaged a  Holy  War,  engineered  by  unbelievers, 
which  should  beguile  the  Mohammedan  popula- 
tions of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  they  naturally  leaned 
on  the  broad  bosom  of  Germany,  who  made  a 
specialty  of  such  grandiose  visions.  There  never 
was  a  chance  of  such  a  Jehad  suceeding.  .  .  . 
The  Sultan's  title  to  the  Khalifate,  too,  was 
fiercely  questioned.  The  Turks  had  won  it  origi- 
nally by  conquest  from  the  Abbasids,  and  the  Arabs 
had  never  done  more  than  sullenly  acquiesce. 
Most  important  of  all,  the  Turco-German  alliance 
was  breaking  its  head  against  an  accomplished  fact. 
By  September  [1914]  the  whole  of  Mohammedan 
India  and  the  leaders  of  Mohammedan  opinion 
in  British  Africa  were  clearly  on  the  Allied  side, 
and  their  forces  were  already  moving  to  Britain's 
aid,  while  forty  thousand  Arab  Moslems  were 
fighting  for  France  in  the  battles  of  the  West. 
Islam  had  made  its  choice  before  Enver  sent  his 
commissaries  to  buy  Indian  khaki  in  Aleppo  and 
inform  the  Syrians  that  the  Most  Christian  Em- 
peror had  become  a  follower  of  the  Prophet." — J. 
Buchan,  Nelson's  history  of  Ike  war,  v.  Hi,  pp.  125- 
I2q. — Another  circumstance  that  undoubtedly  con- 
tributed largely  towards  swaying  the  bulk  of  the 
Mohammedan  world  to  the  Allied  cause  as  against 
the  Turks  was  the  powerful  manifesto  issued  to 
Moslems  by  his  highness  the  Aga  Khan  HI,  who 
is  the  recognized  spiritual  head  of  some  70,000,000 
Mohammedans  in  India,  and  has,  besides,  a  con- 
siderable following  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Central 
Asia,  Syria  and  Morocco.  Not  only  did  the  Aga 
Khan  utterly  condemn  the  proposed  jehad  and 
assert  the  justice  of  the  Allied  cause,  but  he  even 
volunteered  to  serve  as  a  private  in  any  infantry 
regiment  of  the  Indian  Expeditionary  Force. 

"From  the  day  when  he  took  over  the  Emirship 
[of  Mecca,  in  1910],  Shereef  Hussein  ibn  Ali 
was  a  faithful  counsellor  and  sincere  supporter  of 
the  Ottoman  government.  ...  He  and  his  four 
sons — the  Emirs  Ali,  Abdullah,  Feisal  and  Zeid — 
adhered  so  faithfully  to  this  loyal  policy  that  some 
of  the  Arab  Emirs  ascribed  to  him  arrant  Tur- 
kophilism.  Then  the  'Unionists'  started  their  vio- 
lent anti-Arab  campaign  of  persecution  and  ex- 
termination. Free-minded  Arabs  in  Syria  and  EI 
Irak  thereupon  turned  to  the  great  Emir  of  Arabia, 
the  guardian  of  the  Holy  Shrines  of  Islam,  for  suc- 
cour and  redress.  He  tried  then  to  calm  them 
and  comfort  them  with  earnest  promises  of  inter- 
vention and  at  the  same  time  he  represented  to 
the  Unionists  the  gravity  of  the  situation  and  the 
danger  to  which  the  Empire  would  be  exposed  if 
such  a  policy  were  persisted  in.  Soon  afterwards 
the  Great  War  broke  out,  and  the  Unionists  were 
not  long  in  siding  with  the  Germanic  Powers 
and  throwing  the  fortunes  of  the  Empire  into  the 
melting  pot.  They  had  consulted  the  Grand  She- 
reef, informing  him,  at  the  same  time,  of  their  re- 
solve to  join  the  Central  Powers.  He  wisely  ad- 
vised the  strictest  neutrality.  Their  object  in  con- 
sulting him,  however,  had  doubtless  been  to  sound 
his  own  and  his  people's  feelings  and  intentions, 
rather  than  to  seek  his  advice. 

".'\bout  four  months  later  a  rumour  was  cir- 
culated in  Constantinople  as  to  the  existence  of  a 
movement  in  Syria  and  El  Irak  unsympathetic  to 
the  alliance  of  Turkey  with  Germany.  The  Union- 
ists seized  this  as  an  occasion,  or  rather  pretext, 
to  send  out  to  Syria  Jemal  Pasha,  in  order  to  carry 


389 


ARABIA,  1916 


Arab  Revolt 
Proclamation 


ARABIA,  1916 


out,  with  ruthless  rigour,  their  programme  for 
crushing  out  the  life  and  spirit  of  this  'Arab  move- 
ment,' by  hanging  its  leaders,  exiling  the  Arab 
notables,  and  starving  the  masses.  On  his  arrival, 
however,  Jemal  found  that  the  inhabitants  were 
peaceful,  and  practically  all  supporting  the  Gov- 
ernment with  their  lives  and  property  in  its  con- 
duct of  the  war  which  it  had  imposed  on  them; 
and  that,  therefore,  there  was  nothing  to  justify 
the  institution  of  a  reign  of  terror.  Thereon,  he, 
with  the  characteristic  cunning  and  deceit  of  the 
Turk,  tried  at  first  to  pose  as  the  friend  of  the 
Arabs,  gathered  round  him  the  elite  of  Syria,  and 
lured  them  into  confidence  by  falsely  pretending 
to  approve  and  admire  the  Arab  national  move- 
ment. It  is  even  said  that  he  went  so  far  as  to 
make  a  speech,  on  the  occasion  of  a  banquet  given 
in  his  honour  at  Damascus,  wherein  he  said;  'How 
can  we  expect  the  fatherland  to  progress  when 
Arab  and  Turk  forget  and  neglect  their  respective 
national  ideals  and  when  ignorance  prevails?  On 
suitable  occasions  he  gave  expression  to  other  views 
of  a  similar  character,  and  thus  entrapped  the 
Arab  patriots,  who  revealed  to  him  their  inner- 
most hopes  and  aspirations,  assuring  him,  at  the 
same  time,  in  all  sincerity,  that  they  were  ready 
to  sacrifice  their  very  lives  on  the  altar  of  Empire, 
provided  the  Government  respected  and  recognised 
their  national  claims  and  rights.  He  then  started 
dispersing  Arab  officers  and  men  in  the  outlying 
provinces  of  the  Empire,  in  the  Caucasus,  the 
Dardanelles  and  Persia,  and  organised  an  elabo- 
rate system  of  spying;  and  when  finally  he  saw 
the  country  cleared  of  its  militant  elements,  and 
his  position  absolutely  secure,  he  brought  down 
his  heavy  hand  on  the  helpless  population  and 
indulged  in  that  series  of  atrocities  that  has  horri- 
fied the  civilised  world.  When  all  this  was  re- 
ported to  the  Grand  Sherecf,  he  at  once  sent  his 
son  Emir  Faisal  ...  to  remonstrate  with  Jemal 
against  this  suicidal  policy,  and  to  advise  him  to 
refrain  from  it.  The  Pasha  promised  to  do  so; 
but  hardly  had  Emir  Faisal  arrived  back  in  the 
Hejaz  when  the  same  ruthless  policy  was  revived 
with  even  greater  violence.  Cases  of  hanging  and 
exile  became  more  frequent,  and,  worse  than  all, 
the  wilful  starving  of  the  population  was  inaugu- 
rated. Meantime,  the  blockade  of  the  Turkish 
coasts  had  been  declared,  and  as  the  Turks  stopped 
the  carriage  of  all  foodstuffs  by  the  railway  and 
by  caravan  to  the  Hejaz,  a  state  of  famine  was 
brought  about. 

"The  Unionists,  meantime,  had  become  so  drunk 
with  the  lust  of  blood  that  they  actually  set  about 
condemning,  wholesale,  Arab  officers  who  were 
fighting  for  them  on  distant  fronts,  and  degrading 
Arab  soldiers  to  the  position  of  slaves,  and  driving 
them  to  menial  work  and  calling,  them  on  every 
occasion  'traitors.'  As  a  crowning  of  this  mad 
career  they  finally  attacked  the  Arabs  in  their 
most  sensitive  and  vital  point,  the  Sheriat,  a  well- 
known  member  of  the  Committee,  going  so  far  as 
to  declare  publicly  his  contempt  for  Islam  and 
its  teachings.  Finding  that  persuasion  and  argu- 
ment were  worse  than  useless  with  a  people  of 
such  temper  and  mind,  the  Grand  Shereef  finally 
drew  the  sword  as  the  final  arbiter." — Near  East, 
Feb.  2,  1917. — On  June  g,  1916,  the  Grand  She- 
reef  made  his  first  move  by  declaring  himself  in- 
dependent of  the  Turkish  government.  Mecca 
and  the  surrounding  district  were  loyal  to  him  and 
the  Turkish  garrison  in  Jeddah  was  overcome. 
Taif  was  soon  captured,  hut  with  Turkish  troops 
in  Medina  it  was  too  strong  for  the  .\rabs  (o  in- 
vest. The  latter  tore  up  over  a  hundred  miles  of 
the  Hejaz  Railway  tracks  and  thus  severely  handi- 


capped the  Turks  in  sending  reinforcements.  The 
Turks,  however,  were  too  seriously  involved  else- 
where to  be  able  to  devote  any  large  force  to 
handle  the  rising.  A  decree  was  issued  in  Con- 
stantinople deposing  the  Grand  Shereef,  who  in 
reply  published  a  proclamation  in  Cairo  setting 
forth  numerous  indictments  against  the  Turkish 
Committee  of  Union  and  Progress  in  general  and 
against  Enver  Pasha,  Talaat  Bey  and  Jemal  Pasha 
in  particular. — See  also  Wokld  War:  1916:  VI. 
Turkish  theater:   c. 

1915  (June). — Proclamation  of  the  sherif  of 
Mecca. — "In  the  name  of  God,  the  Merciful,  the 
Compassionate.  This  is  our  general  proclamation 
to  all  our  Moslem  brothers.  O  God,  judge  be- 
tween us  and  our  people  in  truth ;  Thou  art  the 
Judge.  The  world  knovveth  that  the  first  of  all 
Moslem  princes  and  rulers  to  acknowledge  the 
Turkish  Government  were  the  Emirs  of  Mecca  the 
Blessed.  This  they  did  to  bind  together  and  make 
strong  the  brotherhood  of  Islam,  for  they  saw  the 
Sultans  of  the  House  of  Osman  (may  the  dust  of 
their  tombs  be  blessed,  and  may  they  dwell  in 
Paradise!),  how  they  were  upright,  and  how  they 
carried  out  all  the  commandments  and  ordinances 
of  the  Faith  and  of  the  Prophet  (prayers  be  upon 
him!)  perfectly.  Therefore  they  were  obedient  to 
them  at  all  times.  For  a  token  of  this,  remember 
how  in  A.  H.  [.Anno  Hegira]  1327  [1908]  I  with 
my  Arabs  helped  them  against  the  Arabs,  to  save 
Ebhah  from  those  who  were  besieging  it,  and  to 
preserve  the  name  of  the  Government  in  honor; 
and  remember  how  again  in  the  next  year  I  helped 
them  with  my  armies,  which  I  entrusted  to  one  of 
my  sons;  for  in  truth  we  were  one  with  the 
Government  until  the  Committee  of  Union  and 
Progress  rose  up,  and  strengthened  itself,  and 
laid  its  hands  on  power.  Consider  how  since  then 
ruin  has  overtaken  the  State,  and  its  possessions 
have  been  torn  from  it,  and  its  place  in  the  world 
has  been  lost,  until  now  it  has  been  drawn  into 
this  last  and  most  fatal  war.  All  this  they  have 
done,  being  led  away  by  shameful  appetites,  which 
are  not  for  me  to  set  forth,  but  which  are  public 
and  a  cause  for  sorrow  to  the  Moslems  of  the 
whole  world,  who  have  seen  this  greatest  and 
most  noble  Moslem  Power  broken  in  pieces  and 
led  down  to  ruin  and  utter  destruction.  Our 
lament  is  also  for  so  many  of  its  subjects,  Moslems 
and  others  alike,  whose  lives  have  been  sacrificed 
without  any  fault  of  their  own.  Some  have  been 
treacherously  put  to  death,  others  cruelly  driven 
from  their  homes,  as  though  the  calamities  of  war 
were  not  enough.  Of  these  calamities  the  heaviest 
share  has  fallen  upon  the  Holy  Land.  The  poor, 
and  even  families  of  substance,  have  been  made  to 
sell  their  doors  and  windows,  yea,  even  the  wooden 
frames  of  their  houses,  for  bread,  after  they  had 
lost  their  furniture  and  all  their  goods.  Not  even 
so  was  the  lust  of  the  [Party  of]  Union  and  Prog- 
ress fulfilled.  They  laid  bare  all  the  measure  of 
their  wicked  design,  and  broke  the  only  bond  that 
endured  between  them  and  the  true  followers  of 
Islam,  They  departed  from  their  obedience  to  the 
precepts  of  the  Book.  [Here  follow  a  number 
of  charges,  sacrilegious,  etc.,  against  the  Turkish 
government]  .  .  .  We  leave  all  of  this  to  the  Mos- 
lem world  for  judgment.  Yes,  we  can  leave  the 
judgment  to  the  Moslem  world;  but  we  may  not 
leave  our  religion  and  our  existence  as  a  people 
to  be  a  plaything  of  the  Unionists.  God  (Blessed 
be  He!)  has  made  open  for  us  the  attainment 
of  freedom  anti  independence,  and  has  shown  us 
a  way  of  victory  to  cut  off  thi>  hand  of  the  oppres- 
sors, and  to  cast  out  their  garrison  from  our  midst. 
We  have  attained  independence,  an  independence  of 


390 


ARABIA,  1916 


Hussein  Ibn  Ali 
King  of  Hejaz 


ARABIA,  1918 


the  rest  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  which  is  still 
groaning  under  the  tyranny  of  our  enemy.  Our 
independence  is  complete,  absolute,  not  to  be  laid 
hands  on  by  any  foreign  influence  or  aggression, 
and  our  aim  is  the  preservation  of  Islam  and  the 
uplifting  of  its  standard  in  the  world.  We  fortify 
ourselves  on  the  noble  religion  which  is  our  only 
guide  and  advocate  in  the  principles  of  administra- 
tion and  justice.  We  are  ready  to  accept  all  things 
in  harmony  with  the  Faith  and  all  that  leads  to 
the  Mountain  of  Islam,  and  in  particular  to  up- 
lift the  mind  and  the  spirit  of  all  classes  of  the 
people  in  so  far  as  we  have  strength  and  ability. 
This  is  what  we  have  done  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  our  religion,  and  on  our  part  we  trust  that 
our  brethren  in  all  parts  of  the  world  will  each  do 
his  duty  also,  as  is  incumbent  upon  him,  that  the 
bonds  of  brotherhood  in  Islam  may  be  confirmed. 
We  beseech  the  Lord  of  Lords,  for  the  sake  of  the 
Prophet  of  Him  who  giveth  all  things,  to  grant 
us  prosperity  and  to  direct  us  in  the  right  way 
for  the  welfare  of  the  faith  and  of  the  faithful. 
We  depend  upon  God  the  AU-Powerful,  whose  de- 
fence is  sufficient  for  us. — Shereef  and  Emire  of 
Mecca,  El  Hussein  ibn  Ali,  25  Sha'ban  1334." 
[June  27,  1916.] 

"Later  in  the  year  another  manifesto  was  pub- 
lished, and  finding  that  the  Turkish  government 
was  unable  to  send  any  large  army  to  suppress 
the  revolt,  Shereef  Hussein  became  more  daring. 
On  November  4  the  Shereef  had  himself  formally 
proclaimed  'Sultan  of  Arabia';  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  Arab  chiefs  assembled  in  Mecca  for  the  cere- 
mony."— Annual  Register,  1916,  p.  275. — "The  offi- 
cial recognition  by  England,  France,  and  Italy 
of  the  proclamation  of  the  Grand  Shereef  of 
Mecca  as  King  of  the  Hejaz  invests  a  really  re- 
markable figure  with  singular  interest.  .  .  .  His 
Majesty  the  King  of  the  Hejaz  Hussein  Ibn  Ali, 
has  the  distinction  of  being  able  to  claim  what  is 
probably  the  purest  and  oldest  lineage  of  all  the 
crowneci  heads  of  the  world.  Added  to  his  personal 
qualities  and  achievements,  this  fact  goes  far  to 
account  for  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  a  prac- 
tically unanimous  acknowledgment  of  him  as  their 
supreme  lord  by  the  great  chieftains  of  Arabia, 
whose  mutual  jealousies  and  exaggerated  love  of 
personal  authority  are  proverbial.  Purity  of  line- 
age is  a  source  of  great  pride  with  the  Arabs,  and, 
when  it  is  traceable  to  their  Prophet,  it  commands 
the  highest  veneration  on  their  part.  The  high 
value  they  place  on  documents  attesting  the  de- 
scent of  their  thoroughbred  horses  may  be  cited 
as  a  proof  of  the  value  they  attach  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  selection.  Shereef  Hussein  Ibn  Ali  comes 
from  Beni  Hashem,  the  quintessence,  so  to  say,  of 
the  tribe  of  Koreish.  His  descent  is  traceable, 
through  his  immediate  ancestors,  Ali  Ibn  Moham- 
med, Ibn  Abdul  Aziz,  Ibn  Aoun,  back  in  unbroken 
line  to  the  Prophet  Mohammed.  All  the  Moslems 
of  the  world  acknowledge  this  lineage,  and  believe 
in  Ishmael  as  being  the  original  ancestor  of  the 
Arabs,  whose  lineage  is  again  traced  back  to 
Noah."— A^ear  East,  Feb.  2,  1917.— In  their  reply 
to  President  Wilson's  note  of  Dec.  20,  1916,  the 
Allied  powers  stated  the  general  nature  of  their 
war  aims,  and  included  among  them  "the  setting 
free  of  the  populations  subject  to  the  bloody  tyr- 
anny of  the  Turks."  And  Mr.  Balfour,  in  his 
despatch  of  Jan.  16,  191 7,  in  which  he  explained 
these  aims  from  the  point  of  view  of  Great  Britain, 
observed  that  "the  interests  of  peace  and  the  claims 
of  nationality  alike  require  that  Turkish  rule  over 
alien  races  should,  it  possible,  be  brought  to  an 
end."  It  was  in  the  same  spirit  that  President 
Wilson,  in  his  speech  to  the  Senate  on  Jan.   23, 


1917,  proposed  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  be 
adopted  as  the  doctrine  of  the  world,  "that  no  na- 
tion should  seek  to  extend  its  polity  over  any  other 
nation  or  people."  Thus  the  effort  of  the  Arabs 
of  Hejaz  to  free  themselves  from  the  oppressive 
rule  of  the  Turks  received  the  sanction  of  all  the 
Allies.  The  province  of  Western  Arabia  to  which 
the  name  of  Hejaz  has  been  given  extends  along 
the  Red  Sea  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  to  the 
south  of  Taif.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Syria,  on  the  east  by  the  Nafud  desert,  and  by 
Nejd,  and  on  the  south  by  Asir.  Its  length  is 
about  750  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from 
the  Harra,  east  of  Khaibar,  to  the  coast  is  200 
miles.  Barren  and  uninviting  mostly  in  its  north- 
ern part,  yet  with  many  very  fertile  and  well-cul- 
tivated portions  in  the  southern  section,  sustaining 
a  brave,  hardy  and  fearless  population,  the  chief 
claim  of  Hejaz  to  fame  is  that  it  contains  the 
holy  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  to  which  Moham- 
medan pilgrims  come  annually  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  During  the  World  War  the  Arabs 
rendered  splendid  services  in  fighting  and  harassing 
the  Turks.  Of  particular  interest  is  the  romantic 
part  played  in  the  task  of  uniting  the  Arab  tribes 
by  a  young  English  Oxford  graduate,  Thomas 
Lawrence.  When  the  World  War  broke  out  he 
was  studying  archsological  inscriptions  in  Meso- 
potamia. He  was  then  twenty-six  years  old  and 
possessed  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  land  and 
its  languages.  Though  he  had  had  no  military 
experience,  he  was  appointed  an  officer  (colonel) 
in  the  British  army,  but  he  usually  wore  the 
costume  of  an  Arab,  which  he  carried  like  a  na- 
tive. Mounted  on  horse  or  camel,  he  led  armies  of 
Arabs  in  many  fights  with  the  Turks.  The  latter 
and  their  German  allies  were  not  slow  to  discover 
that  Lawrence  was  a  mighty  factor  in  the  Arab 
problem. — "Through  their  spies  they  learned  that 
Lawrence  was  the  guiding  spirit  of  the  whole  Ara- 
bian revolution.  They  offered  a  reward  of  S.soo,- 
000  for  him,  dead  or  alive.  But  the  Bedouins 
would  not  have  betrayed  their  idolized  leader  for 
all  the  gold  in  the  fabled  mines  of  Solomon." — 
L.  Thomas,  Thomas  Lawrence,  Prince  of  Mecca 
(Asia,  Sept.,  1919,  p.  829). — After  the  capture  of 
Bagdad  the  British  commander.  General  Maude, 
issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of  that  ancient 
city  on  March  19,  1917,  in  which  the  following 
reference  to  the  Arabs  occurs:  "In  Hejaz  the 
Arabs  have  expelled  the  Turks  and  Germans  who 
oppressed  them  and  proclaimed  the  Shereef  Hus- 
sein as  their  king,  and  his  lordship  rules  in  inde- 
pendence and  freedom,  and  is  the  ally  of  the  na- 
tions who  are  fighting  against  the  power  of  Turkey 
and  Germany;  so,  indeed,  are  the  noble  Arabs,  the 
lords  of  Koweyt,  Nejd,  and  Asir.  Many  noble 
Arabs  have  perished  in  the  cause  of  Arab  freedom, 
at  the  hands  of  those  alien  rulers,  the  Turks,  who 
oppressed  them.  ...  It  is  the  hope  and  desire  of 
the  British  people  and  the  nations  in  alliance  with 
them  that  the  Arab  race  may  rise  once  more  to 
greatness  and  renown  among  the  peoples  of  the 
earth,  and  that  it  shall  bind  itself  together  to  this 
end  in  unity  and  concord.  O  people  of  Bagdad, 
remember  that  for  twenty-six  generations  you  have 
suffered  under  strange  tyrants  who  have  ever  en- 
deavored to  set  one  Arab  house  against  another 
in  order  that  they  might  profit  by  your  dis- 
sensions. This  policy  is  abhorrent  to  Great  Britain 
and  her  Allies,  for  there  can  be  neither  peace  nor 
prosperity  where  there  is  enmity  and  misgovern- 
ment." 

1918. — Speech  of  Lloyd  George  on  British  war 
aims.  See  World  War:  191S:  X.  Statements  of 
war  aims:  a. 


391 


ARABIA,  1918 


Results  of 
World    War 


ARABIA,  1919 


1918. — Aid  to  Allies  against  Turks  in  Meso- 
potamian  campaign.  See  World  War:  iqiS:  VI. 
Turkish  theater:  c,  4. 

1918. — British  attack  Hejaz  communications. 
See  World  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c,  5; 
c,  6. 

1918. — Conditions  in  Hejaz  during  British 
campaign.  See  World  War:  iqi8:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  c,  9. 

1918  (September). — Aid  to  British  in  Palestine 
campaign.  See  World  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  c,  12. 


©  E.  M.  Newman 
KMIR  FEISAL,  KING  OF  IRAK  (MESOPOTAMIA) 

1919. — Results  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. — 
Spheres  of  influence  and  the  Syrian  problem.— 
Dissatisfaction  of  the  Arabs. — "After  the  prin- 
cipal Allies  had  been  allotted  their  quotas  at  the 
Peace  Conference,  there  was  a  belated  announce- 
ment that  the  Kingdom  of  the  Hejaz  would  be 
given  two  seats.  That  little  Arab  kingdom,  rec- 
ognized by  France  and  England  as  a  belligerent 
Ally  in  1916,  had  been  left  out,  but  Faisul,  third 
son  of  the  King  of  the  Hejaz  (or,  as  the  King  pre- 
fers to  be  called,  Cherif  of  Mecca),  and  a  young 
English  colonel  named  Lawrence,  who  had  been 
adopted  into  the  family  of  the  descendants  of 
the  prophet  Mohammed  and  was  a  major-general 
in  Faisul's  Arab  army,  made  a  few  spirited  re- 
marks about  the  share  of  the  Arab  army  in  the 


liberation  of  Syria  and  the  feelings  which  those 
Arabs  might  entertain  if  omitted  from  the  Peace 
Conference;  and  the  Kingdom  of  the  Hejaz  se- 
cured its  two  seats.  .  .  .  Meantime  certain  states- 
men in  Europe  had  drawn  up  secret  treaties  ar- 
ranging for  a  division  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia 
between  Russia,  France,  and  England.  This  was  in 
igi6,  before  the  Russian  Revolution  and  before  the 
Syrians  had  achieved  their  independence.  France 
was  to  receive  the  coast  strip  of  Syria,  the  Vilayet 
of  Adana,  and  a  large  strip  of  land  to  the  north; 
Russia,  in  addition  to  Constantinople,  most  of 
what  is  commonly  called  Armenia,  and  some  of 
the  south  coast  of  the  Black  Sea;  England,  south- 
ern Mesopotamia  and  the  Syrian  ports  of  Caiffa 
and  .^crc.  Palestine  was  to  have  a  special  regime ; 
and  the  territory  between  the  French  and  English 
acquisitions  was  to  be  formed  into  a  confedera- 
tion of  .Arab  governments,  or  a  single  independent 
Arab  government,  and  was  divided  into  'zones'  in 
which  France  and  England  were  to  have  varying 
degrees  of  'influence.'  Faisul  did  not  know  of 
this  treaty  when  he  led  the  Arab  revolt ;  nor  did 
the  Arabs  and  Syrians  when  they  revolted.  No 
one  was  satisfied  with  the  old  treaty.  The  Rus- 
sians no  longer  wanted  a  share  of  the  spoils;  the 
Syrians  wanted  real  independence ;  and  certain 
French  interests  wanted  a  'unified  Syria'  under 
French  tutelage.  ...  To  the  Arab,  Syria  is  sim- 
ply a  region  where  Arabs,  a  few  of  whom  are 
Christians,  live  more  settled  industrial  lives;  there 
is  no  word  for  'Syria'  in  the  .\rab  tongue." — Na- 
tion, April  ig,  1919. — "The  .\rab  world,  where 
considerations  into  which  the  wishes  of  the  in- 
habitants or  the  main  interests  of  the  country 
did  not  always  enter,  have  led  to  its  division  into 
spheres  of  influence.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into 
the  different  agreements.  .  .  .  The  French  at  pres- 
ent hold  and  administer  the  Syrian  coast  towns 
from  Tyre  to  Alexandretta  inclusive,  while  the 
Emir  Feisal,  the  son  of  the  King  of  the  Hedjaz, 
whose  services  to  the  Allies  in  the  war  are  a  mat- 
ter of  common  knowledge,  rules  inland  Syria 
[whence  he  was  expelled  by  the  French  in  Au- 
gust, 1920].  The  cities  of  Damascus,  Hama,  Homs, 
and  Aleppo  are  [were  until  then]  under  his  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  [He  is  now  ruler  of  Irak  (Mesopo- 
tamia) under  British  mandate.]  The  Hedjaz  it- 
self is  declared  by  the  Treaty  to  be  a  free,  in- 
dependent state.  Palestine  is  to  remain  under 
the  direct  administration  of  the  mandatory.  Meso- 
potamia and  Syria  are  made  independent  states 
in  accordance  with  Article  22  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  though  they  are  to  receive  the  advice 
and  assistance  of  mandatories  until  they  are  able 
to  stand  alone.  The  boundaries  of  all  three  coun- 
tries are  to  be  fixed  by  the  principal  .Mlied  Powers. 
Many  of  the  .\rabs  object  to  the  present  arrange- 
ment. Their  view,  which  is  shared  by  not  a  few 
Europeans,  is  that  it  splits  up  into  several  parts 
a  country  which  is  essentially  one.  In  the  end 
they  will,  they  say,  certainly  come  together  again 
either  in  the  form  of  a  single  state  or  of  a  confed- 
eration. Nature  herself  favours  this  unity.  The 
great  rivers  would  disregard  division.  So  would 
the  nomad.  He  crosses  the  country  from  end  to 
end.  There  is  summer  pasture  in  Syria,  while  win- 
ter grazing  takes  him  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf. 
He  is  also  the  carrier  of  the  desert,  so  that  neither 
Syria  nor  Arabia  can  be  permanently  cut  off  from 
Mesopotamia.  And  the  desert  will  only  support  a 
limited  number  of  people.  In  other  countries  the 
surplus  goes  to  America.  Here  the  Bedu  has  an 
.\merica  at  his  tent  door.  He  just  goes  to  the 
river  strip  or  he  settles  in  Syria,  as  he  has  done 
from  time   immemorial.     Its   outlying  settlements 


392 


ARABIA 


ARABIA,   CASE   OF 


are  his  mark^  towns.  The  differences  between 
Arabs  seem  great  to  the  stranger.  They  really 
only  go  skin  deep.  Townsman,  settler,  and  Bedu 
may  be  kept  apart  by  mutual  contempt,  but  all 
are  proud  of  their  descent  from  the  desert.  Like 
their  religion  they  belong  to  it.  What  keeps  the 
country  one  is  something  deeper  than  Arab  na- 
tionality, though  the  population  is  in  any  case 
mainly  Arab.  So  are  its  language  and  its  civiliza- 
tion. This  applies  to  Syria  and  Palestine  as  well 
as  to  the  rest.  In  Palestine  the  Zionist  claims  are 
based  not  on  the  present,  but  on  the  past  and  the 
future ;  they  count  on  a  large  immigration  of 
Jews,  who  at  present  form  only  one-sixth  to  one- 
ninth  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Christian  Syrians 
of  the  coast  and  in  the  Lebanon  are  against  com- 
ing into  an  Arab  confederation  or  kingdom.  It 
is  not,  however,  because  they  are  likely  to  be  ill- 
treated.  Christians  are  already  helping  the  Arabs 
to  build  a  state  at  Damascus.  But  the  Christian 
population  is  too  small,  and  if  the  rest  of  the  coun- 
try one  day  comes  together  it  will  be  impossible 
to  keep  it  from  its  natural  outlet  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  Persian  Gulf  is  only  a  back  door." — 
Round  Table,  June,  1920,  p.  511. 

Also  in:  L.  Thomas,  King  Hussein  and  his  Ara- 
bian knights  (Asia,  May,  IQ20). 

1919. — King  of  Hejaz  and  the  revolt  of  the 
Wahabites. — "The  Lebanon  Syrian  Committee  in 
the  second  week  of  August  addressed  to  the  Cen- 
tral Syrian  Committee  located  in  Paris  the  follow- 
ing telegram:  'The  Arabian  military  authorities 
at  Damascus  are  continuing  their  arbitrary  re- 
cruiting. They  have  just  decided  to  send  an  army 
of  Syrians  to  the  Hejaz,  on  a  payment  of  three 
Egyptian  pounds  per  man,  probably  to  fight 
against  the  Wahabites.  They  are  thus  treating 
Syria  as  a  country  conquered  by  the  Hejaz,  and 
are  misapplying  the  subsidies  furnished  by  the  Al- 
lies.' The  Mussulman  sect  of  the  Wahabites  is 
at  war  with  Hussein,  King  of  Arabia.  The  causes 
that  led  to  these  hostilities  were  briefly  as  follows: 
When  the  Ottoman  Empire  joined  the  European 
war  the  Hejaz  and  the  other  Emirates  of  Arabia 
joined  the  Allies,  who  created  Hussein  King  of 
Arabia.  Hussein  played  a  prominent  part  from 
this  time  on.  He  only  was  represented  at  the 
Peace  Conference.  His  son,  Feisul,  became  a  can- 
didate for  the  throne  of  Hejaz  under  the  aegis  of 
England.  Hussein's  proclamation  of  himself  as 
Khalif,  or  great  religious  leader  of  Islam,  gave 
offense  to  the  Wahabites  among  other  sects.  His 
subsequent  proposal  to  unite  Hedjaz  with  Nedj, 
where  the  Wahabites  are  mainly  centred,  brought 
on  a  crisis,  and  the  conflict  was  declared  by  the 
Wahabite  leader." — Times  Current  History,  Oct., 
igiQ,  p.  172. — See  also  Syria. — "The  Arab  tribes 
are  notoriously  independent,  and,  so  far  as  the 
outside  world  knows,  have  not  acted  together  since 
the  time  of  Mohammed  and  of  the  early  con- 
quests of  Islam.  Even  then,  some  were  lukewarm 
and  worse.  It  will,  therefore,  be  in  point  to  con- 
sider the  positions  taken  up  by  the  other  elements 
in  Arabia.  Of  the  maritime  states  to  the  east, 
Koweit,  Bahrein,  Oman,  little  need  be  said.  The 
Persian  Gulf  has  known  English  control  since  the 
seventeenth  century,  a  control  which  is  the  oldest 
element  in  the  British  Empire.  It  has  known 
also  the  Turks,  and  has  no  desire  for  further  knowl- 
edge. The  population  of  Oman,  also,  is  Ibadite,  a 
sect  of  Puritans,  dissenting  and  protesting  from 
the  earliest  Moslem  history  and  standing  apart 
from  both  Sunnites  and  Shi'ites.  No  call  to  a  Holy 
War  from  a  schismatic  Ottoman  Caliph  would 
affect  them.  The  great  valley  of  Hadramaut  has 
sent  its  sons  over  the  farthest  seas  and  is  more 


cosmopolitan  than  any  other  part  of  Arabia.  It, 
too,  has  little  use  for  Ottoman-German  dreams. 
The  Yemen  is  a  land  where  recorded  history 
reaches  into  Babylonian  times.  Since  the  renewed 
occupation  by  the  Turks,  in  1871,  it  has  been  fight- 
ing them;  and  at  Sa'da  and  San'a  there  has  been, 
and  is  a  line  of  Imams,  of  the  Zaidite  branch  of 
the  Shi'ites,  which  dates  its  foundation  back  to  a 
certain  Rassi  in  A.  D.  860.  The  Zaidites  are  very 
modified  Shi'ites,  holding  principally  to  the  di- 
vine right  to  rule  inherent  in  the  blood  of  the 
Prophet,  and  thus  have  found  it  possible  to  work 
together  with  the  Sharifs  of  Mecca.  In  Athir, 
or  Asir,  a  district  on  the  Red  Sea,  a  certain  Imam 
Idrisi  has  been  in  insurrection  against  the  Turks 
since,  at  least,  the  Turko-Italian  war.  The  pres- 
ent Great  Sharif  assisted  the  Turks  then  in  reliev- 
ing the  Turkish  garrison  of  Obha  and  securing 
for  it  a  safe  retreat.  Now,  naturally,  he  is  at  one 
with  Idrisi  and  his  followers.  In  the  interior  there 
are  two  states,  settled  round  greater  oases,  which 
have  made  the  politics  of  central  Arabia  for 
about  a  century.  One,  to  the  southeast  of  Riyad, 
is  all  of  the  Wahabite  empire  that  maintains 
independence.  Once  it  threatened  Syria  and  Egypt, 
and  indeed,  the  Moslem  world,  but  now  it  is  lim- 
ited to  a  little  island  in  the  deserts.  But  it  is  still 
war-like  and  maintains  the  traditions  of  the  earliest 
Islam.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  revival  of  the  ideals  of  the 
monkish  state  of  Medina  under  the  first  succes- 
sors of  Mohammed.  To  the  north,  at  Hayil,  is 
the  dynasty  of  the  Ibn  Rashids.  It  may  be  best 
compared  to  the  Arab  court  of  the  Umayyads  at 
Damascus.  The  Ibn  Rashids  are  orthodox  Sun- 
nite  Moslems;  but  they  wear  their  religion  more 
lightly  than  do  the  austere  Wahabites  to  the 
southeast  of  them.  They  appreciate  literature  and 
poetry  and  the  joy  of  life.  Between  them  and  the 
Ibn  Sa'ud  at  Riyad  lies  the  headship  of  inner  Ara- 
bia. Now  one  and  now  the  other  has  held  it.  But, 
invariably,  up  till  now,  on  every  question  they 
have  taken  opposite  sides." — G.  B.  Macdonald, 
Arabian  situation  (Nation,  Nov.  8,  1917,  pp.  505- 
507). 

1920. — Separated  from  Turkey  by  Treaty  of 
Sevres.  See  Hejaz,  kingdom  of;  Sevres,  treaty 
OF:  1920:  Contents:  Part  HI.  Pohtical  clauses: 
Hejaz.  For  further  information  on  Arabia,  see  also 
Caliphate;  Mohammedanism. 

Also  in:  T.  Noldeke,  Geschichte  der  Perser  und 
Araber  zur  zeit  der  Sassaniden. — S.  Lane-Poole, 
Mohammedan  dynasties. — C.  Huart,  Geschichte  der 
Araber  (2  vols.,  1916). — S.  M.  Zwemer,  Arabia, 
the  cradle  of  Islam. — R.  F.  Burton,  Pilgrimage  to 
El  Medinah  and  Meccah. — A.  Sprenger,  Alte  Geog- 
raphie  Arabiens. — D.  G.  Hogarth,  Penetration  of 
Arabia. — J.  T.  Bent,  Southern  Arabia. 

ARABIA,  Case  of.— The  sinking  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, on  November  6,  1916,  of  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Company's  steamer  Arabia  with  one 
American  on  board  was  made  the  occasion  of  a 
protest  by  the  Department  of  State  to  the  Ger- 
man government,  and  a  charge  that  the  promise 
made  after  the  Sussex  case  had  been  broken. 
"The  German  note  on  the  Arabia,  now  made  pub- 
lic, gave  as  the  reason  for  sinking  her  the  belief  that 
she  wa3  a  transport.  November  6,  one  hundred 
miles  west  of  the  [Ionian]  island  of  Cerigo,  a 
German  submarine,  said  the  note,  fell  in  with  a 
large  steamship  coming  from  the  Cerigo  Straits. 
She  was  painted  black,  and  did  not,  as  was  usual 
with  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers,  have 
light-colored  superstructures.  Though  identical 
with  the  Arabia,  she  was  off  the  route  taken  by 
steamers  between  Port  Said  and  Malta,  and  on 
that   taken   by   vessels   of    war.     On   board   were 


393 


ARABIA  FELIX 


AKABIC  LITERATURE 


'large  batches  of  Chinese  and  other  colored  persons 
in  their  national  costumes.'  Supposing  them  to  be 
workmen  soldiers,  'such  as  are  used  in  great  num- 
bers behind  the  Iront  by  the  enemies  of  Germany,' 
the  submarine  commander  believed  he  was  con- 
cerned with  a  transport  ship,  and  'attacked  with- 
out delay  and  sank  her.'  Should  the  United  States 
give  the  data  showing  that  the  Arabia  was  an  ordi- 
nary passenger  steamer,  the  action  of  the  subma- 
rine commander  would  not  then  be  in  accordance 
with  his  instructions.  The  act  would  be  a  regret- 
table mistake  'from  which  the  German  Government 
would  promptly  draw  the  appropriate  conse- 
quences.' The  British  Government,  when  informed 
of  this  reply  and  asked  for  the  facts,  answered  that 
the  Arabia  was  not,  when  sunk,  and  never  had 
been,  in  the  service  of  the  Government ;  that  there 
were  no  Asiatics  on  board  save  the  Indian  crew ; 
and  that  she  did  not  take  the  usual  route,  for  fear 
of  submarines." — J.  B.  McMaster,  United  States 
in  the  World  War,  pp.  280-2S1. — See  also  World 
War:   igi6:  IX.  Naval  operations:  b. 

ARABIA  FELIX:  Conquests  in.  See  Abys- 
sinia: 6th-i6th  centuries. 

ARABIAN  MUSIC.  See  Music:  Ancient 
period. 

ARABIC,  White  Star  liner,  torpedoed  by  a 
German  submarine  on  August  ig,  1915,  while  on  a 
voyage  to  New  York.  The  attack,  which  occurred 
near  the  scene  of  the  Lusitania  tragedy,  was 
without  warning,  and  the  vessel  sank  within  10 
minutes,  with  resultant  loss  of  fifty-four  lives,  in- 
cluding three  Americans.  The  German  Govern- 
ment at  first  asserted  that  the  Arabic  had  attempted 
to  ram  the  submarine  but  later  waived  this  con- 
tention. While  the  case  was  in  discussion  between 
the  two  Governments,  Count  von  Bernstorff,  on 
September  i,  gave  a  pledge  for  his  Government 
that  "liners  will  not  be  sunk  by  our  (German) 
submarines  without  warning  and  without  safety  of 
the  lives  of  noncombatants,  provided  that  the  lin- 
ers do  not  try  to  escape  or  offer  resistance."  This 
pledge  was  given  in  ostensible  answer  to  the  third 
Lusitania  note  and  without  reference  to  tbe  Arabic 
sinking,  which,  however,  was  adjusted  under  it. 
In  a  second  note,  dated  October  s,  the  German 
ambassador  notified  the  State  Department  that  his 
Government  "regretted  and  disavowed"  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Arabic,  which  "was  undertaken  against 
the  instructions  issued  to  the  commander,"  and 
was  "prepared  to  pay  an  indemnity  for  the  Ameri- 
can lives"  lost. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1915  (May- 
September);  191S  (August);  World  War:  1915: 
XI.  Politics  and  diplomacv:  d. 

ARABIC  LITERATURE.— Its  characteris- 
tics.— "Of  no  civilization  is  the  complexion  of 
its  literary  remains  so  characteristic  of  its  varying 
fortunes  as  is  that  of  the  Arabic.  The  precarious 
conditions  of  desert  life  and  of  the  tent,  the  more 
certain  existence  in  settled  habitations,  the  gran- 
deur of  empire  acquired  in  a  short  period  of  en- 
thusiastic rapture,  the  softening  influence  of  luxury 
and  unwonted  riches,  are  so  faithfully  portrayed 
in  the  literature  of  the  .^rabs  as  to  give  us  a  pic- 
ture of  the  spiritual  life  of  the  people  which  no 
mere  massing  of  facts  can  ever  give.  Well  aware 
of  this  themselves,  the  .•Xrabs  at  an  early  dake  com- 
menced the  collection  and  preservation  of  their  old 
literary  monuments  with  a  care  and  a  studious 
concern  which  must  excite  within  us  a  feeling  of 
wonder.  For  the  material  side  of  life  must  have 
made  a  strong  appeal  to  these  people  when  they 
came  forth  from  their  desert  homes.  Pride  in 
their  own  doings,  pride  in  their  own  past,  must 
have  spurred  them  on ;  yet  an  ardent  feeling  for 
the  beautiful  in  speech  is  evident  from  the  begin- 


ning of  their  history.  The  first  'knowledge  that 
we  liave  of  the  tribes  scattered  up  and  down  the 
deserts  and  oases  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  comes 
to  us  in  the  verses  of  their  poets.  The  early  Teu- 
ton bards,  the  rhapsodists  of  Greece,  were  not  lis- 
tened to  with  more  rapt  attention  than  was  the 
simple  Bedouin,  who,  seated  on  his  mat  or  at  the 
door  of  his  tent,  gave  vent  to  his  feeling;  of  joy 
or  sorrow  in  such  manner  as  nature  had  gifted 
him.  As  are  the  ballads  for  Scottish  history,  so 
are  the  verses  of  these  untutored  bards  the  record 
of  the  life  in  which  they  played  no  mean  part. 
Nor  could  the  splendors  of  court  life  at  Damascus, 
Bagdad,  or  Cordova  make  their  rulers  insensible 
to  the  charms  of  poetry, — that  'beautiful  poetry 
with  which  Allah  has  adorned  the  Muslim.'  \ 
verse  happily  said  could  always  charm,  a  satire 
well  appointed  could  always  incite;  and  the  true 
.Arab  of  to-day  will  listen  to  those  so  adorned  with 
the  same  rapt  attention  as  did  his  fathers  of  long 
ago.  This  gift  of  the  desert — otherwise  so  sparing 
of  its  favors — has  not  failed  to  leave  its  impres- 
sion upon  the  whole  Arabic  literature.  Though  it 
has  produced  some  prose  writers  of  value,  writing, 
as  an  art  to  charm  and  to  please,  has  always 
sought  the  measured  cadence  of  poetry  or  the  un- 
measured symmetry  of  rhymed  prose.  .  .  . 

".■\rabic  poetry  is  thus  entirely  lyrical.  There 
was  too  little,  among  these  tribes,  of  the  common 
national  life  which  forms  the  basis  for  the  Epos. 
The  Semitic  genius  is  too  subjective,  and  has  never 
gotten  beyond  the  first  rude  attempts  at  dramatic 
composition.  I^ven  in  its  lyrics,  Arabic  poetry  is 
still  more  subjective  than  the  Hebrew  of  the 
Bible.  .  .  .  The  horizon  which  bounded  the  .Arab 
poet's  view  was  not  far  drawn  out.  He  describes 
the  scenes  of  his  desert  life:  the  sand  dunes;  the 
camel,  antelope,  wild  ass,  and  gazelle;  his  bow  and 
arrow  and  his  sword;  his  loved  one  torn  from 
him  by  the  sudden  striking  of  the  tents  and  de- 
parture of  her  tribe.  The  virtues  which  he  sings 
are  those  in  which  he  glories,  'love  of  freedom,  in- 
dependence in  thought  and  action,  truthfulness, 
largeness  of  heart,  generosity,  and  hospitality.' 
His  descriptions  breathe  the  freshness  of  his  out- 
door life  and  bring  us  close  to  nature ;  his  whole 
tone  rings  out  a  solemn  note,  which  is  even  in  his 
lighter  moments  grave  and  serious, — as  existence 
itself  was  for  those  sons  of  the  desert,  who  had  no 
settled  habitation,  and  who,  more  than  any  one, 
depended  upon  the  bounty  of  Allah." — F.  F.  .\r- 
buthnot,  Arabic  authors,  pp.  23-24. — See  also  Se- 
mitic LITER.\TURE. — "The  oral  communications  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  Medes  and  Persians,  the 
two  classic  tongues  of  Europe,  the  Sanscrit  of  the 
Hindus  and  the  Hebrew  of  the  Jews,  have  long 
since  ceased  to  be  living  languages.  For  the  last 
twelve  centuries  no  Western  language  has  pre- 
served its  grammar,  its  style,  or  its  literature  intact 
and  intelligible  to  the  people  of  the  present  day. 
But  two  Eastern  tongues  have  come  down  from 
ages  past  to  our  own  times,  and  continue  to  exist 
unchanged  in  books,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  also 
unchanged  in  language,  and  these  are  Chinese  and 
.Arabic.  .  .  .  The  unchangeable  character  of  the 
Ar.abic  language  is  chiefly  to  be  attributed  to  the 
Koran,  which  has,  from  its  promulgation  to  the 
present  time,  been  regarded  by  all  Muhammedans 
as  the  standard  of  religion  and  of  literary  composi- 
tion. Strictly  speaking,  not  only  the  history,  but 
also  the  literature  of  the  .Arabs  begins  with  Muham- 
mad. Excepting  the  Mua'llakat,  and  other  pre- 
Islnmitic  poems  collected  in  the  Hamasas  of  .Abu 
Tammam  and  .Al-Bohtori,  in  Ibn  Kutaiba  and  in 
the  Mofaddhaliat,  no  literary  monuments  that  pre- 
ceded his  time  are  in  existence.    The  Koran  became^ 


394 


ARABIC  LITERATURE 


ARABIC  LITERATURE 


not  only  the  code  of  religious  and  of  civil  law,  but 
also  the  model  of  the  Arabic  language,  and  the 
standard  of  diction  and  eloquence.  Muhammad 
himself  scorned  metrical  rules;  he  claimed  as  an 
apostle  and  lawgiver  a  title  higher  than  that  of 
soothsayer  and  poet.  Still,  his  poetic  talent  is 
manifest  in  numerous  passages  of  the  Koran,  well 
known  to  those  able  to  read  it  in  the  original,  and 
in  this  respect  the  last  twenty-five  chapters  of  that 
book  are,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable.  [See  also 
Koran.]  Although  the  power  of  the  Arabs  has 
long  ago  succumbed,  their  literature  has  survived, 
and  their  language  is  still  more  or  less  spoken  in 
all  Muhanimadan  countries.  Europe  at  one  time 
was  Ughtened  by  the  torch  of  Arabian  learning, 
and  the  Middle  Ages  were  stamped  with  the  genius 
and  character  of  Arab  civilization." — R.  A.  Nichol- 
son, Literary  history  of  the  Arabs,  pp.  xxi-xxii. 

Pre-Mohammedan  literature. — 'The  oldest 
monuments  of  written  Arabic  are  modern  in  date 
compared  with  the  Sabeean  inscriptions,  some  of 
which  take  us  back  2,500  years  or  thereabout. 
Apart  from  the  inscriptions  of  Hijr  in  the  north- 
ern Hijaz,  and  those  of  Safa  in  the  neighbor  hood 
of  Damascus  (which,  although  written  by  northern 
Arabs  before  the  Christian  era,  exhibit  a  pecul- 
iar character  not  unike  the  Sabaean  and  cannot  be 
called  Arabic  in  the  usual  acceptation  of  the  term), 
the  most  ancient  examples  of  Arabic  writing  which 
have  hitherto  been  discovered  appear  in  the  trilin- 
gual (Syriac,  Greek,  and  Arabic)  inscription  of 
Zabad,  south-east  of  Aleppo,  dated  512  or  513 
A.  D.,  and  the  bilingual  (Greek  and  Arabic)  of 
Harran,  dated  568  A.  D.  With  these  documents 
we  need  not  concern  ourselves  further,  especially 
as  their  interpretation  presents  great  difficulties. 
Very  few  among  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs  were  able 
to  read  or  write.  Those  who  could  read  or  write 
generally  owed  their  skill  to  Jewish  and  Christian 
teachers,  or  to  the  influence  of  foreign  culture  radi- 
ating from  Hira  and  Ghassan.  But  although  the 
Koran,  which  was  first  collected  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Yamama  (633  A.  D.),  is  the  oldest  Arabic 
book,  the  beginnings  of  literary  composition  in  the 
Arabic  language  can  be  traced  back  to  an  earlier 
period.  Probably  all  the  pre-Islamic  poems  which 
have  come  down  to  us  belong  to  the  century  pre- 
ceding Islam  (500-622  A.  D.),  but  their  elaborate 
form  and  technical  perfection  forbid  the  hypothesis 
that  in  them  we  have  'the  first  sprightly  runnings' 
of  Arabian  song.  It  may  be  said  of  these  magnifi- 
cent odes,  as  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  that  'they 
are  works  of  highly  finished  art,  which  could  not 
possibly  have  been  produced  until  the  poetical  art 
had  been  practised  for  a  long  time.'  They  were 
preserved  during  hundreds  of  years  by  oral  tradi- 
tion .  .  .  and  were  committed  to  writing,  for  the 
most  part,  by  the  Moslem  scholars  of  the  early 
Abbasid  age,  i.  e.,  between  750  and  goo  A.  D." — 
Ibid.,  pp.  xxi-xxii. 

Influence  of  the  Koran. — Mohammedan  and 
later  literature. — "None  of  the  prose  of  those 
ancient  times  has  come  down  to  us.  It  was  not 
written,  and  was,  indeed,  not  reckoned  of  suf- 
ficient importance  to  merit  such  an  honour.  The 
researches  of  the  Arab  philologists  give  us  some 
idea  of  what  this  very  primitive  stage  of  litera- 
ture must  have  been  like.  There  were  evening 
tales  {samar)  told  under  the  nomads'  tents,  stories 
which  were  already  being  carried  from  town  to 
town  by  the  professional  story-tellers,  such  as 
Nadr  ibn  Harith,  of  Mecca,  who  had  learnt  the 
fine  legends  of  the  ancient  Persian  kings  at  Hira, 
and  by  them  gained  a  fame  which  at  one  moment 
counterbalanced  that  Mahomet  owed  to  the  Koran 
stories,  drawn  from  the  Bible.    The  battle  of  Bedr 


put  an  end  to  this  dangerous  competition.  There 
were  also  the  legendary  and  not  at  all  trustworthy 
recitals  of  the  Arab  Days — tales  of  the  great  desert 
battles;  proverbs,  collected  at  a  later  date  by 
philologists,  and  founded  on  forgotten  incidents, 
frequently  incomprehensible,  and  explained  by 
purely  imaginary  comments  and  allocutions,  whose 
makers  flattered  themselves  they  would  impress 
the  minds  of  their  fellow-creatures.  All  these  go 
to  make  up  the  elements  of  a  literary  art  of  which 
we  possess  no  written  specimens,  but  which  was 
eventually  to  undergo  a  great  development."— 
C.  Huart,  History  of  Arabic  literature,  pp.  31-32. — 
"With  the  rise  of  the  Abbassidcs  (750),  that  'God- 
favored  dynasty,'  Arabic  literature  entered  upon  its 
second  great  development ;  a  development  which 
may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Umayyids 
(which  was  Arabian)  as,  in  the  very  truth,  Mu- 
hammadan.  With  Bagdad  as  the  capital,  it  was 
rather  the  non-Arabic  Persians  who  held  aloft 
the  torch  than  the  Arabs  descended  from  Kureish. 
It  was  a  bold  move,  this  attempt  to  weld  the  old 
Persian  civilization  with  the  new  Muhanimadan. 
Yet  so  great  was  the  power  of  the  new  faith  that 
it  succeeded.  The  Barmecide  major-domo  ably 
seconded  his  Abbasside  master;  the  glory  of  both 
rests  upon  the  interest  they  took  in  art,  literature, 
and  science.  The  Arab  came  in  contact  with  a  new 
world.  Under  Mansiir  (754),  Harun  al-Rashid 
(786),  and  Ma'mun  (813),  the  wisdom  of  the 
Greeks  in  philosophy  and  science,  the  charms  of 
Persia  and  India  in  wit  and  satire,  were  opened 
up  to  enlightened  eyes.  Upon  all  of  these,  what- 
ever their  nationality,  Islam  had  imposed  the  Arab 
tongue,  pride  in  the  faith  and  in  its  early  history. 
'Qur'an'  exegesis,  philosophy,  law,  history,  and 
science  were  cultivated  under  the  very  eyes  and 
at  the  bidding  of  the  Palace.  And  at  least  for 
several  centuries,  Europe  was  indebted  to  the  cul- 
ture of  Bagdad  for  what  it  knew  of  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  philosophy.  The  Arab  muse  profited 
with  the  rest  of  this  revival.  History  and  philoso- 
phy, as  a  study,  demanded  a  close  acquaintance 
with  the  products  of  early  Arab  genius.  The  great 
philologian  al-Asmai  (740-831)  collected  the  songs 
and  tales  of  the  heroic  age ;  and  a  little  later,  with 
other  than  philological  ends  in  view,  Abu  Tamman 
and  al-Buchturi  (816-913)  made  the  first  antholo- 
gies of  the  old  Arabic  literatures  (Hamasah). 
Poetry  was  already  cultivated:  and  amid  the  hun- 
dreds of  wits,  poets,  and  singers  who  thronged  the 
entrance  to  the  court,  there  are  many  who  claim 
real  poetic  genius.  .  .  .  During  the  third  period — 
from  Ma'mun  (813),  under  whom  the  Turkish 
body-guards  began  to  wield  their  baneful  influence, 
until  the  break-up  of  the  Abbasside  Empire  in 
1258 — there  are  many  names,  but  few  real  poets, 
to  be  mentioned.  .  .  .  Withal,  the  taste  for  poetic 
composition  grew,  though  it  produced  a  smaller 
number  of  great  poets.  But  it  also  usurped  for 
itself  fields  which  belong  to  entirely  different  liter- 
ary forms.  Grammar,  lexicography,  philosophy, 
and  theology  were  expounded  in  verse;  but  the 
verse  was  formal,  stiff,  and  unnatural.  Poetic  com- 
position became  a  tour  de  force.  ■  ■  .  Such  tales 
as  these,  told  as  an  exercise  of  linguistic  gymnas- 
tics, must  not  blind  us  to  the  presence  of  real 
tales,  told  for  their  own  sake.  Arabic  literature 
has  been  very  prolific  in  these.  They  lightened 
the  graver  subjects  discussed  in  the  tent, — philoso- 
phy, religion,  and  grammar, — and  they  furnished 
entertainment  for  the  more  boisterous  assemblies 
in  the  coffee-houses  and  around  the  bowl.  For 
the  .'\rab  is  an  inveterate  story-teller;  and  in  nearly 
all  the  prose  that  he  writes,  this  character  of  the 
'teller*  shimmers  clearly  through  the  work  of   the 


395 


ARACAUNO  INDIANS 


ARAGON 


'writer.'  He  is  an  elegant  narrator.  Not  only 
does  he  intersperse  verses  and  lines  more  frequently 
than  our  own  taste  would  license;  by  nature,  he 
easily  falls  into  the  half-hearted  poetry  of  rhymed 
prose,  for  which  the  rich  assonances  of  his  lan- 
guage pre-dispose  him.  His  own  learning  was 
further  cultivated  by  his  early  contact  with  Per- 
sian literature;  through  which  the  fable  and  the 
wisdom  of  India  spoken  from  the  mouths  of  dumb 
animals  reached  him.  .  .  .  Nor  were  the  Arabs 
wanting  in  their  own  peculiar  'Romances,'  influ- 
enced only  in  some  portions  of  the  setting  by  Per- 
sian ideas.  Such  were  the  'Story  of  Saif  ibn  dhi 
Yazan,'  the  'Tale  of  al-Zir,'  the  'Romance  of 
Dalhmah,'  and  esp)ecially  the  'Romance  of  Antar' 
and  the  'Thousand  Nights  and  A  Night.'  The  last 
two  romances  are  excellent  commentaries  on  Arab 
life,  at  its  dawn  and  at  its  fullness,  among  the 
roving  chiefs  of  the  desert  and  the  homes  of  revelry 
in  Bagdad.  .  .  .  Though  the  Arab  delights  to  hear 
and  to  recount  tales,  his  tales  are  generally  short 
and  pithy.  It  is  in  this  shorter  form  that  he  de- 
lights to  inculcate  principles  of  morality  and 
norms  of  character.  He  is  most  adroit  at  repartee 
and  pungent  replies.  He  has  a  way  of  stating 
principles  which  delights  while  it  instructs.  The 
anecdote  is  at  home  in  the  East:  many  a  favor  is 
gained,  many  a  punishment  averted,  by  a  ciuick 
answer  and  a  felicitously  turned  expression.  Such 
anecdotes  exist  as  popular  traditions  in  very  large 
numbers,  and  he  receives  much  consideration  whose 
mind  is  well  stocked  with  them.  Collections  of 
anecdotes  have  been  put  in  writing  from  time  to 
time.  Those  dealing  with  the  early  history  of  the 
caliphate  are  among  the  best  prose  that  the  Arabs 
have  produced." — C.  D.  Warner,  ed..  Library  of 
the  world's  best  literature,  v.  2,  pp.  669-675. — 
See  also  Mohammedanism. 

ARACAUNO  INDIANS.     See  Pampas  tribes. 

ARACHOTI,  a  people  who  dwelt  anciently  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Arghandab,  or  Urgundab,  in  east- 
ern Afghanistan.  Herodotus  gave  them  the  tribal 
name  of  "Pactyes,"  and  the  modern  .Afghans,  who 
call  themselves  "Pashtun"  and  "Pakhtun,"  signi- 
fying "mountaineers,"  are  probably  derived  from 
them. — M.  Duncker,  History  of  antiquity,  bk.  7, 
ch.  I. 

ARACID  DYNASTY.    See  Armenia:  387-600. 

ARAD,  temporary  capital  of  Hungary.  See 
Hungary:   1847-1840. 

ARADUS,  or  Arvad.    See  Ruad. 

ARAGO,  Dominique  Frangois  Jean  (1786- 
1853),  French  astronomer  and  physicist.  Made 
important  contributions  to  astronomy  and  to  our 
knowledge  of  magnetism,  galvanism  and  polariza- 
tion of  light ;  discovered  the  development  of  mag- 
netism by  rotation ;  as  a  Republican,  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1830,  was  :i  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  on  the  extreme  Left;  min- 
ister of  war  and  marine  in  the  provisional  govern- 
ment of  1848;  opposed  the  election  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon. 

ARAGON. — The  kingdom  of  .\ragon  which  was 
one  of  the  important  independent  states  of  West- 
ern Europe  during  the  Middle  .Ages,  lay  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  Iberian  peninsula.  In 
the  eleventh  century,  it  had  already  acquired  a  po- 
sition of  considerable  importance  through  its  ex- 
pansion, at  the  expense  of  the  Moors.  In  1076,  by 
the  annexation  of  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  Aragon 
became  perhaps  the  strongest  Christian  state  in 
Spain.  In  the  reign  of  .Alfonso  I  (1104-11.^4)  oc- 
curred the  capture  of  Saragossa  (1T18)  which  now 
became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  Disputes  over 
the  succession  to  the  crown  distracted  the  kingdom 
for  manv   vears  after  the  dealh  of  Alfonso      But 


in  the  reign  of  Alfonso  II  the  important  union  of 
Aragon  and  Catalonia  took  place  (11 64).  In  the 
course  of  the  next  few  years  Alfonso  acquired  ex- 
tensive dominions  in  southern  France  though  the 
natural  frontiers,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  inter- 
fered with  the  real  union  of  the  French  and  Span- 
ish elements  in  Alfonso's  dominions.  In  1x79,  he 
made  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  Castile,  by  which 
the  two  sovereigns  agreed  upon  their  respective 
spheres   of   influence. 

"The  reign  of  Pedro  II  (11Q6-1213)  was  troubled 
by  the  religious  disturbances  in  the  French  part 
of  his  dominion.  Southern  France  was,  at  this 
time,  perhaps  the  most  civilized  part  of  Europe, 
but  was  kept  in  a  state  of  political  distraction 
through  the  turbulance  of  the  nobility  and  the 
ambition  of  the  kings  of  France  to  extend  their 
authority  over  this  region.  By  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century  the  Albigenian  heresy  had  secured 
a  foothold  in  the  country  and  was  accepted  by  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  and  this  was  to  in- 
volve Pedro  in  a  conflict  with  the  redoubtable 
Simon  de  Montfort  who  was  engaged  in  the  pious 
and  lucrative  exercise  of  punishing  heresy  and 
seizing  the  rich  lands  of  the  heretical  nobility. 

"In  1 2 13  the  wicked  and  bloody,  Albigensian 
Crusade  seemed  drawing  toward  its  end.  The  vic- 
torious Crusaders  had  reduced  their  chief  enemy, 
the  Count  of  Toulouse,  and  his  allies  the  Counts 
of  Foix  and  the  Comminges,  to  the  lowest  depths 
of  despair:  there  hardly  remained  anything  to  con- 
quer save  the  towns  of  Toulouse  and  Montauban, 
and  the  majority  of  the  victors  were  already  turn- 
ing homeward,  leaving  Simon  de  Montfort  and 
the  knights  whom  he  had  enfeoffed  on  the  con- 
quered land  to  deal  the  last  blow  at  the  exhausted 
enemy.  At  this  moment  a  new  actor  suddenly 
appeared  upon  the  scene.  The  King  of  Aragon  had 
long  possessed  a  broad  domain  in  Languedoc,  and 
looked  with  jealousy  upon  the  establishment  of  a 
new  North-French  power  upon  his  borders.  Car- 
cassonne and  other  smaller  places  which  owed 
him  homage  had  been  stormed  and  plundered  by 
the  Crusaders:  Ihey  sheltered  themselves  under 
the  plea  of  religion,  and  King  Peter  had  long 
been  loth  to  intervene,  lest  he  should  be  accused 
of  taking  the  side  of  the  heretics.  But  as  it  grew 
more  and  more  obvious  that  the  war  was  being 
waged  to  build  up  a  kingdom  for  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort rather  than  to  extirpate  the  Albigenses,  he  de- 
termined at  last  to  interfere.  His  vassals  had  been 
slain,  his  towns  harried,  and  he  had  every  excuse 
for  taking  arms  against  the  Crusaders.  Accord- 
ingly he  concluded  a  formal  alliance  with  the 
Counts  of  Toulouse  and  Foix,  and  promised  to 
cross  the  Pyrenees  to  their  aid  with  a  thousand 
men-at-arms.  He  spent  some  months  in  preparing 
his  host,  mortgaged  royal  estates  and  pawned  his 
jewels  to  raise  money,  and  finally  appeared  near 
Toulouse  in  the  month  of  September  with  the 
promised  contingent.  Most  of  his  followers  were 
drawn  from  Catalonia ;  his  .Aragonese  subjects 
showed  little  liking  for  the  expedition,  fearing  that 
they  might  be  sinning  against  Christendom  by 
lending  aid  to  heretics.  At  the  news  of  Peter's 
approach  the  men  of  Languedoc  took  arms  on  all 
sides,  and  the  Counts  of  Toulouse  and  Foix  were 
soon  able  to  assemble  a  large  army  beneath  their 
banners.  They  stormed  Pujols,  the  nearest  hos- 
tile garrison,  and  slew  sixty  of  De  Montfort's  fol- 
lowers. The  whole  countryside  was  with  them, 
and  Simon's  newly-won  realm  seemed  likely  to  dis- 
appear in  a  moment." — C.  Oman,  History  of  the 
art  of  war,  pp.  448-44Q.— "In  a  few  moments  the 
fight  was  over:  King  Peter  was  recognised  and 
slain  by  a  band  of  Crusaders,  who  had  sworn  be- 


396 


ARAGON 


ARANJUEZ 


fore  the  fight  to  mark  him  down  and  stoop  at  no 
meaner  prey.  The  most  faithful  of  the  knights  of 
his  household  fell  around  him.  the  rest  dispersed 
and  fled  in  all  directions.  The  slaughter  was  great, 
for  the  victors  gave  little  quarter  to  heretics,  and 
the  prisoners  were  much  less  numerous  than  the 
dead." — Ibid.,  pp.  455-456. — See  also  Albigenses: 
1210-1213. 

"After  the  death  of  Pedro  II,  the  succession  of 
the  crown  fell  to  James  I,  the  conqueror  (1213- 
1276).  The  first  years  of  his  reign  were  troubled 
by  civil  wars  but  by  1228  he  was  in  secure  posses- 
sion of  the  throne.  His  first  conquest  was  the 
Island  of  Majorca  which  had  been,  for  many 
years,  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Catalans  and  was 
now  a  strong  center  ol  Moslem  power.  This  con- 
quest was  achieved  in  i2  2g  and  in  six  more  years 
all  the  Balearic  Isles  were  in  his  possession.  Soon 
after  the  conquest  of  the  rich  province  of  Valencia 
was  undertaken  and  by  1228  was  completed  by 
the  capture  of  the  city  of  Valencia.  In  the  years 
1265-1266,  the  King  of  Aragon  effected  the  con- 
quest of  Nurcia  for  the  King  of  Castile.  (See 
also  Albigenses:  1217-1229;  Spain:  1212-1238.) 
"Jaime  was  not  only  a  great  conqueror;  he  was 
also  a  great  administrator.  Owing  to  the  entry  of 
feudalism  into  northeastern  Spain  his  nobles  had 
such  power  that  even  the  able  Jaime  was  obliged 
often  to  compromise  or  to  yield  to  their  wishes. 
He  took  steps  to  reduce  their  power,  at  the  cost 
of  civil  war,  and  in  many  other  respects  bettered 
the  administration  of  his  kingdom.  ...  In  1276 
when  the  great  king  died  he  left  a  will  which  con- 
tradicted the  policies  of  centralization  and  the 
aggrandizement  of  the  kingdom  which  in  his  life- 
time he  had  unfailingly  pursued.  He  divided  his 
realms,  giving  Aragon,  Catalonia,  and  Valencia  to 
his  eldest  son,  Pedro,  and  Majorca  and  the  Rous- 
sillon  (in  southern  France)  to  his  son  Jaime.  The 
division  was  not  to  endure  long,  however." — C.  E. 
Chapman,  History  of  Spain,  p.  82. — See  also  Cata- 
lonia:   7T2-IIQA;   Spain:    1035-1258. 

1133.— Beginning  of  popular  representation  in 
the  Cortes. — Monarchical  constitution.  See 
Cortes:    Early   Spanish. 

1164. — United  with  Catalonia.  Sec  Catalonia: 
712-11Q6. 

1218-1238. — Conquest  of  Balearic  Islands. — 
Subjugation  of  Valencia.     See  Spain:   1212-1238. 

1282. — Claims  to  kingdom  of  Two  Sicilies.  See 
Italy   (Southern):    12S2-1300. 

1301-1523. — Taxation  through  Cortes.  See 
Cortes:  Early  Spanish. 

1410-1475. — Castilian  dynasty. — Marriage  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castile.  See  Spain: 
1368-147Q. 

1412-1447.— Defeat   of   Angevins.     See   Italy: 

1412-1447- 

1442-1521. — Union  with  Navarre.  See  Na- 
varre: 1442-1521. 

1469-1492. — War  with  Florence.  See  Florence: 
1460-1402 

1501-1504.— Desire  for  partition  of  Naples : 
Quarrel  with  France.     See  Italy:   1501-1504. 

1511. — Holy  League  against  France.  Sec 
Italy:    i 510- i 513. 

1516.— United  to  Castile  by  Joanna,  mother  of 
Charles  V.     See  Spain:   1406-1517. 

1809. — Siege  of  Gerona.  See  Spain:  iSoq  (Feb- 
ruary-June). 

ARAGON,  House  of:  Control  of  Catalans 
during  14th  century.  See  Catalan  Grand  Com- 
pany. 

ARAICU    INDIANS.      See    Guck    or    Coco 

GROITP. 

ARAK    IBRAHIM.  — Taken    by   the    British 


(igi8).  See  Wori,d  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish  the- 
ater: c,  1. 

ARAKAN,  Lower  Burma;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1826.    See  India:  1823-1813. 

ARAKCHEEV,  Aleksyei  Andreevich,  Count 
(1769-1834),  Russian  soldier  and  statesman.  Hon- 
ored by  two  Tsars,  Paul  and  Alexander,  for  his 
ability  and  devotion;  an  expert  artillery  officer; 
was  largely  responsible  for  Russian  victories  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars  and  for  Russia's  conquest  of 
Finland,  in  the  Swedish  war  of  i8og. 

ARAM.  See  Arabia:  Ancient  succession  and 
fusion   of  races. 

ARAMAEANS,  or  Arameans,  a  branch  of 
the  Semites,  who  became  very  powerful  in  Syria 
about  icoo  B.C.;  they  earlier  inhabited  the  north- 
ern border  of  Palestine.  This  people  carried  on 
age-long  disputes  over  the  land  east  of  the  Jordan. 
Damascus  was  their  principal  city  and  was  taken 
from  them  by  David,  to  be  restored  by  Solomon. 
The  city  was  later  conquered  by  Assyria.  The 
Aramaean  language  became  the  common  tongue  in 
Syria  and  Palestine. — See  also  Hittites  ;  Semites  ; 
Syria:  B.C.  64-63;  ftLPHABLT;  Theories  of  origin 
and  development. 

ARAMAEO-ARABS:  Roman  colonies  among 
the  Arabs.    See  Syria:  B.C.  64-63. 

ARAMAIC  LANGUAGE.  See  Jews:  Lan- 
guage and  literature;  Semitic  literature;  Syria: 
B.C.  64-63. 

ARAMBEC.     See  Norumbega. 

ARAN  ISLANDS,  three  small  barren  islands 
in  Galway  bay,  off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  The 
life  is  exceedingly  primitive  and  the  entire  popu- 
lation very  poor,  for  the  only  means  of  livelihood 
is  fishing.  Gaelic  costumes,  language  and  customs 
are  here  preserved  to  a  remarkable  degree.  The 
islands  are  famous  for  the  number  of  antiquities 
they  contain,  the  best  known  being  that  of  Dun- 
Aengus,  a  fortress  tower  supposed  to  have  been 
built  in  the  first  century  A.  D.  The  islands  are 
the  scene  of  several  plays,  particularly  "Riders  to 
the  Sea,"  by  John  Millington  Synge,  who  made 
four  or  five  visits  to  them.  It  is  from  his  account 
that  the  following  quotation  is  taken.  "There  are 
three  islands:  .^ranmor  [or  Inishmorl,  the  north 
island,  about  nine  miles  long;  Inishmaan,  the 
middle  island,  about  three  miles  and  a  half  across, 
and  nearly  round  in  form;  and  the  south  island, 
Inishere — in  Irish,  east  island, — like  the  middle 
island  but  slightly  smaller.  They  lie  about  thirty 
miles  from  Galway,  up  the  centre  of  the  bay,  but 
they  are  not  far  from  the  cliffs  of  County  Clare, 
on  the  south,  or  the  corner  of  Connemara 
on  the  north.  Kilronan,  the  principal  vil- 
lage on  Aranmor,  has  been  much  changed  by 
the  fishing  industry.  The  other  islands  are 
more  primitive,  but  even  on  them  many  changes 
are  being  made." — J.  M.  Synge,  Aran  Islands,  pp. 
11-12. 

ARANDA,  Pedro  Pablo  Abarca  de  Bolea, 
Count  of  (1719-1798),  Spanish  statesman  and 
general  of  the  period  of  "enlightened  despotism." 
Commanded  the  army  against  Portugal  1763;  in 
T764  became  governor  of  Valencia.  As  president 
of  the  council  from  1766  to  1773  (see  Sp.mn:  17S9- 
178S)  he  restored  order  and  expelled  the  Jesuits 
(see  also  Jesuits:  1757-1773);  ambassador  to 
Paris  until  1787;  prime  minister  under  Charles  IV 
for  a  brief  time. 

ARANJUEZ,  town  and  royal  residence  of 
Spain,  on  the  Tagus  in  New  Castile,  about  thirty 
miles  south  of  Madrid.  It  is  noted  for  its  beau- 
tiful parks  and  gardens.  The  treaty  between 
France  and  Spain  was  signed  here  in  1772  The 
uprising  of   the  populace  in   1808  led  to   the   ab- 


397 


ARAPAHOE  INDIANS 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


dication  of  Charles  I\'  and  his  flight  into  France, 
accompanied  by  the  Queen  and  Godov. 

ARAPAHOE  INDIANS.  See  'Algonquian 
(Algo.nkix)  family;  Indians,  American:  Cultural 
areas  in  North  America:  Plains  area;  also  1865- 
1S76;  Pawnee  family;  Shoshonean  family;  Wy- 
oming: 1851-1865. 

ARAR,  the  ancient  name  of  the  river  Saone  in 
France. 

ARARAT,  the  name  given  to  the  high  peak 
of  the  .■\rmenian  plateau,  rising  17,000  feet  above 
sea  level;  according  to  one  tradition,  the  landing 
place  of  Xoah's  ark.  See  Alakodians;  Armenia: 
B.C.  585-55. 

ARARUD.     See  Al.akodlans. 

ARAS,  .Armenian  river.     See  Araxes. 

ARASON,  Jon  (1484-1551,  the  last  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  in  Iceland.  A  celebrated  poet  of 
his  day,  he  introduced  the  art  of  printing  in  that 
island. 

ARATUS  (271-213  B.C.),  Greek  statesman, 
born  at  Sicyon,  which  he  delivered  from  the  rul- 
ing tyrant  and  enrolled  in  the  Achaean  League;  as 
general  of  the  League,  won  over  Corinth,  Megal- 
opolis and  Argos.  His  success  in  making  the 
League  a  weapon  against  tyrants  and  foreign 
foes  was  undone  by  his  opposition  to  demo- 
cratic reforms.  Sec  Ach.ean  League;  Alexan- 
dria: B.C.  282-241:  Culture;  Greece:  B.C.  280- 
146. 

ARAUCA  (Arawak)  INDIANS.  See  Caries; 
Indians,  American:  Cultural  areas  in  South  Amer- 
ica: -Amazon  area. 

ARAUCANIAN  INDIANS.  See  Chile:  Ab- 
origines; Indians,  America:  Cultural  areas  in  South 
.America:   Pampean  area. 

ARAUCANIAN  WAR  OF  INDEPEND- 
ENCE.    See  Chile:   1535-1724. 

ARAUSIO,  a  Roman  colony,  was  founded  by 
.'\ugustus  at  Arausio,  which  is  represented  in  name 
and  site  by  the  modern  town  of  Orange,  in  the 
department    of    Vaucluse,    France,    eighteen    miles 


north  of  Avignon. — P.  Godwin,  History  of  France; 
Ancient  Gaul,  bk.  2,  cli.  5. 

Battle  of  Arausio  (B.C.  105).  See  Cimbri  and 
Teuiones:  B.C.  113-101. 

ARAVISCI  AND  OSI.— "Whether  ...  the 
Aravisci  migrated  into  Pannonia  from  the  Osi,  a 
German  race,  or  whether  the  Osi  came  from  the 
Aravisci  into  Germany,  as  both  nations  still  re- 
tain the  same  language,  institutions  and  customs, 
is  a  doubtful  matter.  The  locality  of  the  Ara- 
visci was  the  extreme  north-eastern  part  of  the 
province  of  Pannonia,  and  would  thus  stretch  from 
Vienna  (Vindobona),  eastwards  to  Raab  (.\rrabo), 
taking  in  a  portion  of  the  south-west  of  Hungary. 
.  .  .  The  Osi  seem  to  have  dwelt  near  the  sources 
of  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula.  They  would  thus 
have  occupied  a  part  of  Gallicia." — Tacitus,  Ger- 
many. 

ARAWAK  (Arauaca)  INDIANS.  See  Caribs; 
Indians,  American:  Cultural  areas  in  South  Amer- 
ica:  .Amazon  area. 

ARAXES. — This  name  seems  to  have  been  ap- 
plied to  a  number  of  Asiatic  streams  in  ancient 
times,  but  is  connected  most  prominently  with  an 
.Armenian  river,  now  called  the  .\ras,  which  flows 
into  the  Caspian. 

AREAS,  Battle  of  (581).— One  of  the  battles 
of  the  Romans  with  the  Persians  in  which  the  for- 
mer suffered  defeat. 

ARBE,  island  in  the  Adriatic,  part  of  northern 
Dalmatia,  promised  to  territory  of  Croatia,  Serbia, 
and  Montenegro,  by  Treaty  of  London.  See  Lon- 
don, Treaty'  or  pact  of. 

ARBELA,  or  Gaugamela,  Battle  of  (331  B.C.). 
See  M.acedonia:  B.  C.  334-330. 

ARBELEST:  Its  use  in  warfare.  See  Long- 
bow. , 

ARBILITIS.     See  Adwbene. 

ARBITRATION:  Defined.— Its  place  in  law. 
See  Common  law:   1Q11-1921. 

ARBITRATION,  IndustriaL    See  Arbitration 

AND   conciliation,   INDUSTRIAL. 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


"The  decision  of  disputes  by  international  arbitra- 
tion is  a  question  of  rapidly  increasing  importance, 
especially  in  view  of  the  growing  agitation  for  in- 
ternational peace.  It  is  a  mode  of  settling  dis- 
putes between  two  or  more  states  by  submitting 
the  controversy  to  the  ultimate  decision  of  third 
parties.  This  is  done  by  a  form  of  treaty,  which 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  the  arbitrators, 
rules  of  procedure,  and  all  other  matters  necessary 
to  the  arbitration.  The  award  of  the  arbitrators 
is  as  binding  upon  the  parties  as  any  treaty  obliga- 
tion, and  the  United  States  courts  have  held  that 
the  finding  of  a  court  of  arbitration  will  be 
given  the  same  effect  in  courts  as  a  regular  treaty. 
The  award  may  be  avoided  when  the  tribunal  has 
clearly  exceeded  its  powers  as  conferred  by  the 
treaty  of  arbitration,  when  the  decision  is  an  open 
denial  of  justice,  when  the  award  has  been  secured 
through  fraud  or  corruption,  and  when  the  terms 
of  the  finding  are  equivocal." — A.  B.  Hall.  Outline 
of  international  law,  p.  64. — See  also  Treaties, 
Making  and  termination  of:  Forms  of  interna- 
tional contract. — "A  host  of  support  could  be 
marshalled  for  the  contention  that  arbitral  settle- 
ment is  one  and  the  same  thing  as  judicial  settle- 
ment, the  distinction  being  not  between  law  and 
arbitration,  but  between  arbitration  and  mediation. 
The  authorities  have  been  collected  by  Balrh  in 
an  article  entitled  'Arbitration'  as  a  Term  of  Inter- 


national Law  wherein  the  use  of  the  term  in  in- 
ternational law  as  opposed  to  municipal  law  is 
traced.  He  finds  little  support  for  the  theory  that 
international  arbitration  is  a  system  of  compro- 
mise. He  quotes  Pufendorf,  Kliiber,  Rolin-Jac- 
quemyns,  Renault,  Westlake,  and  Martens,  all  to 
the  same  effect  as  John  Bassett  Moore,  who  says 
[History  and  digest  of  international  arbitrations, 
1'.  5.  P-  5042],  'It  is  important,  from  the  practical 
as  well  as  the  theoretical  side  of  the  matter,  to 
keep  in  view  the  distinction  between  arbitration 
and  mediation — a  distinction  either  not  understood 
or  else  lost  sight  of  by  many  who  have  under- 
taken to  discuss  the  one  subject  or  the  other.  Me- 
diation is  an  advisory,  arbitration  a  judicial,  func- 
tion. Mediation  recommends,  arbitration  de- 
cides.' "— F.  C.  Hicks,  AVti'  world  order,  pp.  152- 
153. — See  also  International  law. 

ANCIENT  TIMES 

"As  early  as  the  seventh  century  before  Christ 
the  Greeks  had  already  adopted  the  idea  of  arbi- 
trating boundary  questions  and  other  disputes 
which  arose  between  the  different  city-states. 
These  must  be  regarded  as  real  cases  of  inter- 
state arbitration  because  the  city-states  con- 
cerned were,  in  the  earlier  period,  politically  in- 
dependent   and    approximately    equal    in    military 


.^98 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


strength.  In  the  period  after  the  formation  of  the 
Hellenic  League  their  freedom  of  independent  ac- 
tion was,  of  course,  curtailed.  Philip  of  Macedon 
and  Alexander  made  a  conscious  and  apparent  at- 
tempt to  have  the  numerous  disputes  of  the  Greek 
states  settled  by  arbitral  decisions,  using  the  Gen- 
eral Council  of  the  Hellenic  League  in  the  work. 
Under  the  Hellenistic  kings  who  succeeded  Alex- 
ander, many  of  the  Greek  states  retained  complete 
freedom  and  others  a  measure  of  their  old  inde- 
pendence in  their  foreign  relations.  The  Aetolian 
and  Achaean  Leagues  acknowledged  the  principle 
and  resorted  to  the  use  of  arbitration. —  [See  also 
AcH-EAN  League.]  We  may,  therefore,  regard  the 
cases  decided  in  that  period  as  faUing  under  the 
head  of  pure  arbitration.  With  the  advent  of 
Rome  and  the  ascendancy  of  the  Roman  senate 
in  the  affairs  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  the 
ba'ance  of  power  had  so  markedly  shifted  to  the 
senate  that  it  becomes  increasingly  difficult  to  de- 
termine where  arbitration  ends  and  dictation  to 
inferior  and  semi-dependent  powers  begins.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  real  arbitration  between  the  Greek 
city-states  ceased  after  146  B.C." — G.  W.  Bots- 
ford  and  E.  G.  Sihler,  Hellenic  civilization,  p.  579. 
—"In  ancient  times,  when  war  constituted  the 
normal  state  of  peoples  and  the  foreigner  was 
everywhere  treated  as  an  enemy,  arbitrations  were 
necessarily  rare,  and  we  do  not  find  either  a  gen- 
eral system  or  harmonious  rules  governing  the  sub- 
ject. There  were  a  few  cases  of  arbitration  in  the 
East  and  in  Greece,  but  the  mode  of  procedure 
was  not  suited  to  the  temperament  of  the  people, 
and,  after  the  peace  of  Rome  was  established,  with 
the  civilized  world  under  one  government,  there 
was  no  place  for  it,  since  arbitration  presupposes  a 
conflict  between  independent  states." — M.  A.  Mer- 
ignhac,  Traite  theorigue  el  pratique  de  I'arbitrage 
international. 

Also  in:  M.  N.  Tod,  International  arbitration 
amongst  the  Greeks. 

MIDDLE  AGES 

"In  the  Middle  Ages,  owing  to  the  peaceful  [and 
powerful]  influence  of  the  church,  arbitrations 
were  more  frequent,  and  yet  their  influence  was 
far  from  producing  all  the  results  which  might 
have  been  expected,  perhaps  because  Europe  was 
then  divided  into  a  great  number  of  petty  states, 
or  because  the  rude  manners  of  the  period  were 
intolerant  of  the  idea  of  conciliation.  .  .  .  The 
popes  by  degrees  accepted  the  idea  that  they  were 
placed  above  sovereigns  and  were  the  representa- 
tives of  God  on  earth.  In  virtue  of  their  divine 
power  the  Roman  pontiffs,  recognized  everywhere 
as  the  delegates  of  God,  from  whom  all  sovereignty 
emanates,  constituted  themselves  judges  of  alt  cases 
and  evoked  to  their  tribunal  all  differences  between 
peoples  and  kings.  Innocent  III.  declared  that  the 
pope  was  the  sovereign  mediator  on  earth.  .  .  . 
The  principle  of  pontifical  sovereignty  had  so  en- 
tered into  the  manners  of  the  times  that  popes  were 
often  chosen  also  as  voluntary  arbitrators.  It  has 
sometimes  been  said  that  their  intervention, 
whether  spontaneous  or  specially  invoked,  was 
more  frequently  employed  in  matters  of  private 
interest  and  internal  policy,  than  of  actual  inter- 
national conflict.  This  may  have  been  so  in  many 
instances,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  were 
also  called  upon  to  decide  litigations  much  more 
important,  as  certain  examples  will  readily  show. 
Popes  Alexander  III.,  Honorius  III.,  John  XXII., 
Gregory  XI.  were  chosen  as  arbitrators  in  quar- 
rels which  agitated  Europe ;  and  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  by  a  decision  of  arbitration  which  is  still  cele- 


brated, traced  an  imaginary  line  from  pole  to  pole, 
dividing  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese 
the  possession  of  all  countries  discovered  in  the 
new  world.  And  even  after  the  schism  of  England, 
when  the  Papacy  had  lost  Teutonic  and  Gallo- 
Teutonic  Europe,  and  when  Gallo-Romanic  Europe 
was  itself  formed,  the  prestige  of  the  popes  was 
still  so  great  that  it  forced  itself  on  the  Poles  and 
the  Muscovites.  But  acts  of  opposition,  which 
began  to  appear  on  the  part  of  kings  before  the 
i6th  century,  were  accentuated  after  that  time, 
and  the  choice  of  the  pope  as  arbitrator  became 
less  frequent.  .  .  .  Beside  the  religious  influence 
of  the  popes,  we  should  place,  as  having  con- 
tributed during  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  development 
of  arbitration,  feudalism,  which,  while  extending 
itself  over  all  Europe,  naturally  predisposed  vassals 
to  accept  their  lords  as  judges  of  their  respective 
grievances.  The  most  eminent  of  these  lords,  the 
kings,  were  often  chosen  as  arbitrators,  chiefly  the 
kings  of  France.  Saint  Louis  was  constituted  judge 
between  Henry  III.  of  England  and  his  barons,  in 
1263,  and  between  the  counts  of  Luxemburg  and 
of  Bar,  in  126S.  Owing  to  his  great  wisdom  and  to 
the  authority  of  his  character,  Louis  IX.,  says  M. 
Lacointa,  rivalled  the  Papacy  in  the  role  of  con- 
ciliator and  arbitrator.  Philip  VI.,  Charles  V., 
Charles  VII.,  and  Louis  XI.  were  all  chosen  as  ar- 
bitrators. The  other  monarchs  of  Europe  filled 
the  role,  though  not  so  often,  notably  the  kings 
of  England,  Henry  II.  and  William  III.  But  the 
commission  of  arbitration  was  not  generally  con- 
fided to  sovereigns  from  whom  were  apprehended 
attempts  at  absolute  domination.  .  .  .  Occasionally 
a  city  assumed  the  duties  of  arbitrator,  but  such 
occasions  were  rare.  .  .  .  The  parliaments  of 
France,  renowned  for  their  wisdom  and  equity, 
were  chosen  to  settle  disputes  between  foreign 
sovereigns.  Besides  popes,  kings,  cities,  and  great 
constituted  bodies,  we  may  mention  commissions 
of  arbitration  instituted  by  parties  in  proportions 
fixed  in  advance  and  invested  with  full  power  over 
particular  subjects.  .  .  .  The  doctors  of  the  Italian 
universities  of  Perugia  and  Padua,  and  particularly 
of  the  celebrated  University  of  Bologna,  were,  says 
Wheaton,  on  account  of  their  fame  and  their 
knowledge  of  law,  often  employed  as  diplomatists 
or  arbitrators,  to  settle  conflicts  between  the  dif- 
ferent states  of  Italy.  .  .  .  Under  the  influence  of 
religious  and  feudal  ideas  arbitrations  were  very 
frequent  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which  afford  the  re- 
markable spectacle  of  conciliation  and  peace  mak- 
ing their  way  amid  the  most  warlike  populations 
that  have  ever  existed.  They  were  especially  fre- 
quent in  Italv,  where  in  the  13th  century  there 
were  not  less  than  a  hundred  between  the  princes 
and  inhabitants  of  that  country.  But  when  the 
Papacy  had  renounced  its  rule  over  civil  society, 
and  absolute  monarchies  gradually  became  estab- 
lished in  Europe  on  the  ruins  of  feudalism,  arbi- 
trations became  more  rare.  They  diminished  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  14th  and  isth  centuries,  and 
it  is  stated  that  from  the  end  of  the  i6th  centuVy 
till  the  French  Revolution  they  had  almost  dis- 
appeared from  international  usage.  ...  If  we 
should  trv  to  find  judicial  rules  that  governed  ar- 
bitration in  the  different  periods  at  which  we  have 
glanced,  we  should  discover  that  they  did  not 
present  great  stabiHty.  .  .  .  The  procedure,  also, 
varied  according  to  the  case,  but  it  usually  afforded 
certain  guarantees  and  was  invested  with  a  certain 
judicial  aspect.  .  .  .  The  arbitral  clause,  or  stipula- 
tion for  the  arbitration  of  difficulties  that  may 
arise,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  frequent  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  or  in  later  times,  though  we  have 
had  occasion  to  cite  some  examples  of  it.    It  seems, 


399 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


however,  to  have  been  in  use  between  the  com- 
mercial cities  of  Italy.  Vattel  relates  that  the 
Swiss,  in  the  alliances  which  they  contracted, 
whether  among  themselves  or  with  foreign  peoples, 
had  recourse  to  it;  and  he  justly  praised  them  for 
it.  We  may  cite  two  applications  of  it  in  the  case 
of  the  cities  of  Italy  and  the  Swiss  Cantons.  In  a 
treaty  of  alliance  concluded  in  123S,  between 
Genoa  and  Venice,  there  is  an  article  which  reads 
thus:  'If  a  difficulty  should  arise  between  the 
aforesaid  cities,  which  cannot  easily  be  settled  by 
themselves,  it  shall  be  decided  by  the  arbitration 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff;  and  if  one  of  the  parties 
violate  the  treaty,  we  agree  that  His  Holiness  shall 
excommunicate  the  offending  city.'  " — M.  A.  Mer- 
inghac,  Traite  theorique  et  pratique  de  I'arbitrage 
international. — The  above  is  translated  from  the 
French  and  quoted  by  Prof.  John  Bassett  Moore, 
in  his  History  and  digest  of  the  international  arbi- 
trations to  which  the  U .  S.  has  been  a  party,"  v.  J, 
App.  3  (House  of  R.  Mis.  Doc.  212,  53  Cong.,  2d 
Sess.). 

MODERN  PERIOD 

The  period  of  the  absolute  monarchies  did  not 
further  the  use  of  arbitration,  but  with  the  rise 
of  modern  states,  built  as  they  are  upon  a  com- 
plexity of  economic  and  social  interdependence 
that  constantly  increases  as  the  means  of  com- 
munication increase,  arbitration  has  become  a  prac- 
tical and  accepted  necessity.  The  tremendous  eco- 
nomic cost  of  war  has  strengthened  the  case  of 
the  many  humanitarians  who  support  the  societies 
and  conventions  of  the  Peace  Movement  (q.  v.) 
and  who  urge  arbitration  as  the  basis  of  peace. 
For  the  most  part,  the  reformers  have  set  before 
themselves  the  ideal  of  an  international  tribunal 
possessing,  if  not  compulsory  jurisdiction,  at  least 
such  moral  weight  that  resort  to  its  award,  except 
in  case  of  extreme  necessity,  may  become  a  duty 
of  customary  obligation.  This  is  an  admirable 
ideal,  and  the  progress  now  made  towards  it  is 
considerable,  when  we  remember  how  lately  the 
most  that  seemed  practicable  was  a  vague  sugges- 
tion of  appeal  to  the  good  offices  of  some  friendly 
third  power.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  arbi- 
tration in  any  form  is  only  an  instrument  for 
settling  disputes,  and  is  not  equally  appropriate 
in  all  cases.  It  is  not  safe  to -assume  that  all 
questions  between  sovereign  states  are  analogous 
to  those  which  cause  litigation  between  individuals, 
and  that  no  difficulty  remains  in  the  way  of  judi- 
cial solution  if  once  an  adequate  judicial  authority 
can  be  found.     This  is  far  from  being  so. 

Tjrpes  and  methods  of  arbitration. — "Interna- 
tional controversies  may  be  divided,  for  the  pur- 
pose in  hand,  into  four  classes.  ....  In  the  first  are 
such  as  relate  to  boundaries  and  territorial  rights, 
including  the  construction  of  any  treaties  or  other 
authentic  documents  bearing  on  such  rights.  Here 
we  have  almost  a  perfect  analogy  to  cases  between 
private  owners.  The  main  problem  is  to  find  an 
arbitrator,  board  of  arbitrators,  or  standing  tribu- 
nal, whose  decision  will  command  the  respect  of 
both  parties.  .  .  .  Moreover,  it  may  be  said  of 
these  cases,  as  of  similar  cases  in  men's  private 
affairs,  that  a  decision  arrived  at  by  competent 
persons  after  argument  is  more  likely  to  be  just 
in  itself  and,  what  is  more,  satisfactory  to  the 
parties,  than  a  compromise  arrived  at  by  direct 
negotiation.  We  may  place  in  the  same  category 
with  boundary  settlements,  though  in  a  less  im- 
portant rank,  the  adjustment  of  pecuniary  claims 
by  subjects  of  one  State  against  the  Government 
of  another,  arising   out  of  transactions  or  events 


as  to  which  no  matter  of  principle  is  in  dispute. 
Such  claims  have  often  been  dealt  with  by  joint 
Commissions  proceeding  in  a  more  or  less  judicial 
manner,  and  there  is  seldom  much  difficulty  about 
them,  though  the  justice  ultimately  done  is  not 
always  prompt.  Here  there  is  still  a  good  deal  of 
analogy  to  the  ordinary  civil  business  of  municipal 
Courts.  A  second  class  of  controversies  turns  on 
alleged  breach  or  non-performance  of  active  ob- 
ligations arising  out  of  the  interpretation  of  treaties 
or  official  declarations,  or  out  of  the  common  cus- 
tomary duty  of  nations  in  particular  circumstances, 
as  -where  a  breach  of  neutrality  or  excess  in  the 
exercise  of  a  belligerent's  rights  against  neutrals  is 
complained  of.  ...  A  third  class  of  cases  is  that 
which  is  analogous  to  civil  actions  for  wrongs. 
Here,  a  sovereign  State,  for  the  most  part  repre- 
senting individual  grievances  and  claims  of  its  sub- 
jects, though  not  always  or  necessarily  so,  seeks 
compensation  for  harm  caused  to  innocent  per- 
sons, as  owners  of  property  or  otherwise,  by  the 
incidents  of  warlike  operations  or  civil  disorder 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  to  which  the 
complaint  is  addressed;  by  denial  of  justice  to  its 
subjects  in  that  jurisdiction ;  by  alleged  illegal  or 
excessive  proceedings  of  that  other  State's  officers; 
or  by  acts  done  under  colour  of  exercising  some  in- 
ternational right,  but  alleged  to  be  a  manifest 
abuse.  Arbitral  proceedings  and  awards  have  been 
of  great  use  in  these  cases,  but  chiefly  when  the 
rules  to  be  applied  have  been  already  agreed  upon 
by  the  parties  or  are  otherwise  too  plain  for 
serious  dispute.  Very  difficult  and  delicate  ques- 
tions arise  when  an  aribtrator  or  arbitral  com- 
mission has  to  consider  whether  acts  done,  perhaps, 
in  a  remote  quarter  of  the  world  and  under  a 
foreign  system  of  public  law  and  legislation  are  to 
be  deemed  illegal  or  in  the  nature  of  unfriendly 
conduct.  To  whatever  class  a  settled  claim  be- 
longed in  its  inception,  it  would  not  be  possible, 
without  enormous  labour,  to  say  with  any  certainty 
what  proportion  of  such  claims  have  in  substance 
been  incident  to  the  working  out  of  former  agree- 
ments, or  otherwise  mere  items  in  a  series  of  diplo- 
matic transactions,  or  what  proportion  of  the  resi- 
due were  in  themselves  capable  of  leading  to  serious 
trouble  between  the  nations  concerned.  But  it 
may  be  observed  as  to  doubts  of  this  kind:  first, 
that  accumulation  of  unsettled  differences  is  a 
source  of  risk  directly  and  indirectly,  though  they 
may  be  individually  small;  secondly,  that  the  pre- 
vention of  war  between  powerful  States,  or  the 
termination  of  dangerous  recrimination  and  ill- 
will,  is  much  to  have  been  accomplished  even  in  a 
few  cases.  It  is  true  that  Governments  submit  to 
arbitration  only  when  they  do  not  want  to  fight; 
but  it  is  also  true  that  peaceful  intentions  are  not 
always  easy  to  carry  out  in  the  face  of  excited 
public  opinion,  and  the  existence  of  a  known  pro- 
cedure which  provides  an  honourable  way  of  ac- 
commodation may  make  all  the  difference.  There 
are  moments  when  any  expedient  is  good  if  only 
it  serves  to  gain  time.  But  the  following  classifi- 
cation may  be  useful.  Nearly  200  cases  of  arbi- 
tration between  1815  and  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  are  collected  in  Mr.  W.  Evans  Darby's 
International  Tribunals.  Omitting  from  the  total 
the  cases  (nearly  10  per  cent.)  in  which  the  pro- 
ceedings were  only  after  hostilities,  were  not  of  a 
juridical  character,  led  to  no  decision,  or  vyere  not 
between  independent  States,  a  rough  analysis  shows 
the  remaining  effective  arbitrations  to  fall  into  the 
following  groups: — questions  of  title  and  bounda- 
ries, about  30  per  cent. ;  pecuniary  claims  of  citizens 
in  miscellaneous  civil  matters,  about  20  per  cent.; 
construction    of   treaties    (other   than    boundary), 


400 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


about  10  per  cent.;  claims  arising  out  of  warlike 
operations  and  for  alleged  illegal  proceedings,  or 
denial  of  justice,  about  40  per  cent.  .  .  .  There  re- 
mains a  fourth  kind  of  differences  between  States, 
and  the  most  dangerous;  those  which  do  not  ad- 
mit of  reduction  to  definite  issues  at  all.  .  .  .  Con- 
tests for  supremacy  or  predominant  influence  are 
not  disposed  of  by  argument,  in  whatever  shape 
they  are  disguised;  indeed,  the  Powers  concerned 
are  usually  less  willing  to  invite  or  tolerate  inter- 
ference in  proportion  as  the  formal  cause  of  quar- 
rel is  weak.  .  .  .  Only  one  remedy  would  be  quite 
effectual,  namely,  that  a  coalition  of  Powers  of 
superior  collective  strength  should  be  prepared  to 
enforce  the  principles  which  now  stand  unani- 
mously acknowledged  by  the  Second  Peace  Con- 
ference of  the  Hague.  A  certain  number  of  minor 
wars  have  already  been  prevented,  or  kept  within 
bounds,  by  influence  of  this  kind;  but  the  benc- 
ficient  arts  of  diplomacy  as  hitherto  practised  have 
certainly  not  lost  their  importance  in  maintaining 
peace  among  the  Great  Powers.  It  is  a  grave  mis- 
take to  depreciate  them,  as  unthinking  or  ignorant 
enthusiasts  for  arbitration  have  sometimes  done. 
They  have  probably  been  successful  in  our  own 
time  oftener  and  on  more  critical  occasions  than 
the  Governments  concerned  have  yet  thought  it 
wise  to  make  public.  .  .  .  Broadly  speaking,  there 
are  two  methods  of  international  arbitration,  and 
subdivisions  of  procedure  within  each  of  them. 
First,  the  parties  may  refer  the  matter  in  difference 
to  a  judge  or  judges  of  their  own  choice,  in  pur- 
suance of  a  standing  treaty  or  a  special  convention 
for  the  case  in  hand.  The  arbiter  may  be  the 
ruler  of  a  third  State,  or  a  tribunal  composed  of 
persons  named  by  the  parties  directly,  or  in  part 
by  friendly  Governments  at  their  joint  request. 
Secondly,  the  States  concerned  may  prefer  to  use 
the  machinery  provided  by  a  standing  international 
agreement  of  more  general  scope." — F.  Pollock, 
Modern  law  of  nations  (Cambridge  Modern  His- 
tory, pp.   716-71Q). 

The  lead  in  developing  the  principle  of  arbitra- 
tion has  been  taken  by  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  The  two  governments  have  intermittently 
advanced  proposals  for  an  Anglo-United  States 
arbitral  treaty  since  the  time  of  William  Jay's  pro- 
posal (1842)'  and  that  of  John  Bright  (1887).— 
See  also  Diplomatic  and  consular  service;  Peace 

MOVEMENT. 

1794. — Jay  treaty. — The  treaty  between  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  negotiated  by  John  Jay 
in  1704,  which  referred  several  questions  to  arbi- 
tration, may  be  said  to  have  paved  the  way  for 
the  revival  of  modern  arbitration.  By  this  treaty 
three  mixed  commissions  were  provided:  one  to 
settle  the  boundary  along  the  St.  Croix  river;  one 
to  settle  the  question  of  contraband,  prizes,  and 
rights  of  neutrals;  and  one  to  decide  upon  the 
compensation  due  Great  Britain  for  the  violation 
of  the  peace  treaty  (1783)  by  the  states  in  pre- 
venting the  collection  of  debts  due  British  creditors. 
See  U.  S.  .\  :    1704. 

1814.— Treaty  of  Ghent. — Three  commissions 
were  provided  to  arbitrate  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain:  one  to  settle  the  owner- 
ship of  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  Passama- 
quoddy  Bay;  a  second  to  settle  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  St.  Croix  and  the  St.  Lawrence;  a  third 
to  settle  the  boundary  between  U.  S.  and  Canada 
along  the  middle  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods. 

1818. — Agreement  between  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  regarding  restoration  of  slaves. — 
The  question  regarding  the  restoration  of  slaves 
taken  by  the  British  from  their  possessions  up  to 


the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent  was  referred 
to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  who  judged  that  the 
United  States  was  entitled  to  compensation. 

1819.— Treaty  of  Florida.— United  States 
agreed  to  settle  by  arbitration  her  claims  against 
Spain  during  her  occupation  of  Florida. 

1827.  —  North-Eastern  boundary  question. — 
The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  agreed  to  ar- 
bitrate this  question,  but  later  the  United  States 
refused  to  accept  the  award  of  the  King  of  Ihe 
Netherlands  who  was  chosen  arbitrator.  The 
question  was  compromised  by  the  Webster-Ash- 
burton  treaty. 

1831. — Settlement  of  claims  between  United 
States  and  France. — The  two  countries  agreed 
to  arbitrate  the  claims  of  United  States  citizens 
for  losses  at  sea  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the 
claim  to  commercial  privileges  under  the  Louisiana 
Cession  Treaty  and  the  French  Beaumarchais  claim. 

1835. — Compromise  between  Russia  and  Great 
Britain  regarding  claims  in  North  America. 
See  Oregon:   1741-1836. 

1855.— "Reserved  Fisheries  Rights."— This 
question  was  settled  by  a  mixed  commission  agreed 
upon  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
Privileges  renounced  in  1818  of  taking  and  curing 
fish  in  unsettled  bays  and  harbors  along  the  Cana- 
dian shore  were  renewed. 

1856. — Creation  of  Commission  of  the  Danube. 
See  Danube:  1850-1916. 

1871-1872. — Alabama  claims. — "The  arbitra- 
tion between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
on  the  claims  generically  known  as  the  Alabama 
claims,  for  damage  done  by  the  Confederate  cruis- 
ers equipped  or  harboured  in  British  ports  during 
the  American  Civil  War,  was  provided  for  by  (he 
Treaty  of  Washington  of  1871;  the  award  was 
made  by  a  composite  tribunal  sitting  at  Geneva  in 
1872.  This  case  is  commonly  said  to  have  given 
great  encouragement  to  the  promoters  of  interna- 
tional arbitration,  and  cited  as  a  kind  of  preroga- 
tive instance.  An  admirable  example  was  certainly 
set  by  the  determination  of  the  two  Powers  to 
come  to  an  understanding,  and  by  the  skill  and 
lact  of  the  diplomatists  who  settled  the  Treaty 
under  anything  but  favourable  conditions.  The 
immediate  effect  in  England  was  certainly  not  to 
increase  the  favour  in  which  international  arbi- 
tration was  held;  nor  could  it  well  be  disputed,  in 
the  result,  that  the  damages  were  excessive,  since 
the  balance  for  which  no  claimants  could  be  found 
was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  United  States.  Never- 
theless, a  fruitful  example  remained.  A  dispute 
between  two  Powers  of  the  first  rank,  which,  rea- 
sonably or  not,  had  in  fact  become  acute  and  even 
dangerous,  was  reduced  to  terms  of  judicial  com- 
pensation without  loss  of  honour  on  either  side. 
Perfection  was  not  to  be  looked  for  in  an  experi- 
ment of  such  novelty.  .  .  ." — F.  Pollock,  Modern 
law  of  nations  (Cambridge  modern  history,  pp. 
720-721). — See   also  Alabama   Claims:    1871-1872. 

1884. — Berlin  Act.     See  Berlin  Act. 

1889-1890. — Inter-Parliamentary  Union  for 
International  Arbitration  established. — In  1880 
there  was  held  in  Paris  the  first  meeting  of  the 
Inter-Parliamentary  LTnion  (founded  in  1887)  for 
International  Arbitration  (q.  v.),  an  association 
composed  of  members  or  former  members  of  the 
legislatures  of  the  world.  In  this  body  centered 
the  activities  of  the  promoters  of  an  international 
court  and  the  Hague  Tribunal  was  largely  a  re- 
sult of  these  activities.  The  year  1889  also  saw 
the  initial  meeting  of  the  Pan-American  Congress, 
attended  by  representatives  of  all  the  American 
states  but  Santo  Dommgo.  The  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics  was  established  and 


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in  1890  a  general  treaty  of  compulsory  arbitration 
was  proposed,  to  apply  to  all  the  American  states 
for  a  period  of  twenty  years.  The  proposal  failed 
of  ratification. 

1889-1899.— Claims  to  Samoa  by  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain  and  Germany. — The  three 
powers  agreed  in  1889  to  arbitrate  their  claims,  but 
resulting  complication  caused  the  joint  high  com- 
mission (.in  1S99)  to  proceed  to  the  islands,  and 
there  an  agreement  was  signed  for  their  partition. 
See  Samoa:   18S9-1900. 

1890. — First  Pan-American  Conference.  See 
American  republics,  IxiERNAnoNAL  union  of: 
1890. 

1891. — Delagoa  Bay  arbitration.  See  Delagoa 
Bay  arbitration. 

1892. — Arbitration  of  Bering  sea  seal  fisheries 
question  between  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  See  Bering  sea  iiuestion;  U.  S.  A.:  18S9- 
1892. 

1893. — Arbitration  on  bimetallism.  See  Money 
AND  banking:   Modern:    1S67-1803. 

1893. — Arbitration  of  boundary  dispute  be- 
tween Colombia  and  Costa  Rica.  See  Colombu: 
1803-1000. 

1897.  —  Settlement  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa 
Rica  boundary  dispute.  See  Central  America: 
1397. 

1897. — Proposed  Anglo-American  arbitration 
treaty. — Secretary  of  State  Olney  and  Lord  Paunce- 
fote  negotiated  in  1S97  an  arbitration  treaty  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  The 
treaty,  submitted  to  the  United  States  Senate  by 
President  Cleveland,  was  rejected  by  that  body. 
It  lacked  only  two  votes  of  the  necessary  two- 
thirds  because  of  the  oft-recurrent  question  of 
Constitutional  usage:  the  impairing  of  the  Senate's 
treaty-making  power  by  dispensing  with  the  need 
for  Senatorial  consent  in  a  matter  adjusted  by 
arbitration. 

1897-1899. — Venezuela  and  Great  Britain. — 
Guiana  boundary.  See  Venezuela:  1896-1899; 
U.  S.  A.:   1897   (January-May). 

1898. — Argentina  and  Chile.  See  Argentina: 
1898. 

1898. — Treaty  between  Italy  and  Argentina. 
See  Argentina:    1898. 

1898-1899. — Tsar's  rescript. — First  Hague 
Conference. — Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration 
established. — In  .August,  1898,  the  late  tsar  Nich- 
olas II  issued  his  famous  "Peace  Manifesto"  calling 
the  nations  to  a  conference.  The  stated  object  was 
the  diminution  and  regulation  of  armaments  to  re- 
lieve the  heavy  burden  of  taxation  which  oppressed 
the  peoples,  and  the  prevention  of  war  by  diplo- 
matic-judicial procedure.  The  first  conference 
opened  at  The  Hague  on  May  18,  1899,  under  the 
presidency  of  a  Russian  jurist,  the  late  Frederic  de 
Martens,  and  sat  till  July  29.  The  greatest 
achievement  of  the  conference  was  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  court  of  arbitration  at  The 
Hague.  (See  below:  1907:  Second  Peace  Con- 
ference at  The  Hague.  ".At  the  First  Peace  Con- 
ference, of  1899.  an  attempt,  strongly  supported, 
was  made  to  frame  and  secure  the  adoption  of  a 
treaty  of  arbitration  by  which  the  nations  would 
bind  themselves  to  arbitrate  a  carefully  selected 
list  of  subjects.  This  failed,  owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion of  Germany.  .As  a  compromise.  .Article  lo 
of  the  convention  for  the  peaceful  adjustment  of 
international  differences  was  adopted:  'Inde- 
pendently of  existing  general  or  special  treaties  im- 
posing the  obligation  to  have  recourse  to  arbitra- 
tion on  the  part  of  any  of  the  Signatory  Powers, 
these  powers  reserve  to  themselves  the  richt  to 
conclude,  either  before  the  ratification  of  the  pres- 


ent convention  or  subsequent  to  that  date,  new 
agreements,  general  or  special,  with  a  view  of  ex- 
tending the  obligation  to  submit  controversies  to 
arbitration  to  all  cases  which  they  consider  suit- 
able for  such  submission'  (reenacted  in  1907  as 
Article  40).  The  article  did  not  seem  at  the  time 
to  be  of  any  special  importance  and  it  was  gen- 
erally looked  upon  as  useless  because  independent 
and  sovereign  States  possess  the  right  without 
special  reservation  to  conclude  arbitration  agree- 
ments, general  or  special,  without  being  specifically 
empowered  to  do  so.  The  fact  is,  however,  that 
this  article,  insignificant  and  useless  as  it  may  seem, 
marks,  one  may  almost  say,  an  era  in  the  history 
of  arbitration.  The  existence  of  the  article  has 
called  attention  to  the  subject  of  arbitration  and 
by  reference  to  it  many  States  have  negotiated 
arbitration  treaties.  It  is  true  that  there  is  no 
legal  obligation  created  by  the  article  and  it  is 
difficult  to  find  a  moral  one,  for  it  is  not  declared 
to  be  the  duty  of  any  State  to  conclude  arbitra- 
tion treaties.  The  moral  effect  of  the  article  has, 
however,  been  great  and  salutary,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  numerous  arbitration  treaties  based  upon 
the  reservation  contained  in  the  article  shows  the 
attention  and  respect  which  nations  pay  to  the 
various  provisions  of  The  Hague  Conference." — 
J.  B.  Scott,  Hague  Peace  Conferences  of  1899  and 
1907. 

"For  an  unquestioned  example  of  a  court 
of  arbitration  open  to  the  whole  world  we  must 
turn  to  the  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  set  up 
by  The  Hague  Conference  of  1899.  .  .  Chapter 
II  of  the  Convention  sets  up  the  court  and  provides 
rules  of  procedure.  It  has  been  said  of  this  tribu- 
nal that  it  is  neither  a  court  nor  permanent ;  but 
we  have  the  opinion  of  Professor  John  Bassett 
Moore  written  in  1914  that  the  convention  estab- 
lishing it  'is  the  highest  achievement  of  the  past 
twenty  years  in  the  direction  of  an  arrangement 
for  the  peaceful  adjustment  of  international  con- 
troversies.'— [J.  B.  Moore,  International  arbitra- 
tion; a  survey  of  the  present  situation.^  The  Con- 
vention was  revised  by  the  Conference  of  1907, 
the  changes  being  largely  verbal,  or  concerned 
with  procedure.  The  essential  character  of  the 
court  and  its  jurisdiction  remain  as  originally  pro- 
vided. The  features  of  permanent  organization 
are:  first,  a  list  of  judges  made  up  of  not  more 
than  four  persons  of  known  competency  in  ques- 
tions of  international  law  and  of  the  highest  moral 
reputation,  chosen  by  each  contracting  state.  By 
agreement  the  same  person  may  be  selected  by 
different  powers.  The  judges  are  appointed  for  six 
years  and  their  appointments  may  be  renewed. 
.  .  .  The  Court  has  no  obligatory  jurisdiction  but 
is  competent  to  decide  all  cases  submitted  to  it  by 
agreement  of  the  contracting  parties.  Its  jurisdic- 
tion may.  within  the  regulations,  be  extended  to 
disputes  between  non-contracting  powers  [i.  e., 
those  not  signers  of  The  Hague  agreement]  or  be- 
tween contracting  powers  and  non-contracting 
powers,  on  joint  petition  of  the  parties  to  such  dis- 
putes. .  .  .  The  decisions  are  not  made  jointly  by 
all  members  of  the  Court.  When  it  has  been 
agreed  to  submit  a  case  to  the  Court,  each  party 
must  choose  its  arbitrators  from  the  general  list. 
The  number  may  be  decided  upon  by  the  parties, 
but  if  they  cannot  acree  the  Convention  stipulates 
that  each  party  shall  choose  two  arbitrators  from 
the  list,  only  one  of  whom  can  be  its  national  ap- 
pointee to  the  list,  and  these  four  arbitrators  choose 
an  umpire.  .  .  .  Pleadings  are  conducted  by  the 
presentation  of  cases,  counter  cases,  and  replies, 
accompanied  with  papers  and  documents;  and  the 
arguments  are  developed  by  oral  discussions.  .  .  . 


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ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


The  decision  of  the  court  is  arrived  at  in  private 
by  majority  vote,  and  the  proceedings  remain 
secret.  ...  As  pointed  out  by  Professor  Wilson  in 
the  preface  to  his  Hague  Arbitration  Cases,  the 
work  of  the  Court  has  amply  justified  its  creation. 
Fifteen  cases  have  been  decided  relating  to  a  va- 
riety of  questions,  including  not  only  financial 
questions,  but  those  of  more  delicate  character 
such  as  the  violation  of  territory,  the  right  to  fly 
the  flag,  the  delimitation  of  boundaries,  etc.  The 
fact  that  these  questions  have  been  submitted  is  of 
great  significance.  Seventeen  different  states  in  all 
have  been  parties  in  cases  before  the  Court.  .  .  ." 
F.  C.  Hicks,  New  world  order,  pp.  158-161. — See 
also  Hague  conferences:    iSqq. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  cases  decided  with  the 
dates  of  the  awards: 

Mexico  V.  United  States,  Pious  fund  case,  October 
14,  1902. 

Germany,  Great  Britain,  Italy  v.  Venezuela,  Vene- 
zuelan preferential  claims,  February  22,   1904. 

France,  Germany,  Great  Britain  v.  Japan,  Japa- 
nese house  tax  case,  May  22,  '1Q05. 

France  v.  Great  Britain,  Muscat  Dhows  case,  Au- 
gust 8,  1005. 

France  v.  Germany,  Casablanca  case.  May  22,  1Q09. 

Norway  11.  Sweden,  Grisbadarna  case,  Oct.  23,  igog. 

Great  iSritain  v.  United  States,  North  Atlantic  fish- 
eries case,  September  7,  igio. 

United  States  v.  Venezuela,  Orinoco  Steamship  Co. 
case,  October  25,  igio. 

France  v.  Great  Britain,  Savarkar  case,  February 

24,  1911. 

Italy  V.  Peru,  Canevaro  case.  May  3,  igi2. 

Russia  V.  Turkey,  Russian  indemnity  case,  Novem- 
ber II,  igi2. 

France  v.  Italy,  Carthage  and  Manouba  cases,  May 
6,  igi3- 

Netherlands  v.  Portugal,  Island  of  Timor  case,  June 

25,  1914. 

Commission  of  Inquiry  Cases 
Great  Britain   v.  Russia,  Dogger  Bank  case,  Feb- 
ruary 26,  igoS. 
France  v.   Italy,  Tavignano,   Camouna,   and   Gau- 

lois  cases,  July  23,  igi2. 
Spain,  France,   Great  Britain   v.  Portugal,  Seizure 
of  pious  funds  in  Portugal,  Pending. 

In  about  one-half  the  cases  no  parties  to  the 
controversy  have  sat  as  arbitrators.  Nearly  one- 
half  the  cases  have  been  before  three  judges. 

Also  in;  G.  G.  Wilson,  Hague  arbitration  cases. — 
J.  B.  Scott,  Hague  court  reports. 

1900. — Brazil  and  French  Guiana  boundary 
dispute.     See  Brazil:    igoo. 

1900. — Panama  and  Costa-Rica  boundary  dis- 
pute.    See  Costa-Rica:   igoo. 

1900. — Compulsory  arbitration  proposed  at  the 
Spanish-American  Congress.  See  Spain:  1900 
(November) . 

1902. — Arbitration  of  Argentina  and  Chile 
boundary  dispute.     See  Argentina:    igo2. 

1902. — Second  Pan-American  Conference. — 
Compulsory  arbitration  project. — Central  Amer- 
ican states. — "Ten  of  the  nineteen  nations  repre- 
sented at  the  City  of  Mexico  [Second  Pan-Amer- 
ican Conference,  igo2]  united  in  the  project  of  a 
treaty,  to  be  ratified  by  their  respective  govern- 
ments, providing  for  compulsory  arbitration  of  all 
controversies  which,  in  the  judgment  of  any  of  the 
interested  nations,  do  not  affect  either  their  inde- 
pendence or  national  honor;  and  it  is  prescribed 
that  in  independence  and  national  honor  are  not  in- 
cluded controversies  concerning  diplomatic  privi- 
leges, limits,  rights  of  navigation,  or  the  validity, 


interpretation,  and  fulfillment  of  treaties.  [The 
treaty  was  signed  by  Argentine,  Bolivia,  Guate- 
mala, Mexico,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Dominican  Repub- 
lic, Salvador  and  Uruguay  and  became  effective 
Jan.  31,  igo3.j  "Mexico  became  a  party  to  this 
project,  but  the  United  States  declined;  thus  show- 
ing an  entire  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of 
these  two  nations  since  the  Washington  conference 
of  iSgo.  Mexico  had  in  the  meantime  adjusted  its 
boundary  dispute  with  Guatemala.  But  since  Mr. 
Blaine's  ardent  advocacy  of  compulsory  arbitration 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  had  manifested  its 
opposition  to  the  policy  by  the  rejection  of  the 
Olney-Pauncefote  arbitration  treaty  of  i8g7,  and 
it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the  Secretary  of  State  did 
not  think  it  wise  to  commit  our  government  to  a 
measure  which  had  been  cUsapproved  of  by  the  co- 
ordinate branch  of  the  treaty-making  power." — 
J.  W.  Foster,  Pan-American  diplomacy  (.itlantic 
Montlily,  April,  igo2). — In  fulfillment  of  the  agree- 
ment at  Mexico  City  a  treaty  of  compulsory  arbi- 
tration and  obhgatory  peace  was  signed  on  Jan.  20, 
1902,  by  the  Central  American  states:  Nicaragua, 
Salvador,  Honduras,  and  Costa  Rica,  and  they 
were  joined  on  March  i,  igo2,  by  Guatemala.  A 
third  treaty  was  signed  at  the  Conference,  Jan. 
30th,  between  seventeen  states,  including  the 
United  States,  relating  to  the  adjustment  by  means 
of  arbitration  of  difficulties  resulting  from  finan- 
cial questions. — See  also  American  Republics,  In- 
ternational UNION  of:     igoi-1902. 

1902-1904. — Claims  against  Venezuela.  See 
Venezuela:    1902 -1904. 

1903. — Alaska  boundary  question.  See  Alas- 
ka   BOUNDARY    QUESTION:     I9O3. 

1904. — Arbitration  of  boundary  dispute  be- 
tween Brazil  and  British  Guiana.  See  Brazil: 
igo4. 

1904. — Orinoco  Steamship  Company  case.  See 
Orinoco  Steamship  Company  case. 

1905. — Arbitration  of  boundary  dispute  be- 
tween Peru,  Colombia,  and  Ecuador.  See  Peru: 
1905. 

1905. — President  Roosevelt's  treaty  negotia- 
tions.— Arbitration  treaties  drawn  up  between 
the  United  States  and  Germany,  Switzerland,  Por- 
tugal and  Great  Britain,  were  in  igo5  submitted 
by  President  Roosevelt  to  the  United  States  Senate 
for  ratification.  The  treaties  were  finally  ratified 
after  such,  changes  had  been  made  that  Roosevelt 
said,  "they  probably  represent  not  a  step  forward 
but  a  step  backward  as  regards  the  question  of 
international  arbitration,"  and  he  refused  to  carry 
the  matter  further. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1905  (June- 
October). 

1905. — Fisheries  questions  between  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  See  Newfoundland, 
DoinNiON  of:   1905-1909. 

1906. — Third  Pan-American  conference  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  See  American  Republics,  Interna- 
tional UNION  of:  igo6. 

1907. — Central  American  court  of  arbitration 
established. — The  five  Central  American  states, 
meeting  at  the  Central  American  Peace  Conference 
at  Washington,  established  in  1907  a  court  of  com- 
pulsory arbitration.  To  this  (Central  American 
Court  of  Justice  the  states  agreed  "to  submit  all 
controversies  or  questions  which  might  arise  among 
them,  of  whatsoever  nature,  and  no  matter  what 
their  origin  may  be,  in  case  the  respective  depart- 
ments of  foreign  affairs  should  not  be  able  to 
reach  an  understanding." — See  also  Central  Amer- 
ica: 1907. 

1907. — Second  Peace  Conference  at  The 
Hague. — Representatives  of  forty-five  states  met 
at  The  Hague  in  1907  at  the  call  for  the  second 


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Peace  Conference.  The  principal  achievement  of 
this  conference  was  the  revision  and  ampHfication 
of  work  initiated  by  the  conference  of  iSgg,  es- 
pecially in  the  case  of  consolidating  the  Perma- 
nent Court  of  Arbitration.  Constructive  work 
was  also  accomplished  in  laying  foundations  for 
the  International  Prize  Court.  "The  Second  Hague 
conference  also  declared  itself  in  principle  in  favor 
of  obligatory  arbitration  and  stated  that  those  dif- 
ferences relating  to  the  interpretation  of  interna- 
tional conventional  stipulations  are  susceptible  of 
being  submitted  to  obligatory  arbitration  without 
any  reservation.  The  failure  of  this  conference  to 
agree  upon  a  definite  plan  of  obligatory  arbitra- 
tion was  mainly  due  to  the  opposition  of  Germany 
and  .\ustria." — C.  H.  Stowell,  Outlhtrs  oj  interna- 
tional law,  pp.  276-277. — "As  to  arbitration,  the 
constitution  of  the  permanent  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion is  confirmed.  Its  essential  feature  is  a  stand- 
ing list  of  qualified  arbitrators,  not  more  than  four 
being  named  by  each  contracting  Power.  When  a 
Court  has  to  be  made  up,  each  Power  concerned 
in  the  cause  chooses  two  members  from  the  list, 
and  the  arbitrators  choose  an  umpire;  there  are 
further  and  seemingly  effectual  provisions  in  case 
they  fail  to  agree.  The  bureau  international,  which 
is  the  permanent  office  or  chancellery  of  the  Court, 
is  under  the  direction  of  a  diplomatic  board  at  The 
Hague.  Terms  of  reference  are,  as  a  rule,  to  be 
handed  in  by  the  parties;  but  the  Court  may 
settle  them  itself  if  so  requested  by  both  parties, 
or  under  certain  conditions  even  if  only  required 
by  one.  Elaborate  provisions  are  made  for  the 
conduct  of  the  proceedings.  Further,  a  more  sum- 
mary form  of  arbitration  with  two  arbitrators  and 
an  umpire  may  be  adopted  in  affairs  of  less  weight. 
All  this  appears,  from  a  lawyer's  point  of  view,  to 
be  sound  and  businesslike  work.  Doubtless,  the 
jurisdiction  is  voluntary:  but  so  was  all  jurisdio 
tion  in  its  beginning.  As  time  goes  on,  it  will  be 
less  and  less  reputable  among  civilized  States  to 
talk  of  going  to  war  without  having  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  Hague  Convention ;  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  any  formal  international  declaration  in 
that  behalf  may  be  avoided  altogether,  if  the  tribu- 
nal acquires  by  custom,  as  one  hopes  it  will,  a 
stronger  authority  than  any  express  form  of  words 
would  confer.  That  the  time  is  not  now  ripe  for 
any  such  form  is  shown  by  the  vague  and  baiting 
recognition  'in  principle'  of  a  general  duty  of  ar- 
bitration which  is  embodied  in  the  Final  Act  of  the 
Conference.  Nor  do  we  sec  much  reason  to  regret 
the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  set  up  a  new  tribunal 
of  arbitral  justice,  with  permanent  paid  judges, 
which  was  to  be  more  formal,  more  continuous, 
and  less  dependent  on  the  parties'  choice,  and,  it 
was  hoped,  would  eventually  supersede  the  existing 
Court.  This  scheme  was  brought  forward  by  the 
United  States.  It  broke  down  on  the  impossibility 
of  agreeing  in  what  manner  and  proportions  judges 
should  be  appointed  by  the  several  Powers;  the  rec- 
ognized equality  of  all  independent  States  before 
the  law  of  nations  being  extended  by  several  mem- 
bers of  the  Conference,  especially  the  leading  South 
-American  delegates,  to  a  claim  for  absolute  equality 
in  all  political  and  administrative  schemes.  This 
interpretation,  we  submit,  is  perverse;  but,  on  more 
than  one  occasion,  it  was  among  the  gravest  hin- 
drances to  the  work  of  the  Conference.  In  our 
opinion,  however,  there  were  much  better  reasons 
for  not  being  in  haste  to  imitate  the  forms  of  a 
Court  exercising  true  federal  jurisdiction.  What 
is  wanted  to  promote  peace  is  not  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  compulsion,  nor  the  most  imposing 
Court,  nor  the  most  learned  decisions  possible,  nor 
yet  the  speediest  (for  sometimes  delay  is  rather  of 


advantage),  but  a  working  plan  for  producing, 
with  as  little  friction  as  may  be,  decisions  likely  to 
be  accepted.  This  the  two  Peace  Conferences  at 
the  Hague  have  given  us,  and  it  is  much." — F. 
Pollock,  Modern  law  oj  nations  (Cambridge 
modern  history,  v.  12,  p.  72b). — As  regards  the 
American  plan  for  the  arbitral  tribunal,  the  posi- 
tion is  made  clear  in  Secretary  Root's  instructions 
to  the  American  delegation.  It  reads  as  follows: 
"It  has  been  a  very  general  practice  for  arbitra- 
tors to  act,  not  as  judges  deciding  questions  of 
fact  and  law,  upon  the  record  before  them,  under 
a  sense  of  judicial  responsibility  but  as  negotiators 
effecting  settlement  of  the  questions  brought  before 
them  in  accordance  with  traditions  and  usages  and 
subject  to  all  the  considerations  and  influences 
which  affect  diplomatic  agents.  The  two  methods 
are  radically  different,  proceed  upon  different  stand- 
ards of  honorable  obligation,  and  frequently  lead 
to  widely  differing  results.  It  very  frequently  hap- 
pens that  a  nation  which  would  be  willing  to  sub- 
mit its  differences  to  an  impartial  judicial  deter- 
mination is  unwilling  to  subject  them  to  this  kind 
of  diplomatic  process.  If  there  could  be  a  tribunal 
which  would  pass  upon  questions  between  nations 
with  the  same  impartial  and  impersonal  judgment 
that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  gives 
to  questions  arising  between  citizens  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  or,  between  foreign  citizens  and  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  nations  would  be  more  ready  to  submit 
their  controversies  to  its  decision  than  they  are 
now  to  take  the  chance  of  arbitration.  It  should 
be  your  effort  to  bring  about  in  the  2nd  confer- 
ence a  development  of  The  Hague  tribunal  into  a 
permanent  tribunal  composed  of  judges  who  are 
judicial  officers  and  nothing  less,  who  are  paid 
adequate  salaries,  who  have  no  other  occupation, 
and  who  will  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  trial 
and  decision  of  international  causes  by  judicial 
methods  and  under  a  sense  of  judicial  responsi- 
bility. These  judges  should  be  so  selected  from 
the  different  countries  that  the  different  systems  of 
law  and  procedure  and  the  principal  languages  shall 
be  fairly  represented.  The  court  should  be  made 
of  such  dignity,  consideration  and  rank  that  the 
best  and  ablest  jurist  will  accept  appointment  to 
it,  and  that  the  whole  world  will  have  absolute  con- 
fidence in  its  judgments." — Sec  also  Hague  con- 
ferences:  1007. 

1907-1909. — Casablanca  incident,  between  Ger- 
many and  France,  at  The  Hague.  See  Morocco: 
igo7-iooo. 

1908-1909. — General  treaties. — The  extended 
confidence  in  the  Permanent  Court  of  The  Hague 
after  the  second  Hague  Conference  resulted  in  the 
signing  of  numerous  treaties  designating  the  Per- 
manent Court  as  the  agreed  tribunal  in  cases  of 
arbitration.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
the  only  great  power  which  was  not  a  party  to 
one  or  more  of  these  agreements  was  Germany. 
(See  below.  Treaties  )  The  treaties  of  this  date, 
technically  called  Conventions,  were  all  very  simi- 
lar and  practically  all  of  five-year  duration. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Elihu  Root,  then  Secretary 
of  State,  the  United  States  became  a  party  to 
twenty-four  of  these  agreements.  Recognition  is 
given  to  the  constitutional  position  of  the  Senate 
in  the  United  States  by  requiring  a  special  agree- 
ment of  reference  to  be  entered  into  by  the  presi- 
dent "with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate." 
The  distinctive  article  of  the  1008-iqog  treaties  is 
given  under  Treaties.  Note  "C,"  where  it  is  stated 
in  elastic  phrasing  that  differences  shall  be  arbi- 
trated provided,  nevertheless,  "that  they  do  not 
affect  the  vital  interests,  the  independence,  or  the 


404 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


honour  of  the  two  Contracting  States,  and  do  not 
concern  the  interests  of  third  Parties.  .  .  .  Lord 
SaUsbury  wrote,  in  the  course  of  the  negotiations 
preceding  the  unratified  treaty  of  1897  with  the 
United  States:  'Neither  Government  is  wilHng  to 
accept  arbitration  upon  issues  in  which  the  na- 
tional honour  or  integrity  is  involved.'  Clearly,  no 
nation  will  submit  to  any  tribunal  the  question 
whether  it  shall  accede  to  demands  which  its  rul- 
ers consider  ruinous  or  humiliating.  What  arbi- 
trable question  was  there  between  Elizabeth  of 
England  and  Philip  of  Spain  when  the  Armada  was 
off  the  Lizard?  or,  as  has  been  pertinently  asked, 
between  Austria  and  France  in  1850,  or  Russia  and 
Turkey  in  1877?  Therefore,  some  such  clause  of 
exception  appears  unavoidable  if  the  good  faith 
of  treaties  is  to  be  upheld,  and  we  confess  that  we 
do  not  attach  much  importance  to  its  exact  form. 
It  may  be  said  that  these  exceptions  can  be  used 
frivolously  or  in  bad  faith.  But  the  same  draw- 
back exists  in  the  construction  and  application  of 
all  treaties  whatever.  Well-meant  proposals  were 
made  at  the  Hague  for  settling  a  list  of  causes  of 
differences  which  should  not  be  deemed  vital;  but 
the  only  result  that  appeared  practicable  was  an 
enumeration  of  such  matters  of  current  business  as 
have  commonly  been  found  well  within  the  re- 
sources of  diplomacy,  and  the  project  was  wisely 
dropped." — F.  Pollock,  Modern  law  oj  nations 
(Cambridge  modern  history,  v.  12,  p.  727). 

1909. — Dutch  Guiana  boundary  settlement  with 
Brazil.    See  Brazil;   iqoq. 

1909. — Alsop  claim  of  United  States  against 
Chile.     See  Chile;    iqcq. 

1909. — World  petition  for  a  general  treaty 
of  obligatory  arbitration. — At  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  International  Peace  Bureau  at  Brussels, 
October  q,  igoQ,  the  following  resolution  was 
adopted,  expressing  approval  of  the  world-petition 
to  the  third  Hague  conference  in  favor  of  a  general 
treaty  of  obligatory  arbitration;  "Whereas,  Public 
opinion,  ij  recorded,  will  prove  an  influential  factor 
at  the  third  Hague  Conference;  and  Wherea^i,  The 
'world-petition  to  the  third  Hague  Conference'  has 
begun  to  successfully  establish  a  statistical  record 
of  the  men  and  women  in  every  country  who  desire 
to  support  the  governments  in  their  efforts  to  per- 
fect the  new  international  order  based  on  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  solidarity  of  all  nations;  Resolved, 
That  the  Commission  and  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  International  Peace  Bureau,  meeting  of 
Brussels  October  8  and  q,  looq,  urgently  recom- 
mend the  signing  of  the  'world-petition  to  the 
third   Hague   Conference.'  " 

1909  (October). — American  proposal  that  the 
prize  court  now  established  be  also  a  court  of 
arbitral  justice. — By  reference  to  the  proceedings 
of  the  second  peace  conference  at  The  Hague,  as 
set  forth  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  conference 
gave  favorable  consideration  to  a  draft  convention 
for  the  creation  of  a  "judicial  arbitration  court" 
(the  text  of  which  draft  is  given  at  the  end  of 
said  proceedings) ,  and  that  the  conference  went  so 
far  as  to  declare  the  "advisability  of  adopting  .  .  . 
and  of  bringing  It  into  force  as  soon  as  an  agree- 
ment has  been  reached  respecting  the  selection  of 
the  judges  and  the  constitution  of  the  Court." 
It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  the  conference  adopted 
measures  for  the  creation,  of  an  international  prize 
court,  preliminary  to  which  an  international  naval 
conference  was  held  in  London  from  December  4, 
iqo8,  until  February  26,  iqoo.  At  that  conference 
a  suggestion  was  made  that  "the  jurisdiction  of  the 
International  Prize  Court  might  be  extended,  by 
agreement  between  two  or  more  of  the  signatory 
Powers,  to  cover   cases  at  present  excluded   from 


its  jurisdiction  by  the  express  terms  of  the  Prize 
Court  Convention,  and  that  in  the  hearing  of 
such  cases  that  Court  should  have  the  functions 
and  follow  the  procedure  laid  down  in  the  draft 
Convention  relative  to  the  creation  of  a  Judicial 
Arbitration  Court,  which  was  annexed  to  the 
Final  Act  of  the  Second  Peace  Conference,  of  1007." 

In  Une  with  this  suggestion,  it  was  made  known, 
in  the  later  part  of  the  past  year,  that  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  through  its  state 
department,  had  proposed  in  a  circular  note  to  the 
Powers,  that  the  prize  court  should  be  invested 
with  the  jurisdiction  and  functions  of  the  proposed 
judicial  arbitration  court.  The  difficulties  in  se- 
lecting judges  for  that  contemplated  court,  which 
caused  the  creation  of  it  to  be  postponed  in  1007, 
would  thus  be  happily  surmounted,  and,  as  re- 
marked by  Secretary  Knox,  there  would  be  at  once 
given  "to  the  world  an  international  judicial  body 
to  adjudge  cases  arising  in  peace,  as  well  as  con- 
troversies incident  to  war." 

1910. — Fourth  Pan-American  conference  at 
Buenos  Aires.  See  American  republics.  Interna- 
tional UNION  of:   iqio. 

1911. — German  government's  views  on  arbi- 
tration.— "World-embracing  international  arbitra- 
tion treaties  dictated  by  an  international  areopa- 
gus  I  consider  just  as  impossible  as  general  inter- 
national disarmament.  Germany  takes  up  no  hos- 
tile position  toward  arbitration.  In  all  the  new 
German  treaties  of  commerce  there  are  arbitra- 
tion clauses.  In  the  main  it  was  due  to  Germany's 
initiative  that  an  agreement  was  arrived  at  at  the 
second  Hague  conference  for  the  establishment  of 
an  International  Prize  Court.  Arbitration  treaties 
can  certainly  contribute  in  a  great  measure  to 
maintain  and  fortify  peaceful  relations.  But 
strength  must  depend  on  readiness  for  war.  The 
dictum  still  holds  good  that  the  weak  becomes 
the  prey  of  the  strong.  If  a  nation  can  not  or 
will  not  spend  enough  on  its  defensive  forces  to 
make  its  way  in  the  world,  then  it  falls  back  into 
the  second  rank." — German  Imperial  Chancellor 
von  Belhmann-Hollweg  in  Reichstag,  Mar.  30,  iqii. 

1911-1912.— Treaties  of  the  United  States  with 
Great  Britain  and  France.  See  U.  S.  A.;  iqii- 
iqi2. 

1913. — President  Wilson's  proposal.  See  Latin 
America:   1913. 

1913. — Arbitration  on  Rumanian  boundary. 
See  Rumania:   iqi2-iqi3. 

1913. — Bryan-Wilson  treaties. — Body  of  the 
treaties. — Character. — List  of  treaties  from  1896- 
1920,  including  the  Bryan-Wilson  treaties. — On 
entering  upon  his  duties  as  secretary  of  state  Mr. 
Bryan  was  faced  with  the  problem  of  the  re- 
newal of  the  twenty-four  treaties  of  iqoS-iqoq. 
He  proposed  the  insertion  in  the  treaties  of  a 
clause  requiring  that  if  a  disagreement  should  oc- 
cur between  the  contracting  parties  which,  in  the 
terms  of  the  arbitration  treaty,  need  not  be  sub- 
mitted to  arbitration,  they  should,  before  declar- 
ing war,  submit  the  matter  to  the  Hague  Court 
or  to  some  other  impartial  tribunal  for  investi- 
gation and  report.  The  final  form  of  the  Bryan- 
Wilson  treaties,  of  which  approximately  thirty 
are  in  force,  is  the  development  of  the  commis- 
sion of  inquiry  and  is  not  technically  an  arbi- 
tration agreement.     The  body  of  these  treaties  is: 

".Article  I.  The  high  contracting  parties  agree 
that  all  disputes  between  them,  of  every  nature 
whatsoever,  "which  diplomacy  shall  fail  to  adjust, 
shall  be  submitted  for  investigation  and  report 
to  an  International  Commission,  to  be  consti- 
tuted in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the  next  suc- 
ceedinu    Article;    and    they    agree    not    to    declare 


405 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


war   or  begin  hostilities  during   such  investigation 
and  report. 

"Article  II.  The  International  Commission  shall 
be  composed  of  five  members,  to  be  appointed  as 
follows:  One  member  shall  be  chosen  from  each 
country,  by  the  Government  thereof;  one  mem- 
ber shall  be  chosen  by  each  Government  from 
some  third  country;  the  fifth  member  shall  be 
chosen  by  common  agreement  between  the  two 
Governments.  The  expenses  of  the  Commission 
shall  be  paid  by  the  two  Governments  in  equal 
proportion.  The  International  Commission  shall 
be  appointed  within  four  months  after  the  ex- 
change of  the  ratifications  of  this  treaty ;  and  va- 
cancies shall  be  filled  according  to  the  manner 
of   the  original   appointment. 

"Article  III.  In  case  the  high  contracting  par- 
ties shall  have  failed  to  adjust  a  dispute  by  diplo- 
matic methods,  they  shall  at  once  refer  it  to  the 
International  Commission  for  investigation  and 
report.  The  International  Commission  may,  how- 
ever, act  upon  its  own  initiative,  and  in  such 
case  it  shall  notify  both  Governments  and  re- 
quest their  cooperation  in  the  investigation.  The 
report  of  the  International  Commission  shall  be 
completed  within  one  year  after  the  date  on  which 
it  shall  declare  its  investigation  to  have  begun, 
unless  the  high  contracting  parties  shall  extend 
the  time  by  mutual  agreement.  The  report  shall 
be  prepared  in  triplicate;  one  copy  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  each  Government,  and  the  third  retained 
by  the  Commission  for  its  files.  The  high  con- 
tracting parties  reserve  the  right  to  act  independ- 
ently on  the  subject-matter  of  the  dispute  after 
the  report  of  the  Commission  shall  have  been  sub- 
mitted. 

"Article  IV.  Pending  the  investigation  and  re- 
port of  the  International  Commission  the  high 
contracting  parties  agree  not  to  increase  their 
military  or  naval  programs,  unless  danger  from  a 
third  power  should  compel  such  increase,  in  which 
case  the  party  feeling  itself  menaced  shall  confi- 
dentially communicate  the  fact  in  writing  to  the 
other  contracting  party,  whereupon  the  latter  shall 
also  be  released  from  its  obligation  to  maintain 
its  military  and  naval  status  quo. 

"Article  V.  The  present  treaty  shall  be  ratified 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate thereof;  and  by  [the  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  Salvador]  with  the  approval  of  the  Con- 
gress thereof;  and  the  ratification  shall  be  ex- 
changed as  soon  as  possible.  It  shall  take  effect 
immediately  after  the  exchange  of  ratifications, 
and  shall  continue  in  force  for  a  period  of  five 
years;  and  it  shall  thereafter  remain  in  force  un- 
til twelve  months  after  one  of  the  high  contracting 
parties  have  given  notice  to  the  other  of  ;fn  in- 
tention to  terminate  it. 

".  .  .  The  success  of  the  Wilson-Bryan  proposal 
may  be  defined  as  due  to  its  strict  ad- 
herence to  the  principle  of  the  commission 
of  inquiry ;  the  advance  it  records  is  that 
of  the  greatest  possible  development  within  the 
limits  of  that  principle.  It  brings  forward  into 
the  range  of  practical  affairs  the  well-attested 
maxim  that  war  will  not  come  in  cold  blood  from 
a  dispute  the  facts  of  which  are  thoroughly  at- 
tested. It  goes  no  further,  for  freedom  of  action 
is  reserved  by  both  parties  after  the  commission's 
work  is  done.  .  .  .  The  fact  that  the  commission 
becomes  a  permanent  one  makes  appointments  to 
it  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  subject  to  con- 
firmation by  the  Senate.  On  this  account  the  Sen- 
ate, as  a  coordinate  part  of  the  treaty-making 
power,  is  in  a  position  always  to  secure  commis- 


sion members  for  the  American  quota  who  are 
satisfactory  to  it." — D.  P.  Myers,  Commission  of 
inquiry  {World  Peace  Foundation  Pamphlet  series, 
V.  3,  no.  2,  p.  25). 

Also  in:  Treaties  for  the  advancement  of  peace 
between  the  United  States  and  other  Powers,  ne- 
gotiated by  the  Honorable  William  J.  Bryan,  Sec- 
retary of  State   of  the   United  States. 

The  treaties  differ  in  the  range  given  to  the 
obligation  imposed  upon  the  signatory  parties,  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  differences  they  shall  sub- 
mit to  arbitration.  Most  of  them,  however,  are 
divisible  in  this  respect  into  three  classes,  distin- 
guished by  the  reference  letters  "A,"  "B,"  and 
"C,"  and  the  distinctions  are  described  in  J.  B. 
Scott,  "Hague  Peace  Conferences  of  1899  and  1907." 
Treaties  concluded  by  the  United  States  have 
otherwise  distinctive  characters,  as  explained  in 
notes  "D"  and  "E." 

"A. — The  article  of  reference  in  these  treaties  is 
substantially  (when  not  identically)  as  follows: 

"  'The  high  contracting  parties  agree  to  submit 
to  the  permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  established 
at  The  Hague  by  the  Convention  of  July  29,  1890, 
the  differences  which  may  arise  between  them  in 
the  cases  enumerated  in  Article  3,  in  so  far  as  they 
affect  neither  the  independence,  the  honor,  the 
vital  interests,  nor  the  exercise  of  sovereignty  of 
the  contracting  countries,  and  provided  it  has 
been  impossible  to  obtain  an  amicable  solution  by 
means  of  direct  diplomatic  negotiations  or  by  any 
other  method  of  conciliation. 

"'i.  In  case  of  disputes  concerning  the  applica- 
tion or  interpretation  of  any  convention  concluded 
or  to  be  concluded  between  the  high  contracting 
parties  and  relating — (a)  To  matters  of  interna- 
tional private  law;  (b)  To  the  management  of  com- 
panies; (c)  To  matters  of  procedure,  either  civil  or 
criminal,  and   to  extradition. 

"'2.  In  cases  of  disputes  concerning  pecuniary 
claims  based  on  damages,  when  the  principle  of 
indemnity  has  been  recognized  by  the  parties. 

"  'Differences  which  may  arise  with  regard  to  the 
interpretation  or  application  of  a  convention  con- 
cluded or  to  be  concluded  between  the  high  con- 
tracting parties  and  in  which  third  powers  have 
participated  or  to  which  they  have  adhered  shall 
be  excluded  from  settlement  by  arbitration.' 

"B. — The  treaties  of  this  noble  class  are  the  few 
thus  far  concluded  which  pledge  the  parties  en- 
gaged in  them  to  submit  all  differences  that  may 
arise  between  them  to  pacific  arbitration,  reserving 
no  dispute  of  any  nature,  to  become  a  possible 
entanglement  in  war.  The  formula  of  reference 
in  them  is  substantially  this: 

"  'The  high  contractin.'  parties  agree  to  submit  to 
the  permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  established  at 
The  Hague  by  the  Convention  of  July  20,  1800, 
all  differences  of  every  nature  that  may  arise  be- 
tween them,  and  which  cannot  be  settled  by  di- 
plomacy, and  this  even  in  the  case  of  such  dif- 
ferences as  have  had  their  origin  prior  to  the  con- 
clusion of  the  present  Convention.' 

"C.— The  reference  clause  in  these  treaties  is  sub- 
stantially  alike   in   all,   to   the   following   purpose: 

"  'Differences  which  may  arise  of  a  legal  nature, 
or  relating  to  the  interpretation  of  treaties  ex- 
isting between  the  two  contracting  parties,  and 
which  it  mav  not  have  been  possible  to  settle  by 
diplomacv,  shall  be  referred  to  the  Permanent 
Court  of' Arbitration,  established  at  The  Hague  by 
the  convention  of  the  20th  July,  1800;  provided, 
nevertheless,  that  they  do  not  affect  the  vital  in- 
terests, the  independence,  or  the  honor  of  the  two 
contracting  States,  and  do  not  concern  the  interests 
of  third  parties.' 


406 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


"D. — In  these  treaties  of  arbitration  negotiated 
by  the  United  States  the  article  of  reference  is 
like  that  last  quoted,  in  note  C;  but  the  following 
is  added  to  it: 

"  'In  each  individual  case  the  High  Contracting 
Parties,  before  appealing  to  the  Permanent  Court 
of  Arbitration,  shall  conclude  a  special  Agreement, 
deiining  clearly  the  matter  in  dispute,  the  scope 
of  the  powers  of  the  arbitrators,  and  the  periods 
to  be  fixed  for  the  formation  of  the  Arbitral  Tri- 
bunal and  the  several  stages  of  the  procedure.  It  is 
understood  that  on  the  part  of  the  United  States 
such  special  agreements  will  be  made  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  by  and  Vv-ith  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate  thereof,  and  on  the  part 
of  Costa  Rica  shall  be  subject  to  tly;  procedure 
required  by  the  Constitution  and  laws  thereof.' 

"This  was  required  by  the  United  States  Senate, 
which  rejected  a  number  of  earlier  arbitration  trea- 
ties, negotiated  by  Secretary  Hay,  because  they 
would  have  allowed  cases  of  controversy  with 
other  nations  to  be  referred  to  The  Hague  tribunal 
by  the  president  without  specific  consent  from  the 
Senate  in  each  particular  case.  This  brings  the 
general  treaty  of  arbitration  down  very  close  to 
absurdity,  leaving  almost  nothing  of  its  intended 
pacific  influence  to  act." 

E. — The  Bryan-Wilson  treaties  are  designated  by 
the  letter  "E."  The  abbreviation  "S"  is  used  be- 
fore the  date  of  signature  and  "R"  'before  the  date 
of  the  final  ratification,  or,  in  the  case  of  the 
Bryan-Wilson  treaties,  the  "R"  signifies  the  date  of 
the  exchange  of  ratifications. 

Under  each  country  is  given  a  list  of  the  treaties 
with  other  countries.  Each  treaty  is  mentioned 
only  once,  with  references  to  it  from  the  other 
countries  concerned  in  Italics. 

ARGENTINA 

Bolivia.  S.  February  3,  1902;  R.  March  13,  1902. 

Brazil.  S.  September  7,  1905;  R.  October  2,  190S. 

Chile.  S.  May  28,  1902;  Renew.  September  13, 
1910. 

Colombia.  S.  January  20,  1912. 

Ecuador.  S.  July '16,  1911. 

France.  S.  September  7,  1910. 

Italy.  S.  July  23,  1896;  not  ratified. 

S.  September   18,  1907;   not  ratified. 

Paraguay.  S.  June  8,  1S90;  R.  December  21, 
1901. 

Additional  Protocol.  S.  December   21,   1901; 
R.  December  18,  igoi. 

Portugal.  S.  August    27,   1909. 

Spain   S.  January   28,   1902. 

United  States.'^  S.  July  24,  1914;  not  ratified 
(?). 

Uruguay.  S.  June  8,  1899;  R.  December  21,  1901. 
Additional  Protocol.    S.    December  21,  i go i ; 
R.  December  18,  1901. 

Venezuela.  S.  July  24,  igir. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

austria-hungary 

Brazil.  S.  October  19,  1910. 

Great  Britain.''  S.  January  11,  1905;  R.  May 
17,   1005. 

Renew.  S.  July   16,   1910. 

Portugal.^  S.  February  13,  1906;  R.  October  16, 
igo8. 

Switzerland.'^  S.  December  3,  1904;  R.  October 
17,   1905. 

United  States,  S.  January  6,  1905;   not  ratified. 

United  States. d  S.  January  15,  1909;  R.  May 
13,  1909. 


Denmark.-A-  S.  April  26,  1905;  R.  May  2,  1906. 

Greece.  S.  May  2,  1905;  R.  July  22,  1905. 

Honduras.  S.  April  29,  1910. 

Italy.  S.  November   18,   1910. 

Nicaragua.  S.  March  6,  1906;  not  ratified. 

Norway.'^  S.  November  30,  1904;  R.  October 
30,   1906. 

Rumania.  S.  May  27,  1905;  R.  October  9,  1905. 

Russia.  S.  October  30,  1904;  R.  September  9, 
1905. 

Spain. •'^  S.  January  23,  1905;  R.  December  16, 
1905. 

Sweden.^  S.  November  30,  1904;  R.  August  11, 
1905 

Switzerland.-^  S.  November  iS,  1904;  R.  Au- 
gust, 1905. 


See  Argentina;  Brazil. 

Peru.  S.  November  21,  1901;  R.  December  29, 
1903. 

Peru.  Renew.  S.   March  31,    1911. 

See  Spain;  United  Stales. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 


Argentina.  S.  September  7,  1905;  R.  October  2, 
1908. 

Austria-Hungary.  S.  October    19,    1910. 

Bolivia.  S.  June  25,  1909. 

Chile.  S.  May  18,  1899;  R.  March  7,  1906. 

China.  S.  August  3,  1909. 

Colombia.  S.  July   7,   1910. 

Costa   Rica.  S.  May   18,   1909. 

Cuba.  S.  June  19,   1909. 

Denmark.  S.  November  27,  1911. 

Dominican  Republic.  S.  April  29,  1910. 

Ecuador.  S.  May  13,  1909. 

France.  S.  April  7,  1909. 

Great  Britain.  S.  June   18,   1909. 

Greece.  S.  August  28,  1910. 

Haiti.  S.  April  25,  1910. 

Honduras.  S.  April  26,  1909. 

Mexico.  S.  April  11,  1909. 

Nicaragua.  S.  June  28,  1909. 

Norway.  S,  July  13,  1909. 

Panama.  S.  May  i,  1909. 

Paraguay.  S.  February  24,  1911. 

Peru.  S.  November  5,  1909. 

Portugal.  S.  March  25,  1909. 

Russia.  S.  August  26,  1910. 

Salvador.  S.  September  3,  1909. 

Spain.  S.  April  8,   1909. 

Sweden.  S.  December  14,  1909. 

United  States.  R.  July  26,  191 1;  automatic 
renew.  1916,  If  not  denounced  by  either  coun- 
try six  months  prior  to  July  26,  1921,  will  auto- 
matically extend  to  1926  and  so  on  by  five-year 
periods. 

United  States.^  S.  July  24,  1914;  R-  October  28, 
1916. 

Uruguay.  S.  January   12,  1911. 
Renew.  S.  December  28,  1916. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 


See  Argentina;   Brazil;   United   States. 
(See  above:   1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 


407 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


CHINA 

See  Brazil;  United  States. 

COLOMBIA 

See  Argentina;  Brazil;  Great  Britain. 
Peru.  S.  September   12,  1905;   R.  July  6,  1Q06. 
See  Spain. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

costa  rica 

See    Brazil;     Italy;    Panama;     United    States. 

(See  above:  1902-^  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference; 1907:  Central  American  court  of  arbi- 
tration established.) 


See  Brazil. 


CUBA 


DENMARK 


See  Belgium;  Brazil;  France;  Great  Britain; 
Italy;  Netherlands;  Norway;  Portugal;  Russia; 
Spain;  Sxveden;   United  States. 

DOMINICAN   REPUBLIC 

See  Brazil;  Spain;   United  States. 

(See  above:    1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 


CREAT   BRITAIN 

Austria-Hungary .c  S.  January  11,  190S;  R.  May 

i7>  1905- 

Renew.  S.  July  16,  1910. 

Brazil.  S.  June  18,  1909. 

Colombia.  S.  December  30,  1908. 

Denmark.  S.  October  25,  1905;  R.  May  4,  1906. 

France.''  S.  October  14,  1903;  R.  February  25, 
1904. 

Germany.""  S.  July  12,  1904;  without  reserve  of 
ratification. 

Italy.''  S.  February  i,  1904;  not  ratified  (?). 
S.  February  i,  1907. 

Netherlands.'"  S.  February  15,  1905;  R-  July  ". 
1005. 

Norway.'^  S.  August  11,  1904;  R.  November  9, 
1904. 

Portugal.c  S.  November  16,  1904;  not  ratified. 

Spain.c  S.  February  27,  1904;  R.  March  16, 
1904. 

Sweden.c  S.  August  11,  1004;  R.  November  9. 
1004. 

Switzerland.'^  S.  November  16,  1904;  R.  July  12, 
1905. 

United  States.  S.  January  11,  1897.  but  not  rat- 
ified. (See  above:  1897:  Proposed  Anglo-Ameri- 
can ARBITRATION  TRE.ATY.) 

United  States.  (See  above:  1905:  President 
Roosevelt's  treaty  negotiations.) 

United  States.^  S.  .April  4,  1908;  R.  June  4,  1908. 
Renew.  April  10,  1914.  (It  had  lapsed,  June 
4,   1913,  but  was  kept  in   force  by   mutual  agree- 


ference;   1907:   Central-American  court  of  AR-      ment.    Again  renewed  September  24,  1918.    To  ex 

\  r.'ww.a       Tuna      O  ..  T  nt  1     \ 


bitration  established.) 

ECUADOR 

See  Brazil;  United  States. 
(See  above:   1902:   Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

FRANCE 

Argentina.  S.  September  7,   1910. 

Brazil.  S.  April  7,  1909. 

Denmarki^  S.  September   15,  190.S;   R.  May  31, 
1906;  Renew.  S.  August  9,  1911. 

Great  Britain.*"  S.  October  14,  1903;  R-  Febru- 
ary 25,  1904. 

Italy.'"  S.  December    25,    1903;    R.    March    26, 
1904. 

Netherlands'"  S.  April  6,  1904;  R    July  5.  iQOS- 

Norway.'"  S.  July  9,  1904;  R-  November  9, 
1904. 

Portugal."^  S.  Julv  9,  1906;  not  ratified. 

Spain.t'  s.  February  26,  1904;  R-  April  20,  1904. 

Sweden.'^'  S.  July  9,  1004;  R-  November  9,  1904. 

Switzerland.'"  S.  December  14,  1904;  R.  July 
13,   1905. 

United  States.r>  s.  February  10,  1908;  R.  March 
12,  1908. 

Renew.  1913,  1918.    To  expire  February  23, 
1923. 

S.  .August  3,  1911. 

United  States."  S.  September  15,  1914;  R  Janu- 
ary 22,  1915. 

GERMANY 

Great  Britain.<"  S.  July  12,  1004;  without  reserve 
of  ratification. 

United  States.  S.  November  22,  1904;  not  rati- 
fied.     (See  above:    1905:    President   Roosevelt's 

TREATY    negotiations.) 

Venezuela   S.  May  7,  1903;  not  ratified. 


pire  June  24,   1923.) 

United  States.  S.  August  3,  1911- 

United  States.''  S.  September  15,  1Q14;  R-  No- 
vember 10,  1914. 

GREECE 

See  Belgium;  Brazil;  Italy;  Spain;  United 
States. 

GUATEMALA' 

Nicaragua— Honduras— Salvador.  S.  November, 
1903.     See  Spain;   United  States. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference; 1907:  Central  American  court  of  ar- 
bitration  ESTABLISHED.) 


See  Brazil. 

Guatemala— Nicaragua— Salvador.  S.  Novem- 
ber, 1903- 

HONDURAS 

See  Belgium;  Brazil;  Spain;  United  States. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-,\merican  Con- 
ference; 1007:  Central  American  court  of  ar- 
bitration ESTABLISHED.) 

ITALY 

Argentina.  S.  Julv   23,  1896;   not  ratified. 

Argentina.  S.  September  18,   1907 ;   not  ratified. 

Belgium.  S.  November    18,   1910. 

Costa  Rica.  S.  January  8,   1910. 

Denmark.^*  S.  December   16,   1905;   R-  May   22, 

France.^  S.  December  25,  1Q03;  R-  March  26, 
1904. 


408 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


Great  Britain.^  S.  February  i,  1904;  not  ratified 

(?). 

Greece.  S.  September  2,  1910. 

Mexico.  S.  October   16,   1907;    R.   December  31, 
1907. 

Netherlands.  S.  November  21,  1909. 

Norway.  S.  December  4,  igio. 

Panama.  S.  May  11,  1905. 

Peru.  S.  April  18,  1905;  R.  November  11,  igoS. 

Portugal.*^'  S.  May  11,  1905;  not  ratified. 

Russia.  S.  October  27,  igio. 

Spain.  S.  September   2,   1910. 

Sweden.  S.  April  30,   191 1. 

Switzerland.''  S.  November  23,  1904;  R.  Decem- 
ber s,  1905. 

United  States."^  S.  March  28,  igo8;  R.  January 
22,   IQ09. 

Renew.   1914,   1919.     To  expire  January  22, 
1914. 

United  States.i^  S.  May  5,   1914;   R.  March   ig, 
1915- 

JAPAN 

United  States.D  S.  May  5,  1908;  R.  August  24, 
1908. 

Renew.  1914,  made  retroactive  to  igi3. 
Renew.  igi8.     To  expire  August  24,  1923. 


See  Brazil;  Italy;  United  States. 
(See  above;    1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

Netherlands 

Denmark.B  S.  February  12,  1904;  R.  March  18, 
1906. 

See  France;  Great  Britain;  Italy. 

Portugual.  S.  October  i,  1904;  R.  October  29, 
1908. 

See  United  States. 


See  United  States. 

(See  above:   1902;  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 


Mexico.  S.  May  14,  1902. 
See  United  States. 


See  Bolivia;  Brazil;  Colombia;  Italy;  Para- 
guay; United  States. 

(See  above:  igo2:  Second  Pan-.^merican  Con- 
ference.) 


Argentina.  S.  August  27,   1909. 

Austria-Hungary .c  S.  February     13,     1006;     R. 
October  16,   iqo8. 

Brazil.  S.  March   25,   igog. 

Denmark. B  S.  March   20,   igo7;   R.  October   26, 
1908. 

France.  S.  July  29,  1906;  not  ratified. 

Great   Britain.  S.  Noven'rber  16,  1904;   not  rati- 
fied. 

Italy .c  S.  May  11,  1905;  not  ratified. 

Netherlands.  S.  October  i,  1904;  R.  October  29, 
1008. 

Nicaragua.  S.  July  17,   igog. 

Norway .<^  S.  May  6,  igos;  not  ratified. 
S.  December  8,  igo8. 

Spain.  S.  May  31,  igo4;  not  ratified. 

Sweden.c  S.  May  6,  igoS;  not  ratified. 

Switzerland. c  S.  August    18,    igoS;    R.    October 
23i  igo8. 

See  United  States. 


RUMANIA 


See  Belgium. 


NICARAGUA 

See  Belgium;  Brazil. 

Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador.  S.  November, 
igo3. 

See   Portugal;   Salvador;   Spain;    United   States. 

(See  above:  igo2:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference; igo7:  Central  American  court  of  ar- 
bitration   ESTABLISHED.) 


Sec  Belgium;  Brazil. 

Denmark.^  S.  March     i,     igos;     R.    April     11- 
April   3,   igos. 
See  Italy. 
Norway.-*  S.  December  g,  igo4;  R    February  27, 

igos- 

Sweden. A  S.  December  g,  igo4;  R.  February  25, 
1 90s. 
See   United  States. 


See  Belgium;  Brazil. 

Denmark.  S.  October  8,  igo8;  not  ratified. 

See  France;  Great  Britain;  Italy;  Portugal;  Rus- 
sia; Spain. 

Sweden. A  S.  October  26,  1905;  without  reserve 
of  ratification. 

See  Switzerland ;   United  States. 


SALVADOR 

See  Brazil. 

Guatemala — Honduras — Salvador.  S.  November, 
1903- 

Nicaragua.  S.  April  3,   1907;  not  ratified. 

See  Spain;  United  States. 

(See  above:  1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference; igo7:  Central  American  court  of  ar- 
bitration established.) 


See  Brazil. 

Costa  Rica.  S.  March  17,  igio. 
See  Italy;  United  States. 

(See  above:   1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

paraguay 

See  Argentina. 

See  Brazil. 

Peru.  S.  May   18,   1903. 


SIAM 


See   United  Stales. 


Argentina.  S.  January  28,  1902. 

Belgium. A  S.  January  23,  igoS;  R.  December 
16,   igos. 

Bolivia.  S.  February  17,  1902;  R.  October  10, 
1903. 


409 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


Brazil.  S.  April  S,  igog. 

Colombia.  S.  February  17,  1902 ;  R.  July  18, 
1902. 

Denmark.^  S.  December  i,  1905;  R.  May  14, 
igo6. 

Dominican  Republic.  S.  January  28,  1902;  R. 
July  iS,  1902. 

France."-'  S.  February  26,  1904;  R.  April  20,  1904. 

Great  Britain.'-'  S.  February  27,  1904;  R.  March 
16,  1904. 

Greece.  S.  December  16,  1909. 

Guatemala.  S.  February  28,  1902;  R.  July  18, 
1902. 

Honduras.  S.  May   13,  1905;   R.  July    16,   1906. 

Italy.  S.  September   2,   1910. 

Mexico.  S.  January  11,  1902;  R.  July  18,  1902. 

Nicaragua.  S.  October  4,  1904;  R.  March  19, 
1908. 

Norway.  S.  January  23,  190S;  R.  March  20,  1905. 

Portugal.  S.  May  31,  1904;  not  ratified. 

Russia    S.  August  15,   1910. 

Salvador.  S.  January  28,  1902;  R.  July  8,  1902. 

Sweden.  S.  January    23,    1905;     R.    March    20, 

1905- 
Switzerland.^  S.  May  14,  1907;  R.  July  9,  1907. 

See   United  States. 

Uruguay.  S.  January  28,  1902;  R.  July  18, 
1902. 


See  Belgium;  Brazil. 

Denmark. D  S.  July   17,  190S;   not  ratified. 

See  France;   Great  Britain;  Italy. 

Norway.  S.  October  26,  1905;  without  reserve  of 
ratification. 

See  Portugal;  Russia. 

See  Switzerland.^  S.  December  17,  1904;  R. 
July   13,   1905. 

See   United  States. 

SWITZERLAND 

See  Austria-Hungary;  Belgium;  France;  Great 
Britain;  Italy. 

Norway.-^  S.  December    17,    1904;    R.    July    13, 

See  Portugal;  Spain;  Siaeden;   United  Stales. 

UNITED    STATES 

Argentina.  S.  July   24,   1914;   not   ratified    (?). 
Austria-Hungary.  S.  January   6,   1Q05;   not  rati- 
fied. 

S.  January  15,  1909;  R.  May  13,  IQ09. 
Bolivia. E  S.  January    22,    1914;    R.    January   8. 

1915- 

Brazil.  R.  July  26,  1911,  automatic  renew.  iqi6. 
If  not  denounced  by  either  country  six  months 
prior  to  July  26,  iq2i,  will  automatically  extend 
to  1926  and  so  on  by  five-year  periods. 

Brazil. E  S.  July  24,  1914;   R.  October  28,  1916. 

Chile.  S.  July    24,    1914;    R.   January    19,    igi6. 

China. u  S.  October  8,   190S;   R.  April  6,   1909. 

China.E  s.  September   15,   1914;   R.  October  22, 

1915. 

Costa  Rica.D  S.  January   13,   1909;   R.  July  20, 

1909. 

Renew.  1014. 

Costa  Rica.i=  S.  February  13,  1914;  R.  Novem- 
ber 12,  1914. 

Denmark. D  S.  May  18,  1908;  R.  March  29, 
1909. 

Denmark.!'  S.  .'Vpril  17,  1914;  R.  January  iq, 
1915. 

Dominican  Republic.  S.  February  17,  1914;  not 
ratified, 

Ecuador.  R.  June   22,   1910,  for  five  years,  au- 


tomatically renewed  every  year.     Terminable  upon 
year's  notice. 

Ecuador. t^  S.  October  13,  1914;  R.  January  22, 
191 6. 

France.!^  S.  February  10,  190S;  R.  March  12, 
1908. 

Renew.    1913,    1918.     Expires   February    23, 

1923- 

S.  August  3,   1911. 
France.i=^  S.  September  15,  1914;  R.  January  22, 

IQI5- 

Germany.  S.  November   22,    1904;   not  ratified. 

Germany.  (See  above:  1905:  President  Roose- 
velt's  TREATY   NEGOTIATIONS.; 

Great  Britain.  S.  January  11,  1897;  not  rati- 
fied. (See  above:  1897:  Proposed  Anglo-Ameri- 
can  ARBITRATION    TREATY.) 

Great  Britain.  (See  1905:  President  Roose- 
\llt's  treaty  negotl^tioxs.) 

Great  Britain. d  S.  April  4,  1908;  R.  June  4, 
iqoS. 

Renew.  April  10,  iqi4.  (It  had  lapsed  June 
4,  1913,  but  was  kept  in  force  by  mutual  agree- 
ment) ;  Renew.  September  24,  191S.     Expires  June 

24.   1923- 

S.  August  3,  1911. 
Great  Britain. '='  S.  September  15,   1914;   R.  No- 
vember 10,  1914. 
Greece.  S.  February  29,  1908;  not  ratified  (?) 
Greece.^  S.  October  13,  1914;  not  ratified  (?) 
Guatemala. '■^  S.  September    20,    1913;    R.    Octo- 
ber 13,  1914. 

Honduras.^  S.  November  3,   1913;   R.   July   27, 
1916. 
Italy. D  S.  March  28,  190S;  R.  January  22,  1909. 

Renew.  1914,  1919.     Expires  Jan.  22,  1924. 
Italy .^  S.  May  5,  1914;  R.  March   19,  1915. 
Japan. D  S.  May   5,   igoS;    R.   August   24,   1908. 
Renew.    1914,    made    retroactive    to     1913. 
Renew.  1918.     Expires  Au  ust  24,  1923. 
Mexico. t^  S.  March  "24,  190S;  R.  June  27,  1908. 
Netherlands. D  S.  May    2,    1908;    R.    March    25, 
1909. 

Renew.  1915,  1919. 
Netherlands.^  S.  December    18,    1913;    not   rati- 
fied. 

Nicaragua.^  S.  December  17,  1913;  not  ratified. 
Norway.  S.  April  4,   iqo8;   R.  June  24,   1908. 
Renew.  1913,  1918.    Expires  June  24,  1923- 
Norway .'^  S.  June  24,  1914;  R.  October  21,  1914 
Panama.''-  S.  September  20,  1913;  not  ratified. 
Paraguay. J'  S.  August    29,    1914;    R.    March    9, 

I9I.';- 

Persia.'^  S.  February  4,  1014;  not  ratified. 

Peru."^  S.  December  s,  iqoS;  R.  June  29,  1909. 

Peru.''  S.  July   14,  1914;   R.  March  4,  191S. 

Portugal. D  S.  April  6,  190S;  R.  November  14, 
1908. 

Renew.  1913. 

Portugal.''  S.  February  4,  1914;  R.  October  24, 
1914. 

Russia.''  S.  October  i,  1914;  R.  March  22,  1914- 

Salvador.^  S.  December  21,  1908;  R.  July  3, 
1000. 

Renew.  19 14. 

Salvador."  S.  August  7,  1913;  not  ratified. 

Spain.i^  S.  April  20,  1908;  R.  June  2,  1908. 
Renew.  1913,  1919.     Expires  1924. 

Spain.E  S.  September  15,  1914;  R.  December 
21,  1914. 

Sweden.!^  S.  May  2,  1908;  R.  August  18,  iqo8. 
Renew.  1013. 

Sweden.E  S.  October  13,  iqi4;  R.  January  11, 
iqi.S- 

Switzerland.'^  S.  February  29,  1908;  R.  Decem- 
ber 23,  1908. 

10 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


Switzerland. E  S.  February  13,  1914. 

Uruguay. li^  S.  July  20,  1914;  R.  February  24, 
Renew.  November  14,  1913,  automatic  renew. 
igiS.  Remains  in  force  until  a  year  after  its  de- 
nunciation by  either  country. 

Uruguay. li   S.   July   20,   1914;   R.   February   24, 

1914- 

Venezuela.^  S.  March  21,  1914. 

(See  above:   1902:  Second  Pan-American  Con- 
ference.) 


See  Argentina;  Brazil;  Spain;  United  States. 
(See  above:  1902:  Second  Fan-American  Con- 
ference.) 

venezuela 

See  Argentina;  Germany;  United  States. 
(See  above:    1902:  Second  Pan-.'Xmerican  Con- 
ference.) 

1914. — Arbitration  agreements  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War. — Considering  the  number  of 
arbitration  treaties  in  force  in  1914  it  is  signifi- 
cant that  only  three  were  operative  between  those 
states  which  fought  on  opposing  sides  in  the  World 
War.  Of  the  three,  that  between  Germany  and 
Great  Britain  expired  by  limitation  on  July  i, 
1914,  or  thirty-five  days  before  the  contracting 
states  were  at  war.  The  other  two  treaties  were 
between  Austria-Hungary  and  Great  Britain  and 
between  Austria-Hungary  and  Portugal,  respec- 
tively. 

1914. — Arbitration  proposals  to  avoid  the  war. 
— Count  Berchtold,  Austro-Hungarian  foreign 
minister,  launched  the  fateful  ultimatum  to  Ser- 
bia on  July  23,  1914.  Of  the  ten  demands  pre- 
sented in  that  document,  the  Serbian  government, 
acting  on  Russian  advice,  acceded  to  all  with  only 
two  reservations — articles  3  and  4,  which  they 
asked  to  be  permitted  to  submit  to  The  Hague 
tribunal.  The  request  was  rejected  by  Austria. 
The  late  tsar  Nicholas  II  telegraphed  to  the  former 
German  emperor  at  the  end  of  July  a  proposal  to 
submit  the  Austro-Serbian  dispute  to  The  Hague 
tribunal — an  appeal  that  received  no  answer. — See 
also  World  War:  Diplomatic  background:  21;  22; 
23;  26;  28. 

1914. — Ratification  of  the  convention  adopted 
at  the  Third  Pan-American  Conference  (1906). 
— Seventeen  participants  ratit'ied  this  convention, 
the  gist  of  which  is  as  follows:  The  contracting 
Powers  agree  not  to  have  recourse  to  armed  force 
for  the  recovery  of  contract  debts.  This  undertak- 
ing is,  however,  not  applicable  when  the  debtor 
state  refuses  or  neglects  to  reply  to  an  offer  of  arbi- 
tration, or  after  accepting  the  offer,  prevents  any 
compromise  from  being  agreed  on,  or  after  the 
arbitration  fails  to  submit  to  the  award. 

1919. — Obligatory  general  arbitration  treaty 
between  Paraguay  and  Uruguay.  See  Paraguay: 
iqig  (November). 

1919-1920. — Arbitration  provisions  in  the 
League  of  Nations.— The  nations  of  the  league 
agree  to  use  arbitration  to  settle  "arbitrable"  dis- 
putes in  which  diplomacy  has  failed  and  while 
the  league  council  stands  as  one  tribunal  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  only  extreme  cases  will 
come  before  it,  and  a  temporary  arbitral  com- 
mission or  The  Hague  permanent  court  will  be 
used.  The  league  court  for  which  provision  is 
made  in  the  covenant  is  in  no  way  intended  to 
take  the  place  of  The  Hague  permanent  court  of 


arbitration.  According  to  article  13  of  the  cove- 
nant "Disputes  as  to  interpretation  of  a  treaty, 
as  to  any  question  of  international  law,  as  to 
the  existence  of  any  fact  which,  if  established, 
would  constitute  a  breach  of  any  international 
obligation,  or  as  to  the  extent  and  nature  of  the 
reparation  to  be  made  for  any  such  breach,  are 
declared  to  be  among  those  which  are  generally 
suitable  for  submission  to  arbitration."  Article 
21  reads:  "Nothing  in  this  covenant  shall  be 
deemed  to  affect  the  validity  of  international 
engagements,  such  as  treaties  of  arbitration  or  re- 
gional understandings  like  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
for   securing    the    maintenance    of    peace." 

On  Dec.  13,  1920,  the  session  of  the  League  of 
Nations  at  Geneva  adopted  the  proposal  for  the 
establishment  of  a  "permanent  court  of  interna- 
tional justice."  "Before  coming  into  operation, 
the  plan  must  be  ratified  by  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  League.  The  court,  which  is  to 
sit  at  The  Hague,  will  be  composed  of  eleven 
judges  chosen  by  the  League,  but  not  invested 
with  compulsory  jurisdiction.  Of  the  forty  na- 
tions represented,  thirty-six  favored  compulsory 
jurisdiction,  while  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy 
and  Japan  opposed  it.  The  four  great  powers 
carried  their  point,  as  the  alternative  lay  be- 
tween no  court  at  all  or  a  court  unendowed  with 
compulsory  jurisdiction.  The  plan  to  constitute 
the  court  had  been  drafted  by  an  international 
group  of  jurists  including  Elihu  Root,  and  com- 
pulsory jurisdiction  had  been  attached  for  the 
valid  reason  that  such  a  court  would  be  useless 
or  at  least  impotent  if  resort  to  its  mediation 
were  merely  voluntary  and  not  obligatory.  Owing 
to  the  opposition  of  the  'Big  Four,'  however,  that 
provision  was  eliminated,  although  particular 
stress  was  laid  on  the  point  that  had  such  a 
court  been  in  existence  in  1914  it  would  have  been 
powerless  to  prevent  the  war,  since  Austria  could 
have  refused  to  submit  her  quarrel  with  Serbia 
to  its  adjudication.  A  proposal  to  abolish  the 
Hague  arbitration  court  was  rejected  on  the 
ground  that  the  new  court  would  "render  decisions 
according  to  the  rules  and  forms  of  law,  and 
that  an  institution  [as  that  at  The  Hague]  organ- 
ized for  purely  arbitral  decisions  will  still  be  re- 
quired."— New  York  Times,  Dec.  14,  1020. — The 
league  council  has  already  proved  its  value  as  an 
arbitral  court.  On  September  17,  1920,  Poland 
and  Lithuania  invited  its  good  offices  as  arbitrator 
and  the  following  day  Finland  and  Sweden  re- 
ferred to  it  the  disputed  ownership  of  the  Aland 
islands  (q.  v.).  "In  production,  in  commerce  and 
in  finance,  the  progress  of  invention  and  of  world 
organization  has  brought  about  an  ever  closer  com- 
munity of  interest  between  the  nations,  and  even 
the  countries  which  have  sought  to  be  self-con- 
tained have  been  compelled  to  move  with  the 
times  and  to  base  their  welfare  in  an  ever  increas- 
ing degree  upon  world  production,  upon  interna- 
tional trade,  and  upon  world  finance.  But  po- 
litically, until  the  present  war,  the  nations  have 
continued  to  pursue  a  purely  individualistic  policy. 
Even  now  the  policy  of  cooperation  between  the 
various  nations  for  the  purpose  of  making  war 
has  been  pursued  by  most  of  them  merely  because 
of  the  imminent  and  great  danger  to  which  they 
were  exposed  until  they  did  cooperate,  not  because 
it  is  the  wiser  policy  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war, 
but  because  it  is  the  only  policy  that  can  give  to 
the  nations  security  under  modern  conditions.  It 
is  true  that  some  progress  was  made  in  this  di- 
rection prior  to  the  war,  but  when  one  considers  the 
difficulty  then  experienced  in  inducing  the  nations 
to  take  collective  action,  even  about  matters  upon 


411 


ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


which  every  one  seemed  to  be  agreed  in  piinciplc, 
and  recollects  the  really  trivial  causes  of  interna- 
tional friction  that  were  allowed  to  endanger  the 
world's  peace  from  time  to  time,  one  is  compelled 
to  realize  that  politically  the  nations  had  lagged 
far  behind  their  economic,  financial  and  intellectual 
development.  .  .  .  The  reasons  for  the  backward- 
ness of  the  world  from  the  standpoint  of  inter- 
national relations  are  obvious.  For  one  thing,  na- 
tional matters  are  usually  so  much  more  immedi- 
ate and  more  pressing  than  international  prob- 
lems, and  consequently  monopolize  the  attention  of 
politicians  and  statesmen  to  the  exclusion  of  mat- 
ters of  more  fundamental  importance,  except  in 
periods  of  temporary  crisis.  The  second  reason 
is  that  in  the  past  the  number  of  persons  who 
concerned  themselves  with  international  affairs  was 
very  limited,  that  consequently  there  was  not  the 
same  amount  of  constructive  criticism  devoted  to 
foreign  affairs  as  to  other  branches  of  public  policy, 
that  the  few  experts  deprecated,  and  in  some 
measure  resented,  either  public  discussion  or  pub- 
lic criticism,  and  that  in  consequence  of  lack  of 
information,  lack  of  discussion  and  lack  of  criti- 
cism, the  general  public  was  kept  almost  in  com- 
plete ignorance  of  world  politics.  The  third  rea- 
son is  that  hitherto  very  few  statesmen  or  ex- 
perts in  foreign  affairs  have  realized  the  com- 
munity of  economic  interest  in  all  countries  which 
has  been  created  by  the  wonderful  improvements 
in  the  means  of  communication  and  of  intercourse, 


and  by  the  introduction  of  the  credit  system,  all  of 
which  have  so  greatly  stimulated  and  assisted  world 
production  and  distribution  of  the  necessaries  of 
life." — Sir  G.  Paish,  Permanent  league  oj  nations, 
pp.  24-28. 

1920-1921.— Aland  Islands  settlement.  See 
Aland  Islands;    1920;   iq2i. 

1921. — Panama  and  Costa-Rica  boundary  dis- 
pute.   See  Costa-Rica:   1921. 

1921. — Vilna  award.  See  Lithuania:  1021 
(December). 

Also  in:  W.  E.  Baff,  Evolution  of  peace  by  ar- 
bitration {American  Law  Review,  igio,  v.  53,  pp. 
229-268). — R.  L.  Bridgman,  First  book  of  world 
law. — C.  Heath,  Pacific  settlement  of  international 
disputes. — W.  H.  Blymyer,  International  arbitra- 
tion: the  isolation  plan. — T.  Barclay,  New'  methods 
of  adjusting  international  disputes  and  the  future 
(1917). — J.  B.  Moore,  History  and  digest  of  the  in- 
ternational arbitrations  to  which  the  United  States 
has  been  a  party,  together  with  appendices  con- 
taining the  treaties  relating  to  such  arbitrations 
and  historical  and  legal  notes  on  other  interna- 
tional arbitrations  (189S). — See  also  the  World 
Pca^-c  Foundation  Pamphlet  Series,  to  date,  and  the 
Bulletins  of  the   Carnegif  Peace  Foundation. 

ARBITRATION,  Permanent  Court  of:  List 
of  cases  arbitrated.  See  .Arbitration,  Interna- 
tional: Modern  period:  1S98-1899;  Hague  confer- 
ences: 1899:  Convention  for  Pacific  settlement; 
Hague  Tribunal. 


ARBITRATION  AND  CONCILIATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


The  subject  of  industrial  arbitration  and  concilia- 
tion is  intimately  connected  with  nearly  every  phase 
of  the  labor  question,  and  the  reader  is  therefore 
referred  to  the  articles  Labor  legislation,  Labor 

ORGANIZATION.     LaBOR     REMUNERATION,     and     LaBOR 

strikes  and  boycotts  for  much  information  which 
supplements  and  amplifies  the  material  in  this 
article. 

The  interests  of  the  public,  of  the  employer,  and 
of  the  employee  are  served  by  continuity  of  pro- 
duction, which  depends  in  large  part  upon  har- 
monious relations  between  the  management  and 
the  workers.  Conciliation,  whereby  a  mediator 
or  mediating  board,  bringing  the  two  sides  to- 
gether or  acting  as  a  go-between,  effects  a  com- 
promise, has  often  been  of  service  in  preserving 
or  renewing  that  harmony.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, dependence  has  been  placed  upon  arbitra- 
tion, in  which  the  decision  is  made  by  a  third 
party;  the  process  leading  to  it  may  be  voluntary, 
or  it  may  follow  from  investigation  required  by 
law,  or,  in  addition  to  the  investigation  being  com- 
pulsory, the  award  may  be  binding  under  law. 
Legislation  along  these  lines  has  concerned  itself 
chiefly  with  public  utilities.  Publicity  for  the 
facts  has  at  times  accomplished  much  through  the 
force  of  aroused  public  opinion. 

"In  spite  of  its  many  obvious  advantages  the 
method  of  arbitralion  is  not  popular  either  with 
employers  or  employed.  Employers  object  to  it 
because  it  means  (hat  the  method  in  which  they 
are  to  carry  on  their  business  is  decided  for  them 
by  an  outsider  who  is  frequently  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  practical  and  technical  diffi- 
culties of  the  industry ;  while  employees  on  the 
other  hand  object  to  it  because  they  have  found 
that  the  arbitrator  bases  his  award  upon  funda- 
mental assumptions  which  they  do  not  accept. 
Thus,  as  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Webb  point  out,  arbitration 


can  only  be  successful  when  certain  main  points  are 
agreed  upon  as  common  ground  between  the  parties, 
as  for  example  that  a  fixed  minimum  standard  of 
life  should  be  regarded  as  a  first  charge  upon  the 
industry  of  the  country,  or  that  wages  should  vary 
with  the  selling  price  of  the  product.  So  long  as 
fundamental  points  and  principles  of  this  kind  are 
not  agreed  on  by  both  sides,  arbitration  does  not 
stand  much  chance  of  satisfying  the  parties  to  a 
dispute;  and  the  real  value  which  an  arbitrator 
performs  as  a  rule  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  is  in 
the  work  of  conciliation.  .\n  impartial  outsider, 
who  is  unaffected  by  any  personal  feeling  in  the 
matter,  may  do  a  great  deal  to  bring  the  parties  to 
a  dispute  together,  and  acting  as  a  go-between  may 
thus  prevent  them  from  resorting  to  extreme  meas- 
ures. The  real  defect  of  arbitralion  as  a  method 
of  settling  trade  disputes  is  that  the  award  is  not 
binding  on  the  parties,  and  there  has  consequently 
been  a  strong  tendency  in  some  quarters  in  recent 
years  to  provide  a  machinery  which  would  have 
I  he  effect  of  compelling  emplo\ers  and  workmen  to 
submit  their  disputes  for  arbitration  and  to  abide 
by  the  result." — G.  O'Brien,  Labour  organization 
(1021),  pp.  92-03. — "It  will  be  seen  ,  .  .  that 
among  the  Australasian  countries  the  general  ten- 
dency of  legislation  is  to  place  a  limitation,  and 
with  practically  one  exception,  a  prohibition  upon 
the  right  to  strike  upon  railway  and  practically  all 
other  classes  of  industrial  workers.  Complete  ma- 
chinery, however,  has  been  provided  for  the  settle- 
ment of  controversies.  Another  group  of  countries, 
on  the  other  hand,  such  as  Canada,  the  Transvaal, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  have  not  denied  employees 
the  right  to  strike,  but  have  made  the  exercise  of 
this  right  contingent  upon  certain  conditions — a 
notification  to  the  Government  of  the  intention  to 
strike  or  after  a  governmental  investigation  and 
report.     In   the   case   of   other   countries,   as   Rou- 


412 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


mania,  the  right  of  railway  workers  or  other  pub- 
lic-utility employees  to  strike  is  absolutely  prohib- 
ited, and  no  machinery  is  provided  for  ventilating 
grievances.  Belgium  and  Holland  also  prohibit 
strikes  but  have  devised  methods  for  employees  to 
take  up  grievances  or  requests  with  railroad  man- 
agers. Strikes  are  not  formally  prohibited  in  Ger- 
many or  Austria  among  railway  workers,  but  are 
practically  prevented  by  the  control  of  the  au- 
thorities over  the  trade-union  affiliations  of  em- 
ployees. In  Germany,  however,  administrative 
machinery  has  been  provided  through  which  trans- 
portation workers  may  have  a  vent  for  their  griev- 
ances. Strikes  are  not  prohibited  by  formal  legis- 
lative enactment  on  French  railways,  but  are  prac- 
tically impossible,  because  of  the  policy  of  the  Gov- 
ernment in  calling  employees  to  the  colors  and 
placing  them  under  military  orders  in  the  event 
of  a  strike.  Italy  depends  upon  the  same  policy  to 
prevent  industrial  conflict  on  her  railways.  In 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  there  is  no 
abridgement  of  the  right  to  strike.  Both  countries 
have  provided  official  machinery  for  the  adjustment 
of  wage  and  other  difficulties  between  the  railroads 
and  their  operating  forces." — American  Labor  Year 
Book,   1917-1918,  p.  145. 

AUSTRALIA 

1891-1912. — Early  legislation  in  Australian 
states.  —  Federal  legislation.  —  Commonwealth 
court  established  by  the  Act  of  1904. — The  first 
Australian  states  to  pass  arbitration  statutes  were 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales,  whose  laws  were 
promulgated  in  1801.  South  Australia  followed  in 
1894,  West  Austrial  in  1900.  "By  the  act  of 
1891,  Victoria  provided  for  the  voluntary  arbi- 
tration of  collective  disputes  somewhat  after 
the  system  of  the  English  councils  of  conciliation 
act  of  1867,  except  that  the  latter  applied  only  to 
individual  disputes  and  enforced  arbitration.  .  .  . 
In  1896,  wages  boards  were  introduced  in  Vic- 
toria. .  .  .  These  might  be  appointed  on  applica- 
tion of  either  party.  A  court  of  appeal,  consist- 
ing of  a  supreme  judge,  had  power  under  the  act 
to  review  the  determination  of  boards,  and  asses- 
sors might  be  appointed  to  assist  the  judge.  The 
act  fixed  an  absolute  minimum  wage.  While  it 
was  originally  designed  to  guarantee  a  minimum 
wage,  it  has  gradually  grown  to  be  used  more 
for  the  purpose  of  conciliation.  .  .  .  New  South 
Wales  passed  its  trade  dispute  conciliation  and  ar- 
bitration act  after  the  great  strike  of  1891.  .  . 
The  act  was  passed  to  continue  four  years  but  it 
was  a  complete  failure,  only  two  of  the  sixteen 
cases  referred  having  been  settled  during  the  first 
year  of  the  operation  of  the  act.  ...  A  compul- 
sory arbitration  law,  following  somewhat  the  out- 
lines of  the  New  Zealand  act  but  which  did  not 
provide  for  conciliation,  was  passed  in  looi.  .  .  . 
The  law  was  superseded  by  the  industrial  disputes 
act  of  1008  .  .  .  (which  was  in  turnl  superseded 
by  the  industrial  arbitration  act  of  1012.  This 
act  created  a  court  of  industrial  arbitration  con- 
sisting of  a  Supreme  Court  judge  and  district  court 
judge  or  barrister  of  five  years'  standing,  appointed 
by  the  governor,  also  an  additional  judge  and  a 
deputy  judge.  Boards  under  the  old  act  Tof  1908I 
were  dissolved.  Twenty-seven  industries  were 
scheduled  for  which  industrial  boards  were  ap- 
pointed on  recommendation  of  the  court  by  the 
minister  of  the  Crown.  .  .  .  These  boards  have 
conciliatory  powers.  Special  committees  for  con- 
ciliation are  provided  for  metal  and  coal  miners 
when  more  than  five  hundred  are  involved  and  a 


special  commissionei,  appointed  by  the  minister 
of  the  Crown,  is  charged  with  wide  powers  to 
bring  about  settlements  in  cases  not  covered  by 
the  act.  Lockouts  and  strikes  are  punishable  by 
heavy  penalties,  and  heavy  penalties  are  also  pre- 
scribed for  breaches  of  awards  and  other  offenses. 
Boards  have  power  to  declare  'that  preference  of 
employment  shall  be  given  to  any  industrial  union 
of  employees  over  other  persons  offering  their 
labor  at  the  same  time,  other  things  being  equal.' 
Declarations  of  preference  may  be  suspended  if 
employees  engage  in  strikes.  About  seventy-five 
trades  registered  under  the  1Q08  act.  Twenty-four 
trades,  including  sixty-two  per  cent,  of  the  em- 
ployees, had  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
wages  boards  by  1911.  In  1912,  the  court  of  ar- 
bitration had  made  awards  in  one  hundred  thirty 
cases,  each  affecting  many  other  disputes.  New 
South  Wales  provided  for  the  legal  incorporation 
of  trade  unions,  under  prescribed  conditions,  and 
imposed  legal  responsibilities  for  the  care  of  trade 
union  funds  in  1912.  South  Australia  provided 
for  the  registration  of  trade  unions  and  employ- 
ers' associations,  industrial  agreements  and  boards 
of  conciliation,  both  public  and  private,  in  the 
act  of  1894.  Awards  under  the  act  were  compul- 
sory and  it  was  an  offense  for  a  registered  or- 
ganization to  engage  in  a  strike  or  lockout.  It  was 
necessary  for  employers  or  employees  to  come 
under  the  act,  and  as  late  as  1905  it  was  pro- 
nounced a  complete  failure  for  the  reason  that 
neither  employers  nor  work  people  chose  to  ac- 
cept what  it  offered  them.  South  AustraUa 
adopted  a  wages  board  system  in  1908  and  one 
hundred  thirty-nine  boards  had  been  created  by  the 
middle  of  1010.  They  had  decided  ninety  cases. 
Queensland  has  the  wages  board  system.  Western 
Australia  passed  an  act  modeled  after  the  New 
Zealand  law  in  1900  but  this  act  w«s  replaced  by 
another  in  IQ02.  ...  In  1Q04,  the  Australian  Par- 
liament passed  the  commonwealth  conciUation  and 
arbitration  act,  which  provided  a  system  of  com- 
pulsory arbitration  similar  to  that  in  New  Zealand 
for  all  interstate  labor  disputes.  The  common- 
wealth court  was  given  power  to  employ  the 
usual  methods  of  conciliation,  and  failing  in  that, 
to  make  an  equitable  award  binding  on  all  parties. 
Strikes  and  lockouts  were  subjected  to  a  penalty 
of  four  thousand  eight  hundred  sixty  dollars. 
Breaches  of  the  court's  award  were  subject  to  a 
penalty  of  four  thousand  eight  hundred  sixty  dol- 
lars iri  ca.se  of  the  employer  and  forty-eight  dol- 
lars and  sixty  cents  in  case  of  an  individual  em- 
ployee. The  power  to  fix  a  minimum  wage  was 
lodged  in  the  commonwealth  court,  also  the  right 
to  deprive  those  failing  to  observe  an  award  of 
all  rights  and* privileges  under  the  act.  One  case 
arose  under  the  act  of  1Q04  during  the  first  five 
years  of -its  existence  involving  four  thousand  men 
in  a  New  South  Wales  mine.  It  resulted  in  a 
victory  for  the  men.  The  decision,  however,  was 
severely  criticized  by  the  employers  and  not  wholly 
satisfactory  to  the  men.  This  act  was  amended 
in  1000,  1910  and  19".  The  amendments  of 
iQoo  prevented  employers  from  discharging  em- 
ployees about  to  be  registered  under  the  act." — 
C.  H.  Mote,  Indmtrial  arbitration,  pp.  154-163. 

1913-1917. — Success  of  the  couirt  in  preventing 
strikes.— "The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion has  not  had  to  deal  with  many  disputes.  Dur- 
ing the  vears  loi.vioi?  •  •  •  'f'^  number  .settled 
under  this  Court  amounted  to  only  twenty,  but 
these  disputes,  covering,  as  they  did,  employees  in 
two  or  more  states  of  Australia,  affected  large  in- 
terests and  many  persons  The  subjects  in  dispute 
comprised  practically  all  conditions  of  the  industry. 


4T.3 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


Thus,  a  claim  made  by  the  employees  of  the  meat 
industry  in  Victoria  and  South  Australia  included 
regulation  of  rates  of  pay,  hours  of  labor,  holidays, 
terms  and  conditions  of  employment,  and  prefer- 
ence to  unionists.  The  heanup  of  this  claim  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  the  Court  for  forty-two  court 
days.  There  were  1,2:5  respondents  in  the  case, 
and  the  printed  award  covers  sixty  pages.  The 
award  was  preceded  by  a  lengthy  judgment  in 
which  the  President  of  the  Court  entered  into  a  full 
discussion  of  wages,  prices,  piece  and  time  rates  of 
wages,  the  effect  of  wages  upon  prices,  budgets  of 
income,  questions  of  skill  and  effic-.ency,  waiting 
time,  hours  and  wages  in  small  shops  and  appren- 
ticeship. In  short,  the  Commonwealth  Court  of 
Arbitration  is  significant,  less  for  the  number  of 
disputes  it  handles  than  for  their  size  and  impor- 
tance, and  for  its  success  in  preventing  strikes.  No 
investigation  is  entered  upon  by  its  President  till 
work  has  been  resumed,  and  only  once  has  the 
decision  of  the  Court  been  followed  by  a  strike." — 
Arbitration  and  wage-fixing  in  Australia  (Rfseardi 
report  No.  10.  Oct.,  1Q18,  pp.  37-38.) 

1915. — Arbitration  in  New  South  Wales  coal 
strike.    See  L.abok  strikes  .\nd  boycotts:   1015 

1917-1918. — Act  of  1918. — "The  war  introduced 
political  elements  that  were  reflected  in  the  state's 
industrial  history.  The  question  of  conscription  dis- 
rupted the  Labor  party  and  threw  it  out  of  office. 
Its  experienced  leaders  were  expelled.  Extremists 
gained  control,  both  of  the  unions  and  the  Labor 
political  organization,  and  in  .\ugust,  1017.  precip- 
itated a  trial  of  strength  with  organized  govern- 
ment. The  employees  of  the  state-owned  railways 
of  New  South  Wales  struck  against  a  method 
adopted  by  the  Railway  Commissioners  to  obtain 
a  better  accounting  system  in  their  workshops.  The 
unions  issued  an  ultimatum  demanding  the  with- 
drawal of  the  method,  .^s  all  the  employees  were 
servants  of  the  state,  the  Government  of  New 
South  Wales,  like  the  Government  of  France  in 
1910,  joined  issue  on  the  question  of  control  of 
public  services.  A  sympathetic  strike  involved  ulti- 
mately 76,000  persons,  with  a  loss  in  wages  esti- 
mated at  £1,700,000  (approximately  ?S,5oo,ooo). 
.\s  the  matter  was  one  of  principle,  no  measures  of 
conciliation  were  attempted  till  the  strikers  seemed 
beaten.  Aften  ten  weeks  matters  were  adjusted. 
The  penal  provisions  of  the  ."Vet  were  set  in  motion 
against  striking  unions.  The  result  was  such  altered 
conditions  of  industrial  organization  as  to  demand 
important  amendments  to  the  Act.  In  February, 
1Q18,  Mr.  G.  S.  Beeby,  author  of  the  Act  of  igi2, 
introduced  an  amending  bill  which,  after  many 
alterations  in  the  legislative  process,  became  law 
on  March  22,  igi8.  This  measure  is  the  most  sig- 
nificant worked  out  in  the  Australian  laboratory  of 
social  experimentation.  Its  chief  provisions  relate 
to  the  distinction  made  between  legal  and  illegal 
strikes,  the  conditions  under  which  strikes  may  be 
legal,  more  extended  machinery  for  conciliation,  and 
provisions  for  a  more  scientific  calculation  of  the 
minimum  and  living  wage.  This  historical  sum- 
mary shows  that  without  any  alteration  in  princi- 
ple, arbitration  in  New  South  Wales  has  increased 
in  complexity  and  extended  in  scope.  The  process 
through  which  it  has  passed  has  been  one  of  ex- 
periment and  amendment.  From  the  very  begin- 
ning it  has  had  the  definite  aim  of  fixing  a  living 
wage  and  thereby  minimizing  industrial  conflict. 
But  in  the  process  there  has  been  a  change  of  atti- 
tude toward  strikes.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
arbitration  is  an  alternative  to  the  strike  as  a 
method  of  industrial  agreement,  \  svstem  of  arbi- 
tration, therefore,  calls  for  measures  to  reduce  or 
prevent  strikes.     From  1901   to  1910  the  adminis- 

414 


trative  policy  was  definitely  to  penalize  striking  by 
characterizing  it  as  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  with 
line  and  imprisonment.  From  igic  onwards  a 
large  measure  of  conciliation  was  added  to  the 
arbitration  machinery,  and  striking  was  made  'an 
extravagant  proceeding,'  which  might  involve  the 
offender  in  penalties  and  the  attachment  of  his 
wages.  In  igiS  a  more  definite  and  extended  sys- 
tem of  conciliation  was  adopted,  to  minimize  the 
number  of  trivial  and  resultless  strikes,  which  in- 
volved little  that  could  be  subjected  to  arbitration. 
.\t  the  same  time  a  distinction  was  made  between 
legal  and  illegal  strikes.  Strikes  are  declared  illegal 
in  any  industry  under  governmtnt  or  municipal 
control,  or  under  an  industrial  award  or  agreement, 
or  in  case  fourteen  clear  days  notice  had  not  been 
given  of  the  intention  to  strike.  Illegal  strikes  arc 
to  be  heavily  penalized,  penalties  are  specified 
against  the  union,  the  individual  strikers,  and  any 
one  encouraging  them  by  word  or  act.  A  union 
may,  however,  strike  legally,  but  only  after  at 
least  twelve  months  trial  of  an  award;  further,  a 
secret  ballot,  in  which  two-thirds  of  its  members 
lake  part  must  be  held  in  all  cases.  The  .^ct  of 
1018,  therefore,  while  recognizing  the  right  to  strike 
under  certain  conditions,  nevertheless  sharply  limits 
that  right  and  lays  far  greater  stress  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration." — Ibid.,  pp.  20-21. 

.Also  in:  H.  B.  Higgins,  New  province  for  law 
and  order  (3  articles),  {Harvard  Law  Review,  No- 
vember, igis;  January,  igig;  December,  1920). 


BELGIUM 

1917-1918. — "Trade  unions  of  employees  of  pub- 
lic utilities  are  permitted  under  Government  super- 
vision. Employees  may  present  grievances  or  re- 
quests to  the  minister  of  railways,  posts  and  tele- 
graph through  official  channels.  Strikes  and  lock- 
outs prohibited  on  railroads  and  in  all  forms  of  th,- 
public  service  (railway,  postal,  telegraph,  and  tele- 
phone service,  all  of  which  are  under  state  control)  . 
.  .  .  There  has  been  no  serious  strike  on  Belgian 
railroads  since  their  establishment.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  positions  on  the  railways  are  much 
sought  after  because  of  stability  of  employment, 
pensions,  and  on  account  of  the  prestige  of  being 
in  the  Government  service." — .American  Labor  Year 
Book,  igi7-igiS,  pp.  i3g-i40. 

CANADA 

1900-1918. — Industrial  Disputes  Investigation 
Act. — Its  predecessors. — Its  successes. — Opposi- 
tion to  it. — "The  Canadian  Industrial  Disputes 
Investigation  Act  of  1907  is  an  outgrowth  from, 
and  the  result  of  experience  under,  earlier  legisla- 
tion. Two  such  earlier  laws  are  of  particular  im- 
portance. One  of  these,  the  Conciliation  Act  of 
I  goo,  followed  in  a  general  way  certain  usages 
long  in  operation,  first  as  custom,  and  later  as  law, 
in  the  coal-mining  districts  of  England.  That  -Act 
created  a  Department  of  Labour  and  provided  a 
machinery  for  mediation  or  arbitration,  but  its 
use  was  left  to  voluntary  action  of  the  parties  to 
a  dispute.  This  .Act  had  been  supplemented  to 
some  extent  by  the  Railway  Disputes  .Act  of  1003, 
which  gave  to  the  Minister  of  Labour  a  limited 
power  of  compulsion  with  respect  to  establishment 
of  conciliation  boards  in  labor  disputes  between 
railroad  companies  and  their  employees.  Where 
such  a  dispute  arose,  a  Board  of  Conciliation  could 
be  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Labour  on  the 
request  of  either  of  the  parties,  without  consent 
of  the  other.     These  two  Acts  were  consolidated, 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


forming  the  Conciliation  and  Labour  Act  of  1906, 
and  are  still  [igiS]  operative.  In  igo6  a  bitter 
and  prolonged  strike  closed  the  coal  mines  of  Leth- 
bridge,  Alberta.  The  Deputy  Minister  of  Labour, 
Hon.  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King,  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  a  settlement,  but  not  until  much  public 
hardship  had  developed.  The  failure  of  the  exist- 
ing Conciliation  Act  to  prevent  this  strike  revealed 
the  need  of  further  legislation,  and  the  Industrial 
Disputes  Investigation  Act  of  1907  was  a  direct 
result  of  the  sentiment  thus  aroused.  The  Cana- 
dian Industrial  Disputes  Investigation  Act  of  1907 
applies  specifically  only  to  transportation  com- 
panies, other  public  utilities  and  mines,  but  may 
also  be  invoked  for  settlement  of  disputes  in  other 
industries  on  application  of  both  parties  to  a  dis- 
pute, that  is,  by  mutual  consent.  Since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war,  industries  supplying  war  ma- 
terials have  been  brought  under  the  action  of  the 
provisions  previously  applying  only  to  transporta- 
tion companies,  other  public  utilities  and  mines. 
On  application  in  due  form  by  either  party,  the 
Minister  of  Labour  appoints  a  Board  of  Reference 
consisting  of  one  nominee  of  each  party  and  a 
chairman  selected  by  the  two.  No  person  having 
a  direct  pecuniary  interest  in  the  dispute  may  be 
appointed.  To  prevent  a  deadlock,  in  case  all 
other  provisions  of  the  Act  governing  applications 
for  a  Board  have  been  complied  with,  but  where 
either  or  both  of  the  parties  fail  to  agree  on  nomi- 
nations, the  Minister  of  Labour  may  both  select 
and  appoint  a  Board.  The  Board  fully  investigates 
the  dispute  and  no  strike  or  lockout  may  legally 
occur  before  or  during  such  investigation.  Boards 
are  given  power  to  summon  witnesses,  administer 
oaths,  and  to  compel  witnesses  to  testify  and  pro- 
duce books  and  other  evidence  in  the  same  manner 
as  courts  of  record  in  civil  cases.  If  settlement 
of  a  dispute  is  reached  by  the  parties  during  the 
course  of  its  reference  to  a  Board,  a  brief  memo- 
randum drawn  up  by  the  Board  and  signed  by 
the  parties  is  filed  with  the  Minister  of  Labour. 
If  settlement  is  not  arrived  at  during  the  refer- 
ence, the  Board  is  required  to  make  a  full  written 
report  to  the  Minister  of  Labour,  setting  forth  the 
details  of  its  investigation  and  its  recommendation 
for  settlement  of  the  dispute.  The  report  is  filed 
in  the  office  of  the  Registrar  and  copies  are  sent 
free  of  charge  to  the  parties  and  to  any  news- 
papers in  Canada  which  apply  for  them.  The 
Minister  may  also  distribute  copies  in  such  manner 
as  he  considers  desirable,  as  a  means  of  securing 
compliance  with  the  Board's  recommendation.  In 
addition  to  this,  for  the  information  of  Parliament 
and  the  public,  a  copy  of  the  report  must  be  pub- 
lished without  delay  in  the  Labour  Gazette,  and 
be  included  in  the  annual  report  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labour  to  the  Governor  General.  It  can- 
not be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  the  Act  of 
1907  is  not  a  compulsory  arbitration  law.  While 
the  Act  undertook  to  carry  the  element  of  compul- 
sion a  step  further,  it  did  not  alter  the  principle 
of  voluntary  adjustment  on  which  the  old  law 
was  founded.  In  pursuit  of  this  aim,  and  to  avoid 
difficulties  involved  in  compulsory  arbitration,  the 
machinery  was  changed  to  consist  of  Boards  of 
Conciliation  and  Investigation  and,  although  it  was 
the  duty  of  these  Boards  to  do  all  in  their  power 
to  affect  conciliations,  and  to  offer  recommenda- 
tions of  settlement,  compulsijn  was  restricted  to 
their  investigatory  function.  Compliance  with  the 
recommendations  of  the  Reference  Boards  is  op- 
tional ;  the  weight  of  public  opinion  is  relied  on  to 
make  settlements  effective.  .  .  .  The  only  provision 
giving  mandatoi-y  power  to  the  finding  of  a  Board 
is  that  if,  at  any   time  before   or  after  a  Board 


has  made  its  report  and  recommendation,  both 
parties  to  the  dispute  agree  in  writing  to  be  bound 
by  the  recommendation  of  the  Board  in  the  same 
manner  as  parties  are  bound  in  the  case  of  a  ref- 
erence to  arbitration  on  the  order  of  a  court  of 
record,  the  recommendation  shall  be  made  a  rule 
of  the  court  on  application  of  either  party,  and 
shall  be  enforceable  in  like  manner.  Canadian 
courts,  however,  have  hesitated  to  regard  such  an 
agreement  as  constituting  a  rule  of  court.  .  .  .  The 
commonly  accepted  statement  that  the  Act  was 
based  on  Australian  labor  legislation  is  historically 
incorrect,  and  tends  to  give  a  mistaken  conception 
of  the  nature  of  the  Act.  Indeed,  this  statement 
has  not  been  without  influence  in  the  development 
of  a  hostile  attitude  toward  the  Canadian  Act, 
which,  unlike  the  Australian  legislation,  as  far  as 
possible  avoids  compulsion,  and  instead  is  frankly 
based  on  an  appeal  to  the  power  of  public  opinion. 
.  .  .  The  Minister  of  Labour,  who  is  responsible 
for  the  administration  of  the  Act,  thus  far  has 
taken  the  stand  that  the  penalty  provided  for 
strikes  or  lockouts  prior  to  investigations  will  be 
imposed  only  where  prosecution  is  initiated  by 
one  or  the  other  of  the  disputants,  and  although 
there  have  been  many  'illegal'  strikes  since  the  Act 
became  effective,  the  penally  seldom  has  been  im- 
posed. This  fact  has  led  to  the  rather  hasty  as- 
sumption in  the  United  States  that  the  compul- 
sory feature  is  a  failure  in  Canada.  .  .  .  While  this 
is  to  some  extent  true,  it  fails  correctly  to  reflect 
the  spirit  and  intention  of  the  Canadian  Act,  which 
should  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  its  original 
purpose.  Hon.  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King  has  said: 
'The  Government  has  never  laid  particular  stress 
on  the  penalty  end  of  it.  The  penalty  part  .  .  . 
has  always  been  treated  much  in  the  same  light  as 
penalty  for  trespass.'  ...  A  procedure  which  ap- 
pears to  be  responsible  for  much  of  the  opposition 
to  the  Act  on  the  part  of  organized  labor  in  Can- 
ada is  the  use  made  of  the  discretion  which  it  al- 
lows to  the  Minister  of  Labour  to  grant  or  refuse 
Boards  of  Investigation.  Boards  have  been  refused 
in  a  number  of  cases  where  the  workers  felt  that 
they  had  a  real  grievance.  Thus,  in  strikes  involv- 
ing several  employers  or  several  unions  where  these 
employers  or  unions  could  not  agree  on  a  single 
representative,  the  Minister  of  Labour  has  de- 
clined to  appoint  a  Board.  A  strike  involving 
many  companies  is  regarded  by  the  Minister  of 
Labour  as  a  separate  dispute  for  each  company 
and,  where  the  various  interests  agree  on  a  single 
nomination,  although  one  Board  is  appointed  to 
investigate  the  whole  trouble,  it  is  legally  consid- 
ered that  there  are  as  many  separate  Boards  as 
there  are  independent  employers.  .  .  .  The  opera- 
tion of  the  Act  has  shown  that  the  opinion  of  the 
chairman  usually  controls  the  finding  of  the  Board. 
This  arises  naturally  from  the  fact  that  employers 
and  employees  each  select  a  representative  favor- 
able to  their  respective  cause,  and  it  has  gradually 
come  to  pass  that,  in  almost  all  cases,  these  two 
members  of  the  Board  disagree  and'  the  decision 
rests  with  the  chairman.  It  has  even  been  sug- 
gested on  this  account  that,  in  the  case  of  im- 
portant disputes  involving  large  public  issues,  the 
position  of  the  chairman  be  strengthened  by  ap- 
pointment by  the  Minister  of  Labour  of  three  out- 
side representatives.  It  is  believed  that  decisions 
of  a  Board  so  constituted  would  inspire  greater 
public  confidence.  .  .  .  The  operation  of  the  Act 
has  further  developed  the  fact  that  Boards  are  most 
successful  when  least  formal,  and  particularly 
when  least  legalistic  in  their  attitude  and  proce- 
dure. Boards  of  which  prominent  jurists  have  been 
chairmen   have   notably    failed.     The   difficulty   of 


415 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


securing  acceptable  chairmen  is  very  great.  .  .  .  Yet 
another  source  of  difficulty  arising  through  the 
operation  of  the  Act  and  not  directly  from  its  pro- 
visions, but  apparently  contrary  to  them,  is  the 
delay  which  may  occur  in  the  appointment  of  a 
Board.  .  .  .  For  the  nine-year  period  endin?  March 
31,  1Q16,  igi  applications  for  Boards  have  been 
made,  and  i6q  have  been  established.  Of  this 
number  only  60  were  established  within  the  15 
days.  In  14  cases,  between  46  and  61  days  elapsed 
between  the  application  and  the  establishment  of 
the  Board;  in  21  cases,  between  31  and  46  days; 
in  66  cases,  between  16  and  31  days.  .  .  .  The 
Act  also  states  that  employers  or  employees  shall 
give  at  least  thirty  days'  notice  of  an  intended 
change  affecting  conditions  of  employment  with 
respect  to  wages  or  hours,  and  provides  a  penalty 
for  disregard  of  this  provision.  ...  In  spite  of 
this  provision  no  complaint  among  workmen  is 
more  common  than  that  wages  and  hours  are 
changed  without  notice,  and  are  followed  by  de- 
lays in  appointment  of  Boards.  ...  In  the  first 
year  of  the  operation  of  the  Act  only  three  appli- 
cations for  Boards  were  refused,  in  the  second 
year  two,  in  the  third  year  one,  in  the  fourth  year 
five,  in  the  fifth  year  five.  ...  In  the  fourth  and 
fifth  years  there  were  four  failures  each  year  to 
avert  or  end  a  strike  after  a  Board  had  been  ap- 
pointed. ...  In  889<'  of  the  disputes  referred  to 
Boards,  strikes  or  lockouts  were  averted  or  ended. 
If  the  number  of  applications  refused  is  added  to 
the  number  of  cases  in  which  strikes  or  lockouts 
were  not  prevented,  as  also  indicating  failure  on 
the  part  of  the  Act  to  meet  the  situation,  the  per- 
centage of  successful  conciliations  is  reduced  to 
78%.  .  .  .  For  the  first  two  years  of  the  operation 
of  the  Act  but  little  opposition  appeared;  but  from 
that  time  to  the  present,  hostility  among  organ- 
ized labor  unions  has  steadily  increased.  This  op- 
position is  most  outspoken  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
ternational labor  organizations.  .  .  .  The  rank  and 
file  of  Canadian  labor  express  little  opposition  to 
the  principles  of  the  Act,  although  some  modifica- 
tions are  desired;  the  official  attitude  of  the  in- 
ternational labor  organizations  in  Canada,  how- 
ever, is  increasingly  hostile.  ...  It  is  difficult  to 
escape  the  conclusion  that,  whether  or  not  the 
penalties  of  the  Act  are  enforceable  against  work- 
ers, the  very  existence  of  the  Act  and  the  manner 
of  its  administration  is  felt  by  them  to  hamper  the 
operations  of  the  union,  and  particularly  to  limit 
use  of  the  strike  to  enforce  demands.  This  conclu- 
sion is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that,  of  the  recom- 
mendations of  Boards  since  the  enactment  of  the 
Act,  Q0%  favored  the  employees  and  granted  a 
major  part  of  their  demands.  Also,  more  than 
qo%  of  the  Boards  have  been  instituted  on  ap- 
plication of  employees.  It  is  not,  therefore,  dis- 
satisfaction in  general  with  the  recommendations 
of  the  Boards  that  can  account  for  organized 
labor's  opposition.  This  must  arise  from  the  gen- 
eral ojieration  of  the  Act  and  the  effect  of  its  con- 
tinued existence  on  the  statute  books,  which  de- 
prives striking  employees  who  have  not  applied 
for  a  Board  of  Investigation,  of  the  moral  support 
of  the  community.  But  perhaps  the  fundamental 
reason  for  this  opposition,  not  to  speak  of  possible 
antipathy  to  certain  officials,  is  the  fact  that  the 
settlement  of  disputes  apart  from  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  union  leaders,  tends  to  weaken  their 
hold  on  the  rank  and  file,  and  their  relative  im- 
portance in  gaining  concessions  for  their  followers." 
— National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  Canadian 
Industrial  Disputes  Investigation  Act  (Research 
report  No.  5,  pp.  3-6,  8-q,  11-14,  16,  17,  18, 
19-20. 


DENMARK 

1910-1918. — By  a  law  passed  in  loio  provision  is 
made  for  the  appointment  of  a  permanent  arbitra- 
tion court  of  six  members  selected  from  organiza- 
tion of  employers  and  employees  with  a  president 
and  vice-president  with  qualifications  of  an  ordi- 
nary judge.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  court  to  make 
the  parties  to  a  dispute  respect  any  agreement  be- 
tween them.  A  government  conciliator  is  appointed 
for  two  years.  Whenever  a  strike  or  lockout  is  im- 
pending (public  notice  being  compulsory)  it  is  his 
duty  to  intervene  and  attempt  to  effect  a  settle- 
ment. Strikes  or  lockouts  are  prohibited  in  cases 
where  court  awards  or  trade  agreements  are  broken. 
In  cases  where  no  trade  agreements  exist,  a  strike 
is  legal,  but  public  notice  must  be  given  before  it 
is  started." — American  Labor  Year  Book,  1917-1918, 
pp.  140-141. 

FRANCE 

1806-1909. — Conseils  des  prud'hommes. — Arbi- 
tration council.— "Industrial  arbitration  and  con- 
ciliation in  France  dates  practically  from  the  crea- 
tion of  the  councils  of  experts  {Conseils  des  Prud'- 
hommes) by  Napoleon  I  in  1806,  after  his  return 
from  Elba.  These  councils  were  the  successors  to 
the  ancient  corporative  tribunals  which  had  held 
certain  jurisdiction  in  the  silk  trade  and  which 
were  swept  away  when  the  trade  guilds  were  abol- 
ished in  1791.  .  .  .  Inhabitants  of  Lyons,  center  of 
the  silk  industry,  had  been  loyal  to  the  first  Na- 
poleon and  feted  him  on  his  return.  Incidentally, 
they  took  diplomatic  adventage  of  his  good  feeling 
toward  them  in  1806  to  ask  the  restoration  of  the 
corporative  tribunals.  The  councils  of  experts 
were  created  in  response  to  this  request.  The 
councils  of  experts  originally  were  composed  of 
five  employers  and  four  foremen,  while  the  guild 
tribunal  was  composed  entirely  of  manufacturers. 
The  councils  of  experts  were  established  to  settle 
minor  difficulties  by  conciliation,  or,  in  the  failure 
of  conciliation,  to  adjudicate  formally  any  matter 
involving  less  than  sixty  francs.  The  bureau  of 
conciliation,  composed  of  one  manufacturer  and 
one  foreman,  met  once  a  day  while  the  general 
bureau  of  arbitration  met  once  a  week  to  decide 
cases  in  which  the  bureau  of  conciliation  had 
failed.  By  1804,  fourteen  French  towns  had  es- 
tablished councils  of  experts.  In  1S94,  there  were 
one  hundred  seventeen  councils  in  France." — 
C.  H.  Mote,  Industrial  arbitration,  pp.  87-88. 
— "The  Conseils  des  prud'hommes  .  .  .  assumed 
jurisdiction  of  individual  disputes  only.  It  was 
not  until  the  enactment  of  the  conciliation 
and  arbitration  law  of  1802  that  legal  machinery 
was  created  for  the  settlement  of  collective 
disputes.  Under  the  act  of  1802,  the  initiative 
may  be  taken  by  the  parties  themselves,  or,  in  the 
ca.se  of  actual  strikes  or  lockouts,  the  initiative 
may  be  taken  by  a  justice  of  the  peace.  Both 
parties  may  apply  jointly  for  conciliation,  or,  if 
only  one  applies,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  justice  of 
the  peace  to  notify  the  opposite  party,  who  must 
reply  within  three  days.  In  the  application  for, 
or  acceptance  of  conciliation,  each  party  must 
name  five  persons  to  act  as  its  representatives  in 
conciliation.  If  neither  party  applies  for  concilia- 
tion, it  is  the  duty  of  the  justice  of  the  peace  to 
request  the  parties  to  notify  him  of  their  willing- 
ness or  refusal  to  accept  conciliation  or  arbitra- 
tion. The  justice  of  the  peace  is  ex-officio  chair- 
man of  the  conciliation  committee.  Conciliation 
failing,  the  justice  of  the  peace  must  endeavor  to 

16 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


obtain  arbitration,  each  side  to  name  an  arbitrator 
or  both  to  agree  on  a  common  arbitrator.  If  ar- 
bitrators can  not  agree,  they  may  name  an  umpire, 
and  if  they  are  unable  to  agree  upon  an  umpire, 
he  is  named  by  the  president  of  the  local  tribunal. 
Decisions  must  be  in  writing  and  the  expenses  of 
hearings  are  borne  by  the  Communes.  Every 
feature  of  the  act  is  voluntary.  Reports  of  con- 
ciliat'on  committees,  arbitration  boards  and  re- 
quests for  and  refusal  of  conciliation  or  arbitration 
arc  to  be  made  public." — Ibid.,  pp.  loo-ioi. — By 
an  act  of  July  22,  igoq,  a  permanent  arbitration 
council  was  created  by  the  French  government 
with  a  view  to  investigating  disputes  between  ship- 
ping companies  and  their  crews.  The  council  has 
headquarters  in  Paris.  The  council  consists  of 
three  members  appointed  for  three  years  by  decree 
drawn  up  on  the  proposal  of  the  keeper  of  seals, 
minister  of  justice,  and  selected  from  among  the 
ordinary  state  councilors,  also  from  the  council- 
ors of  the  Court  of  Cassation;  also  arbitrators  se- 
lected for  three  years  by  the  employers,  who  shall 
be  present  to  the  number  of  five  at  each  arbitra- 
tion ;  also  arbitrators  elected  for  three  years  by 
the  employees,  who  shall  be  present  to  the  num- 
ber of  five  at  each  arbitration.  The  three  mem- 
bers from  the  State  Council  and  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion elect  a  president  and  vice-president  and  con- 
stitute the  central  section  of  the  Permanent  Arbi- 
tration Council.  In  each  maritime  district,  the 
ship  owners  elect  five  regular  and  five  deputy  ar- 
bitrators. Each  of  four  specified  classes  of  em- 
ployees in  each  maritime  district  elects  five  regular 
and  five  deputy  arbitrators.  In  detail  the  act  sets 
out  how  the  council  is  made  up  for  the  settlement 
of  a  collective  dispute.  The  central  section  is  al- 
ways present.  Detailed  provisions  are  also  set  out 
for  the  election  of  arbitrators  and  deputy  arbitra- 
tors every  three  years.  When  a  collective  dispute 
arises,  the  parties  may  submit  their  controversy 
to  the  Director  of  the  Seamen's  Register,  or  he 
may  take  the  initiative  in  an  endeavor  to  concili- 
ate the  parties.  Upon  the  failure  of  conciliation, 
there  is  a  roundabout  process  by  which  the  ser- 
vices of  the  arbitration  council  are  offered  the 
parties.  If  they  refuse  arbitration,  a  certificate 
to  that  effect  is  entered  by  the  central  section  of 
the  council.  If  the  parties  agree  to  arbitration, 
the  court  is  convened.  It  has  full  power  of  in- 
vestigation, hearing  and  of  giving  judgment,  al- 
though it  does  not  appear  that  either  party  is 
bound  by  the  judgment.  The  judgment  is  pub- 
lished. The  public  is  not  admitted  to  the  council 
meetings." — Ibid.,  pp.  112-113. 

GERMANY 

1890-1908. — Industrial  courts. — "An  act  of  1890, 
regulating  industrial  courts,  was  the  first  [German] 
legislation  recognizing  the  principle  of  collective 
disputes  and  providing  for  collective  bargaining. 
These  courts  were  empowered  to  act  as  concilia- 
tion bureaus  in  disputes  concerning  the  'terms  of 
continuation  or  renewal  of  the  labor  contract,'  but 
only  on  condition  that  both  parties  requested  ac- 
tion, and,  if  they  numbered  more  than  three,  ap- 
pointed delegates  to  the  hearing.  Conciliation 
bureaus  consisted  of  the  president  of  the  court 
and  at  least  four  members,  two  employers  and  two 
workmen,  but  there  might  be  added,  and  it  was 
compulsory  when  the  delegates  so  requested,  rep- 
resentatives in  equal  number  of  employers  and 
employees.  Representatives  and  miembers  of  the 
bureau  could  not  act  if  concerned  in  the  dispute. 
The  bureau  could  hear  and  examine  witnesses  under 


the  act  but  could  not  compel  their  attendance. 
After  hearing,  each  side  was  required  to  formulate 
its  opinions  of  the  allegations  of  the  other  side, 
whereupon  an  effort  at  conciliation  was  to  be  made. 
Failing  in  this,  a  decision  followed  and  the  dele- 
gates were  required  to  declare  within  a  specified 
time  their  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  award. 
At  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  decision  was 
published.  In  some  cases,  the  president  of  these 
courts  intervened  informally  with  conspicuous  suc- 
cess, but  in  three  years,  i8gg,  1900  and  1901,  there 
were  nearly  four  thousand  strikes,  one  hundred 
thirty-two  only  having  been  settled  by  the  in- 
dustrial courts.  The  German  law  of  1890  was 
quite  successful  in  the  settlement  of  individual 
disputes  but  not  successful  in  the  settlement  of 
collective  disputes.  The  act  of  iqoi  took  the  ap- 
pointment of  arbitrators  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
president  and  lodged  it  with  the  parties  concerned 
in  a  controversy.  Not  only  regular  assessors  of  the 
court  may  be  chosen  but  any  other  persons  in 
whom  the  parties  have  confidence.  The  new  act 
made  the  appearance  of  parties  to  a  dispute  com- 
pulsory in  the  event  one  or  both  parties  call  upon 
the  court  to  act  as  a  board  of  arbitration.  When 
both  parties  ask  for  arbitration,  the  court  is  con- 
stituted as  a  formal  board  of  arbitration.  If  only 
one  side  applies,  it  is  the  president's  duty  to  at- 
tempt to  obtain  the  cooperation  of  the  other  party. 
If  successful,  the  board  is  constituted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conciliation.  If  neither  party  applies  for 
arbitration,  it  is  the  president's  duty  to  urge  the 
arbitration  of  the  controversy.  This  provision  per- 
mits the  court  to  intervene  with  a  view  to  settling 
threatened  strikes  and  lockouts.  There  is  nothing 
novel  in  the  proceedings  before  an  industrial  court 
sitting  as  a  board  of  arbitration.  Failure  to  ap- 
pear before  the  court  in  answer  to  a  summons  of 
the  president  is  punishable  by  a  fine.  Decisions 
are  given  by  a  majority  but  the  president  may  ab- 
stain from  voting  if  there  is  a  tie.  The  acceptance 
of  the  decision  is  not  compulsory  and  a  failure  to 
declare  whether  the  decision  is  accepted  is  con- 
strued as  a  refusal.  An  award  is  binding,  however, 
if  both  parties  have  previously  agreed  to  such  an 
award.  The  Berlin  court,  between  1902  and  iqo8, 
was  appealed  to  by  both  sides  in  one  hundred 
sixty-four  cases  and  by  one  side  in  sixty  instances. 
Most  of  the  applications  from  one  side  are  from 
the  workers.  Out  of  one  hundred  forty  applica- 
tions for  arbitration  in  the  empire  in  1908,  one 
hundred  thirty-four  were  from  workmen  while 
only  six  came  from  the  employers.  Out  of  one 
thousand  two  hundred  sixty  disputes  submitted  by 
both  parties  in  the  empire  between  1902  and 
1908,  nine  hundred  eight  were  settled  cither  by 
agreement  or  awards  acceptable  to  both  parties. 
In  seventy-six  cases  the  board  failed  to  reach  a 
decision.  Mercantile  courts  for  the  settlement  of 
disputes  between  merchants  and  their  employees 
were  established  in  1904.  For  the  settlement  of 
individual  disputes,  the  German  industrial  courts 
are  composed  of  at  least  four  assessors  and  a  presi- 
dent and  vice-president.  The  latter  must  belong 
to  neither  side  of  the  controversy.  .  .  .  Industrial 
courts  operate  not  only  for  the  conciliation  or  legal 
decision  of  individual  disputes  and  the  concilia- 
tion and  arbitration  of  collective  disputes,  but 
for  the  guidance  of  public  opinion  and  of  public 
officials  and  legislative  bodies  in  matters  where 
expert  advice  is  needed.  The  jurisdiction  of  in- 
dustrial courts  in  individual  disputes  is  limited  by 
the  arbitration  courts  of  the  guilds,  organized 
quite  like  the  industrial  courts,  or  by  legal  statute, 
but  generally  extending  over  all  industrial  occupa- 
tions     Special   courts  exist   for  special  industries: 


417 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


Even  after  a  court  is  organized  for  hearing  in  an 
individual  dispute  or  a  collective  dispute,  it  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  attempting  conciliation 
at  any  time  before  a  decision  is  given,  if  concilia- 
tion seems  feasible.  Hearings  generally  are  public, 
though  they  may  be  private.  The  decisions  of  the 
court  in  individual  disputes  are  determined  by  a 
majority  vote." — Ibid.,  pp.  73-77. 

1915-1919. — Creation  of  a  labor  department. — 
"By  an  imperial  decree  of  October  4,  loiS,  pub- 
lished in  the  Beichsgesetzblatt,  matters  relating  to 
social  policy  administered  hitherto  by  the  Imperial 
Economic  Office  {Beichswirtschajtiamt) ,  are  hence- 
forth to  be  within  the  province  of  a  special  central 
authority,  entitled  the  Imperial  Labor  Department 
(Beichsarbeitsamt) .  The  decree  orders  the  impe- 
rial chancellor  to  arrange  for  the  transfer  of  func- 
tions and  officials  from  the  Imperial  Economic  Of- 
fice to  the  new  department.  .  .  . 

"Two  tasks  confront  organized  labor  at  the  pres- 
ent time:  .A  chamber  of  labor  law  corresponding 
to  their  demands  and  the  statutory  regulation  of 
employment  exchanges  in  agreement  with  the  pro- 
posals unanimously  adopted  by  the  Reichstag  in 
the  spring  of  1015,  but  hitherto  neglected.  A  con- 
ference of  the  combined  associations  of  workmen, 
minor  oflicials,  and  salaried  employees  had  been 
called  for  the  end  of  October,  but  it  has  been 
abandoned,  as  it  is  expected  that  the  new  labor  de- 
partment will  itself  submit  legislative  proposals 
satisfactjjry  to  the  wage  workers.  A  third  task  is 
the  reform  of  the  right  of  coalition;  with  this  is 
connected  the  giving  of  a  legal  status  to  collective 
agreements  and  the  extension  of  the  conciliation 
principle  to  an  imperial  conciliation  office  " — Labor 
bureau  (Labor  Review,  January,  loio). 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

1562-1896. — Preliminary  legislation. — "Provi- 
sions for  the  settlement  of  individual  disputes  be- 
tween master  and  workmen  were  common  in 
English  laws  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Beginning  with  the  Statute  of 
.Apprentices  in  1562  and  ending  with  a  special  act 
of  Parliament  in  1747,  these  laws  simply  referred 
all  disputes  between  employer  and  employee  to  the 
local  magistrate  for  adjudication.  Reference  of 
disputes  was  compulsory  on  the  request  of  either 
party  and  decisions  likewise  were  binding  upon 
both  parties  and  enforceable  by  proceedings  of  dis- 
tress and  sale  or  imprisonment.  .  .  .  With  the  rise 
of  the  industrial  state  and  especially  the  cotton  in- 
dustry in  England,  disputes  between  employer 
and  employee  multiplied.  .  .  .  The  local  magis- 
trates were  notoriously  under  the  influence  of  the 
employers,  and  justice  was  arbitrarily  distorted 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  working  classes.  A  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  was  wholly  unfit  to  act  as  media- 
tor between  employer  and  employee,  because  he 
was  always  a  party  in  interest.  ...  In  the  midst 
of  England's  industrial  revolution  the  English  Par- 
liament passed  a  series  of  four  acts,  in  1800,  1803, 
1805  and  1813  applying  to  England,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  designed  to  regulate  the  relations  be- 
tween master  and  workmen  A  notable  departure 
from  the  earlier  forms  of  this  legislation  was  made. 
Substantially  the  acts  provided  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  two  arbitrators,  one  by  the  employers 
and  one  by  the  employees,  from  nominations  made 
by  the  local  justice  of  the  peace.  These  laws  ap- 
plied only  to  the  cotton  trade  Like  the  former 
acts  they  made  reference  of  disputes  compulsory 
and  decisions  binding.  The  act  of  1824,  which 
consolidated  the  three  acts  then  in  force,  extended 


the  operation  of  the  principle  of  concihation  and 
arbitration,  as  defined  by  law,  to  all  trades.  To 
insure  the  maintenance  of  the  freedom  of  contract 
between  employer  and  employee,  first  secured  by 
the  repeal  of  the  Statute  of  .Apprentices  in  1814, 
mutual  consent  of  master  and  workmen  was  made 
necessary  as  a  condition  precedent  to  the  fixing 
by  local  magistrates  of  rate  of  wages  or  price 
of  labor  or  workmanship.  This  clause  abolished 
the  compulsory  features  of  earlier  legislation  on  the 
subject  and  is  noteworthy  only  for  this  reason. 
The  consolidation  act  of  1824  remained  in  force 
until  i8q6.  .  .  .  The  act  of  1824  was  amended  in 
1S37  to  provide  for  compulsory  arbitration  be- 
tween employers  and  workmen,  upon  the  appli- 
cation of  either  party.  The  local  magistrate  was 
empowered  to  nominate  four  or  six  arbitrators, 
half  workmen  and  half  masters.  In  the  event  of 
the  arbitrators'  failure  to  agree,  it  was  provided 
that  the  case  should  be  referred  to  the  appointing 
magistrate.  Subjects  for  arbitration  included  price 
for  work  done,  hours  of  labor,  injury  or  damage 
to  work,  delay  in  completing  work  or  bad  ma- 
terial. The  act  provided  that  in  emergencies,  the 
justice  of  the  peace  might  grant  a  summary  hear- 
ing. Mutual  consent  was  a  condition  precedent  to 
the  fixing  of  future  rates  of  wages  and  standards 
of  workmanship.  The  awards  of  the  boards  could 
be  enforced  by  distress  or  imprisonment.  This  act 
was  intended  mainly  for  the  textile  industries.  The 
council  of  conciliation  act,  drawn  from  the  French 
system,  was  passed  in  1867.  It  made  it  possible  for 
any  number  of  employers  and  workmen  to  agree 
to  create  a  council  of  conciliation  and  arbitration 
and  receive  a  license  from  the  government  with 
all  the  powers  of  the  boards  under  the  act  of  1824. 
Fixing  wages  was  expressly  forbidden.  Disputes, 
before  reaching  the  council,  must  have  been  re- 
ferred first  to  the  'committee  on  conciliation,'  con- 
sisting of  one  master  and  one  workman.  .Although 
this  act  remained  in  force  until  i8q6,  it  was  never 
more  than  a  dead  letter,  no  application  for  license 
ever  having  been  made  under  it.  The  only  definite 
answer  offered  in  explanation  of  the  failure  of  this 
act,  according  to  Leonard  W.  Hatch,  in  referring 
to  the  later  debates  in  Parliament,  is  that  the  act 
was  too  inelastic,  laying  down  too  many  hard  and 
fast  rules  as  to  the  constitution  and  procedure  of 
the  councils,  so  that  no  latitude  was  left  to  em- 
ployers and  workmen  who  might  desire  to  form 
them.  The  act  provided  for  little  more  than 
conciliation  committees  for  collective  disputes. 
But  this  feature  of  the  act  is  noteworthy  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  the  first  instance  of  legal  recog- 
nition in  England  of  collective  disputes  and  con- 
sequently of  collective  bargaining  between  em- 
ployer and  employee.  Councils  were  empowered 
to  take  cognizance  of  disputes  involving  one  or 
more  workmen.  In  1872  Parliament  passed  the 
masters  and  workmen  act.  It  provided  that  mas- 
ters and  workmen  might  contract  as  to  terms  of 
employment  and  bind  both  parties  to  submit  their 
disputes  to  arbitration.  It.  however,  offered  no  in- 
ducement to  the  parties  to  enter  into  contracts 
and  permitted  either  party  to  withdraw  from  such 
contracts  after  a  brief  notice  to  the  other  party 
.Although  penalties  could  be  provided  for  under  the 
contracts,  no  provision  was  made  to  enforce  them. 
This  act  was  in  force  until  1806,  but  no  practical 
results  ever  came  of  it.  Private  boards  of  concili- 
ation were  established  in  England  as  early  as  1856, 
and  private  voluntary  boards  were  common  in 
England  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  council 
of  conciliation  act  in  1867  Trade  boards  of  con- 
ciliation and  arbitration,  made  up  of  an  equal 
number   each    of    employers   and    workmen,    were 


:l8 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


quite  successful  in  averting  trouble  in  the  iron 
and  steel  industry  in  England.  Joint  committees 
of  conciliation  and  arbitration  similar  to  the  trade 
boards  but  with  less  machinery  and  jurisdiction 
in  particular  establishments  also  made  notable 
progress  toward  friendly  relations  between  em- 
ployer and  employee.  District  boards  of  concilia- 
tion and  arbitration  had  general  jurisdiction  over 
a  variety  of  employments.  The  first  permanent 
and  successful  board  of  conciliation  was  organized 
in  iSoo  in  the  hosiery  and  glass  trade  at  Notting- 
ham, England,  by  A.  J.  Mundella.  Modern  con- 
ciliation and  arbitration  in  England  dates  from  the 
dock  laborers'  strike  in  iS8q.  The  movement  for 
industrial  peace  following  that  strike  was  begun 
by  Sir  Samuel  Boulton." — C.  H.  Mote,  Indtts- 
trial   arbitration,   pp.    23-25,   32,   34-38. 

1850. — Rate  war  of  railroads  in  England. — 
Gladstone's  arbitration.  —  Octuple  agreement. 
See  Railroads:   1759-18S1. 

1889-1920. — Modern  legislation. — "The  Arbi- 
bilration  Act  [of]  i88q  is  not  to  apply  to  the  set- 
tlement by  arbitration  of  such  differences  or  dis- 
putes, but  the  proceedings  are  to  be  conducted  in 
accordance  with  such  of  the  provisions  of  that 
Act,  or  such  of  the  regulations  of  any  Conciliation 
Board,  or  under  such  other  rules  and  regulations, 
as  may  be  mutually  agreed  upon  by  the  parties  to 
the  difference  or  dispute.  The  Act  contains  a  fur- 
ther provision  (sect.  4)  enabling  the  Board  of  Trade 
(now  the  Minister  of  Labour),  if  it  appears  to 
it  that  in  any  district  or  trade  adequate  means  do 
not  exist  for  having  disputes  submitted  to  a  Con- 
ciliation Board  for  the  district  or  trade,  to  ap- 
point any  person  or  persons  to  inquire  into  the 
conditions  of  the  district  or  trade,  and  to  confer 
with  employers  and  employed,  and  if  the  Board 
of  Trade  (now  the  Minister  of  Labour)  thinks 
iit,  with  any  local  authority  or  body,  as  to  the 
expediency  of  establishing  a  Conciliation  Board 
for  the  district  or  trade.  These  are  the  main 
provisions  of  the  Act,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
they  furnish  the  means  of  (i)  conciliation,  (2)  ar- 
bitration on  the  application  of  the  parties  to  the 
dispute,  and  (3)  without  any  application  by  them, 
inquiry  into  the  causes  and  circumstances  of  a  dif- 
ference. The  Act  was  supplemented,  however,  on 
the  ist  September,  iqo8,  by  certain  very  impor- 
tant administrative  provisions.  These  had  no  statu- 
tory force  or  authority,  but  they  came  into  prac- 
tical operation,  having  continued  since,  and  their 
principle  was  embodied  in  the  Munitions  of  War 
Act,  lOiS,  and  the  subsequent  legislation,  as  will 
be  seen  presently.  The  Conciliation  Act,  i8q6, 
only  provided  for  one  arbitration  tribunal,  that  is 
to  say,  'an  arbitrator.'  The  administrative  pro- 
vision added  a  Court  of  Arbitration  composed 
of  representatives  of  employers  and  workers  re- 
spectively, chosen  from  panels,  with  an  indepen- 
dent Chairman,  also  taken  from  a  panel.  The 
administrative  provisions  were  in  the  form  of  a 
Memorandum,  communicated  to  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce and  Employers'  and  Workmen's  .Associations, 
and  were  published  in  the  Board  of  Trade  Labour 
Gazette  for  September,  iqcS.  The  Memorandum 
was  as  follows:  '(t)  Under  the  Conciliation  Act 
of  1806  the  Board  of  Trade  has  power  to  appoint 
a  Conciliator  in  trade  disputes  and  an  .Arbitrator  at 
the  request  of  both  parties.  These  slender  means 
of  intervention  have  been  employed  in  cases 
where  opportunity  has  offered,  and  the  work  of  the 
Department  in  this  sphere  has  considerably  in- 
creased of  recent  years.  In  igo;  the  Board  of 
Trade  intervened  in  14  disputes  and  settled  them 
all;  in  1Q06  they  intervened  in  20  cases  and  settled 
16;  in  TQcy  they  intervened  in  39  cases  and  settled 


32 ;  while  during  the  first  eight  months  of  the 
present  year  [1908]  no  fewer  than  47  cases  of  in- 
tervention have  occurred,  of  which  35  have  been 
already  settled,  while  some  of  the  remainder  are 
still  being  dealt  with.  (2)  It  is  not  proposed  to 
curtail  or  replace  any  of  the  existing  functions  or 
practices  under  the  Conciliation  Act,  nor  in  any 
respect  to  depart  from  its  voluntary  and  per- 
missive character.  The  good  offices  of  the  De- 
partment will  still  be  available  to  all  in  industrial 
circles  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  whenever 
opportunity  otfers;  single  Arbitrators  and  Concilia- 
tors will  still  be  undertaken  in  special  cases,  and 
no  element  of  compulsion  will  enter  into  any  of 
these  proceedings.  But  the  time  has  now  arrived 
when  the  scale  of  these  operations  deserves,  and 
indeed  requires,  the  creation  of  some  more  formal 
and  permanent  machinery ;  and,  with  a  view  to 
consolidating,  expanding  and  popularising  the 
working  of  the  Conciliation  Act,  I  propose  to  set 
up  a  Standing  Court  of  Arbitration.  (3)  The 
Court,  which  will  sit  wherever  required,  will  be 
composed  of  three  (or  five)  members,  according 
to  the  wishes  Of  the  parties,  with  fees  and  ex- 
penses to  members  of  the  Court,  and  to  the  Chair- 
man during  sittings.  The  Court  will  be  nominated 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  from  three  panels.  The 
first  panel — of  chairmen — will  comprise  persons 
of  eminence  and  impartiality.  The  second 
will  be  formed  of  persons  who,  while  pre- 
serving an  impartial  mind  in  regard  to  the  particu- 
lar dispute,  are  nevertheless  drawn  from  the  "em- 
ployer class."  The  third  panel  will  be  formed  of 
persons  similarly  drawn  from  the  class  of  work- 
men and  Trade  Unionists.  .  .  .  Lastly,  in  order 
that  the  peculiar  conditions  of  any  trade  may  be 
fully  explained  to  the  Court,  technical  assessors 
may  be  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Trade  at  the 
request  of  the  Court  or  of  the  parties  to  assist  in 
the  deliberations,  but  without  any  right  to  vote. 
(4)  The  state  of  public  opinion  upon  the  general 
question  of  Arbitration  in  Trade  Disputes  may  be 
very  conveniently  tested  by  such  a  voluntary  ar- 
rangement. Careful  inquiry  through  various  chan- 
nels open  to  the  Board  of  Trade  justifies  the  ex- 
pectation that  the  plan  would  not  be  unwelcome  in 
industrial  circles.  The  Court  will  only  be  called 
into  being  if,  and  in  proportion  as,  it  is  actually 
wanted.  No  fresh  legislation  is  necessary.  (5) 
Steps  will  now  be  taken  to  form  the  respective 
panels.' 

"The  Munitions  of  War  Act,  iqi5,  in  providing 
for  the  compulsory  settlement  of  differences  as  to 
rates  of  wages,  hours  of  work,  or  otherwise  as  to 
terms  or  conditions  of,  or  affecting,  employment  on 
the  manufacture  or  repair  of  munitions  of  war, 
provided  three  alternative  forms  of  arbitrative 
tribunals  (Schedule  I.  to  Munitions  of  War  Act, 
IQ15):  —  (a)  The  Committee  on  Production;  (()) 
A  single  arbitrator  to  be  agreed  upon  by  the  par- 
ties, or  in  default  of  agreement  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Trade  (afterwards  the  Minister  of  La- 
bour) ;  or  (f)  A  Court  of  Arbitration  consisting 
of  an  equal  number  of  persons  representing  em- 
ployers, and  persons  representing  workmen,  with 
a  chairman  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Trade  (af- 
terwards the  Minister  of  Labour).  The  tribunal 
to  which  the  reference  was  made  was  to  be  de- 
termined by  agreement  between  the  parties  to  the 
difference,  or  in  default  of  agreement  by  the  Board 
of  Trade  (afterwards  Minister  of  Labour),  and  the 
Arbitration  .Act,  1880,  was  not  to  apply  to  such 
references.  ...  On  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice 
an  .Act  was  passed,  shortly  entitled  'The  Wages 
(Temporary  Regulation)  Act,  iqiq'  fiQi8?l.  The 
principal  object  of  this  Act,  the  full  title  of  which 


419 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


was  'An  Act  for  prescribing  Minimum  Rates  of 
Wages  during  a  limited  period  and  for  repealing 
certain  provisions  of  the  Munitions  of  War  Acts',' 
and  which  was  to  be  in  force  for  six  months  only 
(afterwards  extended  for  a  further  period  of  six 
months,  to  expire  on  the  21st  November,  igiS 
[loig?],  was  the  stabilisation  of  wages  during  the 
abnormal  conditions  still  prevailing  on  account  of 
the  war  and  which  were  expected  to  continue  to 
prevail  for  a  time.  ...  On  the  21st  November  the 
provisions  of  the  Wages  (Temporary  Regulation) 
Act,  1918,  as  extended  for  six  months,  were  due 
to  come  to  an  end.  As  a  result  all  provisions  for 
enforcing  the  payment  of  a  prescribed  or  substi- 
tuted rate  of  wages  would  then  cease,  and  the 
Interim  Court  of  Arbitration  would  determine.  It 
was  under  these  circumstances  that  the  Industrial 
Courts  Bill  was  introduced  shortly  before  the  21st 
November,  loiq.  ...  Its  objects  may  be  sum- 
marised as  (i)  continuation  of  the  stabilisation  of 
wages  until  the  30th  September,  1020;  (2)  pro- 
vision of  a  standing  Court  for  the  settlement  of 
industrial  disputes;  and  (3)  a  provision  for  ju- 
dicial inquiry  and  report  into  the  causes  and  cir- 
cumstances of  apprehended  or  existing  trade  dis- 
putes. It  was  preservative  for  a  limited  period  of 
some  of  the  provisions  of  the  Wages  (Temporary 
Regulation)  Act,  iqi8,  creative  concurrently  with 
the  Conciliation  Act,  1806,  of  Courts  and  tribunals 
of  arbitration,  and  further  developed  in  this 
country  [England]  the  machinery  of  Courts  of 
Inquiry  and  Investi;ation.  ...  By  way  of  sum- 
mary .  .  .  conciliation  is  under  the  provisions  of 
the  acts  of  1806  and  igig  .  .  .;  or  under  agree- 
ments between  Federations  or  Associations  of  em- 
ployers or  workers ;  or  under  the  National  Indus- 
trial Councils  which  have  been  established  in  some 
industries.  According  to  the  Labour  Gazette  of 
December,  iqig,  there  were  at  the  end  of  igig 
fifty-one  National  Industrial  Councils,  the  num- 
ber formed  during  igig  being  thirty-one.  Although 
these  cover  a  number  of  industries  and  workers, 
yet  they  are  very  far  short  of  [being]  exhaustive 
of  the-  various  industries  of  the  country,  and  a 
large  margin  is  therefore  left  for  procedure  under 
the  above  Acts.  .  .  .  Arbitrations  are  now  [ig2o] 
either  under — (i)  The  Conciliation  Act,  1896;  or 
(2)  The  Industrial  Courts  Act,  iqig.  Under  (i)  all 
that  is  required  is  the  application  of  the  parties  to 
the  dispute  for  either  a  hearing  before  a  single  ar- 
bitrator, or  before  a  Court  of  Arbitration  ...  as- 
suming that  the  provisions  of  the  administrative 
Memorandum  [of  September,  igo8]  ...  are  still  in 
continuance.  Under  (2),  assuming  that  there  do  not 
exist  in  the  particular  trade  or  industry  concerned 
arrangements  for  settlement  made  in  pursuance  of 
an  agreement  between  organizations  of  employers 
and  organizations  of  workmen  representative  respec- 
tively of  substantial  proportions  of  the  employers 
and  workmen  engaged  in  that  industry,  the  Min- 
ister may  at  once,  with  the  consent  of  the  parties, 
refer  the  matter  for  settlement  either  to  the  In- 
dustrial Court  or  to  the  arbitration  of  one  or  more 
persons  appointed  by  him,  or  refer  the  matter  to 
a  Board  of  Arbitration  as  set  out  in  .  .  .  the  In- 
dustrial Courts  Act,  igig.  .  .  .  Whether  the  matter 
has  been  referred  for  settlement  under  the  Con- 
ciliation .\ct  or  under  the  Industrial  Courts  .'Vet, 
the  settlements  or  awards  made  are  not  compul- 
sory on  the  parties."— W.  H.  Stoker,  Industrial 
courts  aft,  igig,  and  conciliation  and  arbitra- 
tion in  industrial  disputes,  pp.  B-VC,  23-24.— 
See  also  Whitley  cottxcils:  Organization  and 
method. 

1915. — Arbitration    in    Clyde    shipyard   strike. 
See  Labor  strikes  and  boycotts:  igis. 


HOLLAND 

1903-1918. — "Delegates  are  selected  from  differ- 
ent groups  of  railway  employees  who  are  authorized 
to  present  the  wishes  and  complaints  of  railway 
workers  before  the  managers.  .Arbitration  boards 
have  been  established  for  the  enforcement  of  pen- 
alties imposed  because  of  infractions  of  working 
rules  and  conditions.  Strikes  in  railway  service  are 
prohibited.  .  .  .  Legislation  prohibiting  strikes  was 
the  outcome  of  a  general  strike  in  the  Dutch  railway 
service  in  igo3." — .imerican  Labor  Year  Book, 
igi7-igi8,  p.  142. 

ITALY 

1917-1920.— Effect  of  World  War. — National 
Council  of  Labor  instituted. — "The  legislation  re- 
lating to  labour  disputes  ...  in  force  in  1918, 
could  not  be  called  complete.  .  .  .  The  principle  of 
state  intervention  for  the  amicable  solution  of  la- 
bour conflicts  had  not,  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  been  applied  to  agriculture,  except  in  isolated 
cases.  The  state  of  public  opinion,  and  the  peculiar 
industrial  conditions  which  arose  during  the  war 
...  led  the  Government  to  enact  measures  similar 
to  those  adopted  in  industry.  The  Decrees  of  6  May 
igi7  which  codified  several  Decrees,  including  those 
of  30  May  igi6  and  2  November  igi6,  established 
in  every  judicial  district  a  district  arbitration  com- 
mittee .  .  .  empowered  to  intervene  in  disputes  re- 
lating to  the  prolongation  of  agrarian  contracts, 
and  to  the  supply  of  horses,  cattle,  etc.;  further,  at 
the  request  of  one  or  both  of  the  parties  or  of  the 
Prefect,  in  disputes  relating  to  labour  and  wage 
agreements  and  general  collective  disputes  concern- 
ing agricultural  work  in  any  way.  .  .  .  The  concil- 
iation settlement  had  the  force  of  an  agreement  be- 
tween the  parties,  who  might  also  authorise  the 
committee  to  decide  the  dispute,  acting  as  arbi- 
trators with  power  to  effect  an  amicable  settlement. 
.  .  .  The  system  .  .  .  was  considerably  altered  by 
the  Decree  of  14  September  iqig.  .  .  .  These  com- 
mittees are  presided  over  by  a  member  of  the  trib- 
unal and  arc  constituted  of  four  members,  two 
landowners  or  large  tenant  farmers  and  two  work- 
ers, appointed  by  their  respective  organisations,  or, 
failing  this,  by  the  provincial  agricultural  commit- 
tees. They  may  intervene  with  a  view  to  settle- 
ment by  conciliation,  at  the  request  of  the  parties, 
or  of  the  Prefect,  or  on  their  own  initiative,  in  col- 
lective disputes  relating  to  agricultural  work.  If 
conciliation  is  successful  the  settlement  has  the 
force  of  an  agreement  between  the  parties,  but  if 
conciliation  fails,  the  committee  embodies  its  own 
views  in  the  form  of  a  'judgment'  and  suggests  a 
possible  solution  of  the  dispute.  Both  the  district 
arbitration  committees  and  the  committees  attached 
to  the  provincial  agricultural  committees  have  met 
fairly  regularly,  and  still  continue  to  meet.  They 
have  helped  to  solve  a  larce  number  of  disputes, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  disputants.  .  .  .  The  ma- 
chinery for  the  settlement  of  labour  conflicts  is  not 
only  increasing,  but  is  gradually  tending  to  assume 
the  form  of  real  labour  tribunals.  .  .  .  The  Decree 
of  February  igig.  on  agreements  in  private  em- 
ployment, provided  for  the  institution  of  special 
joint  committees  constituted  of  an  equal  number 
of  representatives  of  managements  and  employees. 
These  committees  are  competent  to  draw  up  draft 
agreements  for  particular  firms,  and  to  intervene 
in  individual  and  collective  disputes  and  in  dis- 
agreements  about  the  interpretation  of  employment 
contracts  or  work  hours  and  work  conditions.  In 
cases  of  collective  disputes,  the  functions  of  these 
committees    are    Hmitcd    to    attempting    concilia- 


420 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


tion.  .  .  .  Other  cases  are  referred  to  special  arbi- 
tration tribunals,  constituted  of  five  members,  two 
nominated  by  the  plaintiff,  two  by  the  defendant, 
and  the  fifth  by  agreement  between  the  members. 
.  .  .  The  importance  of  the  tribunals  as  regards  col- 
lective disputes  apears  to  consist  less  in  their  func- 
tion of  attempting  to  effect  amicable  settlements, 
than  in  their  power  to  prevent  disputes  by  drawing 
up  draft  agreements.  .  .  .  Both  provincial  commit- 
tees, and  later  the  joint  tribunals,  have  in  practice 
rendered  very  valuable  service  by  providing  peaceful 
solutions  of  a  large  number  of  disputes  between 
employers  and  employees.  .  .  .  The  Bill  on  the  in- 
stitution of  a  National  Council  of  Labour,  which 
was  introduced  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  the 
Minister  of  Labour  on  lo  November  ig20,  contains 
some  very  important  clauses  on  arbitration.  Arti- 
cle I  id)  of  the  Bill  provides  that  the  CouncU 
shall  arbitrate  in  industrial  disputes  at  the  request 
of  the  parties.  For  this  purpose  the  Council  at  its 
first  sitting  appoints  a  conciliation  and  arbitration 
committee,  constituted  of  twelve  members,  six 
elected  by  the  representatives  of  employers  and  six 
by  the  representatives  of  the  workers,  and  with  the 
president  of  the  Council  as  a  chairman.  The  com- 
mittee, or  a  sub-committee  appointed  by  it  from 
time  to  time,  may  intervene  at  the  request  of  the 
Minister  of  Labour  or  of  the  parties,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  settling  by  conciliation  such  disputes  and 
disagreements  between  employers  and  workers,  as 
concern  whole  industries  or  large  districts  or  a 
very  large  number  of  workers.  If  conciliation  fails, 
the  Minister  of  Labour,  with  the  consent  of  the 
parties,  may  refer  such  disputes  for  arbitration  to 
special  arbitration  tribunals,  chosen  as  the  need 
arises  by  the  parties  themselves,  or,  should  they 
fail  to  agree,  by  the  Minister.  These  tribunals  are 
to  be  chosen  from  the  members  of  the  committee 
and  are  to  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  repre- 
sentatives of  employers  and  workers.  The  chair- 
man shall  be  nominated  by  the  members  them- 
selves, or,  if  they  fail  to  agree,  by  the  Minister  of 
Labour." — Labor  conditions  {International  Labour 
Review,  March,  1921). 

NEW  ZEALAND 

1892-1913.  —  Compulsory  arbitration. — "From 
the  earliest  times.  New  Zealand  depended  almost  al- 
together upon  water  transportation  for  communi- 
cation between  various  parts  of  the  two  islands. 
In  i8q2,  there  occurred  the  organized  strikes  of 
the  workers  in  Australian  colonies,  in  which  the 
Seamen's  Union  took  a  leading  part.  Sympathy 
for  the  Australian  cause  practically  resulted  in  a 
general  strike  of  the  New  Zealand  Seamen's  Union, 
and  trade  was  badly  disorganized.  As  a  result  of 
this  strike,  the  New  Zealand  arbitration  law  was 
passed  in  1803  and  became  effective  in  1894.  The 
minister  of  labor  was  designated  to  administer  the 
act.  It  provided  for  local  boards  of  conciliation 
in  'industrial  disputes'  and  a  general  court  of  ar- 
bitration. District  boards  were  composed  of  three 
or  five  members,  the  chairman  being  chosen  by  the 
representative  members  from  the  working  and  em- 
ploying classes  who  elected  their  members.  They 
were  appointed  by  the  governor  from  nominations 
made  by  registered  trade  unions  and  registered  em- 
ployers' associations.  The  president  of  the  court 
was  chosen  directly  by  the  governor  from  the 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Either  party  be- 
fore a  hearing  had  begun  might  require  a  dispute 
to  be  referred  from  the  district  boards  of  concilia- 
tion to  the  court  of  arbitration.  Once  a  case  was 
referred  for  conciliation,  it  was  unlawful  to  call  a 
strike  or  lockout.    Agreements  might  be  made  be- 


tween the  parties,  but  their  enforcement  was  com- 
pulsory, the  same  as  an  award  by  the  arbitration 
court.  Full  power  to  compel  the  presence  and 
testimony  of  witnesses  was  given  the  district 
boards  of  conciliation  and  the  arbitration  court. 
Every  industrial  dispute,  except  indictable  of- 
fenses, came  under  the  operation  of  the  law,  and 
since  the  act  was  based  upon  a  free  recognition 
of  trade  unionism,  conciliation  boards  and  the 
court  were  required  to  give  preference  to  the  mem- 
bers of  trade  unions.  While  this  act  was  regarded 
as  a  compulsory  arbitration  statute,  there  was  no 
penalty  for  failing  to  register,  and  unregistered 
organizations  did  not  come  under  the  act.  Awards 
were  automatically  extended  to  whole  industries 
by  the  act  of  iqoo,  the  amendments  of  iqoi  and 
iqo3  and  an  interpretation  of  the  court  in  iqo4. 
Between  1896  and  IQ03,  two  hundred  thirteen 
employers  were  charged  with  violating  awards  and 
one  hundred  seventy-one  were  convicted.  During 
the  same  period,  four  employees  were  charged 
with  similar  offenses  and  three  convictions  were 
obtained.  The  industrial  conciliation  and  arbitra- 
tion acts  were  consolidated  in  iqo8  and  amend- 
ments were  added  in  1908  and  1910.  The  New 
Zedand  Official  Vear-Book  for  igii  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  the  main  provisions.  Under  the  act  the 
Dominion  of  New  Zealand  is  divided  into  eight 
industrial  districts.  Any  society  consisting  of  not 
less  than  three  persons  in  the  case  of  employers 
or  fifteen  in  the  case  of  workers  in  any  specified 
industry  or  industries  in  an  industrial  district  may 
be  registered  as  an  industrial  union.  Any  incor- 
porated company  may  be  registered  as  an  indus- 
trial union  of  employers.  Any  two  or  more  in- 
dustrial unions  of  employers  or  employees  may 
form  an  industrial  association  and  register  under 
the  act.  Industrial  associations  are  formed  usu- 
ally for  the  whole  or  greater  part  of  New  Zea- 
land, comprising  unions  registered  in  the  various 
industries.  Registration  enables  any  union  or  as- 
sociation to  enter  into  and  file  an  industrial  agree- 
ment setting  out  the  conditions  of  employment. 
Although  this  agreement  is  limited  to  a  period  of 
three  years,  it  remains  in  force  until  superseded  by 
another  agreement  or  an  award  of  the  court  of 
arbitration,  except  where  the  registration  of  the 
union  of  workers  concerned  is  canceled.  In  the 
event  of  a  failure  to  reach  an  industrial  agree- 
ment, registration  permits  the  parties  to  bring  an 
industrial  dispute  before  the  council  of  conciliation 
and,  if  necessary,  before  the  court  of  arbitration. 
A  council  of  conciliation  has  no  compulsory  powers 
but  merely  makes  an  endeavor  to  bring  about  a 
settlement  which,  if  made,  is  filed  as  an  industrial 
agreement.  If  no  settlement  is  reached,  the  council 
of  conciliation  is  required  to  refer  the  dispute  to 
the  board  of  arbitration,  which,  after  hearing  the 
parties,  may  make  an  award.  Such  awards,  lilcc 
industrial  agreements,  are  binding  on  all  parties 
concerned.  Unless  otherwise  provided,  the  award 
applies  to  the  industrial  district  in  which  it  is 
made.  Awards  are  limited  to  a  period  of  three 
years  but  remain  in  force  until  superseded  by  an- 
other award  or  by  a  subsequent  agreement,  ex- 
cept where  registration  of  the  union  of  workers 
has  been  canceled.  It  is  now  impossible  to  refer 
a  dispute  directly  to  the  court  of  arbitration  with- 
out waiting  for  a  hearing  by  the  board  of  con- 
ciliation. Four  conciliation  commissioners,  holding 
office  for  three  years,  may  be  appointed  and  three 
were  appointed  in  1911.  and  each  of  the  eight 
industrial  districts  was  placed  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  commissioner.  When  a  dispute  arises, 
the  commissioner  is  notified  and  recommendations 
are  received  for  one,  two  or  three  assessors  to  act 


421 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


as  representatives  on  the  council  of  conciliation. 
Councils  of  conciliation  are  set  up  after  notice  to 
the  other  party  by  the  commissioner  and  recom- 
mendations by  them  of  an  equal  number  of  as- 
sessors. The  court  of  arbitration  is  appointed  for 
all  New  Zealand  and  consists  of  three  members, 
one  of  whom,  the  permanent  judge  of  the  court, 
possesses  the  same  powers  and  privileKes  as  a 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The  other  judges 
are  nominated,  one  by  the  various  unions  of  em- 
ployers and  one  by  the  unions  of  workers  and 
their  appointments  determined  by  a  majority  of 
the  unions  on  each  side  respectively.  They  hold 
office  for  three  years  and  are  eligible  to  reappoint- 
ment. The  judge  and  one  member  constitute  a 
quorum.  There  is  no  appeal  from  the  decision 
of  the  court,  except  in  cases  beyond  the  scope  of 
the  act.  Strikes  and  lockouts  are  illegal  only  if 
the  parties  concerned  arc  bound  by  an  award  or 
agreement.  Workers  arc  subject  to  a  penalty  of 
forty-eight  dollars  and  sixty  cents  and  employers 
to  a  penalty  of  two  thousand  four  hundred  thirty 
dollars  for  strikes  and  lockouts.  Gifts  of  money 
are  deemed  to  be  aiding  or  abetting  a  strike  or 
lockout  and  these  are  punishable  by  a  fine.  In 
certain  industries  affecting  the  supply  of  water, 
milk,  meat,  coal,  gas  or  electricity,  or  the  operation 
of  a  ferry,  tramway  or  railway,  fourteen  da\s" 
notice  must  be  given  within  one  month  of  an 
intended  strike  or  lockout,  whether  subject  to  an 
award  or  agreement,  or  not.  Strikes  and  lock- 
outs are  forbidden  during  the  hearing  of  a  dis- 
pute by  the  council  or  court  of  arbitration. 
Breaches  of  awards  and  industrial  agreements  are 
punishable  by  fines  of  four  hundred  eighty-six  dol- 
lars against  a  union,  association  or  employer,  and 
twenty -four  dollars  and  thirty  cents  against  a 
worker.  Since  the  passage  of  the  New  Zealand  act 
in  i8q3  to  the  thirty-first  of  March,  igii,  there 
was  a  total  of  forty-two  strikes,  of  which  twelve 
were  of  the  slaughtermen.  These  twelve  strikes 
occurred  in  1Q07.  Of  the  twelve  slaughtermen 
strikes,  six  were  within  the  scope  of  the  act  and 
twenty-two  outside  the  scope  of  the  act.  In  loog, 
there  were  four  strikes  in  New  Zealand,  in  1010, 
eleven,  and  in  iqti,  up  to  March  31,  two  strikes. 
.  .  .  Perhaps  nothing  so  completely  demonstrates 
the  strength  of  the  New  Zealand  system  of  arbi- 
tration and  its  underlying  basis  of  social  ju.-tice 
as  the  Dominion's  experiences  with  syndicalism  and 
the  efforts  of  the  syndicalists  to  carry  out  a  gen- 
eral strike  during  the  latter  part  of  iqii.  loi^. 
and  1013.  The  effort  was  a  complete  failure,  and 
although  more  than  fifty  strikes  were  called  dur- 
ing the  period,  all  of  them  were  lost ;  direct  action 
was  thoroughly  discredited;  the  arbitration  system 
and  the  government  which  stood  sponsor  for  it 
emerged  from  the  contest  with  added  t;lorv.  In 
December,  iqi3,  a  labor  disputes  investigation 
act,  similar  to  the  Canadian  statute,  was  made  to 
apply  to  workers'  unions  not  registered  under  the 
arbitration  act." — C.  H.  Mote,  Industrial  arbitra- 
tion, 1016,  pp.  137-145. — "The  statute  in  force  to- 
day [iqiqI  is  that  of  IQ08,  with  the  important 
amendment  of  that  year  and  the  minor  amend- 
ments of  loii  and  1013.  A  proposed  addition  to 
the  contemplated  consolidated  .4ct  of  1Q13  was 
made  into  a  separate  measure  and  passed  as  the 
Labor  Disputes  Investigation  Act,  1013.  .  .  . 

The  .\mending  Act  of  iqii  dealt  largely  with  the 
form  and  force  of  awards.  The  important  feature 
of  the  Amending  Act  of  1013  was  a  provision  that 
where  the  parties  to  a  dispute  did  not  object  to  a 
recommendation  of  a  Council  of  Conciliation,  this 
should  operate  as  an  industrial  agreement  and  not 
as  an  award,  thus  limiting  its  application  to  the 


parties  specifically  agreeing,  whereas  an  award 
covers  all  employers  and  all  workers  in  the  indus- 
try in  the  particular  district.  .  .  . 

The  .'\mending  Act  of  1013  consisted  of  two 
clauses,  and  was  passed  expressly  to  provide  that 
the  recommendation  of  a  Council  of  Conciliation 
to  which  the  parties  had  not  objected  should  op- 
erate as  an  industrial  agreement,  not  an  award. 
In  explanation  of  this  distinction  it  should  be  said 
that  an  industrial  agreement  binds  only  the  par- 
ties agreeing  thereto,  while  an  award  covers  all 
employers  and  all  workers  in  the  industry  in  the 
district  specified." — Conciliation  and  arbitration  in 
yew  Zealand  (Research  Report  No.  23,  Dec,  igiq, 
pp.  6,  7-8,  40.) — See  also  L.^bor  strikes  and  boy- 
cotts:  iQ06-igi3. 

NORWAY 

1914-1916. — Obligatory  arbitration  boards.— 
"In  March  1014,  a  special  congress  of  labor  unions 
was  held,  to  oppose  an  attempt  of  the  govern- 
ment to  make  striking  illegal  and  to  introduce  ob- 
ligatory arbitration  boards,  by  a  general  strike. 
When  the  proposed  bill  was  brought  before  the 
Storthing  in  May,  a  general  strike  was  ordered 
for  May  6th,  which  lasted  until  May  ii,  when  the 
bill  was  withdrawn.  This,  however,  did  not  pre- 
vent the  government,  a  few  months  later,  from 
again  attempting  to  introduce  a  similar  bill — with- 
out success.  Later  the  government  brought  in  a 
bill,  which  provided  for  the  settling  of  labor  dis- 
putes by  arbitration  boards.  This  bill,  though  not 
quite  as  severe  as  the  first  one,  was  also  opposed 
by  the  Socialist  Party,  but  was  finally  adopted  by 
Parliament.  This  law  contains  a  number  of  ef- 
fective repressive  measures.  All  workers  employed 
in  public  industries  must  give  14  days'  notice  be- 
fore laying  down  their  work;  furthermore  the  or- 
ganization may  be  held  responsible  for  the  failure 
of  any  of  its  members  to  comply  with  the  con- 
tract, through  illegal  strikes  or  lockouts.  The 
public  arbitration  commission  has  the  power  to 
prohibit  strikes  and  lockouts,  so  long  as  there 
seems  a  possibility  of  arbitration.  In  July,  igi6, 
in  the  midst  of  tremendous  conflicts  between  capi- 
tal and  labor,  the  government,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  employers,  forced  the  passage  of  a  bill 
providing  for  obligatory  arbitration  boards.  After 
all  parties,  with  the  exception  of  the  Social-De- 
mocratic Party,  had  declared  themselves  in  favor 
of  the  bill,  the  labor  unions,  in  accordance  with 
the  decision  of  the  labor  congress  held  two  years 
before,  declared  a  general  strike  .Mthough  120,000 
persons  answered  the  call,  the  law  was  passed,  in 
spite  of  this  protest  of  organized  labor,  and  after 
eight  days  the  strike  was  called  off." — American 
Labor  Year  Book,  igi6,  pp.  203-204. 

SWEDEN 

1920. — Central  arbitration  board.— "In  accord- 
ance with  the  decision  of  the  Riksdag,  a  central 
arbitration  board  for  the  settlement  of  labor  dis- 
putes has  been  appointed  in  Sweden  [October, 
1020I.  This  board  consists  of  seven  members; 
three  of  these  are  appointed  by  the  Government 
and  arc  neutral,  representing  the  interests  neither 
of  employers  nor  of  workix-ople.  Of  the  four 
remaining  members,  two  are  appointed  by  the 
Council  of  the  Employers'  Association,  and  two  by 
the  Workmen's  National  Council.  The  object  of 
the  board  is  to  render  it  easier  for  workmen  and 
their  employers  to  have  collective  agreements  cor- 
rectly interpreted,  thus  obviating  recourse  to  lock- 


422 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


outs  or  strikes.  Appeals  to  the  board  ate  to  be 
voluntary,  and  the  decision  of  the  board  will  be 
final."— United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
Monthly  Labor  Revinv,  January,   1921,  p.  232. 

SWITZERLAND 

1897-1918.— Effect  on  railway  problem.— "The 
Canton  of  Geneva  has  established  a  system  of  con- 
ciliation and  arbitration.  Conciliators  are  elected 
directlv  by  the  two  parties  to  the  dispute.  If  they 
cannot  reach  a  settlement,  recourse  is  had  to  an 
arbitration  board  under  Government  auspices. 
There  is  no  law  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  in 
the  Federal  railway  service.  Strikes  are  prohibited 
in  the  Federal  railway  service  and  in  the  Canton  of 
Geneva  whenever  an  industrial  agreement  or  award 
is  broken.  In  the  Federal  service  strikes  are  pun- 
ishable by  fines  and  reprimands.  There  are  no  pen- 
alties in  the  Canton  of  Geneva.  There  have  been 
no  strikes  on  the  railways  of  Switzerland  since  their 
nationalization  in  i8g7." — American  Labor  Year 
Book,  IQ17-1918,  p.  143. 

TURKEY 

1917-1918. — "In  the  case  of  a  dispute  relative  to 
wages  or  working  conditions,  a  conciliation  board 
is  organized,  composed  of  six  members,  three  rep- 
resenting employers  and  three  representing  em- 
ployees. The  boards  are  presided  over  by  an  of- 
ficial appointed  by  the  Government.  The  agree- 
ments reached  by  these  boards  are  enforced  by  the 
Government.  If  the  parties  to  the  dispute  cannot 
agree,  the  employees  are  free  to  stop  work,  but 
nothing  must  be  done  by  them  opposed  to  freedom 
of  action.  Strikes  in  public  utilities  are  unlawful 
until  grounds  of  dispute  are  communicated  to  the 
Government  and  attempts  at  conciliation  have 
failed.  .  .  .  The  organization  of  trade-unions  in  es- 
tablishments carrying  out  any  public  service  is  for- 
bidden."—.4  wpr;co«  Labor  Year  Book,  1Q17-1918, 
p.  144. 

UNITED  STATES 

1886-1920. — State  legislation  for  arbitration. — 
"The  seventeen  states  having  permanent  [arbitra- 
tion] boards  [in  iqi6]  and  the  dates  of  their 
creation  by  statute  .arc  as  follows:  Massachusetts 
and  New  York,  1886;  Missouri,  i88g;  California, 
1801 ;  Ohio,  1803;  Louisiana,  1894;  Illinois,  Con- 
necticut, Minnesota  and  Montana,  1895;  Utah, 
1896;  Oklahoma,  1907;  Maine,  1909;  Alabama, 
1911 ;  Vermont,  1912;  Nebraska  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, 1913." — C.  H.  Mote,  Industrial  arbitration, 
p.  199. — "A  majority  of  the  states  have  [1920]  leg- 
islation providing  for  the  settlement  of  industrial 
disputes,  and  Wyoming  has  a  constitutional  provi- 
sion to  the  same  effect.  Many  of  these  states  have 
permanent  boards  called  boards  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration  or  some  similar  title,  with  from  two  to 
six  members,  although  three  is  the  usual  number. 
It  is  provided  in  every  state  except  Alabama  that 
one  member  shall  be  a  representative  of  the  em- 
ployees, while  all  but  Alabama  and  Connecticut 
provide  for  representation  of  employers.  The  Ok- 
lahoma board  represents  farmers  in  addition. 
Many  states  forbicl  that  more  than  two  members 
of  the  board  be  chosen  from  the  same  political 
party.  In  other  states  the  labor  commissioner  acts 
as  mediator,  as  in  Idaho,  Indiana,  and  Maryland. 
In  states  having  industrial  commissions,  a  chief 
mediator  is  appointed  along  with  temporary  boards 
for  arbitration.     In  a  score  or  so  of  states  com- 


pulsory  investigation   is  provided   for.     The   state 
board  of  arbitration  must  proceed  to  make  an  in- 
vestigation (i)  on  failure  to  adjust  the  dispute  by 
mediation  or  arbitration,  as  in  Indiana  and  Massa- 
chusetts;  (2)   when  it  is  deemed  advisable  by  the 
governor,   as  in   Alabama   and   Nebraska;    or    (3) 
simply  when  the  existence  of  the  dispute  comes  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  board,  as  in  Colorado  and 
Vermont.      In    other    states    such    investigation    is 
permissive.     The  board  of  arbitration  may  investi- 
gate  (i)   when  it  is  deemed  advisable  by   the  iri- 
dustrial   commission,   as   in   New   York.      In   Ohio 
the   Industrial   commission    can    make    an    investi- 
gation, if  it  deems  necessary,  where  a  strike  exists 
or  is  threatened,  but  if  no  settlement  is  obtained 
on  account  of  the  opposition  of  one  of  the  parties 
investigation   is  to   be  made  only  if  requested  by 
the    other   party.      Compulsory   investigation    may 
be  employed  (2)  when  both  parties  refuse  arbitra- 
tion and  the  public  would  suffer  inconvenience,  as 
in    Illinois   and    Oklahoma,    or   simply    where    the 
parties   do   not   agree    to   arbitration,   as    in    New 
Hampshire;    (3)    or  generally,  whenever  a  dispute 
occurs,   as   in    Connecticut   and    Minnesota.      Pro- 
vision   for    enforcement    of    an    arbitration    award 
when  arbitration  has  been  agreed  to  by  representa- 
tives of  both  sides  is  made  by  about  a  dozen  states. 
In   Illinois,   if    the   court    has    ordered    compliance 
with   an   award,   failure   to   obey   is  punishable   as 
contempt,  but  not  by  imprisonment.    In  Idaho  and 
Indiana  the  award  is  filed  with  the  district  court 
clerk,  and   the   judge   can   order   obedience,   viola- 
tion being  punishable   as  contempt,  but  imprison- 
ment may  be  inflicted  only  for  wilful  disobedience. 
In     Missouri     violation     of     a     binding     award 
is    punishable    by    a    fine    or    jail    sentence,    and 
in  Ohio  a  binding  award  may  be  enforced  in  the 
county   court   of   common   pleas   as   if   it   were   a 
statutory   award.     In   Nevada,  Texas,   and  Alaska 
the   award   is   filed   with   the   district   court    clerk, 
and    may   be   specifically   enforced   in    equity.      In 
Nevada  appeal   is  made  to   the  supreme  court,  in 
Texas  to  the  court  of  civil  appeals,  and  in  Alaska 
to    the    United    States   Circuit    Court    of    Appeals. 
Colorado  is  the  only  state  that  has  copied   (1915) 
the  Canadian  act  forbidding  strikes  or  lockouts  m 
certain  industries  pending  investigation  and  recom- 
mendation.     In    about    twenty    states    [Alabama, 
Alaska,  California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Montana, 
Nebraska,    New    Hampshire,    Ohio,    Texas,    Utah, 
Vermont]    the    voluntary    agreement    to    arbitrate 
must  contain  a  promise  to  abstain  from  strike  or 
lockout  pending  arbitration  proceedings.     In  Mas- 
sachusetts  it   is   the   duty   of    the   parties   to   give 
notice  of  impending  stoppage  of  work.     In  Nevada 
and  Alaska  strikes  or  lockouts,  during  arbitration, 
and   in   Alaska    for   three    months,    after,   without 
thirty  days'  notice,  are  unlawful  and  ground  for 
damages."— J.   R.   Commons  and   J.   B.   Andrews, 
Principles  of  labor  legislation   (2nd  ed.),  pp.  136- 

138. 

1888-1921.— Federal  legislation.— "Federal  legis- 
lation on  mediation  and  arbitration  is  comprised  in 
five  acts  concerning  interstate  commerce  carriers," 
the  acts  of  1888,  of  1808  (the  Erdman  act  [See 
also  U.  S.  A.:  1808  (June)],  of  1913  (the  Newlands 
act),  "Section  8  of  the  act  creating  the  Department 
of  Labor,  also  enacted  in  1913,  and  Title  III  of  the 
transportation  act  by  which  the  railroads  were  re- 
turned to  private  hands  on  March  i,  1920,  at  the 
end  of  the  war-time  period  of  government  control 
and  operation."— /ftid.,  p.  138— "The  general  pop- 
ular belief  is  that  arbitration  is  the  main  feature 
of  our  [American]  present  plan  of  settlement.  .  .  . 
Few  understand  that  the  chief  and  most  success- 


423 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ful  part  of  our  system  is  'mediation,'  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  'conciliation.'  ...  In  both  the 
national  and  state  laws  a  sharp  distinction  is  made 
between  mediation  and  arbitration.  The  first  ef- 
fort of  public  officials,  when  a  dispute  arises,  is  to 
'mediate.'  They  interview  each  party  to  the  dis- 
pute separately  and  secure  the  utmost  concessions 
which  each  is  willing  to  make.  Next  they  try  to 
bring  about  a  settlement  on  the  basis  of  these  con- 
cessions. .  .  .  Arbitration,  however,  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent. If  the  officials  fail  to  secure  enough  con- 
cessions to  settle  the  dispute,  they  bend  their  ef- 
forts towards  obtaining  an  agreement  of  the  parties 
to  refer  the  dispute  to  a  board  of  arbitration.  This 
is  the  substance  of  the  Erdman  Act,  the  Newlands 
Act  and  all  the  state  arbitration  laws.  .  .  .  The 
law  of  1888  .  .  .  provided  that  the  President  might 
appoint  two  investigators  who,  together  with  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  should  form 
a  temporary  commission  to  examine  the  causes  of 
any  interstate  railway  controversy,  the  conditions 
which  accompanied  it,  'and  the  best  means  for  ad- 
justing it.'  The  report  of  this  body  was  to  be 
transmitted  to  the  President  and  Congress.  Such 
a  purely  investigating  commission  might  be  ap- 
pointed on  the  request  of  either  party  or  by  the 
President  himself,  or  need  not  be  appointed  at  all. 
The  act  also  contained  a  weak  provision  for  a 
board  of  arbitration  to  be  chosen  by  the  parties 
if  they  wished,  which  should  render  a  decision  on 
all  the  matters  in  dispute.  This  decision,  however, 
was  not  binding.  That  is,  the  parties  might  agree 
to  arbitration  without  consenting  to  abide  by  its 
awards.  This  statute,  which  remained  a  dead  letter 
on  the  books  for  ten  years,  was  never  utilized. 
The  reasons  are  very  simple  and  easily  discovered: 
(a)  The  balance  of  power  lay  entirely  with  the 
railway  managers;  many  of  the  strikes  were  com- 
plete failures;  the  unions  were  on  the  defensive, 
(ft)  Both  sides  in  the  labor  controversies  of  the 
time  were  poorly  organized.  No  principles  or 
methods  of  dealing  between  labor  and  capital  had 
yet  been  worked  out.  There  were  no  established 
habits  of  procedure,  but  each  strike  or  dispute  was 
an  event  in  itself,  separate  and  distinct  from  all 
others.  We  were  in  the  'rule  of  thumb'  stage  of 
opinion  on  labor  controversies.  For  these  reasons 
the  decade  i883-i8g8,  and  even  to  IQ05,  represents 
an  era  in  w^hich  arbitration  was  not  the  habitual 
but  the  most  unusual  thing  to  do.  The  second 
law,  known  as  the  Erdman  .\ct,  was  passed  in 
1898  and  provided  that  the  federal  officers,  on 
learning  of  a  serious  interstate  dispute,  should  at- 
tempt to  mediate  in  the  method  already  described. 
Failing  in  this  they  should,  if  possible,  persuade 
the  parties  to  sign  a  contract,  the  terms  of  which 
were  fixed  by  the  law  itself.  This  contract  pro- 
vided for  the  submission  of  the  dispute  to  a  board 
of  arbitration  composed  of  three  members  chosen 
by  the  parties  themselves.  The  award  made  by 
this  board  should  be  binding  for  a  definite  period. 
An  appeal  might  be  taken  from  the  board's  de- 
cision to  the  federal  courts.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  only  one  case  was  brought  up  under  this 
law  in  the  first  eight  years  of  its  history.  This 
shows  clearly  that  the  parties  concerned,  and  public 
opinion  in  general,  had  not  yet  developed  to  the 
point  where  arbitration  was  a  natural  and  in- 
stinctive method  of  settlement.  In  the  one  case 
that  was  presented  during  this  time  the  railways 
declined  arbitration  and  the  government  system 
failed.  The  employees  voted  to  strike  by  an  al- 
most unanimous  ballot,  whereupon  the  managers 
conceded  the  substance  of  the  union's  demands, — a 
settlement  that  could  have  been  easily  made  by 
arbitration.     Meanwhile  in   the  period  from  1901 


to  190S  there  were  329  strikes  affecting  the  rail- 
ways, with  only  this  single  case  of  attempted  ar- 
bitration above  described,  and  it  a  failure.  This 
would  seem  to  show  conclusively  that  the  unwill- 
ingness to  make  use  of  the  previous  act  was  not 
due  to  the  weakness  of  the  law,  but  to  the  lack 
of  experience  of  the  parties  and  the  backward 
state  of  public  opinion.  Beginning  with  1905, 
however,  a  complete  reversal  in  conditions  took 
place.  Despite  the  failure  of  several  abortive  at- 
tempts, the  unions  had  finally  got  a  firm  grip 
upon  all  the  labor  supply  of  the  interstate  trains. 
With  this  there  had  come  a  parallel  development 
in  the  control  of  railway  capital;  mergers  had 
taken  place;  railway  systems  had  been  more  firmly 
cemented  together;  the  'community  of  interest'  be- 
tween competing  lines  had  become  a  familiar  fea- 
ture of  transport  management.  In  1902  the  public 
had  received  that  dramatic  proof  of  the  possibil- 
ities of  arbitration  which  we  still  refer  to  as  'the' 
anthracite  coal  strike.  This  was  probably  the  last 
great  controversy  in  which  the  mining  companies 
felt  assured  of  success  in  a  contest  with  labor  or- 
ganizations, and  when  victory  was  within  their 
reach  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  national 
executive  who  forced  arbitration.  It  is  difficult  to 
exaggerate  the  spectacular  effect  of  this  case.  It 
established  once  for  all  the  fact  that  arbitration 
on  a  grand  scale  in  a  crisis  of  national  proportions 
is  possible.  The  similarity  of  the  issues  with  those 
arising  on  the  railways  was  also  helpful.  This 
striking  demonstration  removed  the  chief  obstacle 
to  the  use  of  the  Erdman  Law,  and  in  the  next 
eight  years  there  followed  in  rapid  succession  a 
series  of  61  cases,  most  of  which  were  finally 
solved  by  mediation,  there  being  only  12  in  which 
arbitration  was  necessary.  The  third  act,  known 
as  the  Newlands  Law,  was  passed  in  July,  1913.  It 
differs  from  the  Erdman  Act  in  only  two  important 
points, — the  boards  of  arbitration  under  the  Erd- 
man .■\ct  were  considered  too  small  by  the  railway 
managers;  under  the  Newlands  Act  they  may,  by 
consent  of  the  parties,  be  doubled  to  six  members 
instead  of  three.  The  new  law  also  provides  that 
the  work  of  mediation  shall  be  undertaken  by  a 
special,  permanent  commissioner  of  mediation  act- 
ing with  one  or  two  other  federal  officers,  to  be 
designated  by  the  President,  and  forming  a  'Board 
of  Mediation  and  Conciliation.'  Following  the  61 
cases  presented  for  settlement  under  the  Erdman 
Act,  60  more  have  already  been  brought  up  under 
the  Newlands  Law,  that  is,  in  the  last  three  years 
[1914-1916]  as  many  controversies  have  been  sub- 
mitted and  settled  as  in  the  entire  preceding 
twenty-five  years.  Of  these  60  cases,  51  have  been 
settled  by  mediation  and  9  by  arbitration.  Taking 
the  entire  results  of  the  Erdman  and  Newlands 
Laws  since  1906,  that  is,  since  arbitration  has  be- 
come an  accepted  method,  we  observe  that  a  total 
of  121  cases  have  been  submitted.  Of  these  over 
70  were  settled  by  mediation.  Of  the  remainder, 
21  cases  were  settled  by  arbitration,  or  by  arbitra- 
tion combined  with  mediation.  In  the  remaining 
cases,  the  services  of  the  mediators  were  either  re- 
fused or  a  direct  settlement  made  without  resort 
to  arbitration.  This  is  an  astonishing  record.  Two 
features  stand  out  with  especial  prominence — the 
rapid  increase  in  effectiveness  of  mediation,  and  the 
great  importance  and  breadth  of  the  problems  sub- 
mitted to  arbitration.  Mediation  settled  more  than 
half  of  the  controversies  brought  up  to  the  board 
under  the  Erdman  Law,  and  over  four-fifths  of 
those  brought  in  the  last  three  years  under  the 
Newlands  Act.  Among  the  matters  subjected  to 
arbitration  were  issues  ranging  from  the  most 
minute  point  up  to  the  entire  terms  of  employment 


424 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


on  over  40  railroads;  from  the  discharge  of  an 
electric  motorman  for  disobedience  of  orders  to 
the  settlement  of  pay  and  basic  hours  of  work  per 
day  for  many  thousands  of  men." — J.  T.  Young, 
Government  arbitration  and  mediation  (Annals  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  January,  igi?,  pp.  268-272). — "For  the 
four  years  ending  June  30,  11,17,  the  Federal  Board 
of  Mediation  and  Conciliation  functioned  in  sev- 
enty-one controversies,  fourteen  of  which  were 
settled  partly  or  wholly  by  arbitration,  and  fifty- 
two  by  mediation.  One  dispute  was  settled  by 
Congressional  action,  the  Adamson  law,  which 
meant,  in  effect,  the  breakdown  of  the  Newlands 
act.  The  outstanding  feature  of  events  leading  up 
to  the  Adamson  law  of  September,  1916,  was  the 
failure  of  arbitration  by  existing  agencies.  The 
demands  of  the  railway  brotherhoods  were  met 
with  counter-demands  by  the  railway  managers 
and  the  proposal  to  refer  demands  of  both  sides 
to  arbitration  under  the  Newlands  act  or  by  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  The  brother- 
hoods refused  arbitration.  Their  experience  with 
settlements  by  third  parties  had  not  been  fortunate, 
they  asserted.  An  overwhelming  strike  vote  set 
the  stoppage  of  work  for  September  2,  1916.  The 
Federal  Board  of  Mediation  and  Conciliation  ex- 
ercised its  prerogative  of  offering  mediation,  but  a 
four-day  conference  failed  to  bring  agreement. 
Facing  a  country-wide  railroad  tie-up,  the  Presi- 
dent conferred  with  both  sides  to  the  controversy 
and  proposed  (i)  the  concession  of  the  eight-hour 
day,  (2)  postponement  of  the  other  demands  until 
a  commission  appointed  to  investigate  the  effect  of 
the  eight-hour  day  reported.  The  brotherhoods 
agreed,  but  the  managers  delayed.  The  President 
asked  Congress  for  legislation  not  only  to  deal 
with  the  existing  situation,  but  also  to  remedy  the 
all  too  apparent  failure  of  the  Newlands  act.  The 
Congressional  answer  was  the  Adamson  law,  passed 
on  the  day  the  strike  was  to  have  gone  into  effect. 
The  law  embodied  just  the  proposals  made  by  the 
President  to  the  railroad  men  and  employers. — 
[See  also  Adamsox  Law;  American  Federation  of 
Labor:  1S84-1017;  Railroads:  1Q16.]  It  was  plainly 
evident  that  the  Federal  Board  of  Mediation  and 
Conciliation  met  defeat  largely  through  the  refusal 
of  the  v/orkers  to  submit  voluntarily  to  arbitration. 
This  difficulty  was  recognized  by  the  President  again 
in  December,  igio,  when  he  asked  Congress  for 
compulsory  arbitration  legislation.  War  legislation 
swamped  Congress  before  action  was  taken  on  his 
recommendation.  The  Newlands  act  again  failed 
in  March,  1017.  At  that  time  the  brotherhoods 
renewed  strike  threats,  owing  to  the  delay  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  deciding  the  constitutionality  of 
the  Adamson  Law  and  to  the  alleged  evasions  of 
the  railroad  managers  during  the  Supreme  Court's 
delay.  Disregarding  the  existing  Federal  Board, 
the  President  immediately  appointed  a  committee 
of  the  Council  of  National  Defense  to  mediate. 
Into  the  resulting  agreement  was  written  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  eight-hour  day  and  provision 
for  a  commission  of  eight,  representing  employers 
and  employees,  to  decide  disputes  under  the  agree- 
ment. The  Eight-hour  Commission  appointed  un- 
der the  Adamson  law  reported  inconclusively 
shortly  after  the  railroads  were  taken  under  control 
by  the  government  for  the  period  of  the  war. 
The  labor  situation  was  immediately  taken  hold 
of  when  the  government  assumed  railroad  control 
and  operation  in  December,  igi7.  .  .  .  A  Railway 
Wage  Board  was  appointed  in  January  to  make 
recommendations  to  the  Director-General,  and  a 
Division  of  Labor,  headed  by  a  brotherhood  of- 
ficial, was  created  in  February  to  be  the  connecting 


link  between  employees  and  officials  on  one  band, 
and  Railway  Boards  of  Adjustment,  when  later 
instituted,  on  the  other.  The  Railway  Wage 
Board's  recommendations  were  accepted  by  the 
Director-General  and  orders  were  issued  providing 
for  substantial  increases  in  wages  among  all  classes 
of  employees.  Thereafter  a  permanent  advisory 
board  on  'Railway  Wages  and  Working  Conditions' 
was  created. — Successive  orders  of  the  Director- 
General  formulated  a  liberal  labor  policy  and  es- 
tablished machinery  for  handling  disputes  under 
these  orders.  Board  of  Adjustment  No.  i,  dating 
from  March,  igi8,  dealt  with  controversies  af- 
fecting conductors,  engineers,  trainmen,  firemen, 
and  enginemen ;  up  to  December  i,  1918,  it  had 
docketed  408  cases  and  made  292  decisions.  Board 
of  Adjustment  No.  2,  authorized  in  May,  igiS,  for 
workers  in  mechanical  departments,  handled  147 
cases  and  made  128  decisions  up  to  December, 
1918.  Board  of  Adjustment  No.  3,  with  jurisdic- 
tion over  telegraphers,  switchmen,  clerks,  and  main- 
tenance-of-way  men,  had  docketed  only  one  case 
in  its  fortnight's  existence  prior  to  December  i, 
igi8.  In  all  cases  coming  before  Boards  of  Ad- 
justment it  was  obligatory  that  the  usual  attempt 
at  carrying  the  disagreement  to  the  chief  operating 
official  of  the  railroad  be  made  before  calling  on 
the  boards.  The  boards  were  composed  equally  of 
representatives  of  the  administration  and  employ- 
ees, and  their  liberal  decisions  did  much  to  smooth 
out  the  differences  remaining  after  the  breakdown 
of  the  Newlands  act  and  the  enactment  of  the 
Adamson  law.  While  the  railroad  employees  of- 
ficially voiced  their  approval  of  the  government 
Boards  of  Adjustment,  on  which  only  the  parties  in 
dispute  were  the  arbitrators,  they  have  consistently 
opposed  the  submission  of  disagreements  to  a  neu- 
tral party  which  is  in  their  opinion  either  biased 
or  ignorant. —  [An  order  of  Director  General  Payne, 
issued  December  9,  1920,  provided  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  Board  No.  i  on  February  15,  192 1,  and  of 
Boards  No.  2  and  3  on  January  10,  1921.]  The 
act  of  March  4,  igi3,  creating  a  Department  of 
Labor,  provides  that  the  Secretary  of  Labor  shall 
have  the  power  to  act  as  mediator  and  to  appoint 
commissioners  of  conciliation  in  labor  disputes, 
whenever  in  his  judgment  the  interest  of  industrial 
peace  may  require  it  to  be  done.  No  appropria- 
tion was  made  for  the  expenses  of  commissioners 
till  October,  igi3,  and  none  for  their  compensation 
till  April,  1914.  Until  the  latter  date,  therefore, 
it  was  necessary  to  detail  government  employees 
from  their  regular  work.  An  executive  clerk  was 
appointed  in  July,  igi4,  and  the  work  systema- 
tized. In  three  important  disputes  the  Secretary 
of  Labor's  offer  of  mediation  was  rejected.  In 
the  Pere  Marquette  Railroad  shop  strike,  the  Calu- 
met copper  miners'  strike,  and  the  Colorado  coal 
strike,  mediation  was  desired  by  the  employees,  but 
declined  by  the  employers.  In  case  mediation 
fails,  arbitration  may  be  proposed  by  the  medi- 
ators, but  they  do  not  themselves  act  as  arbi- 
trators. In  the  five  years  191S  to  1919,  inclusive, 
the  Secretary  of  Labor  took  cognizance  of  3,644 
cases,  effecting  2,539  adjustments.  During  igig 
alone,  1,780  assignments  of  commissioners  of  con- 
ciliation resulted  in  r,233  adjustments,  not  includ- 
ing 2ig  cases  referred  to  the  National  War  Labor 
Board.  .  .  .  The  policy  of  having  disputes  settled 
by  representatives  of  the  two  parties  most  directly 
at  interest,  the  workers  and  the  employers,  was  In 
the  main  adopted  in  the  transportation  act  of 
1920.  The  act  declares  it  the  duty  of  the  roads 
and  of  their  employees  to  'exert  every  reasonable 
effort  and  adopt  every  available  means  to  avoid 
any  interruption  to  the  operation   of  any  carrier' 


425 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


growing  out  of  any  dispute.  In  case  a  dispute 
arises,  it  is  to  be  decided  if  possible  in  conference 
between  representatives  of  both  sides.  Such  dis- 
putes involving  only  grievances,  rules,  or  working 
conditions,  as  cannot  be  settled  in  this  way,  are 
to  go  before  'railroad  boards  of  labor  adjustment,' 
which  may  be  established  by  agreement  between 
any  road  or  group  of  roads  and  the  employees. 
Except  that  the  boards  are  to  [include]  .  .  .  rep- 
resentatives of  the  organized  workers,  their  size 
and  composition  are  left  entirely  to  the  parties 
concerned.  Matters  may  come  before  the  adjust- 
ment boards  either  upon  application  by  the  road 
or  the  organized  workers  affected,  upon  written 
petition  of  a  hundred  unorganized  employees,  upon 
the  boards'  own  motion,  or  upon  the  request  of  the 
'Railroad  Labor  Board.'  This  Railroad  Labor 
Board  is  set  up  by  the  act  as  the  final  tribunal 
for  the  settlement  of  railroad  labor  disputes.  It 
is  composedi  of  nine  members,  appointed  by  the 
President  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  rep- 
resent in  eflual  proportion  the  workers,  the  ein- 
plsyers  and  the  public.  The  three  representatives 
<^.it})^  first  .two  groups  are  to  be  selected  from  a 
J(gt.,c»t,  not  lees  than  six  nominees  submitted  by  the 
it#'u,]g'iQups,  themselves.  Members  of  the  board 
;ipa^;.riot,  during  their  five-year  term  of  office,  be 
.iy;t«.Yfi.  n^enibers  or  officers  of  labor  organizations 
;j»r.  hold  stocks  or  bonds  of  any  carrier.  Dis- 
piites  come  before  the  Railroad  Labor  Board  either 
upon  failure  of  the  adjustment  board,  or 
directly.  All  of  its  decisions  must  be  by  majority 
vote,  but  on  matters  taken  up  directly  one  of  the 
members  representing  the  public  must  concur  in 
the  decision.  The  Railroad  Labor  Board  also  has 
power  to  suspend  any  decision  on  wages  made  by 
the  initial  conference,  if  it  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  decision  'involves  such  an  increase  in  wages  or 
salaries  as  will  be  likely  to  necessitate  a  substan- 
iial  readjustment  of  the  rates  of  any  carrier.'  In 
such  cases  the  Railroad  Labor  Board  must,  after 
a  hearing,  affirm  or  modify  the  suspended  decision. 
As  principles  for  settling  standards  of  wages  and 
working  conditions,  consideration  must  be  given  to 
wage  scales  in  other  industries,  cost  of  living,  haz- 
ards of  the  employment,  training  and  skill  re- 
quired, degree  of  responsibility,  character  and 
regularity  of  the  employment,  and  inequalities  re- 
sulting from  previous  adjustments.  Hearings  on 
alleged  violations  of  decisions  are  to  be  held  by 
the  Railroad  Labor  Board,  which  must  publish 
its  decision.  [See  also  Labor  legisl.mion:  1862- 
iQ2o;  Railroads:  iq2o:  Esch-Cummins  Act.]  The 
Board  of  Mediation  and  Conciliation  created  in 
J913  is  still  left  in  operation,  but  its  jurisdiction 
does  not  extend  to  any  dispute  under  investigation, 
by  the  boards  established  under  the  new  act." — 
J,,,R.  Commons  and  J.  B.  Andrews,  Principles  of 
labor  legislation  (2nd  ed.).  pp.  142-14S,  147-148. 
.ili.898. — Interstate  Commerce  Commission  cre- 
i(tfid.     See  U.  S.  A.:   i8q8  (June). 

1902-1920. — Arbitration  in  the  coal  industry. 
— "A  semi-official  instance  of  arbitration  occurred 
in  the  case  of  the  great  anthracite  coal  strike  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1002.  In  this  case  the  government 
appointed  an  arbitration  commission  on  the  re- 
quest of  the  parties  without  any  special  authority 
in  law.  The  miners  wanted  an  agreement,  the 
operators  felt  that  it  would  not  be  binding  and 
that  the  union  obstructed  discipline.  In  October, 
five  months  after  the  beginning  of  the  strike.  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  appointed  the  Anthracite  Coal 
Strike  Commission  The  men  returned  to  work 
and  the  commission  began  its  inquiry.  It  took  the 
testimony  of  558  witnesses.  The  losses  of  the 
strike    were    estimated    at    S2S,ooo,ooo    in    wages. 


$1,800,000  in  relief  funds,  $46,100,000  to  the  op 
erators,  and  $28,000,000  in  freight  receipts  to  trans- 
portation companies.  The  commission  found  the 
underlying  cause  of  the  strike  to  be  the  issue  of 
recognition  of  the  union.  The  award  stated  that 
the  commission  would  recommend  recognition  oi 
the  union,  were  the  anthracite  unions  separated 
from  the  bituminous  unions,  but  that  difficulties 
should  be  referred  to  a  permanent  joint  committee 
of  miners'  and  operators'  representatives,  with  an 
umpire  appointed  by  the  federal  court,  and  that 
the  life  of  the  award  should  be  till  March,  igoo. 
The  commission  further  recommended  a  system  of 
compulsory  investigation.  The  agreement  has  been 
renewed,  with  modifications,  and  was  still  in  force 
at  the  beginning  of  1020." — J.  R.  Commons  and 
J.  B.  .Andrews,  Principles  of  labor  legislation  (2nd 
ed.),  pp.  148-149. — .\  bureau  of  labor  was  estab- 
lished in  the  United  States  fuel  administration  to 
take  care  of  industrial  disputes  in  the  coal  mining 
industry.  [See  also  U.  S.  A.;  iqo2  (October).]  For 
the  settlement  of  the  coal  strike  of  1Q19,  see  Labor 
STRIKES  AND  BOYCOTTS:  iQip:  Bituminous  coal 
strike. 

1910-1916. — Protocol  and  arbitration  in  the 
garment  industry. — An  interesting  experiment  "in 
the  adjustment  of  labor  disputes  is  that  represented 
by  what  is  generally  known  as  the  Protocol  System 
in  the  garment  industry.  The  system  derives  its 
name  from  the  collective  agreement  made  between 
the  Cloak  Makers'  Union  of  New  York  [and]  .  .  . 
an  association  of  employers  on  September  2nd, 
iQio.  The  agreement,  formally  designated  'Proto- 
col of  Peace,'  was  adopted  at  the  conclusion  01 
a  long  and  embittered  strike.  It  was  drafted  with 
great  care  and  with  the  aid  of  several  eminent 
students  of  social  problems,  prominent  among 
whom  was  Mr.  Louis  D.  Brandeis,  now  [iqi6]  a 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
.  .  .  Essentially  it  was  a  collective  agreement  be- 
tween an  association  of  employers  and  a  union  of 
workers,  regulating  hours  of  laboi,  overtime- work, 
holidays,  week- wages,  methods  of  adjusting  piece 
rates  and  other  shop  conditions.  The  novelty  of 
the  arrangements  consisted  mainly  in  the  attempt 
to  abolish  all  struggles  between  the  individual  em- 
ployer and  his  workers  and  to  substitute  for  them 
a  peaceful  method  of  adjusting  disputes.  To  this 
end  the  workers  surrendered  their  right  to  call  shop 
strikes  for  any  grievance  whatsoever,  and  the 
Union  bound  itself  to  order  its  members  back  to 
work  in  all  cases  in  which  such  shop  strikes  would 
break  out.  In  return  for  this  surrender  of  their 
most  effective  weapon,  the  workers  were  promised 
peaceful,  fair  and  speedy  adjustments  of  all  their 
grievances.  To  secure  such  adjustments  an  elab- 
orate joint  machinery  was  devised,  consisting  of 
Chief  Clerks  with  numerous  staffs  of  assistance  to 
investigate  and  adjust  grievances,  a  Grievance 
Board,  and  subsequently  a  Committee  on  Imme- 
diate Action,  to  pass  upon  disputed  cases,  and 
finally  a  Board  of  Arbitration,  acting  as  the  su- 
preme tribunal  in  the  industry  and  vested  with 
judicial  and  legislative  powers.  It  is  this  joint 
machinery,  which  constitutes  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  a  Protocol,  as  the  arrangement  has  come 
to  be  generally  known.  The  'Protocol  system' 
seemed  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  pecularities  of 
the  needle  industries  with  their  highly  seasonal 
character,  their  irregular  workings  and  countless 
daily  problems  and  shop  disputes.  Within  the  first 
few  years  after  its  adoption  in  the  New  York  cloak 
trade  the  system  spread  to  a  number  of  kindred 
trades.  Collective  agreements  generally  patterned 
after  the  'Peace  Protocol'  were  adopted  by  associa- 
tions of  employers  and   unions   of   the   workers  in 


426 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


the  various  branches  of  the  garment  trade  in  the 
cities  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis  and  other  centers  of  the  tailoring  indus- 
try. At  the  beginning  of  iqi6,  no  less  than  150,000 
workers  operated  under  that  system." — M.  Hill- 
quit,  "Protocol"  in  the  needle  industry  {Ameri- 
can Labor  Year  Book,  iqi6,  pp.  5S-S6)- — The  em- 
ployers' association  broke  up  the  arrangement  by 
abrogating  the  Protocol  of  Peace,  after  an  exist- 
ence of  almost  five  years,  on  May  20,  1Q15.  ...  A 
number  of  forces  were  .set  to  work  to  prevent  a 
general  conflict.  Mayor  Mitchel  of  New  York  or- 
ganized a  Council  of  Conciliation,  composed  of 
some  of  New  York's  best  known  citizens.  .  .  .  Af- 
ter a  series  of  remarkable  public  hearings  which 
lasted  over  three  weeks  at  the  New  York  City  Hall, 
the  Council  of  Conciliation  handed  down  a  decision 
which  was  .  .  .  accepted  by  the  union,  and  after- 
wards agreed  to  .  .  .  by  the  Manufacturers'  As- 
sociation. ...  It  raised  the  scale  of  wages  for 
piece  and  week  workers,  granted  the  right  of  re- 
view of  discharges,  upheld  the  principle  of  col- 
lective bargaining  and  renewed  the  Protocol  peace 
arrangements  that  existed  heretofore.  .  .  .  Dissatis- 
faction grew  with  startling  rapidity  and  ...  on 
April  30  I1Q16]  .  .  .  after  a  second  abrogation  of 
the  Protocol  the  400  members  of  the  Association 
ordered  a  lockout  in  all  their  shops.  It  w.is  quick- 
ly followed  by  the  proclamation  of  a  general  strike 
by  the  union  on  May  3,  .  .  .  involving  60,000 
workers.  .  .  .  The  strike  was  finally  settled  on 
terms  which  represented  strongly  modified  arrange- 
ments from  those  prevailing  under  the  Protocol. 
The  working  hours  were  reduced  from  50  to  40: 
the  wages  for  both  piece  and  week  workers  were 
materially  increased,  and  principally,  the  right  of 
shop  strikes  was  conceded  to  the  union." — M. 
Danish,  Briej  history  of  the  International  Ladies' 
Garment  Workers'  Union  (American  Labor  Year 
Book,  igi7-iqi8,  pp.  iio-iii). 

1912-1913. — West  'Virginia  coal  strikes.  See 
West  Virginia:    1002-1013. 

1914. — Ohio  coal  miners'  strike.  See  Labor 
STRIKES  AND  BOYCOTTS:   igi4-igi5. 

1917-1918. — Bridgeport  munitions  strike.  See 
Labor  strikes  and  boycotts:   iqiy-iqiS. 

1917-1919. — President's  mediation  commission. 
— War  Labor  Board. — "In  addition  to  the  direct 
efforts  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  two  arbitration 
boards  were  called  into  existence  to  meet  exigencies 
of  war.  The  President's  Mediation  Commission, 
appointed  in  the  fall  of  iqi7,  under  the  chairman- 
ship of  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  made  settlements 
or  investigations  in  (i)  the  copper  mines  of  Ari- 
zona, (2)  the  California  oil  fields,  (3)  the  Pacific 
coast  telephone  dispute,  (4)  unrest  in  the  lumber 
industry  of  the  Northwest,  (5)  the  packing  in- 
dustry. It  should  be  recalled  that  this  commission 
was  a  government  enterprise  beginning  its  study 
generally  after  an  acute  situation  had  arisen.  Its 
primary  intention  was  investigation  rather  than 
arbitration ;  but  settlements  were  made  in  all  dis- 
putes except  the  lumber  industry,  largely  because 
existing  means  of  arbitration  had  failed.  The  Na- 
tional War  Labor  Board  was  the  outgrowth  of 
conferences  beiween  representatives  of  employer?' 
and  employees'  organizations,  the  public,  and  the 
government.  Its  existence  was  not  sanctioned  by 
specific  legislation,  but  was  the  result  of  a  Presi- 
dential proclamation  in  April,  iqi8.  The  member- 
ship of  the  board  consisted  of  joint  chairmen  rep- 
resenting the  public,  selected  respectively  by  em- 
ployers' and  employees'  national  organizations,  and 
five  representatives  of  each  of  the  two  groups. 
Premises  to  govern  its  decisions  were  the  first 
business  of  the  board,  and  the  following  were  ar- 


rived at:  (i)  No  strikes  or  lockouts  during  the 
war,  (2;  settlement  of  controversies  by  mediation 
or  conciliation,  (3)  provision  of  machinery  for 
local  mediation  and  conciliation,  (4)  summons  of 
parties  to  the  controversy  before  the  national  board 
in  the  event  of  failure  of  local  machinery,  (5) 
failing  to  reach  decision  in  the  national  board, 
provision  of  an  umpire  appointed  by  national 
board  or  by  the  President  ironi  a  panel  of  disin- 
terested persons,  (b)  refusal  to  take  cognizance  of 
dispute  where  other  means  of  setllenieiit  b\  agree- 
ment or  federal  law  had  not  been  invoked,  (7) 
right  of  employers  and  employees  to  organize  with- 
out discrimination,  (8)  right  of  collective  bar- 
gaining. Acting  on  these  principles  as  an  official 
expression  of  the  government's  war  labor  policy, 
the  board  received  1,24s  controversies  up  to  May 
31,  iqig.  In  462  of  these  cases  awards  or  finds 
were  made,  3qi  were  dismissed  because  of  volun- 
tary settlement,  lack  of  jurisdiction,  or  for  other 
reasons,  315  were  referred  to  other  agencies  having 
primary  jurisdiction,  fifty-three,  involving  only 
three  distinct  disputes,  remained  on  the  docket 
because  the  board  was  unable  to  agree,  twenty- 
three  were  pending,  and  one  was  suspended.  In 
the  enforcement  of  awards  the  National  War  Labor 
Board  had  no  specific  legal  sanction  or  penalty; 
appeal  was  usually  made  to  patriotic  motives. 
There  were  but  three  instances  of  resistance  to  the 
board's  awards.  In  one  case  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  discriminated  against  union 
employees  and  refused  to  abide  by  the  board's  de- 
cision in  favor  of  the  men.  The  President  was 
rebuffed  in  his  appeal  for  patriotic  acquiescence, 
but  was  sustained  by  Congress  in  taking  over  the 
telegraph  lines  for  the  government.  Later,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1Q18,  the  organized  workers  at  Bridge- 
port, Conn.,  struck  against  an  award  of  the  board 
but  on  the  President's  threat  of  unemployment 
enforced  by  governmental  agencies,  they  returned 
to  work.  Finally,  the  Smith  and  Wesson  Com- 
pany in  Springfield,  Mass.,  manufacturing  fire- 
arms, refused  to  abide  by  the  board's  warning  not 
to  discriminate  against  union  employees,  and  the 
President  retaliated  by  ordering  the  War  Depart- 
ment to  take  over  the  factory.  " — J.  R.  Commons 
and  J.  B.  .Andrews,  Principles  oj  labor  legislation 
(2nd  ed.),  pp.  145-146- 

".\fter  the  armistice  was  signed  .  .  .  there  were 
very  many  cases  in  which  both  employers  and  em- 
ployees disregarded  complaints  to  the  [War  Labor] 
Board  and  refused  to  submit  to  its  jurisdiction  and 
carry  out  its  findings.  Shortly  after  the  armistice 
the  Board  decided  not  to  entertain  complaints  after 
December  5,  iqi8,  unless  both  sides  agreed  to 
abide  by  its  award  or  unless  the  President,  through 
the  Secretary  of  Labor,  specially  requested  the 
Board  to  hear  the  case.  In  the  absence  of  the  ex- 
treme pressure  for  uninterrupted  production,  which 
had  accompanied  the  war,  the  influence  of  the 
Board  grew  le.ss  and  less  until  finally  on  June  25, 
iqiq,  the  Board  by  resolution  decided  to  receive 
no  more  new  cases  or  applications,  to  finish  up 
its  work,  and  to  transfer  its  records  and  files  to 
the  Department  of  Labor.  [It  ceased  to  exist  on 
August  1 2. 1" — .•\.  M.  Bing,  War-time  strikes  and 
their  adjustment,  pp.  121-122. 

1918-1919.  —  Failure  in  Seattle  shipyards 
strike.  See  Labor  strikes  and  boycotts:  iqiS- 
iqiq:   Seattle  general  strike. 

1918-1919. — New  York  harbor  strike.  See  La- 
bor .strikfs  and  boycotts:  iqi8-iqiq:  New  York 
harbor  strikes. 

1918-1919. — War  labor  boards  and  the  cloth- 
ing industry. — On  October  28,  iqi8,  the  joint 
board    of    the   children's  clothing   grades   began    a 


427 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


general  strike  to  enforce  the  demand  for  the  es- 
tablishment of.  the  forty-four  hour  week  and  for 
wage  increases  of  20  per  cent.  "In  the  midst  of 
negotiations  with  Dr.  William  Z.  Ripley,  Adminis- 
trator of  Labor  Standards  for  Army  Clothing,  lead- 
ing to  arbitration  of  the  demands,  the  American 
Men's  and  Boys'  Clothing  Manufacturers'  Associa- 
tion on  November  g  locked  out  the  workers  in  the 
men's  clothing  industry,  adding  50,000  to  the  num- 
ber on  strike  in  the  children's  clothing  trade.  The 
New  York  Joint  Board  of  the  Amalgamated 
Clothing  Workers  on  November  11  called  out  all 
workers  from  independent  factories  in  a  general 
strike  to  light  the  lockout  and  to  enforce  demands 
for  the  forty-four  hour  week  and  for  wage  in- 
creases. The  demand  for  the  reduction  in  the 
work  week  was  made  primarily  to  provide  places 
in  the  shops  for  thousands  of  clothing  workers  who 
had  entered  the  nation's  fighting  forces  and  to 
ensure  employment  in  civilian  clothing  factories  of 
the  workers  who  had  been  making  military  cloth- 
ing. .  .  .  The  conclusion  of  the  New  York  strike 
was  brought  about  at  conferences  initiated  by 
Chairman  Felix  Frankfurter  of  the  War  Labor 
Policies  Board.  Frankfurter  on  January  15  invited 
both  parties  to  come  together  to  discuss  possible 
means  of  ending  strife  in  the  clothing  industry.  At 
a  meeting  with  Frankfurter  the  union  and  the  em- 
ployers' association  agreed  to  continue  conferences 
with  an  Advisory  Board  composed  of  Frankfurter, 
Dr.  William  Z.  Ripley  and  Louis  Marshall.  The 
Adviron.'  Board  on  Januar>'  22  [igio]  recommend- 
ed the  establishment  of  the  forty-four  hour  week 
not  only  for  the  New  York  market  affected  by  the 
general  strike  but  also  throughout  the  clothing  in- 
dustry. The  .Advisory  Board  urged  the  scientific 
computation  of  the  effect  of  the  increased  cost  of 
living  before  the  granting  of  wage  increases  and 
recommended  the  selection  of  an  impartial  chairman 
to  adjust  differences  in  the  shops.  The  award  of 
the  Advisory  Board  was  approved  at  mass  meetings 
of  the  strikers  on  January  23,  and  the  return  to 
work,  with  the  forty-four  hour  week  established, 
was  begun  on  January  27.  George  R.  Bell,  Execu- 
tive Officer  of  the  National  War  Labor  Policies 
Board,  left  that  post  on  February  11  to  become 
Impartial  Chairman  in  the  relations  between  the 
Amalgamated  and  the  New  York  Employers'  .As- 
sociation and  the  machinery  for  amicable  relations 
was  established." — I.  W.  Bird,  Strike  of  the  Amal- 
gamated Clothing  Workers  of  America  (American 
labor  year  book,  iqio-iq20,  pp.  166-167). — In  the 
summer  of  1Q18  the  Cleveland  cloakmaker  unions, 
affiliated  with  the  International  Ladies'  Garment 
Workers'  Union,  presented  demands  to  their  em- 
ployers for  a  raise  in  wages,  standard  union  hours, 
■with  a  request  that  these  demands  be  arbitrated. 
The  refusal  by  the  employers  to  grant  the  cloak- 
makers'  demands  was  followed  by  a  general  strike. 
"The  National  War  Labor  Board  and  Secretary 
of  War  Baker,  however,  quickly  took  a  hand  in 
the  situation.  The  War  Department  asked  both 
sides  to  agree  to  arbitration,  and  the  manufacturers 
.  .  .  accepted  the  invitation.  Sccretarv-  Baker 
forthwith  appomted  a  Board  of  Referees,  headed 
by  President  Hopkins  of  Dartmouth  College,  then 
an  assistant  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  which  took 
up  the  grievances  of  the  workers  for  investigation 
with  powers  of  awarding  an  adjudication.  The 
workers  meanwhile  returned  to  their  shops.  .  .  . 
After  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  conditions  of  the 
cloak  trade  in  Cleveland  and  elsewhere,  the  earn- 
ings of  the  workers  and  their  standards  of  work, 
the  referees  rendered  a  decision  w'hich  was  highly 
favorable  to  the  workers.  Later  this  decision  was 
amplified;  it  provided  for  a  scale  of  wages  cover- 

428 


ing  every  part  and  section  of  the  trade  and  for 
its  thoroughness  was  equal  to  the  best  scales  in 
the  union  towns  in  the  East.  It  recognized  shop 
committees  and  also  recommended  a  Board  of  Ar- 
bitration to  pass  upon  matters  that  could  not  be 
settled  between  the  union  and  the  employers. 
These  were  the  maximum  demands  to  which  the 
Cleveland  workers  had  ever  aspired." — M.  Danish, 
Cleveland  cloakmakers'  strike  (American  labor 
year  book,   igiQ-1920,   p.   175). 

1919. — Bituminous  coal  strike.  See  Labor 
STRIKES  AND  BOYCOTTS:  igig;  Bituminous  coal 
strike. 

1919-1920. — Industrial  conferences  called  by 
President. — Proposed  remedy  for  strikes. — On  a 
call  by  President  Wilson,  the  industrial  conference 
met  in  Washington  Oct.  6,  igig.  It  was  composed  of 
three  groups,  which  represented  the  public,  the 
employers  and  the  employees;  the  secretary  of  the 
interior,  Franklin  K.  Lane,  was  elected  the  perma- 
nent chairman.  Lack  of  harmony  in  the  confer- 
ence was  soon  evident.  On  October  22,  Mr.  Gom- 
pers  offered  a  resolution  recognizing  the  right  of 
workers  to  organize,  to  bargain  collectively  and  to 
be  represented  by  leaders  of  their  own  choice;  the 
employers'  group  opposed  it  and  the  employees' 
group  withdrew  from  the  conference.  The  second 
industrial  conference,  representing  only  the  public, 
was  convened  by  President  Wilson  on  December 
I,  igiQ.  Before  the  end  of  that  month  it  issued 
"a  tentative  plan  of  machinery  to  adjust  disputes 
in  general  industry  by  conference,  conciliation,  in- 
quirv'  and  arbitration."  The  conference  reconvened 
on  January  12,  iq2o,  and  issued  its  report  on  March 
6,  ig20.  Its  chairman  was  William  B.  Wilson, 
secretary  of  labor,  and  its  vice-chairman,  Herbert 
Hoover.  The  report  says:  "The  Conference  now 
proposes  joint  organization  of  management  and 
employees  as  a  means  of  preventing  misunder- 
standing and  of  securing  cooperative  effort.  It 
has  modified  the  tentative  plan  of  adjustment  so 
as  to  diminish  the  field  of  arbitration  and  enlarge 
the  scope  of  voluntary  settlement  by  agreement. 
.■\s  modified  the  plan  makes  machinery  available 
for  collective  bargaining,  with  only  incidental  and 
limited  arbitration.  The  Conference  has  extended 
the  plan  to  cover  disputes  affecting  public  utilities 
other  than  steam  railroads  and  it  has  enlarged  it  to 
cover  the  services  of  public  employees.  .  .  .  Indus- 
trial problems  vary  not  only  with  each  industry 
but  in  each  establishment.  Therefore,  the  strategic 
place  to  begin  battle  with  misunderstanding  is 
within  the  industrial  plant  itself.  Primarily  the 
settlement  must  come  from  the  bottom,  not  from 
the  top.  The  Conference  finds  that  joint  organiza- 
tion of  management  and  employees  where  under- 
taken with  sincerity  and  good  will  has  a  record  of 
success.  ...  It  is  not  a  field  for  legislation,  be- 
cause the  form  which  employee  representation 
should  take  may  vary  in  every  plant.  The  Con- 
ference, therefore,  does  not  direct  this  recommenda- 
tion to  legislators  but  to  managers  and  employees. 
If  the  joint  organization  of  management  and  em- 
ployees in  the  plant  or  industry  fails  to  reach  a 
collective  agreement,  or  if  without  such  joint  or- 
ganization, disputes  arise  which  are  not  settled  by 
existing  agencies,  then  the  Conference  proposes  a 
system  of  settlement  close  at  hand  and  under 
governmental  encouragement,  and  a  minimum  of 
regulation.  The  entrance  of  the  Government  into 
these  problems  should  be  to  stimulate  further 
cooperation.  The  system  of  settlement  consists 
of  a  plan,  nation-wide  in  scope,  with  a  National 
Industrial  Board,  local  Regional  Conferences  and 
Boards  of  Inquiry.  .  .  .  The  plan  provides  ma- 
chinery for  prompt  and  fair  adjustment  of  wages 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


and  working  conditions  of  government  employees. 
It  is  especially  necessary  for  this  class  of  employees, 
who  should  not  be  permitted  to  strike.  The  plan 
involves  no  penalties  other  than  those  imposed  by 
public  opinion.  It  does  not  iinpose  compulsory 
arbitration.  It  does  not  deny  the  right  to  strike. 
It  does  not  submit  to  arbitration  the  policy  of 
the  'closed'  or  'open'  shop.  The  plan  is  national 
in  scope  and  operation,  yet  it  is  decentralized.  It 
is  different  from  anything  in  operation  elsewhere. 
It  is  based  upon  American  experience  and  is  de- 
signed to  meet  American  conditions.  It  employs 
no  legal  authority  except  the  right  of  inquiry.  Its 
basic  idea  is  stimulation  to  settlement  of  differ- 
ences by  the  parties  in  conflict,  and  the  enlistment 
of  public  opinion  toward  enforcing  that  method  of 
settlement."  The  general  outline  is  as  follows: 
"The  United  States  shall  be  divided  into  a  speci- 
fied number  of  industrial  regions,  in  each  of  which 
there  shall  be  a  chairman.  Whenever  a  dispute 
arises  in  a  region,  which  can  not  be  settled  by  ex- 
isting machinery,  the  regional  chairman  may  re- 
quest each  side  to  submit  the  dispute  to  a  Regional 
Adjustment  Conference,  to  be  composed  of  two 
representatives  from  each  side,  parties  to  the  dis- 
pute, and  two  representatives  to  be  selected  by 
each  side  from  the  panels  herein  provided  for.  The 
regional  chairman  shall  preside  but  not  vote  at  the 
Conference.  If  the  Conference  reaches  a  unanimous 
agreement  it  shall  be  regarded  as  a  collective  bar- 
gain between  the  parties  to  the  dispute  and  shall 
have  the  force  and  effect  of  a  trade  agreement. 
If  the  Conference  does  not  reach  an  agreement  and 
the  disagreement  relates  to  wages,  hours  or  working 
conditions,  it  shall  make  a  finding  of  the  material 
facts,  and  state  the  reasons  why  it  was  unable  to 
reach  an  agreement.  The  regional  chairman  shall 
report  such  finding  and  statement  to  the  National 
Industrial  Board  herein  provided  for,  which  shall 
determine  the  matters  so  submitted  as  arbitrator. 
If  the  National  Industrial  Board  shall  reach  a 
unanimous  agreement,  it  shall  report  its  determina- 
tion back  to  the  Regional  Adjustment  Conference, 
which  shall  in  accordance  therewith  state  the  agree- 
ment between  the  parties  to  the  dispute  the  same 
as  if  the  Conference  had  reached  a  unanimous  con- 
clusion. If  the  National  Industrial  Board  shall 
fail  to  reach  a  unanimous  conclusion,  it  shall  make 
majority  and  minority  reports  and  transmit  them 
to  the  regional  chairman,  who  shall  immediately 
publish  such  reports,  or  such  adequate  abstracts 
thereof,  as  may  be  necessary  to  inform  the  public 
of  the  material  facts  and  the  reasons  why  the 
Board  was  unable  to  reach  an  agreement.  If  the 
Conference  does  not  reach  an  agreement  and  its 
disagreement  relates  to  matters  other  than  wages, 
hours,  or  working  conditions,  it  shall  make  and 
publish  its  report,  or  majority  and  minority  re- 
ports stating  the  material  facts  and  the  reasons 
why  it  was  unable  to  reach  an  agreement.  If  the 
parties  to  the  dispute  so  desire,  they  may  select 
an  umpire  to  act  as  arbitrator  in  place  of  the 
National  Industrial  Board,  and  in  such  case,  the 
determination  of  the  umpire  shall  be  transmitted 
to  the  Regional  Adjustment  Conference  with  the 
same  force  and  effect  as  a  determination  by  the 
National  Industrial  Board.  The  appointment  of 
representatives  to  the  Regional  Conference  consti- 
tutes a  voluntary  agreement,  (a)  that  there  shall 
be  no  cessation  of  production  during  the  processes 
of  adjustment,  (b)  to  accept  as  an  effective  col- 
lective bargain  the  unanimous  agreement  of  the 
Regional  Adjustment  Conference,  (c)  to  accept  as 
an  effective  collective  bargain,  (in  case  of  failure 
of  the  Regional  Adjustment  Conference)  the  de- 
cision of  a  mutually  chosen  umpire,  (d)  to  accept 


as  an  effective  collective  bargain,  (in  case  of  fail- 
ure of  the  Regional  Adjustment  Conference,  or 
upon  failure  of  the  parties  to  agree  upon  an  um- 
pire) the  unanimous  decision  of  the  National  In- 
dustrial Board  upon  wages,  hours  and  working 
conditions.  If  both  parties  to  the  dispute  refuse 
to  submit  it  to  a  Regional  Adjustment  Conference 
through  the  failure  to  appoint  representatives 
within  the  time  allowed,  the  chairman  shall  or- 
ganize forthwith,  a  Regional  Board  of  Inquiry,  con- 
sisting of  two  employers  from  the  top  of  the  em- 
ployers' panel  for  the  industry  concerned,  and  two 
employees  from  the  top  of  the  employees'  panel 
for  the  craft  or  crafts  concerned.  The  four  so 
chosen  with  the  chairman  shall  constitute  the 
Board  of  Inquiry.  If  either  side  shall  have  selected 
representatives,  and  thereby  agreed  to  submit  to 
the  process  of  adjustment  of  the  dispute,  such  rep- 
resentatives may  select  two  names  from  their  panel 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  a  Regional  .Adjustment 
Conference.  Such  representatives  of  ttie  party  to 
the  dispute,  may  sit  on  the  Board  of  Inquiry  and 
take  full  part  as  members  thereof.  The  six  thus 
selected,  with  the  chairman,  shall  thereafter  con- 
stitute the  Board  of  Inquiry.  The  Board  of  In- 
quiry shall  proceed  forthwith  to  investigate  the 
dispute,  and  make  and  publish  its  report,  and  if  not 
in  agreement,  its  majority  and  minority  reports,  in 
order  that  the  public  may  know  the  facts  material 
to  the  dispute,  and  the  points  of  difference  between 
the  parties  to  it." — Report  of  industrial  conference 
called  by  the  president,  pp.  5,  7,  8,  13,  14. 

1920-1921. — Kansas  Court  of  Industrial  Rela- 
tions.— "The  Kansas  law  [of  January,  ig2ol  cre- 
ates a  Court  of  Industrial  Relations  [organized 
February  2,  1920]  consisting  of  three  judges,  whose 
term  of  office  is  three  years  [and  who  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor].  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  is  over  the  manufacture  of  food  or  clothing, 
the  mining  of  fuel,  the  transportation  of  these  com- 
modities and  over  public  utilities.  .  .  .  These  in- 
dustries are  declared  by  the  Kansas  law  to  be 
'affected  with  a  public  interest.'  In  these  indus- 
tries there  must  be  no  strikes,  and  there  must  be 
no  suspension  without  the  permission  of  the  indus- 
trial court.  The  penalties  for  violation  of  the  law 
are,  if  by  a  'person'  $1,000,  or  one  year  in  jail, 
or  both;  if  by  an  official  of  a  union  or  a  corpora- 
tion $5,000,  or  two  years  in  jail,  or  both.  The 
court  may  intervene  in  the  case  of  an  industrial 
dispute,  either  on  its  own  motion  or  when  requested 
to  do  so  by  either  one  of  the  parties,  or  on  the 
appeal  of  ten  citizens,  or  on  the  complaint  of  the 
attorney-general  of  the  state.  It  may  issue  a  tem- 
porary award  at  the  outset  and  then  after  its 
investigation  a  final  award.  The  final  award  is  to 
be  retroactive,  so  that  if  wages  are  raised  the  em- 
ployees will  be  entitled  to  back  pay  from  the  date 
that  the  investigation  began.  If  the  result  is  the 
reduction  of  wages  the  employees  will  have  to  pay 
back  to  the  employer  the  amount  that  they  have 
received  over  and  above  the  amount  awarded  by 
the  court.  The  court  must  proceed  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  of  evidence  as  laid  down  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  state.  There  are  certain 
protective  features.  Wages  and  profits  are  to  be 
'reasonable.'  The  workers  are  not  to  be  discharged 
on  account  of  testimony  given  before  the  court,  the 
employer  is  not  to  be  boycotted  for  anything  he 
has  done  in  connection  with  the  court,  and  the 
right  of  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  stale 
by  either  side  is  affirmed." — J.  A.  Fitch,  Govern- 
ment coercion  in  labor  disputes  (Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
Juh',  1020,  pp.  76-77). — "The  Industrial  Welfare 
Commission  and  the  Department  of  Labor  of  the 


429 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


ARBITRATION,  INDUSTRIAL 


State  of  Kansas  passed  out  of  existence  March 
i6,  iQJ!!,  a  bill  having  passed  the  legislature  con- 
solidating these  two  with  the  Industrial  Court." — 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Monthly 
Labor  Review,  April,  1921,  p.  188. — "The  first  an- 
nual report  of  the  Kansas  Court  of  Industrial  Re- 
lations covers  a  period  of  ten  months,  from  the 
establishment  of  the  court  February  i,  ig;o,  to 
November  30,  ig20.  The  law  providing  for  the 
court  conferred  upon  it  the  duty  of  carrying  on 
the  work  of  the  public  utilities  commission,  so 
that  the  two  undertakings  have  gone  on  side  by 
side.  On  the  industrial  side  only  28  cases  were 
actually  filed  during  the  period.  Of  these,  25  were 
filed  by  labor  and  i  by  capital,  while  2  were  in- 
vestigations initiated  by  the  court.  Of  the  25 
cases  tiled  by  labor,  20  received  formal  reco.^nition 
and  decision.  In  13  cases  a  wage  increase  was 
granted,  in  2  only  working  conditions  were  in- 
volved, in  3  wages  were  found  to  be  fair  so  that 
no  increase  was  allowed,  while  in  i  the  complaint 
of  the  employees  was  satisfied  by  the  action  of 
the  employers,  the  court  simply  approving  the  set- 
tlement made.  The  remaining  case  was  merely 
referee  action  on  a  collective  agreement.  .  .  .  Only 
low-paid  labor,  as  a  rule,  has  been  before  the 
court — a  situation  naturally  resulting  from  the  ob- 
ject of  the  law  to  establish  a  minimum  wage." — 
Ibid.,  June,  iq2i,  p.  133. — "Employers  arc  forbid- 
den to  discharge  employees  because  of  testimony 
given  before  the  Court  but  no  immunity  is  pro- 
vided for  discharge  on  account  of  union  member- 
ship or  activity,  and  inasmuch  as  strikes  are  for- 
bidden, it  would  seem  as  though  the  workers  were 
without  any  protection  against  the  breaking  up 
of  their  unions  by  systematic  discriminatory  dis- 
charges. The  enactment  of  this  law  was  vigorously 
opposed  both  by  organized  labor  and  by  many  em- 
ployers and  since  its  passage  labor  unions  all  over 
the  country  have  made  it  the  target  for  bitter  at- 
tacks. President  Howatt  of  the  Kansas  [coal] 
miners  and  a  number  of  his  associates  were  im- 
prisoned because  of  their  refusal  to  testify  before 
the  Court,  and  both  the  enactment  of  the  law 
[and]  .  .  .  the  imprisonment  of  Mr.  Howatt  re- 
sulted in  strikes  of  the  miners.  .  .  .  Governor  Al- 
len toured  the  country  explaining  the  nature  of  the 
new  Court  and  urging  other  states  to  adopt  similar 
measures,  and  bills  patterned  after  the  Kansas  sta- 
tute having  been  introduced  in  the  legislatures 
of  a  number  of  states." — A.  M.  Bing,  War-time 
strikes  and  their  adjustment,  pp.  146-147. 

1920-1921. — One  national  and  one  local  arbi- 
tration agreement. — .•Xs  examples  of  non-govern- 
mcntal  attempts  to  provide  conciliation  and  arbi- 
tration facilities,  the  following  are  described,  one 
dealing  naturally  with  the  electrical  construction 
industry  and  the  other  with  the  building  industry 
in  San  Francisco.  "As  a  result  of  joint  meetings 
of  five  representatives  each  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Electrical  Contractors  and  Dealers  and 
of  the  National  Brotherhood  of  Electrical  Work- 
ers, the  following  plan  was  drawn  up  early  in  1920 
and  adopted  in  April  [of  the  same  year]  .  .  .  , 
providing  for  the  creation  of  a  council  of  indus- 
trial relations  for  the  electrical  construction  indus- 
try in  the  United  States  and  Canada  [the  foregoing 
being  adopted  as  the  council's  official  name].  The 
purposes  of  this  council  are  stated  to  be  the  'pro- 
motion of  peace  and  harmony  in  the  electrical  in- 
dustry, the  adjudication  of  disputes  between  em- 
ployers and  employees,  the  establishment  of  friendly 
relations  between  all  parties  interested,  which 
should  ultimately  result  in  the  elimination  of  dis- 
trust, suspicion,  and  the  wasteful  methods  of  the 
old-fashioned   strikes  and   lockouts.'     The   plan   is 


voluntary,  no  local  union  or  employer  being  com- 
pelled to  refer  a  case  to  the  council.  [Certain  sec- 
tions from  the  text  of  the  plan  follow]  .  .  .  '(3) 
That  the  Council  shall  consist  of  five  representa- 
tives appointed  by  each  of  the  [two]  member  or- 
ganizations. .  .  .  (11)  That  the  council  shall  adopt 
the  following  procedure  in  the  adjustment  of  dis- 
putes; When  a  dispute  arises  which  can  not  be 
adjusted  by  the  existing  local  machinery,  and  notice 
to  that  effect  is  received  by  the  secretary  of  the 
council,  from  either  of  the  parties  to  the  dispute, 
the  secretary  of  the  council  after  investigation  may, 
if  circumstances  warrant,  request  each  side  to  sub- 
mit the  dispute  to  a  board  of  conciliation  to  be 
composed  of  two  representatives  from  each  side, 
parties  to  the  dispute,  and  one  representative  to  be 
selected  by  the  council  who  shall  act  as  chairman 
but  cast  no  vote.  The  appointment  of  representa- 
tives by  the  parties  to  the  dispute  to  act  for  them 
on  the  board  of  conciliation  shall  constitute  a 
voluntary  agreement  between  the  parties  to  accept 
as  an  effective  agreement  between  them  the  unani- 
mous decision  of  the  board  of  conciliation.  If  the 
board  of  conciliation  does  not  reach  an  agreement 
it  shall  make  a  finding  of  the  material  facts  and 
state  the  reasons  why  it  has  been  unable  to  reach 
an  agreement.  The  chairmin  shall  report  such 
finding  and  statement  to  the  council  and  the  coun- 
cil shall  determine  the  matters  so  submitted  as 
arbitrator.  If  the  council  reaches  a  unanimous 
agreement,  it  shall  report  its  decision  back  to  the 
board  of  conciliation  through  its  chairman,  and  the 
board  shall  then  state  the  agreement  between  the 
parties  to  the  dispute  the  same  as  if  the  board 
itself  had  reached  a  unanimous  decision.  If  the 
council  shall  fail  to  reach  a  unanimous  decision  it 
shall  make  majority  and  minority  reports  and 
transmit  them  to  the  chairman  of  the  board  of 
conciliation  who  shall  immediately  publish  them 
in  order  to  inform  the  public  of  the  material  facts 
and  the  reasons  why  the  council  has  been  unable 
to  reach  an  agreement.' " — United  States  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics,  Monthly  Labor  Review,  March 
1921,  pp.  126-127. — ".\11  present  and  future  dis- 
|)Utcs  [written  in  January,  192 1]  relating  to  wages, 
hours,  and  working  conditions  in  the  building 
trades  in  San  Francisco  will  be  submitted  to  a  per- 
manent arbitration  board  for  adjustment  under  an 
agreement  recently  signed  by  the  San  Francisco 
Building  Trades  Council  representing  the  workers 
and  the  San  Francisco  Builders'  Exchange  repre- 
senting employers.  The  board  consist  of  three 
members,  .  .  .  [the]  Archbishop  of  San  Francisco, 
.  .  .  fal  former  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
California,  and  ...  [a]  consultant  in  industrial 
relations  and  management.  The  findings  and  de- 
cision of  the  board  in  each  case  will  be  accepted 
as  final  by  the  parties  to  the  agreement  The 
board  may  initiate  investigations  into  all  conditions 
affecting  the  building  trades  and  is  empowered  to 
call  for  contracts  of  agreements  pertaining  to  any 
phase  of  the  building  situation.  The  hearings  arc 
to  be  public  unless  the  board  decides  othervvlss  and 
the  expense  of  operation  is  to  be  borne  equally  by 
each  party." — Ibid.,  p.  12S. 

.\lso  in:  a.  E.  Suffern,  Conciliation  and  arbitra- 
tion in  the  coal  industry  of  America. — G.  E.  Bar- 
nctt  and  D.  A.  McCabe,  Mediation.  investif:,ation 
and  arbitration  in  industrial  disputes. — D.  Knoop, 
Industrial  conciliation  and  arbitration. — J.  H. 
Cohen,  Law  and  order  in  industry. — M.  T.  Rankin, 
.Arbitration  and  conciliation  in  Australasia. — J.  N. 
Stockett,  Arbitral  determination  of  railway  wages. 
— F.  J.  Warne,  Workers  at  war.  pp.  79-139. — W.  F. 
Willoughby,  Government  organization  in  war  time 
and  after,  pp.  221-257. 


430 


ARBOGAST 


ARCH 


ARBOGAST  (d.  394),  officer  in  the  Roman 
army,  though  a  barbarian  (probably  a  Frank).  In 
388  overcame  Maximus  and  pacified  Gaul;  made 
chief  minister  for  Valentinian  II  by  Theodosius. 
Overthrew  Valentinian  and  invaded  Italy,  but  was 
defeated  at  Frigidus. — See  also  Rome:  379-395. 

ARBOR  DAY,  a  day  set  aside  by  most  of  the 
states  of  the  United  States  of  America  for  the 
planting  of  trees.  In  1872  J.  Sterling  Morton  of 
the  Nebraska  state  board  of  agriculture  success- 
fully inaugurated  the  plan,  which  received  official 
recognition  in  1S74  and  spread  rapidly  to  other 
states.  The  date  is  not  uniform  in  the  different 
states;  in  the  North  it  is  May  or  near  that  date, 
while  in  the  South  it  is  much  earlier, 

ARBUCKLE,  Matthew  (1776-1851),  American 
brigadier-general,  established  Forts  Gibson  and 
Towson  in.  1S24.    See  Oklahoma:   1806-1824. 

ARBUTHNOT,  Harriot  (1711-1794),  British 
admiral     See  U.  S.  A.:  1780  (July). 

ARBUTHNOT,  Sir  Robert  Keith  (1864- 
1916),  British  rear-admiral.  Commanded  ist  cruis- 
er squadron  in  battle  of  Jutland  (May  31,  1916), 
losing  three  of  his  four  ships  (the  Defence,  War- 
rior and  Blaek  Prince)  and  being  killed  in  action. 
— See  also  World  War:  1916:  IX.  Naval  opera- 
tions: a,  1;   also  a,  9. 

ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  DE  L'ETOILE, 
("triumphal  arch  of  the  star"),  largest  triumphal 
arch  in  the  world,  begun  in  1806  by  Napoleon  I 
but  not  completed  until  1836.  It  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  Champs  Elyses,  Paris,  and  commemo- 
rates the  triumphs  of  the  Revolutionary  and  Na- 
poleonic troops.  Famous  not  only  for  its  archi- 
tectural features  but  also  for  the  beautiful  sculp- 
tured monuments  on  its  fai;ades. — See  also  Arch. 

ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  DU  CARROUSEL 
("triumphal  arch  of  the  tilting  match"),  an  arch 
built  at  Paris  by  Napoleon  I  to  commemorate  his 
victories  of  1805-1806.  It  stands  in  the  square  en- 
closed by  the  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre,  and  is  a 
smaller  copy  of  the  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome 
— See  also  .\kch. 

ARC  LAMP.  See  Electrical  discovery:  Elec- 
tric light. 

ARCADE,  "a  system  or  range  of  arches,  sup- 
ported on  columns,  e.g.,  the  range  of  arches  and 
columns  on  each  side  of  the  nave  of  a  cathedral 
or  church.  When  used  as  an  embellishment  of 
exterior  or  interior  walls,  it  is  distinguished  as 
Open  or  Blind  ,\rcade,  according  as  it  is  detached 
from  or  attached  to  the  plane  of  the  >vall." — 
C.  H.  Caffin,  How  to  study  architecture,  p.  480. — 
The  earliest  arcade  was  in  the  palace  of  Diocletion 
in  Dalmatia  built  c.300.  During  the  middle  ages 
the  use  of  the  arcade  increased ;  the  most  noted 
example  of  a  Gothic  arcade  is  in  the  cathedral  of 
Pisa.  Beautiful  street  arcades  are  employed  in 
Bologna  and  Paris. 

ARCADELT,  Jacob  (1,514-1556),  one  of  the 
most  prominent  among  the  distinguished  Flemish 
musicians  who  taught  in  Italy  in  the  i6th  century. — 
See  also  Mtisic:  16th  century:  Transition  period. 

ARCADIA,  the  central'  district  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  great  southern  peninsula  of  Greece,  some- 
times called  "the  Switzerland  of  Greece."  It  is  "a 
country  consisting  of  ridges  of  hills  and  elevated 
plains,  and  of  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  with 
streams  flowing  through  channels  formed  by  precip- 
itous rocks;  a  country  so  manifestly  separated  by 
nature  from  the  rest  of  the  Peloponnesus  that,  al- 
though not  politically  united,  it  was  always  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  a  single  community."^— C.  O. 
Miiller,  History  and  antiquity  of  the  Doric  race, 
bk.  I.  ch.  4. — Arcadia  played  an  important  part  in 
Greek  history  owing  to  its  strategic  position  be- 


tween Sparta  and  the  isthmus  (of  Morca).  The 
Spartans'  attempts  to  force  a  passage  thiough  the 
central  plateau  met  with  continual  resistance  from 
the  Arcadian  cities.  (See  Greece:  B.C.  480: 
Wars:  Thermopylae).  It  was  not  until  the  sec- 
ond Messenian  war  that  the  land  was  finally  sub- 
jugated. Subsequent  rebellions  against  Sparta's 
rule  were  easily  quelled.  In  420  B.  C,  however,  the 
various  cities,  with  the  aid  of  Ar,;os,  consolidated, 
with  the  object  of  establishing  their  independence. 
(See  Greece:  B.C.  421-418.)  This  attempt  failed, 
as  did  a  subsequent  one  in  371  (see  Greece:  B.C. 
371)  when  the  .Arcadians  suffered  a  disasterous 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Spartans  (368).  With 
the  formation  of  the  Achsean  and  the  Aetolian 
leagues  (q.  v.)  Arcadia  once  more  became  the 
battle-ground  for  the  Spartan  and  Macedonian 
armies,  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  cities  were 
divided  in  their  allegiance  between  the  two  pow- 
ers. Several  centuries  later  the  country  suffered 
greatly  from  the  internal  disputes  of  its  Frankish 
barons  (1205- 1460).  Partly  because  of  the  way  it 
was  used  by  the  later  Roman  poets,  the  name, 
.Arcadia,  has  come  to  signify  an  idyllic  land  of 
pastoral  simplicity  and  innocence. — See  also 
Greece:   B.C.  371-362,  357-336,  280-146. 

ARCADIAN  ACADEMY.  See  Italian  litera- 
ture: 1000-,  800. 

ARCADIUS  (378-408),  Roman  emperor,  first 
emperor  of  the  east.  During  his  reign  the  control 
of  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  a  series  of 
advisers  and  favorites.  His  rule  was  marked  by 
the  invasion  of  the  Goths  and  the  spread  of 
Arianism. — See   also   Rome:    Empire:   394-395. 

ARCEUIL   AQUEDUCT.     See  Aqueducts. 

ARCH,  Joseph  (1826-1919),  English  social  re- 
former; founder  of  the  National  Agricultural  La- 
borers' JJnion  in  1872;  member  of  Parliament 
1885-1886,  and  1895-1900. 

ARCH,  "generally,  a  structure  supported  at  the 
sides  or  ends  and  composed  of  pieces,  no  one  of 
which  spans  the  whole  interval.  Specifically,  a 
structure  involving  one  or  more  curves,  supported 
at  the  sides,  spanning  an  opening  and  capable  of 
supporting  weight.  Distinguished  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  curve,  as,  segmental,  semi-circular, 
ogee,  pointed,  horseshoe,  four-centred,  trefoil, 
cinquefoil,  and  multifoil.  Arches  involving  straight 
lines  as  well  as  curved,  are  known  as  'shouldered.' " 
— C.  H,  Caffin,  How  to  study  architecture,  p.  480. 
— The  arch  was  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Babylon- 
ians, Assyrians,  Greeks  and  Etruscans;  but  the 
Romans  were  the  first  to  use  it  as  a  dominant 
feature  of  both  external  and  internal  design,  es- 
pecially in  secular  buildings.  Later  in  Europe 
the  arch  became  so  great  a  feature  in  the  con- 
struction of  ecclesiastical  edifices  as  to  charac- 
terize distinct  periods  of  architecture,  notably  the 
Romanesque,  or  round-arched,  style  and  the  more 
pointed  (jothic,  (See  also  Architecture,)  Tri- 
umphal or  memorial  arches,  spanning  a  road,  are 
built  to  commemorate  great  military  triumphs, 
successful  campaigns,  or  great  events  of  peace.  Al- 
though temporary  arches  such  as  those  of  the  p'cs- 
ent  day  were  erected  in  early  Greece  and  Etruria, 
the  Romans  were  the  first  to  erect  such  structures 
in  stone  or  marble  and  to  enrich  them  with  sculp- 
ture or  to  raise  on  their  summit  the  quadriga  with 
statues  and  trophies.  There  are  two  types  of 
arches:  the  single  arches  and  those  having  a  central 
and  two  side  arches  which  often  displayed  great 
skill  in  architectural  as  well  as  sculptural  design. 
Several  of  the  most  famous  are:  the  arch  of  Titus, 
the  arch  of  Trajan  recording  the  Dacian  victories, 
the  arches  of  Septimius  Severus,  Constantine,  St. 
Rcmy,    Orange,    and    the    Arc    dc    Triomphe    de 


431 


ARCH^ANAKTIDAE 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


I'Etoile. — See  also  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  L'£toile; 
Arc  de  Triomphe  du  Carrousel;  .\RCHirECTURE: 
Oriental:  India:  Moslem  architecture:  1300-1700. 

ARCH^ANAKTIDAE  OLIGARCHY.  See 
Bosporus:   Citv  and  kinedom. 

ARCH^ffiOLOGICAL^  INSTITUTE  OF 
AMERICA,  a  society  founded  in  Boston  in  1879 
and  incorporated  by  Act  of  Congress  approved 
May  26,  1006,  with  Washington  as  its  head- 
quarters. Its  purpose  is  to  promote  archaeological 
research,  to  increase  and  diffuse  archaeological 
knowledge,  to  stimulate  the  love  of  art,  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  higher  culture  of  the  country.  It 
has  founded  the  .American  School  for  Oriental  Re- 
search in  Jerusalem,  the  American  Schools  for 
Classical  Studies  in  ."Athens  and  in  Rome,  and  the 
School  of  American  .Archeology  in  Santa  Fe.  It 
has  also  departments  of  Medieval  and  Renaissance 
Studies  and  Colonial  and  National  .Art.  It  has 
conducted  notable  excavations  in  .Asia  Minor, 
Greece,  Cyrene,  the  Southwestern  states  and  Cen- 
tral America.  It  publishes  besides  its  reports,  etc., 
a  monthly  illustrated  magazine.  Art  and  Archctol- 
ogy;  a  quarterly,  the  American  Journal  of  Archce- 
ology;  and  a  yearbook,  the  Bulletin  of  the  Archce- 
ological  Institute.  The  society  also  maintains  lec- 
ture circuits  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
thus  bringing  regularly  to  its  members  several 
times  a  year  the  latest  and  most  vital  information 
in  the  fields  of  archeology  and  art.  The  institute 
is  composed  of  affiliated  societies,  located  m  lead- 
ing cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
American  school  at  .Athens  has  been  ably  assisted 
in  some  of  its  undertakings  by  the  School  of 
Classical  Studies  at  Rome,  especially  in  its  ex- 
cavations at  Heraeum  and  Argolid.  The  Car- 
negie Institute  supports  a  fellowship  in  the 
school  at  Athens  and  pays  ?i5oo  yearly"  for  ex- 
cavations. In  1 91 2  the  school  at  Rome  was  ab- 
sorbed by  the  .American  .Academy  at  Rome,  and 
the  American  school  at  Jerusalem  is  working, 
since  the  war,  in  cooperation  with  the  British 
school. 

"The  School  of  .American  .Archeology  was  created 
in  1907  by  the  Council  of  the  Archeological  Insti- 
tute of  America,  with  the  object  of  organizing  and 
giving  direction  to  the  study  in  .America  of  this 
and  cognate  branches,  constituting  the  science  of 
man  in  a  broader  sense — anthropology.  It  is  con- 
trolled by  a  managing  committee  appointed  by 
the  institute,  consisting  of  thirty-three  prominent 
citizens  and  scientists  of  Canada,  the  United  States 
and  Mexico;  and  its  field  of  activity  embraces 
those  countries,  with  the  addition  "of  Central 
America.  .After  canvass  of  various  localities  the 
school  was  located  at  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  be- 
cause it  is  in  the  heart  of  a  vast  region  of  pre- 
historic cultures  upwards  of  i.oob  miles  long  by 
800  miles  wide,  extending  from  Utah  to  southern 
Chihuahua.  It  thus  dominates  a  typical  field  for 
the  investigation  of  the  character  and  probable 
origin  of  the  native  races  of  this  continent. 
The  general  plan  of  the  school  contemplates  that 
a  portion  of  each  year's  work  shall  be  done  in  the 
field,  in  direct  contact  with  the  things  to  be 
studied.  The  first  fully  organized  session  under  this 
plan  was  held  during  the  summer  of  loio  in  the 
region  tributary  to  Santa  Fe,  under  the  personal 
direction  of  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hcwett,  Director  of 
American  .Archeology,  and  of  the  school.  .  .  .  The 
United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology  collaborates 
with  the  school  during  four  months  of  field  work 
and  two  months  for  preparation  of  reports,  under 
the  joint  authority  of  the  chief  of  the  bureau  and 
the  director  of  the  school.  .  .  .  The  bureau,  how- 
ever, has  nothing  to  do  with  the  administration  or 


maintenance  of  the  school — collaboration  being  ar- 
ranged only  for  mutual  benefit,  and  to  avoid  dupli- 
cation of  work  in  the  field." — F.  Springer,  Field 
session  of  the  School  of  American  ArchtEology 
(.Science,  Nov.,  1910). — See  also  Arch.iology:  Im- 
portance of  American  field. 

ARCH.ffi;OLOGY:  DefiniUon.— "The  deriva- 
tion of  the  word  archaeology  gives  little  idea  of  its 
present  use.  'The  study  of  antiquity'  is  at  once 
too  broad  in  scope  and  too  limited  in  time — for  the 
followers  of  a  dozen  other  'ologies'  are  studying 
antiquity,  while  the  archeologist  does  not  confine 
himself  to  that  period.  .  .  .  Actually,  time  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  limitations  of 
archjeology ;  to  think  of  it  as  leaving  off  where 
history  begins,  is  to  misconceive  them  both.  The 
only  proper  limitation  upon  archaeology  lies  in  its 
subject  matter.  I  conceive  that  it  cannot  further 
be  defined  than  as,  'The  scientific  study  of  human 
remains  and  monuments."  .  .  .  The  first  duty  oi 
the  archaeologist  is  to  discover  such  material  and 
to  verify  it;  the  next  is  to  secure  its  preservation, 
preferably  its  actual  tangible  preservation — but  il 
that  is  not  possible,  by  description.  Then  comei 
the  task  of  studying  it,  classifying  and  arranging  it, 
and  making  it  ready  for  use.  At  this  point  the 
function  of  the  archsologist  ceases,  and  the  duty 
of  the  historian  begins — to  interpret  it,  and  to 
bring  it  into  harmony  with  the  recognized  body  of 
information  regarding  the  past.  .  .  .  When  the 
archieologist  ceases  from  the  preparation  of  his  ma- 
terial, and  begins  the  reconstruction  of  the  past, 
he  commences  to  act  as  an  historian." — C.  R.  Fish, 
Relation  of  arcbceology  and  history,  pp.  146-148. — 
".Archaeology  is  the  history  of  civilization  told 
through  its  monuments."  Even  this  definition  nar- 
rows the  field  possibly  mote  than  is  strictly  ad- 
visable, for  archsology,  or,  in  English  parlance,  the 
science  of  antiquities,  is  the  broadest,  most  human 
and  progressive  of  sciences.  Its  scope  includes  man 
and  his  history,  the  material  things  he  has  pro- 
duced, the  causes  that  produced  them,  the  stories 
they  tell,  and  the  feelings  they  evoke.  New  dis- 
coveries are  constantly  adding  to  its  material,  open- 
ing up  fresh  fields,  and  forcing  revisions  of  opinion. 
Such  studies  as  religion  and  mythology,  history, 
politics  and  economics,  arts  and  industries,  man- 
ners and  customs,  now  depend  largely  on  archae- 
ology for  progress  not  only  in  material  but  in 
method.  ...  All  works  of  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting,  of  the  industrial  arts  and  numis- 
matics, everything  from  a  tombstone  to  an  ivory 
carving  or  an  illuminated  manuscript,  belongs  to 
the  domain  of  archeology.  It  is  impossible  to  say 
where  art  ends  and  archeology  begins,  because 
art  is  merely  one  section  of  the  subject.  .  .  .  The 
process  by  which  a  work  of  art  is  characterized 
and  given  its  proper  place,  whether  it  is  temple, 
cathedral,  statue,  or  painted  vase,  is  made  up  of 
elements  both  esthetic  and  archaeological.  For 
instance,  the  use  of  literary  texts,  of  historical 
documents,  of  deductions  from  site,  structure,  cir- 
cumstances of  find,  are  all  in  the  archaeological  do- 
main. Also  when  generalization  as  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  artistic  development  of  any  period  or 
style  are  made,  a?  in  the  case  of  Greek  sculpture 
or  Gothic  architecture,  nearly  all  the  elements  for 
the  construction  of  a  theory  of  artistic  evolution 
are  archaeological.  By  their  means  the  monuments 
are  marshaled  in  ordered  array,  each  made  to  take 
its  place  and  yield  its  secret.  In  other  words, 
without  archaeology  as  a  basis  and  co-efficient, 
esthetics  would  not  exist  except  in  the  form  of 
subjective  effusions  of  doubtful  value.  [See  also 
.Architecture.!  It  is,  then.  archa?ology  which 
creates  the  Historv  of  Art.     Of  course  it  is,  con- 


432 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


Definition 
Significance 


ARCHEOLOGY 


versely,  true  that  complete  appreciation  either  of 
a  single  work  of  art  or  of  any  group  cannot  be  se- 
cured without  the  element  of  esthetic  understand- 
ir;g  which  every  true  archjeoiogist  should  possess. 
.  .  .  Thus  far  archa;ology  has  been  treated  as  fur- 
nishing the  materials  for  exact  knowledge  of  the 
past  through  the  spade  and  through  close  study  and 
observation.  But  it  has  done  far  more  than  this. 
It  has  developed  gradually,  during  the  course  of  a 
century  and  a  half,  certain  valuable  scientific  meth- 
ods by  which  to  utilize  this  material  and  draw  from 
it  the  most  valuable  conclusions.  With  these  new 
methods,  of  which  it  borrowed  the  principles  from 
the  e.xact  sciences,  it  has  inoculated  the  fields  of 
history  and  philology,  helping  to  rid  them  of  much 
loose  and  hypothetical  thinking.  In  fact,  it  has 
given  a  scientific  and  observational  basis  to  a 
large  part  of  the  field  of  the  Humanities.  Its  care- 
ful application  of  the  inductive  and  deductive 
methods  in  gathering  and  analyzing  masses  of  ma- 
terial and  in  using  them  to  formulate  results  and 
to  state  historic  laws  has  made  its  work  often  safer 
than  in  the  case  even  in  some  fields  of  pure  science, 
because  its  data  are  more  abundant  and  complete. 
This  has  not  only  given  their  full  value  to  what  has 
been  discovered,  but  it  has  revolutionized  the  views 
held  of  monuments  always  seen  and  known,  but 
never,  as  we  now  know,  clearly  understood." — A. 
L.  Frothingham,  Where  archwology  comes  in 
(North  American  Review,  v.  104,  Oct.,  igii,  pp. 
580-582). — "The  new  conception,  which  perhaps 
first  came  obviously  forward  in  the  discoveries  of 
prehistoric  man,  is  that  of  materialized  history  in 
place  of  written  history.  The  permanence  of  the 
traces  of  man  and  of  the  results  of  his  acts  and 
works  has  never  been  grasped  till  the  present  gen- 
eration. Even  to  this  day  the  sites  of  ancient 
cities  and  palaces  are  raked  to  pieces  and  destroyed 
in  the  search  for  inscriptions,  regardless  of  the 
great  amount  of  history  shown  in  the  material  re- 
mains, often  much  wider  and  fuller  than  any  that 
is  recovered  from  inscriptions.  The  first  use  to 
which  material  history  is  applied  is  the  confirma- 
tion and  illustration  of  what  is  already  recorded. 
.  .  .  These  confirmations  are  the  least  important 
use  of  material.  The  next  use  of  material  is  to 
fill  out  and  consolidate  the  fragmentary  statements 
or  bare  outlines.  .  .  .  But  the  most  valuable  result 
from  material  history  is  the  extension  of  it  to  ages 
before  the  written  record  of  each  country.  So  soon 
as  man  becomes  a  settler,  and  acquires  anything 
beyond  the  skin  and  wood  vessels  of  the  nomad,  he 
begins  to  lay  by  history;  so  soon  as  he  disturbs 
the  surface  of  the  land  by  roads,  entrenchments, 
or  fields,  he  leaves  the  proof  of  his  industry  to 
the  future,  so  soon  as  he  even  breaks  a  stone  by 
skill  and  design  he  leaves  an  imperishable  trace  of 
his  abilities.  There  is  no  land  in  which  civilized 
man  has  hved,  in  which  we  cannot  reconstruct  his 
history  entirely  from  his  material  remains.  .  .  . 
The  history  of  artistic  influence  is  an  immense  sub- 
ject still  awaiting  study  and  classification,  but  it 
will  be  seen  to  form  an  important  part  of  the 
material  history  of  man.  We  may  perhaps  sum 
up  by  saying  that  material  history  is  the  only 
trace  left  of  far  the  greater  part  of  man's  develop- 
ment and  duration ;  it  is  quite  on  a  par  with  writ- 
ten history  in  ages  where  both  are  preserved,  so 
far  as  the  whole  of  a  people  is  studied  as  a  com- 
munity ;  and  the  only  peculiar  province  of  writ- 
ten history  is  in  dealing  with  individual  character 
and  influence.  In  the  social  view  of  history  the 
material  history  is  far  more  important  than  the 
written  record  as  a  whole;  in  the  individualist 
view  the  written  record  is  unapproachable,  as  deal- 
ing  with   the   influences  of   the   exceptional   minds 


which  advance  the  frontier  of  ideas.  Each  has 
its  fit  place,  and  each  is  entirely  powerless  in  the 
special  region  ot  the  other  means  of  research.  The 
whole  past  of  man  during  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  years,  down  to  the  little  clear  fringe  bordering 
on  our  own  times,  is  entirely  the  province  of  ma- 
terial history ;  and  even  down  to  our  own  age  it 
shares  with  written  history  that  power  of  inter- 
preting human  action  and  change  which  is  perhaps 
the  most  fascinating  study  that  can  engage  our 
minds." — W.  M.  Flinders-Petrie,  Archaeological 
evidence  {Lectures  on  the  method  of  science,  pp. 
225-230). — "The  conservative  historian  might  be 
tempted  to  object  at  the  start  that  however  im- 
portant the  development  of  man  would  seem  to  be 
before  the  opening  of  history,  we  can  unfortunately 
know  practically  nothing  about  it,  owing  to  the 
almost  total  lack  of  documents  and  records. 
ArchKology  has,  of  course,  he  would  admit,  re- 
vealed a  few  examples  of  man's  handiwork  which 
may  greatly  antedate  the  earhest  finds  in  Egyptian 
tombs;  some  skulls  and  bones  and  even  skeletons 
have  been  found,  and  no  one  familiar  with  the 
facts  doubts  that  man  was  living  on  the  earth 
thousands  of  years  before  the  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion developed.  But  what  can  be  known  about 
him,  except  the  shape  of  his  jaw  and  the  nature  of 
his  stone  and  bone  utensils,  which  alone  survive 
from  remote  periods?  If  we  feel  ill-informed 
about  the  time  of  Diocletian  or  Clovis,  how  base- 
less must  be  our  conjectures  in  regard  to  the  haoits 
of  the  cave  man !  It  is  certainly  true  that  the  home 
life  of  the  cave  man  is  still  veiled  in  obscurity  and 
is  likely  to  remain  so.  Nevertheless,  the  mass  or 
information  in  regard  to  mankind  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  earliest  surviving  inscriptions  has 
already  assumed  imposing  proportions.  Its  im- 
portance is  perhaps  partially  disguised  by  the  un- 
fortunate old  term  'prehistoric'  .  .  .  However, 
.  .  .  the  distinction  between  'historic'  and  'prehis- 
toric' is  after  all  an  arbitrary  one.  'Prehistoric' 
originally  meant  such  information  as  we  had  about 
man  before  his  story  was  taken  up  by  Moses  and 
Homer,  when  they  were  deemed  the  earliest  sur- 
viving written  sources.  History,  however,  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term,  includes  all  that  we  know 
of  the  past  of  mankind,  regardless  of  the  nature  of 
our  sources  of  information.  Archseological  sources, 
to  which  the  student  of  the  earlier  history  of  man 
is  confined,  are  not  only  frequently  superior  in 
authenticity  to  many  written  documents,  but  they 
continue  to  have  the  greatest  importance  after  the 
appearance  of  inscriptions  and  books.  We  now 
accept  as  historical  a  great  many  things  which  are 
recorded  neither  in  inscriptions  nor  in  books." — 
J.  H.  Robinson,  New  history,  pp.  84-85. — "It  is 
from  these  diversified  records,  present  and  past,  that 
the  story  of  the  race — of  the  seven  grand  divisions 
of  human  history — must  be  drawn.  Archaeology 
stands  quite  apart  from  this  classification  of  the 
science  of  man,  since,  .  .  .  fit]  claims  for  its  own 
more  especially  that  which  is  old  or  ancient  in 
this  vast  body  of  data.  It  is  even  called  on  to 
pick  up  the  lost  lines  of  the  earlier  written  records, 
as  in  the  shadowy  beginnings  of  glyphic  and 
phonetic  writing,  and  restore  them  to  history.  It 
must  recover  the  secrets  of  the  commemorative 
monuments — the  tombs,  temples,  and  sculptures 
intended  to  immortalize  the  now  long-forgotten 
great.  It  must  follow  back  the  obscure  trails  of 
tradition  and  substantiate  or  discredit  the  lore  of 
the  fathers.  It  must  interpret  in  its  way,  so  far 
as  interpretation  is  possible,  the  pictorial  records 
inscribed  by  the  ancients  on  rock  faces  and  cavern 
walls,  these  being  among  the  most  lasting  of  pur- 
poseful records.     [See  also  Painting:  Meaning  of 


433 


ARCHEOLOGY 


Method 
and  Scope 


ARCHEOLOGY 


painting:  Its  progress. J  All  that  archjeology  re- 
trieves from  this  wide  field  is  restored  to  human 
Knowledge  and  added  to  the  volume  ol  written 
history.  Archsology  is  thus  the  great  retriever  of 
history.  The  science  of  archseology  is  equally 
useful  in  the  field  of  the  fortuitous  records  of  hu- 
manity, for  its  reads  or  interprets  that  which  was 
never  intended  to  be  read  or  interpreted.  The  prod- 
ucts of  human  handicraft,  present  and  past,  which 
have  automatically  recorded  the  doings  of  the  ages, 
are  made  to  tell  the  story  of  the  struggles,  the 
defeats,  and  the  triumphs  of  humanity.  The  for- 
tuitous records  embodied  in  the  nonmaterial  pro- 
ducts also  of  man's  activities  are  made  to  cast  a 
strong  light  on  the  history  and  significance  of  the 
material  things  of  the  past.  Even  the  body  of 
knowledge  gathered  from  many  sources  and  stored 
in  the  memory  of  the  living,  though  untrustworthy 
as  a  record,  may  be  made,  if  wisely  employed,  to 
illuminate  the  past;  and  the  physical  and  psychical 
man  of  to-day  are  in  themselves  records  and  may 
be  made  to  tell  the  story  of  their  own  becoming, 
thus  explaining  the  activities  and  the  products  of 
activity  throughout  the  ages.    All  that  arch£Eology 


Christ,  while  if  the  Greek  historians  had  any  ink- 
ling of  the  advanced  civilization  that  developed  in 
the  ./Egean  in  the  early  second  millennium,  it  con- 
sisted only  of  such  vague  suggestions  as  are  in- 
corporated in  the  Platonic  account  of  the  lost  At- 
lantis. Modern  interest  in  archaeology  cannot  be 
said  to  be  older  than  the  seventeenth  century  and 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  travels  in  the  Levant 
undertaken  chiefly  by  the  French  and  English.  .  .  . 
These  early  travelers  have  given  us  invaluable 
records  of  numberless  ruins  that  have  long  since 
been  destroyed ;  but  they  are  not  men  who  would 
initiate  or  advance  a  systematic  study  of  objects 
or  sites,  and  that  great  achievement  was  left  to  a 
German  scholar,  VVinckelmann,  who  published  his 
'History  of  Art,'  the  first  modern  work  on  archae- 
ology, in  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  realization  that  a  work  of  art  is  not 
an  isolated  phenomenon,  but  can  be  understood 
only  in  relation  to  its  predecessors  and  successors, 
was  slow  to  penetrate,  and  after  the  discovery  of 
the  statues  of  the  /Eginetan  pediments  in  1811 
Thorvaldsen  was  as  supremely  successful  in  recon- 
stituting them  perfect  works  of  art  as  he  was  in- 


'  ■nu^tps^■  -Mpfrop-ilif  an  .Muaeuri 

REMOVING   SPECIMENS   EXCAVATED    FROM   THEBES 


gathers  from  this  wide  field  of  research  is  con- 
tributed to  the  volume  of  written  history.  It  is 
thus  not  only  the  retriever  of  that  which  was 
treasured  and  lost,  but  equally  the  revealer  of  vast 
resources  of  history  of  which  no  man  had  pre- 
viously taken  heed." — \V.  H.  Holmes,  Place  of  ar- 
chmology  in  human  history  (Proceedings  of  the 
Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress,  Jan.  8, 
iqi6,  p.  188). 

Method  and  scope. — "Archaeology  has  been 
called  the  Queen  of  Sciences  inasmuch  as  the 
science  of  antiquity  comprises  all  that  the  mind  of 
man  in  the  past  has  conceived  and  then  produced 
in  concrete  form,  from  the  primitive  stone  axe  of 
palajolithic  times  to  Roman  cities  like  Pompeii  with 
their  innumerable  ramifications  of  complex  life. 
Archaeology,  therefore,  is  not  limited  to  the  .^Cgean 
or  the  Mediterranean  basin,  but  is  all-comprehen- 
sive in  its  scope,  proceeding  far  and  wide  and  es- 
tablishing branches  in  every  continent,  in  far  and 
near  Asia,  in  Europe,  North  .Africa,  and  both 
Americas.  .  .  .  The  scientific  study  of  archa;ology 
is  a  purely  modern  development,  and  it  has  become 
a  commonplace  to  assert  that  the  ceneration  now 
livinc  knows  far  more  about  the  Homeric  Greeks 
than  did  the  dwellers  in  .\thens  five  centuries  before 


genious  in  his  efforts  to  conceal  the  intention  and 
cover  the  hand  of  the  artist  who  made  them.  The 
result  is  that  the  statues  as  now  exhibited  in 
Munich  are  not  creations  of  the  early  fifth  century 
B.  C,  but  such  works  as  interpreted  by  an  artist 
who  lived  nearly  twenty-five  centuries  later.  The 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  brought  from  Greece 
by  Lord  Elgin,  escaped  a  similar  fate  only  through 
the  subtle  feeling  and  unerring  taste  of  Canova, 
who  refused  to  desecrate  masterpieces;  and  yet  as 
late  as  1816  the  English  Government  showed  much 
hesitancy  about  purchasing  these  very  masterpieces 
for  the  British  Museum.  .Artistic  appreciation  of 
these  products  of  Greek  sculpture  was  expressed 
grudgingly  at  first,  but  in  due  time  with  such 
measure  that  an  incessant  demand  for  new  ex- 
amples led  to  a  general  ransacking  of  ancient  sites 
with  much  consequent  destruction  of  interpretative 
landmarks.  Schliemann  went  to  the  Troad  in 
search  of  the  city  of  Troy  and  returned  with  the 
'Treasure  of  Priam';  but  the  brutal  trench  that 
he  drove  through  the  mound  revealed  to  him  noth- 
ing of  its  history  while  it  obliterated  countless 
records  which  his  successors  would  have  prized. 
It  is  only  within  the  past  few  decades  that  a 
method   of   archaeology   has  been   universally   rec- 


4.14 


ARCHEOLOGY 


Meihod 
and  Scope 


ARCHEOLOGY 


ngnized  and  adopted,  and  the  secret  of  archjEologi- 
cal  method  is  the  most  intensively  trained  observa- 
tion. .  .  .  Perhaps  this  was  first  realized  for  a 
Greek  site  with  the  beginning  of  the  excavation  of 
the  Acropolis  at  Athens  (q.  v.)  in  1885,  where  the 
fact  was  appreciated  that  in  order  to  wrest  its 
secrets  from  a  continuously  occupied  citadel  no 
mark  on  the  stone  could  be  overlooked  and  no 
inch  of  earth  disregarded  Moreover  the  results 
justified  the  method,  and  the  history  of  the  Acrop- 
olis was  revelaed,  to  the  eye  that  can  see,  almost 
from  the  time  of  Erecthcus  to  the  present  day. 
But  the  best  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  ar- 
chsological  method  accomplishes  remarkable  re- 
sults may  be  seen  in  the  site  of  Knossos  in  Crete. 
When  Sir  Arthur  Evans  began  excavations  here  in 


ever  uniform  the  training  may  have  been,  and  is 
widely  different  at  different  periods  of  man's  so- 
cial development.  The  mental  process  of  observa- 
tion must,  therefore,  be  immediately  supplemented 
by  physical  records  in  the  form  of  notes,  measure- 
ments, drawings  and  photographs,  which  should 
be  complete  and  accurate  and  made  irrespective 
of  preconceived  theory  on  the  subject  treated.  .  . 
This  developed  science  of  archseology  has  as  its 
broad  aim  the  reconstitution  of  the  past  in  the 
terms  of  the  present  for  the  use  of  the  future,  and 
this  aim  may  be  most  easily  interpreted  by  dis- 
cussing the  relation  of  archfeology  to  other  im- 
portant branches  of  knowledge.  .  .  .  The  interrela- 
tions of  archeology  and  history  are  very  intimate. 
No  archaeologist   approaches   an   ancient  site  with 


Courtesy  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 


EXCAVATIONS    AT   THEBES,    1918-1919. 
Coffin    of   Prince    Anienemhet 


11)00  everything  he  turned  up  was  strange  and  new 
in  type.  There  were  no  parallels,  no  material  for 
comparison,  no  resemblances  in  product  and  style 
to  sites  elsewhere,  uncovered.  So  he  was  entirely 
dependent  on  inductive  reasoning,  which  through 
his  care  in  e.^cavation  and  closeness  of  observation 
has  enabled  him  to  reconstruct  the  development 
of  Cretan  civilization  from  a  long  period  of  stone- 
age  occupation  to  an  era  of  the  highest  bloom  in 
art  and  culture  about  2000-1800  B.  C,  with  its 
subsequent  decadence  and  practical  end  possibly 
by  1200  B  C. — This  archseological  method  with  ob- 
servation as  its  basis  is  not  limited  to  cities  and 
citadels,  but  is  equally  applicable  to  the  study  of 
individual  works  of  art.  .  .  .  [But]  observation  is 
not  enough,  because  observation  is  a  psychological 
phenomenon  that  varies  with  each  individual,  how- 


thc  purpose  of  study  or  of  excavation  without  per- 
fect familiarity  with  every  scrap  of  information 
available  in  earlier  writers.  .  .  .  History  also  re- 
veals important  data  by  means  of  which  sites  have 
been  identified  and  cities  located.  .  .  .  Thus  a 
knowledge  of  ancient,  medieeval,  and  modern  his- 
tory is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  practical  archae- 
ology ;  but  on  the  other  hand  archa:ology  U  the 
great  maker  of  history.  .  .  .  Every  inscription  is  a 
contemporary  historical  document ;  every  site  ex- 
cavated writes  a  new  chapter  of  history.  But  the 
spade  has  gone  even  further  and  constructed  whole 
departments  of  history,  which  by  way  of  distinc- 
tion are  called  protohistory  and  prehistory;  and 
the  prehistory  of  Crete  furnishes  us  more  infor- 
mation of  man's  life,  actions,  and  social  develop- 
ment than  is  available  for  many  periods  comprised 


435 


ARCHJEOLOGY 


Development 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


within  historical  limits." — T.  L.  Shear,  Archa-ology 
as  a  liberal  study  (Columbia  University  Quarterly, 
June,  IQI7,  pp.  238-265). — See  also  /Egean  crviL- 

IZ.^TION. 

Development. — "The      excavations     that     have 
given  us  the  skulls  of  the  earliest  men,  the  rock- 
pictures  sonic  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  years  old, 
and  the  earliest  fashioned  implements  and  potteries 
are  archsology's  contribution  to  anthropology  and 
pre-history.     [See  also  Europe:  Prehistoric  period: 
Paleolithic  art]     For  the  age  when  historic  civiliza- 
tions began,  at  the  close  of  the  Neolithic  Age,  after 
Sooo  or  4000  B.  C,  it  is  only  necessary,  in  order  to 
realize  the  revolution  brought  about  by  archseology, 
to  pick  out  any  ancient  history  written  more  than 
seventy  years  ago,  .  .  .  and  compare  it  with  one 
written  during  the  last  two  or  three  decades.     It 
is  difficult  to  realize  that  only  a  little  more  than 
a    century    ago,    almost    nothing    was    known    of 
ancient  history   prior  to   the  days   of   Greece   and 
Rome,    except    the     account    given     in     the    Old 
Testament.     [See  also  Moabites.]     Following  the 
discovery    of   the   Rosetta   Stone   by    one    of   Na- 
poleon's  soldiers   in    Egypt    and    its    decipherment 
by  Champollion  a  few  years  later,  many  events  in 
the   history   of    Egypt   became   known    and    inter- 
est was  aroused  in  other  fields.     [See  also  Archi- 
tecture:   Oriental:    Egypt;    Egypt:    About    B.C. 
1500-1400;  Jerusalem:  1850-1QO0;  Jews;  Children 
of  Israel  in  Egypt.]     The  rapid  growth  of  modern 
science  in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the    development    of    biblical    criticism    furnished 
further   motives   for   archaeological   research.     The 
excavation   and   resurrection   of   the   ancient   cities 
of    Assyria,    Babylonia    [see    also    Arciiitecture : 
Oriental:   Mesopotamia;   Babylon:    Results  of  ex- 
vacations;  B.ABVLONIA:  Nebuchadrezzar,  and  Ham- 
urabi:  His  character  and  achievements],  and  Persia 
through   the   efforts   of   Rawlinson,   Botta,  Layard 
and  others  followed  one  after  another  with  ever- 
increasing  interest,  while  the  decipherment  by  Raw- 
linson   of    the    inscription    of    Behistun    in     1837 
opened    the    way    for    the    interpretation    of    the 
whole  series  of  inscriptions,  cuneiform  tablets  and 
other    records   which    had    been    unearthed.      [See 
also    Alphabet:     Deciphering    the    hieroglyphics.] 
Since    1840    or    1850    archeology    has    practically 
created   for    us   four    thousand    years    of    history: 
a   new   heaven    as   well   as   a   new   earth    for   the 
pre-Hellenic    world.      Egypt,    Babylonia,    Assyria, 
the  Hittites  have   emerged   from   an   almost   Cim- 
merian   darkness.      We    can    now    decipher    their 
writings,    read    their    literature,    reconstruct    their 
annals,   religion,   and   life,   while   looking   into   the 
faces  of  the  men  and  women  of  their  race.     The 
Northern   races   that   entered   so    much    later    into 
the  arena  and  yet  were  even  more  intangible  than 
these     Eastern     nations     are     being     unveiled     by 
archiEology:      Goths,     Scandinavians,     Celts     [see 
Ogam  inscriptions],   Gauls,   Slavs,   and   Germans, 
from  the  mountains  of  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus 
to   Brittany,   are   being   shown  by  their  archa'olo- 
gical    remains   as    either   half    yielding    to    the    in- 
fluence of  Greece  and  Rome  or  maintaining  their 
primitive  integrity.    Our  science  is  helped  at  times 
by  literature,  but   often  it  is  obliged  to   seek  un- 
aided for  an  answer  in  these  fields  of  the  primitive 
and  undeveloped  races.     This  illustrates  how  much 
broader  as  well  as  more  faithful  it  is  than  litera- 
ture. .  .  .  .After  this,  in  the  main  currents  of  his- 
toric   development,    arch.Tology    must    share    with 
literature  the  credit  of  picturing  the  past.     Yet  we 
hardly   realize,   perhaps,   how   little    Greece   would 
be  the  Greece  w'e  visualize  if  we  were  to  depend 
entirely    on   her   literature,   eliminating   her    archi- 
tecture and  her  sculpture,  the  embodiments  of  her 


sense  of  beauty,  and  the  minor  arts  which  give  the 
picture  of  Greek  dress,  jewelry,  arms,  and  furni- 
ture, with  all  those  concrete  details  of  the  daily 
life,  the  games  and  wars,  the  religious  ceremonies, 
and  the  thousand  and  one  things  that  literature 
leaves  untold  while  telling  us  so  much.  Even 
Greek  literature  itself  owes  most  of  its  recent  slen- 
der additions  to  the  work  of  the  archaeologists  who 
have  unearthed  the  papyri  preserved  in  the  sands  of 
the  Fayum.  .  .  .  The  real  significance  of  all  the 
material  things  produced  by  man,  their  relation 
to  thought  and  life  and  their  correlation  to  one 
another,  is  so  recent  and  so  blinding  that  it  is 
hardly  as  yet  understood  that  any  attempt  to  study 
the  world's  past  without  their  help  is  bound  to  be 
futile,  misleading,  or  superficial.  It  is,  therefore, 
customary  to  consider  archaeology  as  a  very  mod- 
ern study,  and  to  speak  of  Winckelmann  as  its 
founder  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. While  this  is  true  in  a  large  and  critical 
sense,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  has  been 
at  all  times  a  certain  amount  of  unconscious  archae- 
ology, and  that  the  work  of  a  student  traveler 
like  Pausanias,  under  the  Antonine  emperors,  is 
even  conscious  archaeology.  .  .  .  When  the  Emperor 
Augustus  insisted  on  having  copies  of  the  best 
works  of  Greek  sculpture  of  different  ages  and 
styles  made  in  the  exact  manners  of  the  originals, 
including  archaic  works,  he  was  obliging  his  sculp- 
tors to  be  archsologists.  ...  It  would  not  be 
difficult  to  find  examples  in  post-classical  times; 
among  medieval  miniaturists  who  reproduced  il- 
luminations several  centuries  old;  among  Renais- 
sance artists  like  Michelangelo  and  Raphael,  who 
were  so  successful  in  reincarnating  antique  forms. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  one  man  who  can  be 
pointed  to  as  preceding  Winckelmann  to  a  certain 
extent  as  a  real  scientific  archaeologist  is  not  in 
the  field  of  classical  studies,  but  in  that  of  Chris- 
tian archsology.  He  is  Bosio,  a  Roman  priest  of 
the  seventeenth  century  (1620),  who  originated 
the  scientific  methods  by  which  the  Roman  cata- 
combs were  made  the  basis  for  our  study  of  early 
Christian  life.  Winckelmann's  revolutionary  idea 
was  the  formulation  of  a  philosophy  of  the  history 
of  art  and  of  the  theory  that  works  of  art  and 
archaeology  should  be  studied  for  their  own  sakes, 
instead  of  as  illustrations  of  ancient  literature,  and 
as  parts  of  a  well-ordered  whole  instead  of  as 
unrelated  objects  of  curiosity.  It  appears  to  be 
forgotten  that  what  he  did  for  a  History  of  Ancient 
.'\rt  the  Frenchman  Seroux  d'.'Xgincourt  attempted 
immediately  after  to  do  for  the  entire  post-classic 
age.  It  seems  also  to  be  forgotten  by  many  that, 
while  Winckelmann's  methods  w'ere  published  be- 
tween 1760  and  1767,  they  did  not  bear  full  fruit 
until  after  the  founding  at  Rome  in  1828  of  the 
International  .'\rchsological  Institute,  with  its  splen- 
did series  of  publications  and  its  co-ordination  of 
effort.  Ottfried  Miiller  gave,  in  1830,  the  synthesis 
of  the  new  movement  in  his  Manual  of  the  archa- 
otogy  of  art.  In  the  great  era  of  excavation 
which  had  been  opened  by  the  discovery  of  Her- 
culaneum  in  171Q  and  continued  at  Pompeii  after 
1748,  the  increased  knowledge  of  Roman  art  was 
paralleled  by  additional  revelations  regarding 
Greek  sculpture  through  the  bringing  to  Western 
Europe  of  the  archaic  sculptures  of  ^Egina  and 
those  of  Phigaleia  and  the  Parthenon.  Very  soon 
the  opening  of  numerous  tombs  in  Italy  disclosed 
the  wonderful  minor  arts  of  Hellas  and  Etruria, 
especially  in  jewelry  and  painted  vases.  While 
these  early  excavations  previous  to  1850  were  in 
the  nature  of  looting  forays,  they  afforded  to 
archaeologists  for  the  first  time  a  fairly  well- 
rounded    survey    of   the    various   branches   of    the 


436 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


Fields  of 
Research 


ARCHEOLOGY 


art  and  industry  of  Greece  and  of  the  peoples 
connected  with  her.  The  scholars  of  the  Roman 
Institute  tool;  instant  advantage  of  this,  and  to 
their  inspiration  was  largely  due  the  immediate 
emulation  in  discovery  of  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  Previous  centuries  had  been  content  to 
travel  and  study  what  was  above  ground.  The 
new  school  realized  that  what  was  visible  was  but  a 
small  fraction  of  what  could  be  unearthed.  At 
the  same  time  there  was  no  surcease  in  explora- 
tion.     The    new    science    gave    different    eyes    for 


of  Austrian,  English,  and  German  excavators  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  gave  unexpectedly 
fruitful  finds  at  Pergamon,  Halicarnassus,  Miletus, 
Ephesus,  Priene,  and  Magnesia.  At  Priene  an 
entire  city  of  the  Alexandrian  age  was  laid  bare. 
In  several  of  these  Asia  Minor  cities,  and  in  others 
whose  ruins  are  above  ground,  we  can  also  study 
the  amalgamation  of  Greek  and  Roman  civiliza- 
tion. Then  a  revelation  of  the  purely  Roman  work 
of  extending  civilization  came  in  the  exploration  of 
the  abandoned  cities  of  Central  Syria   [see  AscA- 


EXCAVATIONS  IN  ANCIENT  BABYLON 
The  Esaglia  Temple  built  to  the  god  Marduc 


understanding  the  things  above  ground.  There 
were  also  important  regions  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
and  Roman  Africa  which  had  never  been  archse- 
ologically  explored.  Even  now  this  work  has 
not  been  completed.  The  founding  of  the  German 
and  French  archaeological  schools  at  Athens  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  excavation,  especially  after  the 
spectacular  success  of  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Troy 
and  Mycenae,  and  that  of  the  Germans  at  Olym- 
pia.  [See  ^gean  civilization:  Excavations  and 
antiquities;  Troy.1  In  quick  succession  came  Eleu- 
sis,  Epidaurus,  Delos,   and  Delphi.     In   the   hands 


lon],  and  in  the  .  .  .  excavation  of  those  in  North 
Africa  through  the  occupation  by  the  French  of 
Algeria  and  Tunisia.  At  the  same  time  the  period 
immediately  following,  the  age  of  the  incubation 
of  Christianity,  was  revealed  in  the  exploration 
of  the  Roman  catacombs  by  de  Rossi  and  his 
masterly  unveiling  of  their  secrets.  The  sharpening 
of  the  critical  and  intuitive  faculties  upon  this 
mass  of  new  material  affected,  as  we  saw  in  the 
case  of  Gothic  architecture,  the  attitude  of  schol- 
ars toward  the  rest  of  the  field,  especially  those 
of  the  Medieval  and   Renaissance  periods,   where 


4?>7 


ARCHEOLOGY 


American 
Field 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


there  was  little  to  uncover,  but  where  application 
of  the  new  historico-scientific  methods  effected 
quite  as  radical  a  revolution  in  the  ability  to  un- 
derstand and  correlate  the  monuments.  ISee  also 
Architecture:  Classic]  Between  about  1850  and 
i860  it  may  be  said  that  the  New  Idea  had  pene- 
trated every  field  and  was  being  embodied  in  the 
literature  of  the  subject,  and  especially  well  in 
such  general  histories  of  the  monuments  as  Kugler 
and  Schnaase.  In  each  country  a  solid  basis  was 
being  given  to  the  history  and  science  of  the 
national  antiquities  by  the  organization  of  asso 
ciations,  by  congresses,  and  by  the  new  chairs  for 
teaching  the  subject  at  the  universities  and  eveii 
the  schools.  In  this  process  the  science  and  its 
irresistible  trend  is  everything ;  the  individual  is  of 
small  account.  Yet  certain  archaeologists  of  the 
last  fifty  years  emerge  as  among  the  greatest 
scholars  that  the  world  has  seen,  directing  the 
current  and  setting  a  permanent  seal  upon  men  and 
things.  Such  men  were  Mommsen,  who  practically 
created  the  science  of  Roman  antiquities  and  his- 
tory; de  Rossi,  who  gave  us  a  complete  science  of 
Early  Christian  archaeology ;  Evans,  who  has 
brought  into  being  both  the  material  and  the  sci- 
ence of  Early  .•Egean  civilization.  Hundreds  are 
following  the  paths  they  have  blazed.  In  Euro- 
pean universities  the  teaching  of  archaeology  as  an 
independent  department  has  long  been  recognized 
and  is  also  carried  on  sometimes,  as  in  the  Ecole  du 
Louvre,  in  connection  with  large  museums.  Special 
courses  in  Egyptian,  Babylonian  and  Assyrian, 
Greek,  Roman,  Christian,  Medieval,  and  Renais- 
sance monuments  in  many  branches,  have  been  well 
established  for  thirty  or  forty  years  throughout 
Europe.  Only  American  institutions  have  remained 
indifferent  and  retrograde.  In  the  rank  and  file 
of  workers  the  Germans  show  the  greatest  perti- 
nacity in  elaborating  special  themes ;  the  French 
are  paramount  in  clear-eyed  and  facile  exposition 
without  loss  of  scholarship." — A.  L.  Frothingham, 
Where  archaeology  comes  in  (North  American  Re- 
view, V.  194,  Oct.,  iqii,  pp.  577,  578,  584-587). 

Remains  in  Britain  and  Ireland.  See  Ave- 
bury;   SrcNEitENCE. 

Relics  of  Buddha.  See  Buddha:  Discovery  of 
birthplace  and  tomb. 

Paintings  in  caves  of  Altamira.  See  Painting: 
Preclassical. 

Importance  of  the  American  field. — "In  Amer- 
ican archeology  man  in  the  cultural  process  is  the 
unit  of  investigation.  This  establishes  the  limits 
of  the  science.  Its  subject  matter  lies  mainly  in 
the  prehistoric  period,  but  this  must  be  studied  in 
the  light  of  auxiliary  sciences  which  have  for 
their  field  of  investigation  the  living  people.  It 
necessitates  the  study  of  all  phenomena  that  will 
add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  intellectual  attainments 
of  the  native  .American  races  or  illustrate  the  evo- 
lution of  their  culture.  It  aims  at  a  reconstruc- 
tion and  interpretation  of  the  order  of  civilization 
existing  in  America  before  the  Caucasian  occupancy. 
.  .  .  The  first  task  of  the  archaeologist  is  to  rescue 
the  material  and  intellectural  remains  of  the  peo- 
ple whose  history  he  is  seeking  to  restore.  It  can 
never  be  hoped  that  a  continuous  record  will  be 
recovered,  but  the  greater  the  amount  of  material 
secured  the  more  nearly  complete  can  it  be  made. 
But  archaeological  research  is  more  than  the  re- 
covery and  study  of  material.  As  history  is  not 
only  a  recital  of  events  but  an  inquiry  into  their 
genesis,  it  is  imperative  to  investigate  and  describe 
all  phenomena  upon  which  such  events  are  condi- 
tioned. Therefore  it  is  the  belief  of  the  writer  that 
physiographic  conditions  are  essentially  correlative 
with    facts   of   culture,   that   physical    and    psvrhic 


causes  are  to  be  held  in  the  closest  possible  relation 
if  we  are  to  correctly  interpret  the  intellectual  re- 
mains of  the  native  races  of  America,  whether  in 
the  form  of  myth,  ritual  and  symbolism  of  plains 
and  desert  tribes,  or  in  architectural,  sculptural, 
pictorial,  and  glyphic  remains  of  the  Mexican  and 
Central  American  civilization." — E.  L.  Hewett, 
Groundwork  of  American  archaeology  (American 
Anthropologist,  Oct.,  iqoS,  pp.  5Q1-5QS). — See  also 
America:   Prehistoric.  . 

"Perhaps  no  better  indication  of  the  importance  I 
of  American  archaeology  can  be  given  than  to  refer  " 
to  several  of  the  questions  which  it  and  it  only  can 
solve.  Among  them  are  these, — ist.  Who  were 
the  mound  builders,  especially  of  the  Ohio  region 
and  other  places  where  great  heaps  of  dirt  and 
stone  seem  to  be  effigies  and  represent  ::nimals 
of  different  kinds,  or,  as  at  Seltzertown  in  Mis- 
sissippi, are  terraced  with  architectural  skill?  Were 
they  the  same  as  Indians  of  historic  times,  or 
were  they  a  separate  race  ?  If  the  former,  were 
they  not  of  Choctaw  and  Cherokee  origin,  as 
Brinton  concludes?  2nd.  Whence  came  the  red 
men  of  this  continent  ?  Were  they  a  separate 
creation  or  did  they  immigrate  from  other  con- 
tinents? If  they  did,  was  the  Pacific  slope  crossed 
from  China  and  Polynesia,  and  was  the  great 
Mississippi  basin  settled  from  some  eastern  source, 
or  were  all  the  red  men  of  one  stock  ?  Here 
geology  must  tell  us  as  to  the  connection  of  the 
continents  in  tertiary  times.  3rd.  There  being 
evidently,  as  we  have  seen,  a  number  of  races  on 
this  continent,  what  were  their  inter-migrations? 
Did  they  come  from  North  to  South  or  East  to 
West?  And  what  were  the  limits  of  these  move- 
ments? On  this  the  spread  of  agriculture,  partic- 
ularly of  maize  and  tobacco,  native  only  to  Te- 
huantepec,  may  throw  great  light,  while  strange  to 
say  the  banana  seems  to  come  to  America  with 
the  whites.  This  becomes  a  part  of  the  interesting 
study  of  the  distribution  of  plants  on  the  earth 
4th.  What  were  the  limits  and  boundaries  of  the 
historic  tribes?  Language  is  teaching  us  something, 
but  only  by  a  systematic  study  of  the  districts 
inhabited  by  the  respective  tribes  can  we  solve  this 
with  any  satisfaction.  5th.  What  degree  of  civil- 
ization had  been  attained  by  these  different  tribes? 
What  advance  had  Chickasaws  made  over  the 
Choctaws  or  the  Creeks  over  the  Cherokees?  How 
do  all  compare  with  those  of  Mexico  and  Yucatan? 
6th.  There  is  one  matter  of  greater  interest  and 
greater  value  than  all  the  other;  and  yet  it  is 
seldom  thought  of.  It  is  this, — can  we  recon- 
struct the  primeval  speech  of  the  inhabitants  of 
America  ?  If  we  can,  we  shall  contribute  more 
than  we  imagine  to  the  archaeology  of  the  whole 
world.  This  was  first  pointed  out  by  Wilhelm 
Von  Humboldt,  and  in  our  own  times  by  D.  (^ 
Brinton.  The  reason  is  that  the  Indian  languages 
seem  to  be  based  upon  a  different  plan  from  those 
of  any  other  continent.  What  was  the  speech  of 
primeval  man  is  a  curious  question  but  so  far 
utterly  insoluble.  It  is  thought  we  can  see  on  the 
earth's  surface  a  few  primary  linguistic  stocks. 
...  It  is  the  opinion  of  many  good  scholars  that 
the  Indians  when  first  discovered  by  Europeans 
had  preserved  their  ancient  languages  and  lan- 
guage plan  better  than  any  other  races  on  the 
globe.  Even  yet  two  hundred  independent  stocks 
are  known.  If  this  is  so,  a  study  of  their  lan- 
guages presents  a  unique  field,  one  which  will 
carry  us  further  back  into  the  archreologic  past 
then  any  other  linguistic  stock.  This  feature  of 
.American  archsology  has  not  been  sufficiently  no- 
ticed. The  har\'est  truly  is  plentiful,  but  the  la- 
borers   are    few.      Finally    therefore    in    studying 


438 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


American  Field 
Chronology 


ARCHEOLOGY 


Indian  antiquities  we  are  carrying  ourselves  further 
back  into  the  past  of  the  human  race,  getting  closer 
to  the  primitive  savage,  than  is  possible  in  the 
study  of  any  other  tribes  on  the  globe,  and  be- 
coming better  able  to  decipher  the  beginnings  of 
all  human  civilization  than  is  possible  in  any 
other  way!" — P.  J.  Hamilton,  Importance  of  ar- 
chaeology, pp.  263-264. — "It  is  sufficient  for  me,  in 
order  to  show  wliat.  significant  impulses  have  pro- 
ceeded from  both  the  archeology  and  the  ethnog- 
raphy of  America,  to  recall  to  you  that  the  whole 
modern  development  of  primitive  sociology  took 
its  real  beginning  from  the  investigations  of  Lewis 
H.  Morgan  into  the  tribal  constitution  of  the 
Iroquois,  and  that  in  the  most  recent  researches  into 
the  philosophy  of  religion  the  old  Mexican  belief 
is  beginning  to  play  an  increasingly  important 
part.  American  archeology  and  ethnography  are 
also  of  the  greatest  importance  to  general  eth- 
nology. .  .  .  For  that  science,  also,  which  tries  to 
search  out  the  mysteries  of  the  laws  which  have 
governed  the  human  mind  in  its  development  from 
its  obscure  beginnings,  the  observations  which  we 
have  made  or  are  in  a  position  to  make  on  Ameri- 
can soil  will  be  of  greater  importance  than  those 
made  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  For  the 
observations  made  here  have  all  the  advantages  of 
pure  experiment.  That  is  the  special  privilege  of 
American  studies,  and  the  special  interest  which 
attaches  to  them.  To  provide  the  material  for 
that  comprehensive  science,  the  study  of  the  human 
race  as  a  whole  is  thus  not  only  the  real  and 
greatest  task  of  American  archeology,  but  also 
its  most  rewarding.  It  will  be  a  great  joy  to  me 
if  the  conviction  of  this  shall  spread  in  ever  wider 
circles,  and  bring  to  American  archeology  the  new 
laborers  of  which  it  still  has  such  pressing  need." — 
G.  E.  Seler,  Problems  of  archeology  (Congress  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  1Q04,  pp.  540-541.) — "There  is 
an  awakening  to  the  place  of  the  native  American 
race  in  culture  history  which  Americanists  are 
happy  to  see  and  encourage.  There  is  a  destiny 
for  the  American  Indians  more  honorable  than  to 
be  exploited  as  material  for  stirring  fiction  and 
spectacular  exhibition.  They  are  being  recognized 
as  representatives  of  a  race  of  splendid  works  and 
noble  characteristics — a  people  who,  in  spite  of  the 
appalling  adversities  of  the  last  four  centuries,  may 
look  forward  to  a  future  on  the  high  plane  of 
their  ancient  traditions.  Masterpieces  of  art  worthy 
of  presentation  to  the  public  in  museums,  galleries, 
and  publications  devoted  to  art  and  culture ;  archi- 
tecture which  in  design  and  construction  com- 
mands the  admiration  of  the  master-builders  of 
today ;  systems  of  government  and  religion,  ideals 
of  right  and  practice  of  justice  matching  the  most 
exalted  that  civilization  has  brought  forth — these 
are  achievements  of  the  Indian  race  worthy  of  the 
consideration  of  the  educated.  Classical  archae- 
ology has  long  had  its  constituency  of  scholars, 
consistently  true  to  the  ancient  shrines,  keeping 
alive  the  literature,  art  and  drama  of  the  people 
who  set  standards  for  the  modern  world.  There 
has  been  no  lack  of  capable  exponents  for  every 
branch  of  Caucasian  culture  through  its  own  racial 
eyes  and  mind  and  forms  of  expression.  The 
Indian  race  has  had  few  to  maintain  its  sacred 
fires.  The  disposition  has  been  to  put  them  out 
rather  than  to  preserve  them.  History  affords  no 
parallel  to  the  absolute,  relentless  subjugation  of 
an  entire  race  inhabiting  a  whole  continent.  It 
has  been  interpreted  to  the  world  almost  wholly 
by  its  alien  conquerors;  less  and  less  unsympathet- 
ically  as  years  go  by,  and  in  some  instances  with 
rare  understanding,  but,  nevertheless,  by  those  of 
other  blood.  ...  It  would  do  no  harm  to  forget 


most  of  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  explain 
the  Indian  race  and  let  its  works  tell  the  story.  .  .  . 
Literary  record  is  absent  and  vocal  representation 
not  much  used.  But  these  can  be  spared,  for  the 
race  has,  like  every  other,  revealed  itself  in  its  art. 
There  was  no  conscious  effort  to  do  it.  So  the 
picture  is  true.  What  the  race  actually  thought, 
felt,  did,  is  clear.  Words  would  only  obscure  it. 
The  vast  archaeological  heritage  from  the  unknown 
.America  of  two  or  three  millenniums  furnishes  an 
authentic  history  of  the  Indian  people.  It  is  their 
own  picture  of  themselves,  their  testimony  as  to 
how  they  met  and  tried  to  solve  the  problems  that 
all  humanity  has  confronted.  There  has  been  a 
singular  tendency  to  think  of  the  ancient  master- 
works  of  the  race  found  in  Mexico  [see  Mitla], 
Central  .'\merica  and  South  America,  as  other 
than  Indian  art.  It  is  necessary  to  repeat  .  .  . 
that  all  native  American  remains,  whether  of 
plains,  tribes,  mound-builders,  cliff-dwellers,  Pue- 
blo, Navaho,  Toltec,  Aztec,  Maya  [see  Aztec  and 
Maya  picture-writing],  Inca  [see  Peru:  1200- 
1527],  are  just  the  works  of  the  Indian.  Plain  fic- 
tion and  romantic  archaeology  have  a  firm  hold 
on  the  reading  public.  The  most  homogeneous  of 
all  racial  art  is  that  of  the  .'\merican  Indian. 
Chronologically  it  is  without  serious  gaps,  and 
ethnologically  it  is  unbroken.  .  .  .  The  Indian  race 
and  its  achievements,  then,  constitute  America's 
archaeological  heritage.  It  has  a  very  intimate  and 
particular  interest  to  us  in  the  United  States  where 
we  have  forcibly  intervened  in  its  destiny  and 
where  it  is  being  slowly  incorporated  into  our 
citizenship.  .  .  .  Viewed  from  any  standpoint  it 
is  a  noble  heritage  that  comes  down  to  us  from 
the  long  past  of  America — a  heritage  of  experience, 
of  thought,  of  expression,  recorded  in  art,  religion, 
social  order ;  results  of  fervent  aspiration  and 
mighty  effort;  a  race  pressing  its  way  toward  the 
sun.  Its  study  is  the  finest  aspect  of  the  con- 
servation movement — the  conservation  of  human- 
ity; an  attempt  to  rescue  and  preserve  the  life 
history  of  a  great  division  of  the  human  species." — 
E.  L.  Hewett,  America's  archceological  heritage 
{.Art    and   archceology,   Dec,    1Q16,   pp.    257-266). 

For  description  and  bibliography  of  archaeo- 
logical research  and  antiquities,  see  names  of  the 
various  continents,  peoples  and  countries;  also 
Architecture;  Painting;  Sculpture. 

Chronology  of  important  events  in  the  devel- 
opment of  archaeological  research: 

1762-1816.  Stuart  and  Revett's  "Antiquities  of 
.Athens"    (4   vols.). 

1764.  Winckelmann's  "Geschichte  der  Kunst  des 
Altertums." 

I7Q7.  Treaty  of  Tolentino:  Roman  antiques  de- 
livered to  France. 

1708-1801.  Bonaparte's  Expedition  to  Egypt; 
London  acquires  the  Rosetta  Stone. 

I7gg.     Pompeii:  excavations  by  Championnet. 

1800-3.     Athens:    Elgin   works   there. 

1801.     Opening   of   the   Musee   Napoleon. 

1804.  Paris:  Societe  des  Antiquaires  de  France. 

1805.  London   acquires  the  Townley  collection. 
1807.     Wilkins,  "Antiquities  of   Magna  Gracia." 

Pompeii:  excavations  under  Queen  Caro- 
line. 

1811-12.  ^gina:  pediment  groups  of  the  tem- 
ple; acquired  by  Munich. 

1812.     Burckhardt  discovers  Petra. 

1812-14.     Bassi:  the  frieze;  acquired  by  London. 

1815.  Visconti,  "Memoires  sur  des  ouvrages  de 
sculpture  du  Parthenon." 

1816.  The  British  Museum  acquires  the  Elgin 
Marbles. 


439 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


Chronology 
of  Research 


ARCHJEOLOGY 


1816.    The  antiques  of  the  Musee  Napoleon  are 
returned. 

181 6-1 7.     Laborde,  "Monuments  de   la  France." 
1818.     Quatremere,  "Lettres  a  M.  Canova." 

1820.  Aphrodite    of    Melos. 

182 1.  Nibby  recognizes  the  groups  of  Galatians 
from  Pergamon. 

1821-2.    The  Athenian  Acropolis  bombarded  by 
V'outier. 

1822.  1824.     Gerhard  in  Rome:  in  Etruria. 

1823.  Panofka  in  Rome;  Society  of  the  Roman 
Hyperboreans. 

1826.  The    Athenian    Acropolis    bombarded    by 
Reshid  Pasha. 

1827.  Corneto;    wall  paintings. 

1828-9.     \'ulci:    mural    paintings;    discovery    of 
vases 

182S-30.     Egypt:     Italian    expedition    under    the 
direction  of  Rosellini  and  Champollion. 

1S29.     Rome:   Institute  di  corrispondenza  arche- 
ologica. 

Olympia:  French  excavations  at  the  Tem- 
ple of  Zeus. 

1830.  The  conquest  of  Algeria  begun. 

The  Crimea:  Dulrux  opens  the  Kul  Oba, 
near  Kertch. 

Opening  of  the  Museum  in  Berlin  and 
the    Glyptothek    in    Munich. 

1831.  Pompeii:  mosaic,  Alexander  the  Great. 

1832.  Thomsen     distinguishes     the    Stone    Age, 
Bronze   Age,    and    Iron    Age. 

1833-6.    Athens:     clearing     of     the     citadel     by 
Ross. 

1834.  Dodwell,  "Views  of  Cyclopian  Remains." 
1834-42.     Serradifalco,   "Archita  della   Sicilia." 

1835.  Athens:   reconstruction  of  the  Temple  of 
Apteros  Nike. 

1836.  Cervetri:   the  Regulini-Galassi  Tomb. 

1837.  Rawlinson    deciphers    the    inscription    of 
Behistun. 

Athens:  Pennethorne  discovers  the  horizon- 
tal curves   on  the   Parthenon. 

Athens:  Founding  of  Greek  Archaeolog- 
ical Society. 

Kramer  on  "The  Origin  and  Style  of  Greek 
Painted  Pottery." 

1838-44.     Fellows  travels  in  Lycia. 
1830.     Discovery  of  the  Sophocles  statue. 
1 840- 1.     Coste   and    Flandin   travel   in   Persia. 
1842.     Luni:    pediment  groups   of   terra-cotta. 
London     acquires     the     Nereid     Monument 
from    Xanthos. 

1S43-4,    1845.     Ross  in   Rhodes;    inscriptions   of 
artists;  work  in  Cyprus. 

1843-5.     Egypt:  Lepsius  directs  the  Prussian  ex- 
pedition. 

1843-6.     Khorsabad    excavated    by    Botta. 
1845-7.     Layard   excavates   Niirfrud. 
1846.     Halicarnassos:    reliefs   sent   to  London. 
The  Apollo  of  Tenea  discovered. 
First  find  at  Hallstatt. 

Boucher  de  Perthes  begins  a  prehistoric 
publication. 

Athens:   ficole  Frangaise. 
1848.     Rome:    paintings   of   the   Odyssey  in   the 
Via    Graziosa. 

184Q.     Rome:  the  Apoxyomenos  of  Lysippos. 
Rome:     discovery     of     the     Catacomb     of 
Calixtus   by    De    Rossi. 

184Q-51.     Excavations   at   Kuyunjik   by    Layard 
and   Rassam. 

1849-52,   1853-5.     Loftus  in  Babylonia. 
1851.     Penrose,   "An   Investigation   of   the   Prin- 
ciples  of   Athenian    Architecture." 

1851-5.     Memphis:   Marielte  discovers  the  Sera- 
peum. 


1852.    The  Heraion  near  Argos  examined. 

Beginning    of    the    excavations   in    southern 
Russia. 

1852-3.     Athens:    Beule   uncovers   the   approach 
to   the   citadel. 

1S53.     First    discoveries    in    caves    in    southern 
France. 

The     Marsyas     of     Myron     recognized     by 
Brunn. 

Vienna:      Commission     appointed     for     in- 
vestigating and  preserving  architectural  monuments. 
1854.     First      discovery      of      pile-dwellings     in 
Switzerland. 

Sardes:    Spiegelthal  examines  the   Tomb   of 
Alyattes. 

1855-bo.    Pompeii:  the  Stabian  Therms. 

1857.  Halicarnassos:      Newton      uncovers      the 
Mausoleum. 

1858.  Athens:    Odeion    of   Herodes   .\tticus. 

1859.  Eleusinian    relief    discovered. 
Lenormant  discovers  statuette   of  Athene. 
London  acquires  vases  from  Karaeiros  (Salz- 

mann). 

i860.     Renan   travels   in   Phcrnicia. 

Cyrene:  Smith  and  Porcher. 
1860-75.     Pompeii:    Fiorelli    directs   the   excava- 
tions. 

1861-2.     Delphi:   Foucart  and  Wescher. 

De  Vogue  travels  in  the  Hauran. 
1861-9.     Rome;  excavations  on  the  Palatine. 
1862.     Athens:     Botticher     (Acropolis),    Curtius 
(Pnyx),  and  Strack   (theatre). 

1862-3.     Nikopol:    discoveries    of    tombs. 
1S63.     Rome:    Augustus   from   Prima    Porta. 
Samothrace:    Nike    (Champoiseau) . 
Kirchoff,  "Studien   zur   Geschichte   des  grie- 
chischen    Alphabets"    (Chalcidian    vases). 

Friedrichs     recognizes     the     Doryphoros     of 
Polykleitos. 

1864.  Thasos:  Miller. 

First  discoveries  at  La  Tene. 

1565.  Rome:    the  temple  on  the  Capitoline. 
.Alexandria:   the  sanctuary  of  Arsinoe. 

1566.  Smintheion    and    Temple    of    Athene    at 
Pricnc:   PuUan. 

1S66-Q.     Humann  in  Asia  Minor. 
1S67-9.     Cyprus:    Cesnola. 

1865.  Schliemann    visits   the   Homeric   sites. 
Hildeshcim:    discover}'    of    the    silver    treas- 
ures. 

i860.     Rome:    House  of  Livia. 
1860-74.     Ephesus:    Wood    discovers    the    Arte- 
mision. 

1S70.     Brunn  recognizes  the  statues  from  the  vo- 
tive offering  of  .Aittalos. 

Conze,    "Zur    Geschichte    der    Anfange    der 
griechischen   Kunst"    (Geometric  style). 

1870-71.     .'Vthens:    the   Street   of   Tombs   at   the 
Dipylon ;   vases. 

1870-4.     Tanagra;  the  discovery  of  terra-cottas. 
1871.     Troy:   Schliemann. 

The     Archsological     Institute     becomes     a 
Prussian  government  institution. 

Helbig  recognizes  the  Diadumcnos  of  Poly- 
kleitos. 

1S72.     Rome:    the   reliefs  of  the   tribune  in   the 
Forum. 

1873.     Samothrace:    .\ustrian  excavations. 

Mau     distinguishes     the    periods     of    Pom- 
pcian  wall  paintings. 

Helbig,     "Untcrsuchungen     iiber     die     cam- 
panische    VVandmalerei"    (Hellenism). 
1S74.     Mycens:   Schliemann. 

The    German     Archsological     Institute    be- 
comes an   imperial  institution. 

1875.     Samothrace:    Austrian    excavations. 


440 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


Chronology 
of  Research 


ARCHEOLOGY 


1875-80.     Olympia:    German   excavations. 
1875-6.     Rome:  Temple  of  the  Capitoline  Jupi- 
ter. 

1876.  Athens:  Asklepieion:  tower  removed  from 
south   wing   of   Propylaea. 

La  Tene:    beginning  of  excavations. 

1877.  Olympia:    the   Hermes    of    Praxiteles. 
Sparta:  Myceneean  finds. 

1877-94.     Delos:    French    excavations. 
1877-1007.     Carnuntum:   excavations. 

1878.  Troy:    Schliemann    a   second    time. 
Knossos:    Kalokairinos'   excavations. 
Andreas  at  Persepolis. 

1878-86.     Pergamon:    Prussian    excavations. 

1879.  Samos:    Girard   investigates  the   Heraion. 
London:     Society     for     the     Promotion     of 

Hellenic  Studies. 

Boston:  Archaeological  Institute  of  Amer- 
ica. 

1870-81.     Duhn  collects  remains  of  the  Augustan 
Ara  Pacis. 

1880.  Flinders  Petrie  begins  to  work  in  Egypt. 
Delphi:   Haussoullier. 

Orchomenos:    Schliemann. 
Menidi:   vaulted  tomb. 
F.  Lenormant  in  Southern  Italy. 
1880-2.     Myrina:    French  excavations. 
18S1.     Clermont-Ganneau    travels    in    Phcenicia. 
Maspero  begins  to  work  in  Egypt. 
Dijrpfeld,  Borrmann,  and  others  study  col- 
oured   architectural    terra-cottas. 

Tunis  under  a  French  protectorate. 
Constantinople:     Museum    in    the    Tchinili- 
Kiosk. 

1881-3.     Assos:    American   excavations. 
1881-1903.     Hieron  of  Epidauros:  Greek  excava- 
tions. 

1882.     Caria    and    Lycia:    Austrian    excavations 
(Giblbashi). 

Sardes:   Dennis  opens  a  tumulus. 
Clazomenai:    first    painted    terra-cotta    sar- 
cophagi found. 

Samos:  conduits  of  Eupalinos. 
Wilson  visits  Petra. 

Robert  distinguishes  a  class  of  vases  as 
of  Polygnotan  style. 

Athens:  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies. 

London:    Egypt   Exploration  Fund. 
1882-90.     Eleusis:    Greek   excavations. 
Adamklissi:    Rumainian  sxcavations. 

1884.  Crete:    the   grotto   of   Zeus   on   Mt.    Ida, 
Italian   excavations. 

Tiryns:   Schliemann. 

Athens:  Stamatakes  begins  excavations  on 
the  Acropolis. 

Wright,  "Empire  of  the  Hittites." 

Dorpfeld  elucidates  the  most  ancient  Greek 
architecture. 

1885.  Athens:  British  School. 
Dorpfeld  on  the  Propylaea. 

1885-91.     Athens:   Kavvadias  directs  excavations 
on  the  Acropolis. 

1S86.     Athens:   statue  of  a  woman  by  Antenor. 

1886.  1889,    1895.     Athens,    Dionysic    Theatre, 
Dorpfeld. 

1887.  Sidon:   Tombs  of  princes,  Alexander  sar- 
cophagus. 

Tell-el-Amarna:    Archives    on    clay    tablets. 
Fayum:  the  first  paintings  on  mummies. 
Delphi:   Pomtow. 
Eleusis:    Eubouleus. 
Rome:    Ludovisi   marble  throne. 
1887-8.     Athens:    the    Stoa    of    Eumenes. 

Mantineia:  French  excavations,  Praxitelean 
reliefs. 


1888.  Vaphio,  near  Sparta:  Greek  excavations, 
Mycenaean  gold  cups  found. 

Senjirli:  first  German  excavations. 

1888-99.  Marzabotto:  Italian  excavations  plan 
of  city. 

1888-1900.  Babylonia  (Nippur):  American  ex- 
cavations. 

1889.  Neandreia:     Koldewey. 

Locroi:     Italian    excavations     (Ionian    tem- 
ple). 

1889-90.  Sikyon:  American  excavations  (thea- 
tre). 

1890.  Tell-el-Hesy:  Flinders  Petrie 's  excava- 
tions. 

Troy:  Schliemann  works  there  a  third  time. 
1890-1.     Sinjirli:    further  German  excavations. 

Megalopolis:  British  excavations. 
1800-3.     Rome:   investigations  on  the  Pantheon. 

1891.  Delphi:    agreement   with   France. 
Rome:     statue     of     Apollo     found     in     the 

Tiber. 

1891-3.  Magnesia:  excavations  of  the  Berlin 
Museum. 

1892-4.  Sicily  and  lower  Italy:  Koldeway  and 
Puchstein  investigate  temple  ruins. 

1892-5.  Heraion,  near  Argos:  American  excava- 
tions. 

1892-7.  Athens:  German  excavations  on  the 
Pnyx. 

1892-1903.  Investigations  of  the  Ge/manic 
Limes. 

1893.  Furtwangler  recognizes  the  Lemnir.n 
Athene   of   Phidias. 

1893-4.     Troy:    Ddrpfela. 

1S93-1901.     Delphi:    French    excavations. 

1894.  Senjirli:     German    excavations. 

Samos:    Bohlau   investigates  the   Necropolis. 
Rome:   Peterson  reconstructs  the  Ara  Pacis. 
1894-5.     Pompeii:    House   of   the   Vettii. 

Boscoreale:    villa   rustica;    the    silver    treas- 
ure. 

1894-6.     Deir-el-Bahari:    Temple   of   Hatshepsut. 

1895.  Tell-el-Amarna:  British  excavations  (.\m- 
enhotcp   IV). 

Borchardt  begins  work  in  Egypt. 

1895-6.     Didymaion:    French    excavations. 

1895-9.  Priene:  excavations  of  the  Berlin 
Museum. 

1896-7.  Athens:  the  grotto  of  Pan,  northwest 
corner  of  the  Acropolis. 

1896-1901.     Thera:  Hiller  von  Gartringen. 

1S96-1907.     Ephesos:    Austrian   excavations. 

1897.  Nagada:   tomb  of  Menes. 
Susa:    French  excavations. 

1897-9.     Thermos:    Greek   excavations. 

1898.  Vienna:   Austrian  Archaeological  Institute 
Berlin:    Deutsche  Orient   Gesellschaft. 

189S-9.     Alexandria:   German  excavations. 

1899.  Megara:    German    excavations,    fountain. 
Preuner  recognizes  the  Ai;ias  of  Lysippos. 

1899,  1904.  Howard  Crosby  Butler  travels  in 
Syria. 

Baalbec:  German  investigations. 
1899-1907.     Babylon:        excavations       by       the 
Deutsche  Orient  Gesellschaft. 

Miletos:  excavations  by  the  Berlin  Museum. 
iQoo.     Antikythera:    recovery   of   bronze   statues 
from  the  sea. 

1900-8.     Knossos:   Arthur  Evans. 

Pergamon;   new  German  excavations. 
1901.     Waldstein   recognizes   the   Hera   of   Poly- 
kleitos. 

^gina:    Bavarian  excavations  of   the  Tem- 
ple. 

Romano-Germanic       commission       of       the 
Archaeological   Institute. 


441 


ARCHjEOLOGY 


ARCHILOCHUS 


1902.  Samos:  Greek  excavations  at  the  Heraion. 
Delos:   the  French  resume  their  excavations. 
Treu  recognizes  the  Maenad  of  Scopas. 
Peterson,  Ara   Pacis  Augustae. 

1902-4.  Kos:  German  excavations  of  Askle- 
pieion. 

Abusir:    Borchardt   investigates   pyramids. 
Tell-Taanek:    .Austrian   excavations. 
Lindos:    Danish   excavations   on   the  citadel. 
.\rgos:   Dutch  excavations. 
1902-5.     Geser:    British   excavations. 

1903.  Pergamon:  head  of  the  Hermes  by  .M- 
kamenes  found. 

1903-4.  Rome:  excavations  to  recover  the  .Ara 
Pacis. 

1903-7-  Assur:  excavations  by  the  Deutsche 
Orient    Gesellschaft 

IQ04.     Karnak:   ancient  statues  found. 

Deir-el-Bahari:      Temple    of    the    Dead    of 
Mentuhotep. 

1004-8.     Leukas-Ithaca:  Dorpfeld's  excavation. 

1006.     Abyssinia:   German  expeditions. 

1907.  Jericho:   .Austrian  excavation. 

1908.  A.  Evans  excavating  at  Knossos. 
German  School  excavating  at  Pergamon. 
French  School  excavating  at  Delos. 
British  School  excavating  at  Sparta. 
American  School  excavating  at  Corinth 
American   School   excavating    at   Moklos   in 

Crete. 

Austri  n  School  excavating  at  Ephesus. 

1910.  Opening  of  School  of  .American  Arch<e- 
ology. 

1914-19.     Research  suspended  by  World  War. 

1020.  Work  resumed  by  British,  .American,  and 
French  Schools  in   Mediterranean   area. 

The  above  table  with  many  omissions  and  some 
additions  is  taken  from  .A.  Michaelis,  Century  of 
archdological  discoveries,  pp.  341-352. 

Except  for  the  maintenance  of  a  very  small 
staff,  the  various  schools  excavating  in  Egypt, 
Greece.  Italy,  Syria  and  other  places  of  arch<E- 
ological  interest,  were  forced  to  suspend  their 
ivork  during  the  World  War  and  are  only  now.  in 
1921,  beginning  to  resume  work  on  a  normal  basis. 
The  war  has  in  some  ways  opened  up  many  new 
avenues  of  research,  as  for  example  the  concordat 
of  cooperation  agreed  upon  between  the  British 
and  .American  schools  in  Jerusalem;  great  results, 
consequcntlv,  arc   anticipated   in  the  near  future, 

ARCHAGET.a;,  Spartan  kings.  Sec  Sp.^rta: 
Constitution  ascribed  to  Lycurgus. 

ARCHANGEL,  a  town  of  European  Russia, 
capital  of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  the 
only  large  seaport  on  the  north  coast  of  Russia. 
From  its  settlement  in  the  sixteenth  century  by 
English  traders  it  flourished  until  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great,  who  sacrificed  its  development 
for  the  benefit  of  St.  Petersburg  (Petrograd), 
which  supplanted  .Archangel  as  the  sole  seaport  of 
Russia  at  that  time  The  United  States  commer- 
cial attache  at  Petrograd,  Mr.  H.  D  Baker,  de- 
scribes the  startling  rise  of  .Archangel  to  com- 
mercial eminence  a  year  after  the  opening  of 
the  World  War  in  Commerce  Reports  CWashinf,- 
tpn:  GovernmenI  PrintitiR  Office):  "Previous  to 
the  war  the  trade  of  this  port  was  confined  to 
comparatively  small  exports  of  timber,  fish,  furs, 
and  other  local  products  of  northern  Russia,  and 
a  relatively  small  return  movement  of  goods  re- 
quired for  local  consumption.  Xow,  however, 
.Archangel  is  the  only  port  of  European  Russia 
open  for  foreign  business  by  direct  sea  communi- 
cation. .  .  .  From  a  comparatively  unimportant 
port  about  a  year  ago,  dependent  chiefly  upon  its 

44 


sawmills  and  fishing  fleet  for  prosperity,  it  has 
suddenly  become  one  of  the  most  important  ports 
in  the  world,  rivaling  even  New  York  in  the 
number  and  tonnage  of  ships  arriving  and  depart- 
ing between  about  May  i  and  the  close  of 
ice-free  navigation.  .  .  .  The  river  begins  freezing 
in  October,  but  is  expected  to  be  kept  open  from 
Archangel  out  through  the  White  Sea  till  Decem- 
ber." Archangel  was  the  most  northerly  point 
in  the  railroad  system  of  Europe  until  191b  when 
the  Murmansk  railroad  was  built  In  1918  a 
force  of  English,  French  and  .Americans  seized  the 
city  and  outlying  district  to  keep  it  and  its  ac- 
cumulated military  stores  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Russian  Soviet  government.  The 
city  later  became  the  headquarters  of  various  mili- 
tary undertakings  launched  against  the  Russian 
Soviet  government. — See  also  Russia:  1918-1020: 
.Anti-Bolshevik  movement;  and  Map;  World  War, 
1918:    III.   Russia:   d. 

ARCHAVA,  captured  by  the  Russians  during 
the  World  War.  See  World  War:  1916:  VI. 
Turkish  theater:   d,  1. 

ARCHBISHOP,  or  Metropolitan,  in  the  Cath- 
olic hierarchy,  is  a  bishop  in  a  metropolis,  who, 
in  addition  to  the  government  of  his  own  diocese, 
controls  the  bishops  of  other  simple  dioceses  within 
a  definite  district.  (See  Bishop:  Investiture:  Au- 
thority.) In  the  .Anglican  church  there  are  two 
archbishops,  those  of  York  and  Canterbury.  In 
the  Episcopal  church  in  .America,  it  was  proposed 
in  1020  that  there  be  an  archbishop  at  Washington 
to  act  as  the  supervisory  head  of  the  church  in 
.America.     See  Christianity:  312-337. 

ARCHCHANCELLOR  (Latin,  archicancel- 
larius),  a  title  held  by  the  highest  official  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire ;  of  modern  interest  mainly 
because  the  officer  was  the  i)rototype  of  the  power- 
ful imperial   German   chancellor,    1871-1018. 

ARCHDEACON,  an  oflicial  of  the  Christian 
church,  with  executive  powers  subordinate  to  the 
bishop.  ".Above  the  rural  dean  we  find  the  arch- 
deacon, an  officer  placed  over  a  larger  group  of 
parishes  and  vested  with  much  more  extensive 
functions." — E.  Emcrton.  Mediceval  Europe,  p.  553. 

ARCHDUKE,  the  title  of  princes  of  the  im- 
perial family  of  .Austria.  See  .Austria:  Singularity 
of  .Austrian  historv. 

ARCHELAUS  (413-399  B.C.),  king  of  Mace- 
donia. Conducted  internal  reforms,  organized  the 
army :  fostered  the  spread  ol  Greek  civilization 
by  entertaining  celebrated  men  at  his  court. — See 
also  Greece:  B.  C.  8th-5th  centuries:  Growth  of 
Sparta. 

ARCHELAUS  OF  CAPPADOCIA,  general  of 
Mithradates  the  Great  in  the  war  with  Rome.  In 
87  B.  C.  he  was  sent  to  Greece  and  was  defeated 
by  Sulla  in  two  battles;  deserted  to  the  Roman 
side  in  the  second  and  third  wars. — See  also 
MiTHRAOATir   Wars. 

ARCHERY:  Use  of  bows  as  weapons.  Sec 
Longbow, 

ARCHIDAMUS,  the  name  of  five  Spartan 
rulers  of  the  Eurypontid  line  The  best  known 
are   the   following: 

Archidamus  II,  ruled  476-427  B.C.  Tried  to 
avert  the  Peloponnesian  War;  invaded  .Attica, 
4^1-4:9-    See  Grf.f.ce:   B.C.  477-461;  43i;  429-427- 

Archidamus  III,  360.3.^8  B.  C.  Led  the  relief 
force  sent  to  the  battle  of  Lcuctra;  defeated  the 
Arcadians  and  their  allies  in  the  "tearless  battle" 
and  captured  Caryae,  367;  defended  Sparta  against 
Epaminondas. 

Archidamus  IV,  defeated  in  294  B.  C.  at  Man- 
tineia    bv    Demetrius   Poliorcetes. 

ARCHILOCHUS,  Greek  lyric  poet  and  writer 


ARCHIMEDES 


ARCHITECTURE 


of  scathing  lampoons,  who  lived  in  the  seventh 
century  B.  C.  He  contributed  much  to  met- 
rical form,  especially  the  iambic  and  its  application 
to  satiric  verse. 

ARCHIMEDES  (c.  287-212  B.C.),  celebrated 
Greek  geometrician  and  inventor  of  antiquity.  He 
invented  the  spiral  water-screw,  known  as  the 
screw  of  Archimedes,  and  discovered  the  principle 
of  the  lever.  By  means  of  engines  of  war  which 
he  invented,  he  aided  King  Hiero  in  delaying  the 
fall  of  Syracuse  when  attacked  by  Marcellus,  the 
story  being  (erroneously)  that  he  burned  the 
Roman    fleet    by    means   of    mirrors.      Archimedes 


was  killed  in  the  final  capture  of  Syracuse. — See 
also  Hellenism:  Science  and  invention;  Science: 
Development  of  science:   Ancient  Greek  science. 

ARCHIPRESBYTER,  an  administrative  office 
in  the  Christian  church,  between  the  parish  clergy 
and  the  archdeacon.  "The  immediate  execution 
of  the  episcopal  orders  was  intrusted  to  the  care 
of  an  official  called  the  arch-priest  (arcliipresbyter) 
or  rural  dean  {decanns  ruralis).  himself  a  parish 
clergyman,  but  set  over  a  group  of  other  parishes 
as  inspector  of  church  life  in  general  and  with 
certain  minor  judicial  functions." — -E.  Emerton, 
Medimval  Europe,  p.  553. 


ARCHITECTURE 


Definition  of  Architecture.  —  "The  art  of 
architecture  has  been  defined  very  variously.  It 
was  defined  by  Mr  Garbett  as  'the  art  of  well 
building;  in  other  words,  of  giving  to  a  building 
all  the  perfection  of  which  it  is  capable.'  Mr. 
Ru.'-kin  defined  it  as  'the  art  which  so  disposes  and 
adorns  the  edifices  raised  by  man,  for  whatever 
uses  that  the  sight  of  them  may  contribute  to 
his  mental  health,  power,  and  pleasure.'  In  the 
.'\merican  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building 


ments.  Now  these  two  operations,  the  prelimi- 
nary and  the  subsequent  one,  may  be  carried  on  by 
the  same  individual,  or  they  may  not.  .  .  .  When 
a  large  and  important  building  is  erected  nowa- 
days, one  and  the  same  man  docs  not  undertake 
both  divisions  of  the  work;  one  part  of  the  work 
is  handed  over  to  one  man,  the  other  part  to 
another;  in  modern  parlance  the  first  is  the  archi- 
tect, the  second  the  builder.  And  wc  may  be 
sure  that  at  all  periods  when  any  great  building  was 


.STONEHENOK 
Probal'ly  erected  in    i6So   U.C. 


(1901)  it  is  defined  as  'the  art  of  building  with 
some  elaboration  and  skilled  labour;  and,  in  a 
more  limited  sense,  as  'the  modification  of  the 
structure,  form,  and  colour  of  houses,  churches, 
and  civic  buildings,  by  means  of  which 
they  become  interesting  as  works  ot  fine 
art.'  But  it  can  hardly  be  held  that  there 
is  one  art  of  making  things  well  and  another  of 
making  them  badly.  There  is  not  one  art  of  mak- 
ing clothes  that  fit  and  another  art  of  making 
misfits.  One  and  the  same  art  makes  flower-pots 
for  the  gardener  and  Worcester  ware  for  the  con- 
noisseur. So  it  is  with  Architecture.  It  is  simply 
'the  art  of  building.'  Good  architecture  is  indeed 
the  art  of  building  beautifully  and  expressively; 
and  bad  architecture  is  the  reverse.  But  archi- 
tecture is  the  art  of  building  in  general.  .  .  .  This 
seems  clear  enough.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
definition  contains  an  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  the 
term  'building.'  In  the  erection  of  every  edifice 
the  work  necessarily  falls  into  two  parts.  There 
is  the  preliminary  process  of  planning  and  de- 
signing the  buildings,  and,  it  may  be,  of  making 
drawings,  whether  rough  sketches,  or  drawings  to 
scale  or  full  size,  as  well  as  that  of  superintend- 
ence. There  is  also  the  actual  putting  together 
of  the  materials  by  manual  labour  and  the  ma- 
chinery so  as  to  form  roofs,  supports,  and  abut- 


erected,  there  was  a  similar  division  of  func- 
tions. ...  To  be  accurate  therefore,  we  must  not, 
except  in  comparatively  small  and  unimportant 
work,  define  'architecture'  as  'the  art  of  building,' 
but  as  'the  art  of  planning,  designing,  and  drawing 
buildings,  and  of  directing  the  execution  thereof.'  " 
— F.  Bond,  Gothic  architecture  in  England,  pp. 
1-2. 

PREHISTORIC 

"Structures  of  the  prehistoric  period,  although 
interesting  for  archsological  reasons,  have  little 
or  no  architectural  value.  .  .  .  The  remains  may 
be  classified  under: — I.  Monoliths,  or  single  up- 
right stones,  also  known  as  menhirs.  ...  II.  Dol- 
mens (Daul,  a  table,  and  maen,  a  stone),  con- 
sisting of  one  large  flat  stone  supported  by  up- 
right stones.  .  .  .  III.  Cromlechs,  or  circles  of 
stone,  as  at  Stonehenge,  Avebury  (Wilts),  and 
elsewhere,  consisting  of  a  series  of  upright  stones 
arranged  in  a  circle  and  supporting  horizontal 
slabs.  IV.  Tumuli,  or  burial  mounds,  were  prob- 
ably prototypes  of  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt.  V. 
Lake  Dwellings  as  discovered  in  the  lakes  of  Swit- 
zerland, Italy  and  Ireland  consisted  of  wooden 
huts  supported  on  piles,  so  placed  for  protection 
against  hostile  attacks  of   all  kinds.     These  fore- 


443 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


Egypt 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


going  primitive  or  prehistoric  remains  have  little 
constructive  sequence,  and  are  merely  mentioned 
here  to  show  from  what  simple  beginnings  the 
noble  art  of  architecture  was  evolved." — B.  Fletcher 
and  B.  F.  Fletcher,  History  oj  architecture  on  the 
comparative  method,  p.  3. 

America. — Architecture  of  American  aborigines. 
See  Indians,  American:  Cultural  areas  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America:  Maya  area;  Mexico:  Aborig- 
inal peoples;  Pueblos. 

ORIENTAL 

Egypt:  General  characteristics. — Principal  re- 
mains.— -"W'e  shall  not  attempt  in  such  limited 
space,  to  trace  the  development  of  architecture 
during  the  successive  dynasties  of  Egyptian  histon.-, 
but  merely  to  note  the  conditions  of  climate,  re- 
ligion, and  materials  which  gave  rise  to  the  style; 


their  massiveness  that  we  realize  their  height.  The 
obelisk,  which  is  the  only  aspiring  form  in  Egyp- 
tian architecture,  is  also  the  only  one  which  has 
no  counterpart  in  nature,  and  is  distinctly  a  prod- 
uct of  the  imagination." — M.  Brimmer,  Three  es- 
says on  the  history,  religion  and  art  oj  ancient 
Egypt,  P-  b2- 

"The  brilliancy  of  light  led  to  adopting  an 
architecture  of  blank  walls  without  windows. 
The  reflected  light  through  open  doorways 
was  enough  to  show  most  interiors ;  and  for 
chambers  far  from  the  outer  door,  a  square  open- 
ing about  six  inches  each  way  in  the  roof,  or  a 
slit  along  the  wall  a  couple  of  inches  high,  let 
in  sufficient  light.  The  results  of  this  system  were, 
that  as  the  walls  were  not  divided  by  structural  fea- 
tures, they  were  dominated  by  the  scenes  that 
were  carved  upon  them.  .  .  .  The  most  gigantic 
buildings  had  their  surfaces  crowded  with  delicate 


TEMPLE  OF  LUXOR  AT  THEBES 
An   example  of   Egyptian  architecture 


©  Publisbsre'  Photo  Service 


and  to  note  the  principal  examples  of  it  remain- 
ing. The  essential  conditions  in  Egypt  are  be- 
fore all,  an  overwhelming  sunshine;  next,  the 
strongest  of  contrasts  between  3  vast  sterility  of 
desert  and  the  most  prolific  verdure  of  the  narrow 
plain;  and  thirdly,  the  illimitable  level  lines  of 
the  cultivation,  of  the  desert  plateau,  and  of  the 
limestone  strata,  crossed  by  the  vertical  precipices 
on  either  hand  rising  hundreds  of  feet  without  a 
break."— W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  Arts  and  crafts  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  p.  2. — "Thus  the  outlines  of  the 
pyramid,  of  the  flat-roofed  temple  with  its  mas- 
sive columns  and  of  the  rock  tomb  must  have  been 
familiar  to  the  eye  of  the  early  Egyptian  architect 
from  the  natural  forms  about  him.  The  Sphinx 
itself  stands  prefigured  in  its  general  outline  by 
the  hand  of  nature.  Both  the  scenery  and  archi- 
tecture of  Egypt  convey  the  same  general  impres- 
sion of  form,  not  lofty,  but  broad,  massive  and 
ponderous.  Such  is  the  effect  of  the  pyramids 
themselves  when  one  first  sees  them.  It  is  not 
till   our  eyes  have   recovered   from   the   effect   of 


sculpture  and  minute  colouring.  What  would  be 
disproportianate  elsewhere,  seems  in  harmony  amid 
such  natural  contrasts." — W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  Arts 
and  crafts  of  ancient  Egypt,  pp.  3,  5. — "The  char- 
acter of  Egyptian  architecture  was  also  in  part 
conditioned  by  religious  beliefs,  which  demanded 
the  utmost  permanence  and  grandeur  for  tombs  and 
temples,  the  residences  of  the  dead  and  of  the 
gods,  in  contrast  with  the  light  and  relatively 
temporary  houses  which  sufficed  for  even  the 
greatest  of  the  living.  Such  permanence  was 
sought  by  the  almost  exclusive  employment  of 
fine  stone,  which  the  cliffs  of  the  Nile  Valley 
furnished  in  abundance,  and  by  the  adoption,  as 
the  dominant  constructive  types,  of  the  simple 
mass,  and  of  the  column  and  the  lintel.  The  arch 
(q.  v.).  occasionally  used  from  the  earliest  times, 
was  confined  to  substructures  where  it  had  ample 
abutment  and  was  little  in  view.  The  architec- 
tural members,  moreover,  were  generally  of  great 
size  and  massiveness,  although  sometimes  of  ex- 
treme refinement  and  .  .  .  even  of  delicacy.    Tra- 


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Babylonia 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


ditional  elements  of  composition  in  plan  recurred 
in  many  types  of  buildings.  These  were  the 
open  court,  often  surrounded  by  a  continuous  in- 
terior colonnade  or  peristyle,  and  the  rectangular 
room  opening  on  its  broader  front,  with  its  coiling 
supported  by  columns." — F.  Rimball  and  G.  H. 
Edgell,  Hiitory  of  architecture,  pp.  15-16. — "The 
architect  employed  only  straight  lines,  these  being 
perpendiculars  and  horizontals,  very  boldly  and 
felicitously  combined.  The  arch,  although  known, 
was  not  employed  as  a  member  in  architecture. 
In  order  to  carry  the  roof  across  the  void,  either 
the  simplest  of  stone  piers,  a  square  pillar  of  a 
single  block  of  granite  was  employed,  or  an  al- 
ready elaborate  and  beautiful  monolithic  column 
of  granite  supported  the  architrave." — J.  H.  Breas- 
ted, History  of  Egypt,  p.  107. — "Of  a  very  ancient 
period,  earlier  than  2500  B.C.,  are  the  columns 
of  the  rock-cut  tombs  at  Beni  Hassan,  famous  for 
their  resemblance  to  the  Greek  Doric,  whose 
earliest  standing  example  is  more  than  fourteen 
hundred  years  later.  Another  form  of  column  and 
capital  found  at  Beni  Hassan,  and  at  Thebes,  of 
the  same  early  time,  imitates  a  bunch  of  lotus  buds 
and  stems,  bound  together.  .  .  .  Forms  of  the  capi- 
tal are  noticeable  in  these  ruins,  resembling  an  in- 
verted bell  and  representing  an  open  lotus  flower, 
the  qlosed  lotus  bud,  etc.  The  Period  of  the 
existing  Egyptian  ruins  is  generally  much  later 
than  that  of  the  isolated  columns  of  Beni  Hassan 
just  mentioned.  Between  1800  B.C.  and  1200 
B.  C,  a  period  of  great  building  activity,  were 
erected  most  of  the  temples,  now  in  ruins,  at 
Thebes.  These  are  variously  known,  from  the  sites 
of  modern  Arab  villages  erected  at  various  points 
of  the  ancient  city,  as  the  ruins  of  Karnak,  of 
Luxor,  of  Medinet  Habou,  and  of  Gourneh.  .  .  . 
Of  a  still  older  period  than  any  of  the  temple 
ruins  now  standing,  and  not  later  than  3800  B.  C, 
are  the  royal  pyramid  tombs  near  Cairo.  .  .  .In 
construction  they  consisted  of  a  series  of  step- 
like platforms,  diminishing  from  base  to  summit, 
and  furnished  with  a  casing  of  Umestone  or  red 
granite,  to  fdl  the  angles,  and  present  four  pol- 
ished surfaces  against  the  attacks  of  time  and 
weather.  .  .  .  The  largest  pyramid,  that  of  Shufu 
(Cheops  [Keeops]  as  Grecianized  in  pronuncia- 
tion), covers  nearly  thirteen  acres  of  ground,  and 
was  once  over  four  hundred  and  eighty  feet  high. 
The  adjacent  pyramid  of  King  Shatra  (Chephren) 
was  four  hundred  and  seventy  feet.  Beside  it  is 
the  colossal  Sphinx,  with  human  head  and  Hon's 
body,  possibly  of  still  more  ancient  date,  now 
buried  to  the  shoulders  in  sand,  sixty-five  feet 
high,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-two  feet  long. 
This  Sphinx  is  an  emblem  of  the  Egyptian  Divin- 
ity Horus,  one  of  the  forms  of  the  Sun-god. 
The  most  famous  Egyptian  temple  ruin  is  the 
'Great  Hall'  of  Karnak,  built  in  the  14th  century 
B.  C.  by  the  kings  Seti  I  and  Ramses  II  .  .  .  The 
temple  at  Abydos  is  a  construction  of  Seti  I.  The 
'Ramesseum'  at  Thebes  dates  from  Ramses  II. 
There  is  a  famous  rock-cut  temple  in  Nubia  at 
Ipsamboul  dating  from  this  last  king.  On  this 
upper  portion  of  the  Kile,  above  the  limits  of 
Egypt  proper,  there  are  many  other  Egyptian  ruins. 
After  the  time  of  the  ruin  at  Medinet  Habou, 
Thebes,  about  1270  B.C.,  many  centuries  passed 
of  which  no  remains  are  now  known.  The  tem- 
ple of  Edfou  dates  from  the  Greek  rule  over 
Egypt,  B.  C.  332-B.  C.  30.  Of  the  same  time  are 
the  temple  of  Denderah  and  the  temples  at  Philae. 
The  temples  at  Esneh  and  Kom  Ambos  belong  to 
the  period  of  Roman  rule." — W.  H.  Goodyear, 
History  of  art,  pp.  33-34.-866  also  Egypt:  Monu- 
ments; Mastaba. 


Mesopotamia:  Chaldean. — Old  Babylonian. — 
Assyro-Babylonian.— "Remains  at  the  Sumerian 
center  of  Lagash,  the  modarn  Tello,  include  a 
building  of  the  king  Ur-Nina — the  oldest  struc- 
ture yet  found  in  Mesopotamia  which  can 
be  dated — built  perhaps  3000  years  before 
Christ.  There  is  also  a  fragment  of  the 
staged  tower  built  by  Gudea  about  2450  B.C. 
incorporated  in  a  later  palace.  The  early  Semitic 
religious  center  was  at  Nippur,  where  the  ruins  of 
the  temple  precinct  include  superposed  remains  of 
several  staged  towers,  dating  from  the  very  ear- 
liest times.  The  general  similarity  of  these  build- 
ings of  Assyria  and  Babylon  establishes  the  essen- 
tion  continuity  of  Mesopotamian  architecture." — 
F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History  oj  architec- 
ture, p.  25. — "The  buildings  of  the  Babylonians 
were  made  of  brick,  as  there  was  very  little  stone 
to  be  had  in  their  marshy  and  low-lying  country. 
The  clay  from  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers,  when 
moulded,  was  either  dried  in  the  sun  or  baked  in 
kilns.  When  stone  had  to  be  used  it  was  brought 
from  a  distance  and  was  generally  of  a  hard 
volcanic  kind,  such  as  basalt  or  diorite.  Great 
brick  platforms  were  used  as  foundations  for 
buildings  to  raise  them  above  the  marshy  ground. 
The  Assyrians  followed  Babylonian  traditions  in 
building,  as  in  everything  else,  and  although  drier 
and  firmer  ground  often  rendered  platforms  un- 
necessary, the  people  continued  to  build  them  as 
foundations  for  temples  and  palaces.  In  the  same 
way  bricks  were  universally  used,  although  the 
country  possessed  a  fair  supply  of  Umestone  and 
alabaster.  The  latter  materials  were  employed  in 
decoration,  and  served  to  line  walls  and  make 
pavements  and  sometimes  columns  and  plinths. 
Wood  was  brought  from  a  distance  for  pillars  and 
roofs,  although  the  latter  are  thought  to  hjive 
been  frequently  vaulted  and  made  of  brick.  Many 
bas-reliefs  represent  buildings  as  surmounted  by 
a  series  of  small  domes,  and  they  also  show,  as  an 
almost  invariable  feature  of  Mesopotamian  architec- 
ture, a  parapet  with  a  crenelateci  edge  as  the  dec- 
oration to  a  flat  roof.  Walls  were  of  great  thick- 
ness. In  Sargon's  palace  at  Khorsabad  the  inner 
ones  measure  from  twelve  to  twenty-eight  feet  in 
width,  and  this  has  been  mentioned  in  support 
of  the  theory  of  domed  roofs  which  would  neces- 
sitate strong  walls.  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  tem- 
ples have  been  discovered  in  a  worse  state  of 
preservation  than  the  palace.  The  earliest  were 
probably  built  with  only  one  or  two  stages,  but 
later  seven  of  these  were  frequently  erected  above 
the  artificial  platform  on  which  the  temple  stood. 
These  ziggurats  or  staged  towers  were  built  'to 
reach  the  heavens,'  and  as  kings  were  sometimes 
buried  in  them,  some  archsologists  have  drawn 
a  parallel  between  them  and  the  Egyptian  pyra- 
mids. The  temples,  which  were  enclosed  by  mas- 
sive walls,  contained  chambers  for  the  priests' 
treasure,  houses,  granaries,  and  enclosures  for  the 
sacrificial  victims.  .  .  .  Hidden  in  their  inmost  re- 
cess, or  sometimes  erected  on  the  highest  stage  of 
the  tower,  was  the  holy  of  holies,  containing  the 
golden  table,  mercy  seat,  altar,  and  statue  of  the 
god." — M.  Bulley,  Ancient  and  medieval  art,  pp. 
77-78.— "In  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  archiiecture 
the  tower  is  always  separate  from  the  temple 
proper — as  though  to  symbolize  the  independent 
origin  of  the  two  structures,  the  mountain-motif 
and  the  house-motif.  ...  In  the  case  of  many 
mosques  the  Babylonian-Assyrian  tradition  is  fol- 
lowed through  the  virtual  ndependence  of  the 
minarets  [lofty  towers]  as  adjuncts  to  the  mosque, 
though  in  others  the  minaret  is  directly  attached 
and  eventually  becomes  a  steeple  placed  on  or  at 


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Palestine 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


the  side  of  the  mosque.  ...  At  Warka,  Tello, 
Nippur  and  Babylon  remains  of  arches  were  found 
at  a  depth  which  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  great 
antiquity  to  which  the  construction  of  arches  is 
to  be  traced  back  in  the  Euphrates  Valley — at 
least  to  3000  B.  C.  .  .  .  These  early  arches  were 
used  as  tunnels  through  which  drains  passed  to 
carry  off  the  rain  water  and  the  refuse  from  the 
structures  beneath  which  they  were  erected." — 
M.  Jastrow,  Cii'ilization  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
pp.  377-378. — "Throughout  ancient  times,  as  now, 
the  normal  method  of  rooting  in  IVlesopolamia 
was  by  wooden  beams  supporting  a  mat  of  reeds, 
and  then  a  thick  bed  of  clay  graded  with  a  slight 
inclination  to  permit  vater  to  run  off.  .  .  .  Col- 
umns were  used  but  sparingly,  as  supports  for 
light,  isolated  structures,  and  in  porticos  along  the 
sides  of  a  court.  They  were,  for  the  most  part, 
apparently,  of  wood,  painted  or  covered  with 
metal  plates.  .  .  .  Winged  bulls  of  stone  carved 
in  high  relief  were  used  to  decorate  the  jambs 
of  arched  gateways  and  the  bases  of  towers. 
Friezes  in  low  relief  representing  historical  subjects 
or  hunting  scenes  ornamented  the  state  apartments 
of  the  palaces.  Brick  enameled  in  colors  was 
also  a  favorite  mode  of  surface  decoration." — 
F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  Hislory  of  archi- 
tecture, pp.  30-32. — The  palaces  at  N'imrud,  Nine- 
veh and  Khorsabad  are  characteristic  of  the  style 
of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.  These  palaces 
were  built  on  immense  platforms  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  enclosed  in  masonry,  and  covering,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  palace  at  Khorsabad,  one  million 
square  feet,  raised  forty-eight  feet  above  the  town 
level.  Factors  of  special  note  in  the  construction 
of  the  palaces  are:  the  great  length  of  halls  as 
compared  with  the  width;  and  the  immense  thick- 
ness of  the  walls.  "The  famous  'hanging  gardens' 
of  Babylon  were  built  upon  terraces  supported  by 
pillars  and  arches,  and  formed  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinctive features  of  the  palaces.  It  is  noticeable 
that  while  in  Egypt  the  temples  were  the  buildings 
of  the  greatest  grandeur,  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
the  position  is  reversed,  and  the  palaces  were  the 
most  splendid  monuments." — M.  H.  Bulley,  .in- 
dent and  medieval  art,  p.  7q. — See  also  B.abvlon: 
Nebuchadrezzar  and  the  wall  of  Babylon;  Baby- 
lonia:  Earliest  inhabitants. 

Persia:  Palaces. — Halls  of  Darius  and  Xerxes. 
— "The  architecture  of  the  Persians  .  .  .  borrowed 
certain  forms  from  .  .  .  Mesopotamia,  Ionia  and 
Egypt.  Nevertheless  it  retained  a  large  native  ele- 
ment, suggestive  of  a  primitive  columnar  archi- 
tecture of  wood.  .  .  .  The  entablatures  and  roof 
framing  remained  of  wood  throughout  the  .\chs- 
menian  period,  making  possible  the  unusual  slen- 
derness  and  wide  spacing  of  the  columns.  The 
roof  itself  was  a  thick  mass  of  clay,  terraced,  with 
very  slight  inclination.  Though  the  Persians  drew 
some  decorative  forms  from  other  countries,  their 
chief  source  of  them  was  Assyria.  The  winged 
bulls  and  bas-reliefs  are  but  clumsily  imitated  and 
even  the  polychrome  friezes  of  enameled  brick 
from  Susa  are  relatively  crude  compared  with  their 
prototypes  at  Babylon.  Zoroastrianism.  the  an- 
cient religion  of  Persia,  required  neither  true  tem- 
ples nor  sepulchres.  .  .  .  More  important  are  the 
palaces,  which  reflect  the  proud  absolutism  of 
the  Great  King.  The  Persian  palaces  at  Pasar- 
gadae  and  Persepolis  stood  on  great  platforms  like 
those  of  .Assyria.  Here  these  were  built  of  stone, 
and  served  at  once  to  give  military  security  and 
monumental  setting.  At  Persepolis  a  vast  double 
staircase  leads  up  from  the  plain,  giving  access 
to  the  |)latform  through  a  tall  columnar  porch 
flanked    with    winged   bulls.     On    lower   platforms 


resting  on  the  larger  one  stand  three  palaces, 
those  of  Darius,  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  III.  They 
are  similar  in  general  arrangement  with  a  large, 
square,  columned  hall,  preceded  by  a  deep  portico 
and  surrounded  by  minor  rooms.  Independent  of 
the  palaces  are  the  magnificent  audience-halls  of 
Darius  and  of  Xerxes,  each  covering  more  than 
an  acre.  In  disposition  they  reproduce  the  cen- 
tral feature  of  the  palaces,  but  on  a  larger  scale. 
The  hall  of  Darius  has  ten  columns  each  way  in- 
closed by  massive  walls.  .  .  .  The  hall  of  Xerxes 
has  but  six,  .  .  .  but  has  porticos  the  full  width 
of  this  on  three  sides.  With  its  columns  thirty 
feet  apart  and  almost  seventy  feet  high,  this  build- 
ing takes  rank  with  the  greatest  columnar  buildings 
of  Egypt  and  of  Greece.  The  earliest  royal  tomb, 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Cyrus,  ...  is  obviously 
imitative  of  Ionian  architecture.  .  .  .  Those  of  later 
monarchs  seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  rock- 
cut  tombs  of  Egypt.  Their  chief  interest  lies  in 
their  representation  of  the  Persian  entablature  of 
wood.  With  its  architrave  of  three  superposed 
bands,  its  projecting  beam  ends  above,  this  is 
clearly  related  in  its  origin  to  the  forms  of  the  Ionic 
entablature  in  Greece.  The  Persian  columns  were 
slender,  and  crowned  with  a  peculiar  capital  in 
which  the  heads  and  forequarters  of  two  bulls  are 
united  back  to  back  in  the  direction  of  the  archi- 
trave. Beneath  these  were  placed  multiplied  pairs 
of  volutes  on  end,  and  then  bells,  upright  and 
inverted,  in  incoherent  sequence.  Thus  the  capital 
became  long  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  shaft 
below.  In  its  problems  of  the  column  and  lintel, 
Persian  architecture  was  related  to  the  classic  archi- 
tecture of  Greece,  which  was  roughly  contemporary 
with  it,  and  which  carried  its  solutions  much 
further  in  technical  facility  and  refinement." — F. 
Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History  oj  architecture, 
pp.  32-36. 

Palestine:  Temple. — Lack  of  indigenous  art. 
— "The  Hebrews  borrowed  from  the  art  of  every 
people  with  whom  they  had  relations,  so  that  we 
encounter  in  the  few  extant  remains  of  their 
architecture  Egyptian,  .Assyrian,  Phoenician,  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Syro-Byzantine  features,  but  nothing 
like  an  independent  national  style.  .Among  the 
most  interesting  of  these  remains  are  tombs  of 
various  periods,  principally  occurring  in  the  val- 
leys near  Jerusalem,  and  erroneously  ascribed  by 
popular  tradition  to  the  judges,  prophets,  and  kings 
of  Israel.  Some  of  them  are  structural,  some 
rut  in  the  rock;  the  former  (tombs  of  .Absalom 
and  Zechariah)  decorated  with  Doric  and  Ionic 
engaged  orders,  were  once  supposed  to  be  primi- 
tive types  of  these  orders  and  of  great  antiquity. 
They  are  now  recognized  to  be  debased  imitations 
of  late  Greek  work  of  the  third  or  second  century 
B.C....  The  one  great  achievement  of  Jewish 
architecture  was  the  national  Temple  of  Jehovah, 
represented  by  three  successive  editlces  on  Mount 
Moriah,  the  site  of  the  present  so-called  'Mosque 
of  Omar.'  The  first,  built  by  Solomon  (101.!  B.C.) 
appears  from  the  Biblical  description  to  have 
combined  Egyptian  conceptions  (successive  courts, 
lofty  entrance-pylons,  the  Sanctuary  and  the  sekos 
or  'Holy  of  Holies')  with  Phoenician  and  Assyrian 
details  and  workmanship  (cedar  woodwork,  em- 
paistic  decoration  or  overlaying  with  repousse 
metal  work,  the  isolated  brazen  columns  Jachin 
and  Boaz).  The  whole  stood  on  a  mighty  plat- 
form built  up  with  stupendous  masonry  and  vaulted 
chambers  from  the  valley  surrounding  the  rock  on 
three  sides.  This  precinct  was  nearly  doubled  in 
size  by  Herod  (18  B.C.)  who  extended  it  south- 
ward by  a  terrace-wall  of  still  more  colossal  ma- 
sonrv.     Some  of   the  stones  are   twenty-two   feet 


446 


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The   Temple 
China 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


long;  one  reaches  the  prodigious  length  of  forty 
feet.  The  'Wall  of  Lamentations'  is  a  part  of  this 
terrace,  upon  which  stood  the  Temple  on  a  raised 
platform.  As  rebuilt  by  Herod,  the  Temple  re- 
produced in  part  the  antique  design,  and  retained 
the  porch  of  Solomon  along  the  east  side;  but  the 
whole  was  superbly  reconstructed  in  white  mar- 
ble with  abundance  of  gilding.  Defended  by  the 
Castle  of  Antonia  on  the  northwest,  and  embel- 
lished with  a  new  and  imposing  triple  colonnade 
on  the  south,  the  whole  edifice,  a  conglomerate 
of  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Roman  conceptions 
and  forms,  was  one  of  the  most  singular  and  yet 
magnificent  creations  of  ancient  art.  The  temple 
of  Zerubbabel  (515  B.C.),  intermediate  between 
those   above   described,    was   probably    less    a    re- 


Phoenicia. — Very  little  remains  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Phoenicians.  They  .  .  .  built  in 
stone  and  like  the  Egyptians  employed  cyclopean 
masonry.  The  great  fortifications  of  Arvad,  Tyre 
and  Sidon  are  the  main  examples  of  this.  Their 
temples  were  merely  small  shrines,  and  in  general 
their   architecture    was    of    a    utilitarian    nature. 

China:  Typical  forms  and  materials. — Uses 
of  color. — "Early  records  prove  that  contemporary 
Chinese  architecture  is  still  the  same  in  essentials 
as  that  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  B.  C. 
The  most  common  form  in  building  is  the  Ting, 
which  consists  of  a  large  and  massive  roof  sup- 
ported by  a  number  of  wooden  columns.  The 
walls  are  formed  by  filling  in  the  space  between  the 
columns  with  stone  and  brick.    The  roof,  which  is 


.  1  "^'^  ..'-'■ 


^^ 


I  I  .  I  I 


'  I  > 


-     ■    E" 

" tt;K       J". 


TEMPLE   OF  HEAVEN,    FORBIDDEN    riTY,    PEKING 


edification  of  the  first,  than  a  new  design." — A.  D. 
F.  Hamlin,  Textbook  oj  the  history  of  architecture, 
pp.  3g-4i. — See  also  Jerusalem:  B.C.  1400-700. — 
"The  Hebrews  .  .  .  had  no  art,  and  never  pretended 
to  have  one;  they  were  contented  with  the  art- 
products  which  other  nations  made  for  them,  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  clearly-expressed  prom- 
ise of  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob: 
'That  He  would  give  them  great  and  goodly  cities, 
which  they  would  not  build;  and  houses  full  of 
good  things,  which  they  would  not  fill;  and  wells 
digged,  which  they  would  not  dig;  and  vineyards 
and  olive  trees,  which  they  would  not  plant.' 
With  such  principles  neither  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, nor  ornamentation  could  flourish." — G.  G. 
Zerffi,  Manual  of  the  historical  development  of  art, 
p.  151. 


always  the  most  important  part  of  a  Chinese  build- 
ing, is  often  a  double  or  a  triple  one,  with  elab- 
orately carved  ridges  and  eaves,  and  is  often  cov- 
ered with  gay  tiles.  Another  favourite  archi- 
tectural form  is  that  of  the  Pai-lou.  an  elaborate 
stone  or  wooden  archway,  generally  built  with 
a  tiled  roof,  and  erected  only  by  official  consent 
in  commemoration  of  some  famous  person.  A  third 
typical  Chinese  building  is  the  T'ai  or  stone  tower, 
also  known  as  pagoda.  It  is  an  octagonal  struc- 
ture with  thirteen  stories,  and  probably  owes  its 
proportions  to  the  same  symbolic  idea  that  sug- 
gested the  Gothic  spire,  although  in  this  instance 
the  symbolism  would  refer  to  the  Buddhist  creed. 
The  Great  Wall  is  one  of  the  most  famous  ex- 
amples nf  Chinese  building.  It  marks  the  boun- 
daries   of   four   northern   provinces,   and   following 


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China 
Japan 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


the  windings,  is  1500  miles  in  length.  It  was 
begun  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  repaired  in  the 
fifteenth  centurj-  A.  D.,  and  was  extended  some 
300  miles  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  generally 
measures  from  20  to  30  feet  in  height,  and  its 
towers,  which  come  at  intervals  of  about  200 
yards,  are  some  40  feet  high.  It  measures  15  to 
JS  feet  in  breadth  at  its  base."— M.  H.  Bulley, 
Ancient  and  medieval  art,  p.  in. — "The  Chinese 
idea  of  an  architectural  triumph  is  not  that  of  a 
single  building  rising  in  beautiful  lines  to  a  great 
height,  but  a  large  number  of  buildings  and  patios 
symmetrically  arranged  and  covering  a  great  deal 
of  ground.  Individualism  has  always  appealed 
strongly  to  Western  nations,  and  this  ideal  seems 
to  be  expressed  in  our  architecture.  In  the  Orient, 
on  the  contrary,  the  family  has  always  been  more 
important  than  the  '  individual.  It  is  therefore 
quite  natural  and  in  keeping  that  the  group  idea 
should  find  expression  in  Chinese  architecture.  .  .  . 
Instead  of  considering  only  how  his  buildings  will 
look  to  a  person  standing  on  the  ground,  the  archi- 
tect plans  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  will 
present  a  symmetrical  and  harmonious  group  to 
any  one  viewing  them  from  a  hill  or  a  pagoda. 
The  fact  that  there  may  be  no  convenient  hill  or 
pagoda  from  which  his  masterpiece  may  be  viewed 
does  not  concern  him  a  great  deal,  for  he  expects 
all  those  who  really  care  anything  about  art  to 
have  enough  imagination  to  picture  in  their  minds 
the  general  harmony  of  his  design,  even  though 
they  can  only  see  a  part  of  it  at  a  time.  Any  one 
who  visits  a  Chinese  temple  or  palace  without  no- 
ticing that  all  the  buildings  in  the  enclosure  blend, 
into  one  harmonious  whole  has  failed  to  get  the 
comprehensive  idea  of  Chinese  architecture.  .  .  . 
The  Chinese  house  exhibits  certain  features  which 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  tents  of  the  barbarian  an- 
cestors of  the  Chinese  who  wandered  in  from  the 
West.  The  roof,  though  made  of  heavy  beams, 
rafters,  and  tiles,  still  retains  to  same  extent  the 
shape  of  a  tent.  .  .  .  The  roof  does  not  rest  on 
the  walls,  but  on  pillars  corresponding  to  the  poles 
of  a  tent.  The  roof  hangs  in  graceful  lines  and  is 
caught  up  at  the  corners  like  looped  canvas.  .  .  . 
.\  Chinese  building  owes  a  great  deal  of  its  beauty 
to  these  graceful  roof  lines.  .  .  .  Internally  as  well 
as  externally  the  Chinese  house  reminds  one  of  a 
tent.  There  is  no  ceiling  to  hide  the  surface  of 
the  sloping  roof  and  its  rafters.  Instead  of  a 
wooden  floor  there  is  only  a  layer  of  bricks  paving 
the  cold  earth,  with  mats  and  rugs  covering  this 
flooring.  The  various  buildings  composing  a  house 
are  arranged  so  as  to  face  a  courtyard,  much  as 
one  would  pitch  tents  around  a  campfire.  The 
beams  and  rafters  supporting  the  roofs  of  the  more 
pretentious  houses  are  decorated  with  curious  de- 
signs and  miniature  landscape  paintings  in  pleas- 
ing colors.  Some  of  the  courtyards  are  trans- 
formed into  miniature  landscape  gardens.  There 
are  miniature  mountains,  precipices,  lotus  ponds, 
bridges,  grottos,  and  rustic  nooks.  The  irregular 
rocks  are  so  well  fitted  together  and  built  up 
against  the  sides  of  the  house  that  they  seem  to 
have  been  placed  there  by  nature  long  before  the 
houses  were  erected.  The  proportions  are  so  care- 
fully worked  out  that  everything  seems  to  be  larger 
than  it  really  is.  And  the  arrangement  is  so  irreg- 
ular that  nature  is  simulated  to  perfection.  .  .  . 
A  striking  feature  of  Chinese  architecture  is  the 
coloring.  The  boldness  with  which  the  Chinese 
employ  bright  colors  is  justified  by  their  excel- 
lent good  taste.  They  comprehend  better  the 
harmonious  combination  of  bright  colors  than  any 
other  people  and  are  therefore  able  to  produce  ef- 
fects  at   once  startling   and  pleasing.     The   walls 


of  a  Chinese  house  are  constructed  of  brick,  wood 
being  used  for  pillars,  beams,  rafters,  window 
frames,  and  doors.  As  a  rule,  only  the  woodwork 
is  painted,  but  in  the  more  pretentious  buildings, 
such  as  palaces  and  temples,  the  e.xterior  brick 
work  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  plaster  which  is 
painted  a  deep  red.  The  roofs  of  temples,  palaces, 
and  pagodas  are  usually  covered  with  tiles  glazed 
in  beautiful  colors.  The  Temple  of  Heaven  in 
Peking  owes  much  of  its  beauty  to  the  roof,  which 
is  covered  with  blue  tiles  of  a  rare  hue.  The 
palaces  in  Peking  are  roofed  with  yellow  tiles,  which 
shine  like  gold  in  the  sunlight.  .  .  .  Comparing 
the  buildings  of  the  Chinese  with  those  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  we  find  that  Chinese  architecture 
is  weakest  in  that  quality  which  the  Egyptian 
buildings  possessed  to  the  highest  degree,  namely 
stability.  The  idea  of  building  for  future  genera- 
tions was  never  developed  among  the  Chinese. 
Their  thoughts  have  always  been  directed  more 
to  the  past  than  to  the  future.  Unless  frequently 
repaired  their  buildings  soon  fall  into  decay." — 
L.  Anderson,  Splendor  of  Chinese  architecture 
(Asia,   June,    1917). 

Japan:  Relation  to  Chinese  architecture. — 
Fragility. — "Japan,  like  China,  possesses  an  archi- 
tecture, but  one  exclusively  of  wood;  for  although 
the  use  of  stone  for  bridges,  walls,  etc.,  had  been 
general,  all  houses  and  temples  were  invariably  • 
built  of  wood  until  the  recent  employment  of 
foreigners  led  to  the  erection  of  brick  and  stone 
buildings.  The  consequence  has  been  that  nearly 
all  the  old  temples  have  been  burnt  down  and 
rebuilt  several  times ;  and  though  it  is  probable 
that  the  older  forms  were  adhered  to  when  the 
buildings  were  reerected,  it  is  only  by  inference 
that  we  can  form  an  idea  of  the  ancient  archi- 
tecture of  the  country.  The  heavy  curved  roofs 
which  are  so  characteristic  of  Chinese  buildings 
are  found  also  in  Japan,  but  only  in  the  Buddhist 
temples,  and  this  makes  it  probable  that  this 
form  of  roof  is  not  of  native  origin,  but  was  in- 
troduced with  the  Buddhist  cult  (q.  v.).  A  pe- 
culiar feature  of  Japanese  houses  is  that  the 
walls,  whether  external  or  internal,  are  not  filled 
in  with  plaster,  but  arc  constructed  of  movable 
screens  which  slide  in  grooves  formed  in  the  fram- 
ing of  the  partitions.  Thus  all  the  rooms  can 
easily  be  thrown  together  or  laid  open  to  the  outer 
air  in  hot  weather.  .  .  .  The  chief  effect  in  the 
buildings  of  the  Japanese  is  intended  to  be  pro- 
duced by  colour,  which  is  profusely  used ;  and 
they  have  attained  to  a  height  of  per- 
fection in  the  preparation  of  varnishes  and 
lacquers  that  has  never  been  equalled." — T.  R. 
Smith  and  B.  A.  Slater,  Architecture,  pp.  77-7P- 

India. — It  is  impossible  to  do  justice  to  the 
architecture  of  India  in  a  brief  sketch, — partly  be- 
cause there  is  so  much  of  it ;  and  partly  because 
it  is  bound  up  with  a  long  and  exceedingly  com- 
plex social,  political,  religious,  and  ethnological 
history,  and  the  details  of  it  are  alien  to  the  west- 
ern imagination.  Roughly  speaking,  however,  the 
architecture  may  be  divided  into  two  chief  types: 
Hindu  architecture  and  Moslem  architecture. 

Hindu  architecture:  B.C.  300-A.  D.  1300. — 
"While  stone  and  brick  are  both  used,  sandstone  pre- 
dominating, the  details  are  in  large  measure  derived 
from  wooden  prototypes.  Structural  lines  are  not 
followed  in  the  exterior  treatment,  purely  decora- 
tive considerations  prevailing.  Ornament  is  equally 
lavished  on  all  parts  of  the  building,  and  is  be- 
wildering in  its  amount  and  complexity.  Realistic 
and  grotesque  sculpture  is  freely  used,  forming 
multiplied  horizontal  bands  of  extraordinary  rich- 
ness and   minuteness  of  execution.     Spacious  and 


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INDIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

Taj   Mahal,  Agra,  India  (16^9-1650). 

Jain  temple  of  Rai  Buddree  Das  Bahadur,  Calcutta. 


ARCHITECTURE,  ORIENTAL 


Moslem 
Greek 


ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


lofty  interiors  are  rarely  attempted,  but  wonderful 
effects  are  produced  by  seemingly  endless  repeti- 
tion of  columns  in  halls  and  corridors,  and  by 
external  emphasis  of  important  parts  of  the  plan 
by  lofty  tower-like  piles  of  masonry.  The  source 
of  the  various  Indian  styles,  the  origin  of  the 
forms  used,  the  history  of  their  development,  are 
all  wrapped  in  obscurity.  All  the  monuments  show 
a  fully  developed  style  and  great  command  of 
technical  resources  from  the  outset.  When,  where, 
and  how  these  were  attained  is  as  yet  an  unsolved 
mystery.  In  all  its  phases  previous  to  the  Moslem 
conquest  Indian  architecture  appears  like  an  in- 
digenous art,  borrowing  little  from  foreign  styles, 
and  having  no  affinities  with  the  arts  of  Occidental 
nations." — A.  D.  F.  Hamlin,  Textbook  of  Ike  his- 
tory of  architecture,  pp.  402-403. 

Moslem  arciiitectuke:  1300-1700. — Infinitely 
superior  to  the  Hindu  architecture  in  grandeur  is 
the  Moslem  architecture.  The  Moslems  understand 
pre-eminently  the  architectural  value  of  space  and 
size,  the  dignity  of  the  blank  wall,  and  the  use  of 
the  arch  and  the  dome.  With  the  simplicity  of 
the   great   spaces  and  massive   walls,  in   the  finest 


the  most  beautiful  building  in  the  world.  It  is 
built  of  white  marble  so  delicately  sculptured  in 
places  as  to  seem  almost  a  fme  pattern  of  lace, 
and  inlaid,  in  the  interior,  with  semi-precious 
stones.  It  is  set,  in  a  garden,  like  most  Moslem 
tombs,  amidst  pools  and  cypress  trees,  and  if 
anything  is  needed  to  complete  the  singular  charm 
of  the  building,  it  is  supplied  by  the  setting. 

Also  in:  J.  Burgess,  Rock-cut  temples  of  Ele- 
phanta. — Idem.,  Buddhist  Stupas  of  Amaravati. — 
Idem.,  Ancient  monuments,  temples,  sculptures  in 
India. — J.  Ferguson,  History  of  Indian  and  eastern 
arcltitecture. — E.  W.  Smith,  Mughal  architecture 
of  Falepbur  Sikri. — R.  P.  Spiers,  Architecture  East 
and  West. 

CLASSIC 

Greek  Doric  and  Ionic  styles:  Most  famous 
buildings. — Restraint  and  balance. — "The  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  our  knowledge  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture is  a  peculiar  one.  .  .  .  We  find  the  differ- 
ent styles  of  Greek  architecture  in  a  state  of  al- 
most complete  development ;  the  preparatory  stages 


THE  PARTHENON 


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Moslem  Ijuildings  there  goes  a  mastery  of  exquisite 
and  luxurious  detail.  Of  the  earlier  Moslem  struc- 
tures one  of  the  most  perfect  is  the  Kutab  Miliar 
on  the  plains  outside  of  Delhi,  one  of  the 'finest 
pillars  in  the  world.  It  is  a  shaft  of  red  sandstone 
240  high,  ornamented  by  projecting  balconies  and 
bands  of  fine  sculpture.  The  most  famous  of  the 
Moslem  buildings  are  the  mosques,  tombs,  and 
palaces  in  the  Indian  Saracenic  style  of  the  Mogul 
emperors  at  Agra  and  Delhi  and  Fatephur  Sikri. 
The  building  material  is  either  red  sandstone  often 
inlaid  with  fine  patterns  ir>  white  and  black  marble 
(as  in  the  Jama  Masjid,  the  noble  mosque  of  Shah- 
jehan  at  Delhi)  or  marble,  either  exquisitely  sculp- 
tured in  geometrical  patterns  or  inlaid  with  pat- 
terns in  semi-precious  stones,— cornelian,  jade,  lapis 
•lazuli,  blood-stone,  etc.  The  structure  depends  for 
its  effect  on  the  fine  proportioning  of  arch  and 
dome,  and  massive  size  and  simplicity  in  the 
main  design,  with  detail  in  the  ornament  almost 
of  the  most  delicate  and  elaborate  type.  Of  all 
the  buildings  of  the  great  line  of  Mogul  emperors, 
the  most  renowned  is  the  tomb  of  Mumtaz  Mahal, 
the  famous  Taj  Mahal  (q.  v.).  Few  who  have  seen 
the  lyrical  grace  of  its  snowy  domes,  and  delicate 
upspringing  towers  would  dispute  its  claim  to  be 


.  are  lacking.  But  we  can  perfectly  well  compre- 
hend the  nature  of  Greek  architecture.  The  mov- 
ing principle  is  the  column.  In  point  of  form  the 
styles  are  divided  into  Doric  and  Ionic;  for  the 
Corinthian  is  but  a  development  of  the  latter. 
The  Doric  style  has  a  lofty  simplicity,  shown  by 
the  absence  of  a  special  base  and  by  unadorned 
capital;  the  Ionic  has  more  elegance:  a  diversified 
base,  a  slenderer  shaft,  and  a  more  elaborate  capi- 
tal; the  entablature  of  the  columns  is  also  more 
varied,  but  we  miss  the  beautiful  triglyphs  and 
metopes.  The  Doric  style  with  its  greater  severity 
(masculine  as  contrasted  with  the  feminine  Ionic) 
gives  the  impression  of  greater  originality.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  Doric  style  was  the  re- 
sult of  Egyptian,  and  the  Ionic  more  of  Asiatic 
influence.  What  are  called  proto-Doric  columns 
have  been  pointed  out  in  Egypt.  The  character- 
istic element  of  the  Ionic  capital,  the  volute,  is  a 
very  ancient  mode  of  decoration,  and  appears 
sometimes  single  and  sometimes  double,  as  in  the 
Ionic  column.  In  its  single  form  we  meet  with  it 
on  the  roof  of  the  thesaurus  at  Orchomenus  dis- 
covered by  Schliemann,  and  in  its  double  form  on 
the  gold  plates  of  Mycenae.  [See  also  ^gean 
civilization:  Excavations  and  antiquities:  Mycen- 


449 


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ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


nean  area.]  But  to  apply  this  well-known  kind 
of  decoration  to  columns  in  such  a  way  that  it 
fits  them  as  if  it  were  specially  created  for  them 
(as  theorists  have  proved  to  their  satisfaction), 
marks  the  inventive  genius  of  Greek  art.  [See  also 
Acanthus.]  The  remains  of  temples  belonging  to 
the  [early]  period  .  .  .  are  in  the  Doric  style. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Doric  style 
was  more  in  vogue  than  the  Ionic  at  that  time. 
In  any  case,  the  Doric  style  was  the  favourite  one 
in  the  west.  The  Ionic  is  said  to  have  first  come 
into  use  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century 
B.  C,  at  the  restoration  of  the  temple  of  Artemis 
at  Ephesus ;  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is 
of  higher  antiquity.  Strange  to  say,  the  archi- 
tects of  the  Ephcsian  temple  were  Cretans,  Cher- 
siphron  of  Cnossus  and  his  son  Metagenes.  The 
building   was  of  vast  extent,  more  than   400  feet 


found  in  the  swamps  of  Metapontum;  at  Paestum 
(Poseidonia)  there  are  three,  all  in  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation,  and  presenting  an  imposing 
spectacle  in  the  desert  plain  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains and  the  sea.  At  Syracuse  there  are  also  two 
on  the  site  of  Ortygia,  but  the  effect  is  spoiled  by 
the  modern  edifices,  of  which  they  actually  form 
a  part;  a  third,  standing  in  the  open,  has  barely 
two  columns  remaining.  The  ruins  of  Selinus  are 
on  the  grandest  scale  of  all,  and  have  proved  of 
great  importance  in  the  history  of  art ;  they  have 
not,  however,  been  sufficiently  studied  from  an 
architectural  point  of  view.  Some  remains  of 
temples  in  Corfu  and  at  Corinth  are  considered  to 
be  the  oldest  Doric  buildings  extant." — A.  Holm, 
History  of  Greece,  p.  354-357 — See  also  Alexan- 
dria: B.C.  282-246:  Architecture;  Hellenism: 
Hellenism  and  Alexandria. 


THE    ACKOPOLIS    OF    ATHENS 
Restoration   by   G.    Rehlender 


long,  and  over  200  feet  in  breadth;  it  was  a 
dipteros,  i.e.  provided  with  a  double  peristyle  of 
separate  columns.  The  lonians  had  probably  gazed 
on  its  colossal  prototypes  in  Egypt  and  so  been 
inspired  with  the  idea  of  imitating  them.  The 
remains  that  have  been  lately  discovered  of  the 
temple  belong  to  the  time  of  its  reconstruction, 
after  the  famous  fire  at  the  birth  of  Alexander. 
Another  equally  colossal  building  was  the  temple 
of  Hera  in  Samos,  begun  by  the  Samian  Rhoecus 
and  completed  by  Polycrates.  There  were  other 
colossal  temples  of  that  period  in  Clarus,  Phocaea 
and  Branchids.  The  principal  divinities  of  Asia 
Minor  were  meant  to  inhabit  splendid  dwellings; 
and  Peisistratus  wished  to  erect  a  no  less  colossal 
temple  to  the  Olympian  Zeus  at  Athens.  In  the 
west,  we  find  few  records  of  the  building  of 
temples,  but  some  grand  ruins,  all  in  the  Doric 
style,  and  in  places  which  became  unimportant  at 
an  early  date  in  antiquity  and  have  long  since 
become  desolate.    The  remains  of  two  temples  are 


"The  Athenians,  although  lonians  by  blood,  had 
for  centuries  been  ruled  by  Doric  institutions,  and 
produced  the  most  famous  monument  of  Doric 
architecture  just  before  the  decline  of  this  style. 
This  was  the  Parthenon,  the  temple  of  the  Virgin 
Goddess  Minerva  (Greek,  Athene),  finished  in  438 
B.  C.  The  supervising  director  of  this  building 
was  the  sculptor  Phidias,  who  designed  its  sculp- 
ture decorations  now  known  as  the  'Elgin  Marbles,' 
and  himself  constructed  for  the  interior  a  colossal 
gold  and  ivory  Minerva,  long  since  destroyed.  The 
present  ruined  condition  of  this  building  is  the* 
result  of  a  gunpowder  explosion  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury. .  .  .  The  Propylaea,  or  entrance  gates  to  the 
Acropolis  (Citadel  Hill),  on  which  the  Parthenon 
stood,  were  a  scarcely  less  famous  structure.  They 
were  completed,  also  under  the  direction  of  Phidias, 
between  437  and  430  B.C.  On  account  of  the 
extra  height  required  for  the  columns  of  the  pas- 
sage-way, these  were  made  of  the  Ionic  order, 
whose  proportions  are  more  slender  than  the  Doric. 


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Roman 


ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


This  is  a  rare  case  of  mixture  of  the  orders,  which, 
in  the  Greek  period,  were  usually  confined  to  dis- 
tinct buildings.  Even  in  the  case  of  distinct 
buildings,  the  orders  were  not  in  general  use  simul- 
taneously. They  represent,  on  the  contrary,  suc- 
cessive tendencies  of  Greek  history.  The  distinc- 
tion between  the  period  of  conservative  tendencies, 
religious  belief,  and  stern  patriotism,  and  the  period 
of  refined  luxury,  religious  skepticism,  and  political 
decay.  The  period  of  the  Ionic  Order,  when  gener- 
ally diffused  over  Greece,  is,  in  round  numbers, 
from  430  to  330  B.  C.  The  Erechtheum  is  the  most 
famous  Ionic  building  and  ruin.  Also  on  the  Athe- 
nian Acropolis,  it  was  constructed  between  430  and 
400  B.  C.  The  new  Erechtheum  was  erected  on 
the  site  of  an  older  building,  whose  irregular 
ground  plan  was  followed  in  the  new  structure 
from  a  sentiment  of  reverence  and  religious  tra- 
dition. The  name  of  the  temple  is  derived  from 
an  Athenian  king  and  hero  of  the  mythical  period, 
whose  tomb  was  beneath  the  structure.  [See  also 
Acropolis  of  Athens.]  The  little  Temple  of  Nike 
Apteros,  or  'Wingless  Victory,'  generally  so  called, 
but  now  known  to  have  been  a  temple  of  Minerva, 
has  been  chosen  as  type  of  the  Ionic  illustration 
because  the  small  size  of  the  building  allows  a 
larger  view  of  its  details.  This  little  temple,  also 
on  the  Acropolis,  was  built  about  twenty  years 
before  the  Erechtheum.  Its  small  dimensions  show 
how  modestly  the  style  first  made  its  appearance 
beside  the  older  Doric  at  Athens." — W.  H.  Good- 
year, History  of  art,  pp.  51-57. — It  should  be  noted 
that  in  architecture,  as  in  the  other  arts,  the 
Greeks  displayed  their  characteristic  acute  aesthetic 
perceptions.  They  did  not  plan  great  columnar 
halls  as  did  the  Egyptians,  but  rather  relied  on 
external  effect,  on  proportion  and  refined  line,  one 
exact  balance  of  delicacy  and  stability.  In  fact 
never  until  the  period  of  decadence  was  there  any 
attempt  at  impressive  size.  This  balance,  restraint 
and  simplicity,  given  life  and  variety  by  masterly 
use  of  sculptural  decoration,  shows  the  intensely 
intellectual  apprehension  of  integral  design  for 
which  the  Greeks  have  been  so  justly  famed. — See 
also  Art:  Relation  of  art  and  history;  Athens: 
B.C.  461-431:  General  aspect  of  Periclean  Athens, 
and  1806;  Theater. 

Etruscan:  Character  and  effect  on  Roman 
architecture. — "In  dealing  with  Roman  Archi- 
tecture mention  must  be  made  of  the  Etruscans 
or  early  inhabitants  of  central  Italy,  who  were 
great  builders,  and  those  methods  of  construction 
had  a  marked  effect  on  that  of  the  Romans.  The 
style  dates  from  about  B.  C.  750,  and  from  their 
buildings  it  is  known  that  they  were  aware  of  the 
value  of  the  true  or  radiating  arch  for  constructive 
purposes,  and  used  it  extensively  in  their  buildings. 
The  architectural  remains  consist  chiefly  of  tombs, 
city  walls,  gateways  (as  in  Perugia),  bridges  and 
aqueducts,  and  their  character  is  similar  to  the 
early  Pelasgic  work  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  The 
walls  are  remarkable  for  their  great  solidity  of 
construction,  and  for  the  cyclopean  masonry,  where 
huge  masses  of  stone  are  piled  up  without  the  use 
of  cement,  or  mortar  of  any  kind.  The  'Cloaca 
Maxima'  (c.  B.C.  578),  or  great  drain  of  Rome, 
constructed  to  drain  the  valleys  of  Rome,  has  a 
semicircular  arch  of  11  feet  span,  in  three  rings 
of  voussoirs,  each  2  feet  6  inches  high.  There 
are  no  remains  of  Etruscan  temples,  hut  Vitruvius 
gives  a  description  of  them.  The  Temple  of  Ju- 
piter Capilolinus  was  the  most  important  Etruscan 
example  (dedicated  B.C.  5oq),  and  is  generally 
taken  as  being  typical.  Its  cella  was  divided  into 
three  chambers  containing  statues  of  Jupiter,  Mi- 
nerva (Livy  VII.,  iii)   and  Juno,  and  was  nearly 


square  in  plan,  with  widely  spaced  columns  and 
wooden  architraves.  It  was  burnt  in  B.  C.  83 
and  rebuilt  by  Sulla,  who  brought  some  of  the 
marble  Corinthian  columns  from  the  Temple  of 
Zeus  Olympius  at  Athens." — B.  Fletcher  and  B.  F. 
Fletcher,  History  of  architecture  on  the  compara- 
tive method,  pp.  11 0-120. 

Roman :  Derivation.  —  Examples.  —  Develop- 
ment of  the  arch  and  vaulting. — "What  we  call 
Roman  art  is  not  merely  Hellenistic  art  imported 
into  or  copied  in  Italy,  as  has  been  too  often 
asserted.  It  is  true  that  the  imitation  of  Greek 
works  was  an  important  factor  in  Roman  art. 
From  the  third  century  before  Christ  onwards,  the 
victorious  generals  of  Rome  enriched  their  city 
with  a  quantity  of  Greek  masterpieces  from  Sicily 
and  Southern  Italy;  later,  after  the  year  150,  the 
methodical  pillage  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  be- 
gan, carried  on  not  only  by  military  leaders  and 
governors,  but  by  influential  private  persons.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  wealth  of  Rome  attracted  the 
Greek  artists,  who  readily  found  purchasers  for 
their  imitations  or  copies  of  classic  works;  the 
houses,  villas,  and  gardens  of  wealthy  Romans, 
such  as  Lucullus  or  Crassus,  were  veritable  mu- 
seums."— S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  pp.  87-88. — "We  now 
reach  the  last  of  the  classical  styles  of  antiquity, 
the  Roman, — a  style  which,  however,  is  rather  an 
adaptation  or  amalgamation  of  other  styles  than 
an  original  and  independent  creation  or  a  de- 
velopment. ...  In  the  earlier  styles  temples, 
tombs,  and  palaces  were  the  only  buildings  deemed 
worthy  of  architectural  treatment ;  but  under  the 
Romans  baths,  theatres,  amphitheatres,  basilicas, 
aqueducts,  triumphal  arches  &c.,  were  carried  out 
just  as  elaborately  as  the  temples  of  the  gods.  It 
was  under  the  Emperors  that  the  full  magnificence 
of  Roman  architectural  display  was  reached.  .  .  . 
It  was  not  in  Rome  only  that  great  buildings  were 
erected.  The  whole  known  civilised  world  was 
under  Roman  dominion,  and  wherever  a  centre  of 
government  or  even  a  flourishing  town  existed  there 
sprang  up  the  residences  of  the  dominant  race,  and 
their  places  of  business,  public  worship,  and  public 
amusement.  .  .  .  The  ruins  of  a  magnificent  pro- 
vincial Roman  temple  exist  at  Baalbek — the  ancient 
Heliopolis — in  Syria,  not  far  from  Damascus. 
This  building  was  erected  during  the  time  of  the 
.'Xntonines.  .  .  .  Circular  temples  were  an  elegant 
variety,  which  seems  to  have  been  originated  by 
the  Romans,  and  of  which  two  well-known  ex- 
amples remain — the  Temples  of  Vesta  at  Rome  and 
at  Tivoli.  .  .  .  Although  the  Romans  were  not  par- 
ticularly addicted  to  dramatic  representations,  yet 
they  were  passionately  fond  of  shows  and  games 
of  all  kinds:  hence,  not  only  in  Rome  itself,  but 
in  almost  every  Roman  settlement,  from  Silchester 
to  Verona,  are  found  traces  of  their  amphitheatres, 
and  the  mother-city  can  claim  the  possession  of 
the  most  stupendous  fabric  of  the  kind  that  was 
ever  erected — the  Colosseum  or  Flavian  Amphi- 
theatre, which  was  commenced  by  Vespasian  and 
finished  by  his  son  Titus.  [See  Colosseum.]  An 
amphitheatre  is  really  a  double  theatre  without  a 
stage,  and  with  the  space  in  the  centre  unoccupied 
by  seats.  This  space,  which  was  sunk  several  feet 
below  the  first  row  of  seats,  was  called  the  arena, 
and  was  appropriated  to  the  various  exhibitions 
which  took  place  in  the  building.  The  plan  was 
elliptical  or  oval,  and  this  shape  [was]  universal. 
[See  also  Amphitheater  ;  Theater.]  Nothing 
can  give  us  a  more  impressive  idea  of  the 
grandeur  and  lavish  display  of  Imperial  Rome 
than  the  remains  of  the  huge  Thermae,  or  bathing 
establishments,  which  still  exist.  Between  the 
years  10  A.  D.,  when  Agrippa  built  the  first  pubKc 


451 


ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


Roman 
Sassanian 


ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


baths,  and  324  A.  D.,  when  those  of  Constantine 
were  erected,  no  less  than  twelve  of  these  vast 
estabUshments  were  erected  by  various  emperors, 
and  bequeathed  to  the  people.  .  .  .  The  baths  of 
Caracalla  and  of  Diocletian  are  the  only  ones 
which  remain  in  any  state  of  preservation,  and 
these  were  probably  the  most  extensive  and  mag- 
nificent of  all.  [See  also  Baths.]  .  .  .  The  Pan- 
theon is  the  finest  example  of  a  domed  hall  which 
we  have  left.  The  building,  which  originally  was 
consecrated  as  a  temple,  has  been  considerably  al- 
tered at  various  times  since  its  erection,  and  now 
consists  of  a  rotunda  with  a  rectangular  portico  in 
front  of  it."— T.  R.  Smith  and  B.  A.  Slater,  Archi- 
tecture, pp.  144-166. — See  also  Pantheon  at 
Rome. — "Within  the  last  few  years  we  have  learnt 
that  the  vault  of  the  Pantheon  was  built  in  the 
time,    not    of    Augustus,    but    of    Hadrian    (A.  D. 


one  among  the  Roman  triumphal  arches,  that  of 
Titus,  which  commemorates  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  shows  any  actual  beauty  of  execu- 
tion; the  others  are  chiefly  interesting  to  archfe- 
ologists.  [See  also  Arch. J  The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  vast  utilitarian  works,  aqueducts  [see  Aque- 
ducts: Roman],  bridges,  dams,  and  sewers  with 
which  Rome  endowed  all  parts  of  her  Empire.  .  .  . 
A  characteristic  of  the  architecture  of  the  Roman 
period,  which  gives  it  a  certain  affinity  to  that  of 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  is  its  tendency  to  colossal  pro- 
portions, as  exemplified  in  the  temples  of  Baalbek 
and  of  Palmyra,  in  Syria.  These  temples,  imitated 
from  Greek  models,  are  primarily  remarkable  for 
their  size;  the  decoration  is  as  careless  as  it  is 
exuberant.  But  this  exuberance,  though  it  offends 
our  taste,  does  not  lack  originality ;  it  was  in 
Syria   mainly   that  the   new  style  was  elaborated, 


EXCAVATED  STREET  IN  POMPEII 
Casa  di  Cornelio  Rufo 


117-138).  This  date  is  of  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  art,  for  it  marks  the  definite  adoption  of 
a  system  of  construction,  the  further  development 
of  which  was  to  produce  Byzantine  and  Roman- 
esque architecture.  From  the  first  century  after 
Christ  to  the  time  of  the  completion  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  the  problem  of  the  vault  never  ceased 
to  occupy  architects.  The  various  solutions  they 
essayed  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  succes- 
sive styles.  Vaulted  architecture  was  so  essentially 
a  Roman  product  that  it  continued  to  develop 
when  sculpture  had  sunk  to  uniform  mediocrity. 
Constantine's  basilica,  built  after  305  A.D.,  with 
its  three  colossal  vaults,  the  central  one  nearly 
120  feet  high,  with  a  span  of  more  than  So  feet 
marks  a  great  advance  on  former  constructions; 
it  served  as  a  model  to  the  architects  of  the  Renais- 
sance. Bramante,  when  he  conceived  the  plan  of 
St.  Peter's,  said  that  he  intended  'to  raise  the 
Pantheon  over  the  basilica  of  Constantine.'     Only 


which  gave  birth  to  Byzantine  decorative  art." — 
S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  p.  8g-qo. — See  also  .\rt:  Rela- 
tion of  art  and  history;  Basilicas;  Forums  of 
Rome;  Rome:   Modern  city:   153 7-1 621. 

Sassanian:  Contribution  to  vaulting  and  dec- 
oration.— "In  return  for  its  heritage  from  the 
pre-classical  civilization  of  the  Levant,  Greece  en- 
dowed the  Asiatic  empires  of  .Mexander  and  his 
successors  with  a  Hellenistic  art,  which  extended 
even  beyond  their  borders.  When  the  Parthian 
rulers  (130  B.C.-226  A.D.)  overran  Mesopo- 
tamia, they  adopted  the  Greek  columnar  system. 
With  the  rise  of  the  new  Persian  empire  under  the 
Sassanian  dynasty  (227-641  A.D.),  however,  the 
tide  of  art  once  more  began  to  flow  from  East  to 
West.  The  subterranean  vaults  and  occasional 
domes  of  ancient  Mesopotamia  were  taken  as  the 
basis  of  a  consistently  vaulted  style.  In  such  in- 
stances as  the  palace  at  Ctesiphon,  with  its  great 
elliptically   arched   hall   and    facade   of   blank   ar- 


452 


ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC  Byzantine  ARCHITECTURE,  CLASSIC 


cades,  this  achieved  new  effects  both  monumental 
and  decorative.  In  other  cases  the  dome,  sup- 
ported over  a  square  room  by  means  of  diagonal 
arches  or  squinches,  was  a  notable  feature.  In  its 
westward  expansion  this  virile  art  contributed 
largely  ...  to  the  formation  of  the  Byzantine  sys- 
tems of  construction  and  ornament," — F,  Kimball 
and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History  of  architecture,  p.  572. 
Byzantine:  Development. — St.  Sophia  and  St. 
Marco. — Plan    and    decoration. — "Byzantine    art 


with  the  Persians,  and  later  with  the  Saracens, 
almost  stopped  all  building;  and  in  the  following 
centuries  the  fury  of  the  iconoclasts  against  images 
and  decoration  generally,  drove  many  of  the  best 
workmen  out  of  the  country,  and  still  further 
impeded  architectural  progress.  Under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  house  of  Macedonia,  867-1057,  a  re- 
vival commenced  which  is  especially  marked  in 
Venetian  territory,  where  St.  Mark's  stands  as  the 
rival   of   St.  Sophia;    but  it  was  not  until  some 


INTERIOR  OF  ST.  SOPHIA 

Byzantine  style  of  architecture 


is  divided  into  two  periods,  each  of  which  possesses 
distinct  characteristics.  The  two  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  a  considerable  gap,  during 
which  time  few  churches  were  built.  The  first  and 
greater  period  is  that  of  the  sixth  century,  when, 
under  Justinian,  527-65,  a  powerful  movement, 
which  culminated  in  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople, 
lifted  architecture  on  to  a  high  pedestal,  and  pro- 
duced a  renaissance  which  influenced  all  work  for 
many  countries  in  the  West.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century,  the  struggles   of  the   Empire 


years  later,  under  the  Comneni,  who  were  em- 
perors of  the  Eastern  Empire  from  1057-1185,  that 
this  bore  fruit.  Most  of  the  existing  churches  in 
the  capital,  in  Greece,  Armenia,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  Empire  belong  to  the  second  period."  The 
plan  of  the  typical  Byzantine  church  is  a  Greek 
cross,  the  center  covered  with  a  dome  supported 
on  pendcntives.  The  materials  used  are  brick  and 
•stone,  exteriors  are  as  a  rule  plain  and  unimpres- 
sive, but  "the  simplicity  of  the  exteriors  is  atoned 
for  by  the  richness  of  the  interiors.    All  the  decor*- 


453 


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Early  Christian 
Mohammedan 


ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


tion  is  of  an  applied  character;  that  is  to  say  the 
carcase  of  the  building  was  built  first,  and  was 
allowed  to  take  its  bearings  before  the  mosaics  and 
the  marble  linings  for  the  doors,  windows  and 
walls  were  added." — F.  M.  Simpson,  History  oj 
architectural  development,  v.  i,  p.  213,  214,  219. — 
"If  the  architectural  type  of  the  basilica,  character- 
ised by  its  rectangular  plan  and  flat  roof,  predomi- 
nates in  the  churches  in  Italy,  those  of  Constan- 
tinople applied  and  developed  the  principle  of  the 
dome.  The  great  church  of  Byzantium,  St.  Sophia, 
was  built  between  532  and  562  under  Justinian,  by 
Anthemius  of  Tralles  and  Isidorus  of  Miletus,  that 
is  to  say,  by  Asiatic  architects.  W'e  have  seen  that 
the  cupola  was  known  to  the  Assyrians ;  the  tradi- 
tion had  been  preserved  in  Persia,  whence  it  spread 
into  Syria  towards  the  third  century  after  Christ, 
passing  from  Syria  into  Asia  Minor  in  the  fol- 
lowing centuries.  The  architects  of  St.  Sophia 
were  probably  inspired  by  Asiatic  models,  and  not 
by  the  Roman  Pantheon." — S.  Reinach,  Apollo, 
p.  99. — "Byzantine  architecture  at  its  best,  which 
really  means  as  seen  in  the  interior  of  Hagia 
Sophia  (for  there  is  nothing  else  equal  to  that) 
is  a  remarkable  combination  of  qualities  not  often 
found  together;  it  seems  to  combine  the  refinement 
of  Greek  detail  with  the  warmth  and  the  colour 
of  Oriental  art.  From  the  coldness  and  the  super- 
ficial and  pompous  spirit  of  display  which  charac- 
terize Roman  architecture,  it  is  as  alien  as  pos- 
sible."— H.  H.  Statham,  Short  critical  history  of 
architecture,  p.  219. — See  also  Byz.^xtine  empike: 
Part  in  history ;  Saint  Sophia. 

MEDIEVAL 

Early  Christian:  New  spirit  in  architecture. 
— "The  debt  of  universal  architecture  to  the  early 
Christian  and  Byzantine  schools  of  builders  is  very 
great.  They  evolved  the  church  types,  they  car- 
ried far  the  exploration  of  domical  construction, 
and  made  wonderful  balanced  compositions  of 
vaults  and  domes  over  complex  plans.  They 
formed  the  belfry  tower  from  the  Pharos  and 
fortification  towers.  We  owe  to  them  the  idea 
of  the  vaulted  basilican  church,  which,  spreading 
westward  over  Europe,  made  our  great  vaulted 
cathedrals  possible.  They  entirely  recast  the 
secondary  forms  of  architecture:  'the  column  was 
taught  to  carry  an  arch,'  the  capital  was  recon- 
sidered as  a  bearing  block  and  became  a  feature  of 
extraordinary  beauty.  The  art  of  building  was 
made  free  from  formulas,  and  architecture  became 
an  adventure  in  building  once  more.  We  owe  to 
them  a  new  type  of  moulding,  the  germ  of  the 
Gothic  system,  by  the  introduction  of  the  roll- 
moulding  and  their  application  of  it  to  'strings' 
and  the  margins  of  doors.  The  first  arch  known 
to  me  which  has  a  series  of  roll-mouldings  is  in 
the  palace  of  M'shatta  [Mashetta].  The  tendency 
to  cast  windows  into  groups,  the  ultimate  source 
of  tracery,  and  the  foiling  of  arches,  has  already 
been  mentioned.  We  owe  to  Christian  artists  the 
introduction  of  delightfully  fresh  ornamentation, 
crisp  foliage,  and  interlaces,  and  the  whole  scheme 
of  Christian  iconography." — W.  R.  Lethaby,  Ar- 
chitecture, pp.  i5S-i';6. — "The  Christian  Church 
is  a  place  for  the  gathering  together  of  the  faith- 
ful, thus  differing  es5enti,ally  from  the  paean 
temple,  which  was  the  abode  of  the  divinity.  The 
first  Christian  churches  were  accordingly  modelled 
on  those  enclosed  places  of  assembly  known  as 
basihcas.  fq.  v.l  .  .  .  Amone  the  Roman  basilicas, 
that  of  St.  Paul  without-the-Walls,  built  by  Con^ 
Stantine  and  restored  after  a  fire  in  1823,  may  be 
cited  as  a  chaiacteristic  example.     It  consists  of  a 


large  nave  with  a  horizontal  roof,  and  of  two 
lower  side-aisles;  the  central  nave  is  lighted  by 
windows  above  the  side-aisles.  At  the  end  is  a 
gate  called  the  Triumphal  Arch,  behind  which  is 
the  altar;  the  end  wall  is  circular  and  forms  the 
apse.  Both  apse  and  triumphal  arch  are  richly 
decorated  with  glass  mosaics  on  a  blue  or  gold 
ground,  the  splendour  of  which  rivals  that  of 
goldsmiths'  enamels.  .  .  .  These  mosaics  ornament 
the  vertical  walls  and  the  vaults,  instead  of  forming 
pavements  as  in  the  Roman  houses  and  temples. 
Specimens  of  them,  very  beautiful  in  colour,  and 
grandiose  though  frigid  in  style,  are  to  be  seen  in 
Rome,  and  at  Ravenna,  which  was  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  Court  from  404,  the  residence  of  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Goths,  about  500,  and  an  appanage  of 
Byzantium  from  534  to  752.  Several  churches  of 
the  sixth  century  still  exist,  as  Sant'  Apollinare 
Nuovo,  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe  {on  the  ancient 
port)  and  San  Vitale:  the  last  is  a  circular  domed 
building,  in  which  Byzantine  influences  are  very 
apparent;  the  others  are  basilicas,  the  interiors  of 
which  are  striking  and  majestic,  though  their  ex- 
ternal aspect  is  neither  graceful  nor  cUgnified." — S. 
Reinach,  Apollo,  pp.  98-99. 

Mohammedan:  Origin  and  development. — 
General  characteristics. — "The  Sassanian  em- 
pire was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  sudden  ex- 
pansion of  Mohammedanism.  In  a  few  years  from 
the  flight  of  its  prophet  from  Mecca  (622),  his 
followers  conquered  Mesopotamia  (637),  Egypt 
(638) ,  Persia  (642 ) ,  northern  Africa  and  Spain  (711). 
...  At  first  Mohammedan  architecture  in  these 
regions  was  little  else  than  the  art  of  the  differ- 
ent conquered  peoples  adapted  to  the  worship  and 
the  customs  of  the  conquerors.  In  Syria,  in  Egypt, 
and  in  Spain  the  Romano-Byzantine  column  and 
arch  were  employed  for  the  construction  of  build- 
ings such  as  the  mosque  of  Amru  at  Cairo  (642), 
or  the  great  mosques  of  Damascus  and  Cordova 
(785-848).  In  Mesopotamia  and  Persia  the  domed 
and  vaulted  halls  of  the  Sassanians  (q.  v.)  were 
adopted  as  prominent  features  of  the  designs. 
Besides  the  uniformity  of  the  programs,  however, 
a  certain  community  of  artistic  character  between 
different  regions  soon  developed — a  character  pro- 
nouncedly Oriental.  This  was  due  in  part  to  the 
taste  and  the  traditions  of  the  Arabs  themselves, 
but  more  largely  to  the  earlier  conquest  of  the 
Eastern  lands,  the  prestige  of  these  as  the  seat  of 
the  early  caliphates  of  Damascus  and  Bagdad,  and 
the  vitality  of  Eastern  art  as  the  general  source 
of  inspiration  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  Thus  the 
lace-like  incised  carving  of  Mschatta  in  Syria, 
which  had  earlier  contributed  to  Byzantine  de- 
velopment, now  appeared  in  the  earliest  Arab 
monuments  of  Africa  and  Spain.  Thus,  too,  the 
pointed  arch,  common  in  Persia  from  the  eighth 
century,  appeared  in  Syria  and  Egypt  from  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth.  The  tall  dome  of  pointed 
silhouette,  and  the  court  with  vaulted  halls  abut- 
ting it — also  Persian  features — penetrated  Egypt 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
conquest  of  northern  India  and  its  conversion  to 
Mohammedanism  opened  the  way  for  Persian  in- 
fluence there  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, while  Persia  itself  then  borrowed  from  In- 
dia the  ogee  arch  and  the  bulbous  dome  With 
the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Ottoman 
Turks  (1453),  finally,  began  a  new  return  in- 
fluence of  Byzantine  architecture  in  their  Oriental 
empire,  through  the  imitation  of  Hagia  Sophia 
[Saint  Sophia],  which  became  the  chief  mosque 
of  the  Turkish  caliphs.  The  development  of  the 
various  schools  which  resulted  from  the  mingling 
of  local  traditions  and  distinct  influences  continued 


454 


ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL    J*fohammedan   ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL 
'  Coptic 


uninterruptedly  until  the  eighteenth  and  even  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  has  been  checked  only  by 
internal  disorganization  and  by  the  conquests  of 
European  powers.  .  .  .  For  their  formal  places  of 
worship,  the  mosques,  the  early  believers  naturally 
adopted  the  peristylar  court — the  universal  scheme 
of  the  Levant — the  porticoes  of  which  furnished 
shelter  from  the  tropical  sun.  The  Mirltab,  a  small 
niche  in  the  outer  wall,  indicated  the  direction  of 
Mecca,  and  on  this  side  of  the  court  the  porticoes 
were  deepened  and  multiplied.  This  fundamental 
scheme  is  seen  in  the  first  great  mosque  built  after 
the  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  mosque  of  Amru  at 
Cairo.  [See  also  Amru,  Mosque  of.]  The  ten- 
dency was  to  develop  the  deeper  side  of  the  court 
into  an  inclosed  building — often  of  vast  extent,  as 
at  Cordova — with  aisle  after  aisle  of  columns  and 
arcades,  carrying  wooden  beams  and  a  terrace  roof. 
In  later  western  mosques  the  aisle  leading  to  the 
mirhab  was  widened,  and  a  special  sanctuary  pre- 
ceded,by  a  vast  open  nave  or  niche  was  early 
adopted,  and  corresponding  features  were  intro- 
duced at  the  other  cardinal  points  of  the  court. 
The  Egyptian  mosques  based  on  Persian  models, 
such  as  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  have  a  court 
so  reduced  that  these  features  occupy  the  greater 
part  of  each  side,  and  the  scheme  becomes  cruci- 
form. On  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  Hagia 
Sophia — with  its  atrium,  its  main  building  to  the 
east,  its  great  central  nave,  and  its  eastern  apse — 
was  found  perfectly  adapted  to  Mohammedan  wor- 
ship. It  was  copied  almost  literally  in  the  Mosque 
of  Suleiman  at  Constantinople  {1550).  In  other 
Ottoman  mosques  the  possible  variants  were  used, 
especially  the  scheme  of  a  central  dome  with  four 
abutting  half  domes,  which  the  Byzantines  them- 
selves had  not  developed.  Among  minor  elements 
of  the  mosques,  which  are  yet  among  their  most 
striking  features,  are  the  minarets,  or  slender  tow- 
ers, with  corbeled  balconies  from  which  the  muez- 
zin gives  the  call  to  prayers.  These  were  erected 
at  one  or  more  of  the  corners  of  the  buildings,  in- 
geniously incorporated  with  it.  Their  forms  var- 
ied much  in  different  regions,  the  Ottoman  form, 
with  a  very  tall  cylindrical  shaft  ending  in  a  slender 
cone,  being  especially  daring.  The  enjoyment  of 
worldly  goods  and  pleasures  was  not  despised  by 
Mohammedanism,  and  the  absolute  power  and 
vast  revenue  of  the  caliphs  enabled  them  to  gratify 
their  taste  for  splendor  and  luxury  by  the  con- 
struction of  magnificent  palaces.  .  .  .  The  rooms 
were  distributed  about  one  or  more  courts,  the 
facades  made  as  blind  as  possible,  except  for 
loggias  and  balconies  high  above  the  ground  and 
guarded  by  latticed  screens.  To  relieve  the  heat 
of  the  climate,  the  courts  were  surrounded  by 
shady  porticoes  and  provided  with  basins  and  foun- 
tains. A  complex  axial  system  governed  the  re- 
lations of  the  principal  rooms  and  the  courts.  The 
luxurious  elegance  sometimes  attained  is  well  seen 
in  the  Alhambra  at  Granada,  built  by  the  last 
Mohammedan  rulers  of  Spain,  chiefly  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  Court  of 
Lions,  with  its  slender  columns,  its  delicate  sta- 
lactite decoration  in  stucco,  colored  and  gilded, 
shows  Mohammedan  architecture  in  the  final  de- 
velopment of  one  of  its  local  schools,  when  the 
elements  of  diverse  origin  had  been  fused  in  a 
characteristic  whole.  [See  also  Alhambra.]  In 
Egypt,  in  Persia,  and  especially  in  India,  the 
tombs  of  great  monarchs  rival  the  palaces  and 
mosques.  The  Indian  type  was  a  domed  mauso- 
leum, set  in  the  midst  of  a  garden.  The  most 
noted  example  is  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra  [q.v.], 
built  by  Shah  Jahan  in  1630,  in  which  the  central 
domQ  i?.  flanked  by  four  smaller  domes,  and  the 


principal,  minor,  and  diagonal  axes  are  marked  on 
the  exterior  by  great  arches  expressively  and  har- 
moniously proportioned.  The  Mohammedan  build- 
ers were  confronted  by  few  structural  problems 
for  which  solutions  had  not  already  been  found 
by  late  Roman,  Byzantine,  and  Sassanian  archi- 
tecture. At  first,  like  the  early  Christian  build- 
ers, they  employed  borrowed  classical  columns  and 
capitals,  supporting  impost  blocks  and  stilted 
arches.  Their  early  domes  rested  on  squinches. 
Later  their  treatment  of  fundamental  structural 
elements,  such  as  the  arch  and  the  vault,  was 
governed  by  decorative  conceptions.  In  Spain  and 
Africa  arches  were  given  a  horseshoe  shape  or  were 
cusped;  in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Spain  vaults  were 
treated  with  a  multitude  of  small  squinches  re- 
sembling stalactites.  Stalactite  motives  were  also 
used  in  some  capitals,  although  in  others  modified 
Corinthian  motives  were  used,  much  as  in  the 
most  expressive  Gothic  examples.  The  ornamenta- 
tion depended  little  on  effects  of  bold  relief,  but 
greatly  on  effects  of  line,  of  material,  and,  above 
all,  of  color.  The  prohibition  against  representing 
man  and  animals,  with  the  mathematical  bent  of 
the  Arabs,  resulted  in  a  geometrical  ornament  of 
interlacing  figures,  extraordinarily  fertile  and  in- 
tricate. Precious  materials  were  freely  used ;  in 
Persia  whole  buildings  were  faced  with  colored  and 
glazed  faience  in  patterns  suggested  by  rugs  and 
textiles."— F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History 
of  architecture,  pp.  573-579. 

Coptic:  Relation  to  Byzantine. — "A  side 
glance  should  be  bestowed,  in  passing,  on  the  evi- 
dences of  Byzantine  influence  to  be  seen  in  the 
plans  of  some  of  the  ancient  Coptic  churches  of 
Egypt — not  very  certainly  dated,  but  of  a  period 
probably  not  long  subsequent  to  the  rise  of  By- 
zantine architecture  at  Constantinople.  These  are 
mostly  of  the  aisle  type  of  plan,  but  combined 
with  square  domed  compartments  which  are  ob- 
viously of  Byzantine  suggestion.  The  plan  of  the 
church  of  Deir-Baramous  with  its  three  domed 
compartments  at  the  east  end,  given  by  Gayet  in 
his  work  on  Coptic  art,  may  be  taken  as  a  typical 
example.  The  nave  is  barrel-vaulted,  and  there  is 
no  central  dome,  but  the  three  domed  compart- 
ments betray  Byzantine  influence.  As  is  perti- 
nently remarked  by  Mr.  Russell  Sturgis  in  the  ar- 
ticle, 'Coptic  Architecture,'  in  his  dictionary:  'It 
argues  great  vitality  in  the  Coptic  architecture 
proper,  that,  in  the  sixth  century,  it  did  not  take 
over  the  Byzantine  style  in  its  completeness.'  Cop- 
tic architecture,  however,  can  only  now  be  regarded 
as  a  back-water  outside  of  the  main  stream  of 
architectural  development." — H.  H.  Statham, 
Sltort  critical  history  of  architecture,  pp.  2oq-2io 

Romanesque. — "The  term  Romanesque  is  here 
used  to  indicate  a  style  of  Christian  architecture, 
founded  on  Roman  art,  which  prevailed  through- 
out Western  Europe  from  the  close  of  the  period 
of  basilican  architecture  to  the  rise  of  Gothic; 
except  in  those  isolated  districts  where  the  in- 
fluence of  Byzantium  is  visible.  By  some  writers 
the  significance  of  the  word  is  restricted  within 
narrower  limits;  but  excellent  authorities  can  be 
adduced  for  the  employment  of  it  in  the  wide 
sense  here  indicated.  Indeed  some  difficulty  exists 
in  deciding  what  shall  and  what  shall  not  be 
termed  Romanesque,  if  any  more  restricted  defini- 
tion of  its  meaning  is  adopted;  while  under  this 
general  term,  if  applied  broadly,  many  closely  al- 
lied local  varieties — as,  for  example,  Lombard, 
Rhenish,  Romance,  Saxon,  and  Norman — can  be 
conveniently  included." — T.  R.  Smith  and  J.  Slater, 
Architecture,  p.  222. — "Our  Romanesque  and  our 
.  Gothic  are  not  two  styles  but  one  style.     Gothic 


455 


ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL      Romanesque     ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


is  perfected  Romanesque;  Romanesque  is  Gothic 
not  fully  developed,  nor  carried  structurally  to 
its  logical  conclusion." — F.  Bond,  Gothic  architec- 
ture  in   England,  p.   12. 

Lombard  and  German. — "By  degrees,  as  build- 
ings of  greater  extent  and  more  ornament  were 
erected,  the  local  varieties  .  .  .  began  to  develop 
themselves.  In  Lombardy  and  North  Italy,  for 
example,  a  Lombard  Romanesque  style  can  be 
recognised  distinctly;  here  a  series  of  churches 
were  built,  many  of  them  vaulted,  but  not  many 
of  the  largest  size.  Most  of  them  were  on  sub- 
stantially the  same  plan  as  the  Basilicas,  though  a 
considerable  number  of  circular  or  polygonal 
churches  were  also  built.  Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan, 
and  some  of  the  churches  at  Brescia,  Pavia,  and 
Lucca,  may  be  cited  as  well-known  examples  of 
early  date,  and  a  little  later  the  cathedrals  of 
Parma,  Modena,  and  Piacenza,  and  San  Zenone  at 
Verona.  These  churches  are  all  distinguished  by 
the  free  use  of  small  ornamental  arches  and  nar- 
row pilaster-strips  externally,  and  the  employment 
of  piers  with  half-shafts  attached  to  them,  rather 
than  columns,  in  the  arcades ;  they  have  fine  bell- 
towers;  circular  windows  often  occupy  the  gables, 
and  very  frequently  the  walls  have  been  built  of, 
or  ornamented  with,  coloured  materials.  The 
sculpture — grotesque,  vigorous,  and  full  of  rich 
variety — which  distinguishes  many  of  these  build- 
ings, and  which  is  to  be  found  specially  enriching 
the  doorways,  is  crl  great  interest,  and  began  early 
to  develop  a  character  that  is  quite  distinctive.  .  .  . 
Turning  to  Germany,  we  find  that  a  very  strong 
resemblance  existed  between  the  Romanesque 
churches  of  that  country  and  those  of  North  Italy. 
At  Aix-la-Chapelle  [q.  v.]  a  polygonal  church  exists, 
built  by  Charlemagne,  which  tradition  asserts  was 
designed  on  the  model  of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna. 
The  resemblance  is  undoubted,  but  the  German 
church  is  by  no  means  an  exact  copy  of  Justinian's 
building.  Early  examples  of  German  Romanesque 
exist  in  the  cathedrals  of  Mayence,  Worms,  and 
Spires." — T.  R.  Smith  and  J.  Slater,  Architecture, 
pp.  224-225. — "The  Romanesque  of  Germany  is,  on 
the  whole  .  .  .  the  most  distinctly  national  of  the 
countr\''s  styles.  [It]  was  extremely  prolific  and 
lingered  longer  than  in  any  other  country.  .  .  . 
The  most  striking  and  typically  German  character- 
istic of  the  style  is  its  complexity  and  pictur- 
esqueness,  acquired  by  a  multiplication  of  archi- 
tectural members." — F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell, 
History   of  architecture,  pp.  242-243. 

French  and  Norman. — "France  exhibits  more 
than  one  variety  of  Romanesque;  for  not  only 
is  the  influence  of  Greek  or  Venetian  artists  trace- 
able in  the  buildings  of  certain  districts,  especially 
Perigueur,  but  it  is  clear  that  in  others  the  exist- 
ence of  fine  examples  of  Roman  architecture  af- 
fected the  design  of  buildings  down  to  and  during 
the  eleventh  century.  This  influence  may,  for  ex- 
ample, be  detected  in  the  use,  in  the  churches  at 
Autun,  Valence,  and  .\vignon,  of  capitals,  pil- 
asters, and  in  the  employment  through  a  great  part 
of  Central  and  Northern  France  of  vaulted  roofs. 
A  specially  French  feature  is  the  chcvet,  a  group 
of  apsidal  chapels  which  were  combined  with  it 
to  make  of  the  east  end  of  a  great  cathedral  a 
singularly  rich  and  ornate  composition.  This  fea- 
ture, originating  in  Romanesque  churches,  was 
retained  in  France  through  the  whole  of  the  Gothic 
period,  and  a  good  example  of  it  may  be  seen  in 
the  large  Romanesque  church  of  St.  Sernin  at 
Toulouse.  ...  In  Normandy,  and  generally  in  the 
North  of  France,  round-arched  architecture  was 
excellently  carried  out,  and  churches  remarkable 
both  for  their  extent  and  their  great  dignity  and. 


solidity  were  erected.  Generally  speaking,  how- 
ever, Norman  architecture,  especially  as  met  with 
in  Normandy  itself,  is  less  ornate  than  the  Roman- 
esque of  Southern  France;  in  fact  some  of  the 
best  examples  seem  to  suffer  from  a  deficiency  of 
ornament.  The  large  and  well-known  churches  at 
Caen,  St.  Etienne,  otherwise  the  Abbaye  aux 
Hommes — interesting  to  Englishmen  as  having  been 
founded  by  William  the  Conqueror  immediately 
after  the  Conquest — and  the  Trinite,  or  Abbaye 
aux  Dames,  are  excellent  examples  of  early  Nor- 
man architecture.  ...  In  Great  Britain,  as  has 
been  already  pointed  out,  enough  traces  of  Saxon 
— that  is  to  say,  Primitive  Romanesque — architec- 
ture remain  to  show  that  many  simple,  though 
comparatively  rude,  buildings  must  have  been 
erected  previous  to  the  Norman  Conquest.  .  .  . 
Shortly  after  the  Conquest  distinctive  features  be- 
gan to  show  themselves.  Norman  architecture  in 
England  soon  became  essentially  different  from 
what  it  was  in  Normandy,  and  we  possess  in  this 
country  a  large  series  of  fine  works  showing  the 
growth  of  this  imported  style,  from  the  early  sim- 
plicity of  the  chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London  to 
such  elaboration  as  that  of  the  later  parts  of  Dur- 
ham Cathedral.  The  number  of  churches  founded 
or  rebuilt  soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest  must 
have  been  enormous,  for  in  examining  churches  of 
every  date  and  in  every  part  of  England  it  is  com- 
mon to  find  some  fragment  of  Norman  work  re- 
maining from  a  former  church:  this  is  very  fre- 
quently a  doorway  left  standing  or  built  into 
walls  of  later  date ;  and,  in  addition  to  these  frag- 
ments, no  small  number  of  churches,  and  more 
than  one  cathedral,  together  with  numerous  castles, 
remain  in  whole  or  in  part  as  they  were  erected  by 
the  original  builders.  Norman  architecture  is  con- 
sidered to  have  prevailed  in  England  for  more  than 
a  century ;  that  is  to  say,  from  the  Conquest 
(1066)  to  the  accession  of  Richard  I.  (ii8g).  The 
oldest  remaining  parts  of  Canterbury  Cathedral 
are  specimens  of  Norman  architecture  executed  in 
England  immediately  after  the  Conquest.  .  .  . 
More  complete  and  equally  ancient  is  the  chapel 
in  the  Tower  of  London,  which  consists  of  a  small 
apsidal  church  with  nave  and  aisles,  vaulted 
throughout,  and  in  excellent  preservation.  This 
building,  though  very  charming,  is  almost  desti- 
tute of  ornament.  A  little  more  ornate,  and  still 
a  good  example  of  early  Norman,  is  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Northampton.  ...  To  these  examples  of 
early  Norman  we  may  add  a  large  part  of  Roch- 
ester Cathedral,  and  the  transepts  of  Winchester. 
The  transepts  of  Exeter  present  a  specimen  of 
rather  more  advanced  Norman  work;  and  in  the 
cathedrals  of  Peterborough  and  Durham  the  style 
can  be  seen  at  its  best.  [The  parish  church  at 
Ifflcy  is  also  a  notable  example.]  In  most  Nor- 
man buildings  we  find  ver>'  excellent  masonry  and 
massive  construction.  The  exteriors  of  west 
fronts,  transepts,  and  towers  show  great  skill  and 
care  in  their  composition,  the  openings  being  al- 
ways well  grouped,  and  contrasted  with  plain  wall- 
spaces;  and  a  keen  sense  of  proportion  is  percep- 
tible. The  Norman  architects  had  at  command  a 
rich,  if  perhaps  a  rather  rude,  ornamentation, 
which  they  generally  confined  to  individual  fea- 
tures, especially  doorways;  on  these  they  lavished 
mouldings  and  sculpture,  the  elaboration  of  which 
was  set  off  by  the  plainness  of  the  general  struc- 
ture. In  the  interior  of  the  churches  we  usually 
meet  with  piers  of  massive  proportion,  sometimes 
round,  sometimes  octagonal,  sometimes  rectangular, 
and  a  shaft  is  sometimes  carried  up  the  face  of  the 
piers;  as,  for  example,  in  Peterborough  Cathedral. 
The    capitals   of    the    columns    and    piers   have   a 


456 


ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


Gothic 


ARCHITECTURE,  MEDIEVAL 


square  abacus,  [q.  v.]  and,  generally  speaking,  are 
of  the  cushion-shaped  sort,  commonly  known  as 
basket  capitals,  and  are  profusely  carved.  The 
larger  churches  have  the  nave  roofed  with  a  timber 
roof,  and  at  Peterborough  there  is  a  wooden  ceil- 
ing; in  these  cases  the  aisles  only  are  vaulted,  but 
in  some  small  churches  the  whole  building  has 
been  so  covered.  Buttresses  are  seldom  required, 
owing  to  the  great  mass  of  the  walls;  when  em- 
ployed they  have  a  very  slight  projection,  but  the 
same  strips  or  pilasters  which  are  used  in  German 
Romanesque  occur  here  also.  Low  towers  were 
common,  and  have  been  not  infrequently  pre- 
served in  cases  where  the  rest  of  the  building  has 
been  removed.  As  the  style  advanced,  the  propor- 
tions of  arcades  became  more  lofty,  and  shafts  be- 
came more  slender,  decorative  arcades  became  more 
common,  and  in  these  and  many  other  changes 
the  approaching  transition  to  Gothic  may  be  easily 
detected."— T.  R.  Smith  and  J.  S.  Slater,  Archi- 
tecture, pp.  226-235. — See  also  Cathedral. 

Gothic:  Full  development  of  vaulting. — Ar- 
tistic value. — Centers  of  diffusion. — "In  Gothic 
the  possibilities  of  Romanesque  reach  their  logical 
conclusions.  More  analytically  and  completely  the 
vault  determines  the  rest  of  the  structure.  Down- 
ward stress  and  lateral  thrusts  have  been  analyzed; 
they  have  been  gathered  up  and  then  distributed 
in  currents  of  pressure  exerted  along  the  lines  of 
the  ribs  of  the  vaulting.  Each  thrust  or  stress  is 
met  by  separate  support  of  pillar  or  colonnette, 
or  by  directly  counteracting  pressure  of  pier  and 
flying  buttress.  Through  these  the  weight  and  lat- 
eral thrusts  of  the  building  are  conducted  down- 
ward and  outward  in  channels  as  definite  as  the 
gutters  which  lead  the  rain-water  from  the  roof. 
More  especially  the  devices  of  rib  and  flying  but- 
tress have  faciliated  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch, 
and  have  lifted  Romanesque  from  the  earth ;  while 
the  confinement  of  stresses  to  definite  channels  has 
enabled  the  architect  to  replace  opaque  walls  with 
a  many-colored  translucency  of  glass,  in  which  the 
Christian  story  is  painted  in  the  light  of  heaven. 
The  architectural  ornament  emphasizes  the  struc- 
ture of  the  building  as  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  vault.  Constructively,  artistically, 
and  symbolically,  the  ornament  of  a  Gothic  church 
completes  and  perfects  it  and  renders  it  articulate. 
The  strength  of  the  building  is  in  its  ribs  and 
arches,  columns,  piers,  and  flying  buttresses.  Their 
sustaining  forms  render  this  strength  visible." — 
H.  O.  Taylor,  Classical  heritage  oj  the  Middle 
Ages,  pp.  311-312. — "If  the  aim  of  architecture, 
considered  as  an  art,  should  be  to  free  itself  as 
much  as  possible  from  subjection  to  its  materials, 
it  may  be  said  that  no  buildings  have  more  suc- 
cessfully realized  this  idea  than  the  Gothic 
churches." — S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  p.  118. — "The  new 
style  evolved  with  great  rapidity.  The  Gothic 
choir  of  the  Abbey  Church  of  St.  Denis  was  begun 
in  ri44,  the  Church  of  Noyon  in  1150,  Notre  Dame 
(Paris)  in  1163,  Bourges  in  1172,  Chartres  in 
irg4,  Reims  in  1211,  Amiens  in  1215.  [See  also 
Amiens,  Cathedral  of.]  The  Sainte-Chapelle  of 
Paris  was  consecrated  in  124S.  From  the  north  of 
France  the  Gothic  type — propagated  more  espe- 
cially by  the  monks  of  Citeaux — passed  into  Alsace 
(Strasburg,  1277),  into  Germany  (Cologne,  1248), 
into  Italy  (Milan),  into  Spain,  Portugal,  Sweden, 
Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  The  French  Crusaders 
introduced  it  into  the  island  of  Cyprus  and  into 
Syria.  In  England,  it  assumed  a  national  char- 
acter, the  main  features  of  which  were  a  greater 
structural  sobriety  and  care  for  solidity,  combined 
later  with  more  richness  and  beauty  in  the  ribbing 
of  vaults  and  in   ornament  generally,  and   a  ten- 


dency to  rely  upon  the  length  for  sublimity  of 
effect,  rather  than  upon  height,  as  did  the  French 
architects.  It  has,  however,  been  made  a  re- 
proach to  the  English  Gothic  artists  that  they  made 
an  excessive  use  of  vertical  lines,  especially  in 
their  windows.  In  11 74,  a  French  architect,  Wil- 
liam of  Sens,  rebuilt  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury 
which  had  been,  for  the  second  time,  destroyed  by 
fire.  The  choir  of  Lincoln  was  built  from  1190 
to  1200,  that  of  Westminster  Abbey  from  1245  to 
1269;  Salisbury  from  1220  to  125S.  Everywhere 
else,  the  French  type  prevailed.  Chartres  and 
Bourges  were  the  models  for  Spain;  Noyon  and 
Laon  were  imitated  at  Lausanne  and  at  Bamberg 
(the  towers);  Cologne  [q.  v.]  is  a  combination  of 
Amiens  and  Beauvais.  The  country  which  least 
readily  assimilated  the  Gothic  style  was  Italy  (Mi- 
lan Cathedral).  The  Romanesque  churches  did  not 
disappear  here ;  there  is  an  unbroken  continuity 
between  them  and  the  buildings  of  the  Renaissance, 
whereas  Gothic  art  intervenes  as  a  brilliant  epi- 
sode, the  apogee  of  which  was  but  little  removed 
from  its  decline.  Three  f)eriods  have  been  dis- 
cerned in  Gothic  architecture,  determined  by  the 
shape  and  decoration  of  the  windows;  to  these 
the  terms  a  lancettes  (lancet-shaped)  or  Primitive, 
Rayonnant  or  Secondary,  and  Flamboyant  or 
Third  Period,  are  applied  in  France,  while  in  Eng- 
land three  distinct  periods  are  also  recognised,  and 
generically  distinguished  as  Thirteenth  Century,  or 
Early  English;  Fourteenth  Century,  or  Decorated, 
and  Fifteenth  Century,  or  Perpendicular.  But  all 
these  terms  are  somewhat  loosely  applied.  It  will 
be  enough  to  say  here  that  the  principle  of  Gothic 
architecture  led  it  on  incessantly  to  increase  the 
height  of  vaults,  to  enlarge  open  spaces  and  win- 
dows, to  multiply  belfries  and  pinnacles.  The 
Gothic  churches  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  both 
mannered,  and  alarming  in  the  overslenderness 
of  their  structure.  Gothic  art  was  not  crushed 
by  the  art  of  the  Renaissance ;  it  fell  a  victim  to 
its  inherent  fragility.  Churches  were  not  the  sole 
fruit  of  Gothic  art,  though  the  cathedral  is  its 
most  perfect  expression.  Among  the  monuments 
of  its  later  period  are  the  beautiful  town-halls  of 
Flemish  cities,  which  rose  confronting  the  churches, 
with  belfries  containing  the  municipal  bells,  as  if 
to  symbolise  the  growth  of  a  new  power,  that  of 
the  civic  laity.  Other  productions  were  magnificent 
abbeys  [see  also  Abbey:  Abbeys  in  history,  and 
Architectural  features]  notably  that  of  Mont  St. 
Michel,  and  charming  private  houses,  such  as  the 
Hotel  de  Cluny  in  Paris,  and  Jacques  Coeur's  House 
at  Bourges.  Fortified  castles,  and  keeps,  or  donjons 
(from  the  Latin  dominium)  in  the  Romanesque 
style  had  multiplied  from  the  tenth  century  on- 
wards. The  exigencies  of  defence  forbade  the 
full  acceptance  in  these  of  a  style  in  which  open 
spaces  predominated;  but  Gothic  art  inspired  the 
interior  arrangement,  the  decoration  of  the  doors, 
the  windows,  and  the  roof;  it  will  suffice  to  in- 
stance the  castles  of  La  Ferte-Milon  and  Pierre- 
fonds,  dating  from  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, buildings  which  have  been  justly  eulogised 
for  'their  imposing  masses,  their  noble  outlines,  the 
Doric  pride  and  frankness  of  their  perpendicular 
design.'" — S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  pp.  116-117. — The 
Spanish  use  of  the  Gothic  was  freer  and  more 
genuine  than  that  of  Germany  or  Italy,  and  al- 
though the  French  influence  was  dominant,  cer- 
tain characteristic  features  of  plan  and  proportion 
were  developed,  notably  increased  width  of  nave, 
position  of  choir,  internal  buttresses  and  wide 
vaulting.  The  Gothic  style  in  Spain  and  also  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily  is  noteworthy  for  Sara- 
cen influence,  as  evidenced  by  rich  surface  decora- 


457 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE  Ifaly       ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


tions,  pierced  stonework  tracery,  and  the  horse- 
shoe arch. — See  also  Art:  Relation  of  art  and  his- 
tory;  Cathedral;   Historical  importance. 

RENAISSANCE 

Relation  to  preceding  styles. — "Greek  archi- 
tecture is  the  embodiment  of  supreme  serenity,  of 
self-restraint,  and  the  sense  of  inevitable  fate. 
It  is  the  expression  of  an  ideal  of  life  that  never 
sought  to  leave  the  earth,  the  ideal  of  a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body.  Its  impulse  is  purely 
pagan.  Roman  architecture,  with  its  bridges  and 
aqueducts,  its  triumphal  arches,  its  domes  and  its 
auditoriums,  speaks  of  the  majesty  of  the  Roman 
government,  of  the  imperial  scope  of  its  power 
and  its  law.  When  paganism  had  fallen  and  Chris- 
tianity had  built  a  new  civilization  upon  the  wreck 
of  the  old,  Gothic  architecture  gave  expression  to 
the  new  spirit,  to  the  new  ideal  of  life,  to  the  new 
vision  that  soared  aloft  until  it  was  lost  in  the 
blue  sky.  Pure  beauty  w'as  the  sole  object  of 
Hellenic  art,  but  Gothic  architecture  strove  to  voice 
the  aspirations  of  the  human  soul.  The  predomi- 
nant lines  of  classic  architecture  are  horizontal 
lines,  which  are  restful  and  belong  to  the  earth, 
while  those  of  Gothic  architecture  are  vertical. 
In  a  Gothic  cathedral,  slender  window,  towering 
pillar,  pointed  arch,  lofty  vault,  delicate  pinnacle, 
and  soaring  spire,  irresistibly  carry  the  eye  upward. 
Classic  architecture  was  rooted  in  the  rational  fac- 
ulty; Gothic  was  born  of  the  spiritual.  The  ra- 
tional faculty  looks  about  it  with  understanding. 
The  spiritual  faculty  aspires  with  rapture  to  God. 
But  it  is  not  form  alone  that  creates  the  impres- 
sion produced  by  a  Gothic  cathedral.  The  win- 
dows, made  up  of  separate  fragments  of  glass, 
ruby,  or  sapphire  blue,  or  emerald  green,  let  in 
mellow  light  and  permit  mysterious  shadows.  The 
lofty  interior  is  steeped  in  the  brooding  richness 
and  solemn  splendor  of  a  strange  twilight.  The 
effect  is  profoundly  emotional.  It  is  the  language 
of  the  soul  become  articulate.  .  .  .  Gothic  archi- 
tecture could  not  express  the  combination  of  clas- 
sicism and  modernity  that  formed  the  spirit  of 
the  Renaissance.  A  new  style  of  architecture  was 
required.  The  pure  Gothic  of  northern  and  cen- 
tral France  had  never  found  a  congenial  soil  in 
Italy.  Only  a  modified  form  of  Gothic,  in  which 
the  horizontal  principle  held  an  important  part, 
had  flourished  there.  Breadth  rather  than  height 
was  its  characteristic  attribute.  The  spire  was 
almost  unknown,  its  place  being  taken  by  the 
dome.  In  retaining  something  of  the  character  of 
classic  architecture  Italian  Gothic  expressed  the 
genius  of  the  Italian  people,  a  genius  with  classic 
inheritance,  as  contrasted  with  the  genius  of  the 
French  people,  a  genius  with  a  marked  Celtic 
strain.  In  the  creation  of  an  architecture  that 
should  give  expression  to  the  senii-classic  spirit  of 
the  Renaissance,  a  less  radical  change  was  re- 
quired of  the  Italians  than  of  the  northern  na- 
tions. The  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  appealed  to 
the  Italian  mind  promptly  and  decisively.  A  new 
style  of  architecture,  that  rapidly  reached  ma- 
turity, gave  expression  to  that  spirit." — E.  M. 
Hulme,  Renaissance,  the  Protestant  Revolution  and 
the  Catholic  Reformation,  pp.   108-110. 

"Compared  with  the  medieval  architecture  which 
preceded  it.  Renaissance  architecture  was  less  con- 
cerned with  problems  of  structure  and  more  with 
those  of  pure  form.  As  in  the  case  of  Roman 
architecture,  the  forms  of  detail  were  sometimes 
used  as  trophies  of  classical  culture,  with  relative 
indifference  to  their  original  structural  functions. 
The  forms  were   not   merely   ends  in   themselves, 


however,  but  means  for  a  rhythmical  subdivision 
of  space,  more  complex  and  more  varied  than 
either  ancient  or  medieval  times  had  known.  A 
further  contrast  between  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
Renaissance,  though  one  which  has  often  been 
exaggerated,  lay  in  the  relation  of  the  designer  to 
his  work.  The  architect,  in  the  ancient  and  in 
the  modern  sense,  reappeared.  We  now  realize 
that  in  both  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance 
the  general  design  was  controlled  by  a  single  mind, 
and  that  in  both  periods  there  were  sculptured 
details  of  which  the  design  was  left  to  the  initiative 
of  individual  sculptors.  Unlike  the  medieval 
masterbuilder,  however,  the  Renaissance  architect 
did  not  himself  work  on  the  scaffold,  whereas  he 
did  dictate,  in  a  greater  measure  than  his  pre- 
decessors, the  form  of  many  uniform  details." — 
F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History  of  archi- 
tecture, pp.  345-346. 

Italy. — "The  first  period  of  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture in  Italy  may  be  characterized  as  the  at- 
tempted fusion  of  the  forms  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  those  of  antiquity.  Novelty  is  less  apparent 
at  first  in  the  conception  of  buildings  than  in  their 
decorations,  in  which  Graeco-Roman  motives  play 
a  part.  For  the  first  time  since  the  fall  of  the 
Empire,  civil  architecture  becomes  more  important 
than  religious  architecture.  This  was  a  conse- 
quence of  the  progress  of  the  secular  spirit.  The 
type  of  the  new  art  is  the  Florentine  palace,  a 
massive  structure  built  round  a  quadrangular  court 
with  a  columned  portico.  The  exterior  still  pre- 
serves the  character  of  the  medisval  fortresses,  in 
which  solid  surfaces  occupy  far  more  space  than 
apertures.  It  is  in  the  interior,  with  its  arcades, 
its  rows  of  columns,  the  decoration  of  its  pilasters 
and  vaults  that  the  imitation  of  antique  models 
manifests  itself.  Some  of  this  decoration,  no  longer 
realistic  but  fantastic,  was  inspired  by  that  of  the 
Roman  tombs  lately  excavated,  and  known  as 
grottoes;  hence  the  term  grotesque,  which,  in  its 
original  sense,  implies  no  sort  of  censure  or  ridi- 
cule. The  Renaissance  church  differs  from  the 
Gothic  church  mainly  in  that  it  is  generally 
crowned  by  a  cupola  square  in  plan;  clustered  col- 
umns are  replaced  by  pillars;  the  vault  on  inter- 
secting arches  by  a  barrel  vault  or  a  horizontal 
coffered  ceiling;  on  the  exterior  we  find  columns, 
pediments,  and  niches,  all  the  various  elements  of 
Roman  art.  The  Florentine  Brunellesco  (1377- 
1466)  was  the  initiator  of  the  first  Renaissance. 
From  1420  to  1434  he  raised  the  dome  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence  to  a  height  of  about  300 
feet.  .  .  .  About  the  year  1445,  [he]  began  the 
Pitti  Palace  at  Florence.  It  is  a  building  charac- 
terised by  a  severe  beauty,  due  mainly  to  the 
clarity  of  the  design  and  the  perfection  of  the 
proportions.  Classic  influences  are  more  apparent 
in  the  Riccardi  Palace,  the  work  of  Michelozzo 
about  1430,  and  in  the  Strozzi  Palace,  Florence, 
built  about  1489  by  Benedetto  da  Majano  and 
Cronaca.  This  is  surmounted  by  an  attic  or  cor- 
nice inspired  by  the  best  Roman  models  and  justly 
celebrated.  .  .  .  The  marvellous  fa<;ade  of  the  Cer- 
tosa  at  Pavia  was  built  in  1491,  two  years  later 
than  the  Strozzi  Palace.  Here  decoration  abounds, 
infinitely  rich  and  varied;  if  it  borrows  elements 
from  antique  art,  it  lavishes  them  with  truly 
Gothic  exuberance.  .  .  . 

"The  centre  of  true  Renaissance  architecture, 
characterized  by  the  constructive,  non-decorative 
use  of  columns  and  pilasters,  was  not  Florence  but 
Rome,  where  the  monuments  of  antiquity  furnished 
models.  It  began  with  Bramante  of  Urbino  (1444- 
1514),  the  director  of  the  first  works  undertaken 
at  St.  Peter's.     His  influence  was  principally  ex- 


458 


TYPES  OF  ITALIAN  ARCHITECTURE     • 
Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa.  Cathedral  of  San  Lorenzo,  Genoa. 

St.  Peter's,  Rome. 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


Italy 
France 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


ercised  to  restrain  parasitical  decoration  and  em- 
phasise the  structure  of  a  building ;  this  formula 
has  become  the  law  of  modern  architecture.  Per- 
haps the  most  gifted  of  his  successors  was  Andrea 
Palladio,  who  worked  at  Venice  (1518-1580).  A 
characteristic  work  by  him  is  the  Church  of  the 
Redentore  in  that  city.  As  an  example  of  a  palace 
built  in  this  second  phase  of  the  Renaissance,  we 
may  cite  the  beautiful  Library  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice,  the  work  of  Jacopo  Tatti,  called  Sansovino 
(1486-1570),  with  its  Doric  ground  floor,  its  Ionic 
i^rst  floor,  its  graceful  frieze  and  balustrade  en- 
riched with  statues.  The  third  period  was  entirely 
dominated  by  the  influence  of  Michelangelo  (1475-' 
1564),  especially  from  about  the  year  1550  on- 
wards. This  redoubtable  genius  imposed  pic- 
turesque elements  and  individual  fancies  upon  ar- 


tendency  developed,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  into  the  style  known  as  Baroque,  from 
the  name  given  by  the  Portuguese  to  irregularly 
shaped  pearls  (barocco).  It  is  a  kind  of  de- 
generescent  Renaissance  art,  allied  by  its  defects 
to  the  Flamboyant  Gothic  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
its  most  pronounced  characteristic  being  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  curved  to  the  straight  line.  In  the 
interior  of  the  churches  of  this  period  the  so- 
called  Jesuit  style  held  sway ;  it  aimed  at  dazzling 
the  eye  by  wealth  and  variety  of  motive,  without 
regard  to  the  true  function  of  ornament,  which  is 
to  emphasize  form.  This  was  the  period  of  decor- 
ation treated  as  an  end  in  itself,  introduced  every- 
where and  in  the  most  contradictory  fashion,  re- 
sulting in  feverish  visions  of  tortured  lines  and 
unexpected  reliefs.     The  genius  of  the  Renaissance 


MICH.\ELANGELO'S  STVLK  dl    KKX.M-  ■      .ARCHITECTURE 

Salon    of    Angeli    at    the    Karnese    Palace,    Italy 


chitecture.  He  continued,  but  did  not  finish,  the 
enormous  Church  of  St.  Peter,  the  plans  of  which 
had  already  been  modified  by  several  architects, 
Raphael  among  the  number.  After  the  death  of 
Michelangelo,  the  huge  cupola,  some  430  feet  high, 
was  finished  from  his  designs;  but  the  fa<;ade  was 
spoilt  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Maderna,  and 
more  especially  by  Bernini,  the  author  of  two 
lateral  towers  by  no  means  pleasing  in  their  effect. 
...  It  is  the  largest  church  ever  built,  covering 
a  superficies  of  over  225,000  square  feet,  while 
Milan  Cathedral  and  St.  Paul's  in  London  occupy 
only  some  118,300,  St.  Sophia  some  107,000,  and 
Cologne  Cathedral  some  86,000.  .  .  .  The  example 
of  Michelangelo  inspired  a  taste  for  the  colossal 
and  a  straining  after  effect,  to  the  detriment  of 
simplicity  and  good  taste.  His  disciples  have  left 
many  powerful  and  original  works,  which  are 
marred  by  too  great  an  exuberance  of  fancy.    This 


succumbed  at  last  in  this  decorative  orgy,  though 
down  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  never 
ceased  to  produce  buildings  remarkable  for  their 
boldness  or  their  elegance.  As  an  example  of  the 
latter,  we  may  mention  the  Palazzo  Pesaro  [at 
Venice  or  Bevilacqua  at  Bologna]  where,  in  spite  of 
the  profusion  of  useless  ornament,  the  eye  is 
charmed  by  the  nobility  of  the  proportions  and  the 
plavful  fancy  of  the  decorations  (about  1650)." — 
S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  pp.  131-13S.— See  also  Venice: 
i6th  century. 

France. — "Next  to  Italy  it  was  France  that 
was  the  chief  contributor  to  the  Renaissance.  But 
the  change  from  Gothic  to  pseudo-classic  ideals 
that  began  to  overtake  architecture  in  the  fifteenth 
century  in  that  country  cannot  correctly  be  called 
a  revival  because  there  had  never  been  a  time  in 
French  history  when  architecture  had  been  classic 
in  its  spirit.  ...  In  France   Gothic   architecture, 


459 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


France 
Germany 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


born  of  the  national  spirit,  had  found  its  most 
logical  and  artistic  development ;  and  therefore 
its  modification  and  replacement  were  not  accom- 
plished without  a  struggle.  Some  things  there 
were  that  helped  to  make  the  change  less  difficult. 
.  .  .  The  architectural  needs  of  the  time  were 
becoming  secular  and  civic.  .  .  .  French  artists 
went  to  learn  in  Italy,  and  Italian  artists  came  to 
teach  in  France.  It  was  not  classic  architecture 
that  found  it3  way  into  France  but  rather  the 
varying  Italian  interpretations  of  that  architecture. 
The  fusion  of  the  flamboyant  Gothic  with  the 
florid  Italian  styles  resulted  at  first  in  a  transitional 
style  that  was  the  autumnal  splendor  of  the  medie- 
val manner;  but  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  a  decided  break  with  the  Gothic  past 
took  place." — E.  M.  Hulme,  Renaissance,  the  Pro- 
testant Revolution,  and  the  Catholic  Rejormation, 
pp.  3gi-392. — "The  oldest  monuments  of  the 
French  Renaissance  are  the  country  mansions  built 
in  the  valley  of  the  Loire  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  They  retain  the  high  sloping  roof,  the 
towers,  turrets,  and  spiral  staircases  of  the 
Middle  Ages;  it  is  only  in  the  decoration,  that 
Italian  influences  are  revealed.  .  .  .  We  need  go 
no  further  than  Paris  to  study  the  beautiful  gate 
of  the  Chateau  de  Gaillon  (1502-1510)  built  by 
the  Cardinal  d'Amboise,  and  now  erected  in  the 
courtyard  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  A  bolder 
example  of  the  style  is  Chenonceaux  on  the  Cher 
(1512-1523),  a  well-preserved  building,  in  which 
Gothic  forms  are  everywhere  perceptible,  under  the 
veil  of  Renaissance  decoration.  The  masterpiece 
of  this  style  is  Chambord,  the  work  of  Pierre 
Trinqueau  (c.  1523),  with  its  forest  of  chimneys 
and  gables,  a  fairy  apparition  rising  in  the  midst 
of  a  desolate  sandy  plain.  But  if  we  examine  it 
closely,  we  are  struck  by  the  incongruities  of 
construction:  a  Gothic  roof,  a  Renaissance  main 
building,  and  massive  Romanesque  towers.  The 
older  parts  of  the  Castle  of  Blois  (especially  on  the 
north)  abound  in  charming  Renaissance  details, 
still  allied  to  Gothic  elements.  Fontainebleau  is 
severe  in  style,  even  a  trifle  wearisome ;  the  most 
severe  of  all  Francis  I.'s  chateaux  is  that  of  St. 
Germain,  where  the  austerity  of  the  facade  and 
the  flat  roof  recall  the  Florentine  palaces  of  the 
early  Renaissance.  The  hybrid  union  of  Gothic 
and  Renaissance  is  found  in  several  of  the  churches 
of  this  period,  as,  for  instance,  in  St.  Etienne-du- 
Mont  (1517-1540-1610)  and  St.  Eustache  (1532) 
in  Paris.  Towards  1540  a  purification  of  style 
took  place.  Pierre  Lescot,  who  worked  at  the 
Louvre  from  the  year  1546,  Jean  Bullant  (1515- 
1578),  who  built  Ecouen  and  began  the  Tuileries, 
completed  by  Philibert  Delorme,  were  thoroughly 
saturated  with  the  spirit  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, but  they  also  developed  -a  decorative  and 
picturesque  talent  which  presaged  the  French  art 
of  the  Eighteenth  century.  The  masterpiece  of 
French  Renaissance  architecture,  and  perhaps  of 
all  modern  architecture,  is  the  Louvre.  Of  the 
many  who  have  seen  it,  but  few  know  it,  for  its 
different  portions  date  from  various  periods,  and 
it  requires  careful  scrutiny  to  grasp  the  distinctive 
characteristics.  The  part  of  the  Louvre  courtyard 
which  we  owe  to  Lescot  (south-west)  struck  the 
note  that  was  taken  up  by  his  successors,  and  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  courtyard  affords 
the  most  admirable  view  of  a  palace  in  existence. 
On  the  outside,  facing  the  Rue  du  Louvre.  Louis 
Xr\\  commissioned  Claude  Perrault  to  build  a  long 
monotonous  faqade  with  double  columns,  which 
gives  the  measure  of  the  distance  between  the  art 
of  the  French  Renaissance  and  that  of  the  age 
of  Louis  XIV.     Even  the  exquisite  grace  of  a  Les- 


cot seemed  frivolous  to  that  age;  its  artists  no 
longer  sought  inspiration  in  the  Italy  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  but  found  their  models  in  imperial 
Rome.  The  style  then  adopted  is  known  as  the 
academic  style,  because  it  was  enforced  mainly  by 
the  Academies  of  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Archi- 
tecture founded  by  Mazarin  (1648)  and  by  Col- 
bert (1671).  .  .  .  Perrault's  collonade  and  the  fa- 
cade of  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  completed  by  Jules 
Hardouin  Mansard  (1646-170S),  are  memorable 
examples  of  this  sad,  solemn,  and  lofty  style,  in 
which  symmetry  is  the  supreme  law,  and  every 
picturesque  and  unexpected  element  is  banished. 
Mansard's  best  work  is  the  dome  of  the  Invalides 
(1675-1706),  the  silhouette  of  which,  at  once  ele- 
gant and  majestic,  is  much  finer  than  that  of  the 
Pantheon  by  Soufflot  (1757-1784).  The  imposing 
facade  of  St.  Sulpice  (1733)  is  the  work  of  an 
Italian  architect,  Servandoni.  The  two  Garde- 
Meubles,  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  akin  to 
Perrault's  colonnade,  but  greatly  superior  to  it, 
are  due  to  Gabriel,  the  best  architect  of  the  time 
of  Louis  XV.  These  fine  buildings  have  one  very 
unsuitable  feature,  the  flat  Italian  roofs,  so  ill- 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  Paris.  As  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  warm  them,  the  roofs  have  been 
crowned  by  a  forest  of  chimney-pots,  which  pro- 
duce a  somewhat  grotesque  effect."- — S.  Reinach, 
Apollo,  pp.  131-135- 

Germany. — "In  Germany  the  Renaissance  move- 
ment seems  to  have  followed  in  the  steps  of  French 
Renaissance  rather  than  of  Italian.  .  .  .  But  it  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  assign  any  decisive  tendency 
to  German  architecture  in  the  Renaissance  period; 
it  seems  to  have  varied  very  much  with  locality 
and  individual  influence.  The  later  work  at  Hei- 
delberg shows  a  more  Renaissance  spirit  than  the 
earlier  part,  but  in  a  rather  florid  and  tawdry 
manner;  while  the  portico  of  the  Rathaus  at 
Cologne,  with  its  two  stories  of  orders  on  pedestals, 
with  round  arches  between,  is  almost  academic  in 
style,  and  seems  derived  rather  from  Italian  than 
French  influence.  On  the  other  hand,  reminiscences 
of  Gothic  .  .  .  survive  in  the  most  surprising  man- 
ner in  buildings  of  much  later  date  than  this.  A 
church  at  Biickeburg,  for  instance  (1613),  has 
aisles  defined  by  Corinthian  columns,  with  the  or- 
thodox architrave  blocks  above  the  capitals,  and 
mullioned  windows  of  the  long  three-light  German 
Gothic  type,  only  with  circular  instead  of  pointed 
tracery,  and  a  fa(;ade  of  the  most  villainously 
rococo  character;  and  the  Marien-Kirche  at  Wol- 
fenbijttel,  about  the  same  date,  has  buttresses  of 
Gothic  plan,  but  terminating  in  a  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, and  the  long  three-light  mullioned  window 
with  pointed  arches,  but  with  the  tracery-bars 
ragged  with  ornamentation  in  reUef.  One  never 
knows  what  one  may  find  in  German  Renaissance 
buildings;  it  is  a  period  of  experiments  and  vaga- 
ries, often  crude  and  coarse  to  a  degree,  yet  not 
without  a  certain  picturesque  effect,  and  Gothic 
feeling  is  often  quite  prevalent  even  where  nearly 
all  the  details  are  Classic.  One  may  take  as  an 
example  the  Rathaus  at  Bremen  (1612),  with  its 
open  arcade  in  the  ground  story,  its  balcony  with 
rococo  carved  ornament,  and  its  mullioned  win- 
dows above,  with  Classic  pediment  heads,  .  .  .  and 
it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  the  total  spirit  of  this 
building,  in  spite  of  its  little  orthodox  pediments 
over  the  wuidows,  is  medieval  rather  than  Renais- 
sance. Medieval  in  feeling,  too,  are  the  frequent 
high-gabled  street  fronts,  such  as  that  of  the  Ge- 
wandhaus  at  Brunswick  (1502),  with  four  stories 
each  with  an  order,  then  an  immense  gable  in 
several  diminishing  stages  with  crude  details  of 
pilasters  and  scrolls.     The  same  kind  of  thing  is 


460 


AUCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


Spain 
England 


ARCHITECTURE,  RENAISSANCE 


shown  more  in  detail  in  the  illustration  of  a  house 
front  at  Heidelberg.  There  is  a  certain  pictur- 
esqueness  about  it,  but  alter  all  it  is  a  kind  of 
nursery  architecture,  like  children  building  with 
toy  bricks,  that  no  French  architect  of  the  Renais- 
sance would  have  descended  to.  Among  German 
buildings  which  exhibit  something  of  the  refine- 
ment and  sobriety  of  the  Italian  and  French 
Renaissance  a  favourable  example  is  the  Gymna- 
sium in  the  Bank  Platz  at  Brunswick  (1592)  in 
which  square-headed  mullioned  windows  of  the 
Francis  I.  type  are  grouped  in  pairs,  with  a  niche 
and  a  statue  between  each  pair ;  and  one  may  men- 
tion also  the  Rathaus  at  Augsburg  (1615),  a  plain 
building  with  pedimented  windows,  somewhat  re- 
calling the  style  of  the  Farnese  Palace.  But  the 
general  tendency  of  German  Renaissance  is  to  ec- 
centricity and  exuberance  of  ornamental  detail,  the 
unquestionable  vigour  of  which  hardly  compen- 
sates for  its  want  of  refinement." — H.  H.  Statham, 
Short  critical  history  of  architecture,  pp.  4S7-494. 
Spain. — "In  Spain,  as  in  France  and  other 
countries  outside  of  Italy,  there  was  a  mingling  of 
Italian  forms  with  those  already  existing  in  the 
native  medieval  architecture.  Here,  however,  the 
medieval  style  itself  included  a  large  admixture  of 
Moorish  forms.  Moriscoes,  until  their  expulsion  in 
1610.  remained  prominent  among  artificers,  and 
thus  had  their  influence  on  the  Renaissance  forms 
as  well  Thus  arose  the  Plateiesque  or  silver- 
smith's style,  so  called  from  the  intricate  and  deli- 
cate ornament  abounding  in  it.  This,  which  cor- 
responds with  the  early  Renaissance,  extended  from 
about  1500  to  1560.  A  notable  example  is  the 
Town  Hall  at  Seville,  built  in  1527-32.  Here  there 
is  an  application  of  engaged  orders  in  two  stories 
which  in  its  main  lines  is  thoroughly  grammatical, 
but  which  has  pilasters,  columns,  window  enframe- 
ments,  and  panels  alike  covered  with  the  richest 
arabesques  and  candelabra-like  forms.  Even  more 
characteristic  in  its  mode  of  composition  is  the 
doorway  of  the  University  at  Salamanca.  Here 
the  ornament  is  massed  in  a  great  panel  above  the 
opening,  which  contrasts  with  the  broad  neighbor- 
ing surfaces  of  unbroken  masonry.  Other  notable 
features  of  style  are  open  arcaded  loggias  which 
often  terminate  a  fai;ade,  as  in  the  Casa  de  Mon- 
terey at  Salamanca  (1530),  and  the  courts  or  pa- 
tios surrounded  by  galleries  which  are  found  in  all 
important  buildings.  Forms  like  those  of  the  High 
Renaissance  in  Italy  first  appeared  in  the  palace 
begun  for  Charles  V.  in  the  Alhambra  (1527),  by 
Pedro  Machuca.  This  building  is  square  in  plan 
with  a  circular  colonnaded  court  having  super- 
posed orders,  Doric  and  Ionic.  In  purity  and 
classical  quality  the  building  holds  its  own  with 
contemporary  monuments  of  Italy.  .■  .  .  The  con- 
quest of  the  Indies  made  Spain,  by  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  greatest  power  in  Eu- 
rope. Philip  II.  gave  expression  to  this  power  by 
the  building  of  the  Escurial  (1563-84),  comprising 
a  votive  church  and  mausoleum,  monastery,  and 
palace,  with  every  needful  dependency  for  the  ser- 
vice of  both  church  and  state.  Its  building  lay 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Juan  de  Herrera  (1530-97), 
whose  work,  severely  academic  in  its  forms,  es- 
tablished the  post-Renaissance  tendencies  in  Spain. 
In  the  Patio  of  the  Evangelists,  to  be  sure,  he 
employed  the  Roman  arch  order  with  equal  bays 
and  unbroken  entablatures,  but  elsewhere  the  mem- 
bering  abounds  in  the  complex  grouping  of  sup- 
ports, the  breaking  of  horizontal  members,  the 
uniting  of  interior  spaces  by  penetrating  vaults, 
and  the  multiplication  of  aspects  in  perspective  by 
the  combination  of  dome  and  towers.  Herrera's 
sobriety  was  soon  superseded  by  baroque  freedom. 


which  ultimately  in  the  hands  of  Jose  Churriguera 
(1650-1723)  became  the  boldest  license.  The  na- 
tional traditions  of  the  Plateresque  were  reflected 
in  the  'Churngueresque'  style,  which  paid  less  at- 
tention to  the  creation  of  new  forms  of  plan  and 
space  than  to  the  luxuriant  elaboration  of  detail. 
It  reached  its  fullest  development  in  the  great  por- 
tals and  altar-pieces,  such  as  the  high  altar  of  the 
church  of  El  Salvador  in  Seville.  The  accession 
of  the  Bourbons  in  17 14,  which  marked  the  end 
of  Spanish  domination  in  politics,  brought  also  a 
subordination  of  Spanish  tendencies  in  art.  The 
palaces  of  the  new  rulers  at  La  Granja  and  Madrid 
imitated  not  only  the  worldliness  of  Versailles  but 
its  architectural  formalism.  The  baroque  ten- 
dency, which  comported  so  well  with  national  sym- 
pathies, persisted  nevertheless,  now  creating  novel 
forms  of  interior  space,  and  still  filling  the  frame- 
work of  the  orders  with  an  exuberance  of  orna- 
ment."— F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell,  History  of 
architecture,  pp.  3S7-388,  420-422. 

England. — "Gothic  architecture  endured  longer 
in  England  than  elsewhere,  and  took  a  new  lease 
of  life  under  the  name  of  Tudor  Style  (1485-1558). 
To  this  transitional  style  belong  the  Royal  Chap- 
els, St.  George's  at  Windsor  and  Henry  VII.'s 
Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey,  with  their  unique  sys- 
tem of  fan-vaulting.  Hampton  Court  Palace  is  a 
charming  example  of  the  Tudor  Style  as  applied  to 
domestic  architecture.  Renaissance  architecture 
only  flournished  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  when 
it  was  represented  principally  by  Inigo  Jones 
(1572-1662),  the  author  of  the  beautiful  Banquet- 
ing Hall  of  Whitehall,  London,  and  by  Christopher 
Wren  {1632-1723),  the  architect  of  the  vast  church 
of  St.  Paul's,  a  building  inspired  by  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  though  not  copied  from  it." — S.  Reinach, 
Apollo,  p.  142. 

MODERN 

General  tendencies. — Our  discussion  of  modern 
architecture  is  necessarily  diverse  and  incomplete. 
Any  critical  evaluation  must  be  regarded  rather 
as  a  proposition  for  debate  than  as  a  final  dictum. 
"Although  the  kaleidoscopic  interplay  of  forces 
makes  it  difficult  to  generalize  regarding  the  archi- 
tectural characteristics  of  the  period,  they  may  be 
conceived  broadly  as  the  result  of  a  synthesis  of 
retrospective  and  progressive  tendencies,  which  ex- 
ist side  by  side,  not  unlike  the  academic  and 
baroque  tendencies  in  the  previous  period.  In 
matters  of  form  and  detail  it  is  the  newly-won 
historical  understanding  of  previous  styles  which 
has  been  chiefly  influential  resulting  in  a  series  of 
attempted  revivals  followed  by  a  season  of  eclec- 
ticism. In  matters  of  plan  and  construction,  how- 
ever, the  growth  of  material  civilization  and  the 
development  of  new  forms  of  government  and 
commerce  have  produced  a  multitude  of  novel 
types  of  buildings  as  well  as  constant  changes  in 
the  form  and  importance  of  the  old  types,  making 
every  supposed  revival  unconsciously  a  new  crea- 
tion. Finally  there  has  begun  a  conscious  move- 
ment to  give  the  new  functional  types  and  struc- 
tural systems  an  expression  that  shall  also  be  novel 
and  entirely  characteristic." — F.  Kimball  and  G. 
H.   Edgell,   History   of  architecture,   pp.   460-461. 

Belgium. — "Belgium  has  produced,  in  the  Law 
Courts  at  Brussels,  by  Poelaert  (18:6-1870),  a 
building  which  in  the  Classic  revival  period  stands 
almost  alone  as  an  attempt  to  use  Classic  ma- 
terials in  a  free  and  original  spirit  both  of  com- 
position and  detail.  It  is  not  altogether  satisfac- 
tory ;  there  is  a  want  of  unity  of  design  as  a  whole, 
and  a   want   of   scholarly  character   in   a  class   of 

461 


ARCHITECTURE,  MODERN 


England 
France 


ARCHITECTURE,  MODERN 


detail  in  which  we  seem  to  require  that  char- 
acter; but  it  is  a  building  which  gives  evidence 
of  architectural  genius." — H,  H.  Statham,  Sltart 
critical  history  of  architecture,  p.  541. 

England. — "The  early  part  of  the  [igth]  century 
was  marked  by  a  Greek  revival ;  a  revulsion  from 
the  austere  and  rather  prim  simplicity  to  which  the 
Renaissance  had  been  reduced  in  the  Georgian  era, 
when  hardly  anything  of  Renaissance  architecture 
was  left  except  the  Classical  cornice  and  the  sym- 
metrical arrangement  of  windows.  'Back  to 
Greece,'  was  the  cry,  without  any  consideration  as 
to  whether  the  climate  of  England  and  the  condi- 
tions of  modern  life  were  suitable  to  Greek  archi- 
tecture; and  one  of  the  earliest  results  was  the 
formation  (1822)  of  the  steeple  of  St.  Pancras' 
church  by  Inwood's  simple  process  of  putting  imi- 
tations of  two  small  Greek  buildings  one  on  the 
top  of  the  other,  above  a  main  portico  of  Ionic 
columns.  Sir  John  Soane's  (17S3-1837)  earlier 
treatment  of  the  Bank  of  England  was  much  better 
than  this;  having  to  provide  for  a  low  building 
with  all  the  windows  opening  on  the  interior 
courtyard,  the  employment  of  a  large  one-story 
order  as  a  means  of  giving  decorative  effect  to 
these  blind  walls  was  not  a  bad  idea;  and  at  all 
events  the  building  looks  Hke  a  bank,  and  could 
hardly  be  taken  for  anything  else.  Then  we  had 
Wilkins's  National  Gallery  and  University  Col- 
lege, both  with  admirable  details  but  rather  weak 
in  general  effect.  .  .  .  The  great  building  of  the 
Greek  revival  is  St.  George's  Hall  at  Liverpool,  by 
Elmes  (1814-1847).  ...  St.  George's  Hall,  Greek 
externally  and  Roman  in  the  interior  of  its  great 
hall,  is  a  noble  conception,  and  contains  moreover 
a  certain  originality  in  portions  of  the  exterior, 
which  may  be  described  as  Egyptian  motifs  trans- 
lated into  Greek  form;  it  is  true  that  the  interior  is 
very  badly  planned  for  its  purposes,  and  the  corri- 
dors lamentably  deficient  in  light ;  but  in  those 
days,  and  in  Elraes's  mind  certainly,  that  was  a 
matter  of  quite  secondary  consequence  provided 
that  a  grand  architectural  effect  were  obtained;  and 
perhaps,  for  architecture,  that  extreme  is  better  than 
the  opposite  extreme  of  ultra-utilitarianism.  .  .  . 
The  Gothic  revival  in  England,  a  little  before  the 
middle  of  the  century,  was  more  or  less  acted  on 
by  an  ecclesiastical  or  religious  revival — at  all 
events  the  architectural  and  religious  movements 
went  hand  in  hand,  and  the  result  was  a  wide- 
spread erection  of  churches  in  imitation  of  those 
of  the  medieval  period,  and  a  drastic  restoration 
of  the  cathedrals;  in  both  classes  of  operation  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott  (1811-187S)  was  the  largest  operator. 
.  .  .  His  churches,  it  must  be  admitted,  are  quite 
uninteresting  now;  the  stamp  of  imitation  Gothic 
is  over  them  all.  Pugin  (181 2-1852),  that  im- 
passioned modern  mediaevalist,  was  also  a  leading 
influence  at  the  outset  of  the  Gothic  revival,  and 
had  the  faculty  of  ii^iparting  a  great  impression 
of  height  and  scale  to  the  interiors  of  his  plastered 
churches  with  their  'half-baked  chalk  rosettes,' 
as  Bishop  Blougram  expressed  it.  Street's  (1824- 
1881)  churches  have  more  individual  character 
than  Scott's,  and  Butterfield's  (1814-IQ00')  still 
more  so;  perhaps  hi?  .Ml  Saints',  Margaret  Street, 
is  the  one  Gothic  revival  church  which  is  still  as 
interesting,  externally  at  least,  as  when  it  was  built. 
.  .  .  The  greatest  modern  Gothic  building  in  Eng- 
land, or  in  the  world,  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 
stands  apart,  as  owing  its  style  to  influence?  out- 
side of  the  Gothic  revival  movement,  which,  in 
fact,  it  rather  preceded.  The  Tudor  style  appears 
to  have  been  dictated  to  the  architect  mainly  for 
historical  reasons,  as  a  typical  English  style;  per- 
haps also  owing  to  the  proximity  of  Henry  VII  .'s 


chapel.  Sir  Charles  Barry  .  .  .  has  the  merit  of 
having  produced,  though  working  in  a  style  forced 
upon  him  and  with  which  he  was  not  in  sympa- 
thy, one  of  the  grandest  and  most  picturesque 
groups  of  architecture  in  the  world,  based  on  a 
plan  so  fine  and  effective  that  it  has  been  copied 
again  and  again  in  buildings  for  a  similar  purpose, 
notably  in  the  Budapest  Parliament  House,  which 
is  practically  a  reproduction  of  Barry's  plan.  .  . 
Since  the  collapse  of  the  Gothic  revival,  English 
architecture  has  taken  a  turn  towards  greater 
freedom  of  design,  and  a  tendency  once  more  to 
the  employment  of  Renaissance  materials  and  sug- 
gestions, without  too  great  deference  to  precedent. 
Much  may  be  hoped  from  this  new  movement  in 
English  architecture." — Ibid.,  pp.  526-533. 

France. — "France  has  had  too  much  of  the 
sense  of  tradition  in  architecture  to  be  taken  cap- 
tive by  revivals.  There  is  the  great  modern 
Gothic  church  of  Ste.  Clotilde  at  Paris,  about  the 
middle  of  the  century,  but  there  has  been  no 
Gothic  revival  on  a  large  scale  in  France.  There 
was,  under  the  first  empire,  a  certain  tendency  to 
a  Greek,  or  we  should  perhaps  rather  say  a 
Roman,  revival,  illustrated  in  such  columned  struc- 
tures as  the  Bourse  and  the  Madeleine,  by 
Brongniart  and  Vignon  respectively;  and  the  stu- 
pendous Arc  de  I'Etoile  [see  also  Arc  de  Tri- 
OMPHE  DE  l'Etoile],  in  which  the  general  effect 
is  better  than  the  details,  with  the  exception  of 
Rude's  grand  sculpture.  But  there  was  no  gen- 
eral movement  like  the  Greek  revival  in  England. 
There  was  for  a  time  a  certain  tendency  to  build 
churches  with  details  founded  on  Byzantine  sug- 
gestions, which  were  not  successful ;  the  attempt 
was  not  in  harmony  with  the  French  genius,  which, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  France  was  the  cradle 
of  mediaeval  architecture,  is  now  essentially  Classic 
in  its  tendencies  The  great  church  of  the  Sacr6 
Cocur,  by  .Abadie  (181 2-1884),  which  overlooks 
Paris  from  the  hill  of  Montmartre,  is  (like  the 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in  London)  a  frank 
adoption  of  Byzantine  architecture,  and  a  grand 
piece  of  work  as  such;  but  it  is  exceptional.  The 
characteristic  successes  of  the  French  architects  of 
the  century  in  church  architecture  are  to  be  seen 
in  such  buildings  as  the  church  of  La  Trinite,  by 
Ballu  (1817-1885),  in  which  a  Gothic  type  of  com- 
position has  been  translated  into  Classic  detail; 
in  Baltard's  (1805-1874)  domed  church  of  St.  Au- 
gustin,  where  by  a  happy  recognition  of  the  fact 
that  the  streets  which  limit  the  site  meet  at  an 
acute  angle,  the  exterior  lines  of  the  building  are 
made  to  expand  from  the  entrance  front  to  the 
base  of  the  dome;  and  in  Hittorff's  (i 703-1867) 
fine  and  severe  basilica  church  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul.  The  new  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Paris,  built 
after  the  Commune  [1871],  keeps  a  good  deal  to 
the  style  of  the  earlier  French  Renaissance,  being 
partly  influenced  by  the  fact  that  the  design  of 
the  earlier  building  is  reproduced  in  a  portion  of 
the  new  one.  .■Vt  presenT  the  tendency  of  French 
architecture  is  towards  the  use  of  the  Classic 
order,  in  large  buildings,  combined  with  a  mod- 
ern school  of  decorative  detail  which  tends  to 
be  a  little  too  florid.  The  Opera  House  [built  from 
1861-1874I,  by  Chas.  Gamier  (1825-1898),  is  a 
fine  though  somewhat  too  florid  building,  redolent 
(as  one  may  say)  of  the  Second  Empire;  but  the 
modern  French  style  receives  its  best  exemplifica- 
tion in  the  two  great  art-palaces  at  the  Champs 
Elysees,  one  of  which,  that  called  the  Petit  Palais 
(though  it  is  a  very  large  building),  by  M.  Gi- 
rault,  is  also  a  really  original  conception  in  plan. 
The  Musee  de  Galliera  at  Paris,  by  the  late  M. 
Ginain    (1825-1898),   is   a   little   gem    of   modern 


462 


ARCHITECTURE,  MODERN 


Germany 
Vniied  States 


ARCHITECTURE,  MODERN 


Classic  arhitecture,  treated  in  a  style  distinctively 
French  but  with  perfect  good  taste  and  refine- 
ment of  detail.  Speaking  generally,  however,  what 
modern  French  architecture  needs  is  a  greater 
simplicity  and  reticence  in  decorative  detail.  But 
France  is  the  only  country  which  seems  to  have 
anything  like  a  recognised  tradition  and  a  com- 
sistent  purpose  in  architecture." — H.  H.  Statham, 
Short  critical  history  of  architecture,  pp.  533-536. 
Germany. — "Germany  anticipated  the  Greek  re- 
vival, before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
in  the  erection  of  the  Brandenburg  Gate  at  Ber- 
lin, with  its  great  Doric  columns.  With  the  new 
century  the  Germans  went  into  Classic  revival  with 
enthusiasm,  and  on  a  great  scale,  and  their  archi- 
tects certainly  did  the  thing  exceedingly  well. 
Klenze's  (1784- 1864)  columned  Ruhmes-Halle  at 
Munich,  with  its  two  projecting  wings,  forming 
the  architectural  background  to  a  colossal  statue, 
is  a  grand  conception  of  its  kind;  his  Glyptothek 
at  Munich,  with  its  columned  central  portico  and 
plain  contrasting  wings,  is  a  good  composition, 
and  an  appropriate  fagade  for  a  sculpture  gallery. 
The  other  and  perhaps  more  important  representa- 
tive of  Greek  classicism  in  Germany  in  the  early 
part  of  the  century  was  Schinkel  (1781-1841), 
who  was  an  architect  of  some  genius  in  rather 
columnar  Classic  buildings  at  Berlin — the  Museum, 
a  quadrangular  building  with  an  open  colonnade 
in  front,  and  the  Royal  Theatre;  and  his  pupil 
Strack  subsequently  carried  out,  in  a  similar  style, 
the  National  Gallery  at  Berlin,  also  a  fine  build- 
ing of  its  type.  Schinkel  could  perceive,  however, 
that  revived  Greek  was  not  everything  in  modern 
architecture,  and  endeavoured  to  treat  the  Bau- 
Akademie  at  Berlin  in  a  modern  style,  with  col- 
oured brickwork  and  flat  buttresses ;  but  he  was 
hardly  at  his  best  away  from  the  Classic  orders, 
which  he  understood  thoroughly  how  to  use.  His 
Nikolai  church  at  Potsdam,  however,  is  a  striking 
and  rather  original  building,  with  a  columned 
dome  mounted  on  an  immense  square  block  of 
wall  with  turrets  at  the  angles,  which  rather  re- 
minds one  of  the  masses  of  walling  in  Soufflot's 
Pantheon,  and  was  possibly  suggested  by  it,  though 
the  building  is  by  no  means  equal  to  the  Pantheon. 
Semper  (1803-1879)  was  a  classical  architect  of 
somewhat  the  same  school  as  Schinkel,  and  is 
credited  with  the  designs  of  the  Hofburg  Theatre, 
and  the  new  crescent-shaped  wing  of  the  Hof- 
burg Palace  at  Vienna,  though  they  were  not  car- 
ried out  by  him,  but  by  Hasenauer  after  his  death. 
Vienna  also  contributed  largely  to  revived  Classic 
architecture;  the  Parliament  House,  by  Hansen 
(1830-1890),  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  is 
to  exterior  appearance  a  group  of  temples  of  the 
Corinthian  order.  At  Vienna,  however,  though 
there  was  nothing  like  a  Gothic  revival  either 
there  or  elsewhere  in  Germany,  some  large  Gothic 
churches  were  built,  especially  the  Votive  church 
by  Ferstel  (1828-1883),  which  may  be  described 
as  a  starved  reproduction  of  Cologne  Cathedral. 
Vienna  has  also  a  Gothic  Town  Hall,  by  Schmidt 
(1825-18Q1),  which  is  better  than  the  Votive 
church.  The  more  recent  architecture  of  Ger- 
many seems  to  present  a  dual  aspect.  It  seems 
still  to  be  considered  that  revived  Classic  is  the 
style  for  national  buildings  of  the  first  importance; 
but  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  with  its  [ugly] 
square  cupola  and  heavy  details,  is,  as  Classic 
architecture,  a  sad  descent  from  the  scholarly  re-- 
finement  of  Klenze,  Schinkel,  and  Semper;  and 
the  new  Berlin  cathedral  is  like  a  bad  St.  Peter's. 
But  in  the  general  trend  of  recent  German  archi- 
tecture there  is,  along  with  a  good  deal  of  hor- 
rible stuff  which  has  the  trail  of  I'art  nouveau  all 


over  it,  a  great  deal  of  interesting  novelty  and 
originality  in  design,  sometimes  rather  eccentric, 
but  which  at  least  shows  that  there  is  a  spirit  of 
life  in  German  architecture,  in  the  more  general 
class  of  buildings,  however  they  seem  to  fail  at 
present  in  great  monumental  works.  .  .  .  More- 
over, the  Germans  pay  great  attention  to  sculptural 
decoration  in  connection  with  architecture,  and 
introduce  it  so  as  to  have  a  point  and  meaning  in 
relation  to  the  purpose  of  the  building.'' — H.  H. 
Statham,  Short  critical  history  of  architecture,  pp. 
536-540. 

Italy  and  Spain. — "In  regard  to  recent  archi- 
tectural progress  Italy  and  Spain  may  almost  be 
considered  negligible." — H.  H.  Statham,  Short 
critical  history  of  architecture  (igi2),  p.  541. 

United  States. — "The  United  States  of  America 
occupy  a  somewhat  important  place  in  modern  ar- 
chitecture. The  short  history  of  American  architec- 
ture has  been  rather  a  curious  one.  In  what  is 
called  the  'old  Colonial'  period  the  houses  and 
other  buildings,  generally  small,  had  often  a  good 
deal  of  architectural  interest  from  the  fact  that 
they  represented  late  English  Renaissance  carried 
out  in  wood,  as  the  most  available  material,  in- 
stead of  in  stone;  and  the  difference  in  the  character 
of  the  material,  and  the  treatment  suited  to  it, 
gave  to  the  old  architectural  details  a  new  effect 
and  expression.  And  apart  from  this  use  of  tim- 
ber, the  early  Colonial  buildings  in  stone  or 
brick  were  of  a  simple  and  unaffected  style  which 
rendered  thera  pleasing.  With  the  development  of 
civilised  America  into  a  national  power  as  the 
United  States,  came  a  period  of  more  pretentious 
architecture  with  no  artistic  feeling  behind  it. 
L'Enfant's  scheme  for  the  laying  out  of  Washing- 
ton was  a  fine  one,  which  is  only  just  now  in 
process  of  being  carried  out;  but  the  Capitol  it- 
self is  only  an  effort  at  sublimity  in  cement ;  and 
till  about  thirty  years  ago  American  architecture 
(except  for  Richardson's  short-lived  movement  in 
favour  of  a  kind  of  Romanesque-Byzantine)  was 
like  bad  English  architecture.  Since  then  it  has 
been,  as  far  as  public  buildings  are  concerned, 
like  good  French  architecture,  which  in  a  sense 
is  the  highest  praise.  .  .  .  There  is  no  doubt  that 
American  architecture  at  the  present  moment  takes 
a  very  high  place  indeed,  especially  in  the  applica- 
tion of  Classic  ideals  to  public  buildings.  It  is 
superior  to  that  of  either  Germany  or  England; 
and  if  we  do  not  regard  it  as  quite  equal  to  that 
of  France,  that  would  mainly  be  because  it  is 
obviously  derived  from  French  study,  and  one  nat- 
urally feels  that  the  copy  cannot  claim  to  be  put 
quite  on  a  level  with  the  original.  As  an  ex- 
ample of  the  best  American  architecture  of  the 
day  we  might  take  perhaps  the  Field  Columbian 
Museum  at  Chicago,  than  which  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  find  anything  better  in  its  way.  There 
are,  however,  two  other  phases  of  modern  Ameri- 
can architecture  to  be  recognised.  In  small  coun- 
try houses,  sea-side  dwellings,  &c.,  the  American 
architects  of  late  years  have  shown  a  great  deal 
of  invention  and  picturesqueness,  combined  as  a 
rule  with  perfectly  good  taste;  and  their  country 
houses  of  this  class  may  be  advantageously  con- 
trasted with  the  ugly  vagaries  of  French  and  Ger- 
man country-house  architecture.  ...  A  much  less 
pleasing  phase  of  modern  American  architecture  is 
the  development  of  the  'high  building,'  consisting 
of  a  framework  of  steel  construction  with  an  outer 
skin  of  masonry ;  a  manner  of  building  suggested 
entirely  by  the  commercial  consideration  of  get- 
ting the  greatest  possible  amount  of  rent  out  of 
every  square  yard  of  site." — H.  H.  Statham,  Short 
critical  history  of  architecture,  pp.  541-543. — Among 


463 


ARCHITECTURE,  MODERN 


ARCHON 


the  significant  contributions  of  the  United  States 
to  architecture  have  been  the  colossal  railway 
terminals  such  as  the  Union  Railway  station  at 
Washington  and  the  New  York  Central  and  Penn- 
sylvania stations  in  New  Vork  City.  Educational 
architecture  has  occupied  a  very  important  and 
prolific  field  during  the  early  twejitieth  century, 
the  most  notable  and  extensive  plans  being  carried 
out  at  West  Point,  Annapolis,  University  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Columbia  University  in  New  York  City. 
— See  also  Theater. 

Recent  tendencies:  Classical  tradition. — Mod- 
ernism.— Functionalism. — "The    modern    and    in- 
creasing use  of  reinforced  concrete  construction  has 
been  regarded  by  some  as  affording  a  basis  for  a 
new  architectural  st\le;  but  there  is  no  sign  as  yet 
of  anything  worth  calling  by  that  name,  nor  does 
it  seem  likely  that  so  intractable  and  unsuggestive 
a  material  could  ever  take  the  place  of  stone  for 
architecture  of  the  highest  class.     The  ultra-com- 
mercial spirit  in  America,  the  spirit  which  regards 
a   building    merely    as   a    thing   to   be    run    up    as 
fast  as  possible  to  bring  a  commercial  return,  has 
invaded  London  and  is  beginning  to  invade  Paris; 
and    unless   it    is    checked    will    be    the    death    of 
architecture.     If  there  is  one  thing  that  a  survey 
of  the  history  of  architecture  shows  clearly,  it  is 
that   all    that    is   great    in    architecture   has   arisen 
from   the   desire   to   do   something    fine   and   noble 
for   its   own    sake ;    and    where   there   is   not    that 
desire  there  will  be  no  great  architecture." — H.  H. 
Statham,    Short    critical    history    of    architecture, 
pp.     544-545. — Other    critics     find     the    industrial 
phase  of  architecture  not  the  most  deplorable  but 
the  most  hopeful.     "Modern  armoured  concrete  is 
only  a  higher  power  of  the  Roman  system  of  con- 
struction.    If  we  could  sweep  away  our  fear  that 
it  is  an  inartistic  material,  and  boldly  build  a  rail- 
way station,  a  museum,  or  a  cathedral,  wide  and 
simple,  amply  lighted,  and  call  in  our  painters  to 
finish  the  walls,  we  might  be  interested  in  building 
again  almost   at  once.  .  .  .  Our  great  difficulty  is 
lack  of  spontaneous  agreement ;  an  expressive  form 
of  art  is  only  reached  by  building  out  in  one  di- 
rection  during  a  long  time.     No  art  that  is  only 
one  man  deep  is  worth  much ;  it  should  be  a  thou- 
sand men   deep.     We  cannot   forget  our  historical 
knowledge,   nor  would   we   if   we   might.  .  .  .  Our 
survey  should  have  shown  us  that  there  is  not  one 
absolute   external   form   of   beauty,   but   rather   an 
endless  series  of  changing  modes  in  which  the  uni- 
versal spirit   of  beauty   may  manifest  itself;   that, 
indeed,  change  of   the   form  is  one   of   the  condi- 
tions of  its  continuance.     In  Egyptian  architecture 
power,  wonder,  terror,  are  expressed;  in  the  Greek, 
serenity,    measure    and    balance,    fairness;    in    the 
Roman,   force    and    splendour;    in    the    Byzantine, 
solemnity,  mystery,  adoration ;  in  the  Romanesque, 
strife   and    life;    in    the    Arab,   elasticity,   intricacy 
and    glitter,   a   suggestion    of    fountain    spray    and 
singing   birds;    in   the    Gothic,   intensity,  swiftness, 
a    piercing    quality,    an    architecture    not    only    of 
stone,  but  of  stained  glass,  bells  and  organ  music. 
Beauty   is   the   complexion   of   health,   to   reach   it 
we  must  put  aside  our  preoccupation  about  differ- 
ent sorts  of  rouge.    We  are  always  agonizing  about 
design,  but  design,  as  Rodin  has  said,  is  as  noth- 
ing compared  to  workmanship.     Any  one  may  see 
a  beautiful  landscape  composition,  but  it  needs  a 
Turner  to   paint  it.     A   rearing   horse   is   a   living 
statue,  but  the  difficulty   is  to  carve  like  Phidias. 
A    skilful    architect    may    design    the    lines    of    a 
cathedral  bigger  than  Bourges,  and  embodying  sev- 
eral excellent  new  ideas,  before  his  breakfast,  but 
there  is  little  virtue  in  writing  '700  feet  long,'  or 
in  planning  three  transepts  instead  of  one,  or  in 


making  the  chapels  quatrefoils  instead  of  octag- 
onal; these  are  nothing  compared  to  great  build- 
ing skill." — W.  R.  Lethaby,  Architecture ,  pp.  248- 
250. — This  revolt  from  the  conservative  and  his- 
torical tradition,  strongest  in  Germany  and  Amer- 
ica, is  thus  summarized.  "The  conscious  en- 
deavors in  modern  architecture  to  make  the  forms 
of  individual  members  correspond  to  their  struc- 
tural duties,  to  make  the  aspect  of  buildings  char- 
acteristic of  their  use  and  purpose,  to  make  the 
style  of  the  time  expressive  of  the  distinguishing 
elements  in  contemporary  and  national  culture, 
may  be  inclusively  designated  by  the  name  func- 
tionalism. .  .  .  Sometimes  the  attempt  has  been  to 
give  to  new  materials  like  steel  or  glass,  or  new 
systems  of  construction  like  reinforced  concrete,  a 
form  suggested  by  their  own  properties.  Some- 
times the  effort  has  been  to  express  on  the  ex- 
terior of  buildings  the  function  of  each  of  their 
component  elements,  and  to  endow  each  building 
as  a  whole  with  a  specific  character  in  conformity 
with  its  purpose.  More  recently  there  has  been  a 
tendency  not  to  remain  satisfied  unless  all  the 
forms  employed,  even  in  the  solution  of  time- 
honored  problems,  owe  as  little  as  possible  to  the 
historic  styles,  and  thus  are  peculiarly  and  em- 
phatically modern.  ...  At  the  moment  of  cessa- 
tion of  architectural  activity  in  Europe  due  to  the 
great  war,  two  contrary  tendencies  were  struggling 
for  mastery  in  matters  of  style.  One  emphasizes 
the  elements  of  continuity  with  the  past,  the  other 
the  elements  of  novelty  in  modern  civilization.  In 
the  Germanic  countries  it  is  the  radical  emphasis 
on  novel  elements  which  has  secured  the  advantage, 
in  France  and  England  it  is  the  conservative  em- 
phasis on  continuity  which  on  the  whole  retains 
the  supremacy.  .  .  .  Whether  the  present  conserva- 
tive or  the  present  radical  tendency  may  ultimately 
be  victorious,  we  may  be  sure  that  change  in 
architectural  style  is  bound  to  be  constant,  and 
that  architecture  will  remain  a  living  art,  not  less 
expressive  of  the  complicated  texture  of  modem 
life  than  it  has  been  of  the  life  of  earlier  and 
simpler  periods." — F.  Kimball  and  G.  H.  Edgell, 
History  of  architecture .  pp.  400,  502,  517. 

Also  in:  J.  Fergusson,  History  of  architecture. 
— R.  Sturgis  and  A.  L.  Frothingham,  History  of 
architecture. — R.  Sturgis,  Dictionary  of  architecture 
and  building. — Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  times. — 
G.  C.  C.  Maspero,  .irl  in  Egypt:  Dawn  of  civiliza- 
tion.— W.  J.  Anderson  and  R.  P.  Spiers,  Architecture 
of  Greece  and  Rome. — A.  L.  Frothingham,  Monu- 
ments of  Christian  Rome. — T.  G.  Jackson,  Byzan- 
tine and  Romanesque  architecture. — C.  H.  Moore, 
Character  and  development  of  Gothic  architecture. 
— F.  Bond,  Introduction  to  English  church  archi- 
tecture.— C.  E.  Street,  Gothic  architecture  in 
Spain. — R.  Blomfield,  History  of  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture in  England;  History  of  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture in  France. — F.  Wallis,  Old  Colonial  archi- 
tecture and  furniture. — R.  Glazier,  Manual  of  his- 
toric ornament. — O.  Jones,  Grammar  of  orna- 
ment. 

ARCHIVE,  the  building  in  which  public  records 
or  state  papers  are  kept ;  also  applied  to  the  docu- 
ments proper;  generally  used  in  the  latter  sense  in 
the  plural. — See  also  Vatican:   1881. 

ARCHON,  the  highest  magisterial  office  in  the 
government  of  Athens,  which,  at  its  institution, 
usurped  many  powers  of  the  king.  "The  archon 
was  the  supreme  judge  in  all  civil  suits.  At  a 
later  time  this  sphere  of  judicial  power  was  limited 
and  he  judged  mainly  cases  in  which  injured  par- 
ents, orphans,  and  heiresses  were  involved.  He 
held  the  chief  place  among  the  magistrates,  hav- 
ing his  official  residence  in   the  Prytaneum  where 


464 


1.  Public    Library,    New    York. 

2.  State    Capitol,    Missouri. 

3.  Woolworth    Building,   New   York, 


EXAMPLES   OF   MODERN   AMERICAN   ARCHITECTURE 

4.  Municipal    Building,    New   York. 

5.  Hotel    Commodore,    New    York. 

6.  Union  Railway  Station,   Washington. 


ARCIS-SUR-AUBE 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


was  the  public  hearth,  and  his  name  appeared  at 
the  head  of  official  lists." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of 
Greece,   p.    171. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,  Battle  of.  See  France: 
1814   (January-March). 

ARCOLA,  Battle  of  (1796),  See  Fkance:  1796- 
1797    (October-April). 

ARCOT,  the  principal  city  in  the  district  of 
North  Arcot  near  Madras,  British  India.  The 
eity  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  conquest  of 
India.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  British  and  the  French  supported  rival  claim- 
ants to  the  throne  of  the  Carnatic.  It  was  dur- 
ing the  ensuing  war  that  the  famous  episode  of 
dive's  capture  and  defense  of  Arcot  occurred, 
when  with  but  a  handful  of  native  and  white 
troops  the  British  general  forced  the  far  superior 
forces  of  the  enemy  to  abandon  the  city  without 
a.  struggle. — See  also  India:   1743-1752. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATION:  1527-1773.— John 
Davis  rounds  the  southern  end  of  Greenland. — 
Hudson's  record. — Dutch  in  the  Arctic  circle. 
— Phipp's  farthest  north. — "The  struggle  for  the 
North  Pole  began  nearly  one  hundred  years  before 
the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  at  Plymouth 
Rock,  being  inaugurated  (1527)  by  that  king  of 
many  distinctions,  Henry  VIII  of  England.  In 
1588  John  Davis  rounded  Cape  Farewell,  the 
southern  end  of  Greenland,  and  followed  the  coast 
for  eight  hundred  miles  to  Sanderson  Hope.  He 
discovered  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  and 
gained  for  Great  Britain  what  was  then  the  record 
for  the  farthest  north,  72"  12',  a  point  1128 
miles  from  the  geographical  North  Pole.  Scores 
of  hardy  navigators,  British,  French,  Dutch,  Ger- 
man, Scandinavian,  and  Russian,  followed  Davis, 
all  seeking  to  hew  across  the  Pole  the  much- 
coveted  short  route  to  China  and  the  Indies. 
The  rivalry  was  keen  and  costly  in  lives,  ships, 
and  treasure,  but  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII  for 
three  and  one-half  centuries,  or  until  1882  (with 
the  exception  of  1594-1606,  when,  through  Wm. 
Barents,  the  Dutch  held  the  record),  Great  Brit- 
ain's flag  was  always  waving  nearest  the  top  of 
the  globe.  The  same  year  that  Jamestown  was 
founded,  Henry  Hudson  (1607),  also  seeking  the 
route  to  the  Indies,  discovered  Jan  Mayen,  cir- 
cumnavigated Spitzbergen,  and  advanced  the  eye 
of  man  to  80°  23'.  Most  valuable  of  all,  Hudsen 
brought  back  accounts  of  great  multitudes  of 
whales  and  walruses,  with  the  result  that  for  the 
succeeding  years  these  new  waters  were  thronged 
with  fleets  of  whaUng  ships  from  every  maritime 
nation.  The  Dutch  specially  profited  by  Hud- 
son's discovery.  During  the  17th  and  i8th  cen- 
turies they  sent  no  less  than  300  ships  and  15,000 
men  each  summer  to  these  arctic  fisheries  and 
established  on  Spitzbergen,  within  the  Arctic  Circle, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  summer  towns  the 
world  has  ever  known,  where  stores  and  warehouses 
and  reducing  stations  and  cooperages  and  many 
kindred  industries  flourished  during  the  fishing 
season.  With  the  approach  of  winter  all  build- 
ings were  shut  up  and  the  population,  numbering 
several  thousand,  all  returned  home.  Hudson's 
record  remained  unequaled  for  165  years,  or  until 
1773,  when  J.  C.  Phipps  surpassed  his  farthest 
north  by  twenty-five  miles." — G.  H.  Grosvenor,  in 
Foreword  to  Robert  E.  Peary's  North  Pole,  pp. 
xv-xvi. 

1819-1848. — Parry's  explorations  beyond  the 
magnetic  north  pole. — His  plan  to  dash  to  the 
pole  on  foot. — Discoveries  of  Ross. — Sir  John 
Franklin's  tragic  expedition. — "The  first  half  of 
the  19th  century  witnessed  many  brave  ships  and 
gallant    men    sent    to    the    arctic    regions.      While 


most  of  these  expeditions  were  not  directed  against 
the  Pole  so  much  as  sent  in  an  endeavor  to  find 
a  route  to  the  Indies  round  North  America — 
the  Northwest  Passage — and  around  Asia — the 
Northeast  Passage — many  of  thera  are  intimately 
interwoven  with  the  conquest  of  the  Pole,  and 
were  a  necessary  part  of  its  ultimate  discovery. 
England  hurled  e.xpedition  after  expedition,  manned 
by  the  best  talent  and  energy  of  her  navy, 
against  the  ice  which  seemingly  blocked  every 
channel  to  her  ambitions  for  an  arctic  route  to 
the  Orient.  In  1819  Parry  penetrated  many  in- 
tricate passages  and  overcame  one-half  of  the  dis- 
tance between  Greenland  and  Bering  Sea,  winning 
a  prize  of  £5000,  offered  by  Parliament  to  the 
first  navigator  to  pass  the  iioth  meridian  west  of 
Greenwich.  He  was  also  the  first  navigator  to 
pass  directly  north  of  the  magnetic  North  Pole, 
which  he  located  appro.ximately,  and  thus  the 
first  to  report  the  strange  experience  of  seeing  the 
compass  needle  pointing  due  south.  So  great  was 
Parry's  success  that  the  British  government  sent 
him  out  in  command  of  two  other  expeditions  in 
search  of  the  Northwest  Passage.  In  explorations 
and  discoveries  the  results  of  these  two  later  ex- 
peditions were  not  so  rich,  but  the  experience  in 
ice  work  so  obtained  gave  Parry  conclusions 
which  revolutionized  all  methods  in  arctic  naviga- 
tion. Hitherto  all  attempts  to  approach  the  Pole 
had  been  in  ships.  In  1827  Parry  suggested  the 
plan  of  a  dash  to  the  Pole  on  foot,  from  a  base 
on  land.  He  obtained  the  assistance  of  the  gov- 
ernment, which  for  the  fourth  time  sent  him 
to  the  Arctic  provided  with  well-equipped  ships 
and  able  officers  and  men.  He  carried  a  number 
of  reindeer  with  him  to  his  base  in  Spitzbergen, 
purposing  to  use  these  animals  to  drag  his 
sledges.  The  scheme  proved  impracticable,  how- 
ever, and  he  was  compelled  to  depend  on  the 
■muscles  of  his  men  to  haul  his  two  heavy  sledges, 
which  were  in  reality  boats  on  steel  runners. 
Leaving  Spitzbergen  on  June  23  with  twenty-eight 
men,  he  pushed  northward.  But  the  summer  sun 
had  broken  up  the  ice  floes,  and  the  party  re- 
peatedly found  it  necessary  to  take  the  runners 
off  their  boats  in  order  to  ferry  across  the  stretches 
of  open  water.  After  thirty  days'  incessant  toil 
Parry  had  reached  82°  45',  about  150  miles  north 
of  his  base  and  43s  geographical  miles  from  the 
Pole.  Here  he  found  that,  while  his  party  rested, 
the  drift  of  the  ice  was  carrying  him  daily  back, 
almost  as  much  as  they  were  able  to  make  in  the 
day's  work.  Retreat  was  therefore  begun. 
Parry's  accomplishments,  marking  a  new  era  in 
polar  explorations,  created  a  tremendous  sensa- 
tion. Knighthood  was  immediately  bestowed  upon 
him  by  the  King,  while  the  British  people  heaped 
upon  him  all  the  honors  and  applause  with  which 
they  have  invariably  crowned  every  explorer  re- 
turning from  the  north  with  even  a  measure  of 
success.  In  originality  of  plan  and  equipment 
Parry  has  been  equaled  and  surpassed  only  by 
Nansen  and  Peary.  In  those  early  days,  few  men 
being  rich  enough  to  pay  for  expeditions  to  the 
north  out  of  their  own  pockets,  practically  every 
explorer  was  financed  by  the  government  under 
whose  orders  he  acted.  In  1S29,  however,  Felix 
Booth,  sheriff  of  London,  gave  Captain  John  Ross, 
an  English  naval  officer,  who  had  achieved  only 
moderate  success  in  a  previous  expedition,  a 
small  paddle-wheel  steamer,  the  Victory,  and  en- 
tered him  in  the  race  for  the  Northwest  Passage. 
Ross  was  assisted,  as  mate,  by  his  nephew,  James 
Clark  Ross,  who  was  young  and  energetic,  and  who 
was  later  to  win  laurels  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
globe.     This    first   attempt    to    use   steam   for   ice 


465 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1818-1848 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1850-1883 


navigation  failed,  owing  to  a  poor  engine   or  in- 
competent engineers,  but  in  all  other  respects  the 
Rosses    achieved    gloriously.       During     their     five 
years'    absence,    i82g-i834,    they    made    important 
discoveries  around   Boothia  Felix,  but  most   valu- 
able  was   their   definite   location    of   the   magnetic 
North  Pole  and  the  remarkable  series  of  magnetic 
and      meteorological      observations      which      they 
brought  back  with  them.     No  band  of  men  ever 
set   out   for  the  unknown   with  brighter   hopes  or 
more   just   anticipation    of  success   than   Sir   John 
Franklin's  expedition  of  1845.     The  frightful  trag- 
edy  which   overwhelmed   them,   together   with  the 
mystery  of  their  disappearance,  which  baffled  the 
world  for  years  and  is  not  yet  entirely  explained, 
forms  the  most  terrible  narrative  in  arctic  history. 
Franklin  had  been  knighted  in   1827,  at  the  same 
time  as  Parry,   for  the   valuable   and   very  exten- 
sive explorations  which  he  had  conducted  by  snow- 
shoes    and    canoe    on    the    North    American    coast 
between    the    Coppermine    and    Great    Fislj    rivers, 
during  the  same  years  that  Parry  had  been  gain- 
ing  fame  in   the  north.     In   the  interval  Franklin 
had   ser\'ed    as   Governor    of   Tasmania    for   seven 
years.     His  splendid  reputation  and  ability   as  an 
organizer  made  him,  though   now   fifty-nine  years 
of  age,  the   unanimous   choice   of   the  government 
for  the  most  elaborate  arctic  expedition  it  had  pre- 
pared  in    many    years.      Franklin's    fame    and   ex- 
perience, and   that   of  Crozier  and  his  other  lieu- 
tenants, who  had  seen  much  service  in  the  north, 
his  able  ships,  the   Terror  and  the  Erebus,  which 
had  just  returned  from  a  voyage  of  unusual  suc- 
cess to  the   Antarctic,  and   his   magnificent  equip- 
ment, aroused  the  enthusiasm  of  the  British  to  the 
highest    pitch    and    justified    them    in    their    hopes 
for  bringing  the  wearying  struggle  for  the  North- 
west  Passage   to    an    immediate    conclusion.      For 
more  than   a  year  everything   prospered   with   the 
party.      By   September,    1846,   Franklin    had   navi- ' 
gated  the  vessels  almost  within  sight  of  the  coast 
which    he   had   explored   twenty   years   previously, 
and   beyond   which   the   route   to   Bering   Sea   was 
well  known.     The  prize  was  nearly  won  when  the 
ships  became  imprisoned  by  the  ice  for  the  winter, 
a  few   miles  north   of   King   William   Land.     The 
following   June   Franklin    died;    the   ice   continued 
impenetrable,  and  did  not  loosen  its  grip  all  that 
year.     In  July,  1848,  Crozier,  who  had  succeeded 
to   the  command,   was  compelled   to   abandon   the 
ships,  and,  with   the   los   survivors   who   were   all 
enfeebled   by   the   three   successive   winters   in    the 
Arctic,  started  on  foot  for  Back  River.     How  far 
they  got  we  shall   probably  never  know.     Mean- 
while, when  Franklin  failed  to  return  in  1848 — he 
was  provisioned  for  only  three  years — England  be- 
came alarmed  and  despatched  relief  expeditions  by 
sea  from  the  Bering  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  and  by 
land  north  from  Canada,  but  all  efforts  failed  to 
gather  news  of  Franklin  till   1854,  when   Rae  fell 
in   with  some  Eskimo  hunters  near  King  William 
Land,  who  told  him  of  two  ships  that  were  beset 
some  years  previous,  and  of  the  death  of  all  the 
party   from   starvation.      In    1857    Lady    Franklin, 
not  content  with  this  bare  and  indirect  report  of 
her  husband's  fate,  sacrificed  a  fortune  to  equip  a 
searching    party    to    be    commanded    by    Leopold 
McClintock,  one  of  the  ablest  and  toughest  travel- 
ers over  the   ice   the  world   has  ever  known.     In 
185Q  McClintock   verified   the   Eskimos'  sad   story 
by    the    discovery    on    King    William    Land    of    a 
record  dated  April,  1848,  which  told  of  Franklin's 
death  and  of  the  abandonment  of  the  ships      He 
also   found   among   the   Eskimos,  silver   plate   and 
other   relics   of   the   party ;   elsewhere   he  saw   one 
of  Franklin's  boats  on  a  sledge,  with  two  skeletons 


inside  and  clothing  and  chocolate;  in  another  place 
he  found  tents  and  flags;  and  elsewhere  he  made 
the  yet  more  ghastly  discovery  of  a  bleached  hu- 
man skeleton  prone  on  its  face,  as  though  attest- 
ing the  truthfulness  of  an  Eskimo  woman  who, 
claiming  to  have  seen  forty  of  the  survivors  late 
in  1848,  said  'they  fell  down  and  died  as  they 
walked.' ' — Ibid.,  pp    xvi-xxi. 

1850-1883. — Northwest    passage    accomplished 
by    Robert    McClure. — Kane's    achievements. — 
Charles   Francis    Hall   and   the   voyage   of  the 
Polaris. — British  explorations  in  1875  and  1876. 
— English  record  broken  by  Greely. — "The  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  first  to  make  the  Northwest 
Passage,   which   Franklin   so   narrowly   missed,  fell 
to  Robert  McClure  (1850-53)  and  Richard  Collin- 
son  (1850-SS),  who  commanded  the  two  ships  sent 
north  through  Bering  Strait  to  search  for  Franklin. 
McClure   accomplished   the   passage   on   foot   after 
losing   his   ship   in   the   ice   in   Barrow   Strait,  but 
Collinson    brought    his    vessel    safely    through    to 
England.     The   Northwest  Passage  was  not   again 
made    until   Roald   Amundsen    navigated   the   tiny 
Gjoa,   a   sailing   sloop   with   gasoline   engine,   from 
the    Atlantic    to    the    Pacific,    1903-06.      Yankee 
whalers    each    year    had    been    venturing    further 
north  in  Davis  Strait  and  Baffin  Bay  and  Bering 
Sea,  but  America  had  taken  no  active  part  in  polar 
exploration    until    the    sympathy    aroused    by    the 
tragic    disappearance    of    Franklin    induced    Henry 
Grinnell  and  George  Peabody  to  send  out  the  Ad- 
vance in   charge   of   Elisha   Kent   Kane   to   search 
for  Franklin  north  of  Smith  Sound.     In  spite   of 
inexperience,  which  resulted  in  scurvy,  fatal  acci- 
dents, privations,  and  the  loss  of  his  ship,  Kane's 
achievements    (1853-55)    were   very   brilliant.     He 
discovered  and  entered  Kane   Basin,  which   forms 
the  beginning  of  the  passage  of  the   polar   ocean, 
explored  both  shores  of  the  new  sea,  and  outlined 
what  has  since  been  called  the  American  route  to 
the    Pole.      Sixteen    years    later     (1871)     another 
American,  Charles   Francis   Hall,   who   had  gained 
much  arctic  experience  by  a  successful  search  for 
additional  traces  and  relics  of  Franklin   (i862-6g), 
sailed   the  Polaris  through   Kane   Basin   and  Ken- 
nedy Channel,  also  through  Hall  Basin  and  Robe- 
son  Channel,  which  he  discovered,  into  the  polar 
ocean    itself,   thus    completing    the    exploration    of 
the  outlet  which  Kane  had  begun.     He  took  his 
vessel    to    the    then    unprecedented    (for    a    ship) 
latitude  of  82°    11'.     But   Hall's  explorations,  be- 
gun so  auspiciously,  were  suddenly  terminated  by 
his  tragic  death   in   November  from  over-exertion 
caused  by   a  long  sledge   journey.     Wnen   the   ice 
began  to  move  the  ensuing  year,  his  party  sought 
to    return,    but    the    Polaris    was    caught    in    the 
deadly  grip  of  an  impassable  ice  pack.     After  two 
months  of  drifting,  part   of  the  crew,   with  some 
Eskimo  men  and  women,  alarmed  by  the  groaning 
and  crashing  of  the  ice  during  a   furious  autumn 
storm,  camped  on  an  ice  floe  which  shortly  after- 
wards separated  from  the  ship.     For  five  months, 
December   to   April,   they   lived   on    this   cold   and 
desolate  raft,  which  carried  them  safely  1,300  miles 
to   Labrador,  where  they  were   picked  up  by  the 
Tigress.     During    the    winter   one    of   the    Eskimo 
women  presented  the  party  with  a  baby,  so  that 
their   number   had    increased    during    the    arduous 
experience.       Meanwhile     the     Polaris     had     been 
beached    on    the    Greenland   shore,   and    those    re- 
maining on  the  ship  were  eventually  also  rescued. 
In    187s   Great  Britain  began  an  elaborate   attack 
on   the   Pole    via   what    was   now   known    as   the 
American  route,  two  ships  most  lavishly  equipped 
being  despatched  under  command  of  George  Nares. 
He    succeeded    in    navigating    the    Alert    fourteen 


466 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1867-1901 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1867-1901 


miles  further  north  than  the  Polaris  had  pene- 
trated four  years  previous.  Before  the  winter  set 
in,  Aldrich  on  land  reached  82°  48',  which  was 
three  miles  nearer  the  Pole  than  Parry's  mark 
made  forty-eight  years  before,  and  the  following 
spring  Markham  gained  83°  20'  on  the  polar  ocean. 
Other  parties  explored  several  hundred  miles  of 
coast  line.  But  Nares  was  unable  to  cope  with 
the  scurvy,  which  disabled  thirty-six  of  his  men, 
or  with  the  severe  frosts,  which  cost  the  life  of 
one  man  and  seriously  injured  others.  The  next 
expedition  to  this  region  was  that  sent  out  under 
the  auspices  of  the  United  States  government  and 
commanded  by  Lieutenant  A.  W.  Greely,  U.  S.  A., 
to  establish  at  Lady  Franklin  Bay  the  American 
circumpolar  station  (1881).  Greely  during  the  two 
years  at  Fort  Conger  carried  on  extensive  explora- 
tions of  Ellesmere  Land  and  the  Greenland  coast, 
and  by  the  assistance  of  his  two  lieutenants,  Lock- 
wood  and  Brainard,  wrested  from  Great  Britain 
the  record  which  she  had  held  for  30c  years. 
Greely 's  mark  was  83°  24',  which  bettered  the 
British  by  four  miles.  As  the  relief  ship,  promised 
for  1883,  failed  to  reach  him  or  to  land  supplies 
at  the  prearranged  point  south  of  Fort  Conger, 
the  winter  of  1883-84  was  passed  in  great  misery 
and  horror.  When  help  iinally  came  to  the  camp 
at  Cape  Sabine,  seven  men  only  were  alive." — 
Ibid.,  pp.  xxii-xxiv. 

1867-1901. — Explorations  in  the  polar  area 
north  of  Siberia. — De  Long's  expedition. — Nan- 
sen  and  the  Fram. — Explorations  along  the  arc- 
tic coasts  of  Europe,  Siberia  and  Greenland. — 
"While  these  important  events  were  occurring  in 
the  vicinity  of  Greenland,  interesting  develop- 
ments were  also  taking  place  in  that  half  of  the 
polar  area  north  of  Siberia.  When  in  1867  an 
American  whaler,  Thomas  Long,  reported  new 
land,  Wrangell  Land,  about  500  miles  northwest 
of  Bering  Strait,  many  hailed  the  discovery  as 
that  of  the  edge  of  a  supposed  continent  ex- 
tending from  Asia  across  the  Pole  to  Greenland, 
for  the  natives  around  Bering  Strait  had  long 
excited  explorers  by  their  traditions  of  an  icebound 
big  land  beyond  the  horizon.  Such  extravagant 
claims  were  made  for  the  new  land  that  Com- 
mander De  Long,  U.  S.  N.,  determined  to  ex- 
plore it  and  use  it  as  a  base  for  gaining  the  Pole. 
But  his  ship,  the  Jeannette,  was  caught  in  the  ice 
(September,  1879)  and  carried  right  through  the 
place  where  the  new  continent  was  supposed  to 
be.  For  nearly  two  years  De  Long's  party  re- 
mained helpless  prisoners  until  in  June,  1881,  the 
ship  was  crushed  and  sank,  forcing  the  men  to 
take  refuge  on  the  ice  floes  in  mid  ocean,  150 
miles  from  the  New  Siberian  Islands.  They  saved 
several  boats  and  sledges  and  a  small  supply  of 
provisions  and  water.  After  incredible  hardships 
and  suffering,  G.  W.  Melville,  the  chief  engineer, 
who  was  in  charge  of  one  of  the  boats,  with  nine 
men,  reached,  on  September  26,  a  Russian  village 
on  the  Lena.  All  the  others  perished,  some  be- 
ing lost  at  sea,  by  the  foundering  of  the  boats, 
while  others,  including  De  Long,  had  starved  to 
death  after  reaching  the  desolate  Siberian  coast. 
Three  years  later  some  Eskimos  found  washed 
ashore  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Greenland  sev- 
eral broken  biscuit  boxes  and  lists  of  stores,  which 
are  said  to  be  in  De  Long's  handwriting.  The 
startling  circumstance  that  these  relics  in  their 
long  drift  from  where  the  ship  sank  had  neces- 
sarily passed  across  or  very  near  to  the  Pole  aroused 
great  speculation  as  to  the  probable  currents  in 
the  polar  area.  Nansen,  who  had  already  made 
the  first  crossing  of  Greenland's  ice  cap,  argued 
that  the  same  current  which  had  guided  the  relics 


on  their  long  journey  would  similarly  conduct  a 
ship.  He  therefore  constructed  a  unique  craft,  the 
Fram,  so  designed  that  when  hugged  by  the  ice 
pack  she  would  not  be  crushed,  but  would  be  lifted 
up  and  rest  on  the  ice ;  he  provisioned  the  vessel 
for  five  years  and  allowed  her  to  be  frozen  in 
the  ice  near  where  the  Jeannette  had  sunk,  78°  50' 
N.,  134°  E.  (September  25,,  .1893).  When  at  the 
end  of  eighteen  months  th^  ship  had  approached 
314  miles  nearer  to  the  Pole,  Nansen  and  one 
companion,  Johansen,  with  kayaks,  dogs,  sledges, 
and  three  months'  provisions,  deliberately  left  the 
ship  and  plunged  northward  toward  the  Pole, 
March  14,  1805.  In  twenty-three  days  the  two 
men  had  overcome  one-third  of  the  distance  to 
the  Pole,  reaching  86°  12'.  To  continue  onward 
would  have  meant  certain  death,  so  they  turned 
back.  When  their  watches  ran  down  Providence 
guided  them,  and  the  marvelous  physique  of  both 
sustained  them  through  fog  and  storm  and  threat- 
ened starvation  until  they  reached  Franz  Josef 
Land,  late  in  August.  There  they  built  a  hut  of 
stones  and  killed  bears  for  meat  for  the  winter. 
In  May,  1896,  they  resumed  their  southward  jour- 
ney, when  fortunately  they  met  the  Englishman 
Jackson,  who  was  exploring  the  Archipelago. 
Meanwhile  the  Fram,  after  Nansen  left  her,  con- 
tinued her  tortuous  drifting  across  the  upper  world. 
Once  she  approached  as  near  as  85°  57'  to  the 
Pole — only  fifteen  miles  less  than  Nansen's  farthest. 
At  last,  in  August,  1896,  with  the  help  of  dyna- 
mite, she  was  freed  from  the  grip  of  the  ice  and 
hurried  home,  arriving  in  time  to  participate  in 
the  welcome  of  Nansen,  who  had  landed  a  few 
days  earlier.  Franz  Josef  Land,  where  Nansen 
was  rescued  by  Jackson,  has  served  as  the  base  of 
many  dashes  for  the  Pole.  It  was  from  its  northern, 
most  point  that  the  illustrious  young  member  of 
the  royal  family  of  Italy,  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi, 
launched  the  party  captained  by  Cagni  that  won 
from  Nansen  for  the  Latin  race  the  honor  of  the 
farthest  north,  86°  34',  in  1901.  This  land,  which 
consists  of  numerous  islands,  had  been  named 
after  the  Emperor  of  Austria-Hungary  by  Wey- 
precht  and  Payer,  leaders  of  the  Austrian-Hunga- 
rian polar  expedition  of  1872-74,  who  discovered 
and  first  explored  the  Archipelago.  It  was  from 
Spitzbergen  that  Andree,  with  two  companions, 
sailed  his  balloon  toward  the  Pole,  in  July,  1897, 
never  to  be  heard  from  again,  except  for  three 
message  buoys  dropped  in  the  sea  a  few  miles  from 
the  starting-point.  The  Northeast  Passage  was 
first  achieved  in  1878-1879  by  Adolph  Erik  Nor- 
denskjold.  Step  by  step  energetic  explorers,  prin- 
cipally Russian,  had  been  mapping  the  arctic  coasts 
of  Europe  and  Siberia  until  practically  all  the 
headlands  and  islands  were  well  defined.  Nordensk- 
jold,  whose  name  was  already  renowned  for  im- 
portant researches  in  Greenland,  Nova  Zembia, 
and  northern  Asia,  in  less  than  two  months  guided 
the  steam  whaler  Vega  from  Tromsoe,  Norway, 
to  the  most  easterly  peninsula  of  Asia.  But  when 
barely  more  than  loo  miles  from  Bering  Strait, 
intervening  ice  blocked  his  hopes  of  passing  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  in  a  single  season  and 
held  him  fast  for  ten  months.  .  .  .  The  preceding 
brief  summary  gives  only  an  inadequate  concep- 
tion of  the  immense  treasures  of  money  and  lives 
expended  by  the  nations  to  explore  the  northern 
ice  world  and  to  attain  the  apex  of  the  earth. 
All  efforts  to  reach  the  Pole  had  failed,  notwith- 
standing the  unlimited  sacrifice  of  gold  and  en- 
ergy and  blood  which  had  been  poured  out  with- 
out stint  for  nearly  four  centuries.  But  the  sacri- 
fice had  not  been  without  compensation.  Those 
who  had  ventured  their  lives  in  the  contest  had 


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ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


not  been  actuated  solely  by  the  ambition  to 
win  a  race — to  breast  the  tape  first — but  to  con- 
tribute, in  Sir  John  Franklin's  words,  'to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  bounds  of  science.'  The  scores  of 
expeditions,  in  addition  to  new  geographical  dis- 
coveries, had  brought  back  a  wealth  of  informa- 
tion about  the  animals  and  vegetable  life,  the 
winds  and  currents,  deep  sea  temperatures,  sound- 
ings, the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  fossils  and  rock 
specimens,  tidal  data,  etc.,  which  have  enriched 
many  branches  of  science  and  greatly  increased  the 
sum  of  human  knowledge." — Ibid.,  pp.  .x.xiv-xxviii. 
1886-1909. — Peary's  three  expeditions  in 
search  of  the  Pole. — Controversy  between  Peary 
and  Cook. — Peary  recognized  as  the  discov- 
erer of  the  Pole. — His  account. — "A  brief  summer 
excursion  to  Greenland  in  i886  aroused  Robert  E. 
Peary,  a  civil  engineer  in  the  United  States  navy, 
to  an  interest  in  the  polar  problem.  ...  He 
realized  at  once  that  the  goal  which  had  eluded  so 
many  hundreds  of  ambitious  and  dauntless  men 
could  be  won  only  by  a  new  method  of  attack. 
The  first  arctic  problem  with  which  Peary  grappled 
was  considered  at  that  time  in  importance  second 
only  to  the  conquest  of  the  Pole;  namely,  to  de- 
termine the  insularity  of  Greenland  and  the  ex- 
tent of  its  projection  northward.  At  the  very 
beginning  of  his  fiist  expedition  to  Greenland,  in 
i8qi,  he  suffered  an  accident  which  sorely  taxed 
his  patience  as  well  as  his  body.  ...  As  his  ship, 
the  Kite,  was  working  its  way  through  the  ice 
fields  off  the  Greenland  shore,  a  cake  of  ice  be- 
came wedged  in  the  rudder,  causing  the  wheel  to 
reverse.  One  of  the  spokes  jammed  Peary's  leg 
against  the  casement,  making  it  impossible  to 
extricate  himself  until  both  bones  of  the  leg 
were  broken.  The  party  urged  him  to  return 
to  the  United  States  for  the  winter  and  to  resume 
his  exploration  the  following  year.  But  Peary  in- 
sisted on  being  landed  as  originally  planned  at 
McCormick  Bay,  stating  that  the  money  of  his 
friends  had  been  invested  in  the  project  and  that 
he  must  'make  good'  to  them.  The  assiduous  nurs- 
ing of  Mrs.  Peary,  aided  by  the  bracing  air,  so 
speedily  restored  his  strength  that  at  the  ensuing 
Christmas  festivities  which  he  arranged  for  the 
Eskimos,  he  outraced  on  snowshoes  all  the  natives 
and  his  own  men !  In  the  following  May,  with 
one  companion,  Astrup,  he  ascended  to  the  summit 
of  the  great  ice  cap  which  covers  the  interior  of 
Greenland,  5,000  to  8,000  feet  in  elevation,  and 
pushed  northward  for  500  miles  over  a  region 
where  the  foot  of  man  had  never  trod  before,  in 
temperatures  ranging  from  10'  to  50°  below  zero, 
to  Independence  Bay,  which  he  discovered  and 
named,  July  4,  iSq2.  Imagine  his  surprise  on 
descending  from  the  tableland  to  enter  a  little 
valley  radiant  with  gorgeous  flowers  and  alive  with 
murmuring  bees,  where  musk  oxen  were  lazily 
browsing.  This  sledding  journey,  which  he  dupli- 
cated by  another  equally  remarkable  crossing  of 
the  ice  cap  three  years  later,  defined  the  northern 
extension  of  Greenland  and  conclusively  proved 
that  it  is  an  island  instead  of  a  continent  ex- 
tending to  the  Pole.  In  boldness  of  conception  and 
brilliancy  of  results  these  two  crossings  of  Green- 
land are  unsurpassed  in  arctic  history.  The  mag- 
nitude of  Peary's  feat  is  better  appreciated  when 
it  is  recalled  that  Nansen's  historic  crossing  of  the 
island  was  below  the  .\rctic  Circle,  i.ooo  miles 
south  of  Peary's  latitude,  where  Greenland  is  some 
250  miles  wide.  Peary  now  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Pole,  which  lay  306  geographical  miles  far- 
ther north  than  any  man  had  penetrated  on  the 
western  hemisphere.  To  get  there  by  the  Ameri- 
can route  he  must  break  a  virgin  trail  every  mile 


north  from  Greely's  83°  24'.  No  one  had  pio 
neered  so  great  a  distance  northward.  Markham 
and  others  had  attained  enduring  fame  by  ad- 
vancing the  Flag  considerably  less  than  100  miles. 
Parry  had  pioneered  150  miles,  and  Xansen  128 
from  his  ship.  His  experiences  in  Greenland  had 
convinced  Peary,  if  possible  more  firmly  than 
before,  that  the  only  way  of  surmounting  this  last 
and  most  formidable  barrier  was  to  adopt  the 
manner  of  life,  the  food,  the  snowhouses,  and  the 
clothing  of  the  Eskimos,  who  by  centuries  of 
experience  had  learned  the  most  effective  method 
of  combating  the  rigors  of  arctic  weather ;  to 
utilize  the  game  of  the  northland,  the  arctic  rein- 
deer, musk  ox,  etc.,  which  his  explorations  had 
proved  comparatively  abundant,  thus  with  fresh 
meat  keeping  his  men  fit  and  good-tempered 
through  the  depressing  winter  night ;  and  lastly 
to  train  the  Eskimo  to  become  his  sledging  crew. 
In  his  first  North  Pole  expedition,  which  lasted 
for  four  years,  1808-1902,  Peary  failed  to  get 
nearer  than  343  ntilcs  to  the  Pole.  Each  successive 
year  dense  packs  of  ice  blocked  the  passage  to  the 
polar  ocean,  compelling  him  to  make  his  base 
approximately  700  miles  from  the  Pole,  or  200 
miles  south  of  the  headquarters  of  Nares,  too 
great  a  distance  from  the  Pole  to  be  overcome 
in  one  short  season.  During  this  trying  period, 
by  sledging  feats  which  in  distance  and  physi.;al 
obstacles  overcome  exceeded  the  extraordinary 
records  made  in  Greenland,  he  explored  and 
mapped  hundreds  of  miles  of  coast  line  of  Green- 
land and  of  the  islands  west  and  north  of  Green- 
land. On  the  next  attempt,  Peaiy  insured  reaching 
the  polar  ocean  by  designing  and  constructing  the 
Roosevelt,  whose  resistless  frame  crushed  its  way 
to  the  desired  haven  on  the  shores  of  the  polar 
sea.  From  here  he  made  that  wonderful  march  of 
igo6  to  87°  6'  a  new  world's  record.  Winds 
of  unusual  fury,  by  opening  big  leads,  robbed  him 
of  the  Pole,  and  nearly  of  his  life." — Ibid.,  pp. 
xxix-xxxi. 

Also  in:  F.  Nansen,  In  the  mists:  Arctic  ex- 
ploration in  early   times. 

Once  more,  in  July,  1008,  Commander  Peary 
set  his  face  Arcticward,  on  the  staunch  Roosevelt, 
with  two  scientific  companions,  and  equipped  him- 
self at  Elah  with  Eskimos  and  dogs  for  another 
journey  across  the  ice-fields,  from  some  point  on 
the  Grant  Land  coast.  On  Sept.  i,  igoQ,  the 
whole  world  was  startled  and  excited  by  a  message, 
flashed  first  to  Lerwick,  in  the  Shetland  islands, 
from  a  passing  Danish  steamer,  the  Hans  Egede, 
and  thence  to  all  corners  of  the  earth,  saying: 
"We  have  on  board  the  American  traveller.  Dr. 
Cook,  who  reached  the  North  Pole  April  21,  iqo8. 
TDr.  Frederick  A.  Cook  was  the  physician  on 
Peary's  expedition  (1891-1892)  and  the  Belgian 
expedition  (1897-1899)  and  had  left  for  the  Pole 
in  1907.]  Dr.  Cook  arrived  at  Upernivik  (the 
northernmost  Danish  settlement  in  Greenland,  on 
an  island  og  the  west  coast)  in  May  of  iqoo 
from  Cape  York  (in  the  northwest  part  of  Green- 
land, on  Baffin  Bay).  The  Eskimos  of  Cape 
York  confirm  Dr.  Cook's  story  of  his  journey." 
The  next  dav  brought  a  cabled  announcement 
from  Dr.  Cook  himself,  to  the  New  York  Her- 
ald, briefly  telling  of  his  triumph,  "after  a  pro- 
loneed  fight  against  famine  and  frost,"  and  de- 
scribing the  emotions  with  which  he  had  found 
himself  at  the  goal  which  so  many  had  striven 
vainlv  to  attain.  "What  a  cheerless  spot,"  he 
moralized,  "to  have  aroused  the  ambition  of 
man  for  so  many  ages  An  endless  field  of 
purple  snows.  No  life.  No  land.  No  spot  to 
relieve    the    monotony    of    frost.      We    were    the 


468 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


only  pulsating  creatures  in  a  dead  world  of  ice." 
Two  days  later  the  hero  was  landed  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  all  the  excited  world  devoured 
graphic  descriptions  of  his  reception  by  the  en- 
thusiastic Danes:  by  the  Crown  Prince,  who 
hastened  to  welcome  him  before  he  had  stepped 
from  the  ship;  by  the  crowds  who  cheered  him; 
by  the  King,  who  dined  him;  by  the  University 
of  Copenhagen  which  awarded  him  an  honorary 
degree,  and  whose  faculty  he  made  happy  and 
proud  by  the  promise  that  it  should  be  the  first 
to  examine  the  record  of  his  observations  and 
the  proofs  in  general  that  he  had  reached  the 
Pole.  Two  more  days  passed,  and  then  the  climax 
of  this  world-spread  excitement  and  astonish- 
ment was  marked  by  another  radio-electric  flash 
of  news  out  of  the  Arctic  North, — this  time 
from  the  American  North, — proclaiming  another 
conquest  of  the  icy  fortress  of  the  Pole.  It  spoke 
"to  the  Associated  Press,  New  York,"  from  "In- 
dian Harbor,  via  Cape  Ray,  Nova  Scotia,"  saying: 
"Stars  and  Stripes  nailed  to  North  Pole.  Peary." 
It  reached  New  York  a  little  after  noon  of  Sep- 
tember 6th,  and  before  night,  evervwhere,  people 
in  all  languages  were  asking  each  other:  "Is  it 
possible  that  two  men  had  suddenly  done  what 
none  have  been  able  to  do  before?"  Other  mes- 
sages from  Commander  Peary  which  soon  fol- 
lowed the  first  one  fixed  the  date  of  his  attain- 
ment of  the  Pole  as  having  been  April  6,  igog, — 
being  fifteen  days  less  than  a  year  after  Dr.  Cook 
claimed  to  have  planted  the  American  flag  at  the 
same  spot.  They  brought  angry  denunciations, 
too,  of  Cook's  pretension,  which  Peary  had 
learned  of  from  the  Eskimos  in  the  North.  "Cook's 
story,"  he  said  in  one  despatch,  "should  not  be 
taken  too  seriously.  The  two  Eskimos  who  accom- 
panied him  say  he  went  no  distance  north  and 
not  outside  of  land.  Other  members  of  the  tribe 
confirm  their  story."  In  another  he  declared: 
"Cook  has  sold  the  public  a  gold  brick."  Dr. 
Cook,  meantime,  gave  out  expressions  as  to  Peary's 
achievement  very  different  in  temper  and  tone. 
He  had  no  doubt  that  Commander  Peary  had 
reached  the  Pole;  but  he.  Cook,  had  been  for- 
tunately the  first  to  enjoy  the  favorable  condi- 
tions which  gave  success  to  them  both.  His  mag- 
nanimity, his  coolness,  his  easy  self-confidence,  in 
contrast  with  Peary's  words  and  bearing,  won  pub- 
lic admiration  and  sympathy,  and  the  majority  in 
most  communities  inclined  strongly,  for  a  time, 
to  the  judgment  that  both  explorers  had  done 
what  they  said  they  did,  but  that  Cook,  in  char- 
acter, was  the  more  estimable  man.  When  he 
arrived  in  New  York,  on  the  2ist  of  September, 
that  city  gave  him  almost  as  wild  a  hero  worship 
as  Copenhagen  had  done.  Commander  Peary  was 
then  just  landing  at  Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
it  was  some  weeks  before  he  would  proceed  to 
New  York,  or  put  himself  at  all  in  the  way  of 
receiving  any  public  deinonstrations  of  honor. 
But  grounds  of  skepticism  as  to  Dr.  Cook  were 
acquiring  a  rapid  multiplication.  When  he  pub- 
lished his  story  in  detail,  or  told  it  in  lectures, 
it  started  questions  which  people  having  critical 
knowledge  insisted  that  he  must  answer  if  he 
could;  but  he  made  no  attempt.  He  was  in  no 
haste  to  produce  the  records  which  he  had  in- 
sisted would  prove  his  claims  beyond  a  doubt. 
He  required  weeks  of  time  to  prepare  them  for 
examination,  and  they  must  go  to  the  University 
of  Copenhagen  before  any  other  tribunal  of  sci- 
ence could  see  them.  Meanwhile,  he  was  harvest- 
ing large  gains  from  lectures  and  newspaper  pub- 
lications, and  seemed  more  interested  in  that  pur- 
suit   than    in    the    vmdication    of   his    questioned 


honor.  Hence,  suspicion  of  him  grew,  until  it 
made  itself  heard  and  felt  at  last  with  a  force 
which  drove  the  Doctor  to  put  his  professed  proofs 
in  shape  and  send  them  by  the  hand  of  his  secre- 
tary, Mr.  Lonsdale,  to  Copenhagen.  Before  they 
reached  ■  their  destination  he,  himself,  disappeared 
mysteriously  from  public  view,  nervously  shattered, 
it  was  said,  and  seeking  some  hidden  place  of 
refuge  abroad.  On  the  2ist  of  December  the 
report  of  the  scientific  committee  of  Copenhagen 
university,  to  which  the  records  forwarded  by 
Dr.  Cook  were  submitted,  was  made  public  by 
the  University  Council.  "The  report,  which  was 
sent  in  by  the  committee  on  December  i8,  states 
that  the  following  papers  were  submitted  to  it  for 
investigation:  i.  A  type- written  report  by  Mr. 
Lonsdale  on  Dr.  Cook's  Arctic  voyage,  consisting 
of  6 1  folios.  2.  A  type-written  copy  of  i6  folios, 
made  by  Mr.  Lonsdale,  comprising  the  note-books 
brought  back  by  Dr.  Cook  from  his  journey 
and  covering  the  period  from  March  i8  to  June 
13,  iqo8,  stated  to  have  been  written  on  the  way 
from  Svartevaag  to  the  Pole  and  back  until  a 
place  west  of  Heibergsland  was  reached.  .  .  .  The 
committee  points  out  as  a  result  of  its  investiga- 
tions that  the  aforementioned  report  of  the  jour- 
ney is  essentially  identical  with  that  published  some 
time  ago  in  the  New  York  Herald,  and  that  the 
copy  of  the  note-books  did  not  contain  astro- 
nomical records,  but  only  results.  In  fact,  the  com- 
mittee remarks  that  there  are  no  elucidatory  state- 
ments which  might  have  rendered  it  probable  that 
astronomical  observations  were  really  taken. 
Neither  is  the  practical  side — namely,  the  sledge 
journey — illuminated  by  details  in  such  a  way  as 
to  enable  the  committee  to  form  an  opinion. 
The  committee  therefore  considers  that  from  the 
material  submitted  no  proof  can  be  adduced  that 
Dr.  Cook  reached  the  North  Pole.  The  council 
of  the  University  accordingly  declares  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  committee's  report  that  the  documents 
submitted  to  Copenhagen  University  contain  no 
observations  or  explanations  to  prove  that  Dr. 
Cook  on  his  last  Polar  journey  reached  the  North 
Pole." 

That  Commander  Peary  had  accomplished  at  last 
the  object  of  his  indomitable  striving  was  never  in 
doubt.  His  own  testimony  to  the  fact  had  sufficed 
from  the  beginning,  and  the  decision  rendered  on 
the  3d  of  November  by  a  committee  of  the  Na- 
tional Geographic  Society,  which  examined  the 
records  of  his  march  to  the  Pole,  added  nothing 
to  the  public  belief.  But  his  laurels  had  been 
lamentably  blighted  by  the  atmosphere  of  scandal, 
wrangle,  and  disgust  with  which  Cook's  monstrous 
imposture  had  vulgarized  the  whole  feeling  that 
attended  the  exploit.  The  incidents  of  the  final 
Peary  expedition,  from  start  to  finish,  were  sum- 
marized by  the  Commander  in  a  message  from 
Battle  Harbor  to  the  London  Times,  Sept.  8th,  as 
follows:  "The  Roosevelt  left  New  York  on  July 
6,  igo8.  She  left  Sydney  on  July  17th;  arrived 
at  Cape  York,  Greenland,  on  August  ist;  left 
Etah,  Greenland,  on  August  Sth;  arrived  at  Cape 
Sheridan,  Grant  Land,  on  September  ist,  and  win- 
tered at  Cape  Sheridan.  The  sledge  expedition  left 
the  Roosevelt  on  February  15th,  igog,  and  started 
north  of  Cape  Columbia  on  March  ist.  It  passed 
the  British  record  on  March  2d;  was  delayed  by 
open  water  on  March  2d  and  3d;  was  held  up 
by  open  water  from  March  4th  to  March  nth; 
crossed  the  84th  parallel  on  March  nth  and  en- 
countered an  open  lead  on  March  isth;  crossed 
the  85th  parallel  on  March  i8th;  crossed  the  86th 
parallel  on  March  22d  and  encountered  an 
open  lead  on  March   23d;   passed  the  Norwegian 


469 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


record  on  March  23d;  passed  the  Italian  record 
on  March  24th  and  encountered  an  open  lead  on 
March  26th;  crossed  the  87th  parallel  on  March 
27th;  passed  the  American  record  on  March  28th 
and  encountered  a  lead  on  March  28th;  held  up 
by  open  water  on  March  2gth;  crossed  the  88th 
parallel  on  April  2d;  crossed  the  89th  parallel  on 
April  4th,  and  reached  the  North  Pole  on  April  6th. 
On  returning  we  left  the  Pole  on  April  7th; 
reached  Camp  Columbia  on  April  23d,  arriving 
on  board  the  Roosevelt  on  April  27th.  The 
Roosevelt  left  Cape  Sheridan  on  July  i8th,  passed 
Cape  Sabine  on  August  8th,  left  Cape  York  on 
August  26th  and  arrived  at  Indian  Harbor.  All 
the  members  of  the  expedition  are  returning  in 
good  health  except  Professor  Ross  G.  Martin,  who 
unfortunately  drowned  on  April  loth,  45  miles 
north  of  Cape  Columbia,  while  returning  from 
86  degrees  north  latitude  in  command  of  a  support- 
ing party. 

"The  last  march  northward  ended  at  ten  o'clock 
on  the  forenoon  of  April  6th.  I  had  now  made 
the  five  marches  planned  from  the  point  at  which 
Bartlett  turned  back,  and  my  reckoning  showed 
that   we   were   in   the   immediate   neighborhood   of 


time,  in  case  the  sky  should  be  clear,  but  at  that 
hour  it  was,  unfortunately,  still  overcast.  But 
as  there  were  indications  that  it  would  clear 
before  long,  two  of  the  Eskimos  and  myself  made 
ready  a  light  sledge  carrying  only  the  instruments, 
a  tin  of  pemmican,  and  one  or  two  skins;  and 
drawn  by  a  double  team  of  dogs,  we  pushed  on  an 
estimated  distance  of  ten  miles.  While  we  traveled, 
the  sky  cleared,  and  at  the  end  of  the  journey  I 
was  able  to  get  a  satisfactory  series  of  observa- 
tions at  Columbia  meridian  midnight.  These  ob- 
servations indicated  that  our  position  was  then 
beyond  the  Pole.  Nearly  everything  in  the  cir- 
cumstances which  then  surrounded  us  seemed  too 
strange  to  be  thoroughly  realized;  but  one  of  the 
strangest  of  those  circumstances  seemed  to  me  to 
be  the  fact  that,  in  a  march  of  only  a  few  hours, 
I  had  passed  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere and  had  verified  my  position  at  the  summit 
of  the  world.  It  was  hard  to  realize  that,  in 
the  first  miles  of  this  brief  march,  we  had  been 
traveling  due  north,  while,  on  the  last  few  miles 
of  the  same  march,  we  had  been  traveling  south, 
although  we  had  all  the  time  been  traveling 
precisely    in    the    same    direction.      It    would    be 


ROBERT  E,  PEARY 


THE  ROOSEVELT 


VILHJALMUR  STEKANS.SON 


the  goal  of  all  our  striving.  After  the  usual  ar- 
rangements for  going  into  camp,  at  approximate 
local  noon,  of  the  Columbia  meridian,  I  made  the 
first  observation  at  our  polar  camp.  It  indicated 
our  position  as  89°  57'.  We  were  now  at  the  end 
of  the  last  long  march  of  the  upward  journey. 
Yet  with  the  Pole  actually  in  sight  I  was  too 
weary  to  take  the  last  few  steps.  The  accumu- 
lated weariness  of  all  those  days  and  nights  of 
forced  marches  and  insufficient  sleep,  constant  peril 
and  anxiety,  seemed  to  roll  across  me  all  at  once. 
I  was  actually  too  exhausted  to  realize  at  the 
moment  that  my  life's  purpose  had  been  achieved. 
As  soon  as  our  igloos  had  been  completed  and 
we  had  eaten  our  dinner  and  double-rationed  the 
dogs,  I  turned  in  for  a  few  hours  of  absolutely 
necessary  sleep.  Henson  and  the  Eskimos  having 
unloaded  the  sledges  and  got  them  in  readiness 
for  such  repairs  as  were  necessary.  But,  weary 
though  I  was,  I  could  not  sleep  long.  It  was, 
therefore,  only  a  few  hours  later  when  I  woke. 
The  first  thing  I  did  after  awaking  was  to  write 
these  words  in  my  diary:  'The  Pole  at  last.  The 
prize  of  three  centuries.  My  dream  and  goal 
for  twenty  years.  Mine  at  last.  I  cannot  bring 
myself  to  realize  it.  It  seems  all  so  simple  and 
commonplace.'  Everything  was  in  readiness  for 
an    observation   at    6   p.    a..,   Columbia    meridian 


difficult  to  imagine  a  better  illustration  of  the 
fact  that  most  things  are  relative,  .^gain,  please 
consider  the  uncommon  circumstances  that,  in 
order  to  return  to  our  camp,  it  now  became  neces- 
sary to  turn  and  go  north  again  for  a  few  miles 
and  then  to  go  directly  south,  all  the  time  travel- 
ing in  the  same  direction.  As  we  passed  back 
along  that  trail  which  none  had  ever  seen  before 
or  would  ever  see  again,  certain  reflections  intruded 
themselves  which,  I  think,  may  fairly  be  called 
unique.  East,  west,  and  north  had  disappeared  for 
us.  Only  one  direction  remained  and  that  was 
south.  Every  breeze  which  could  possibly  blow 
upon  us,  no  matter  from  what  point  of  the  horizon, 
must  be  a  south  wind.  Where  we  were,  one  day  and 
one  night  constituted  a  year,  a  hundred  such  days 
and  nights  constituted  a  century.  Had  we  stood 
in  that  spot  during  the  six  months  of  the  arctic 
winter  night,  we  should  have  seen  every  star  of 
the  northern  hemisphere  circling  the  sky  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  horizon,  with  Polaris  (the 
North  Star)  practically  in  the  zenith.  All  during 
our  march  back  to  camp  the  sun  was  swinging 
around  in  its  ever-moving  circle.  At  six  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  April  7,  having  again  arrived 
at  Camp  Jesup,  I  took  another  series  of  observa- 
tions. These  indicated  our  position  as  being  four 
or  five  miles  from  the  Pole,  toward  Bering  Strait. 


470 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


Therefore,  with  a  double  team  of  dogs  and  a 
light  sledge,  I  traveled  directly  toward  the  sun 
an  estimated  distance  of  eight  miles.  Again  I 
returned  to  the  camp  in  time  for  a  final  and 
completely  satisfactory  series  of  observations  on 
April  7  at  noon,  Columbia  meridian  time.  These 
observations  gave  results  essentially  the  same  as 
those  made  at  the  same  spot  twenty-four  hours 
before.  In  traversing  the  ice  in  these  various  di- 
rections as  I  had  done,  I  had  allowed  approxi- 
mately ten  miles  for  possible  errors  in  my  ob- 
servations, and  at  some  moment  during  these 
marches  and  counter-marches,  I  had  passed  over 
or  very  near  the  point  where  north  and  south 
and  east  and  west  blend  into  one.  Of  course 
there  were  some  more  or  less  informal  ceremonies 
connected  with  our  arrival  at  our  difficult  destina- 
tion, but  they  were  not  of  a  very  elaborate  char- 


appropriate  to  raise  the  colors  of  the  Delta  Kappa 
Epsilon  fraternity,  in  which  I  was  initiated  a 
member  while  an  undergraduate  student  at  Bow- 
doin  College,  the  'World's  Ensign  of  Liberty  and 
Peace,'  with  its  red,  white,  and  blue  in  a  field  of 
white,  the  Navy  League  flag,  and  the  Red  Cross 
fiag.  After  I  had  planted  the  American  flag  in  the 
ice,  I  told  Hensen  to  time  the  Eskimos  for  three 
rousing  cheers,  which  they  gave  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Thereupon,  I  shook  hands  with  each 
member  of  the  party — surely  a  sufficiently  un- 
ceremonious affair  to  meet  with  the  approval  of 
the  most  democratic.  The  Eskimos  were  childishly 
delighted  v^iith  our  success.  While,  of  course,  they 
did  not  realize  its  importance  fully,  or  its  world- 
wide significance,  they  did  understand  that  it  meant 
the  final  achievement  of  a  task  upon  which  they 
had  seen  me  engaged  for  many  years.    Then,  in  a 


MEMBERS  OF  PEARY'S  POLAR  EXPEDITION 

Transferring  supplies  from   the  Roosevelt  to  winter  quarters 


acter.  We  planted  five  flags  at  the  top  of  the 
world.  The  first  one  was  a  silk  American  flag 
which  Mrs.  Peary  gave  me  fifteen  years  ago. 
That  flag  had  done  more  traveling  in  high  lati- 
tudes than  any  other  ever  made.  I  carried  it 
wrapped  about  my  body  on  every  one  of  my  ex- 
peditions northward  after  it  came  into  my  posses- 
sion, and  I  left  a  fragment  of  it  at  each  of  my 
successive  'farthest  norths':  Cape  Morris  K.  Jesup, 
the  northernmost  point  of  land  in  the  known 
world;  Cape  Thomas  Hubbard,  the  northernmost 
known  point  of  Jesup  Land,  west  of  Grant  Land; 
Cape  Columbia,  the  northernmost  point  of  North 
American  lands;  and  my  farthest  north  in  igo6,  lat- 
itude 87°  6'  in  the  ice  of  the  polar  sea.  By  the 
time  it  actually  reached  the  Pole,  therefore,  it  was 
somewhat  worn  and  discolored.  A  broad  diagonal 
section  of  this  ensign  would  now  mark  the  far- 
thest goal  of  earth — the  place  where  I  and  my 
dusky  companions  stood.     It  was  also  considered 


space  between  the  ice  blocks  of  a  pressure  ridge, 
I  deposited  a  glass  bottle  containing  a  diagonal 
strip  of  my  flag  and  records  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  copy: 

"'go  N.  Lat.,  North  Pole, 
"  'April  6,  igog. 
"'Arrived  here  to-day,  27  marches  from  C. 
Columbia.  I  have  with  me  5  men,  Matthew 
Henson,  colored,  Gotah,  Egingwah,  Seegloo,  and 
Ookeah,  Eskimos;  5  sledges  and  38  dogs.  My 
ship,  the  S.  S.  Roosevelt,  is  in  winter  quarters 
at  C.  Sheridan,  go  miles  east  of  Columbia.  The 
expedition  under  my  command  which  has  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  the  Pole  is  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Peary  Arctic  Club  of  New  York  City,  and 
has  been  fitted  out  and  sent  north  by  the  mem- 
bers and  friends  of  the  club  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  this  geographical  prize,  if  possible,  for 
the   honor   and   prestige   of   the   United   States  of 


471 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1886-1909 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1910-1916 


America.  The  officers  of  the  club  are  Thomas  IT. 
Hubbarci,  of  New  York,  President ;  Zenas  Crane, 
of  Mass.,  Vice-president;  Herbert  L.  Bridgman, 
of  New  York,  Secretary-  and  Treasurer.  I  start 
back  to  Cape  Columbia  to-morrow. 

"  'qo  N.  Lat.,  North  Pole, 
"  '.April  6,  iqog. 
"  'I  have  to-day  hoisted  the  national  ensign  of 
the  United  States  of  .America  at  this  place,  which 
my  observations  indicate  to  be  the  North  Polar 
axis  of  the  earth,  and  have  formally  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  entire  region,  and  adjacent,  for  and 
in  the  name  of  the  President  of  the  United  States 
of  .America. 

"  'I  leave  this  record  and  United  States  flag 
ir  possession. 

'"Robert  E.  Peary, 

"'United  States  Navy.' 

"If  it  were  possible  for  a  man  to  arrive  at  90° 
north  latitude  without  being  utterly  exhausted, 
body  and  brain,  he  would  doubtless  enjoy  a  series 
of  unique  sensations  and  reflections.  But  the 
attainment  of  the  Pole  was  the  culmination  of  days 
and  weeks  of  forced  marches,  physical  discomfort, 
insufficient  sleep,  and  racking  anxiety.  It  is  a 
wise  provision  of  nature  that  the  human  con- 
sciousness can  grasp  only  such  degree  of  intense 
feeling  as  the  brain  can  endure,  and  the  grim 
guardians  of  earth's  remotest  spot  will  accept  no 
man  as  guest  until  he  has  been  tried  and  tested 
by  the  severest  ordeal.  Perhaps  it  ought  not  to 
have  been  so,  but  when  I  knew  for  a  certainty 
that  we  had  reached  the  goal,  there  was  not  a 
thing  in  the  world  I  wanted  but  sleep.  But  after 
I  had  a  few  hours  of  it,  there  succeeded  a  con- 
dition of  mental  exaltation  which  made  further 
rest  impossible.  For  more  than  a  score  of  years 
that  point  on  the  earth's  surface  had  been  the 
object  of  my  every  effort.  To  its  attainment  my 
whole  being,  physical,  mental,  and  moral,  had  been 
dedicated.  Many  times  my  own  life  and  the  lives 
of  those  with  me  had  been  risked.  My  own  ma- 
terial and  forces  and  those  of  my  friends  had 
been  devoted  to  this  object.  This  journey  was 
my  eighth  into  the  arctic  wilderness.  In  that 
wilderness  I  had  spent  nearly  twelve  years  out  of 
the  twenty-three  between  my  thirtieth  and  my 
fifty-third  year,  and  the  intervening  time  spent  in 
civihzed  communities  during  that  period  had  been 
mainly  occupied  with  preparations  for  returning 
to  the  wilderness.  The  determination  to  reach  the 
Pole  had  become  so  much  a  part  of  my  being  that, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  I  long  ago  ceased  to 
think  of  myself  save  as  an  instrument  for  the 
attainment  of  that  end.  To  the  layman  this  may 
seem  strange,  but  an  inventor  can  understand  it. 
or  an  artist,  or  anyone  who  has  devoted  himself 
for  years  upon  years  to  the  service  of  an  idea. 
But  now,  while  quartering  the  ice  in  various  di- 
rections from  our  camp,  I  tried  to  realize  that, 
after  twenty-three  years  of  struggles  and  discour- 
agement, I  had  at  last  succeeded  in  placing  the 
flag  of  my  country  at  the  goal  of  the  world's  de- 
sire. It  is  not  easy  to  write  about  such  a  thing, 
but  I  knew  that  we  were  going  back  to  civiliza- 
tion with  the  last  of  the  great  adventure  stories — 
a  story  the  world  had  been  waiting  to  hear  for 
nearly  four  hundred  years,  a  story  which  was  to 
be  told  at  last  under  the  folds  of  the  Stars  and 
Stripes,  the  flag  that  during  a  lonely  and  iso- 
lated life  had  come  to  be  for  me  the  symbol  of 
home  and  ever>'thing  I  loved — and  might  never 
see  again." — R.  E.  Peary,  North  pole,  pp.  287- 
300. 


1901-1909. — Summary  of  other  important  ex- 
plorations during  the  first  decade  of  the  twen- 
tieth century. — Two  expeditions  were  fitted  out 
in  igoi  and  1903,  by  Mr.  Zicgler,  of  New  York, 
the  former  under  Evelyn  B.  Baldwin,  the  latter 
under  .Anthony  Fiala.  The  latter  reached  latitude 
82'  13',  remaining  in  the  .Arctic  regions  until  the 
summer  of  1905.  In  June,  1903,  Captain  Roald 
.Amundsen,  of  Norway,  sailed  from  Christiania 
in  the  small  sloop  Gjoa,  beginning  a  voyage  which 
carried  him  entirely  through  the  Northwest  Passage 
from  Baffin  bay  to  Bering  strait  and  which  oc- 
cupied three  years.  Much  of  that  time,  how- 
ever, was  devoted  to  studies  and  searches  of  great 
value  in  determining  the  location  of  the  Magnetic 
Pole.  In  1905  the  ranks  of  the  .Arctic  explorers 
were  joined  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  sailed 
from  Christiania  in  May,  in  the  Belgica,  com- 
manded by  Lieut,  de  Gerlache.  In  1907,  Mr.  John 
R.  Bradley,  of  New  York,  supplied  Dr.  Frederick 
A.  Cook  with  equipments  for  an  attempt  to  reach 
the  North  Pole,  and  accompanied  him  in  a  schoon- 
er yacht  to  Annatok,  a  little  north  of  Etah,  in 
North  Greenland,  where  the  Doctor,  with  one 
white  man,  Rudolph  Francke,  were  landed,  with 
their  supplies,  to  begin  the  undertaking.  Sev- 
eral attempts  were  made  in  successive  years  by 
Mr.  Walter  Wellman  to  make  the  journey  to  the 
Pole  from  Spitzbergen  by  a  dirigible  airship.  Each 
of  them,  down  to  1000,  was  frustrated  by  mis- 
fortunes of  circumstance  or  weather.  A  tragically 
ended  survey  of  the  northeast  coast  of  Greenland 
was  accomplished  in  1906-7  by  Dr.  Mylius  Erichsen 
and  Lieutenant  Hagen-Hagen,  who  perished  while 
groping  their  way  southward  in  the  growing  dark- 
ness of  the  approaching  winter.  These  fill  out 
the  important  items  of  the  record  of  Arctic  explora- 
tion, since  .April,  ipoi,  down  to  the  ist  of  Sep- 
tember. lOOQ. 

1910-1916. — Baffinland  crossed  by  Hantzsch. — 
Expedition  of  Schroder-Stranz. — Russian  arctic 
explorations. — ''.A  young  German  traveller,  hail- 
ing from  Dresden,  Bernard  Hantzsch  by  name,  has 
met  his  death  in  Baffinland.  after  effecting  the 
first  crossing  of  that  island  ever  made  by  a 
European.  Setting  out  in  igio.  with  the  support 
of  various  German  scientific  bodies,  the  traveller, 
after  a  preliminary  trip  to  Labrador,  passed  over 
to  Cumberland  sound,  where  he  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  lose  most  of  his  equipment  through  ship- 
wreck. .A  relief  fund  was  collected  for  him  by 
the  Dresden  Geographical  Society,  but  he  had 
already  set  out  for  the  interior  before  the  fresh 
supplies  reached  him,  and  he  ap,  rs  to  have  been 
brought  to  some  straits  in  consequence.  Only  last 
autumn,  on  the  return  of  the  yearlv  vessel  from 
Baffinland,  was  the  news  received  in  Germany 
that  he  had  already  succumbed  to  his  hardships 
in  June,  1911,  on  Fox  channel.  Such  results  of 
the  journey  (undertaken  with  a  view  to  natural 
history,  ethnological,  and  geographical  research) 
as  had  reached  Berlin,  gave  promise  of  valuable 
additions  to  knowledge  from  the  undertaking.  The 
expedition  planned  by  Lieut.  Schrbder-Stranz  for 
the  achievement  once  more  of  the  northeast  passage 
has  already  met  with  a  severe  check  in  its  prelim- 
inary stage.  The  leader  undertook  an  expedition  to 
Spitsbergen  last  summer  [1912!  in  order  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  more  serious  undertaking  to  follow. 
He  had  intended  to  return  in  the  autumn,  but  all 
accounts  show  that  the  .Arctic  winter  set  in  un- 
usually early  last  year,  and  when  the  last  vessel 
reached  Europe  without  brineing  him  back,  it  was 
realized  that  he  would  have  to  submit  to  an  en- 
forced detention.  .Accounts  received  in  the  autumn 
stated  that  the  voyager  had  first  attempted  to  push 


472 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1910-1916 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1913-1918 


north  along  the  ice-obstructed  east  coast  of  Spits- 
bergen, but  that,  foiled  here,  he  tried  to  reach  the 
north  coast  by  way  of  the  west.  Wireless  messages 
received  in  Kristiania  early  in  January  from  the 
Norwegian  station  in  Spitsbergen  show  that  the 
experiences  of  the  expedition  have  been  most  un- 
fortunate. Captain  Ritschel,  who  commanded  the 
small  vessel  Herzog  Ernst  in  which  the  expedition 
sailed  to  Spitsbergen,  arrived  at  Advent  bay  on 
December  27  in  a  miserable  condition  after  various 
adventures,  having  pressed  on  and  left  his  com- 
panions behind  exhausted  with  cold  and  hunger — ■ 
the  oceanographer  Dr.  Rudiger  at  Wijde  bay,  and 
three  others  at  Cape  Petermann.  He  reports  that 
the  Herzog  Ernst  was  frozen  in  at  Treurenburg 
bay,  but  can  be  fetched  off  next  summer.  Lieut. 
Schrbder-Stranz  and  his  companions  had  left  the 
ship  on  a  sledging  expedition  in  August,  and  had 
not  since  been  heard  of,  though  hopes  are  ex- 
pressed that  he  may  have  reached  the  station  at 
Cross  bay.  Otherwise,  as  he  had  but  few  sup- 
plies at  his  disposal,  and  an  outbreak  of  scurvy 
is  reported,  his  position  would  seem  precarious.  A 
relief  party  was  at  once  organized  at  the  wire- 
less station  at  Advent  bay  on  Captain  Ritschel's 
arrival.  Both  he  and  Dr.  Rudiger  had  suffered 
severely  from  frozen  feet.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  summer  [1Q12]  Captain  Russanof  was  re- 
ported to  be  on  the  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya 
(having  first  visited  the  coal-bearing  region  of 
West  Spitsbergen),  about  to  set  sail  for  the  north- 
west coast  on  his  way  east.  His  further  inten- 
tions seem  somewhat  obscure,  but  he  is  said  to 
have  referred  to  a  design  of  possibly  making 
his  way  to  the  New  Siberia  islands,  or  even,  far- 
ther. The  particularly  unfavourable  conditions 
which  prevailed  last  year  have  given  rise  to  some 
uneasiness  as  to  the  fate  of  Lieut.  Brussilof's  ex- 
pedition in  the  Saint  Anna,  which  sailed  from 
Alexandrovsk  on  the  Murman  coast  about  the  end 
of  August.  ...  At  the  opposite  end  of  the  Arctic 
waters  of  Asia  some  success  has  attended  the  re- 
newed endeavours  to  promote  navigation  between 
Bering  strait  and  the  Kolyma  and  Lena.  The  ice- 
breakers Taimyr  and  Vaigatz  passed  Cape  Deshnef 
on  July  22  (Old  Style),  reaching  the  Lena  in  safety 
on  August  25.  Soundings  and  coast  surveys  were 
carried  out  en  route.  Depths  of  15  feet  were  ob- 
tained in  the  mouth  of  the  Lena.  Two  attempts 
to  continue  the  voyage  round  the  Taimyr  penin- 
sula to  Archangel  were  frustrated  by  ice,  shallow 
water,  and  unfavourable  weather,  it  being  neces- 
sary to  turn  back  from  76"N.  The  return  voy- 
age through  Bering  strait  was  safely  accomplished." 
—Monthly  record  oj  polar  regions  {Geographical 
Journal,  February,  iqi,}). 

Lieutenant  Brussiloff,  an  officer  of  the  Russian 
navy,  sailed  in  the  Saint  Anna  in  IQ12  by  way  of 
the  Kara  sea,  through  Yugor  Shar,  the  strait  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  Russia,  which  in  recent 
years  has  been  used  by  commercial  vessels  plying 
between  the  United  States  and  the  mouths  of  the 
Ube  and  Yenisei  rivers.  Brussiloff  pushed  his  way 
north  keeping  close  to  the  shore  of  the  Yalmal 
Peninsula  to  avoid  the  danger  of  ice  floes.  He 
reached  a  point  northeast  of  Franz  Josef  Land ; 
beyond  that  little  is  known  of  the  fate  of  Brussilov's 
vessel  or  his  party.  It  is  believed  that  the  Saint 
Anna  drifted  north  and  was  crushed  in  the  ice. 
The  sea  route  to  Siberia  through  the  Kara  sea, 
however,  is  considered  as  established  and  practical 
for  commercial  voyages.  In  iqi6  Jonas  Lied  suc- 
cessfully completed  his  fifth  trading  voyage  along 
this  route.  The  Kara  sea  is  now  [:q2o]  fringed 
with  a  number  of  wireless  stations  which  give  val- 
uable aid  to  the  navigators  by  sending  out  frequent 


warnings  when  certain  sea  areas  are  obstructed  by 
ice. 

1913-1918.  —  Canadian  Arctic  expedition. — 
Stefansson  expedition. — Anderson  expedition. — 
In  the  early  summer  of  19 13  Stefansson  led  the 
northern  division  of  the  Canadian  .Arctic  Expedi- 
tion into  the  Parry  Archipelago  and  was  not  heard 
of  again  until  1915.  "One  of  the  most  important 
events  in  the  field  of  Arctic  exploration  was  the 
sudden  reappearance  in  the  fall  of  1915  of  Vil- 
hjalmur  Stefansson,  who  had  been  given  up  as 
dead,  with  a  record  of  distinct  achievement.  Arc- 
tic explorers  believed  that  the  ice  drift  north  of 
.Alaska  had  taken  Stefansson  farther  west  where 
a  replenishment  of  his  food  supply  would  be  an 
impossibility.  The  ice  drift,  in  fact,  took  him 
east  towards  Banks  Island  where  he  purposed  to 
establish  his  winter  quarters.  Stefansson  stored 
up  more  than  a  sufficient  food  supply,  while  on 
his  way  toward  Banks  Island,  which  place  he  did 
not  reach  until  the  ice  broke  up.  He  finally  landed 
and  wintered  within  thirty  miles  of  the  location 
which  was  to  have  been  his  winter  quarters.  This 
fact  led  whalers  who  frequented  Banks  Island  to 
spread  the  report  that  the  whole  crew  probably 
perished.  The  party  finally  landed  on  Banks 
Island  June  26,  1914,  where  it  accumulated  a 
large  supply  of  food,  and  in  early  February  started 
due  north  making  but  slow  progress  owing  to  thick 
fogs  and  soft  snow.  "In  igi6  Stefansson  again 
wintered  on  Banks  Island,  intermittently  making 
extended  sledge  journeys  on  the  adjoining  islands,, 
which,  subsequently,  he  partly  surveyed.  .On  one 
of  these  trips  the  party  reached  point  So°  10'  N. 
latitude,  98"  west  longitude.  Stefansson  spent  his 
third  winter  (1916-1917)  on  Melville  Island  where 
fish  as  well  as  game  was  found  to  be  plentiful.  The 
Canadian  Arctic  Expedition  under  Stefansson  ended 
in  November  1918  with  the  safe  return  of  S.  Stork- 
erson.  Owing  to  the  daring  explorer's  vast  explo- 
rations the  unknown  areas  of  the  polar  western 
hemisphere  is  placed  at  100,000  square  miles.  His 
discoveries,  which  cover  about  70,000  square  miles, 
are  undoubtedly  the  most  important  contributions 
to  geography  of  the  unknown  Arctic  areas  for 
many  years.  Other  important  contributions  by 
Stefansson  are  his  hydrographic  observations  which, 
among  other  achievements,  have  outlined  the  con- 
tinental shelf  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  Alaska 
northeast  to  Prince  Patrick  Island.  The  Canadian 
Arctic  Expedition  consisted  of  two  main  divisions, 
the  Northern  Party,  commanded  by  Vilhjalmur 
Stefansson,  and  the  Southern  Party,  under  my 
direction.  The  Northern  Party  was  to  devote  its 
chief  attention  to  the  Beaufort  Sea  in  the  region 
west  of  the  Parry  Archipelago  and  north  of  Alaska 
and  Yukon  Territory.  The  Southern  Party 
planned  to  explore  the  northern  coast  of  Canada 
between  Cape  Parry  (124° W.)  and  Kent  Penin- 
sula (io8°W.).  It  was  arranged  to  have  its  sur- 
veys extend  inland  about  100  miles  and  also  cover 
the  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  Victoria 
Island.  .  .  .  We  cleared  from  Nome  in  the  gasoline 
schooner  Alaska,  July  19,  1913,  reaching  Point 
Barrow  on  August  19,  after  some  difficulty  with 
gales  in  Bering  Sea  and  Kotzebue  Sound.  .  .  . 
East  of  Point  Barrow  we  found  the  Arctic  Ocean 
practically  filled  with  heavy  ice.  In  that  part  of 
the  world  there  are  no  true  icebergs;  but  enor- 
mous pressure  ridges  often  form  along  tide-cracks 
or  are  heaped  up  by  gales  along  the  edge  of  the 
floefields,  where  they  are  cemented  by  spray  and 
by  spring  thaws  and  augmented  by  snowdrifts. 
These  masses  are  sometimes  of  immense  size,  rising 
thirty  or  forty  feet  out  of  the  water — too  large  to 
melt   during   the  short  summer.  ...  In   1913,  for 


473 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1917-1918 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION,  1917-1918 


the  first  time  in  about  twenty-five  years  of  whal- 
ing in  that  region,  no  ship  from  the  west  was  able 
to  reach  Herschel  Island.  It  was  known  as  'a  bad 
ice  year.'  .  .  .  The  Southern  Party  of  the  Cana- 
dian Arctic  Expedition  entered  upon  the  summer 
of  1 91 6  with  most  of  their  originally  outlined 
work  completed.  Many  cases  of  specimens  in  all 
branches  of  science — geology,  zoology,  botany, 
ethnology,  archaeology — all  had  to  be  packed  and 
compressed  into  one  small  6s-foot  schooner.  .  . 
We  were  well  loaded  down  when  we  left  Bernard 
Harbor  on  the  evening  of  July  13,  1916.  We  made 
a  quick  and  easy  voyage  out:  Baillie  Island,  July 
24;  Herschel  Island,  July  28;  Point  Barrow,  Au- 
gust 8;  and  Nome,  August  15.  Our  weather-beaten 
schooner  was  left  at  Nome  to  be  sold,  while  men 
and  specimens  went  on  to  Seattle  and  Victoria 
through  the  famous  Alaska  and  British  Columbia 
Inside  Passage.  Everything  ultimately  reached  Ot- 
tawa safely,  and  the  scientific  men  of  the  expedi- 
tion have  spent  the  winter  of  1Q16-1917  work- 
ing up  their  reports.  Maps  have  been  computed 
and  plotted,  mineral  analyses  made,  plants  and 
animals  are  being  identified  and  new  species  de- 
scribed. Some  of  the  collections  represent  speci- 
mens of  groups  which  have  never  been  collected 
anywhere  in  the  western  Arctic  area,  and  prac- 
tically all  of  them  are  from  districts-  and  localities 
which  are  unrepresented  in  collections  anywhere 
and  from  regions  never  before  visited  by  a  col- 
lector."— R.  M.  Anderson,  Recent  explorations  on 
the  Canadian  Arctic  coast  (Georgraphical  Review, 
Oct.,  1917,  p.  241-266). 

"But  the  most  striking  features  of  the  expedi- 
tion's work  must  be  the  wonderful  results  attained 
in  the  application  of  the  instruments  developed 
during  the  past  twenty  years.  We  say  'instruments' 
with  a  'feeling  of  apology;  for  we  are  sure  that 
the  possibilities  of  the  phonograph  and  the  moving 
picture — perhaps  even  of  the  ordinary-  camera — as 
scientific  instruments  are  not  fully  realized  by  all 
our  readers.  These  have  been  of  extraordinary 
value  to  the  ethnological  branch  of  the  expedition. 
Phonographic  records  in  considerable  number  have 
been  made  of  the  folk-songs,  the  music,  even  the 
language  of  various  Eskimo  tribes — notably  of  the 
blonde  Eskimos  discovered  by  Stefansson  himself 
at  an  earlier  date.  Several  thousand  feet  of  cinema 
films  have  been  made  showing  certain  features  of 
Eskimo  life.  Altogether,  these  items  present  a  most 
impressive  demonstration  of  the  present  status  of 
scientific  methods." — Return  of  the  Scientific  Sec- 
tion of  the  Stefansson  expedition  (Scientific  Ameri- 
can, Aug.  26,  1916,  p.  194). 

1917-1918. — Journey  round  the  arctic  coast  of 
Alaska. — "A  letter  written  by  Archdeacon  Stuck, 
at  Fort  Yukon,  Alaska,  in  June  of  this  year  [1918] 
describing  a  journey  made  by  him  last  winter  round 
the  whole  Arctic  coast  of  Alaska,  is  abstracted  in 
the  British  Geographical  Journal.  The  journey, 
which  naturally  involved  no  small  amount  of 
hardship,  afforded  an  unrivalled  opportunity  for 
gaining  acquaintance  with  the  Eskimo  throughout 
the  great  stretch  of  country  traversed,  as  well  as 
for  a  comparative  study  of  the  work  carried  on 
among  them  by  the  various  Christian  organizations 
busy  in  that  remote  region.  These  Eskimos,  the 
writer  says,  are  'surely  of  all  primitive  peoples  the 
one  that  has  the  greatest  claim  to  the  generous  con- 
sideration of  civilized  mankind.  Where  else  shall 
a  people  be  found  so  brave,  so  hardy,  so  indus- 
trious, so  kindly,  and  withal  so  cheerful  and  con- 
tent, inhabiting  such  utterly  naked  country  lashed 
by  such  constant  ferocity  of  weather?'  Every- 
where he  received  from  them  the  greatest  possible 
help  and  kindness,  and  brought  away  the  warmest 


feeling  of  admiration  and  friendship.  The  start 
was  made  on  the  west  coast  first  made  known  to 
the  world  by  Cook  and  Kotzebue,  Beechey,  Col- 
linson  and  Bedford  Pirn,  and  here  it  was  possible 
to  find  some  habitation,  usually  an  underground 
igloo,  on  every  night  but  one  of  the  journey. 
Storms  were  encountered,  but  there  were  commonly 
fair  winds  and  there  were  no  special  hardships, 
traveling  being  far  more  rapid  than  is  usual  in  the 
interior.  At  Point  Barrow  a  halt  of  two  weeks 
gave  opportunity  for  the  study  of  the  largest  Es- 
kimo village  in  Alaska.  In  spite  of  the  advancing 
season  the  difficulties  increased  with  the  resump- 
tion of  travel,  March  being  the  month  in  which 
the  severest  weather  is  to  be  expected  here. 
Throughout  the  250  miles  to  Flaxman  Island  the 
party  saw  only  one  human  being  and  were  housed 
only  twice.  'It  is,'  says  the  writer,  'the  barrenest, 
most  desolate,  most  forsaken  coast  I  have  ever  seen 
in  my  life;  flat  as  this  paper  on  which  I  write,  the 
frozen  land  merging  indistinguishably  into  the 
frozen  sea;  nothing  but  a  stick  of  driftwood  here 
and  there,  half  buried  in  the  indented  snow,  gives 
evidence  of  the  shore.'  The  fortnight's  travel  along 
this  stretch  was  a  constant  struggle  against  a  bitter 
northeast  wind  with  the  thermometer  20°  to  30° 
below  zero  Fahrenheit,  and  at  night,  warmed  only 
by  the  primus  oil  cooking  stove,  the  air  within 
their  little  snow  house  was  as  low  as  from  48°  to 
51°  below  zero.  The  almost  ceaseless  wind  was 
a  torment,  and  the  faces  of  all  were  continually 
frozen.  There  are  Eskimo  on  the  rivers  away 
from  the  coast,  but  it  was  impossible  to  visit  them. 
East  of  Point  Barrow  all  the  dog-feed  had  to  be 
hauled  on  the  sledge,  and — for  the  first  time  since 
the  archdeacon  had  driven  dogs — they  occasionally 
went  hungry  when  there  was  no  driftwood  to  cook 
with.  The  heaviest  task  however  came  on  the 
journey  inland  to  Fort  Yukon.  Beyond  the  moun- 
tains the  winter's  snow  lay  unbroken,  and  for 
eight  days  a  trail  down  the  Collen  River  had  to 
be  beaten  ahead  of  the  dogs.  At  the  confluence 
of  the  Collen  with  the  Porcupine  Stefansson  and 
his  party  were  met  with,  escorted  on  the  way  to 
Fort  Yukon  by  Dr.  Burke,  of  the  hospital  there. 
Stefansson  had  lain  ill  all  the  winter  at  Herschel 
Island,  and  would  never  have  recovered  had  he 
not  finally  resolved  to  be  hauled  400  miles  to  the 
nearest  doctor." — Journey  round  the  Arctic  coast 
of  Alaska  (Science,  Nov.  29,  1918). 

Another  Arctic  explorer  of  recent  years  who 
rendered  distinguished  services  by  his  contributions 
to  geography,  botany  and  geology  is  Knud  Ras- 
mussen,  a  Danish-Greenlander.  Accompanied  by 
a  Danish  geologist,  L.  Koch  and  Dr.  T.  Wulff, 
Swedish  botanist,  he  set  out  in  April,  1917,  with  a 
small  party  of  Eskimos,  crossed  the  perpetual  ice- 
cap of  Greenland  and  surveyed  the  western  shore 
while  his  colleagues  accumulated  a  botanical  and 
geological  collection.  The  party  fell  into  desperate 
straits  owing  to  lack  of  food  and  the  absence  of 
game.  The  botanist  and  the  Eskimo  hunter  of 
the  expedition  lost  their  lives.  The  rest  of  the 
party  was  saved  by  Rasmussen's  feat  of  obtaining 
relief  after  a  forced  march  to  Etah  and  back,  a 
round  distance  of  280  miles,  accompanied  by  one 
Eskimo. 

Chronological  summary: 

1262.— Hakonson  wins  Iceland  for  Norway.  See 
Iceland:   1262;  and   i2th-i3th  century 

14th-18th  centuries. — Danish  control  of  Iceland, 
Commerce,  and  English  interests.  See  Iceland: 
I4th-i8th  centuries. 

1498. — Route  of  Sebastian  Cabot  in  the  explora- 
tion of  Greenland.  See  America:  Map  showing 
voyages  of  discovery. 


474 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


Chronology 
1500-1819 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


1500-1502. — Discovery  and  exploration  of  the 
coast  of  Labrador  and  the  entrance  of  Hudson 
strait  by  the  Corte-Reals. 

1553. — Voyage  of  Willoughby  and  Chancellor 
from  London,  in  search  of  a  northeast  passage  to 
India.  Chancellor  reached  Archangel  on  the  White 
sea  and  learned  that  he  was  in  the  dominions  of 
the  sovereign  of  Muscovy  or  Russia.  With  much 
difficulty  he  obtained  permission  to  visit  the  court 
at  Moscow,  and  made  the  long  journey  to  that  city 
by  sledge  over  the  snow.  There  he  was  admitted 
to  an  interview  with  the  Tsar,  and  returned  with 
a  letter  which  permitted  the  opening  of  trade 
between  England  and  Russia.  Willoughby,  with 
two  vessels  and  their  crews,  was  less  fortunate. 
His  party,  after  wintering  on  a  desolate  shore,  per- 
ished the  next  year  in  some  manner,  the  particulars 
of  which  were  never  known.  The  two  ships,  with 
their  dead  crews,  were  found  long  afterwards  by 
Russian  sailors,  and  their  log-book  recovered,  but 
it  tolJ  nothing  of  the  tragical  end  of  the  voyage. 
The  chartered  company  of  London  merchants 
which  sent  out  these  expeditions  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  first  joint  stock  corporation  of  share- 
holders formed  in  England.  As  the  Russia  Com- 
pany, it  afterwards  became  a  rich  and  powerful 
corporation,  and  its  success  set  other  enterprises 
in  motion. 

1556. — Exploring  voyage  of  Stephen  Bur- 
roughs to  the  northeast,  approaching  Nova  Zem- 
bla. 

1576-1578. — Voyages  of  Frobisher  to  the  coast 
of  Labrador  and  the  entrance  to  Davis  strait,  dis- 
covering the  bay  which  bears  his  name,  and  which 
he  supposed  to  be  a  strait  leading  to  Cathay ;  af- 
terwards entering  Hudson  strait.  Having  brought 
from  his  first  voyage  a  certain  glittering  stone 
which  English  goldsmiths  concluded  to  be  ore  of 
gold,  his  second  and  third  voyages  were  made  to 
procure  cargoes  of  the  imagined  ore,  and  to  found 
a  colony  in  the  frozen  region  from  which  it  came. 
The  golden  ore  proved  delusive ;  the  colony  was 
never  planted. 

1580. — Northeastern  voyage  of  Pet  and  Jack- 
man,  passing  Nova  Zembla. 

1585-1587. — Three  voyages  of  John  Davis 
from  Dartmouth,  in  search  of  a  northwestern 
passage  to  India,  entering  the  strait  between 
Greenland  and  Baffinland  which  bears  his  name 
and  exploring  it  to  the  72nd  degree  north  lat- 
itude. 

1594-1595. — Dutch  expeditions  (the  first  and 
second  under  Barents)  to  the  northeast,  passing 
to  the  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  or  Novaya  Zem- 
lya,  but  making  no  progress  beyond  it, 

1596-1597. — Third  voyage  of  Barents,  when 
he  discovered  and  coasted  Spitsbergen,  wintered  in 
Nova  Zembla  with  his  crew,  lost  his  ship  in  the 
ice,  and  perished,  with  one  third  of  his  men,  in 
undertaking  to  reach  the  coast  of  Lapland  in  open 
boats. — See  also  Spitsbergen:   i5q6-i82q. 

1602. — Exploration  for  a  northwest  passage 
by  Captain  George  Weymouth,  for  the  Muscovy 
Company  and  the  Levant  Company,  resulting  in 
nothing  but  a  visitation  of  the  entrance  to  Hud- 
son strait. 

1607. — Polar  voyage  of  Henry  Hudson,  for 
the  Muscovy  Company  of  London,  attaining  the 
northern  coast  of  Spitsbergen. 

1608. — Voyage  of  Henry  Hudson  to  Nova 
Zembla  for  the  Muscovy  Company. 

1610. — Voyage  of  Henry  Hudson,  in  English 
employ,  to  seek  the  northwest  passage,  being  the 
voyage  in  which  he  passed  through  the  Strait  and 
entered  the  great  Bay  to  which  his  name  has  been 
given,  and  in  which  he  perished  at  the  hands  of 


a  mutinous  crew. — See  also  America:  Map  showing 
voyages  of  discovery. 

1612-1614. — Exploration  of  Hudson  bay  by 
Captains  Button,  Bylot,  and  Baffin,  practically  dis- 
covering its  true  character  and  shaking  the  previous 
theory  of  its  connection  with  the  Pacific  ocean. 

1614. — Exploring  expedition  of  the  Muscovy 
Company  to  the  Greenland  coast,  under  Robert 
Fotherby,  with  William  Baffin  for  pilot,  making 
its  way  to  latitude  80°. 

1616. — Voyage  into  the  northwest  made  by 
Captain  Baffin  with  Captain  Bylot,  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  Baffin  bay.  Smith  sound,  Jones 
sound,  and  Lancaster  sound. 

1619-1620. — Voyage  of  Jens  Munk,  sent  by 
the  King  of  Denmark  to  seek  the  northwest  pas- 
sage; wintering  in  Hudson  bay,  and  losing  there  all 
but  two  of  his  crew,  with  whom  he  succeeded  in 
making  the  voyage  home. 

1632. — Voyages  of  Captains  Fox  and  James 
into  Hudson  bay. 

1670. — Grant  and  charter  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  by  King  Charles  II.  of  England,  con- 
ferring on  the  Company  possession  and  govern- 
ment of  the  whole  watershed  of  the  bay,  and  nam- 
ing the  country  Prince  Rupert  Land. 

1676. — Voyage  of  Captain  John  Wood  to 
Nova   Zembla,    seeking    the    northeastern    passage. 

1728. — Exploration  of  the  northern  coasts  of 
Kamchatka  by  the  Russian  Captain  Vitus  Bering, 
and  discovery  of  the  strait  which  bears  his  name. 

1741. — Exploration  of  northern  channels  of  Hud- 
son bay  by  Captain  Middleton. 

1743. — Offer  of  £20,000  by  the  British  Parlia- 
ment for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest  passage  to 
the  Pacific. 

1746. — Further  exploration  of  northern  chan- 
nels of  Hudson  bay  by  Captains  Moor  and  Smith. 

1753-1754. — Attempted  exploration  of  Hudson 
bay  by  the  colonial  Captain  Swaine,  sent  out 
from  Philadelphia,  chiefly  through  the  exertions  of 
Dr.  Franklin. 

1765. — Russian  expedition  of  Captain  Tchit- 
schakoff,  attempting  to  reach  the  Pacific  from 
Archangel. 

1768-1769. — Exploration  of  Nova  Zembla  by  a 
Russian   officer,   Lieutenant   Rosmyssloff. 

1769-1770. — Exploring  journey  of  Samuel 
Hearne,  for  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  from 
Churchill,  its  most  northern  post,  to  Coppermine 
river  and  down  the  river  to  the  Polar  sea. 

1773. — Voyage  of  Captain  Phipps,  afterwards 
Lord  Mulgrave,  toward  the  North  Pole,  reaching 
the  northeastern  extremity  of  Spitsbergen. 

1779. — Exploration  of  the  Arctic  coast,  east 
and  west  of  Bering  strait,  by  Captain  Cook,  in 
his  last  voyage. 

1789. — Exioring  journey  of  Alexander  Mac- 
kenzie, for  the  Northwest  Company,  and  discovery 
of  the  great  river  flowing  into  the  Polar  sea,  which 
bears  his  name. 

1806. — Whaling  voyage  of  Captain  Scoresby 
to  latitude  81°  30'  and  longitude  ig°  east,  a  record 
until  Parry  eclipsed  it. 

1818. — Unsatisfactory  voyage  of  Commander 
John  Ross  to  Baffin  bay  and  into  Lancaster  sound. 

1818. — Voyage  of  Captain  Buchan  towards 
the  North  Pole,  reaching  the  northern  part  of 
■  Spitsbergen. 

1819-1820. — First  voyage  of  Lieutenant  Parry, 
exploring  for  a  northwest  passage,  through  Davis 
strait,  Baffin  bay,  Lancaster  sound,  and  Barrow 
strait,  to  Melville  island. 

1819-1820. — Journey  of  Captain  (afterwards 
Sir  John)  Franklin,  Dr.  Richardson,  and  Captain 
(afterwards  Sir  George)  Back,  from  Fort  York,  on 


475 


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Chronology 
1819-1853 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


the  western  coast  of  Hudson  bay  by  the  way  of 
Lake  Athabasca,  Great  Slave  lake,  and  Copper- 
mine river,  to  Coronation  gulf,  opening  into  the 
Arctic  ocean. 

1819-1824. — Russian  expeditions  for  the  survey 
of   Nova  Zembla. 

1820-1824. — Russian  surveys  of  the  Siberian 
polar  region  by  Wraiigcll  and  Anjou. 

1821-1823. — Second  voyage  of  Captain  Parry, 
exploring  for  a  northwest  passage  to  the  Pacific 
ocean,  through  Hudson  strait  and  Fox  channel, 
discovering  the  Fury  and  Hecla  strait,  the  north- 
ern outlet  of  the  bay. 

1821-1824. — Russian  surveying  expedition  to 
Nova  Zembla,  under  Lieutenant  Liitke. 

1822. — Whaling  voyage  of  Captain  Scoresby 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  which  was  con- 
siderably traced  and  mapped  by  him. 

1822-1823. — Scientific  expedition  of  Captain 
Sabine,  with  Commander  Clavering,  to  Spits- 
bergen and  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland. 

1824-1825. — TUrd  voyage  of  Captain  Parry, 
exploring  for  a  northwest  passage,  by  way  of  Davis 
strait,  Baffin  bay,  and  Lancaster  sound,  to  Prince 
Regent  inlet,  where  one  of  his  ships  was  wrecked. 

1825-1827. — Second  journey  of  Franklin  Rich- 
ardson, and  Back,  from  Canada  to  the  Arctic 
ocean  \  Franklin  and  Back  by  the  Mackenzie  river 
and  westward  along  the  coast  to  longitude  149^ 
37';  Richardson  by  the  Mackenzie  river  and  the 
.•\rctic  coast  eastward  to  Coppermine  river. 

1826. — Voyage  of  Captain  Beechey  through 
Bering  strait  and  eastward  along  the  Arctic  coast 
as  far  as  Point  Barrow. 

1827. — Fourth  voyage  of  Captain  Parry,  at- 
tempting to  reach  the  North  Pole,  by  ship  to 
Spitsbergen  and  by  boats  to  82°  45  north  lati- 
tude.— See  also  Spiisbergex;    1596-1827.  ■ 

1829-1833. — Expedition  under  Captain  Ross, 
fitted  out  by  Mr.  Felix  Booth,  to  seek  a  north- 
west passage,  resulting  in  the  discovery  of  the 
position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole,  southwest  of 
Boothia,  not  far  from  which  Ross'  ship  was  ice- 
bound for  three  years.  .Abandoning  the  vessel  at 
last,  the  explorers  made  their  way  to  Baffin  bay 
and  were  rescued  by  a  whale-ship. 

1833-1835. — Journey  of  Captain  Back  from 
Canada,  via  Great  Slave  lake,,  to  the  river  which 
he  discovered  and  which  bears  his  name,  flowing 
to  the  Polar  sea. 

1835-1837. — Voyage  of  Captain  Back  for  sur- 
veying the  straits  and  channels  in  the  northern 
extremity  of  Hudson  bay. 

1837-1839. — Expeditions  of  Dease  and  Simp- 
son, in  the  service  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
determining  the  .•\rctic  coast  line  as  far  east  as 
Boothia. 

1845. — Departure  from  Englind  of  the  gov- 
ernment expedition  under  Sir  John  Franklin,  in 
two  bomb-vessels,  the  Erebus  and  the  Terror. 
which  entered  Baffin  bay  in  July  and  were  never 
seen  afterward. 

1848. — Expedition  of  Sir  John  Richardson  and 
Mr.  John  Rae  down  the  Mackenzie  river,  search- 
ing for  traces  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  crews. 
1848-1849. — Expedition  under  Sir  James  Clarke 
Ross  to  Baffin  bay  and  westward  as  far  as  Leo- 
pold Island,  searching  for  Sir  John  Franklin. 

1848-1851. — Searching    expedition    of    the    Her-  ' 
aid    and    the    Plover,    under    Captain    Kellett    and 
Commander    Moore,    through    Bering    strait    and 
westward  to  Coppermine  river,  learning  nothing  of 
the  fate  of  the  Franklin  party. 

1850. — Searching  expedition  sent  out  by  Lady 
Franklin,  under  Captain  Forsyth,  for  the  exam- 
ination of  Prince  Regent  inlet. 


1850-1851. — United  States  Grinnell  expedition, 
sent  to  assist  the  search  for  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin and  his  crew,  consisting  of  two  ships,  the  Ad- 
vance and  the  Rescue,  fursished  by  Mr.  Henry 
Grinnell  and  officered  and  manned  by  the  U.  S. 
government,  Ueutenant  De  Haven  commanding  and 
Dr.  Kane  surgeon.  B'rozen  into  the  ice  in  Welling- 
ton channel,  in  September,  1S50,  the  vessels  drifted 
helplessly  northward  until  Grinnell  Land  was  seen 
and  named,  then  southward  and  westward  until 
the  next  June,  when  they  escaped  ill  Baffin 
bay. 

1850-1851. — Franklin  search  expedition,  sent  out 
by  the  British  government,  under  Captain 
Penny,  who  explored  Wellington  channel  and 
Cornwallis  Island  by  sledge  journeys. 

1850-1851. — Discovery  of  traces  of  Franklin 
and  his  men  at  Cape  Riley  and  Beechey  island, 
by  Captain  Ommaney  and  Captain  Austin, 

1850-1852. — Franklin  search  expedition  under 
Captain  Collinson,  through  Bering  strait  and  east- 
ward into  Prince  of  Wales  strait,  sending  sledge 
parties  to  Melville  island. 

1850-1854. — Franklin  search  expedition  under 
Captain  McClure,  through  Bering  strait  and 
westward,  between  Banks  Land  and  Prince  Albert 
Land,  attaining  a  point  within  25  miles  of  Melville 
sound,  already  reached  from  the  east ;  thus  dem- 
onstrating the  existence  of  a  northwest  passage, 
though  not  accomplishing  the  navigation  of  it. 
McClure  received  luiighthood,  and  a  reward  of 
£10.000  was  distributed  to  the  officers  and  crew 
of  the  expedition. 

1851. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Rae,  sent  by  the  Brit- 
ish government  to  descend  the  Coppermine 
river  and  search  the  southern  coast  of  Wollaston 
Land,  which  he  did,  exploring  farther  along  the 
coast  of  the  continent  eastward  to  a  point  opposite 
King  W'illiam's  Land. 

1851-1852. — Franklin  search  expedition  sent  out 
by  Lady  Franklin  under  Captain  Kennedy,  for 
a  further  examination  of  Prince  Regent  inlet  and 
the  surrounding  region. 

1852-1854. — Franklin  search  expedition  of  five 
ships  sent  out  by  the  British  government  under 
Sir  Edward  Belcher,  with  Captains  McClintock, 
Kellett,  and  Sherard  Osborn' under  his  command. 
Belcher  and  Oshnrn,  going  up  Wellington  channel 
to  Northumberland  sound,  were  frozen  fast;  Mc- 
Clintock and  Kellett  experienced  the  same  mis- 
fortune near  Melville  island,  where  they  had  re- 
ceived Captain  McClure  and  his  crew,  escaping 
from  their  abandoned  ship.  Finally  all  the  ships  of 
Belcher's  fleet  except  one  were  abandoned.  One, 
the  Resolute,  drifted  out  into  Davis  strait  in  185.1;, 
was  rescued,  boueht  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment and  presented  to  Queen  Victoria. 

1853-1854. — Hudson's  Bay  Company  expedition 
by  Dr.  Rae,  to  Repulse  bay  and  Pelly  bay,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Boothia,  where  Dr.  Rae  found 
Eskimos  in  possession  of  articles  which  had  be- 
longed to  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  his  men,  and 
was  told  that  in  the  winter  of  1S50  they  saw 
white  men  near  King  William's  Land,  traveling 
southward,  dragging  sledges  and  a  boat,  and 
afterwards  saw  dead  bodies  and  graves  on  the  main- 
land. 

1853-1855. — Grinnell  expedition,  under  Dr.  Kane, 
proceeding  straight  northward  through  Baffin 
bay,  Smith  sound  and  Kennedy  channel, 
nearly  to  latitude  70°,  where  the  vessel  was  locked 
in  ice  and  remained  fast  until  abandoned  in  the 
spring  of  1855,  the  party  escaping  to  Greenland 
and  being  rescued  by  an  expedition  under  Lieu- 
tenant Hartstein  which  the  American  government 
had  sent  to  their  relief. 


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Chronology 
1855-1881 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


1855.— Cruise  of  the  U.  S.  ship  Viiuennes, 
Lieutenant  John  Rodgers  commanding,  in  the  Arc- 
tic sea,  via  Bering  strait  to  Wrangcll  Land. 

1855. — Expedition  of  Mr.  Anderson,  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  down  the  Great  Fish  river 
to  Point  Ogle  at  its  mouth,  seeking  traces  of  the 
party  of  Sir  John  Franklin. 

1857-1859. — Search  expedition  sent  out  by  Lady 
Franklin,  under  Captain  McClintock,  which 
became  ice-bound  in  Melville  bay,  August,  1857, 
and  drifted  helplessly  for  eight  months,  over  1,200 
miles;  escaped  from  the  ice  in  April,  1858;  re- 
fitted in  Greenland  and  returned  into  Prince  Regent 
inlet,  whence  Captain  McClintock  searched  the 
neighboring  regions  by  sledge  journeys,  discover- 
ing, at  last,  in  King  William's  Land,  not  only 
remains  but  records  of  the  lost  explorers,  learning 
that  they  were  caught  in  the  ice  somewhere  in 
or  about  Peel  sound,  September,  1846;  that  Sir 
John  Franklin  died  on  the  nth  of  the  following 
June;  that  the  ships  were  deserted  on  the  22A 
of  April,  1848,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  King 
William's  Land,  and  that  the  survivors  105  in 
number,  set  out  for  Back  or  Great  Fish  river. 
They  perished  probably  one  by  one  on  the  way. 

1860-1861. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Hayes  to  Smith 
sound;  wintering  on  the  Greenland  side  at  lati- 
tude 78°  17';  crossing  the  Sound  with  sledges  and 
tracing  Grinnell  Land  to  about  82°   45'. 

1860-1862. — Expedition  of  Captain  Hall  on 
the  whaling  ship  George  Henry,  and  discovery  of 
relics  of  Frobisher, 

1864-1869. — Residence  of  Captain  Hall  among 
Eskimos  on  the  north  side  of  Hudson  strait  and 
search  for  further  relics  of  the  Franklin  expedition. 

1867. — Tracing  of  the  southern  coast  of  Wrangell 
Land  by  Captains  Long  and  Raynor,  of  the  whal- 
ing ships  Nile  and  Reindeer. 

1867. — Transfer  of  the  territory,  privileges  and 
rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  the  Do- 
minion  of   Canada. 

1868. — Swedish  Polar  expedition,  directed  by 
Professor  Nordenskiold,  attaining  latitude  Si"  42', 
on  the  i8th  meridian  of  east  longitude. 

1869. — Yacht  voyage  of  Dr.  Hayes  to  the  Green- 
land coasts. 

1869-1870. — German  Polar  expedition,  under 
Captain  Koldewey,  one  vessel  of  which  was  crushed, 
the  crew  escaping  to  an  ice  floe  and  drifting  i.ioo 
miles,  reaching  finally  a  Danish  settlement  on  the 
Greenland  coast,  while  the  other  explored  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland  to  latitude  77°. 

1871-1872. — Voyage  of  the  steamer  Polaris,  fitted 
out  by  the  U.  S.  government,  under  Captain 
Hall;  passing  from  Baffin  bay,  through  Smith 
sound  and  Kennedy  channel,  into  what  Kane  and 
Hayes  had  supposed  to  be  open  sea,  but  which 
proved  to  be  the  widening  of  a  strait,  called  Robe- 
son strait  by  Captain  Hall,  thus  going  beyond  the 
most  northerly  point  that  had  previously  been 
reached  in  Arctic  exploration.  Wintering  in  lati- 
tude 81°  38'  (where  Captain  Hall  died),  the  Polaris 
was  turned  homeward  the  following  August.  Dur- 
ing a  storm,  when  the  ship  was  threatened  with 
destruction  by  the  ice.  a  number  of  her  crew  and 
party  were  left  helplessly  on  a  floe,  which  drifted 
with  them  for  1,500  miles,  until  they  were  res- 
cued by  a  passing  vessel.  Those  on  the  Polaris 
fared  little  better.  Forced  to  run  their  sinking 
ship  ashore,  they  wintered  in  huts  and  made  their 
way  south  in  the  spring,  until  they  met  whale- 
ships  which  took  them   on  board. 

1872-1874. — Austro-Hungarian  expedition,  under 
Captain  Weyprecht  and  Lieutenant  Payer, 
seeking  the  northeast  passage,  with  the  result  of 
discovering  and  naming  Franz  Josef  Land,  Crown 


Prince  Rudolf  Land  and  Peterraann  Land,  the 
latter  (seen,  not  visited)  estimated  to  be  beyond 
latitude  83°.  The  explorers  were  obliged  to  aban- 
don their  ice-locked  steamer,  and  make  their  way 
by  sledges  and  boats  to  Nova  Zembla,  where  they 
were  picked  up. 

1875. — Voyage  of  Captain  Young,  attempting 
to  navigate  the  northwest  passage  through  Lan- 
caster sound,  Barrow  strait  and  Peel  strait,  but 
being  turned  back  by  ice  in  the  latter. 

1875-1876. — English  expedition  under  Captain 
Nares,  in  the  Alert,  and  the  Discovery,  at- 
taining by  ship  the  high  latitude  of  82'  27',  in 
Smith  sound,  and  advancing  by  sledges  to  83°  20' 
26",  while  exploring  the  northern  shore  of  Grinnell 
Land  and  the  northwest  coast  of  Greenland. 

1876-1878. — Norwegian  North-Atlantic  expedi- 
tion, for  a  scientific  exploration  of  the  sea  be- 
tween Norway,  the  Faroe  islands,  Iceland,  Jan 
Mayen,  and  Spitsbergen. — See  also  Spitsbergen: 
igo6-i02i. 

1878. — Discovery  of  the  island  named  "Ein- 
samkeit,"  in  latitude  77  40'  N.  and  longitudt 
86"  E.,  by  Captain  Johannescn,  of  the  Norwegian 
schooner  Nordland. 

1878-1879. — Final  achievement  of  the  long- 
sought,  often  attempted  northeast  passage,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  by  the  Swedish 
geographer  and  explorer.  Baron  Nordenskiold,  on 
the  steamer  Vega,  which  made  the  voyage  from 
Gothenburg  to  Yokohama,  Japan,  through  the 
.'\rctic  sea,  coasting  the  Russian  and  Siberian  shores. 

1878-1883. — Six  annual  expeditions  to  the  Arctic 
seas  of  the  ship  Willem  Barents,  sent  out 
by  the  Dutch  Arctic  Committee. 

1879. — Cruise  of  Sir  Henry  Gore-Booth  and 
Captain  Markham,  R.  N.,  in  the  cutter  Isbjorn 
to  Nova  Zembla  and  in  Barents  sea  and  the  Kara 
.sea. 

1879-1380.— Journey  of  Lieufenant  Schwatka 
from  Hudson  bay  to  King  William  island,  and 
exploration  of  the  western  and  southern  shores  of 
the  latter,  searching  for  the  journals  and  logs  of 
the  Franklin  expedition. 

1879-1882. — Polar  voyage  of  the  Jeannette, 
fitted  out  by  the  proprietor  of  the  New  York 
Herald  and  commanded  by  Commander  De  Long, 
U.  S.  N.  The  course  taken  by  the  Jeannette  was 
through  Bering  strait  towards  Wrangell  Land,  and 
then  northerly,  until  she  became  icebound  when 
she  drifted  helplessly  for  nearly  two  years,  only 
to  be  crushed  at  last.  The  officers  and  crew  es- 
caped in  three  boats,  one  of  which  was  lost  in  a 
storm;  the  occupants  of  the  other  two  boats 
reached  different  mouths  of  the  river  Lena.  One 
of  these,  two  boats,  commanded  by  Engineer 
Melville,  was  fortunate  enough  to  find  a  settle- 
ment and  obtain  speedy  relief.  The  other,  which 
contained  Commander  De  Long,  landed  in  a  region 
of  desolation,  and  all  but  two  of  its  occupants 
perished  of  starvation  and  cold. 

1880-1882. — First  and  second  cruises  of  the 
United  States  revenue  steamer  Corwin  in  the  Arc- 
tic ocean,  via  Bering  strait,  to  Wrangell  Land  seek- 
ing information  concerning  the  Jeannette  and 
searching  for  two  missing  whaling  ships. 

1880-1882. — Two  voyages  of  Mr.  Leigh  Smith 
to  Franz  Josef  Land,  in  his  yacht  Eira.  in  the  first 
of  which  a  considerable  exploration  of  the  south- 
ern coast  was  made,  while  the  second  resulted  in 
the  loss  of  the  ship  and  a  perilous  escape  of  the 
party  in  boats  to  Nova  Zembla,  where  they  were 
rescued. 

1881. — Expedition  of  the  steamer  Rodgers  to 
search  for  the  missing  explorers  of  the  Jeannette; 
entering  the  Arctic  sea  through  Bering  strait,  but 


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Chronology 
1881-1896 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


abruptly  stopped  by  the  burning  of  the  Rodgers, 
on  the  30th  of  November,  in  St.  Lawrence  bay. 

1881.— Cruise  of  the  U.  S.  Alliance,  Com- 
mander Wadleigh,  via  Spitsbergen,  to  79"  3'  36" 
north  latitude,  searching   for  the  Jeannelte. 

1881-1884. — International  undertaking  of  ex- 
peditions to  establbh  Arctic  stations  for  simul- 
taneous meteorological  and  magnetic  observations: 
by  the  United  States  at  Smith  sound  and  Point 
Barrow;  by  Great  Britain  at  Fort  Rae;  by  Russia 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  and  in  Nova  Zembla;  by 
Denmark  at  Godhaab,  in  Greenland;  by  Holland 
at  Dickson's  Haven,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei; 
by  Germany  in  Cumberland  sound,  Davis  strait; 
by  Austro-Hungary  on  Jan  Mayen  island;  by 
Sweden  at  Mussel  bay  in  Spitsbergen.  The  United 
States  expedition  to  Smith  sound,  under  Lieuten- 
ant Greely,  established  its  station  on  Discovery 
bay.  Exploring  parties  sent  out  attained  the  high- 
est latitude  ever  reached,  namely  83°  24'.  After 
remaining  two  winters  and  failing  to  receive  ex- 
pected supplies,  which  had  been  intercepted  by  the 
ice,  Greely  and  his  men,  twenty-five  in  number, 
started  southward,  and  all  but  seven  perished  on 
the  way.  The  survivors  were  rescued,  in  the  last 
stages  of  starvation,  by  a  vessel  sent  to  their  re- 
lief under  Captain  Schley,  U.  S.  N. 

1882-1883. — Danish  Arctic  expedition  of  the 
Dijmpha,  under  Lieutenant  Hovgaard;  finding 
the  Varna  of  the  Dutch  Meteorological  Expedition 
beset  in  the  ice ;  both  vessels  becoming  frozen  in 
together  for  nearly  twelve  months;  the  Dijmphna 
escaping  finally  with  both  crews. 

1883.— Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Ray,  U.  S.  N., 
from  Point  Barrow  to  Meade  river. 

1883. — Expedition  of  Baron  Nordenskibld  to 
Greenland,  making  explorations  in  the  interior. 

1883-1885. — East  Greenland  expedition  of  Cap- 
tain  Holm  and   Lieutenant   Garde. 

1884. — Second  fruise  of  the  U.  S.  revenue 
marine  steamer  Corwin  in  the  Arctic  ocean. 

1886. — Reconnoissance  of  the  Greenland  in- 
land ice  by  Civil  Engineer  R.  E.  Peary,  U.  S.  N. 

1888. — Journey  of  Dr.  Nansen  across  South 
Greenland. 

1890. — Swedish  expedition  to  Spitsbergen,  under 
G.  Nordenskibld  and  Baron  Klinkowstrom. 

1890. — Danish  scientific  explorations  in  North 
and   South    Greenland. 

1890. — Russian  exploration  of  the  Melo-Zemel- 
skaya,  or  Timanskaya  tundra,  in  the  far  north 
of  European  Russia,  on  the  Arctic  ocean. 

1891-1892. — Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Peary, 
U.  S.  N.,  with  a  party  of  seven,  including  Mrs. 
Peary,  establishing  headquarters  on  McCormick 
bay,  northwest  Greenland;  thence  making  sledge 
journeys.  The  surveys  of  Lieutenant  Peary 
have  gone  far  toward  proving  Greenland  to  be  an 
island. 

1891-1892. — Danish  East  Greenland  expedi- 
tion of  Lieutenant  Ryder. 

1891-1893. — Expeditions  of  Dr.  Drygalski  to 
Greenland  for  the  study  of  the  great  glaciers. 

1892. — Swedish  expedition  of  Bjorling  and 
Kallstenius,  the  last  records  of  which  were  found 
on  one  of  the  Cary  islands,  in  Baffin  bay. 

1892. — French  expedition  under  M.  Ribot  to 
the  islands  of  Spitsbergen  and  Jan  Mayen. 

1893. — Expedition  of  Dr.  Nansen,  in  the  Fram 
from  Christiania,  aiming  to  enter  a  current  which 
flows,  in  Dr.  Nansen's  belief,  across  the  Arctic 
region  to  Greenland. 

1893. — Russian  expedition,  under  Baron  Toll, 
to  the  New  Siberian  islands  and  the  Siberian  Arctic 
coasts. 

1893. — Danish    expedition    to    Greenland,    under 


Lieutenant  Garde,  for  a  geographical  survey  of 
the  coast  and  study  of  the  inland  ice. 

1893-1894. — Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Peary  and 
party  (Mrs.  Peary  again  of  the  number) , 
landing  in  Bowdoin  bay,  August,  1893 ;  attempt- 
ing in  the  following  March  a  sledge  journey  to 
Independence  bay,  but  compelled  to  turn  back. 
An  auxiliary  expedition  brought  back  most  of  the 
party  to  Philadelphia  in  September,  1894;  but 
Lieutenant  Peary  with  two  men  remained. 

1893-1894.— -Scientific  journey  of  Mr.  Frank 
Russell,  under  the  auspices  of  the  state  univer- 
sity of  Iowa,  from  Lake  Winnipeg  to  the  mouth 
of  Mackenzie  river  and  to  Herschel  island. 

1893-1900. — Scientific  exploration  of  Labrador 
by  A.  P.  Low. 

1894. — Expedition  of  Mr.  Walter  Wellman,  an 
American  journalist,  purposing  to  reach  Spitzber- 
gen  via  Norway,  and  to  advance  thence  towards 
the  Pole,  with  aluminum  boats.  The  party  left 
Tromso  May  i,  but  were  stopped  before  the  end 
of  the  month  by  the  crushing  of  their  vessel. 
They  were  picked  up  and  brought  back  to  Nor- 
way. 

1894. — Departure  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Jackson-Harmsworth  North  Polar  Expedition, 
planned  to  make  Franz  Josef  Land  a  base  of  op- 
erations from  which  to  advance  carefully  and  per- 
sistently towards  the  Pole. 

1895. — Preparations  of  Herr  Julius  von  Payer, 
for  an  artistic  and  scientific  expedition  to  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland,  in  which  he  will  be  accom- 
panied by  landscape  and  animal  painters,  photog- 
raphers and  savants. 

1895. — Return  of  Peary  relief  expedition  with 
Lieut.  Robert  E.  Peary  and  his  companions.  In 
spite  of  great  difficulties  Lieut.  Peary  had  again 
crossed  the  ice-sheet  to  Independence  bay,  deter- 
mined the  northern  limits  of  Greenland,  charted 
1,000  miles  of  the  west  coast,  discovered  eleven 
islands  and  the  famous  Iron  Mountain  (three  great 
meteorites),  and  obtained  much  knowledge  of  the 
natives.  The  purely  scientific  results  of  the  ex- 
pedition are  of  great  value.  The  relief  expedi- 
tion was  organized  by  Mrs.  Peary. 

1895. — Cruise  of  Mr.  Pearson  and  Lieut. 
Feilden  in  Barents  sea. 

1895. — Return  of  Martin  Ekroll  from  Spitz- 
bergen  after  a  winter's  study  of  the  ice  conditions 
there.  Convinced  that  his  plan  of  reaching  the 
pole  by  a  sledge  journey  had  little  chance  of  suc- 
cess. 

1895. — Survey  of  the  lower  Yenisei  river  and 
Ob  bay  by  Siberian  hydrographic  expedition. 

1895. — Commercial  expedition  of  Capt.  Wig- 
gins from  England  to  Golchika,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Yenisei 

1895. — Russian  geological  expedition  to  Nova 
Zembla. 

1895-. — Russian  expedition  under  the  geologist 
Bogdanovich  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and  Kam- 
chatka. 

1895-1896. — Two  scientific  voyages  of  the 
Danish  cruiser  Ingolf  in  the  seas  west  and  east  of 
Greenland. 

1896. — Summer  expedition  of  naturalists  and 
college  students  to  the  northern  coast  of  Labra- 
dor. 

1896. — Attempt  of  Lieut.  Peary  to  remove  the 
great  meteorite  discovered  by  him  at  Cape  York, 
Greenland.  After  dislodging  it  he  was  compelled 
by  the  ice  to  leave  it.  Small  parties  from  Cornell 
university  and  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy and  one  under  Mr.  George  Bartlett,  left  by 
Peary  at  different  points  to  make  scientific  ob- 
servations and  collections,  returned  with  him. 


478 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


Chronology 
1896-1898 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


1896. — Hydrographical  survey  of  the  Danish 
waters  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

1896. — Hansen  sent  to  Siberia  to  look  for  traces 
of  Nansen. 

1896. — Return  of  Dr.  Nansen  from  voyage 
begun  in  i8g3.  After  skirting  the  coast  of  Siberia 
almost  to  the  Lena  delta,  the  Fram  was  enclosed 
by  the  ice  and  drifted  with  it  north  and  north- 
west. On  March  14,  iSqs,  in  84°  4'  N.  lat.,  102" 
E.  long.,  Nansen  and  Johansen  left  the  Fram  and 
pushed  northward  with  dogs  and  sledges  across 
an  ice  floe  till  they  reached  lat.  86"  13.6',  at  about 
95°  W.  long.,  on  April  8,  within  261  statute  miles 
of  the  pole.  With  great  difficulty  they  made  their 
way  to  Franz  Josef  Land,  where  they  wintered, 
and  in  June  met  explorer  Jackson.  Returning  on 
the  Jackson  supply  steamer  Windward,  they 
reached  Vardo  Aug.  13.  The  Fram  drifted  to  lat. 
85°  57'  N.,  66°  E.  long.,  then  southwestward, 
reaching  Tromso  Aug.  20,  1896.  Nansen  demon- 
strated the  existence  of  a  polar  sea  of  great  depth, 
comparatively  warm  below  the  surface,  apparently 
with  few  islands;  though  he  did  not  find  the  trans- 
polar  current  he  sought. 

1896. — Spitsbergen  crossed  for  the  first  time, 
by  Sir  W.  Martin  Conway  and  party. 

1896. — Many  parties  visit  the  northern  coast 
of  Norway  and  Nova  Zembla  to  view  the  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  Aug    8-g. 

1896. — Expedition  sent  by  Russian  Hydro- 
graphic  Department  to  find  site  for  a  sealers' 
refuge  in  Nova  Zembla.  Bielusha  bay,  on  the 
southwest  coast,  chosen. 

1897. — Expedition  sent  by  Canadian  govern- 
ment to  investigate  Hudson  bay  and  strait  as  a 
route  to  Central  Canada.  Passage  found  to  be 
navigable  for  at  least  sixteen  weeks  each  summer. 

1897. — Seventh  Peary  expedition  to  Green- 
land. Accompanied  by  parties  for  scientific  re- 
search. Preliminary  arrangements  made  with  the 
Eskimos  for  the  expedition  of  i8q8,  and  food-sta- 
tions established.  Relics  of  Greely's  expedition 
found  on  cape  Sabine,  and  the  great  meteorite  at 
cape  York  brought  away  at  last. 
I  1897. — Second    expedition    of    Sir    Martin    Con- 

way for  the  exploration  of  Spitsbergen. 

1897. — A  summer  resort  established  on  west 
•oast  of  Spitsbergen,  with  regular  steamer  service 
for  tourists  during  July  and  August. 

1897. — Cruise  of  Mr.  Arnold  Pike  and  Sir 
Savile  Crossley  among  the  islands  east  of  Spits- 
bergen. 

1897. — Cruise  of  Mr.  Pearson  and  Lieut.  Feil- 
den  in  the  Laura  in  the  Kara  sea  and  along  the 
east  coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  natural  history  of  the  region. 

1897.— Expedition  of  F.  W.  L.  Popham  with 
a  fleet  of  steamers  through  Yugor  straits  to  the 
Yenisei. 

1897. — Hydrological  and  commercial  expedi- 
tion, comprising  seven  steamers,  under  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Makaroff,  sent  by  the  Russian  government 
to  the  north  Siberian  sea. 

1897. — Balloon  voyage  of  Salomon  August 
Andree  and  two  companions,  Mr.  Strindberg  and 
Mr.  Fraenkel,  starting  from  Danes'  island,  north 
of  Spitsbergen,  in  the  hope  of  being  carried  to  the 
Pole.  Four  buoys  from  the  balloon  have  been 
found.  The  first,  found  in  Norway  in  June,  i8qg, 
and  containing  a  note  from  Andree,  was  thrown 
out  eight  hours  after  his  departure.  The  "North 
Pole  buoy,"  to  be  dropped  when  the  Pole  was 
passed,  was  found  empty  on  the  north  side  of  King 
Charles  Island,  north-east  of  Spitzbergen,  Sept.  11, 
1899.  A  third  buoy,  also  empty,  was  found  on 
the  west  coast  of  Iceland  July  17,  1900.    Another, 


reported  from  Norway,  Aug.  31,  igoo,  contained 
a  note  showing  that  the  buoy  was  thrown  out  at 
10  p.  M.,  July  II,  1897,  at  an  altitude  of  250  metres 
{820  ft.),  moving  N.  45  E.,  with  splendid  weather. 
Many  search  expeditions,  some  equipped  at  great 
expense,  have  returned  unsuccessful.  In  spite  of 
many  rumors  nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  fate 
of  any  of  the  party.  One  message  from  Andree 
was  brought  back  by  a  carrier  pigeon.  It  was 
dated  July  13,  12.30  p.  m.,  in  lat.  82"  2',  long. 
12°  s'  E.,  and  stated  that  the  balloon  was  moving 
eastward. 

1897. — New  islands  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Franz  Josef  Land  discovered  by  Capt.  Robertson 
of  the  Dundee  whaler  Balasna. 

1897. — Return  of  Jackson-Harmsworthy  expedi- 
tion from  three  years'  exploration  of  Franz  Josef 
Land  and  the  region  north  of  it.  Franz  Josef 
Land  was  resolved  into  a  group  of  islands  and 
almost  entirely  mapped.  Small  parties  journey- 
ing northward  over  the  ice,  establishing  depots  of 
supplies,  the  most  northern  in  latitude  81°  21', 
discovered  and  named  Victoria  sea,  the  most  north- 
ern open  sea  in  the  world. 

1897-1899. — Journey  of  Andrew  J.  Stone  through 
the  Canadian  Rockies,  down  Mackenzie  river 
and  along  the  arctic  coast,  in  search  of  rare  mam- 
mals and  information  concerning  the  native 
tribes.  Mr.  Stone  often  had  only  one  companion. 
He  traveled  rapidly,  in  one  period  of  five  months 
covering  3,000  miles  of  arctic  coast  and  moun- 
tains, between  70°  and  72°  N.  lat.  and  between 
ll^y>°  and  140°  W.  long. 

1898.— Expedition  of  Dr.  K.  J.  V.  Steenstrup 
to  Greenland  to  study  the  glaciers  of  Disco  island. 

1898. — Completion  by  Dr.  Thoroddsen  of  his 
systematic  exploration   of   Iceland,  begun  in   1S81. 

1898. — Spitsbergen  circumnavigated  and  sur- 
veyed by  Dr.  A.  G.  Nathorst.  Coast  mapped  and 
important  scientific   observations  made. 

1898. — Pendulum  observations  made  in  Spits- 
bergen by  Prof.  J.  H.  Gore,  with  instruments  of 
the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  for 
the  determination  of  the  force  of  gravity  in  that 
latitude. 

1898. — Cruise  of  Prince  Albert  of  Monaco,  on 
coast  of  Spitsbergen,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
scientific  observations. 

1898. — Some  claim  to  Spitsbergen  made  by 
Russia.     Never  before  claimed  by  any  nation. 

1898. — German  arctic  expedition  under  Theo- 
dor  Lerner  to  the  islands  east  of  Spitsbergen,  for 
scientific  purposes  and  to  obtain  news  of  Andree 
if  possible. 

1898. — Andree  search  expedition  under  J. 
Stadling  sent  to  the  Lena  delta,  the  mouth  of  the 
Yenisei  and  the  islands  of  New  Siberia  by  the 
Swedish  Anthropological  and  Geographical  Society. 

1898-1899. — Reconnoitring  expedition  by  Dan- 
ish party  under  Lieut.  G.  C.  Amdrup,  to  east  coast 
of  Greenland.  Coast  explored  and  mapped  from 
Angmagssalik,  65-)4°  N.  lat.,  to  67°  22'.  Remains 
of  a  small  extinct  Eskimo  settlement  found. 

1898-1899.— Second  attempt  by  Walter  Well- 
man  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  Wintered  in  Franz 
Josef  Land,  establishing  an  outpost,  called  Fort 
McKinley,  in  lat.  81°  N.  In  February  Mr.  Well- 
man,  with  three  companions,  started  northward 
and  seemed  likely  to  succeed  in  their  undertaking, 
but  a  serious  accident  befalling  Mr.  Wellman,  and 
an  icequake  destroying  many  dogs  and  sledges,  a 
hurried  return  to  headquarters  was  necessary. 
Here  important  scientific  observations  were  made. 
The  82  d  parallel  was  reached  by  the  explorer. 

1898. — Carefully  planned  expedition  of  Lieut. 
Peary,  purposing  to  advance  toward  the  pole  by 


479 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


Chronology 
1898-1910 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 


west  coast  of  Greenland,  establishing  food  stations 
and  depending  upon  picked  Eskimos  for  coopera- 
tion with  his  small  party.  In  the  last  dash  for  the 
pole,  supply  sledges  to  be  sent  back  as  emptied, 
and  the  returning  explorer,  with  two  companions 
only,  to  be  met  by  a  relief  party  of  Eskimos.  The 
Windward  was  presented  by  Mr.  Harmsworth  for 
this  expedition.  Lieut.  Peary  was  disabled  for 
several  weeks  in  i8p8-g  by  severe  frost-bites,  caus- 
ing the  loss  of  seven  toes.  The  Greely  records 
were  found  at  Fort  Conger  and  sent  back  by  the 
annual  supply  vessel.  Sextant  and  record  of  the 
Nares  expedition  found  and  sent  back;  presented 
by  Lieut.  Peary  to  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty  of 
Great  Britain  and  placed  in  the  museum  of  the 
Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich.  Vessel  sent  to 
Greenland  each  summer  to  carry  supplies  and  bring 
back  letters,  carrying  also  small  parties  of  ex- 
plorers, scientists,  university  students  and  hunters, 
to  be  left  at  various  points  and  picked  up  by  the 
vessel  on  its  return. 

1898-. — Expedition  of  Capt.  Sverdrup  to  north- 
ern Greenland — Lieut.  Peary's  especial  field.  Hav- 
ing planned  a  polar  expedition  similar  to  Peary's  he 
sailed  up  the  west  coast,  but  the  Fram  was  frozen 
in  near  cape  Sabine.  Sverdrup  therefore  explored 
the  western  part  of  Ellesmere  Land,  then  sailed 
again  in  an  attempt  to  round  the  northern  coast 
of  Greenland. 

1899. — International  conference  held  at  Stock- 
holm in  June  recommended  a  program  for  hydro- 
graphical  and  biological  work  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  North  sea,  the 
Baltic,  and  adjoining  seas. 

1899-. — Scientific  expedition  of  Edward  Bay,  a 
Dane,  to  Melville  bay,  Greenland. 

1899. — Swedish  expedition  under  Dr.  A.  G. 
Nathorst  to  search  for  .^ndree  in  eastern  Green- 
land. Valuable  observations  made  and  fjord  sys- 
tems of  King  Oscar  fjord  and  Kaiser  Franz  Josei 
fjord  mapped. 

1899. — Explorations  in  Iceland  by  F.  W.  W. 
Howell  and  party. 

1899. — Hydrographic  sur\-eys  on  the  coasts  of 
Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands  by  MM.  Holm  and 
Hammer  in  the  Danish  guard-ship  Diana. 

1899. — Joint  Russian  and  Swedish  expedition 
to  Spitsbergen,  for  the  measurement  of  a  degree 
of  the  meridian.  Owing  to  the  condition  of  the 
ice,  the  northern  and  southern  surveying  parties 
unable  to  connect  their  work. 

1899. — Explorations  in  Spitsbergen  by  the 
Prince  of  Monaco,  with  a  scientific  staff. 

1899. — Successful  experimental  voyage  of  the 
Russian  Vice-Admiral  Makaroff  in  his  ice-break- 
ing steamer,  the  Yermak,  north  of  Spitsbergen. 

1899. — Russian  government  expedition,  to  cost 
£5,400,  to  explore  northern  shores  of  Siberia  to 
mouths  of  the  Ob  and  Yenisei. 

1899-1900. — Arctic  expedition  of  the  Duke  of 
the  .^bruzzi.  His  ship,  the  Stella  Polare,  was  left 
at  Crown  Prince  Rudolf  Land  during  the  winter. 
The  Duke  became  incapacitated  by  a  fall  and  by 
the  loss  of  two  joints  from  the  fingers  of  his  left 
hand,  incurably  frost-bitten ;  but  a  small  party 
under  Capt.  Cagni  pushed  northward  till  provisions 
were  exhausted.  Nansen's  record  was  beaten,  the 
Italian  party  reaching  lat.  86°  33',  at  about  56° 
E.  long.  No  land  was  found  north  or  northwest  of 
Spitsbergen.  Three  men  were  lost  from  Cagni's 
party. 

1899-. — Exploration  of  Ellesmere  Land,  Green- 
land, by  Dr.  Robert  Stein,  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  Dr.  Leopold  Kann  of  Cornell, 
and  Samuel  Warmbath  of  Harvard,  who  took  pas- 
sage in  the  Peary  supply  ship  Diana,  trusting  to 


chance  for  conveyance  home.  Their  totally  in- 
adequate outfit  was  generously  augmented  by 
Peary's  friends  of  the  Diana.  Dr.  Kann  returned 
in  iQoo,  leaving  Dr.  Stein. 

1900. — Seward  peninsula,  the  most  westward 
extension  of  Alaska,  explored  and  surveyed  by  five 
government  expeditions. 

1900. — Exploration  of  the  interior  of  northern 
Labrador  by  a  party  from  Harvard  university. 
Soundings  along  the  coast  by  schooner  Brave. 

1900. — Second  Danish  expedition  under  Lieut. 
Amdrup  to  east  Greenland,  completing  the  work  of 
i8g8-9  by  mapping  the  coast  between  67°  20'  N. 
and  cape  Gladstone,  about  70"  N.,  and  making 
valuable   scientific  collections. 

1900. — Swedish  expedition,  under  Gustav 
Kolthoff,  to  eastern  Greenland,  for  study  of  the 
arctic  fauna. 

1900. — Swedish  scientific  expedition  of  Prof.  G. 
Kolthoff  to   Spitzbergen   and   Greenland. 

1900. — Exploration  of  Spitsbergen  by  a  Rus- 
sian expedition  under  Knipovich. 

1900. — Russian  expedition  to  east  coast  of  Nova 
Zembla  by  Lieut.  Borissoff  to  complete  survey  of 
the  islands. 

1900- . — Dr.  Nansen's  expedition  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dr.  J.  Hjort,  for  the  physical  and  biological 
examination  of  the  sea  between  Norway,  Iceland, 
Jan  Mayen  and  Spitsbergen. — See  also  Spitsbergen: 
1 006- 1 02 1. 

1900-. — German  expedition,  under  Capt.  Bade, 
to  explore  East  Spitsbergen,  King  Charles'  Land 
and  Franz  Josef  Land,  and  to  look  for  traces  of 
Andree. 

1900-.— -Attempt  of  a  German,  Capt.  Bauen- 
dahl,  to  reach  the  North  Pole,  leaving  his  vessel 
in  the  ice  north  of  Spitsbergen  and  traveling  over 
the  ice  with  provisions  for  two  years,  -weighing  ten 
tons. 

1900-. — Scientific  expedition  of  Baron  E.  von 
Toll  to  the  unexplored  Sannikoff  Land,  sighted  in 
1805  from  the  northern  coast  islands  of  New  Si- 
beria. Preceded  by  a  party  which  established 
food  depots  at  various  places  months  before. 

1901. — Three  exploring  parties  sent  to  Alaska 
by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

1901.— Expedition  sent  by  the  Duke  of  the 
.•\bruzzi  to  Franz  Josef  Land  to  search  for  the 
three  men  lost  from  his  party  in  igoo. 

1901. — Roald  .Amundsen's  investigation  of  the 
oceanographic  conditions  around  Spitsbergen.  See 
Sutsbekcen:   iQ06-ig2i. 

1901. — North  polar  expedition  under  Mr.  Eve- 
lyn B.  Baldwin  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bu- 
reau; splendidly  equipped  by  Mr.  Wm.  Ziegler  of 
New  York. 

1903-1905. — Expedition  under  Anthony  Fiala, 
reaching  a  latitude  82°   13'. 

1903. — .Amundsen's  voyage  through  the  north- 
west passage. 

1905.— Explorations  of  the  Bdgica  under  Ger- 
lache. 

1906. — Prince  of  Monaco's  sur\Tey  of  the  western 
part  of  Spitsbergen.     See  Spitsbergek:    igo6-ig2i. 

1906-1907.— Erichsen  and  Hagen-Hagen's  survey 
of  Greenland  which  ended   in  a  tragedy. 

1907. — Expedition  under  Captain  Isachsen  and 
the  mapping  of  northwestern  Spitsbergen.  Sec 
Spitsbergem:    ioo6-ig2i. 

1907-1909.— Dr.  Cook's  attempt  to  reach  the 
Pole. 

1908.— Botanical  survey  of  the  fiord  region  in 
West  Spitsbergen  under  Mrs.  Hanna  Resvoll-Holm- 
sen.     See  SprrsBERGKN:   1Q06-1Q21. 

1910.— Expedition  to  Spitsbergen  under  Captain 
Isachsen.    See  Spitsbergen:   igo6-ig2i. 


480 


ARDAHAN 


AREOPAGUS 


1910-1911.— Hantzsch,  the  first  European  to 
cross  Baffinland. 

1911-1918. — Topographical  and  geographical  sur- 
veys of  Spitsbergen  made  under  Adolf  Hoel  and 
Captains  Arve  Staxrud  and  Sverre  Rovig.  See 
Spitsbergen:  1906-1921. 

1912. — Nansen's  investigation  of  the  waters  on 
the  northern  and  western  coasts  of  Spitsbergen. 
See  Spitsbergen:  1Q06-1921. 

1912. — Brussiloff's  voyage  north,  outcome  never 
known. 

1912. — Expedition  under  Lieutenant  Schroder- 
Stranz. 

1913-1918. — Stefansson  expedition,  its  great  im- 
portance  in   arctic   explorations. 

1917-1918.— Explorations  along  the  arctic  coast 
of  Alaska  by  Archdeacon  Stuck. 

1917. — Rasmussen's  surveys  in  the  Arctic. 

ARDAHAN,  a  fortified  town  of  Russian  Ar- 
menia, ceded  to  Russia  by  Turkey  in  1S78.  On 
the  outbreak  of  war  between  Turkey  and  Russia 
in  the  fall  of  1914  a  Turkish  army  was  organized 
for  the  invasion  of  the  Russian  Caucasus  with 
Ardahan  as  an  immediate  objective.  The  city  was 
taken  by  Enver  Pasha,  January  i,  191S,  but  was 
quickly  lost  in  the  subsequent  defeat  of  his  troops. 
It  was  successively  in  the  hands  of  Turks,  Arme- 
nians and  Bolsheviki  in  1918  and  1919. 

ARDASHIR,  the  modern  form  for  Artaxerxes, 
the  name  of  several  Persian  rulers. 

ARDEN,  Forest  of,  the  largest  forest  in  early 
Britain,  which  covered  the  greater  part  of  modern 
Warwickshire  and  "of  which  Shakespeare's  Arden 
became  the  dwindled  representative" — J.  R. 
Green,  Making  of  England,  ch.  7. 

ARDENNES,  Forest  of. — "In  Caesar's  time 
there  were  in  TGaul]  very  extensive  forests,  the 
largest  of  which  was  the  Arduenna  (Ardennes), 
which  extended  from  the  banks  of  the  lower  Rhine 
probably  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea." — 
G.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  republic,  v.  3.  ch. 
22. — "Ardennes  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  north- 
ern French  departments  which  contains  a  part  of 
the  forest  Ardennes.  Another  part  is  in  Luxem- 
burg and  Belgium.  The  old  Celtic  name  exists 
in  England  in  the  Arden  of  Warwickshire." — 
[bid.,  V.  4,  ch.  14. — This  wild  hilly  region  extend- 
ing over  parts  of  Belgium  and  France  slopes  grad- 
ually towards  the  plains  of  Flanders.  The  aver- 
age height  of  these  hills  is  about  1600  feet  al- 
though Mt.  Saint-Hubert  rises  to  an  altitude  of 
2100.  Within  this  section  are  some  of  the  finest 
forests  of  Europe  where  gently  undulating  areas 
are  densely  covered  with  oak  and  beech.  The 
most  important  river  flowing  through  the  Ardennes 
is  the  Meuse  which  has  cut  a  deep  channel  with 
precipitous  walls  600  feet  high  in  some  places. 
Coal  and  iron  mines'  lie  in  the  northwest,  and 
cattle  and  sheep  are  extensively  raised.  The  dis- 
trict, both  in  Belgium  and  in  France,  was  the 
scene  of  severe  fighting  (between  the  French  and 
the  Germans)  in  the  first  weeks  of  the  World  War. 
See  World  W.ar:  1Q14:  I.  Western  front:  j. 

ARDESH,  Caucasus  region:  Capture  by  Rus- 
sians (1916).  See  World  War:  1016:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  d,  1. 

ARDGLASS  ("Green  Height"),  a  small  pic- 
turesque-town on  the  Irish  coast  between  Kingston 
mole  and  Belfast  bay  in  County  Down.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  501.  The  harbor  was  one  of 
importance  from  earliest  times.  After  the  Norman 
invasion  it  "was  the  outlet  for  the  trade  of  the 
rich  agricultural  and  wool-producing  lands  of 
Down,  Tyrone,  and  Armagh,  and  traffic  was  car- 
ried on  in  wines,  cloth,  kerseys,  all  kinds  of  fish, 
wool,  and  tallow.  .  .  .  With  the  revival  of  Irish 


life  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the  gatherings 
of  English  merchants  to  Irish  fairs,  commerce 
increased  and  flourished  [see  Commerce:  14th 
century].  ...  It  is  said  that  a  trading  company 
with  a  grant  from  Henry  IV  built  the  famous  'New 
Works.'  "—A.  S.  Green,  Old  Irish  World,  p.  137 — 
Wars  of  the  English  and  Irish  raged  around  this 
harbor  and  brought  devastation  to  the  town  (see 
Ireland:  1559-1603).  .  .  .  "In  the  course  of  the 
gloomy  years  that  followed  the  old  house  fell  into 
decay.  [In  June,  191 1]  the  whole  derelict  prop- 
erty, long  deserted  by  its  landlords,  both  land  and 
village,  was  sold  for  the  benefit  of  English  mort- 
gagees and  bought  by  local  people." — Ibid.,  p.  149 

ARDRI,  or  Ardrigh,  "over  kings"  of  Ireland. 
See  Ireland,  1014;  Tuath. 

ARDSCUL,  Battle  near.  See  Ireland:  1314- 
1318. 

ARDSHIR.     See  Ardashir. 

AREANS.     See  Media  and  the  Medes. 

ARECUNAS.    See  Caribs:  Their  kindred. 

AREIOS.     See  Aria. 

ARELATE.  The  ancient  name  of  Aries.  The 
territory  covered  by  the  old  kingdom  of  Aries 
is  sometimes  called  the  Arelate.  See  BimcuNDY: 
1127-1378,  and  SAiYES. 

ARENA,  "in  an  amphitheatre  the  flat,  open 
space  enclosed  by  the  seats  for  spectators  and  re- 
served for  gladiatorial  combats  or  other  spectacles; 
so  called  because  spread  with  sand.  Hence,  any 
level  space  wholly  or  partly  surrounded  by  seats  for 
athletic  contests,  combats,  or  sports." — R.  Sturgis, 
Dictionary  of  architecture  and  building. 

ARENGO  (Arringo),  general  assembly.  See 
San  Marino,  Republic  of. 

ARENSKY,  Anton  Stephanovich  (1861-1906), 
distinguished  Russian  composer.  In  1883  he  be- 
came professor  of  composition  at  the  Imperial  Con- 
servatory in  Moscow  and  in  1895  succeeded  Bala- 
kirev  as  conductor  of  the  Imperial  Court  Chorus 
at  St,  Petersburg 

AREOPAGITICA  (1644),  a  pamphlet  by  Mil- 
ton, protesting  against  government  supervision  and 
control  of  literature;  considered  his  greatest  prose 
work.  See  Censorship:  England;  Printing  and 
the  press:   1644. 

AREOPAGUS.— "Whoever  [in  ancient  Athens] 
was  suspected  of  having  blood  upon  his  hands  had 
to  abstain  from  approaching  the  common  altars 
of  the  land.  Accordingly,  for  the  purpose  of  judg- 
ments concerning  the  guilt  of  blood,  choice  had 
been  made  of  the  barren,  rocky  height  which  lies 
opposite  the  ascent  to  the  citadel.  It  was  dedicated 
to  Ares,  who  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
was  ever  judged  here  for  the  guilt  of  blood ;  and  to 
the  Erinyes,  the  dark  powers  of  the  guilt-stained 
conscience.  Here,  instead  of  a  single  judge,  a  col- 
lege of  twelve  men  of  proved  integrity  conducted 
the  trial.  If  the  accused  had  an  equal  number  of 
votes  for  and  against  him,  he  was  acquitted.  The 
court  on  the  hill  of  Ares  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
institutions  of  Athens,  and  none  achieved  for  the 
city  an  earlier  or  more  widely-spread  recogni- 
tion."— E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  2,  ch. 
2. — "The  Areopagus,  or,  as  it  was  interpreted  by 
an  ancient  legend.  Mars'  Hill,  was  an  eminence 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Acropolis,  which  from 
time  immemorial  had  been  the  seat  of  a  highly 
revered  court  of  criminal  justice.  It  took  cog- 
nizance of  charges  of  wilful  murder,  maiming, 
poisoning  and  arson.  Its  forms  and  modes  of  pro- 
ceeding were  peculiarly  rigid  and  solemn.  It  was 
held  in  the  open  air,  perhaps  that  the  judges  might 
not  be  polluted  by  sitting  under  the  same  roof  with 
the  criminals.  .  .  .  The  venerable  character  of  the 
court  seems  to  have  determined  Solon  to  apply  it 


481 


AKEQUIPA 


ARGENTINA 


to  another  purpose;  and,  without  making  any 
change  in  its  original  jurisdiction,  to  erect  it  into 
a  supreme  council,  invested  with  a  superintending 
and  controlling  authority,  which  extended  over 
every  part  of  the  social  system.  He  constituted  it 
the  guardian  of  the  public  morals  and  religion,  to 
keep  watch  over  the  education  and  conduct  of  the 
citizens,  and  to  protect  the  State  from  the  dis- 
grace or  pollution  of  wantonness  and  profaneness. 
He  armed  it  with  extraordinary  powers  of  inter- 
fering in  pressing  emergencies,  to  avert  any  sudden 
and  imminent  danger  which  threatened  the  public 
safety.  The  nature  of  its  functions  rendered  it 
scarcely  possible  precisely  to  define  their  limits; 
and  Solon  probably  thought  it  best  to  let  them 
remain  in  that  obscurity  which  magnifies  what- 
ever is  indistinct.  ...  It  was  filled  with  archons 
who  had  discharged  their  office  with  approved 
fidelity,  and  they  held  their  seats  for  life." — C. 
Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  v.  i,  ch.  ii. — These 
enlarged  functions  of  the  Areopagus  were  with- 
drawn from  it  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  through  the 
agency  of  Ephialtes,  but  were  restored  about  B  C. 
400,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Thirty.  "Some 
of  the  writers  of  antiquity  ascribed  the  first  es- 
tablishment of  the  senate  of  Areopagus  to  Solon. 
.  .  .  But  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  is  a 
mistake,  and  that  the  senate  of  Areopagus  is  a 
primordial  institution  of  immemorial  antiquity, 
though  its  constitution  as  well  as  its  functions  un- 
derwent many  changes.  It  stood  at  first  alone  as 
a  permanent  and  collegiate  authority,  originally 
by  the  side  of  the  kings  and  afterwards  by  the 
side  of  the  archons:  it  would  then  of  course  be 
known  by  the  title  of  The  Boule, — the  senate,  or 
council;  its  distinctive  title  'senate  of  Areopagus,' 
borrowed  from  the  place  where  its  sittings  were 
held,  would  not  be  bestowed  until  the  formation 
by  Solon  of  the  second  senate,  or  council,  from 
which  there  was  need  to  discriminate  it." — G 
Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch  10,  v.  3. — See 
also  Athens:  B.C.  472-462. — In  Roman  times  it 
still  remained  one  of  the  governing  bodies  of 
Athens,  and  it  was  on  the  hill  of  the  Areopagus 
that  the  Apostle  Paul  delivered  his  famous  address 
to  the  Athenians. 

AREQUIPA,  the  capital  of  a  department  of 
the  same  name  in  southern  Peru,  founded  by 
Francisco  Pizarro,  the  Spanish  explorer  and  con- 
queror of  the  country,  in  the  year  1540;  captured 
by  the  Chileans  in  1883  toward  the  close  of  the 
war  between  Peru  and  Chile 

ARETAS  (Arab,  Haritha).  the  name  (Greek 
form)  of  a  line  of  kings  of  the  Nabataeans  who 
reigned  at  Petra,  Arabia. 

ARETHUSA,  Fountain  of.    See  Syracuse. 

AREVACa;,  one  of  the  tribes  of  the  Celti- 
berians  in  ancient  Spain.  Their  chief  town,  Nu- 
mantia,  was  the  stronghold  of  Celtiberian  resist- 
ance to  the  Roman  conquest. 

ARGADEIS.  See  Gentes;  Phyi..«:  Phratris. 

ARGALL,  Sir  Samuel  (c.  1580-1626),  English 
navigator  and  deputy  I'overnor  of  Virginia. 

Quarrel  with  the  French. — Attack  on  Nova 
Scotia.     See  Canada:   1610-1613. 

Control  of  Virginia  settlement.  See  Virginia: 
1 6 1 7  - 1 6 1 0 

ARGAND,  Aim6  (1775-1803),  Inventor  of  lamp 
chimneys  See  Inventions:  i8th  century:  Arti- 
ficial light. 

ARGAUM,  Battle  of  (1803).  See  India:  1798- 
1805 

ARGENSON,  the  name  of  a  French  family 
which  produced  a  long  line  of  celebrated  states- 
men, men  of  letters  and  soldiers.  Among  the  states- 
men who  were  members  of  this  prominent  family 


were  Rene  de  Voyer,  seigneur  d'Argenson  (1596- 
1651),  entrusted  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  with  many 
important  state  missions  and  appointed  ambassador 
at  Venice  by  Mazarin,  and  his  son  Marc  Rene  de 
Voyer,  comte  d'Argenson  (1623-1700),  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  embassy  at  Venice  at  his  father's, 
death.  Others  of  this  influential  family  who  dis-. 
tinguished  themselves  in  public  life  were  Marc 
Rene  de  Voyer,  marquis  de  Paulmy  and  maoquis, 
d'.'\rgenson  (1652-1721),  greatly  feared  for  bis  in- 
timate knowledge  of  state  secrets  and  intrigues," 
the  latter's  eldest  son,  Rene  Louis  de  Voyei  de 
Paulmy,  marquis  d'.Argenson  (1694-1757)  who  was 
a  prominent  statesman,  a  writer  of  considerable 
ability  and  associate  of  Voltaire  and  the  other  great 
philosophers  of  his  time;  his  younger  brother. 
Marc  Pierre  de  Voyer  de  Paulmy,  comte  d'Argen- 
son (1696-1764),  and  the  latter's  son,  Marc  Rene, 
marquis  de  Voyer  de  Paulmy  d'.\rgenson  (1721- 
1782),  who  served  as  governor  of  Vincennes  (1754) 
and  was  the  father  of  Marc  Rene  Marie  de  Voyer 
de  Paulmy,  marquis  d'Argenson  (1771-1842),  the 
most  liberal-minded  member  of  the  historic  family, 
who  embraced  the  revolutionary  cause  at  the  out- 
break of  the  French  revolution. 

ARGENTARIA,   Battle   of    (378).     See  Ale- 
manni:  378. 

ARGENTARIUS,  money   dealer.     See  Money 
AND  banking;  Ancient:   Rome, 

ARGENTINA:  Geographic  description.-^. 
The  federal  republic  of  .Argentina  is  next  to  Brazil 
the  largest  state  in  South  America  "To  outline 
the  physical  basis  of  the  Argentine  nation  we  may 
take  a  glance  at  the  country  itself  The  totak 
area  is  [roughly]  1,500,000  square  miles,  or  one- 
half  that  of  the  continental  United  States.  It  is  a 
country  long  from  north  to  south,  wider  in  its 
northern  and  warmer  section,  and  tapering  to  the 
point  of  Cape  Horn.  .  .  .  Buenos  .Aires  [the  capital] 
lies  in  the  latitude  of  Memphis,  Tennessee,  and  has 
a  mean  annual  temperature  equivalent  to  that  of 
South  Carolina  or  Alabama.  .  .  .  Thus  we  may 
say  that  the  central  region  of  .Argentina  corre- 
sponds closely  with  the  southern  Gulf  states  and 
the  southwest.  .  .  .  Thus  .Argentina,  which  reaches 
from  within  the  tropics  almost  to  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  experiences  a  range  of  temperatures  less 
than  those  found  in  the  United  States,  and  must 
be  characterized  as  a  region  of  mild  temperature 
or  subtropical  climate  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  its  extent.  .  .  .  The  agricultural  products  of 
the  country  vary  with  the  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture and  rainfall.  .  .  .  The  orange  grower  of  Flor- 
ida and  the  cotton  grower  of  the  Gulf  states 
would  be  at  home  in  the  northeastern  part.  .  .  . 
The  corn  planter  might  till  his  fields  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  "Buenos  Aires  province  and  the  wheat 
farmer  in  the  central  and  southern  parts.  The 
sugar  grower  from  Louisiana  would  find  cane  and 
the  sugar  monopoly  at  Tucuman,  the  orchardist  of 
California  could  grow  grapes  and  fruits  under  ir- 
rigation in  the  valleys  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes 
about  Mendoza.  The  cattlemen  of  northern  Texas 
and  the  sheep-herder  from  .Arizona  and  Wyoming 
might  duplicate  their  ranges  from  Cordoba  south 
to  Santa  Cruz,  and  in  the  far  south,  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  the  webfooted  Oregonian  would  find  con- 
genial gray  skies,  mists,  and  rain.  .After  this  gen- 
eral survey  it  is  desirable  to  distinguish  more 
clearly  the  nucleal  region  of  .Argentina.  The  river 
provinces  that  range  along  both  sides  of  the  navi- 
gable Parana  and  Paraguay  on  the  north  and  east 
are  Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  and  Missiones;  on  the 
south  and  west  Buenos  Aires,  Sante  Fe.  and  the 
territories  of  El  Chaco  and  Formosa.  These  form 
the  nucleus  of  the  Argentine  domain  about  which 


482 


ARGENTINA 


Railroads 


ARGENTINA 


the  other  provinces  and  territories  are  grouped. 
Here  are  the  rich  delta  lands  and  the  pampas  fa- 
vored by  climate,  soil  and  facile  communication 
with  the  world.  Here  will  gather  a  dense  popula- 
tion and  will  always  be  the  seat  of  Argentine  wealth 
and  commerce — the  heart  of  the  Argentine  nation. 
.  .  .  Here  are  immense  plains  now  widely  flooded 
by  the  tropical  rains,  but  a  slight  change  of  level 
would  convert  them  from  swamps  into  rich  ex- 
tensive agricultural  lands.  ...  A  peculiarity  of  the 
loess  soils  is  their  capacity  to  store  up  water  and 
to  retain  their  fertility  under  cultivation.  The 
Chinese  fields  have  been  tilled  for  more  than 
4000  years  without  exhaustion,  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  fields  of  the  Pampas, 
under  intelligent  culture,  will  also  remain  prac- 
tically inexhaustible.  .  .  .  Eastward  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  Andean  streams,  in  the  territories  of 
central  and  southern  Argentina  is  the  great  area 
of  land  which  must  always  be  devoted  to  grazing, 
and  in  large  part  to  sheep  raising.  In  the  northern 
and  drier  regions  of  Patagonia  the  tine  wooled 
Merino  finds  a  congenial  home,  and  there  may 
be  grown  the  wool  suited  to  the  manufacture  of 
fine  clothing  and  knitted  goods.  As  we  go  south 
into  the  colder  and  moister  districts  toward  the 
straits,  the  Merino  give?  place  to  the  heavier  and 
coarser  English  breeds,  which  are  bred  rather  for 
mutton  than  for  wool,  and  there  already  are  lo- 
cated the  freezing  establishments  which  prepare 
mutton  for  the  European  markets.  .  .  .  Where  it  is 
practical  it  is  more  profitable  to  grow  wheat  and 
corn  than  to  grow  beef  and  mutton,  and  the  eco- 
nomic advantage  will  in  time  displace  the  less 
profitable  industry.  ,  .  .  Argentina  has  no  coal  and 
throughout  nine-tenths  of  her  territory  no  large 
amount  of  water-power  which  can  be  utilized  for 
manufacturing.  Here  she  is  definitely  and  narrowly 
Umited,  and  must  always  be  dependent  for  manu- 
factured products  upon  countries  more  fortunately 
conditioned.  .  .  .  There  are  two  districts  in  which 
water-power  may  be  applied  to  manufacturing  on 
a  scale  sufficient  to  affect  the  welfare  of  the  na- 
tion. One  of  them  is  in  the  far  northeast  where 
the  falls  of  Iguazu  may  yield  twice  the  power  of 
Niagara,  and  the  other  in  the  southwest  where 
many  streams  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cordillera  will 
afford  power  to  attract  a  manufacturing  popula- 
tion. .  .  .  The  power  of  Iguazu  is  near  the  great 
centers  of  commerce,  being  situated  on  the  Parana 
and  capable  of  transmission  down  the  val- 
ley of  the  river  to  within  reach  of  navi- 
gable waters.  .  .  .  The  Cordilleran  district  is 
as  far  from  Buenos  .Aires  as  St.  Louis 
from  New  York,  or  Rome  from  London,  and  at 
present  is  still  isolated  for  lack  of  communication; 
but  railways  are  in  process  of  extension  toward  it, 
and  it  will  soon  be  brought  within  reach  of 
freight  and  also  of  tourist  traffic.  Three  raw  ma- 
terials of  prime  importance — wool,  hides  and  wood 
— are  immediately  available  in  the  district  itself 
and  the  surrounding  areas,  and  there  will  eventu- 
ally be  established  important  manufacturing  in- 
dustries to  supply  the  great  agricultural  provinces." 
— G.  H.  Blakeslee,  Latin  America,  pp.  344-351. — 
See  also  Latin  America:  Agriculture;  and  Map  of 
South  America. 

Railroads. — "There  are  20,000  miles  of  railroads 
in  the  Republic.  The  British  showed  the  way  in 
the  initial  building,  and  their  lines  pass  through 
some  of  the  fattest  territory.  The  French  have 
been  tardy  followers,  but  have  constructed  useful 
minor  lines.  The  Argentine  Government  has  built 
State  lines  through  country  that  was  suitable  for 
colonisation,  but  which  did  not  appeal  to  the  out- 
side investor.    These  State  railways  are  financially 


a  failure.  One  reason  is  that  the  territory  through 
which  they  run  is  not  of  the  best.  The  principal 
reason  is  that  they  are  the  prey  of  the  pohticians. 
Constituencies  have  to  be  considered,  and  innum- 
erable jobs  found  for  the  hangers-on  of  poUtical 
parties.  Business  conditions  are  the  last  to  be 
thought  of,  and,  though  the  Government  has  done 
well  in  throwing  these  lines  into  distant  regions 
needing  development,  they  are  not  likely  to  suc- 
ceed until  placed  under  different  control.  Not  only 
have  the  Argentines  themselves  not  started  railway 
companies,  but  they  have  no  money  invested  in 
the  foreign  companies.  One  cause  is  that,  though 
the  Government  insists  on  a  local  board  of  direct- 
ors, the  real  board  of  directors  is  abroad,  chiefly  in 
London.  Another  cause  is  that  dividends  are  lim- 
ited by  law  to  7  per  cent.,  and  that  is  not  a  suf- 
ficient return  for  the  Argentine.  He  does  not  care 
to  touch  investments  that  do  not  yield  12  per 
cent.,  and  when  he  gets  30  per  cent,  he  thinks 
that  about  fair — and  the  country  is  so  prosper- 
ous it  can  afford  it.  Although  within  the  last 
fifteen  years  millions  of  British  money  have  poured 
into  Argentina  for  railway  construction,  the  in- 
vestor in  the  old  days  cast  a  hesitating  eye  on 
South  America  as  a  place  to  sink  his  capital.  In 
the  'fifties  a  railway  a  few  miles  long  was  all  that 
Argentina  could  boast,  and  ten  years  later,  when 
7  per  cent,  was  guaranteed,  money  was  not  forth- 
coming. As  an  inducement  to  construct  a  line  be- 
tween Rosario  and  Cordoba  the  absolute  ownership 
of  three  miles  on  either  side  of  the  line  was  offered. 
Even  with  such  an  attraction  the  British  investor 
was  shy.  Gradually,  however,  money  was  forth- 
coming, and  lines  were  laid.  In  the  'eighties  there 
came  a  spurt.  It  was  not  till  the  years  following 
iQoo  that  money  could  be  had  for  the  asking. 
Lines  cobwebbed  the  profitable  country ;  distant 
points  were  linked  up;  land  which  previously  had 
little  beyond  prairie  value  bounced  up  in  price. 
Railway  companies  in  England  have  had  to  fight 
landowners  to  make  headway.  In  Argentina  land- 
owners welcome  the  coming  of  a  railway,  for  ob- 
vious reasons.  Most  of  the  wealthy  Argentines 
owe  their  fortunes  to  their  land  being  benefited  by 
the  railways.  As  a  rule,  out  in  the  far  districts, 
a  railway  company  can  get  the  necessary  land  for 
nothing.  Owners  are  willing  to  make  financial 
contributions.  The  general  managers  of  the  big 
British  railways  in  Argentina  get  large  salaries — 
£7,000  [.$35,000]  a  year.  This  is  partly  to  remove 
them  from  the  range  of  temptation  of  being 
bribed  by  owners,  syndicates,  or  land  companies 
to  authorise  the  making  of  railways  where  they 
would  not  be  economically  advisable.  Of  course, 
extensions  near  the  big  towns  cost  the  railways  as 
much  as  they  would  in  England.  I  know  a  man 
who  thirty  years  ago  bought  a  piece  of  land  for 
£1,600  r$8,ooo].  He  sold  it  to  a  railway  com- 
pany for  over  £200,000  [$i,ooo,oool.  Though 
foreign  capital  Is  having  so  extensive  a  run  in  net- 
working the  country  with  railways,  the  Argentine 
Government  has  a  much  closer  grip  on  the  work- 
ing of  the  lines  than  the  Board  of  Trade  has  on 
English  companies.  It  is  therefore  no  misrepresen- 
tation to  say  that,  whilst  private  owners  are  glad 
to  have  their  prop>erty  enhanced  in  value  by  the 
juxtaposition  of  a  railway,  the  Government  puts 
obstacles  in  the  way  for  what  are  ostensibly  public 
reasons.  Accordingly,  expensive  'diplomacy'  has 
sometimes  to  be  used.  The  Government  is  suffi- 
ciently aware  of  the  return  the  foreign  investor 
gets — and  when  fresh  extensions  are  sought  it  in- 
variably withholds  its  consent  until  some  conces- 
sion has  been  wrung  out  of  the  company,  such 
as  an   undertaking  to   construct  a  line   through   a 


483 


ARGENTINA 


Railroads 
Racial  Elements 


ARGENTINA 


district  that  cannot,  for  some  time  at  any  rate, 
be  a  success.  There  is  never  any  guarantee  that 
another  company  will  not  be  tormed  to  work  the 
same  district.  The  Government  smiles  at  the  tight 
between  the  two  lines  for  traffic — to  the  public 
benefit.  When  companies  propose  to  amalgamate 
the  Government  either  malies  such  demands  in  re- 
gard to  uneconomic  lines  that  the  thing  falls 
through  or  a  veto  is  put  upon  the  amalgamation 
altogether.  All  railway  material  comes  in  duty 
free,  but  one  of  the  conditions  is  that  3  per  cent, 
of  the  profits  shall  be  used  for  the  making  of  roads 
leading  to  railway  stations.  The  companies  do 
not  object,  because  the  call  is  not  large,  and  it  is 
to  their  interest  that  agriculturists  should  be  able 
to  get  their  produce  to  the  railway  station  to  be 
transported  over  the  lines.  The  Direccion-General 
de  Ferrocarriles  [railroads]  is  the  authority  over 
the  railways  in  Argentina.  It  decides  the  num- 
ber of  trains  which  shall  be  run,  and  it  insists  on 
the  number  of  coaches.  There  must  be  a  certain 
number  of  dormitory  cars  on  all-night  trains,  and 
restaurant  cars  are  obligatory  over  certain  dis- 
tances. Every  train  carries  a  letter-box,  and  re- 
cently the  companies  have  been  squeezed  into  car- 
rying the  mails  for  nothing.  A  medicine  chest,  a 
stretcher,  a  bicycle — so  that  quick  communication 
can  be  made  with  the  nearest  station  in  case  of 
accident — and  all  sorts  of  necessities  in  case  of  a 
breakdown  are  compulsor,'  Every  carriage  is 
thoroughly  disinfected  every  month,  and  there  is 
always  a  card  to  be  initialled  by  an  inspector.  All 
bedding  and  mattresses  are  subject  to  scientific 
disinfection  such  as  I  have  seen  nowhere  in  Europe. 
No  time-tables  can  be  altered  without  the  sanction 
of  the  National  Railway  Board  at  least  two  months 
before  coming  into  operation.  If  trains  stop  at 
stations  for  which  they  are  not  schedued  a  heavy 
fine  is  imposed;  and  all  late  trains,  and  the  reason, 
have  to  be  reported  to  the  Government  authority. 
No  alteration,  however  small,  to  a  station  building 
or  to  the  design  of  rolling  stock  is  permissible 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Government  representa- 
tives. A  complaint  book  is  at  every  station,  open 
to  anyone  to  complain  on  any  subject.  The  Re- 
public lives  by  its  exports  of  meat  and  agricultural 
product.  Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  this  trade  is 
carried  to  the  ports  by  the  railways.  From  the 
railroad  cars  one  beholds  productiveness;  yet  fif- 
teen or  twenty  miles  away  lies  land  just  as  pro- 
ductive but  as  yet  untouched  by  the  plough,  be- 
cause there  is  neither  sufficient  population  to  cul- 
tivate nor  railways  to  carry.  Within  the  next 
dozen  years  there  must  inevitably  be  a  further 
spurt  in  the  making  of  feeding  or  auxiliary  lines. 
Something  like  £20,000,000  a  year  is  crossing  the 
ocean  for  fresh  railway  enterprises  in  Argentina. 
Nearly  40,000,000  tons  of  goods  are  carried  over 
the  lines  each  year,  and  the  receipts  are  something 
Hke  £25,000,000  annually." — J.  F.  Eraser,  Amazing 
Argenline,  pp.  45-40 — "Railways  open,  January 
I,  iqio,  22,578  miles,  of  which  3,816  miles  (18  per 
cent.)  belong  to  the  State.  The  capital  invested 
in  Argentine  railways  amounts  to  1,254,705,500 
gold  dollars." — Statesmuii's  Year-Book,  1020. — See 
also  Railroads:   iqi7-iQiq. 

Political  divisions. — In  igai  the  republic  was 
composed  of  a  group  of  one  federal  district:  Buenos 
Aires  with  Martin  Garcia  island;  fourteen  prov- 
inces: Buenos  Aires  (La  Plata),  Cordoba.  Mendoza, 
Santa  Fe,  Santiago  del  Estero,  Salta,  Entre  Rio.s 
(Parana),  Corrientes.  San  Luis,  Tucuman,  San 
Juan,  La  Rioja,  Catamarca  and  Jujui;  ten  terri- 
tories: Santa  Cruz  (Gallegos),  Chubut  (Rawson), 
Rio  Negro  (Viedma),  Pampa  Central  (Santa  Rosa 
de    Toay),    Chaco    (Resistencia),    Formosa,    Neu- 


quen,  Los  Andes  (San  Antonio  de  los  Cobres), 
Misiones  (Posadas),  Tierra  del  Fuego  (Ushuaia). 
Population. — Racial  elements. — .According  to 
the  first  census  taken  in  twenty  years  (1914)  the 
population  was  7,905,502.  The  number  of  foreign- 
ers, principally  of  Spanish  and  Italian  origin,  was 
2,357,952,  including  about  40,000  of  British  ex- 
traction. Latest  estimates  of  the  total  population 
were— 1915:  7,979,259;  1919:  8,533,332.— "No  other 
Spanish- American  state,  except  Uruguay,  has  a 
people  of  a  stock  so  predominantly  European.  The 
aboriginal  Indian  element  is  too  small  to  be  worth 
regarding.  It  is  now  practically  confined  to  the 
Gran  Chaco  in  the  extreme  north,  but  elsewhere 
the  influence  of  Indian  blood  is  undiscernible 
among  the  people  to-day.  The  aborigines  of  the 
central  Pampas  have  disappeared, — nearly  all  were 
killed  off, — and  those  of  Patagonia  have  been  dying 
out.  We  have,  therefore,  a  nation  practically  of 
pure  South  European  blood,  whose  differences 
from  the  parent  stock  are  due,  not  to  the  infusion 
of  native  elements  but  to  local  and  historical  causes. 
Till  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  this  population  was 
almost  entirely  of  Spanish  stock.  Then  the  rapid 
development  of  the  Pampas  for  tillage  began  to 
create  a  demand  for  labour,  which,  while  it  in- 
creased immigration  from  Spain,  brought  in  a 
new  and  larger  flow  from  Italy.  The  Spaniards 
who  came  were  largely  from  the  northern  provinces 
and  among  them  there  were  many  Basques,  a  race 
as  honest  and  energetic  as  any  in  Europe.  .  .  .  The 
Italians  have  flocked  in  from  all  parts  of  their 
peninsula,  but  the  natives  of  the  north  take  to 
the  land,  and  furnish  a  very  large  part  of  the  ag- 
ricultural labour,  while  the  men  from  the  south- 
ern provinces,  usually  called  Napolitanos,  stay  in 
the  towns  and  work  as  railway  and  wharf  porters, 
or  as  boatmen,  and  at  various  odd  jobs.  In  igog, 
out  of  1,750,000  persons  of  foreign  birth  in  the 
republic,  there  were  twice  as  many  Italians  as 
Spaniards,  besides  one  hundred  thousand  from 
France,  the  latter  including  many  French  Basques, 
who  are  no  more  French  than  Spanish.  Between 
1004  and  1900  the  influx  of  immigrants  had  risen 
from  125,000  annually  to  255,000.  The  Spaniards, 
of  course,  blend  naturally  and  quickly  with  the 
natives,  who  speak  the  same  tongue.  The  Italians 
have  not  yet  blent  .  .  .  but  there  is  so  much  simi- 
larity .  .  .  that  they  will  eventually  become  ab- 
sorbed into  the  general  population.  Children  bom 
in  the  country  grow  up  to  be  .Argentines  in  senti- 
ment, and  are,  perhaps,  even  more  vehemently  pa- 
triotic than  the  youth  of  native  stock.  ...  In  con- 
sidering the  probable  result  of  the  commingling, 
and  as  a  fact  explaining  the  readiness  with  which 
Italian  immigrants  allow  themselves  to  be  Argen- 
tinized,  one  must  remember  that. these  come  from 
the  humblest  and  least-educated  strata  of  Italian 
society.  They  are,  like  all  Italians,  naturally  in- 
telligent, but  they  have  not  reached  that  grade  of 
knowledge  which  attaches  men  to  the  literature 
and  the  historical  traditions  of  their  own  country. 
.  .  .  The  other  foreigners,  French,  English  (busi- 
ness men  and  landowning  farmers),  and  German 
(chiefly  business  men  in  the  cities)  are  hardly  nu- 
merous enough  to  affect  the  .Argentine  type,  and  the 
two  latter  have  hitherto  remained  as  distinct  ele- 
ments, being  mostly  Protestants  and  marrying  per- 
sons of  their  own  race.  They  occupy  themselves 
entirely  with  business  and  have  not  entered  Argen- 
tine public  life:  yet  as  many  of  them  mean  to 
remain  in  the  country,  and  their  children  born  in 
it  become  thereby  Argentine  citizens,  it  is  likely 
that  they,  also,  will  presently  be  absorbed,  and 
their  Argentine  descendants  may  figure  in  politics 
here,  as  families  of  Irish  and  British  origin  do  in 


484 


ARGENTINA,    1515-1557 


Buenos  Aires  ARGENTINA,  1580-1777 


Chile." — Lord  Bryce,  Soulh  America,  pp.  338-341. 
— Sec   also   Gr.an   Chaco. 

1515-1557. — Discovery,  exploration  and  early 
settlement  on  La  Plata.     See  Paraguay:     1515- 

1535-1542. — Mendoza's  and  Cabeza  de  Vaca's 
explorations. — Founding  of  Buenos  Aires.     See 

Buenos  .Aires:    1535-1542. 

1580-1777. — Final  founding  of  the  city  of 
Buenos  Aires. — Conflicts  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
over  La  Plata. — Creation  of  the  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Aires. — "In  the  year  1580  the  founda- 
tions of  a  lasting  city  were  laid  at  Buenos  Ayres 
by  De  Garay  on  the  same  situation  as  had  twice 
previously  been  chosen — namely,  by  Mendoza,  and 
by  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  respectively.  [See  Buenos 
Aires:  1580-1650.]  The  same  leader  [De  Garay] 
had  before  this  founded  the  settlement  of  Sante 
Fe  on  the  Parana.  The  site  selected  for  the  future 
capital  of  the  Pampas  is  probably  one  of  the  worst 
ever  chosen  for  a  city  .  .  .  has  probably  the  worst 
harbour  in  the  world  for  a  large  commercial  town. 
.  .  .  Notwithstanding  the  inconvenience  of  its  har- 
bour, Buenos  Ayres  soon  became  the  chief  com- 
mercial entrepot  of  the  Valley  of  the  Plata.  The 
settlement  was  not  effected  without  some  severe 
fighting  between  De  Garay's  force  and  the  Que- 
rar.dies.  The  latter,  however,  were  effectually 
quelled.  .  .  .  The  Spaniards  were  now  nominally 
masters  of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  but  they  had  still 
to  apprehend  hostilities  on  the  part  of  the  natives 
between  their  few  and  far-distant  settlements  [con- 
cerning which  see  Paraguay:  1515-1557).  Of  this 
liability  De  Garay  himself  was  to  form  a 
lamentable  example.  On  his  passage  back  to  Asun- 
cion, having  incautiously  landed  to  sleep  near 
the  ruins  of  the  old  fort  of  San  Espiritu,  he  was 
surprised  by  a  party  of  natives  and  murdered, 
with  all  his  companions.  The  death  of  this  brave 
Biscayan  was  mourned  as  a  great  loss  by  the  en- 
tire colony.  The  importance  of  the  (pities  founded 
by  him  was  soon  apparent;  and  in  1620  all  the 
settlements  south  of  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Parana  and  Paraguay  were  formed  into  a  separate 
independent  government,  under  the  name  of  Rio  de 
La  Plata,  of  which  Buenos  -Ayres  was  declared  the 
capital.  This  city  likewise  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric.  .  .  .  The  merchants  of  Seville,  who  had 
obtained  a  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  regarded  with  much  jealousy  the  prospect  of 
a  new  opening  for  the  South  American  trade  by 
way  of  La  Plata,"  and  procured  restrictions  upon 
it  which  were  relaxed  in  1618  so  far  as  to  permit 
the  sending  of  two  vessels  of  100  tons  each  every 
year  to  Spain,  but  subject  to  a  duty  of  50  per  cent. 
"Under  this  miserable  commercial  legislation 
Buenos  Ayres  continued  to  languish  for  the  first 
century  of  its  existence.  In  1715,  after  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  the  English  .  .  .  obtained  the  'asiento' 
or  contract  for  supplying  Spanish  colonies  in 
America  with  African  slaves,  in  virtue  of  which 
they  had  permission  to  form  an  establishment  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  to  send  thither  annually  four 
ships  with  1,200  negroes,  the  value  of  which  they 
might  export  in  produce  of  the  country.  They 
were  strictly  forbidden  to  introduce  other  goods 
than  those  necessary  for  their  own  establishments; 
but  under  the  temptation  of  gain  on  the  one  side 
and  of  demand  on  the  other,  the  asiento  ships 
naturally  became  the  means  of  transacting  a  con- 
siderable contraband  trade.  .  .  .  The  English  were 
not  the  only  smugglers  in  the  river  Plate.  By 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  Portuguese  had  obtained 
the  important  settlement  of  Colonia  [the  first 
settlement  of  the  Banda  Oriental — or  'Eastern 
Border' — afterwards      called      Uruguay]      directly 


facing  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  Portuguese,  .  . 
not  contented  with  the  possession  of  Colonia  .  .  . 
commenced  a  more  important  settlement  near 
Monte  Video.  From  this  place  they  were  dis- 
lodged by  Zavala  [governor  of  Buenos  Ayres), 
who,  by  order  of  his  government,  proceeded  to 
establish  settlements  at  that  place  and  at  Maldo- 
nado.  Under  the  above-detailed  circumstances  of 
contention  .  .  .  was  founded  the  healthy  and 
agreeable  city  of  Monte  Video.  .  .  .  The  inevitable 
consequence  of  this  state  of  things  was  fresh  an- 
tagonism between  the  two  countries,  which  it 
was  sought  to  put  an  end  to  by  a  treaty  between 
the  two  nations  concluded  in  1750.  One  of  the 
articles  stipulated  that  Portugal  should  cede  to 
Spain  all  of  her  establishments  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Plata;  in  return  for  which  she  was  to  re- 
ceive the  seven  missionary  towns  [known  as  the 
'Seven  Reductions']  on  the  Uruguay.  But  .  .  . 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Missions  naturally  rebelled 
against  the  idea  of  being  handed  over  to  a  people 
known  to  them  only  by  their  slave-dealing  atroci- 
ties. .  .  .  The  result  was  that  when  2,000  natives 
had  been  slaughtered  [in  the  war  known  as  the 
War  of  the  Seven  Reductions]  and  their  settle- 
ments reduced  to  ruins,  the  Portuguese  repudiated 
the  compact,  as  they  could  no  longer  receive  their 
equivalent,  and  they  still  therefore  retained  Colo- 
nia. When  hostilities  were  renewed  in  1762,  the 
governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  succeeded  in  possessing 
himself  of  Colonia;  but  in  the  following  year  it 
was  restored  to  the  Portuguese,  who  continued  in 
possession  until  1777,  when  it  was  definitely  ceded 
to  Spain.  The  continual  encroachments  of  the 
Portuguese  in  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  and  the  im- 
punity with  which  the  contraband  trade  was  car- 
ried on,  together  with  the  questions  to  which  i? 
constantly  gave  rise  with  foreign  governments,  had 
long  shown  the  necessity  for  a  change  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  that  colony;  for  it  was  still  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Viceroy  of  Peru,  residing  at 
Lima,  3,000  miles  distant.  The  Spanish  authorities 
accordingly  resolved  to  give  fresh  force  to  their 
representatives  in  the  Rio  de  La  Plata ;  and  in 
1776  they  took  the  important  resolution  to  sever 
the  connection  between  the  provinces  of  La  Plata 
and  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The  former  were 
now  erected  into  a  new  Viceroyalty,  the  capital 
of  which  was  Buenos  Ayres.  ...  To  this  Vice- 
royalty  was  appointed  Don  Pedro  Cevallos,  a  for- 
mer governor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  first  act 
of  Cevallos  was  to  take  possession  of  the  island 
of  St.  Katherine,  the  most  important  Portuguese 
possession  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Proceeding 
thence  to  the  Plate,  he  razed  the  fortifications  of 
Colonia  to  the  ground,  and  drove  the  Portuguese 
from  the  neighbourhood.  In  October  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1777,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  St.  Ildefonso,  between  Queen  Maria  of  Portu- 
gal and  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  by  virtue  of  which 
St.  Katherine's  was  restored  to  the  latter  country, 
whilst  Portugal  withdrew  from  the  Banda  Orien- 
tal or  Uruguay,  and  relinquished  all  pretensions 
to  the  right  of  navigating  the  Rio  de  La  Plata 
and  its  affluents  beyond  its  own  frontier  line.  .  .  . 
The  Viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  sub-divided 
into  the  provinces  of — (i.)  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capi- 
tal of  which  was  the  city  of  that  name,  and  which 
comprised  the  Spanish  possessions  that  now  form 
the  Republic  of  Uruguay,  as  well  as  the  Argentine 
provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  Fe,  Entre  Rios, 
and  Corrientes;  (2.)  Paraguay,  the  capital  of 
which  was  Asuncion,  and  which  comprised  what 
is  now  the  Republic  of  Paraguay;  (3.)  Tucuman, 
the  capital  of  which  was  St.  lago  del  Estero,  and 
which    included    what    are    to-day    the    Argentine 


485 


ARGENTINA,    1806-1820 


Conflict 
with  English 


ARGENTINA,  1806-1820 


provinces  of  Cordova,  Tucuman,  St.  lago,  Salta, 
Catamarca,  Rioja,  and  Jujuy;  (4.)  Las  Charcas  or 
Potosi,  the  capital  of  which  was  La  Plata,  and 
which  now  forms  the  Republic  of  Bolivia;  and  (5.) 
Chiquito  or  Cuyo,  the  capital  of  which  was  Men- 
doza,  and  in  which  were  comprehended  the  pres- 
ent Argentine  provinces  of  St.  Luiz,  Mendoza,  and 
St.  Juan." — R.  G.  Watson,  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
South  America,  v.  2,  ch.  13-14. 

Also  in:  E.  J.  Payne,  History  of  European 
colonies,  ch.  17.— S.  H.  Wilcocke,  History  of  the 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

1806-1820. — English  invasion. — Revolution. — 
Independence  achieved. — Confederation  of  the 
provinces  of  the  Plate  river  and  its  dissolution. 
— "The  trade  of  the  Plate  River  had  enormously 
increased  since  the  substitution  of  register  ships 
for  the  annual  flotilla,  and  the  erection  of  Buenos 
Ayres  into  a  viceroyalty  in  177S;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  war  of  1797  that  the  English  became 
aware  of  its  real  extent.  The  British  cruisers  had 
enough  to  do  to  maintain  the  blockade:  and  when 
the  English  learned  that  millions  of  hides  were 
rotting  in  the  warehouses  of  Monte  Video  and 
Buenos  Ayres,  they  concluded  that  the  people 
would  soon  see  that  their  interests  would  be  best 
served  by  submission  to  the  great  naval  power. 
The  peace  put  an  end  to  these  ideas ;  but  Pitt's 
favourite  project  for  destroying  Spanish  influence 
in  South  America  by  the  English  arras  was  re- 
vived and  put  in  execution  soon  after  the 
opening  of  the  second  European  war  in  1803.  In 
1806  ...  he  sent  a  squadron  to  the  Plate  River, 
which  offered  the  best  point  of  attack  to  the  Brit- 
ish fleet,  and  the  road  to  the  most  promising  of 
the  Spanish  colonies.  The  English,  under  General 
Beresford,  though  few  in  number,  soon  took 
Buenos  Ayres,  for  the  Spaniards,  terrified  at  the 
sight  of  British  troops,  surrendered  without  know- 
ing how  insignificant  the  invading  force  really 
was.  When  they  found  this  out,  they  mustered 
courage  to  attack  Beresford  in  the  citadel;  and 
the  English  commander  was  obliged  to  evacuate 
the  place.  The  English  soon  afterwards  took  pos- 
session of  Monte  Video  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river.  Here  they  were  joined  by  another  squad- 
ron, who  were  under  orders,  after  reducing  Buenos 
Ayres,  to  sail  round  the  Horn,  to  take  Valparaiso, 
and  establish  posts  across  the  continent  connecting 
that  city  with  Buenos  Ayres,  thus  executing  the 
long-cherished  plan  of  Lord  Anson.  Buenos  Ayres 
was  therefore  invested  a  second  time.  But  the 
English  land  forces  were  too  few  for  their  task. 
The  Spaniards  spread  all  round  the  city  strong 
breastworks  of  oxhides,  and  collected  all  their 
forces  for  its  defence.  Buenos  Ayres  was  stormed 
by  the  English  at  two  points  on  the  5th  of  July, 
1807;  but  they  were  unable  to  hold  their  ground 
against  the  unceasing  fire  of  the  Spaniards,  who 
were  greatly  superior  in  numbers,  and  the  next  day 
they  capitulated,  and  agreed  to  evacuate  the  prov- 
ince within  two  months.  The  English  had  imag- 
ined that  the  colonists  would  readily  flock  to  their 
standard,  and  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain.  This 
was  a  great  mistake;  and  it  needed  the  events  of 
1808  to  lead  the  Spanish  colonists  to  their  inde- 
pendence. ...  In  iSio,  when  it  came  to  be  known 
that  the  French  armies  had  crossed  the  Sierra 
Morena,  and  that  Spain  was  a  conquered  country, 
the  colonists  would  no  longer  submit  to  the  shad- 
owy authority  of  the  colonial  officers,  and  elected 
a  junta  of  their  own  to  carry  on  the  Government. 
Most  of  the  troops  in  the  colony  went  over  to  the 
cause  of  independence,  and  easily  overcame  the 
feeble  resistance  that  was  made  by  those  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  regency  in  the  engagement 


of  Las  Piedras.  The  leaders  of  the  revolution  were 
the  advocate  CastelU  and  General  Belgrano;  and 
under  their  guidance  scarcely  any  obstacle  stopped 
its  progress.  They  even  sent  their  armies  at  once 
into  Upper  Peru  and  the  Banda  Oriental,  and  their 
privateers  carried  the  Independent  flag  to  the 
coasts  of  the  Pacific ;  but  these  successes  were  ac- 
companied by  a  total  anarchy  in  the  Argentine 
capital  and  provinces.  The  most  intelligent  and 
capable  men  had  gone  off  to  fight  for  liberty  else- 
where ;  and  even  if  they  had  remained  it  would 
have  been  no  easy  task  to  establish  a  new  gov- 
ernment over  the  scattered  and  half-civilized  pop- 
ulation of  this  vast  country.  .  .  .  The  first  result 
of  independence  was  the  formation  of  a  not  very 
intelligent  party  of  country  proprietors,  who  knew 
nothing  of  the  mysteries  of  politics,  and  were  not 
ill-content  with  the  existing  order  of  things.  The 
business  of  the  old  viceroyal  government  was  dele- 
gated to  a  supreme  Director;  but  this  functionary 
was  little  more  than  titular.  How  limited  the 
aspirations  of  the  Argentines  at  first  were  may  be 
gathered  from  the  instructions  with  which  Belgrano 
and  Rivadavia  were  sent  to  Europe  in  1814.  They 
were  to  go  to  England,  and  ask  for  an  English 
protectorate;  if  possible  under  an  English  prince. 
They  were  next  to  try  the  same  plan  in  France, 
.Austria,  and  Russia,  and  lastly  in  Spain  itself: 
and  if  Spain  still  refused,  were  to  offer  to  renew 
the  subjection  of  the  colony,  on  condition  of  cer- 
tain specified  concessions  being  made.  This  was 
indeed  a  strange  contrast  to  the  lofty  aspirations 
of  the  Colombians.  On  arriving  at  Rio,  the  Ar- 
gentine delegates  were  assured  by  the  English 
minister.  Lord  Strangford,  that,  as  things  were,  no 
European  power  would  do  anything  for  them:  nor 
did  they  succeed  better  in  Spain  itself.  Mean- 
while the  government  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  junta 
was  powerless  outside  the  town,  and  the  country 
was  fast  lapsing  into  the  utmost  disorder  and  con- 
fusion. At  Ijngth,  when  Government  could  hardly 
be  said  to  exist  at  all,  a  general  congress  of  the 
provinces  of  the  Plate  River  assembled  at  Tucuman 
in  1S16.  It  was  resolved  that  all  the  states  should 
unite  in  a  confederation  to  be  called  the  United 
Provinces  of  the  Plate  River:  and  a  constitution 
was  elaborated,  in  imitation  of  the  famous  one  of 
the  United  States,  providing  for  two  legislative 
chambers  and  a  president.  .  .  .  The  influence  of 
the  capital,  of  which  all  the  other  provinces  were 
keenly  jealous,  predominated  in  the  congress;  and 
Puyrredon,  an  active  Buenos  Ayres  politician,  was 
made  supreme  Director  of  the  Confederation.  The 
people  of  Buenos  Ayres  thought  their  city  destined 
to  exercise  over  the  rural  provinces  a  similar  in- 
fluence to  that  which  .Athens,  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances, had  exercised  in  Greece ;  and  able 
Buenos  Ayreans  like  Puyrredon,  San  Martin,  and 
Rivadavia,  now  became  the  leaders  of  the  unitary 
party.  The  powerful  provincials,  represented  by 
such  men  as  Lopez  and  Quiroga,  soon  found  out 
that  the  Federal  scheme  meant  the  supremacy  of 
Buenos  .'\yres,  and  a  political  change  which  would 
deprive  them  of  most  of  their  influence.  The 
Federal  system,  therefore,  could  not  be  expected 
to  last  very  long;  and  it  did  in  fact  collapse  after 
four  years.  Artigas  led  the  revolt  in  the  Banda 
Oriental  [now  Uruguay],  and  the  Riverene  Prov- 
inces soon  followed  the  example.  For  a  long  time 
the  provinces  were  jiractically  under  the  authority 
of  their  local  chiefs,  the  only  semblance  of  political 
life  being  confined  to  Buenos  .Ayres  itself." — E.  J. 
Payne,  History  of  European  colonies,  ch.  17. — See 
also  Latin  America:    177S-1824;  Uruguay:   1806- 

i8iS- 
Also  in:  M.  G,  Mulhall,  The  English  in  South 


486 


ARGENTINA,   1817-1818 


Civil  War 


ARGENTINA,   1819-1874 


America,  ch.  10-13,  and  i6-i«. — J.  Miller,  Mem- 
oirs of  General  Miller,  v.  i;  ch.  3. — T.  J.  Page, 
La  'Plata,  the  Argentine  confederation  and  Para- 
!gUay,  ch.  31. 

1817^1818.^ War  with  Spain.    See  Chile:  1810- 
1818. 

1819-1874. — Anarchy,  civil  war,  despotism. — 
Long  struggle  for  order  and  confederation. — 
"A  new  Congress  met  in  1819  and  made  a  Con- 
■stitution  for  the  country,  which  was  never  adopted 
by  all  the  Provinces.  Pueyrredon  resigned,  and  on 
June  loth,  1819,  Jose  Rondeau  was  elected,  who, 
however,  was  in  no  condition  to  pacify  the  civil 
war  which  had  broken  out  during  the  government 
of  his  predecessors.  At  the  commencement  of  1830, 
the  last  'Director  General'  was  overthrown ;  the 
municipality  of  the  city  of  Buenos-Aires  seized  the 
government ;  the  Confederation  was  declared  dis- 
solved, and  each  of  its  Provinces  received  liberty 
to  organize  itself  as  it  pleased.  This  was  anarchy 
officially  proclaimed.  After  the  fall  in  the  same 
year  of  some  military  chiefs  who  had  seized  the 
power,  Gen.  Martin  Rodriguez  was  named  Gov- 
ernor of  Buenos-Aires,  and  he  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing some  little  order  in  this  chaos.  He  chose 
M.  J.  Garcia  and  Bernardo  Rivadavia — one  of  the 
most  enlightened  Argentines  of  his  times — as  his 
Ministers.  This  administration  did  a  great  deal  of 
good  by  exchanging  conventions  of  friendship  and 
commerce,  and  entering  into  diplomatic  relations 
with  foreign  nations.  At  the  end  of  his  term  Gen- 
eral Las  Heras — gth  May,  1824 — took  charge  of  the 
government,  and  called  a  Constituent  Assembly  of 
all  the  Provinces,  which  met  at  Buenos-Aires,  De- 
cember i6th,  and  elected  Bernardo  Rivadavia 
President  of  the  newly  Confederated  Republic  on 
the  7th  February,  1825,  This  excellent  Argentine, 
however,  found  no  assistance  in  the  Congress.  No 
understanding  could  be  come  to  on  the  form  or  the 
test  of  the  Constitution,  nor  yet  upon  the  place  of 
residence  for  the  national  Government.  Whilst 
Rivadavia  desired  a  centralized  Constitution — 
called  here  'unitarian' — and  that  the  city  of  Buenos- 
Aires  should  be  declared  capital  of  the  Republic, 
the  majority  of  Congress  held  a  different  opinion, 
and  this  divergence  caused  the  resignation  of  the 
President  on  the  sth  July,  1827.  After  this  event, 
the  attempt  to  establish  a  Confederation  which 
would  include  all  the  Provinces  was  considered  as 
defeated,  and  each  Province  went  on  its  own  way, 
whilst  Buenos-Aires  elected  Manuel  Dorrego,  the 
chief  of  the  federal  party,  for  its  Governor,  He 
was  inaugurated  on  the  13th  August,  1827,  and 
at  once  undertook  to  organize  a  new  Confederation 
of  the  Provinces,  opening  relations  to  this  end  with 
the  Government  of  Cordoba,  the  most  important 
Province  of  the  interior.  He  succeeded  in  reestab- 
lishing repose  in  the  interior,  and  was  instrumental 
in  preserving  a  general  peace,  even  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  young  country.  The  Emperor  of 
Brazil  did  not  wish  to  acknowledge  the  rights  of 
the  United  Provinces  over  the  Cisplatine  province, 
or  Banda  Oriental  [now  Uruguay].  He  wished 
to  annex  it  to  his  empire,  and  declared  war  to  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  loth  of  December,  1826. 
An  army  was  soon  organized  by  the  latter,  under 
the  command  of  General  Alvear,  which  on  the 
20th  of  February,  1827,  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  Brazilian  forces — twice  their  number — 
at  the  plains  of  Ituzaingo,  in  the  Brazilian  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  The  navy  of  the  Argentines 
also  triumphed  on  several  occasions,  so  that  when 
England  offered  her  intervention,  Brazil  renounced 
all  claim  to  the  territory  of  Uruguay  by  the  con- 
vention of  the  27th  August,  1828,  and  the  two 
parties  agreed  to   recognize  and  to  maintain   the 


neutrality  and  independence  of  that  country.    Dor- 
rego,  however,  had  but   few   sympathizers  in   the 
army,  and  a  short  time  after  his  return  from  Bra- 
zil, the  soldiers  under  Lavalle  rebelled  and  forced 
him  to  fly  to  the  country  on  the  ist  December  of 
the  same  year.    There  he  found  aid  from  the  Com- 
mander   General    of    the    country    districts,    Juan 
Manuel  Rosas,  and  formed  a  small  battalion  with 
the  intention  of  marching  on  the  city  of  Buenos- 
Aires.     But  Lavalle  triumphed,  took  him  prisoner, 
and  shot  him  without  trial  on  the  13th  December. 
.  .  .  Not  only  did  the  whole  interior  of  the  prov- 
ince   of   Buenos-Aires   rise   against   Lavalle,   under 
the  direction   of   Rosas,  but  also   a   large   part  of 
other  Provinces  considered  this  event  as  a  declara- 
tion of  war,  and  the  National  Congress,  then  as- 
sembled   at   Santa-Fe,    declared    Lavalle's   govern- 
ment  illegal.     The   two   parties   fought   with    real 
fury,  but  in  1829,  after  an  interview  between  Rosas 
and   Lavalle,   a   temporary   reconciliation    was   ef- 
fected. .  .  .  The  legislature  of  Buenos-Aires,  which 
had  been  convoked  on  account  of  the  reconciliation 
between   Lavalle  and   Rosas,  elected  the   latter  as 
Governor  of  the  Province,  on  December  6th,  1829, 
and   accorded   to   him   extraordinary   powers.  .  .  . 
During  this  the  first  period  of  his  government  he 
did  not  appear  in  his  true  nature,  and  at  its  con- 
clusion he  refused  a  re-election  and  retired  to  the 
country.    General  Juan  R.  Balcarce  was  then — 17th 
December,  1832 — named  Governor,  but  could  only 
maintain  [the  office]  some  eleven  months:  Viamont 
succeeded  him,  also  for  a  short  time  only.     Now 
the  moment  had  come  for  Rosas.    He  accepted  the 
almost  unlimited  Dictatorship  which  was  offered  to 
hira   on   the    7th   March,   1835,   and   reigned   in   a 
horrible    manner,    like   a    madman,   until   his   fall. 
Several    times    the   attempt    was    made    to   deliver 
Buenos-Aires  from  his  terrible  yoke,  and  above  all 
the  devoted  and  valiant  efforts  of  General  Lavalle 
deserve   to   be   mentioned;    but   all   was   in   vain; 
Rosas  remained  unshaken.     Finally,  General  Justo 
Jose   De    Urquiza,    Governor   of    the    province    of 
Entre-Rios,  in  alliance  with  the  province  of  Cor- 
rientes  and  the  Empire  of  Brazil,  rose  against  the 
Dictator.     He  first  delivered  the  Republic  of  Uru- 
guay, and  the  city  of  Monte-Video — the  asylum  of 
the  adversaries  of  Rosas — from  the  army  which  be- 
sieged  it,   and    thereafter   passing    the   great   river 
Parana,  with  a  relatively  large  army,  he  completely 
defeated    Rosas    at    Monte-Caseros,    near    Buenos- 
Aires,  on  the  3rd  February,  1852.    During  the  same 
day,  Rosas  sought  and  received  the  protection  Of 
an  English  war-vessel   which   was  in  the   road  of 
Buenos-Aires,  in  which  he  went  to  England,  where 
he    [died    in    1877].  •  •  ■  Meantime    Urquiza   took 
charge  of  the  Government  of  the  United  Provinces, 
under  the  title  of  'Provisional  Director,'  and  called 
a  general  meeting  of  the  Governors  at  San  Nicolas, 
a  frontier  village  on  the  north  of  the  province  of 
Buenos-Aires.     This  assemblage  confirmed  him  in 
his  temporary  power,  and  called  a  National  Con- 
gress which  met  at  Santa-Fe  and  made  a  National 
Constitution  under  date  of  25th  May,  1853.     [See 
also   Federal   government:    Modern    federations.] 
By  virtue  of   this  Constitution  the  Congress  met 
again    the    following    year    at    Parana,    a    city    of 
Entre-Rios,  which  had  been  made  the  capital,  and 
on  the  sth  May,  elected  General  Urquiza  the  first 
President  of  the  Argentine  Confederation.  ,  .  .  The 
important  province  of  Buenos-Aires,  however,  had 
taken  no  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Congress. 
Previously,  on  the  nth  September,  1852,  a  revolu- 
tion  against   Urquiza,   or  rather  against   the  Pro- 
vincial Government  in  alliance  with  him,  had  taken 
place   and  caused   a  temporary   separation   of   the 
Province   from   the   Republic.     Several   efforts  to 


487 


ARGENTINA,  1824 


CensfUuiion 


ARGENTINA,  1898 


pacify  the  disputes  utterly  failed,  and  a  battle  took 
place  at  Cepeda  in  Santa-Fe,  wherein  Urquiza,  who 
commanded  the  provincial  troops,  was  victorious, 
although  his  success  led  to  no  definite  result.  A 
short  time  after,  the  two  armies  met  again  at 
Pavon — near  the  site  of  the  former  battle — and 
Buenos-Aires  won  the  day.  This  secured  the 
unity  of  the  Republic  of  which  the  victorious  Gen- 
eral Bartolome  Mitre  was  elected  President  for  six 
years  from  October,  1862.  At  the  same  time  the 
National  Government  was  transferred  from  Parana 
to  Buenos-Aires,  and  the  latter  was  declared  the 
temporary  capital  of  the  Nation.  The  Republic 
owes  much  to  the  Government  of  Mitre,  and  it  is 
probable  that  he  would  have  done  more  good,  if 
war  had  not  broken  out  with  Paraguay,  in  1865 
[see  Par.^guav;  1608-1873].  The  Argentines  took 
part  in  it  as  one  of  the  three  allied  States  against  ' 
the  Dictator  of  Paraguay.  Francisco  Solano  Lopez. 
On  the  T2th  October,  1868,  Domingo  Faustino  Sar- 
miento  succeeded  Gen.  Mitre  in  the  Presidency. 
.  .  .  The  12th  October,  1874.  Dr.  Nicolas  Avel- 
laneda  succeeded  him  in  the  Government." — R. 
Napp,  Argentine  republic,  ch.  2. — See  also  Brazil: 
1825-1865;  Uruguay:   1821-1005. 

Also  in:  D.  F.  Sarmiento,  Life  in  the  Argentine 
republic  in  the  days  of  the  tyrants. — J.  \.  King, 
Twenty-four  years  in  the  Argentine  republic. 

1824. — At  first  congress  of  South  American 
republics.    See  Latin  .'\merica:   1822-1830. 

1880-1891. — Constitution  and  its  working.^ 
Governmental  corruption. — Revolution  of  1890, 
and  the  financial  collapse. — "The  Argentine  con- 
stitutional system  in  its  outward  form  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  the  United  States.  .  .  .  But  the 
inward  grace  of  enlightened  public  opinion  is  lack- 
ing, and  political  practice  falls  below  the  level  of 
a  self-governing  democracy.  Congress  enacts  laws, 
but  the  President  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  and  as  the  head  of  a  civil  service  dependent 
upon  his  will  and  caprice,  possesses  absolute  au- 
thority in  administration.  The  country  is  gov- 
erned by  executive  decrees  rather  than  by  consti- 
tutional laws.  Elections  are  carried  by  military 
pressure  and  manipulation  of  the  civil  service.  .  .  . 
President  Roca  [who  succeeded  Avellaneda  in 
1880]  virtually  nominated,  and  elected  his  brother- 
in-law,  Juarez  Celman,  as  his  successor.  President 
Juarez  set  his  heart  upon  controlling  the  succes- 
sion in  the  interest  of  one  of  his  relatives,  a  promi- 
nent official ;  but  was  forced  to  retire  before  he 
could  carry  out  his  purpose.  .  .  .  Nothing  in  the 
Argentine  surprised  me  more  than  the  boldness  and 
freedom  with  which  the  press  attacked  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  day  and  exposed  its  corruption. 
.  .  .  The  government  paid  no  heed  to  these  at- 
tacks. Ministers  did  not  trouble  themselves  to 
repel  charr^es  affecting  their  integrity.  .  .  .  This 
wholesome  criticism  from  an  independent  press  had 
one  important  effect.  It  gave  direction  to  public 
opinion  in  the  capital,  and  involved  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Union  Civica.  If  the  country  had  not 
been  on  the  verge  of  a  financial  revulsion,  there 
might  not  have  been  the  revolt  against  the  Juarez 
administration  in  July,  1890;  but  with  ruin  and 
disaster  confronting  them,  men  turned  against  the 
President  whose  incompetence  and  venality  would 
have  been  condoned  if  the  times  had  been  good. 
The  Union  Civica  was  founded  when  the  govern- 
ment was  charged  with  maladministration  in  sanc- 
tioning an  illegal  issue  of  $40,000,000  of  paper 
money.  .  .  .  The  government  was  suddenly  con- 
fronted with  an  armed  coalition  of  the  best  battal- 
ions of  the  army,  the  entire  navy,  and  the  Union 
Civica.  The  manifesto  issued  by  the  Revolutionary 
Junta  was  a  terrible  arraignment  of  the  political 


crimes  of  the  Juarez  Government.  .  .  .  The  revolu- 
tion opened  with  every  prospect  of  success.  It 
failed  from  the  incapacity  of  the  leaders  to  co- 
operate harmoniously.  On  July  iq,  i8go,  the 
defection  of  the  army  was  discovered.  On  July 
26  the  revolt  broke  out.  For  four  days  there  was 
bloodshed  without  definite  plan  or  purpose.  No 
determined  attack  was  made  upon  the  government 
palace.  The  fleet  opened  a  fantastic  bombardment 
upon  the  suburbs.  There  was  inexplicable  mis- 
management of  the  insurgent  forces,  and  on  July 
2q  an  ignominious  surrender  to  the  government 
with  a  proclamation  of  general  amnesty.  General 
Roca  remained  behind  the  scenes,  apparently 
master  of  the  situation,  while  President  Juarez  had 
fled  to  a  place  of  refuge  on  the  Rosario  railway, 
and  two  factions  of  the  army  were  playing  at  cross 
purposes,  and  the  police  and  the  volunteers  of  the 
Union  Civica  were  shooting  women  and  children 
in  the  streets.  .Another  week  of  hopeless  confusion 
passed,  and  General  Roca  announced  the  resigna- 
tion of  President  Juarez  and  the  succession  of  vice- 
President  Pellegrini.  Then  the  city  was  illumi- 
nated, and  for  three  days  there  was  a  pandemo- 
nium of  popular  rejoicing  over  a  victory  which 
nobody  except  General  Roca  understood.  ...  In 
June,  1801,  the  deplorable  state  of  Argentine 
finance  was  revealed  in  a  luminous  statement  made 
by  President  Pellegrini.  .  .  .  .\\\  business  interests 
were  stagnant.  Immigration  had  been  diverted  to 
Brazil.  .  .  .  .Ml  industries  were  prostrated  except 
politics,  and  the  pernicious  activity  displayed  by 
factions  was  an  evil  augury  for  the  return  of 
prosperity.  .  .  .  During  thirty  years  (1862-1892) 
the  countp.-  has  trebled  its  population,  its  increase 
being  relatively  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 
United  States  during  the  same  period." — I.  N. 
Ford.   Tropical  .America,  ch.  6. 

1887. — Trans-Andean  railway  building  with 
Chile.     See  Railroads:   1872-1012. 

1890. — First  International  American  Congress 
at  Washington.    See  American  republics,  Inter- 

NATIOXAL  VNIOX  OF:    180O. 

1892. — Presidential  election. — Dr.  Luis  Saenz- 
Peiia,  former  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
reputed  a  man  of  great  integrity  and  ability,  WaS 
chosen  president,  and  inaugurated  October  12, 
1892. 

1895. — Resignation  of  President  Peiia.— Presi- 
dent Saenz  Pena  having  refused  to  issue,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Congress,  a  decree  of  amnesty,  extended  to 
all  persons  implicated  in  the  last  revolution,  his 
cabinet  resigned  (January  16),  and  he  found  it  im- 
possible to  form  another.  Thereupon  the  president 
himself  resigned  his  office,  on  January  22,  and  his 
resignation  was  accepted  by  the  Congress.  Senor 
Uriburu  was  elected  president  on  the  following 
day,  and  promptly  issued  the  desired  decree, 

1898. — Settlement  of  boundary  dispute  with 
Chile. — Election  of  president. — ".\  long  unset- 
tled dispute  as  to  the  extended  boundary  between 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Chile,  stretching  along 
the  Andean  crests  from  the  southern  border  of  the 
Atacama  Desert  to  Magellan  Straits,  nearly  a  third 
of  the  length  of  the  South  .American  continent, 
assumed  an  acute  stage  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year,  and  afforded  to  this  Government  occasion  to 
express  the  hope  that  the  resort  to  arbitration,  al- 
ready contemplated  by  existing  conventions  be- 
tween the  parties,  might  prevail  despite  the  grave 
difficulties  arising  in  its  application.  I  am  happy 
to  say  that  arrangements  to  this  end  have  been 
perfected,  the  questions  of  fact  upon  which  the  re- 
spective commissioners  were  unable  to  agree  being 
in  course  of  reference  to  Her  Britannic  Majesty 
for  determination.     A  residual  difference  touching 


488 


ARGENTINA,  1901 


Arbitration 
Treaties 


ARGENTINA,  1902 


the  northern  boundary  line  across  the  Atacama 
Desert,  for  which  existing  treaties  provided  no  ade- 
quate adjustment,  bids  fair  to  be  settled  in  like 
manner  by  a  joint  commission,  upon  which  the 
United  States  Minister  at  Buenos  Aires  has  been 
invited  to  serve  as  umpire  in  the  last  resort." — • 
Message  o)  the  presidinl  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  Dec,  1898. — The  arbitration  of  the 
United  States  minister,  Hon.  William  I.  Buchanan, 
proved  successful  in  the  matter  last  referred  to, 
and  the  Atacama  boundary  was  quickly  deter- 
mined. June,  i8g8.  General  Julio  Roca  was  elected 
president  and  assumed  the  office  in  October.  In 
July  a  treaty  of  arbitration  was  concluded  with 
the  government  of  Italy,  which  provides  that 
there  shall  be  no  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
arbitrators. 

1901. — Second  International  American  Con- 
gress at  Mexico  City.  See  .-Xmerican  republics. 
International  union*  of:   iqoi-1902. 

1902. — Drago's  note  to  United  States  asking 
aid    against    foreign    intervention.     See    Drago 

DOCTRINE. 

1902. — Treaties  between  Argentina  and  Chile 
for  obligatory  arbitration  of  all  disputes,  and 
for  restriction  of  naval  armaments. — Notwith- 
standing the  fortunate  arrangement,  in  i8g8,  for 
arbitration  of  a  serious  boundary  dispute  between 
Argentina  and  Chile  (see  ante,  i8q8),  there  con- 
tinued to  be  troublesome  frictions  between  the  two 
Spanish-American  neighbors,  while  awaiting  the 
decision  of  the  arbitrator.  King  Edward  VII,  which 
was  not  rendered  until  Nov.  27,  1902.  These  had 
led  to  a  ruinous  rivalry  in  naval  armament.  Re- 
porting on  this  state  of  affairs  in  May  of  that 
year,  Mr.  William  P.  Lord,  the  American  minister 
to  Argentina,  wrote:  "Both  countries  have  incurred 
heavy  expense  for  the  equipment  and  maintenance 
of  largely  increased  arm.y  and  naval  forces.  Chile 
has  recently  contracted  for  two  formidable  war- 
ships involving  a  heavy  cost  with  the  ot)ject  of 
putting  her  navy  upon  an  equality  with  the  Argen- 
tine na>vy,  whereupon  Argentina,  not  to  be  out- 
done, contracted  for  two  warships  larger  in  size 
and  perhaps  more  formidable  at  a  like  heavy  cost 
in  order  to  continue  and  maintain  her  naval  su- 
periority. The  costly  expenditure  incurred  on  ac- 
count of  war  and  naval  preparations  is  paralyzing 
industrial  activity  and  commercial  enterprise.  Both 
countries  are  largely  in  debt  and  confronted  with 
a  deficit.  Both  have  appropriated  their  conver- 
sion funds  which  had  been  set  apart  for  a  specific 
purpose,  and  which,  it  would  seem,  should  have 
been  preserved  inviolable.  Neither  is  able  to  make 
a  foreign  loan  without  payir.g  a  high  rate  of  in- 
terest and  giving  guarantees  to  meet  the  additional 
expenses  which  their  war  policy  is  incurring,  and 
both  Governments  know  and  their  people  know 
that  the  only  remedy  to  which  either  can  resort  to 
meet  existing  financial  conditions  is  to  levy  fresh 
taxes  of  some  description,  notwithstanding  nearly 
everything  that  can  be  taxed  is  now  taxed  to  the 
utmost  limit.  The  weight  of  taxation  already  im- 
posed bears  heavily  upon  the  energies  and  activities 
of  the  people.  The  outlook  is  not  promising,  busi- 
ness being  dull,  wage  employment  scarce,  and  fail- 
ures frequent."  On  June  3,  1902,  the  same  writer 
forwarded  to  Washington  the  text  of  four  re- 
markable "peace  agreements"  which  had  been 
sigred  on  May  28,  at  the  Chilean  capital,  by  the 
Chilean  minister  of  foreign  relations  and  the  Ar- 
gentine minister  plenipotentiary  to  Chile,  who  had 
been  brought  to  negotiations  by  the 'friendly  medi- 
ation of  Great  Britain.  The  four  documents  were: 
a  political  convention  declaring  a  common  inter- 
national policy  on  the  part  of  the  two  republics; 


a  broad  treaty  of  general  arbitration ;  an  agree- 
ment for  reducing  naval  forces ;  an  agreement  for 
the  conclusive  marking  of  boundary  lines  by  the 
engineers  of  the  arbitrator.  King  Edward.  The 
general  arbitration  treaty  is  no  less  unreserved  and 
comprehensive  than  that  between  Peru  and  Bolivia 
and  offers  another  Spanish-American  model  for 
imitation  in  the  interest  of  peace.  Its  articles  are 
as  follows: 

"Art.  I.  The  high  contracting  parties  bind 
themselves  to  submit  to  arbitration  every  diffi- 
culty or  question  of  whatever  nature  that  may 
arise  between  them,  provided  such  questions  do 
not  affect  the  precepts  of  the  respective  constitu- 
tions of  the  two  countries,  and  that  they  can  not 
be  solved  through  direct  negotiation. 

"Art.  2.  This  treaty  does  not/  embrace  those 
questions  that  have  given  rise  to  definite  agree- 
ments between  the  two  parties.  In  such  cases  the 
arbitration  shall  be  limited  exclusively  to  questions 
of  validity,  interpretation,  or  fulfillment  of  these 
agreements. 

"Art.  3.  The  high  contracting  parties  designate 
as  arbitrator  the  Government  of  His  Britannic  Ma- 
jesty or,  in  the  event  of  either  of  the  powers  hav- 
ing broken  off  relations  with  the  British  Govern- 
ment, the  Swiss  Government.  Within  sixty  days 
from  the  exchange  of  ratifications  the  British  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Swiss  Government  shall  be  asked 
to  accept  the  charge  of  arbitrators. 

"Art.  4.     The  points   of  controversy,  questions ' 
or  divergencies  shall  be  specified  by  the  high  con- 
tracting  parties,   who   may   determine   the   powers 
of  the  arbitrator  or  any   other  circumstance  con- 
nected with  the  procedure. 

"Art.  $.  In  the  case  of  divergence  of  opinion, 
either  party  may  solicit  the  intervention  of 
the  arbitrator,  who  will  determine  the  circum- 
stances of  procedure,  the  contracting  parties  plac- 
ing every  means  of  information  at  the  service  of 
the  arbitrator. 

"Art.  6.  Either  party  is  at  liberty  to  name  one 
or  more  commissioners  near  the  arbitrator. 

"Art.  7.  The  arbitrator  is  qualified  to  decide 
upon  the  validity  of  the  obligation  and  its  inter- 
pretation, as  well  as  upon  questions  as  to  what 
difficulties  come  within  the  sphere  of  the  arbitra- 
tion. 

"Art.  8.  The  arbitrator  shall  decide  in  accord- 
ance with  international  law,  unless  the  obligation 
involves  the  application  of  special  rules  or  he  have 
been  authorized  to  act  as  friendly  mediator. 

"Art.  9.  The  award  shall  definitely  decide  each 
point  of  controversy. 

"Art.  10.  The  award  shall  be  drawn  up  in  two 
copies. 

"Art.  II.  The  award  legally  dehvered  shall 
decide  within  the  limits  of  its  scope  the  question 
between  the  two  parties. 

"Art.  12.  The  arbitrator  shall  specify  in  his 
award  the  term  within  which  the  award  shall  be 
carried  out,  and  he  is  competent  to  deal  with  any 
question  arising  as  to  the  fulfillment. 

"Art.  13.  There  can  be  no  appeal  from  the 
award,  and  its  fulfillment  is  intrusted  to  the  honor 
of  the  signatory  powers.  Nevertheless,  the  recourse 
of  revision  is  admitted  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: I.  If  the  award  be  given  on  the  strength 
of  a  false  document;  2.  If  the  award  be  the  result, 
either  partially  or  totally,  of  an  error  of  fact. 

"Art.  14.  The  contracting  parties  shall  pay  their 
own  expenses  and  each  a  half  of  the  expenses  of 
the  arbitration. 

"Art.  15.  The  present  agreement  shall  last  for 
ten  years  from  the  date  of  the  exchange  of  the 
ratifications,  and  shall  be  renewed  for  another  term 


489 


ARGENTINA,    1902-1909     ^evo/u/iWy  Movement        ARGENTINA,  1909 
'  Mitre  Law  ' 


of  ten  years,  unless  either  party  shall  give  notice 
to  the  contrarj'  six  months  before  expiry." — Papers 
relating  to  the  Foreign  Relations  of  the  United 
States,   1902,  pp.   13-20. 

In  their  convention  on  naval  armaments  the  two 
governments  "renounced  the  acquisition  of  the  war 
vessels  they  have  in  construction  and  the  mak- 
ing for  the  present  of  any  new  acquisitions, 
agreeing  to  reduce  their  fleets  to  "a  prudent 
equilibrium." 

1902-1909. — Controversy  with  Brazil  over 
equilibrium  of  armament.  See  War,  PREPARAnoN 
for:    1902-1909. 

1903. — Population. — "Statistics  of  1903  showed 
1,000,000  foreigners  in  Argentina  in  a  total  of 
5,000,000.  Of  these  500,000  were  Italians,  200,000 
Spaniards,  100,000  French,  25,000  English,  18,000 
Germans,  15,000  Swiss,  13,000  Austrians,  and  the 
remainder  of  many  nationalities.  The  number  of 
Americans  did  not  exceed  1,500,  although  many  are 
coming  now,  to  go  into  cattle-raising  and  farming 
in  the  country  or  into  all  kinds  of  business  in 
Buenos  Ayres.  English  influence  is  very  strong, 
especially  in  financial  circles,  with  the  Germans  al- 
most equally  active." — J.  Barrett,  Argentina 
(American  Review  of  Reviews,  July,  1905). 

1904. — Inauguration  of  President  Quintana. 
— Dr.  Manuel  Quintana,  elected  president  of  the 
republic,  was  inaugurated  on  October  12. 

1905. — Revolutionary  movement  promptly  sup- 
pressed.— A  revolutionary  undertaking,  in  Buenos 
Aires  and  several  provinces,  had  its  outbreak  on 
February  4,  but  was  suppressed  so  promptly  that 
the  public  disturbance  by  it  was  very  brief.  Par- 
ticulars of  the  affair  were  reported  by  the  Ameri- 
can minister  at  Buenos  Aires,  Mr.  Beaupre,  as  fol- 
lows: "On  the  afternoon  of  the  3d  instant  rumors 
of  an  intended  movement  subversive  of  the  estab- 
lished government  of  this  country  came  to  the 
Federal  authorities  from  various  parts  of  the  Re- 
public. These  rumors  were  at  first  discredited,  but 
finally  proved  so  persistent  that  the  President  and 
heads  of  the  various  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment proceeded  to  take  measures  of  precaution. 
In  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  of  the  ne.xt  day, 
the  4th  instant,  the  anticipated  outbreak  came 
simultaneously  in  the  capital,  Rosario,  Mendoza, 
Cordoba,  and  Bahia  Blanca,  these  being  the  larg- 
est cities  of  the  Republic  and  the  principal  political 
and  military  centers.  In  the  capital  the  plan  of 
the  revolutionists  seems  to  have  been  to  attack  the 
police  stations  and  military  arsenal,  with  a  view 
perhaps  of  forcing  the  police  of  the  capital  into 
their  ranks  and  of  supplying  themselves  with  arms 
and  munitions.  At  the  arsenal,  by  a  simple  strata- 
gem of  the  minister  of  war,  the  malcontents  were 
lured  into  the  building  and  arrested.  About  the 
police  stations  there  was  some  fighting,  particularly 
at  Station  No.  14;  but  the  insurgents  proved  un- 
prepared and  insufficiently  organized,  so  that  by 
dawn  the  movement  had  completely  failed  in  this 
city.  Except  that  many  of  the  shops  remained 
closed  throughout  the  day  of  the  4th,  and  except 
for  the  presence  of  armed  police  in  the  streets, 
there  were  no  evidences  of  any  revolutionary  ef- 
fort. Some  half  dozen  fatalities  are  reported. 
The  prompt  and  effective  suppression  of  the  revo- 
lution in  this  city  is  due  in  large  measure  to  the 
energy  and  judgment  displayed  by  the  President 
and  his  ministers,  who  spent  the  entire  night  in 
the  Government  House  in  council.  .  .  .  The  Presi- 
dent proceeded  at  8  A.  M.  of  the  4th  to  declare 
the  Republic  in  a  state  of  siege  for  a  period  of 
thirty  days,  to  call  out  the  reserves  and  to  estab- 
lish a  censorship  of  the  press  and  of  the  telegraph 
service.  .  .  .  The  real  center  of  the  movement  was 


the  city  of  Cordoba,  while  serious  trouble  seemed 
in  view  in  the  city  of  Mendoza,  where  the  revolu- 
tionists were  said  to  be  in  a  strong  position,  and  in 
the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  where  troops  and 
marines  were  already  in  movement  from  Bahia 
Blanca  upon  the  capital.  Forces  despatched  to 
those  points  made  as  quick  an  ending  of  the 
revolt  there  as  at  the  capital.  .  .  .  The  revolu- 
tionists, finding  threats  and  resistance  vain,  fled 
yesterday  before  the  government  troops  arrived. 
With  the  failure  of  the  movement  in  Cordoba  the 
revolution  is  considered  at  an  end  and  the  country 
has  returned  to  its  former  condition  of  peace  and 
tranquillity." 

1906. — Death  of  President  Quintana. — Dr. 
Manuel  Quintana,  president  of  Argentina,  died  in 
March,  1906,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  vice-presi- 
dent. Dr.  Figuero  Alcorta,  whose  term  of  office 
ended  in   1910. 

1906. — Third  International  American  Congress 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  See  American  republics.  In- 
ternational UNION  of:  1906. 

1909. — Assassination  of  Colonel  Falcon. — As 
Colonel  Falcon,  prefect  of  police  at  Buenos  Aires, 
was  returning  from  a  funeral,  with  his  secretary, 
on  November  14,  a  bomb  was  thrown  into  the 
carriage  and  exploded,  with  fatal  effects  to  both. 
The  assassin,  a  youth  of  nineteen  years  was  cap- 
tured. The  murder  had  been  preceded  by  a  num- 
ber of  bomb  explosions  during  a  period  of  six 
months,  all  attributed  to  anarchists  from  Europe, 
of  whom  large  numbers  were  said  to  have  gathered 
in  Buenos  Aires. 

1909. — Chief  food  supply  to  Great  Britain. — 
"How  many  readers  of  The  Times  (said  a  special 
correspondent  of  the  London  Times  writing  from 
Buenos  Aires,  October  15,  1909),  if  asked  to  name 
the  country  which  supplied  the  United  Kingdom 
last  year  with  the  largest  quantity  of  wheat,  of 
maize,  and  of  refrigerated  and  frozen  cattle,  would 
unhesitatingly  award  the  first  place  to  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  ?  How  many  English  people  realize 
that  this  South  American  Republic  is  changing 
places  with  the  North  American  Republic  in  the 
exporting  of  these  and  other  food  products  to  the 
United  Kingdom  ?  The  change  is  partly  due  to 
the  shortage  of  meat  in  America,  and  partly  to  the 
fact  that  with  their  increasing  population  the 
United  States  will  have  less  and  less  surplus  pro- 
visions with  which  to  supply  the  world." 

1909. — Arbitration  of  the  Act&  boundary  dis- 
pute between  Bolivia  and  Peru.  See  Acre  dis- 
putes. 

1909. — Mitre  Law  and  the  railroads. — "Until 
1909  each  of  the  Argentine  railway  companies  was 
(as  the  Uruguayan  still  are)  controlled  by  the 
terms  of  its  particular  concession  or  concessions. 
In  that  year,  however,  a  law  was  passed,  usually 
called  the  'Mitre  Law,'  after  its  initiator,  the  late 
Senor  Epiilio  Mitre  (an  eminent  Argentine  states- 
man and  son  of  the  famous  General  Mitre,  per- 
haps Argentina's  greatest  president  and  historian, 
by  which  all  then  existing  companies  agreeing  to 
be  bound  by  its  provisions  should  be  exempt  from 
all  National,  Provincial  and  Municipal  taxation  and 
Import  Duties  on  material  until  the  year  1947; 
they,  on  their  part,  to  pay  to  the  National  Gov- 
ernment a  single  tax  of  3%  on  their  net  earnings, 
the  amount  of  such  earnings  to  be  ascertained  by 
deducting  lo'/'e  (for  working  expenses)  from  their 
gross  receipts.  Only  one  Company  was  then  en- 
joying even  more  favourable  terms  under  its  origi- 
nal concession  than  those  given  by  the  Mitre  Law; 
but  as  that  concession  was  approaching  the  time 
of  its  expiration  it  would  have  been  ill-judged  on 
the  part  of   the   Company  to  have  shown  itself 


490 


ARGENTINA,  1909 


Political  Reform         ARGENTINA,    1910-1914 


recalcitrant  to  the  evident  wishes  of  the  Argen- 
tine Government.  Therefore  it  exercised  its  op- 
tion in  favour  of  the  Mitre  Law,  as  did  all  tlie 
other  Companies.  .  .  .  Besides  British,  considerable 
French  and  Belgian  capital  is  invested  in  Argen- 
tine railways.  The  'Province  of  Santa  Fe'  and  the 
'Province  of  Buenos  Aires'  railways  are  controlled 
by  French  Companies.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  in  recent  years  most  of  the  shares 
of  the  '.Anglo-Argentine'  Tramways  Company 
(which  owns  the  principal  tramway  system  of  the 
Capital)  had  found  their  way  to  Belgium.  A 
short  while  ago  a  United  States  Syndicate,  deemed 
powerful  and  feared  as  menacing  a  monopoly, 
obtained  control  of  some  of  the  River  Plate  lines, 
notably  those  of  the  Central  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe 
and  Entre  Rios  Companies,  under  certain  arrange- 
ments. This  Syndicate  has  since,  however,  been 
unable  to  command  the  capital  necessary  to  fulfil 
its  part  of  those  arrangements,  and,  practically, 
the  control  of  the  hnes  has  now  reverted  to  the 
original  companies,  the  first  and  last  named  of 
which  are  British." — G.  Ross,  Argentina  and  Uru- 
guay, pp.  122-124. 

1909. — Building  of  the  Transandine  railway 
tunnel.     See  Railroads:  1872-1912. 

1910. — Agreement  with  Uruguay  concerning 
the  river  Plate. — The  following  message  came 
from  Buenos  Aires  on  January  6,  1910;  "A  burn- 
ing question  between  Argentina  and  Uruguay, 
which  for  two  years  was  seemingly  insoluble  and 
possibly  involved  Brazil,  has  been  settled  by  Seiior 
Roque  Saenz-Pefia.  As  Argentine  Plenipotentiary 
he  signed  a  Protocol  at  Montevideo  yesterday,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  summary:  Recognizing  the 
reciprocal  desire  for  friendly  relations,  fortified  by 
the  common  origin  of  the  two  nations,  the  parties 
agree  to  declare  that  past  differences  are  not  capa- 
ble of  being  regarded  as  a  cause  of  offence  and 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  continue.  The  navigation 
and  use  of  the  waters  of  the  River  Plate  will  con- 
tinue as  heretofore  without  alteration,  and  dif- 
ferences which  may  arise  in  the  future  will  be 
removed  and  settled  in  the  same  spirit  of  cordial- 
ity." 

1910. — Fourth  International  American  Confer- 
ence at  Buenos  Aires.  See  American  republics. 
International  union  of:    iqio. 

1910-1914.  —  Political  reform. — "Dr.  Roque 
Saenz  Peiia,  when  he  came  into  power  in  iqio, 
was  convinced  that  the  country  was  ready  for  re- 
form. He  thoroughly  realised  that  it  would  be 
necessary,  not  merely  to  amend  the  existing  laws 
or  to  make  new  ones,  but  to  encourage  and  foster 
in  every  citizen  an  intelligent  interest  in  all  mat- 
ters of  national  concern.  In  his  presidential  cam- 
paign, he  promised  to  observe  absolute  impar- 
tiality in  all  political  matters;  and  in  order  to 
carry  out  this  promise,  from  his  first  day  of  office, 
he  severed  all  ties  with  the  party  that  had  sup- 
ported him  in  his  candidature.  But  'party'  in 
the  Argentine  signifies  men  and  not  opinions,  so 
that  Saenz  Peria  did  not  in  any  way  renounce  his 
former  views,  though  taking  the  greatest  pains  to 
show  no  special  favour  to  those  who  had  helped 
him  to  his  position.  For  the  sake  of  a  forcible 
example,  he  permitted  himself  no  outward  display 
of  gratitude  or  friendship.  This  step  was  specially 
significant  in  a  country  where,  by  tradition  and  a 
false  conception  of  loyalty,  the  Presirjent  had  al- 
ways felt  it  his  duty  to  raise  members  of  his  party 
to  the  highest  posts  in  the  State.  By  a  kind  of 
tacit  agreement  his  will  was  thus  completely  bound 
up  with  each  individual  will  of  his  friends  and 
colleagues.  By  accepting  outside  assistance  he 
thereby  pledged  himself  to  repay  it,  and  thus  en- 


tangled  himself   in    a   multiplicity    of    obligations, 
which     hampered     his     every     action.  .  .  .  Saenz 
Pena  was  desirous  of  putting  a  speedy  end  to  this 
condition  of  things,  a  condition  that  crippled  the 
power  of  the  E.xecutive  and  upset  the  whole  ma- 
chinery   of    constitutional   government.      He    fully 
realised  that,  in  separating  himself  from  his  friends 
and    thus    depriving    himself    of    their    support — • 
which  was  relied  on  as  a  matter  of  course  by  all 
former    Presidents — he   was   cutting    himself    com- 
pletely adrift  and  was  thus  risking  the  failure  of 
his  policy.     But  his  care  was  for  the  State  and  not 
for  the   security  of  his   own  office,  and  in   acting 
thus    he    hoped    to    increase    the    prestige    of    the 
Executive  and  strengthen  its  hands  for  the  future. 
In  order  to  keep  the  Executive  free  from  all  cor- 
rupt  influences,   he    chose    his    ministers   for   their 
integrity    rather   than   for   their   political   leanings. 
But  he  did  not  confine  himself  merely  to  showing 
his  intention  of  governing  without  the  help  of  any 
political    group;    he   seized    every    opportunity    of 
letting    the    Provincial    Governors    know    that    he 
could    do    without    their    costly    friendship.      But, 
though  he  could  dispense  with  their  protection,  he 
still   required   their  loyalty;   and  he   therefore  left 
to  each  of  the  federal  states  full  responsibility  for 
its  actions  and  absolute  autonomy.    Thus  Congress 
gradually  became  composed  of  conscientious  mem- 
bers who  eventually  transformed  the  once  submis- 
sive  ally   of   the  Executive  into   a  powerful  inde- 
pendent body.     This  step  of  Saenz  Pena,  which  is 
clearly   the  indication   of  a  master  mind,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  fundamental  characteristic   of   his 
government.     The  change  brought   a  sense   of  re- 
lief to  the  people,  which  had  long  awaited  in  vain 
its  introduction.     It  meant  no  mere  correction  of 
past  faults;  it  was  the  foundation  stone  of  political 
and  administrative  honesty.     Its  effect  was  to  keep 
each  branch  of  the  government  within  the  bounds 
assigned   to   it  by   the  constitution,   and   to   make 
the  people  their  own  rulers.  .  .  .  The  hearty  recep- 
tion accorded   to   this  great  change,   both  by   the 
people  and  by  the  Press,  showed  clearly  the  feeling 
of  grateful  appreciation  it  had  aroused  among  the 
whole  nation.     It  was  evident  that  the  success  of 
the   legislation    which    was   bound    to    follow    was 
already  assured.     It  was  in  fact  but  the  first  step 
towards  the  introduction  of  a  bill  for  the  reform 
of  the  whole  electoral  system,  which  was  destined 
to  effect  a  sweeping  political  change.  .  .  .  The  ob- 
vious inference  to  be  drawn  from  his  conduct  was 
that   he   felt,    above   all,   anxious   to    prevent   cor- 
ruption in  the  elections,  to  guarantee  the  purity  of 
the   ballot   and   the   free   exercise    of   the   vote,   in 
order   that   the   candidates    elected    should   be   the 
true  representatives  of  the  people.  In  Januriry  iqt2, 
he  laid  before  Parliament  his  Electoral  Reform  Bill, 
which  at  once   met  with  keen,   though  not  unex- 
pected  opposition;   many   members,   elected   under 
the  old   regime,  perceived  the  risk  of  losing  their 
seats  under  the  proposed  new  system.     The  moral 
value   of   the    Bill,   however,   was   recognised,   and 
the    majority    of    members,    though    not    pinning 
much  faith  to  its  working  in  actual  practice,  gave 
it  their  support ;   it  seemed,  on  the  face  of   it  at 
any    rate,    a    step   in    the    right    direction.      Saenz 
Pena,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  found  public  opinion 
inclined  the  same  way,  both  before  and  after  the 
passing  of  the   Bill.     Though   favourably  disposed 
towards  it,  people  were  somewhat  sceptical.  '  They 
believed  that  it  would  be  inoperative  owing  to  the 
attitude  of  the  politicians  of  the  old  school,  who 
would  probably   find  some   means  of  evading   the 
new  law ;  they  were  afraid  that  corruption  would 
still  triumph,  that  the  masses  would  vote  no  more 
freely    than    before;    and    they    looked    upon    the 


491 


ARGENTINA,  1910-1914 


Political  Reform 
World  War 


ARGENTINA,  1916-1917 


whole  thing  as  an  impracticable  Utopia.  After  a 
brilliant  defence  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
M.  Indalecio  Gomez,  the  measure,  despite  all  op- 
position, passed  through  the  Lower  House  to  the 
Senate  and  shortly  afterwards  became  law.  The 
new  statute  established  compulsory  voting  and  the 
secret  ballot,  and  provided  for  representation  of 
the  minority.  The  elector  now  no  longer  holds  a 
civil  certificate,  as  formerly,  but  a  military  one, 
which  contains  his  signature,  his  photograph  and 
his  finger-prints;  and  the  register  used  in  the  elec- 
tions is  compiled  by  the  officials  of  the  War  Office. 
This  arrangement  not  only  acts  as  a  great  check 
upon  impersonation,  but  has  the  advantage  also 
of  doing  away  with  the  old  method  of  the  census; 
the  register,  after  being  drawn  up  by  the  War 
Office,  is  revised  by  the  federal  judges,  to  ensure 
its  accuracy.  Any  person  on  the  list,  who  re- 
fuses to  vote,  is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  ten  piastres 
or  two  days'  imprisonment,  while  public  servants 
are  prohibited  from  taking  any  active  part  in  the 
elections  and  from  becoming  candidates,  without 
having  previously  handed  in  their  resignations.  In 
order  to  record  his  vote,  the  elector  has  to  present 
himself  at  one  of  the  polling  booths  of  his  parish 
and  take  his  military  certificate  with  him.  The 
officer  in  charge,  after  identifying  him,  nands  him 
a  special  envelope  and  allows  him  to  pass  into 
the  voting-room,  where  he  finds  the  voting  papers 
of  each  candidate.  There  the  voter  exercises  his 
choice  and  places  the  paper  in  the  envelope,  which 
he  then  seals  and  slips  into  the  box  as  he  goes 
out,  in  the  presence  of  the  presiding  official.  The 
counting  takes  place  in  public,  and  the  validity  of 
the  voting  papers  is  secured  by  a  committee  com- 
posed of  the  President  of  the  Court  of  Appeal, 
the  President  of  the  Municipal  Council,  and  one 
of  the  federal  judges.  As  formerly.  Congress  is 
the  supreme  tribunal  for  all  questions  concerning 
the  validity  of  elections.  On  April  7.  1Q12,  the 
election  of  sixty  deputies — to  take  the  place  of 
the  half  about  to  resign— gave  the  people  their 
first  opportunity  of  testing  the  new  law  and  veri- 
fving  the  promises  of  strict  impartiality  that  had 
been  so  freely  given.  ,  .  .  Out  of  an  electorate  of 
Q34,40i  persons,  840.852  voted  at  the  4,650  polling 
booths,  whereas  formerly  scarcely  25  per  cent,  re- 
corded their  votes.  The  Radical  Party,  which  for 
the  past  twenty  years  had  taken  no  active  part 
in  any  of  the  elections,  the  Civic  Union,  which  in 
the  end  came  near  following  ^the  example  of  the 
Radicals;  the  Socialist  Party,  which  had  struggled 
in  vain  for  eight  years;  the  National  Union,  which 
under  various  different  names  had  triumphed  at 
many  successive  elections,  and  several  other  parties 
of  minor  importance, — all  took  part  in  the  con- 
test. Corruption  was  not  entirely  absent,  but  it 
frequently  rebounded  against  those  who  resorted 
to  it.  The  voter  open  to  bribery  accepted  bribes, 
but,  owing  to  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot,  was  able 
to  cheat  the  giver  and  drop  his  voting  p..per  into 
the  box  of  the  party  of  his  choice.  .  .  .  The  elec- 
tions, which  all  took  place  on  the  same  day,  passed 
off  peaceably  and  without  any  exerci.se  of  official 
pressure.  The  suffrage  had  been  made  free;  the 
President  had  kept  his  word.  The  results  were  all 
declared  together,  some  few  weeks  later.  They 
formed  a  complete  vindication  of  the  new  system 
and  indicated  the  real  views  of  the  people,  while 
showing  up  in  their  true  colours  the  fictitious  tri- 
umphs of  past  elections  Thus  in  Buenos  Ayrcs  Ihe 
Radicals,  who  had  not  been  able  to  enter  the 
Chamber  for  twenty  years,  gained  eight  seats  in 
the  Lower  House  and  one  in  the  Upper;  the  So- 
cialists won  two  seats,  and  the  Civic  Union  one ; 
while    the    National    Union,    which    had    formerly 


swamped  every  other  party,  kept  only  one,  and 
that  solely  on  account  of  the  personal  qualifications 
of  the  candidate.  .  .  .  The  compulsory  vote  has 
finally  roused  the  people  from  the  state  of  indif- 
ference into  which  they  had  drifted.  It  is  no 
longer  useless  for  them  to  record  their  votes,  no 
longer  excusable  to  hold  themselves  aloof  from 
the  affairs  of  the  nation.  .  .  .  The  new  system,  if 
it  has  not  completely  done  away  with  corruption, 
has  at  any  rate  set  a  great  check  upon  it.  The 
compulsory  vote  has  made  the  electors  so  numer- 
ous that  it  is  impossible  now  for  any  candidate 
to  purchase  a  majority ;  while  no  bribe,  as  the 
election  of  April  7  clearly  proved,  affords  sufficient 
guarantee  for  any  party  to  try  again  an  experi- 
ment at  once  so  costly  and  so  meagre  in  its  re- 
sults. But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Ar- 
gentine is  a  Federal  Republic,  which  means  that, 
in  order  that  this  great  reform  shall  become  an 
effective  reality  throughout  the  country,  it  is 
necessary  for  each  province  to  enforce  it  within 
its  own  boundaries.  Now  the  provinces  are  by  no 
means  so  advanced  or  civilised  as  the  capital 
They  present,  moreover,  an  obstacle  that  time 
alone  can  surmount ;  they  are  very  sparsely  popu- 
lated, and  the  people  are  so  scattered  that  com- 
pulsory voting  is  very  difficult  to  enforce." — Po- 
litical evolution  in  Argentina  {Quarterly  Review, 
Jan..  1016,  pp,  4,?-5i). 

1910-1914. — Immigration  of  Italians.  See 
Latin'  .America:    1010-1014. 

1913-1914. — Relations  with  Mexico.  See 
Mexico:    1013-1014. 

1914. — A  B  C  Conference. — The  ambassadors 
at  Washington,  of  the  three  leading  South  .Ameri- 
can nations,  .Argentina,  Brazil  and  Chile,  united  in 
tendering  their  "good  offices"  in  an  attempt  to 
settle  the  differences  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico.  Dr.  Naon  was  the  representative  of 
.Argentina. — See  also  ABC  Conference;  U.  S.  A.: 
IQ14   (.April). 

1914-1918.— Argentina  and  the  World  War.— 
Count  Luxburg  incident. — In  spite  of  the  indig- 
nation aroused  in  the  country  over  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  German  submarines,  .Argentina  never 
came  to  an  open  declaration  of  war.  Diplomatic 
relations  were  strained  to  the  utmost,  however, 
when  the  messages  of  Count  Luxburg,  the  German 
charge  d'affaires  at  Buenos  Aires  were  discovered, 
advising  his  government  that  if  Argentine  vessels 
were  sunk  they  should  be  destroyed  without  a  trace 
being  left  ("spurlos  versenkt").  See  Latin  Amer- 
ica:  1014. 

1915. — Formation  of  the  A  B  C  Alliance. — 
Reasons.     See   L.\tin   .America:    1012-1015. 

1915. — Pan-American  Conference.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1015   (.August-October). 

1915. — Municipal  government  and  population 
of  Buenos  Aires.     See  Buenos  .Aires:    IQ15. 

1916-1917.— Effects  of  the  World  War.— Elec- 
tion of  Hipolito  Irigoyen  as  president. — Dispute 
with  Chile  over  the  Straits  of  Magellan. — "The 
year  witnessed  a  further  development  of  the  politi- 
cal and  commercial  life  of  this  prosperous  republic. 
With  Ihe  exception  of  the  United  States,  no  coun- 
try in  the  Western  Hemisphere  enjoyed  such  happy 
conditions  as  did  Argentina.  During  the  year  the 
statistics  of  the  census  taken  in  1014  were  pub- 
lished, and  these  showed  that  the  republic  con- 
tained a  population  of  7,885,237  persons,  as  com- 
pared with  a  population  of  under  four  millions 
in  1805,  the  year  of  the  previous  census.  The 
proportion  of  foreigners  dwelling  in  the  country 
was,  however,  extraordinarily  high.  No  fewer  than 
2,358,000  foreign  subjects  were  living  in  .Argentina 
in    1014,   but    this   total   had   since    been    reduced 


492 


ARGENTINA,    1918-1920 


Effects  of 
World  War 


ARGENTINA,  1920-1921 


by  the  European  War,  because  many  of  the  foreign 
men  (amongst  whom  Italians  were  especially  nu- 
merous) had  returned  to  Europe  to  fight  for  their 
respective  countries.  The  large  majority  of  the 
foreign  residents  were  males,  but  the  Argentine 
population  proper  showed  that  slight  excess  of 
females  which  is  usual  in  nearly  all  countries. 
During  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  the  attention 
of  the  ceuntry  was  fixed  upon  the  presidential 
election  and  election  of  one  moiety  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Chamber,  that  is,  sixty  members. 
These  elections  were  due  in  April.  The  Radical 
party  was  first  in  the  field  with  its  candidate  for 
the  Presidency,  Dr.  Hipolito  Irigoyen  being  chosen. 
The  Radicals  selected  Dr.  Pelagio  Luna  as  their 
candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency.  The  elections 
tCHjk  place  on  April  2,  and  the  polUng  was  car- 
ried out  without  disturbances  or  rioting.  The  con- 
test for  the  Presidency  really  lay  between  Dr. 
Irigoyen  and  Dr.  de  la  Torre,  the  latter  being  the 
representative  of  the  Democratic  Progressives;  but 
two  other  candidates  were  in  the  field,  one  of  them 
being  a  Socialist.  The  system  of  election  for  the 
Argentine  Presidency  resembles  that  existing  in 
the  United  States,  that  is,  it  is  indirect,  a  college 
of  300  electors  being  chosen.  The  result  is  usually 
known,  however,  immediately  after  the  popular 
election  of  the  college,  since  the  manner  in  which 
each  member  of  the  college  will  exercise  his  func- 
tion is  in  practice  usually  known  beforehand.  On 
this  occasion,  however,  the  result  remained  uncer- 
tain for  weeks,  because  nineteen  electors  belonged 
to  the  party  of  so-called  Dissident  Radicals,  and 
those  nineteen  electors  held  the  balance  between 
the  larger  parties.  It  was  not  certain  that  they 
would  vote  for  the  candidate  of  the  Radicals 
proper.  Dr.  Irigoyen.  In  the  meantime,  in  the 
elections  for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  or  rather, 
for  one  half  of  that  Chamber,  the  Radicals  had 
great  successes,  and  secured  thirty-five  of  the  sixty 
vacant  seats.  The  Socialists  won  only  three  seats, 
but  it  is  notable  that  all  three  of  these  were  for 
the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  voting  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Electors  took  place  on  June  12,  and  in  the 
result  a  sufficient  number  of  the  Dissident  Radicals 
voted  for  Dr.  Irigoyen  and  Dr.  Luna  to  ensure 
the  election  of  those  statesmen.  These  two  candi- 
dates secured  152  votes,  an  absolute  majority  of 
the  entire  college,  and  were  thus  duly  elected.  The 
majority  was  made  up  of  14s  Radicals  and  seven 
Dissident  Radicals.  The  group  of  Dissident  Radi- 
cals belonged  to  the  province  of  Santa  Fe.  Ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  the  republic  the  new  Presi- 
dent and  the  new  Vice-President  would  not  be  in- 
stalled in  their  respective  .offices  until  October  12. 
The  outgoing  President,  Dr.  de  la  Plaza,  opened 
Congress  on  May  30,  and  delivered  his  last  mes- 
sage to"  the  legislature.  He  stated  that  although 
the  republic  had  been  suffering  many  injuries  from 
the  European  War,  it  could  face  the  unparalleled 
state  of  affairs  with  equanimity.  The  internal  situ- 
ation in  Argentina  was  highly  satisfactory,  and 
resting  on  the  foundation  of  a  respect  for  law  and 
for  individual  liberty,  the  commonwealth  continued 
to  develop.  In  foreign  relations,  both  the  Gov- 
ernment and  the  nation  had  preserved  strict  neu- 
trality in  the  war.  The  President  then  referred 
to  the  recent  elections,  and  said  that  he  had  pre- 
served strict  impartiality  in  these  contests,  and 
had  exercised  no  influence  in  the  political  battle. 
He  informed  Congress  that  of  the  1,180,282  vot- 
ers whose  names  were  on  the  register,  only  745,825 
had  gone  to  the  polls.  Speaking  of  the  recent 
action  of  the  Chilian  Ministry  in  proclaiming  ju- 
risdiction over  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  the 
Islets   Canal,   he   said    that   his    Government   had 


made  representations  to  Chile  on  this  question, 
and  that  it  was  gratifying  to  be  able  to  record  that 
the  Chilian  Government  had  agreed  to  refer  the 
matter  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King  of  Great 
Britain.  The  remainder  of  the  message  dealt  at 
great  length  with  financial  and  commercial  matters. 
The  republic,  said  the  President,  had  been  less 
seriously  affected  by  the  war  than  had  been  .an- 
ticipated, and  the  excellent  harvest  and  the  high 
prices  to  be  obtained  for  all  agricultural  produce 
had  done  much  to  counteract  the  adverse  influence 
of  the  European  conflict.  On  July  q  an  anarchist 
named  Juan  Mandrini  made  an  attempt  to  assassi- 
nate the  President  which  was  happily  unsuccessful. 
In  October  the  new  President  and  Vice-President 
were  duly  installed  in  office.  The  Budget  for  1017 
showed  an  expenditure  of  £31,200,000  and  a  reve- 
nue  of   £31,508,000." — Annual   Register,    1916,   pp. 

351-353- 

1918-1920.— Effect  of  World  War.— Argentina 
like  every  other  civilized  nation  was  deeply  af- 
fected by  the  widespread  economic  dislocation.  As 
a  great  producer  of  raw  material,  particularly  food- 
stuffs, the  country  found  compensation  for  the  in- 
terruptions of  the  normal  course  of  finance  and 
trade  in  the  greatly  increased  prices  for  its  prod- 
ucts. Moreover,  the  closer  knitting  together  of 
the  commercial  relation  of  Argentina  and  the 
United  States  made  up  in  part  for  the  disturbances 
of  her  European  trade  This  was  reflected  in  the 
rates  of  foreign  exchange  and  the  .\rgentina  "peso" 
has  remained  at  a  premium  not  only  over  the 
pound'sterling  but  over  the  American  dollar.  The 
prosperity  of  Argentina,  however,  did  not  prevent 
industrial  discontent  and  social  unrest  and  the  year 
loio  was  marked  by  a  number  of  serious  strikes 
and  labor  conflicts.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
year  the  transportation  facilities  of  the  city  of 
Buenos  Aires  both  for  foreign  and  domestic  trade 
were  tied  up  for  two  months.  Matters  became  so 
bad  that  a  general  strike  was  called  May  ist,  and 
although  the  government  intervened  the  strikes 
were  not  completely  ended.  The  economic  read- 
justment after  the  World  War  was  slow  and  painful 
and  the  great  industrial  revival  which  the  war 
had  brought  about  was  seriously  checked.  In  a 
general  way  the  foreign  policy  of  the  republic 
continued  to  be  favorable  to  Germany  as  it  had 
been  during  the  war,  but  in  her  relations  with  the 
United  States  Argentina  preserved  a  correct  if  not 
altogether  sympathetic  attitude. — See  also  Latin 
.^MERic.^:   ioi8-iq2i:  Effect  of  natural  resources. 

1920. — Housing  problem.  See  Housing:  South 
.America. 

1920-1921. — Invited  to  join  League  of  Na- 
tions.— Withdrawal  from  the  assembly  at  Ge- 
neva.— "In  the  anne.xe  to  the  Covenant  of  the 
League  of  Nations  thirteen  countries,  which  had 
remained  neutral  during  the  war,  were  formally 
invited  to  accede  to  the  Covenant.  ...  In  ad- 
dition to  .  .  .  European  countries,  six  American 
Republics  were  invited  to  join,  these  being,  .Ar- 
gentina, Chile,  Colombia,  Paraguay,  Venezuela,  and 
Salvador.  All  these  countries  likewise  joined;  and 
the  adhesion  of  Argentina  and  Chile  (which  to- 
gether with  Brazil  constituted  the  three  leading 
Republics  of  Latin  America)  may  be  regarded  as 
only  second  in  importance  to  the  accession  of  the 
European  neutrals." — Annual  Register,  1920,  pp. 
151-152. — Consequently,  on  October  8,  1920,  Seiior 
Puyerredon,  Argentine  foreign  minister,  left 
Buenos  .Aires  to  attend  the  Geneva  meeting  of  the 
League  of  Nations.  Among  the  first  of  important 
matters  before  the  delegates  was  the  question  of 
amendments  to  the  coven.int  of  the  League.  In 
order  to  avoid  serious  clashes  until  more  pressing 


493 


ARGENTINA,   1920-1921 


ARGENTINA,  CONSTITUTION 


needs  had  been  dealt  with,  amendments  were 
waived  after  some  discussion.  This  decision  im- 
mediately precipitated  a  violent  dispute.  "Most 
prominent  of  all  those  to  move  for  amendments 
had  been  the  Argentinians,  headed  by  Seiior  Puyer- 
redon.  Argentina  stood  especially  for  compulsory 
arbitration  by  the  International  Court  of  Justice, 
the  election  of  members  of  the  Council  by  the 
Assembly,  the  admission  of  all  States  to  the  League, 
including  Germany,  «nd  the  admission  of  small 
States  of  undefined  boundaries  without  a  vote.  It 
was  clear  from  the  start  that  Puyerredon  was 
leading  the  campaign  of  the  small  nations  to  un- 
dermine the  power  of  the  larger  ones.  The  fight 
culminated  on  Dec.  4  [1920],  when  the  Argen- 
tinian delegation  had  read  a  resolution  advocating 
the  admission  of  all  sovereign  States  unless  they 
voluntarily  decided  to  stay  outside.  Serior  Puyer- 
redon frankly  admitted  that  the  object  was  to  open 
the  way  to  the  admission  of  Germany.  This,  with 
all  the  other  changes  proposed,  was  rejected,  where- 
upon Seiior  Puyerredon,  with  all  the  members  of 
his  delegation,  withdrew  from  the  Assembly,  de- 
claring that  he  would  not  return  until  all  four 
proposals  were  accepted.  The  Assembly  refused 
to  rescind  its  action  and  accepted  the  departure 
of  the  Argentinians." — New  York  Times  Current 
History,  Jan.,  1921,  pp.  7-8. — "Argentina  on  May 
12  [1Q21]  sent  an  official  communication  to  the 
Secretariat  of  the  League  of  Nations  on  amend- 
ments offered  last  November  by  Honorio  Puyerre- 
don, the  Argentine  Foreign  Minister,  showing  that 
Argentina  continues  to  consider  herself  a  member 
of  the  League." — Ibid.,  June,  1921,  p.  536. — For 
discussion  of  the  League,  see  also  League  of  Na- 
tions. 

1921. — Colby's  diplomatic  mission. — Absence 
of  enthusiasm. — Cordial  treatment  by  president. 
See  L'.  S.  A.:  1021. 

ARGENTINA:  Masonic  societies.  See  M.*- 
soNic  societies:   Central  and  South  America. 

ARGENTINA:  Universities.  See  Universi- 
ties AND  colleges:  1551-1912. 

ARGENTINA,  Constitution  of.— The  constitu- 
tion is  dated  May  15,  1S53,  and  amended  in 
i860,  1866  and  1898.  At  the  head  of  the  execu- 
tive power  is  a  president  who  is  elected  for  six 
years  by  an  electoral  college  chosen  by  the  several 
provinces,  aiid  as  in  the  case  of  the  United  States 
the  number  of  electors  is  double  the  total  number 
of  senators  and  deputies.  The  legislative  authority 
is  vested  in  a  national  congress  consisting  of  a 
senate  and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  The  senate 
consists  of  thirty  members,  two  from  the  capital 
and  from  each  province,  who  are  elected  by  a  spe- 
cial body  of  electors  and  by  the  legislatures  in  the 
provinces.  The  chamber  of  deputies  has  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  members  elected, by  the  people  in 
congressional  districts.  A  deputy  must  have  been 
a  citizen  for  four  years  and  must  be  twenty-five 
years  of  age.  The  term  of  office  for  the  deputies 
is  four  years,  but  one-half  of  the  chamber  retires 
for  two  years.  The  senators  must  be  thirty  years 
of  age  and  must  have  been  a  citizen  for  six  years. 
One-third  of  the  senate  retires  every  three  years. 
A  vice-president,  elected  in  the  same  manner  and 
at  the  same  time  as  the  president,  acts  as  chairman 
of  the  senate,  and  succeeds  to  the  presidential  of- 
fice in  case  of  the  death,  resignation  or  disability 
of  the  president.  The  president  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  re- 
public and  has  the  appointing  power  to  all  federal 
offices  as  well  as  the  right  of  presentation  to  bish- 
oprics. The  president  and  vice-president  must  be 
Roman  Catholics,  born  in  the  country  and  cannot 
be  candidates  for  re-election.     The  cabinet  is  ap- 


pointed by  and  acts  under  the  order  of  the  presi- 
dent. It  is  made  up  of  the  heads  of  the  depart- 
ments of  interior,  foreign  affairs,  finance,  war, 
justice  and  public  instruction,  agriculture,  marine, 
and  public  w'orks. 

The  constitution  of  Argentina  was  modeled  on 
that  of  the  LInited  States.  The  Federal  Govern- 
ment is  in  charge  of  matters  affecting  the  republic 
as  a  whole.  Like  the  United  States  the  country 
is  divided  into  states,  territories  and  a  federal  dis- 
trict. The  states,  fourteen  in  number,  are  called 
provinces,  at  the  head  of  which  are  elected  gov- 
ernors, who  have  very^  extensive  powers.  The 
provinces  have  their  own  legislatures  with  com- 
plete control  over  local  affairs.  The  governors  of 
the  territories  are  appointed  by  the  president.  The 
City  of  Buenos  Aires  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  president,  subject  to  ratification  by 
the   senate. 

The  constitution  of  Argentina  is  a  document  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  articles  arranged  in  the  gen- 
eral way  like  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
The  first  article  is  a  simple  enacting  clause  and 
the  following  thirty-four  articles  cover  the  ground 
of  our  Bill  of  Rights  (q.  v.)  and  the  relative  pow- 
ers of  the  federal  and  state  governments.  The 
greater  part  of  the  document,  articles  thirty-six  to 
one  hundred  and  three  inclusive,  deals  with  the 
federal  government,  w'hile  the  remainder  of  the 
document,  articles  one  hundred  and  four  to  one 
hundred  and  ten,  deals  with  the  states  or  provin- 
cial governments.  The  outline  immediately  fol- 
lowing may  be  used  as  an  index  to  thi  principal 
matters  dealt  with  in  the  document: 

Declarations,  Rights,  and  Guaranties  (.\rts.  1-3S) 
The  Federal  Government 

The  Legislative  Power   (.^rt.  36) 

The  House  of  Deputies  (Arts.  37-4S) 

The  Senate   (Arts.  46-54) 

Provisions    Common    to    Both    Houses    (Arts. 

55-66) 
Powers  of  Congress  (Art.  67) 
Enactment  and  Approval  of  Laws   (Arts.  68- 
73) 
The  Executive  Power 

Its  Nature  and  Duration  (.\rts.  74-80) 
Manner   and   Time   of   Electing   the  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  Nation  (Arts.  81- 

85) 
Powers  of  the  Executive   (Art.  86) 
The  Ministers  of  the  Executive  Power  (Arts. 
87-03) 
The  Judicial  Power 

Its  Nature  and  Duration   (Arts.  94-99) 
Functions  of   the  Judicial  Power    (Arts.   100- 
103) 
Provincial  Governments  (.'Krts.  104-10) 

Part  I 

.^rt.  I.  The  -Argentine  Nation  adopts  the  fed- 
eral-republican, and  representative  form  of  Gov- 
ernment, as  established  by  the  present  Constitu- 
tion. 

.■\rt.  2.  The  Federal  Government  shall  main- 
tain the  Apostolic  Roman   Catholic  Faith. 

.\rt.  3.  The  authorities  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment shall  reside  in  the  city  which  a  special  law 
of  Congress  may  declare  the  capital  of  the  Re- 
public, subsequently  to  the  cession  by  one  or 
more  of  the  Provincial  Legislatures,  of  the  terri- 
tory about  to  be  federalized. 

Art.  4.  The  Federal  Government  shall  admin- 
ister the  expenses  of  the  Nation  out  of  the  revenue 
in  the  National  Treasury,  derived  from  import  and 


494 


ARGENTINA,  CONSTITUTION 


ARGENTINA,  CONSTITUTION 


export  duties;  from  the  sale  and  lease  of  the  public 
lands;  from  postage;  and  from  such  other  taxes 
as  the  General  Congress  may  equitably  and  pro- 
portionably  lay  upon  the  people ;  as  also,  from 
such  loans  and  credits  as  may  be  decreed  by  it  in 
times  of  national  necessity,  or  for  enterprises  of 
national  utility. 

Art.  S.  Each  Province  shall  make  a  Constitu- 
tion for  itself,  according  to  the  republican  repre- 
sentative system,  and  the  principles,  declarations 
and  guarantees  of  this  Constitution;  and  which 
shall  provide  for  (secure)  Municipal  Government, 
primary  education  and  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice. Under  these  conditions  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment shall  guarantee  to  each  Province  the  exercise 
and  enjoyment  of  its  institutions. 

Art.  6.  The  Federal  Government  shall  inter- 
vene in  the  Provinces  to  guarantee  the  republican 
form  of  Government,  or  to  repel  foreign  invasion, 
and  also,  on  application  of  their  constituted  au- 
thorities, should  they  have  been  deposed  by  sedi- 
tion or  by  invasion  from  another  Province,  for  the 
purpose  of  sustaining  or  re-establishing  them. 

Art.  7.  Full  faith  shall  be  given  in  each  Prov- 
ince to  the  public  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  every  other  Province ;  and  Congress  may  by 
general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
effect   thereof. 

Art.  8.  The  citizens  of  each  Province  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  the  rights,  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties, inherent  to  the  citizens  of  all  the  several 
Provinces.  The  reciprocal  extradition  of  criminals 
between  all  the  Provinces,  is  obligatory. 

Art.  9.  Throughout  the  territory  of  the  Nation, 
no  other  than  the  National  Custom-Houses  shall 
be  allowed,  and  they  shall  be  regulated  by  the 
tariffs  sanctioned  by  Congress. 

Art.  10.  The  circulation  of  all  goods  produced 
or  manufactured  in  the  Republic,  is  free  within  its 
borders,  as  also,  that  of  all  species  of  merchandise 
which  may  be  dispatched  by  the  Custom-Houses 
of  entry. 

Art.  II.  Such  articles  of  native  or  foreign  pro- 
duction, as  well  as  cattle  of  every  kind,  which  pass 
from  one  Province  to  another,  shall  be  free  from 
all  transit-duties,  and  also  the  vehicles,  vessels  or 
animals,  which  transport  them ;  and  no  tax,  let  it 
be  what  it  may,  can  be  henceforward  imposed  upon 
them  on  account  of  such  transit. 

Art.  12.  Vessels  bound  from  one  Province  to 
another,  shall  not  be  compelled  to  enter,  anchor, 
or  pay  transit-duties;  nor  in  any  case  can  prefer- 
ences be  granted  to  one  port  over  another,  by  any 
commercial  laws  or  regulations. 

Art.  13.  New  Provinces  may  be  admitted  into 
the  Nation ;  but  no  Province  shall  be  erected  within 
the  territory  of  any  other  Province,  or  Provinces, 
nor  any  Province  be  formed  by  the  junction  of 
various  Provinces,  without  the  consent  of  the  leg- 
islatures of  the  Provinces  concerned,  as  well  as  of 
Congress. 

Art.  14.  All  the  inhabitants  of  the  Nation  shall 
enjoy  the  following  rights,  according  to  the  laws 
which  regulate  their  exercise:  viz.,  to  labor  and 
to  practice  all  lawful  industry ;  to  trade  and  navi- 
gate; to  petition  the  authorities;  to  enter,  remain 
in,  travel  over  and  leave,  Argentine  territory;  to 
publish  their  ideas  in  the  public-press  without  pre- 
vious censure;  to  enjoy  and  dispose  of  their  prop- 
erty; to  associate  for  useful  purposes;  to  profess 
freely  their  religion ;  to  teach  and  to  learn. 

Art.  15.  In  the  Argentine  Nation  there  are  no 
slaves ;  the  few  which  now  exist  shall  be  free  from 
the  date  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  and 
a  special  law  shall  regulate  the  indemnity  acknowl- 


edged as  due  by  this  declaration.  All  contracts  for 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  persons  is  a  crime,  for 
which  those  who  make  them,  as  well  as  the  notary 
or  functionary  which  authorizes  them,  shall  be 
responsible,  and  the  slaves  who  in  any  manner 
whatever  may  be  introduced,  shall  be  free  from 
the  sole  fact  that  they  tread  the  territory  of  the 
Republic. 

Art.  16.  The  Argentine  Nation  does  not  admit- 
the  prerogatives  of  blood  nor  of  birth ;  in  it,  there 
are  no  personal  privileges  or  titles  of  nobility.  All 
its  inhabitants  are  equal  in  presence  of  the  law, 
and  admissible  to  office  without  other  condition 
than  that  of  fitness.  Equality  is  the  basis  of  tax- 
ation as  well  as  of  public-posts. 

Art.  17.  Property  is  inviolable,  and  no  inhabi- 
tant of  the  Nation  can  be  deprived  of  it,  save  by 
virtue  of  a  sentence  based  on  law.  The  expropri- 
ation for  public  utiUty  must  be  authorized  by  law 
and  previously  indemnified.  Congress  alone  shall 
impose  the  contributions  mentioned  in  Art.  4.  No 
personal  service  shall  be  exacted  save  by  virtue  of 
law,  or  of  a  sentence  founded  on  law.  Every 
author  or  inventor  is  the  exclusive  proprietor  of 
his  work,  invention  or  discovery,  for  the  term 
which  the  law  accords  to  him.  The  confiscation 
of  property  is  henceforward  and  forever,  stricken 
from  the  Argentine  penal-code.  No  armed  body 
can  make  requisitions,  nor  exact  assistance  of  any 
kind. 

Art.  18.  No  inhabitant  of  the  Nation  shall  suf- 
fer punishment  without  a  previous  judgment 
founded  on  a  law  passed  previously  to  the  cause 
of  judgment,  nor  be  judged  by  special  commis- 
sions, or  withdrawn  from  the  Judges  designated 
by  law  before  the  opening  of  the  cause.  No  one 
shall  be  obliged  to  testify  against  himself;  nor  be 
arrested,  save  by  virtue  of  a  written  order  from 
a  competent  authority.  The  defense  at  law  both 
of  the  person  and  his  rights,  is  inviolable.  The 
domicil,  private  papers  and  epistolary  correspond- 
ence, are  inviolable;  and  a  law  shall  determine  in 
what  cases,  and  under  what  imputations,  a  search- 
warrant  can  proceed  against  and  occupy  them. 
Capital  punishment  for  political  causes,  as  well  as 
every  species  of  torture  and  whippings,  are  abol- 
ished for  ever.  The  prisons  of  the  Nation  shall 
be  healthy  and  clean,  for  the  security,  and  not  for 
the  punishment,  of  the  criminals  detained  in  them, 
and  every  measure  which  under  pretext  of  precau- 
tion may  mortify  them  more  than  such  security 
requires,  shall  render  responsible  the  Judge 
who  authorizes  it. 

Art.  ip.  Those  private  actions  of  men  that  in 
nowise  offend  public  order  and  morality,  or  in- 
jure a  third  party,  belong  ajone  to  God,  and  are 
beyond  the  authority  of  the  magistrates.  No  in- 
habitant of  the  Nation  shall  be  compelled  to  do 
what  the  law  does  not  ordain,  nor  be  deprived 
of  anything  which  it  does  not  prohibit. 

Art.  20.  Within  the  territory  of  the  Nation, 
foreigners  shall  enjoy  all  the  civil  rights  of  citizens; 
they  can  exercise  their  industries,  commerce  or  pro- 
fessions, in  accordance  with  the  laws;  own,  buy 
and  sell  real-estate;  navigate  the  rivers  and  coasts; 
freely  profess  their  religion,  and  testate  and  marry. 
They  shall  not  be  obliged  to  become  citizens,  nor 
to  pay  forced  contributions.  Two  years  previous 
residence  in  the  Nation  shall  be  required  for  natu- 
ralization, but  the  authorities  can  shorten  this  term 
in  favour  of  him  who  so  desires  it,  under  the  al- 
legation and  proof  of  services  rendered  to  the  Re- 
public. 

Art.  21.  Every  Argentine  citizen  is  obliged  to 
arm  himself  in  defense  of  his  country  and  of  this 
Constitution,  according  to  the  laws  which  Congress 


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shall  ordain  for  the  purpose,  and  the  decrees  of  the 
National  Executive.  For  the  period  of  ten  years 
from  the  day  on  which  they  may  have  obtained 
their  citizenship,  this  service  shall  be  voluntary  on 
the  part  of  the  naturalized. 

Art.  22.  The  people  shall  not  deliberate  nor 
govern  save  by  means  of  their  Representatives  and 
Authorities,  created  by  this  Constitution.  Every 
armed  force  or  meeting  of  persons  which  shall 
arrogate  to  itself  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  pe- 
tition in  their  name,  is  guilty  of  sedition. 

Art.  23.  In  the  event  of  internal  commotion 
or  foreign  attack  which  might  place  in  jeopardy 
the  practice  of  this  Constitution,  and  the  free  ac- 
tion of  the  Authorities  created  by  it,  the  Prov- 
ince or  territory  where  such  disturbance  exists 
shall  be  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  all  constitu- 
tional guarantees  being  meantime  suspended  there. 
But  during  such  suspension  the  President  of  the 
Republic  cannot  condemn  nor  apply  any  punish- 
ment per  se.  In  respect  to  persons,  his  power  shall 
be  limited  to  arresting  and  removing  them  from 
one  place  to  another  in  the  Nation,  should  they 
not  prefer  to  leave  Argentine  territory. 

Art.  24.  Congress  shall  establish  the  reform  of 
existing  laws  in  all  branches,  as  also  the  trial  by 
Jury. 

Art.  25.  The  Federal  Government  shall  foment 
European  immigration;  and  it  cannot  restrict,  limit, 
nor  lay  any  impost  upon,  the  entry  upon  Argen- 
tine territory,  of  such  foreigners  as  come  for  the 
purpose  of  cultivating  the  soil,  improving  manu- 
factures, and  introducing  and  teaching  the  arts  and 
sciences. 

Art.  26.  The  navigation  of  the  interior  rivers 
of  the  Nation  is  free  to  all  flags,  subject  only  to 
such  reglations  as  the  National  Authority  may 
dictate. 

Art.  27.  The  Federal  Government  is  obliged  to 
strengthen  the  bonds  of  peace  and  commerce  with 
foreign  powers,  by  means  of  treaties  which  shall 
be  in  conformity  with  the  principles  of  public  law 
laid  down  in  this  Constitution. 

Art.  28.  The  principles,  rights  and  guarantees 
laid  down  in  the  foregoing  articles,  cannot  be  al- 
tered by  any  laws  intended  to  regulate  their  prac- 
tice. 

Art.  2q.  Congress  cannot  grant  to  the  Execu- 
tive, nor  the  provincial  legislatures  to  the  Governor 
of  Provinces,  any  "extraordinary  faculties,"  nor 
the  "sum  of  the  public  power,"  nor  "renunciations 
or  supremacies"  by  which  the  lives,  honor  or  for- 
tune of  the  Argentines  shall  be  at  the  mercv  of 
any  Government  or  person  whatever.  Acts  of  this 
nature  shall  be  irremediably  null  and  void,  and 
shall  subject  those  who  frame,  vote,  or  sign  them, 
to  the  pains  and  penalties  incurred  by  those  who 
are  infamous   traitors  to   their   country. 

Art.  30.  This  Constitution  can  be  reformed  in 
whole  or  in  part.  The  necessity  for  the  reform 
shall  be  declared  by  Congress  by  at  least  a  two- 
thirds  vote ;  but  it  can  only  be  accomphshed  by 
a  convention  called  ad  hoc. 

Art.  31.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the 
Nation  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  there- 
of, and  all  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  made 
with  Foreign  Powers,  shall  be  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land;  and  the  authorities  of  every  Prov- 
ince shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Con- 
stitution or  laws  of  any  Province  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding,  excepting  in  the  case  of  Buenos- 
Aires,  in  the  treaties  ratified  after  the  compact  of 
Nov.  nth,  1850. 

Art.  32.  The  Federal  Congress  shall  not  dic- 
tate laws  restrictmg  the  liberty  of  the  press,  nor 
estabUsh  any  federal  jurisdiction  over  it. 


Art.  33.  The  enumeration  in  this  Constitution 
of  certain  rights  and  guarantees,  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  other  rights  and 
guarantees,  not  enumerated;  but  which  spring 
from  the  principle  of  popular  sovereignty,  and  the 
republican  form  of  Government. 

Art.  34.  The  Judges  of  the  Federal  courts  shall 
not  be  Judges  of  Provincial  tribunals  at  the  same 
time;  nor  shall  the  federal  service,  civil  as  well 
as  military,  constitute  a  domicil  in  the  Province 
where  it  may  be  exercised,  if  it  be  not  habitually 
that  of  the  employe;  it  being  understood  by  this, 
that  all  Provincial  public-service  is  optional  in  the 
Province  where  such  employe  may  casually  reside. 

Art.  3S.  The  names  which  have  been  succes- 
sively adopted  for  the  Nation,  since  the  year  1810 
up  to  the  present  time;  viz.,  the  United  Provinces 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Argentine  RepubUc  and 
Argentine  Confederation,  shall  henceforward  serve 
without  distinction,  officially  to  designate  the  Gov- 
ernment and  territory  of  the  Provinces,  whilst  the 
words  .'\rgentine  Nation  shall  be  employed  in  the 
making  and  sanction  of  the  laws. 

Part  II. — Section  I 

Art.  36.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted 
shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  composed  of  two 
Chambers,  one  of  National  Deputies,  and  the  other 
of  Senators  of  the  Provinces  and  of  the  capital. 

Chapter  I 

Art.  37.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  shall  be 
composed  of  representatives  elected  directly  by 
the  people  of  the  Provinces,  for  which  purpose 
each  one  shall  be  considered  as  a  single  elec- 
toral district,  and  by  a  .simple  plurality  of  votes 
in  the  ratio  of  one  for  each  20,000  inhabitants,  or 
for  a  fraction  not  less  than  10,000. 

.Art.  38.  The  deputies  for  the  first  Legislature 
shall  be  nominated  in  the  following  proportion: 
for  the  Province  of  Buenos-.\ires,  twelve;  for  that 
of  Cordoba,  six;  for  Catamarca,  three;  Corrientes, 
four;  Entre-Rios,  two;  Jujui,  two;  Mendoza, 
three;  Rioja,  two;  Salta,  three;  Santiago,  four; 
San  Juan,  two;  Santa-Fe,  two;  San  Luis,  two; 
and  for  that  of  Tucuman,  three. 

-Art.  30.  For  the  second  Legislature  a  general 
census  shall  be  taken,  and  the  number  of  Deputies 
be  regulated  by  it;  thereafter,  this  census  shall  be 
decennial. 

Art.  40.  No  person  shall  be  a  Deputy  who 
shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-five 
years,  have  been  four  years  in  the  exercise  of  citi- 
zenship, and  be  a  native  of  the  Province  which 
elects  him,  or  a  resident  of  it  for  the  two  years 
immediately   preceding. 

.\rt.  41.  For  the  first  election,  the  provincial 
Legislatures  shall  regulate  the  method  for  a  direct 
election  of  the  National  Deputies.  Congress  shall 
pass  a  general  law  for  the  future. 

Art.  42.  The  Deputies  shall  hold  their  place  for 
four  years,  and  are  re-eligible ;  but  the  House  shall 
be  renewed  each  biennial,  by  halves;  for  which 
purpose  those  elected  to  the  first  Legislature,  as 
soon  as  the  session  opens,  shall  decide  by  lot  who 
shall  leave  at  the  end  of  the  first  period. 

Art,  43.  In  case  of  vacancy,  the  Government  of 
the  Province  or  of  the  capital,  shall  call  an  elec- 
tion for  a  new  member. 

Art.  44.  The  origination  of  the  tax-laws  and 
those  for  the  recruiting  of  troops,  belongs  exclu- 
sively to  the  House  of  Deputies. 

Art.  4S.  It  has  the  sole  right  of  impeaching 
before    the  Senate,   the    President,   Vice-President, 


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their  Ministers,  and  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  other  inferior  Tribunals  of  the  Nation, 
in  suits  which  may  be  undertaken  against  them 
for  the  improper  discharge  of,  or  deficiency  in,  the 
exercise  of  their  functions;  or  for  common  crimes, 
after  having  heard  them,  and  declared  by  a  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present,  that  there 
is  cause  for  proceeding  against  them. 

Chapter  II 

Art.  46.  The  Senate  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  Province,  chosen  by  the  Legis- 
latures thereof  by  plurality  of  vote,  and  two  from 
the  capital  elected  in  the  form  prescribed  for  the 
election  of  the  President  of  the  Nation.  Each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Art.  47.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who 
shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
been  six  years  a  citizen  of  the  Nation,  enjoy  an 
annual  rent  or  income  of  two  thousand  hard- 
dollars,  and  be  a  native  of  the  Province  which 
elects  him,  or  a  resident  of  the  same  for  the  two 
years  immediately   preceding. 

Art.  48.  The  Senators  shall  enjoy  their  trust 
for  nine  years,  and  are  indefinitely  re-eligible;  but 
the  Senate  shall  be  renewed  by  thirds  each  three 
years,  and  shall  decide  by  lot,  as  soon  as  they  be 
all  re-united,  who  shall  leave  at  the  end  of  the 
first  and  second  triennial  periods.      , 

Art.  4q.  The  Vice-President  of  the  Nation  shall 
be  President  of  the  Senate ;  but  shall  have  no  vote, 
except  in  a  case  of  a  tie. 

Art.  50.  The  Senate  shall  choose  a  President 
pro-tempore  who  shall  preside  during  the  absence 
of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise 
the  office  of  President  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  si.  The  Senate  shall  have  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments  presented  by  the  House  of 
Deputies.  When  sitting  for  that  purpose  they 
shall  be  under  oath.  When  the  President  of  the 
Nation  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Art.  52.  Judgment  in  case  of  impeachment,  shall 
not  extend  farther  than  to  removal  from  office, 
and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  Nation.  But 
the  party  convicted  shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable 
to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punishment  ac- 
cording to  law,  before  the  ordinary  tribunals. 

Art.  53.  It  belongs,  moreover,  to  the  Senate, 
to  authorize  the  President  to  declare  martial  law 
in  one  or  more  points  of  the  Republic,  in  case  of 
foreign  aggression. 

Art.  54.  When  any  seat  of  a  Senator  be  va- 
cant by  death,  resignation  or  other  reason,  the  Gov- 
ernment to  which  the  vacancy  belongs,  shall  im- 
mediately proceed  to  the  election  of  a  new  mem- 
ber. 

Chapter  III 

Art.  55.  Both  Chambers  shall  meet  in  ordinary 
session,  every  year  from  the  ist  May  until  the  3ofh 
September.  They  can  be  extraordinarily  convoked, 
or  their  session  be  prolonged  by  the  President  of 
the  Nation. 

Art.  56.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the 
elections,  returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own 
members.  Neither  of  them  shall  enter  into  session 
without  an  absolute  majority  of  its  members;  but 
a  smaller  number  may  compel  absent  members  to 
attend  the  sessions,  in  such  terms  and  under  such 
penalties  as  each  House  may  establish. 

Art.  57.    Both    Houses    shall    begin    and    close 


their  sessions  simultaneously.  Neither  of  them 
whilst  in  sessions  can  suspend  its  meetings  for  more 
than  three  days,  without  the  consent  of  the  other. 

Art.  58.  Each  House  may  make  its  rules  of 
proceeding,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior  in  the 
e.xercise  of  their  functions,  or  remove,  and  even 
expel  them  from  the  House,  for  physical  or  moral 
incapacity  occurring  after  their  incorporation;  but 
a  majority  of  one  above  one-half  of  the  members 
present,  shall  suffice  to  decide  questions  of  volun- 
tary resignation. 

Art.  50.  In  the  act  of  their  incorporation  the 
Senators  and  Deputies  shall  take  an  oath  to  prop- 
erly fulfil  their  charge,  and  to  act  in  all  things  in 
conformity  to  the  prescriptions  of  this  Constitu- 
tion. 

Art.  60.  No  member  of  Congress  can  be  in- 
dicted, judicially  interrogated,  or  molested  for  any 
opinion  or  discourse  which  he  may  have  uttered  in 
fulfilment  of  his  Legislative  duties. 

Art.  61.  No  Senator  or  Deputy,  during  the 
term  for  which  he  may  have  been  elected,  shall 
be  arrested,  except  when  taken  "in  flagrant"  com- 
mission of  some  crime  which  merits  capital  pun- 
ishment or  other  degrading  sentence;  an  account 
thereof  shall  be  rendered  to  the  Chamber  he  be- 
longs to,  with  a  verbal  process  of  the  facts. 

Art.  62.  When  a  complaint  in  writing  be  made 
before  the  ordinary  courts  against  any  Senator  or 
Deputy,  each  Chamber  can  by  a  two-thirds  vote, 
suspend  the  accused  in  his  functions  and  place 
him  at  the  disposition  of  the  competent  judge  for 
trial. 

Art.  63.  Each  of  the  Chambers  can  cause  the 
Ministers  of  the  Executive  to  come  to  their  Hall, 
to  give  such  explanations  or  information  as  may 
be  considered  convenient. 

Art.  64.  No  member  of  Congress  can  receive 
any  post  or  commission  from  the  Executive,  with- 
out the  previous  consent  of  his  respective  Cham- 
ber, excepting  such  as  are  in  the  line  of  promotion. 

Art.  65.  The  regular  ecclesiastics  cannot  be 
members  of  Congress,  nor  can  the  Governors  of 
Provinces  represent  the  Province  which  they 
govern. 

Art.  66.  The  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  be 
remunerated  for  their  services,  by  a  compensation 
to  be  ascertained  by  law. 

Chapter  IV 

Art.  67.  The  Congress  shall  have  power: — (i) 
To  legislate  upon  the  Custom-Houses  and  establish 
import  duties;  which,  as  well  as  all  appraisements 
for  their  collection,  shall  be  uniform  throughout 
the  Nation,  it  being  clearly  understood  that  these, 
as  well  as  all  other  national  contributions,  can  be 
paid  in  any  money  at  the  just  value  which  may  be 
current  in  the  respective  Provinces.  Also,  to  es- 
tablish export  duties.  (2)  To  lay  direct  taxes  for 
determinate  periods,  whenever  the  common  de- 
fense and  general  welfare  require  it,  which  shall  be 
uniform   throughout   the   territory    of   the   Nation. 

(3)  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  Nation. 

(4)  To  determine  the  use  and  sale  of  the  National 
lands,  (s)  To  establish  and  regulate  a  National 
Bank  in  the  capital,  with  branches  in  the  Provinces, 
and  with  power  to  emit  bills.  (6)  To  regulate  the 
payment  of  the  home  and  foreign  debts  of  the 
Nation.  (7)  To  annually  determine  the  estimates 
of  the  National  Administration,  and  approve  or 
reject  the  accounts  of  expenses.  (8)  To  grant  sub- 
sidies from  the  National  Treasury  to  those  Prov- 
inces, whose  revenues,  according  to  their  budgets, 
do  not  suffice  to  cover  the  ordinary  expenses.     (9) 


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To  regulate  the  free  navigation  of  the  interior 
rivers,  open  such  ports  as  may  be  considered  neces- 
sary, create  and  suppress  Custom-Houses,  but 
without  suppressing  those  which  existed  in  each 
Province  at  the  time  of  its  incorporation.  (lo) 
To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof  and 
of  foreign  coin,  and  adopt  a  uniform  system  of 
weights  and  measures  for  the  whole  Nation,  (ii) 
To  decree  civil,  commercial,  penal  and  mining 
Codes,  but  such  Codes  shall  have  no  power  to 
change  local  jurisdiction;  their  application  shall 
belong  to  the  Federal  or  Provincial  courts,  in  ac- 
cordance with  such  things  or  persons  as  may  come 
under  their  respective  jurisdiction;  especially,  gen- 
eral laws  embracing  the  whole  Nation,  shall  be 
passed  upon  naturalization  and  citizenship,  subject 
to  the  principle  of  native  citizenship;  also  upon 
bankruptcy,  the  counterfeiting  of  current-money 
and  public  State  documents;  and  such  laws  as  may 
be  required  for  the  establishment  of  trial  by  Jury. 
(12)  To  regulate  commerce  by  land  and  sea  with 
foreign  nations,  and  between  the  Provinces.  (13) 
To  establish  and  regulate  the  general  post-offices 
and  post-roads  of  the  Nation.  (14)  To  finally 
settle  the  National  boundaries,  fix  those  of  the 
Provinces,  create  new  Provinces,  and  determine  by 
a  special  legislation,  the  organization  and  govern- 
ments, which  such  National  territories  as  are  be- 
yond the  limits  assigned  to  the  Province,  should 
have.  (15)  To  provide  for  the  security  of  the 
frontiers;  preserve  peaceful  relations  with  the  In- 
dians, and  promote  their  conversion  to  Catholi- 
cism. (16)  To  provide  all  things  conducive  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  country,  to  the  advancement  and 
happiness  of  the  Provinces,  and  to  the  increase  of 
enlightenment,  decreeing  plans  for  general  and  uni- 
versity instruction,  promoting  industry,  immigra- 
tion, the  construction  of  railways,  and  navigable 
canals,  the  peopling  of  the  National  lands,  the  in- 
troduction and  establishment  of  new  industries,  the 
importation  of  foreign  capital  and  the  exploration 
of  the  interior  rivers,  by  protection  laws  to  these 
ends,  and  by  temporary  concessions  and  stimulat- 
ing recompenses.  (17)  To  constitute  tribunals  in- 
ferior to  the  Supreme  Court,  create  and  suppress 
public  offices,  fix  their  attributes,  grant  pensions, 
decree  honors  and  general  amnesties.  (18)  To 
accept  or  reject  the  resignation  of  the  President  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Republic,  and  declare  new 
elections;  to  make  the  scrutiny  and  rectification 
of  the  same.  (19)  To  ratify  or  reject  the  treaties 
made  with  other  Nations  and  the  Concordats  with 
the  Apostolic  See,  and  regulate  the  patronage  of 
advowsons  throughout  the  Nation.  (20)  To  admit 
religious  orders  within  the  Nation,  other  than  those 
already  existing.  {21)  To  authorize  the  Executive 
to  declare  war  and  make  peace.  (22)  To  grant  let- 
ters of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  to  make  rules 
concerning  prizes.  (23)  To  fix  the  land  and  sea 
forces  in  time  of  peace  and  war:  and  to  make 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  said 
forces.  (24)  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the 
militia  of  all,  or  a  part  of,  the  Provinces,  to  exe- 
cute the  laws  of  the  Nation,  suppress  insurrections 
or  repel  invasions.  To  provide  for  organizing, 
arming,  and  disciplining  said  militia,  and  for  gov- 
erning such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  Nation,  reserving  to  the  Prov- 
inces respectively,  the  appointment  of  the  corre- 
sponding chiefs  and  officers,  and  the  authority  of 
training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipUne 
prescribed  by  Congress.  (25)  To  permit  the  in- 
troduction of  foreign  troops  within  the  territory 
of  the  Nation,  and  the  going  beyond  it  of  the  Na- 
tional forces.  (26)  To  declare  martial  law  in  any 
or  various  points  of  the  Nation  in  case  of  domes- 


tic commotion,  and  ratify  or  suspend  the  declara- 
tion of  martial  law  made  by  the  executive  during 
the  recess.  (27)  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation 
over  the  territory  of  the  National  capital,  and  over 
such  other  places  acquired  by  purchase  or  cession 
in  any  of  the  Provinces,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing forts,  arsenals,  warehouses,  or  other  needful 
national  buildings.  {28)  To  make  all  laws  and 
regulations  which  shall  be  necessary  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  others 
vested  by  the  present  Constitution  in  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Argentine  Nation. 

Chapter  V 

Art.  68.  Laws  may  originate  in  either  of  the 
Houses  of  Congress,  by  bills  presented  by  their 
members  or  by  the  Executive,  excepting  those  rela- 
tive to  the  objects  treated  of  in  Art.  44. 

Art.  69.  A  bill  being  approved  by  the  House 
wherein  it  originated,  shall  pass  for  discussion  to 
the  other  House.  Being  approved  by  both,  it  shall 
pass  to  the  Executive  of  the  Nation  for  his  ex- 
amination ;  and  should  it  receive  his  approbation 
he  shall  publish  it  as  law. 

Art.  70.  Every  bill  not  returned  within  ten 
working-days  by  the  Executive,  shall  be  taken  as 
approved  by  him 

Art.  71.  No  bill  entirely  rejected  by  one  House, 
can  be  presented  again  during  that  year.  But 
should  it  be  only  amplified  or  corrected  by  the 
revising  House,  it  shall  return  to  that  wherein  it 
originated;  and  if  there  the  additions  or  corrections 
be  approved  by  an  absolute  majority,  it  shall  pass 
to  the  Executive.  If  the  additions  or  corrections 
be  rejected,  it  shall  return  to  the  revising  House, 
and  if  here  they  be  again  sanctioned  by  a  ma- 
jority of  two-thirds  of  its  members,  it  shall  pass 
to  the  other  House,  and  it  shall  not  be  understood 
that  the  said  additions  and  corrections  are  re- 
jected, unless  two-thirds  of  the  members  present 
should  so  vote. 

Art.  72.  A  bill  being  rejected  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  the  Executive,  he  shall  return  it  with  his 
objections  to  the  House  in  which  it  originated; 
here  it  shall  be  debated  again;  and  if  it  be  con- 
firmed by  a  majority  of  two-thirds,  it  shall  pass 
again  to  the  revising  House.  If  both  Houses  should 
pass  it  by  the  same  majority,  it  becomes  a  law,  and 
shall  be  sent  to  the  Executive  for  promulgation. 
In  such  case  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  by 
yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  so 
voting  shall  be  recorded,  as  well  as  the  objections 
of  the  Executive,  and  shall  be  immediately  pub- 
lished in  the  daily  press.  If  the  Houses  differ  upon 
the  objections,  the  bill  cannot  be  renewed  during 
that  year. 

Art.  73.  The  following  formula  shall  be  used 
in  the  passage  of  the  laws:  "The  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  the  Argentine  Nation  in 
Congress  assembled,  etc.,  decree,  or  sanction,  with 
the  force  of  law." 

Section  II. — Chapter  I 

Art.  74.  The  Executive  power  of  the  Nation 
shall  be  exercised  by  a  citizen,  with  the  title  of 
"President  of  the  Argentine  Nation." 

Art.  75.  In  case  of  the  sickness,  absence  from 
the  capital,  death,  resignation  or  dismissal  of  the 
President,  the  Executive  power  shall  be  exercised 
by  the  Vice-President  of  the  Nation.  In  case  of 
the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability  of  the 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Nation,  Con- 
gress will  determine  which  public  functionary  shall 


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then  fill  the  Presidency,  until  the  disability  be  re- 
moved or  a  new  President  be  elected. 

Art.  76.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citi- 
zen or  a  son  of  a  natural-born  citizen  brought  forth 
abroad,  shall  be  eligible  as  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  Nation ;  he  is  required  to  belong  to  the 
Apostolic-Roman-Catholic  communion,  and  possess 
the  other  qualifications  required  to  be  elected  Sen- 
ator. 

Art.  77.  The  President  and  Vice-President  shall 
hold  office  during  the  term  of  six  years;  and  can- 
not be  re-elected  except  after  an  interval  of  an 
equal  period. 

Art.  78.  The  President  of  the  Nation  shall 
cease  in  his  functions  the  very  day  on  which  his 
period  of  six  years  expires,  and  no  event  whatever 
which  may  have  interrupted  it,  can  be  a  motive  for 
completing  it  at  a  later  time. 

Art.  79.  The  President  and  Vice-President  shall 
receive  a  compensation  from  the  National  Treasury, 
which  cannot  be  altered  during  the  period  for 
which  they  shall  have  been  elected.  During  the 
same  period  they  cannot  exercise  any  other  office 
nor  receive  any  other  emolument  from  the  Nation, 
or  any  of  its  Provinces. 

Art.  80.  The  President  and  Vice-President  be- 
fore entering  upon  the  execution  of  their  offices, 
shall  take  the  following  oath  administered  by  the 
President  of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  by  the 
President  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  in  Con- 
gress assembled:  "I  (such  an  one)  swear  by  God 
our  Lord,  and  by  these  Holy  Evangelists,  that  I 
will  faithfully  and  patriotically  execute  the  office 
of  President  (or  Vice-President)  of  the  Nation,  and 
observe  and  cause  to  be  faithfully  observed,  the 
Constitution  of  the  Argentine  Nation.  If  I  should 
not  do  so,  let  God  and  the  Nation  indict  me." 

Chapter  II 

Art.  8x.  The  election  of  the  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Nation,  shall  be  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: — The  capital  and  each  of  the 
Provinces  shall  by  direct  vote  nominate  a  board  of 
electors,  double  the  number  of  Deputies  and  Sen- 
ators which  they  send  to  Congress,  with  the  same 
qualifications  and  under  the  same  form  as  those 
prescribed  for  the  election  of  Deputies.  Deputies 
or  Senators,  or  officers  in  the  pay  of  the  Federal 
Government  cannot  be  electors.  The  electors  being 
met  in  the  national  capital  and  in  that  of  their 
respective  Provinces,  four  months  prior  to  the  con- 
clusion of  the  term  of  the  out-going  President,  they 
shall  proceed  by  signed  ballots,  to  elect  a  Presi- 
dent, and  Vice-President,  one  of  which  shall  state 
the  person  as  President,  and  the  other  the  person 
as  Vice-President,  for  whom  they  vote.  Two  lists 
shall  be  made  of  all  the  individuals  elected  as 
President,  and  other  two  also,  of  those  elected  as 
Vice-President,  with  the  number  of  votes  which 
each  may  have  received.  These  lists  shall  be 
signed  by  the  electors,  and  shall  be  remitted  closed 
and  sealed,  two  of  them  (one  of  each  kind)  to  the 
President  of  the  Provincial  Legislature,  and  to  the 
President  of  the  Municipality  in  the  capital,  among 
whose  records  they  shall  remain  deposited  and 
closed;  the  other  two  shall  be  sent  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  to  the  President 
of  the  Constituent  Congress). 

Art.  82.  The  President  of  the  Senate  (the  first 
time  that  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  all  the 
Usts  being  received,  shall  open  them  in  the  pres- 
ence of  both  Houses.  Four  members  of  Congress 
taken  by  lot  and  associated  to  the  Secretaries, 
shall  immediately  proceed  to  count  the  votes,  and 
to  announce  the  number  which  may  result  in  favor 


of  each  candidate  for  the  Presidency  and  Vice- 
Presidency  of  the  Nation.  Those  who  have  re- 
ceived an  absolute  majority  of  all  the  votes  in 
both  cases,  shall  be  immediately  proclaimed  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President. 

Art.  83.  In  case  there  be  no  absolute  major- 
ity, on  account  of  a  division  of  the  votes.  Con- 
gress shall  elect  one  of  the  two  persons  who  shall 
have  received  the  highest  number  of  votes.  If  the 
first  majority  should  have  fallen  to  a  single  per- 
son, and  the  second  to  two  or  more.  Congress  shall 
elect  among  all  the  persons  who  may  have  obtained 
the  first  and  second  majorities. 

Art.  84.  This  election  shall  be  made  by  abso- 
lute plurality  of  votes,  and  voting  by  name.  If, 
on  counting  the  first  vote,  no  absolute  majority 
shall  have  been  obtained,  a  second  trial  shall  be 
made,  limiting  the  voting  to  the  two  persons  who 
shall  have  obtained  the  greatest  number  of  suf- 
frages at  the  first  trial.  In  case  of  an  equal  num- 
ber of  votes,  the  operation  shall  be  repeated,  and 
should  the  result  be  the  same,  then  the  President 
of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  that  of  the  Constitu- 
ent Congress)  shall  decide  it.  No  scrutiny  or  rec- 
tification of  these  elections  can  be  made,  unless 
three-fourth  parts  of  all  the  members  of  the 
Congress  be  present. 

Art.  85.  The  election  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  Nation  shal  be  concluded  in 
a  single  meeting  of  the  Congress,  and  thereafter, 
the  result  and  the  electoral  lists  shall  be  published 
in  the  daily  press. 

Chapter  III 

Art.  86.  The  President  of  the  Nation  has  the 
following  attributes: — (i)  He  is  the  supreme  chief 
of  the  Nation,  and  is  charged  with  the  general  ad- 
ministration of  the  country.  (2)  He  issues  such 
instructions  and  regulations  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  the  Nation,  tak- 
ing care  not  to  alter  their  spirit  with  regulative 
exceptions.  (3)  He  is  the  immediate  and  local 
chief  of  the  National  capital.  (4)  He  participates 
in  making  the  laws  according  to  the  Constitution; 
and  sanctions  and  promulgates  them.  (5)  He 
nominates  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  and 
of  the  Inferior  Federal  tribunals,  and  appoints 
them  by  and  with  the  consent  and  advice  of  the 
Senate.  (6)  He  has  power  to  pardon  or  com- 
mute penalties  against  officers  subject  to  Federal 
jurisdiction,  preceded  by  a  report  of  the  proper 
Tribunal,  excepting  in  case  of  impeachment  by  the 
House  of  Deputies.  (7)  He  grants  retiring-pen- 
sions, leaves  of  absence  and  pawnbrokers'  licences, 
in  conformity  to  the  laws  of  the  Nation.  (8)  He 
exercises  the  rights  of  National  Patronage  in  the 
presentation  of  Bishops  for  the  cathedrals,  choos- 
ing from  a  ternary  nomination  of  the  Senate,  (g) 
He  grants  letters-patent  or  retains  the  decrees  of 
the  Councils,  the  bulls,  briefs  and  rescripts  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Pontiff,  by  and  with  the  consent  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  must  require  a  law  for 
the  same  when  they  contain  general  and  perma- 
nent dispositions.  (10)  He  appoints  and  removes 
Ministers  Plenipotentiary  and  Charges  dAffaires, 
by  and  with  the  consent  and  advice  of  the  Senate; 
and  himself  alone  appoints  and  removes  the  Min- 
isters of  his  Cabinet,  the  officers  of  the  Secretary- 
ships, Consular  Agents,  and  the  rest  of  the  em- 
ployfe  of  the  Administration  whose  nomination  is 
not  otherwise  ordained  by  this  Constitution.  (11) 
He  annually  opens  the  Sessions  of  Congress,  both 
Houses  being  united  for  this  purpose  in  the  Sen- 
ate Chamber,  giving  an  account  to  Congress  on 
this  occasion  of  the  state  of  the  Nation,  of   the 


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ARGENTINA,  CONSTITUTION 


reforms  provided  by  the  Constitution,  and  recom- 
mending to  its  consideration  such  measures  as  may 
be  judged  necessary  and  convenient.  (12)  He  pro- 
longs the  ordinary  meetings  of  Congress  or  con- 
vokes it  in  extra  session,  when  a  question  of  prog- 
ress or  an  important  interest  so  requires.  (13)  He 
collects  the  rents  of  the  Nation  and  decrees  their 
expenditure  in  conformity  to  the  law  or  estimates 
of  the  Public  expenses.  (14)  He  negotiates  and 
signs  those  treaties  of  peace,  of  commerce,  of  navi- 
gation, of  alliance,  of  boundaries  and  of  neutrality, 
requisite  to  maintain  good  relations  with  foreign 
powers;  he  receives  their  Ministers  and  admits 
their  Consuls.  (15)  He  is  commander  in  chief 
of  all  the  sea  and  land  forces  of  the  Nation.  (16) 
He  confers,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate, the  high  military  grades  in  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  Nation ;  and  by  himself  on  the  field  of 
battle.  (17)  He  disposes  of  the  land  and  sea 
forces,  and  takes  charge  of  their  organization  and 
distribution  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
Nation.  (18)  By  the  authority  and  approval  of 
Congress,  he  declares  war  and  grants  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal,  (iq)  By  and  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  in  case  of  foreign  aggression  and 
for  a  limited  time,  he  declares  martial  law  in  one 
or  more  points  of  the  Nation.  In  case  of  internal 
commotion  he  has  this  power  only  when  Congress 
is  in  recess,  because  it  is  an  attribute  which  be- 
longs to  this  body.  The  President  exercises  it 
under  the  limitations  mentioned  in  Art.  23.  (20) 
He  may  require  from  the  chiefs  of  all  the  branches 
and  departments  of  the  Administration,  and 
through  them  from  all  other  employes,  such  re- 
ports as  he  may  believe  necessary,  and  they  are 
compelled  to  give  them.  (21)  He  cannot  absent 
himself  from  the  capital  of  the  Nation  without 
permission  of  Congress.  During  the  recess  he  can 
only  do  so  without  permission  on  account  of  im- 
portant objects  of  public  service.  (22)  The  Presi- 
dent shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  grant- 
ing commissions,  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of 
their  next  session. 

Chapter  IV 

Art.  87.  Five  Minister-Secretaries;  to  wit,  of 
the  Interior;  of  Foreign  Affairs;  of  Finance;  of 
Justice,  Worship  and  Public  Instruction;  and  of 
War  and  the  Navy ;  shall  have  under  their  charge 
the  dispatch  of  National  affairs,  and  they  shall 
countersign  and  legalize  the  acts  of  the  President 
by  means  of  their  signatures,  without  which  requis- 
ite they  shall  not  be  efficacious.  A  law  shall  deter- 
mine the  respective  duties  of  the  Ministers. 

Art.  88.  Each  Minister  is  responsible  for  the 
acts  which  he  legalizes,  and  collectively,  for  those 
which  he  agrees  to  with  his  colleagues. 

Art.  8q.  The  Ministers  cannot  determine  any- 
thing whatever,  by  themselves,  except  what  con- 
cerns the  economical  and  administrative  regimen 
af  their  respective  Departments. 

Art.  go.  .'\s  soon  as  Congress  opens,  the  Min- 
isters shall  present  to  it  a  detailed  report  of  the 
State  of  the  Nation,  in  all  that  relates  to  their 
respective  Departments. 

Art.  91.  They  cannot  be  Senators  or  Deputies 
without  resigning  their  places  as  Ministers. 

Art.  92.  The  Ministers  can  assist  at  the  meet- 
ings of  Congress  and  take  part  in  its  debates,  but 
they  cannot  vote. 

Art.  03.  They  shall  receive  for  their  services  a 
compensation  established  by  law,  which  shall  not 
be  increased  or  diminished,  in  favor  or  against, 
the  actual  incumbents. 


Section  III. — Chapter  I 

Art.  94.  The  Judicial  Power  of  the  Nation 
shall  be  exercised  by  a  Supreme  Court  of  Justice, 
and  by  such  other  inferior  Tribunals  as  Congress 
may  establish  within  the  dominion  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  95.  The  President  of  the  Nation  cannot 
in  any  case  whatever,  exercise  Judicial  powers, 
arrogate  to  himself  any  knowledge  of  pending 
causes,  or  reopen  those  which  have  terminated. 

Art.  96.  The  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  and 
of  the  lower  National  Tribunals,  shall  keep  their 
places  quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit,  and  shall  receive 
for  their  services  a  compensation  determined  by 
law,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  in  any  manner 
whatever   during   their  continuance  in   office. 

.^RT.  07.  No  one  can  be  a  member  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Justice,  unless  he  shall  have  been 
an  attorney  at  lav.'  of  the  Nation  for  eight  years, 
and  shall  possess  the  qualifications  required  for  a 
Senator. 

Art.  98.  At  the  first  installation  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  individuals  appointed  shall  take  an 
oath  administered  by  the  President  of  the  Nation, 
to  discharge  their  functions,  by  the  good  and  legal 
administration  of  Justice  according  to  the  pre- 
scriptions of  this  Constitution.  Thereafter,  the 
oath  shall  be  taken  before  the  President  of  the 
Court  itself. 

.'Xrt.  00  The  Supreme  Court  shall  establish  its 
own  internal  and  economical  regulations,  and  shall 
appoint  its  subaltern  employes. 

Chapter  II 

.^RT.  100.  The  Judicial  power  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  the  lower  National  Tribunals,  shall  ex- 
tend to  all  cases  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the 
laws  of  the  Nation  with  the  reserve  made  in  clause 
II  of  Art.  67,  and  by  treaties  with  foreign  na- 
tions; to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  public 
Ministers  and  foreign  Consuls;  to  all  cases  of  ad- 
miralty and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controver- 
sies to  which  the  Nation  shall  be  party;  to  con- 
troversies between  two  or  more  Provinces;  between 
a  Province  and  the  citizens  of  another;  between 
the  citizens  of  different  Provinces;  and  betv/een  a 
Province  or  its  citizens,  against  a  foreign  State 
or  citizen. 

.■\rt.  ici.  In  these  cases  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  exercise  an  appellate  jurisdiction  according  to 
such  rules  and  exceptions  as  Congress  may  pre- 
scribe ;  but  in  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  min- 
isters and  foreign  consuls,  or  those  in  which  a 
Province  shall  be  a  party,  it  shall  exercise  original 
and  exclusive  jurisdiction. 

Art.  102.  The  trial  of  all  ordinary  crimes  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  terminate  by 
jury,  so  soon  as  this  institution  be  established  in 
the  Republic  These  trials  shall  be  held  in  the 
same  Province  where  the  crimes  shall  have  been 
committed,  but  when  not  committed  within  the 
frontiers  of  the  Nation,  but  against  International 
Law,  Congress  shall  determine  by  a  special  law 
the  place  where  the  trial  shall  take  effect. 

Art.  103.  Treason  against  the  Nation  shall  only 
consist  in  levying  war  against  it,  or  in  adhering  to 
its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  Congress 
shall  fix  by  a  special  law  the  punishment  of  trea- 
son ;  but  it  cannot  go  beyond  the  person  of  the 
criminal,  and  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work 
corruption  of  blood  to  relatives  of  any  grade 
whatever. 

Art.  104.  The  Provinces  keep  all  the  powers 
not  delegated  by  this  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
Government,  and   those   which   were  expressly   re- 


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ARGENTORATUM 


ARGOS 


served  by  special  compacts  at  the  time  of  their 
incorporation. 

Art.  ios.  They  create  their  own  local  institu- 
tion."; and  are  governed  by  these.  They  elect  their 
own  Governors,  their  Legislators  and  other  Pro- 
vincial functionaries,  without  intervention  from  the 
Federal  Government. 

Art.  io6.  Each  Province  shall  make  its  own 
Constitution  in  conformity  with  the  dispositions  of 
Art.  5. 

Art.  107.  The  Provinces  with  the  consent  of 
Congress  can  celebrate  contracts  among  themselves 
for  the  purposes  of  administering  justice  and  pro- 
moting economical  interests  and  works  of  common 
utility,  and  also,  can  pass  protective  laws  for  tht- 
purpose  with  their  ov^n  resources,  of  promoting 
manufactures,  immigration,  the  building  of  rail- 
ways and  canals,  the  peopling  of  their  lands,  the 
introduction  and  establishment  of  new  industries, 
the  import  of  foreign  capital  and  the  exploration 
of  their  rivers. 

Art.  108.  The  Provinces  cannot  exercise  any 
powers  delegated  to  the  Nation.  They  cannot  cele- 
brate compacts  of  a  political  character,  nor  make 
laws  on  commerce  or  internal  or  external  naviga- 
tion; nor  establish  Provincial  Custom  Houses,  nor 
coin  money,  nor  establish  Banks  of  emission,  with- 
out authority  of  Congress;  nor  make  civil,  com- 
mercial, penal  or  mining  Codes  after  Congress  shall 
have  sanctioned  those  provided  for  in  this  Consti- 
tution; nor  pass  laws  upon  citizenship  or  naturali- 
zation; bankruptcy,  counterfeiting  money  or  public 
State  documents;  nor  lay  tonnage  dues;  nor  arm 
vessels  of  war  or  raise  armies,  save  in  the  case  of 
foreign  invasion,  or  of  a  danger  so  imminent  that 
it  admits  of  no  delay,  and  then  an  account  there- 
of must  be  immediately  given  to  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment; or  name  or  receive  foreign  agents;  or 
admit  new  religious  orders. 

Art.  109.  No  Province  can  declare  or  make  war 
against  another  Province.  Its  complaints  must  be 
submitted  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  and  be 
settled  by  it.  Hostilities  de  facto  are  acts  of  civil- 
war  and  qualified  as  seditious  and  tumultuous, 
v,'hich  the  General  Government  must  repress  and 
suffocate  according  to  law. 

Art.  1 10.  The  Provincial  Governors  are  the 
natural  agents  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
cause  the  fulfilment  of  the  laws  of  the  Nation. 
See   Argentina:    1880-1891. 

The  above  text  of  the  Constitution  of  Argentina 
is  a  translation  "from  the  official  edition  of  1868," 
taken  from  R.  Napp's  work  on  "The  Argentine 
Republic,"  prepared  for  the  Central  Argentine 
Commission  on  the  Centenary  Exhibition  at  Phila- 
delphia,  1876. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.     See  Argentina. 

ARGENTORATUM,  ancient  name  of  Stras- 
bourg.    See  Alsace-Lorraine:   Early  history. 

ARGINUSAE,  Battle  of.  See  Greece:  406 
B.C. 

ARGIVE  LEAGUE.  See  Greece:  B.C.  421- 
418. 

ARGO,  ship  which  bore  the  Argonauts.  See 
Argonautic  e.xpedition. 

ARGOLIS.    See  Argos. 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION.— "The  ship 
.Argo  was  the  theme  of  many  songs  during  the 
oldest  periods  of  the  Grecian  Epic,  even  earlier 
than  the  Odyssey.  The  king  ^etes,  from  whom 
f-he  is  departing,  the  hero  Jason,  who  commands 
her,  and  the  goddess  Here,  who  watches  over  him, 
enabling  the  Argo  to  traverse  distances  and  to  es- 
cape dangers  wh'ch  no  ship  had  ever  before  en- 
countered, are  all  circumstances  briefly  glanced  at 
by    Odysseus    in    his    narrative    to    Alkinous.  .  .  . 


Jason,  commanded  by  Pelias  to  depart  in  quest 
of  the  golden  fleece  belonging  to  the  speaking  ram 
which  had  carried  away  Phryxus  and  Helle,  was 
encouraged  by  the  oracle  to  invite  the  noblest 
youth  of  Greece  to  his  aid,  and  fifty  of  the  most 
distinguished  amongst  them  obeyed  the  call. 
Herakles,  Theseus,  Telamon  and  Peleus,  Kastor 
and  Pollux,  Idas  and  Lynkeus — Zetes  and  Kalais, 
the  winged  sons  of  Boreas — Meleager,  Amphiaraus, 
Kepheus,  Laertes,  Autolykus,  Mencctius,  .Aktor,  Er- 
ginus,  Eupheraus,  Anksus,  Pceas,  Periklymenus, 
Augeas,  Eurytus,  Admetus,  Akastus,  Ksneus, 
Euryalus,  Peneleos  and  Leitus,  Askalaphus  and 
lalmenus,  were  among  them.  .  .  .  Since  so  many 
able  men  have  treated  it  as  an  undisputed  reality, 
and  even  made  it  the  pivot  of  systematic  chrono- 
logical calculations,  I  may  here  repeat  the  opinion 
long  ago  expressed  by  Heyne,  and  even  indicated  by 
Burmann,  that  the  process  of  dissecting  the  story, 
in  search  of  a  basis  of  fact,  is  one  altogether  fruit- 
less."— G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  v.  i,  pt.  i,  ck. 
13. — "In  the  rich  cluster  of  myths  which  surround 
the  captain  of  the  Argo  and  his  fellows  are  pre- 
served to  us  the  whole  life  and  doings  of  the 
Greek  maritime  tribes,  which  gradually  united  all 
the  coasts  with  one  another,  and  attracted  Hellenes 
dwelling  in  the  most  different  seats  into  the  sphere 
of  their  activity.  .  .  .  The  Argo  was  said  to  have 
weighed  anchor  from  a  variety  of  ports — from 
lolcus  in  Thessaly,  from  Anthedon  and  Siphae  in 
Bceotia:  the  home  of  Jason  himself  was  on  Mount 
Pelion  by  the  sea,  and  again  on  Lemnos  and  in 
Corinth ;  a  clear  proof  of  how  homogeneous  were 
the  influences  running  on  various  coasts.  However, 
the  myths  of  the  Argo  were  developed  in  the  great- 
est completeness  on  the  Pagasean  gulf,  in  the  seats 
of  the  Minyi;  and  they  are  the  first  with  whom 
a  perceptible  movement  of  the  Pelasgian  tribes  be- 
yond the  sea — in  other  words,  a  Greek  history  in 
Europe — begins." — E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece, 
bk.  I,  ch.  2-3. 

ARGONNE,  a  rough,  heavily  forested  region  in 
northeastern  France  between  the  rivers  Aisne  and 
Meuse  and  west  of  Verdun.  Scene  of  Dumouriez's 
defense  against  the  Prussians  in  1702  and  the  great 
.American    offensive    in    October-November,    1918. 

1914. — Battle  of  the  Marne.  See  World  War: 
1 91 4:   I.  Western  front:   p,  3;   r. 

1915. — Operations  of  the  French.  See  World 
War:  1915:  11.  Western  front:  g;  j,  2;  j,  6. 

1916-1918. — Region  of  fighting.  See  World 
War:  1016:  II.  Western  front:  b,  1;  igi8:  II. 
Western  front:  o,  1;  u. 

1918. — U.  S.  troops  in  action.  See  World  War: 
1Q18:   II.  Western  front:  v;  v,  1. 

ARGOS,  the  chief  city  of  Argolis  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  the  foremost  Dorian  city  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century  B.C.  was  Argos.  She 
early  dominated  the  cities  of  the  district  of  Argolis 
and  in  670  B.C.  formed  them  into  a  union  to 
withstand  the  rising  power  of  Sparta.  "No  dis- 
trict of  Greece  contains  so  dense  a  succession  of 
powerful  citadels  in  a  narrow  space  as  Argolis  [the 
eastern  peninsular  projection  of  the  Peloponnesus]. 
Lofty  Larissa,  apparently  designed  by  nature  as 
the  centre  of  the  district,  is  succeeded  by  Mycena, 
deep  in  the  recess  of  the  land;  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  lies  Midea,  at  the  brink  of  the  sea-coast 
Tiryns;  and  lastly,  at  a  farther  distance  of  half 
an  hour's  march,  Nauplia,  with  its  harbour.  This 
succession  of  ancient  fastnesses,  whose  indestruct- 
ible structure  of  stone  we  admire  to  this  day  Icon- 
sult  Schliemann's  "Ancient  Mycena"  and  "Tiryns"] 
is  clear  evidence  of  mighty  conflicts  which  agitated 
the  earliest  days  of  Argos;  and  proves  that  in  this 
one  plain  of  Inachus  several  principalities  must  have 


.SOI 


ARGOS 


ARGOS 


arisen  by  the  side  of  one  another,  each  putting  its 
confidence  in  the  walls  of  its  citadel ;  some,  accord- 
ing to  their  position,  maintaining  an  intercourse 
with  other  lands  by  sea,  others  rather  a  connec- 
tion with  the  inland  country.  The  evidence  pre- 
served by  these  monuments  is  borne  out  by  that 
of  the  myths,  according  to  which  the  dominion  of 
Danaus  is  divided  among  his  successors.  Exiled 
PrcEtus  is  brought  home  to  Argos  by  Lycian  bands, 
with  whose  help  he  builds  the  coast-fortress  of 
Tiryns,  where  he  holds  sway  as  the  first  and  might- 
iest in  the  land.  .  .  .  The  other  line  of  the  Dan- 
aidae  is  also  intimately  connected  with  Lycia;  for 
Perseus  .  .  .  [who]  on  his  return  from  the  East 
founds  Mycenae,  as  the  new  regal  seat  of  the  united 
kingdom  of  Argos,  is  himself  essentially  a  Lycian 
hero  of  light,  belonging  to  the  religion  of  Apollo. 
.  .  .  Finally,  Heracles  himself  is  connected  with 
the  family  of  the  Perseidae,  as  a  prince  born  on  the 
Tirynthian  fastness.  .  .  .  During  these  divisions  in 
the  house  of  Danaus,  and  the  misfortunes  befalling 
that  of  Prcetus,  foreign  families  acquire  influence 
and  dominion  in  Argos:  these  are  of  the  race  of 
/Eolus,  and  originally  belong  to  the  harbour-coun- 
try of  the  western  coast  of  Peloponnesus — the 
Amythaonidas.  .  .  .  While  the  dominion  of  the  Ar- 
give  land  was  thus  subdivided,  and  the  native  war- 
rior nobility  subsequently  exhausted  itself  in  sav- 
age internal  feuds,  a  new  royal  house  succeeded  in 
grasping  the  supreme  power  and  giving  an  entirely 
new  importance  to  the  country.  This  house  was 
that  of  the  Tantalidae  [or  Pelopids,  which  see], 
united  with  the  forces  of  Achsean  population.  .  .  . 
The  residue  of  fact  is,  that  the  ancient  dynasty, 
connected  by  descent  with  Lycia,  was  overthrown 
by  the  house  which  derived  its  origin  from  Lydia. 
.  .  .  The  poetic  myths,  abhorring  long  rows  of 
names,  mention  three  princes  as  ruling  here  in 
succession,  one  leaving  the  sceptre  of  Pelops  to 
the  other,  viz.,  Atreus,  Thyestes  and  Agamemnon. 
Mycens  is  the  chief  seat  of  their  rule,  which  is  not 
restricted  to  the  district  of  Argos." — E.  Curtius, 
History  oj  Greece,  bk.  i,  ch.  3. — After  the  Doric 
invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus  (see  Greece:  Migra- 
tions of  Hellenic  tribes;  also,  Dorlans  and  Ioni- 
ANS) ,  Argos  appears  in  Greek  history  as  a  Doric 
state,  originally  the  foremost  one  in  power  and 
influence,  but  humiliated  after  long  years  of  rivalry 
by  her  Spartan  neighbours. 

"Argos  never  forgot  that  she  had  once  been  the 
chief  power  in  the  peninsula,  and  her  feeling 
towards  Sparta  was  that  of  a  jealous  but  impo- 
tent competitor.  By  what  steps  the  decline  of  her 
power  had  taken  place,  we  are  unable  to  make  out, 
nor  can  we  trace  the  succession  of  her  kings  sub- 
sequent to  Pheidon  [8th  century  B.C.].  .  .  .  The 
title  [of  king]  existed  (though  probably  with  very 
limited  functions)  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  War 
[4QO-47Q  B.C.].  .  .  .  There  is  some  ground  for 
presuming  that  the  king  of  Argos  was  even  at  that 
time  a  Herakleid — since  the  Spartans  offered  to 
him  a  third  part  of  the  command  of  the  Hellenic 
force,  conjointly  with  their  own  two  kings.  The 
conquest  of  Thyreates  by  the  Spartans  [about 
547  B.  C]  deprived  the  Argeians  of  a  valuable  por- 
tion of  their  Pericekis,  or  dependent  territory.  But 
Orneae  and  the  remaining  portion  of  Kynuria  still 
continued  to  belong  to  them:  the  plain  round  their 
city  was  very  productive;  and,  except  Sparta,  there 
was  no  other  power  in  Peloponnesus  superior  to 
them.  Mykense  and  Tiryns,  nevertheless,  seem 
both  to  have  been  independent  states  at  the  time 
of  the  Persian  War,  since  both  sent  contingents 
to  the  battle  of  Plataea,  at  a  time  when  Argos 
held  aloof  and  rather  favoured  the  Persians." — G. 
Gioie,  History  of  Greece, pt.  2,ch.  S,v.  2. — "It  was 


.  .  .  perhaps  shortly  after  the  victory  over  Tegea 
[c.  550  B.  C]  that  Sparta  at  length  succeeded  in 
rounding  off  the  frontier  of  Laconia  on  the  north- 
eastern side  by  wresting  the  disputed  territory  of 
Thyreatis  from  Argos.  The  armies  of  the  two 
states  met  in  the  marchland,  but  the  Spartan  kings 
and  the  Argive  chiefs  agreed  to  decide  the  dispute 
by  a  combat  between  three  hundred  chosen  cham- 
pions on  either  side.  The  story  is  that  all  the  six 
hundred  were  slain  except  three,  one  Spartan  and 
two  Argives;  and  that  while  the  Argives  hurried 
home  to  announce  their  victory,  the  Spartan — 
Othryades  was  his  name — remained  on  the  field 
and  erected  a  trophy.  In  any  case,  the  trial  was 
futile,  for  both  parties  claimed  the  victory  and  a 
battle  was  fought  in  which  the  Argives  were  ut- 
terly defeated.  Thyreatis  was  the  last  territorial 
acquisition  of  Sparta.  She  changed  her  policy,  and 
instead  of  aiming  at  gaining  new  territory,  she  en- 
deavoured to  make  the  whole  Peloponnesus  a 
sphere  of  Lacedaemonian  influence.  This  change 
of  policy  was  exhibited  in  her  dealing  with  Tegea. 
The  defeat  of  Argos  placed  Sparta  at  the  head  of 
the  peninsula.  All  the  Peloponnesian  states,  ex- 
cept Argos  and  Achaea,  were  enrolled  in  a  loose 
confederacy,  engaging  themselves  to  supply  military 
contingents  in  the  common  interest,  Lacedaemon 
being  the  leader.  The  meetings  of  the  confederacy 
were  held  at  Sparta,  and  each  member  sent  repre- 
sentatives. [See  also  Sparta:  B.C.  743-510]  Corinth 
readily  joined;  for  Corinth  was  naturally  ranged 
against  Argos,  while  her  commercial  rival,  the 
island  state  of  Aegina,  was  a  friend  of  Argos.  Per- 
iander  [tyrant  of  Corinth,  625-585  B.C.]  had  al- 
ready inflicted  a  blow  upon  the  Argives  by  seizing 
Epidaurus  and  thus  cutting  off  their  nearest  com- 
munications with  Aegina.  The  other  Isthmian 
state,  Megara,  in  which  the  rule  of  the  nobles  had 
been  restored,  was  also  enrolled.  Everywhere 
Sparta  exerted  her  influence  to  maintain  oligarchy, 
everywhere  she  discountenanced  democracy ;  so 
that  her  supremacy  had  important  consequences 
for  the  constitutional  development  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian states.  [See  also  Sparta:  743-510  B.C.] 
In  northern  Greece  the  power  of  the  Thessalians 
was  declining ;  and  thus  Sparta  became  the  strong- 
est state  in  Greece  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixth 
century.  She  was  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with 
Athens  throughout  the  reign  of  Pisistratus  [See 
also  Athens:  B.  C.  560-510] ;  but  the  tyrant  was 
careful  to  maintain  good  relations  with  Argos  also. 
With  Argos  herself  indeed  Athens  had  no  cause  for 
collision ;  but  the  rivalry  which  existed  between 
Athens  and  Aegina  naturally  ranged  Athens  and 
Argos  in  opposite  camps.  It  was,  perhaps,  not 
long  before  the  accession  of  Pisistratus  that  the 
Athenians  had  landed  forces  in  Aegina  and  had 
been  repulsed  with  Argive  help.  The  policy  of 
Pisistratus  avoided  a  conflict  with  his  island  neigh- 
bour and  courted  the  friendship  of  Argos;  but  the 
deeper  antagonism  is  shown  by  the  embargo  which 
Argos  and  Aegina  placed  upon  the  importation  of 
Attic  pottery.  The  excavations  of  the  temple  of 
the  Argive  Hera  have  illustrated  this  hostile 
measure ;  hardly  any  fragments  of  Attic  pottery, 
dating  from  the  period  of  Pisistratus  or  fifty  years 
after  his  death,  have  been  found  in  the  precinct." 
— J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  pp.  203-204. 

B.  C.  496-421. — Calamitous  war  with  Sparta. 
— Non-action  in  the  Persian  War. — Slow  re- 
covery of  the  crippled  state. — "One  of  the  heav- 
iest blows  which  Argos  ever  sustained  at  the  hand 
of  her  traditional  foe  befell  her  about  4Q6  B.  C  , 
six  years  before  the  first  Persian  invasion  of  Greece. 
A  war  with  Sparta  having  broken  out,  Cleomenes, 
the   Lacedaemonian   king,   succeeded  in   landing   a 


502 


ARGOS 


ARIA 


large  army,  in  vessels  he  had  extorted  from  the 
/Eginetans,  at  Nauplia,  and  ravaged  the  Argive 
territory.  The  Argeians  mustered  all  their  forces 
to  resist  him,  and  the  two  armies  encamped  op- 
posite each  other  near  Tiryns.  Cleomenes,  how- 
ever, contrived  to  attaclc  the  Argeians  at  a  mo- 
ment when  they  were  unprepared,  maliing  use,  if 
Herodotus  is  to  be  credited,  of  a  stratagem  which 
proves  the  extreme  incapacity  of  the  opposing 
generals,  and  completely  routed  them.  The  Ar- 
geians took  refuge  in  a  sacred  grove,  to  which  the 
remorseless  Spartans  set  lire,  and  so  destroyed  al- 
most the  whole  of  them.  No  fewer  than  6,000 
of  the  citizens  of  Argos  perished  on  this  disastrous 
day.  Cleomenes  might  have  captured  the  city 
itself;  but  he  was,  or  affected  to  be,  hindered  by 
unfavourable  omens,  and  drew  off  his  troops.  The 
loss  sustained  by  Argos  was  so  severe  as  to  reduce 
her  for  some  years  to  a  condition  of  great  weak- 
ness; but  this  was  at  the  time  a  fortunate  circum- 
stance for  the  Hellenic  cause,  inasmuch  as  it  en- 
abled the  Lacedaemonians  to  devote  their  whole 
energies  to  the  work  of  resistance  to  the  Persian 
invasion  without  fear  of  enemies  at  home.  In 
this  great  work  Argos  took  no  part,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  either  the  first  or  second  attempt  of  the 
Persian  kings  to  bring  Hellas  under  their  dominion. 
Indeed,  the  city  was  strongly  suspected  of  'medis- 
ing'  tendencies.  In  the  period  following  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  Persians,  while  Athens  was  pur- 
suing the  splendid  career  of  aggrandisement  and 
conquest  that  made  her  the  foremost  state  in 
Greece,  and  while  the  Lacedaemonians  were  para- 
lyzed by  the  revolt  of  the  Messenians,  Argos  re- 
gained strength  and  influence,  which  she  at  once 
employed  and  increased  by  the  harsh  policy  .  .  . 
of  depopulating  Mycena;  and  Tiryns,  while  she 
compelled  several  other  semi-independent  places  in 
the  Argolid  to  acknowledge  her  supremacy.  [For 
alliance  with  Athens  see  Athens:  B.C.  462-458.] 
During  the  first  eleven  years  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  down  to  the  peace  of  Nicias  (421  B.C.),  Ar- 
gos held  aloof  from  all  participation  in  the 
struggle,  adding  to  her  wealth  and  perfecting  her 
military  organization.  As  to  her  domestic  condi- 
tions and  political  system,  little  is  known ;  but  it 
is  certain  that  the  government,  unlike  that  of  other 
Dorian  states,  was  democratic  in  its  character, 
though  there  was  in  the  city  a  strong  oligarchic 
and  philo-Laconian  party,  which  was  destined  to 
exercise  a  decisive  influence  at  an  important  crisis." 
— C.  H.  Hanson,  Land  oj  Greece,  ch.  10. 
Also  in:  G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch. 

36.  1'.  4- 

B.  C.  421-418. — League  formed  against  Sparta. 
— Outbreak  of  war. — Defeat  at  Mantinea. — 
Revolution  in  the  oligarchical  and  Spartan 
interest.     See  Greece;   B.  C.  421-418 

B.C.  419-416.— Alliance  with  Athens.  See 
Atken's:  B.C.  410-416. 

B.  C.  395-387. — Confederacy  against  Sparta. — 
Corinthian  War. — Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See 
Greece:  300-387  B.C. 

B.  C.  371. — Mob  outbreak  and  massacre  of 
chief  citizens.     See  Greece:  B.C.  371-362. 

B.  C.  370. — Scytalism.  See  Scytalism  at 
Argos. 

B.  C.  338.— Territories  restored  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  357-336. 

B.  C.  271.— Repulse  and  death  of  Pyrrhus, 
king  ef  Epirus.  See  Macedonia:  B.  C.  277- 
244. 

B,  C.  229. — Liberated  from  Macedonian  con- 
trol.    See  Greece:   B  C.  280-146. 

A.  D.  267.— Ravaged  by  the  Goths.  See  Goths: 
258-267- 


395.— Plundered   by   the    Goths.     See    Goths: 

395- 

1205-1308.— Control  by  Otto  de  la  Roche. 
See  Athens:   1205-1308. 

1463.— Taken  by  the  Turks,  retaken  by  the 
Venetians.     See   Greece:    1454-1479. 

1686. — Taken  by  the  Venetians.  See  Turkey: 
1684-1696. 

ARGOS,  Acropolis  of,  the  site  of  the  struc- 
tures composing  the  Heraeum,  so-called  from  its 
dedication  to  the  goddess  Hera,  whose  jtatue  fn 
gold  and  ivory  by  Polyclitus  was  enthroned  there. 
It  was  always  a  place  of  worship  for  the  Argive 
people  and  seems  to  have  been  the  first  center  of 
civilized  life.  The  Heraeum  served  as  sanctuary 
for  both  Mycenae  and  Argos.  lis  architecture 
seems  to  show  that  it  was  founded  many  genera- 
tions before  Mycenae  was  built,  and  before  the 
Homeric  age.  Much  has  been  learned  from  the 
extensive  excavations  of  the  American  archaeologi- 
cal institute  and  school  of  Athens  carried  on  from 
1892  and   1805. 

ARGYLL,  Earls,  marquesses  and  dukes  of, 
titles  borne  by  a  long  line  of  Scottish  peers.  The 
best  known  of  them  are  the  following: 

Archibald  Campbell,  5th  earl  of  Argyll 
(1530-1573). — He  was  an  adherent  of  John  Knox; 
later  supported  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  was 
partly  responsible  for  her  defeat  at  Langside  in 
1568.  Became  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
— See  also  Scotland:   1557. 

Archibald  Campbell,  1st  marquess  and  8th 
earl  of  Argyll  (1607-1661). — Supported  the 
Presbyterian  struggle  against  Charles  I  and  Laud; 
leader  of  the  .Assembly  which  procured  control 
over  judicial  and  political  appointments.  Sup- 
ported Charles  II  and  later  Cromwell;  upon  the 
restoration  of  the  former  was  beheaded. — See  also 
Scotland:  1644-1645. 

Archibald  Campbell,  1st  duke  of  Argyll 
(1651-1703),  active  partisan  of  William  of  Orange 
in  1688.  A  lord  of  the  treasury  1696. — See  also 
England:  1685   (May-July). 

Archibald  Campbell,  3rd  duke  of  Argyll 
(1682 -1 761),  commanded  the  royal  army  in  Scot- 
land at  the  battle  of  Sheriff muir.  See  Scotland: 
1715- 

George  John  Douglas  Campbell,  8th  duke  of 
Argyll  (1823-1900). — Succeeded  to  title  1847; 
eloquent  speaker,  and  a  writer  on  scientific  ques- 
tions as  related  to  religion ;  well  known  as  a  pub- 
licist. 

John  Douglas  Sutherland  Campbell,  9th  duke 
of  Argyll  (1845-1914),  governor-general  of  Can- 
ada 1878-1883. 

ARGYRASPIDES,  a  corps  of  veteran  soldiers 
of  the  Macedonian  army.  "He  [Alexander  the 
Great]  then  marched  into  India,  that  he  might 
have  his  empire  bounded  by  the  ocean,  and  the  ex- 
treme parts  of  the  East.  That  the  equipments  of 
his  army  might  be  suitable  to  the  glory  of  the  Ex- 
pedition, he  mounted  the  trappings  of  the  horseS: 
and  the  arms  of  the  soldiers  with  silver,  and  called, 
a  body  of  his  men,  from  having  silver  shields, 
Argyraspides." — Justin,  History,  bk.  12,  ch.  7. — 
See  also  Macedonia:  B.C.  323-316. 

Also  in:  C.  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  ch.  58. 
ARGYRE,  mythical  island.     See  Chryse. 
ARIA,   a   song    with    orchestral    accompaniment 
often    part    of    a   larger    composition    such    as   an 
opera  or  oratorio. 

ARIA,  AREIOS,  AREIANS,  the  name  by 
which  the  Herirud  and  its  valley,  the  district  of 
modern  Herat,  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks. 
Its  inhabitants  were  known  as  the  Areians. — M. 
Duncker,  History  of  antiquity,  bk.  7,  ch.  i. 


503 


ARIADNE 


ARIANISM 


ARIADNE,  steamer  sunk  by  the  Mowe.  See 
World  War:   1916:   IX.  Naval  operations:   c. 

ARIANA.' — "Strabo  uses  the  name  Ariana  for 
the  land  of  all  the  nations  of  Iran,  except  that  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians,  i.  e.,  for  the  whole  eastern 
half  of  Iran" — Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan. — M. 
Duncker,  History  of  antiquity,  v.  5,  bk.  7,  cti.  i. 

ARIAN-ATHANASIAN  CONTROVERSY. 
See  Nic.4:a:  325. 

ARIANISM,  ARIANS— From  the  second 
century  gf  its  existence,  the  Christian  church  was 
divided  by  bitter  controversies  touching  the  mys- 
tery of  the  Trinity.  "The  word  Trinity  is  found 
neither  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  nor  in  the  writings 
of  the  first  Christians;  but  it  had  been  employed 
from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  when 
a  more  metaphysical  turn  had  been  given  to  the 
minds  of  men,  and  theologians  had  begun  to  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  divine  nature.  .  .  .  The 
Founder  of  the  new  religion,  the  Being  who  had 
brought  upon  earth  a  divine  light,  was  he  God, 
was  he  man,  was  he  of  an  intermediate  nature, 
and,  though  superior  to  all  other  created  beings, 
yet  himself  created?  This  latter  opinion  was  held 
by  Arius,  an  .Alexandrian  priest,  who  maintained  it 
in  a  series  of  learned  controversial  works  between 
the  years  318  and  325.  As  soon  as  the  discussion 
had  quitted  the  walls  of  the  schools,  and  been 
taken  up  by  the  people,  mutual  accusations  of  the 
gravest  kind  took  the  place  of  metaphysical  subtle- 
ties. The  orthodox  party  reproached  the  .Brians 
with  blaspheming  the  deity  himself,  by  refusing  to 
acknowledge  him  in  the  person  of  Christ.  The 
.Arians  accused  the  orthodox  of  violating  the  fun- 
damental law  of  religion,  by  rendering  to  the 
creature  the  worship  due  only  to  the  Creator.  .  .  . 
It  was  difficult  to  decide  which  numbered  the  larg- 
est body  of  followers;  but  the  ardent  enthusiastic 
spirits,  the  populace  in  all  the  great  cities  (and 
especially  at  Alexandria)  the  women,  and  the 
newly-founded  order  of  the  monks  of  the  desert 
.  .  .  were  almost  without  exception  partisans  of 
the  faith  which  has  since  been  declared  orthodox. 
.  .  .  Constantine  thought  this  question  of  dogma 
might  be  decided  by  an  assembly  of  the  whole 
church.  In  the  year  325,  he  convoked  the  council 
of  Nice  [see  Nic.tA,  Council  of),  at  which  300 
bishops  pronounced  in  favour  of  the  equality  of 
the  Son  with  the  Father,  or  the  doctrine  generally 
regarded  as  orthodox,  and  condemned  the  Arians 
to  exile  and  their  books  to  the  fJames." — J.  C.  L. 
de  Sismondi,  Fall  oj  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  4. — 
"The  victorious  faction  (at  the  Council  of  Nice] 
.  .  .  anxiously  sought  for  some  irreconcilable  mark 
of  distinction,  the  rejection  of  which  might  in- 
volve the  .\rians  in  the  guilt  and  consequences  of 
heresy.  A  letter  was  publicly  read  and  ignomin- 
iously  torn,  in  which  their  patron,  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  ingeniously  confessed  that  the  admis- 
sion of  the  homoousion,  or  consubstantial,  a  word 
already  familiar  to  the  Platonists,  was  incompatible 
with  the  principles  of  their  theological  system. 
The  fortunate  opportunity  was  eagerly  embraced. 
.  .  .  The  consubstantiality  of  the  Father  and  the 
Son  was  established  by  the  Council  of  Nice,  and 
has  been  unanimously  received  as  a  fundamental 
article  of  the  Christian  faith  by  the  consent  of  the 
Greek,  the  Latin,  the  Oriental  and  the  Protestant 
churches."  Notwithstanding  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  Nice  against  it,  the  heresy  of  Arius  con- 
tinued to  gain  ground  in  the  East.  Even  the  Em- 
peror Constantine  became  friendly  to  it,  and  the 
sons  of  Constantine,  with  some  of  the  later  em- 
perors who  followed  them  on  the  eastern  throne. 
were  ardent  .Brians  in  belief.  The  Homoousians,  or 
orthodox,    were    subjected    to    persecution,    which 


was  directed  with  special  bitterness  against  their 
great  leader,  Athanasius,  the  famous  bishop  of 
.Mexandria.  But  Arianism  was  weakened  by  hair- 
splitting distinctions,  which  resulted  in  many  di- 
verging creeds.  "The  sect  which  asserted  the  doc- 
trine of  a  'similar  substance'  was  the  most  numer- 
ous, at  least  in  the  provinces  of  Asia.  .  .  .  The 
Greek  word  which  was  chosen  to  express  this  mys- 
terious resemblance  bears  so  close  an  affinity  to 
the  orthodox  symbol,  that  the  profane  of  every 
age  have  derided  the  furious  contests  which  the 
difference  of  a  single  diphthong  excited  between  the 
Homoousians  and  the  Homoiousians." — E.  Gibbon, 
History  oj  the  decline  and  jail  oj  the  Roman  em- 
pire, ch.  21 — The  Latin  churches  of  the  West,  with 
Rome  at  their  head,  remained  generally  firm  in  the 
orthodoxy  of  the  Homoousian  creed.  But  the 
Goths,  who  had  received  their  Christianity  from 
the  East,  tinctured  with  Arianism,  carried  that 
heresy  westward,  and  spread  it  among  their  bar- 
barian neighbors — Vandals,  Burgundians  and 
Sueves — through  the  influence  of  the  Gothic  Bible 
of  Ulfilas,  which  he  and  his  missionary  successors 
bore  to  the  Teutonic  peoples.  "Almost  all  the  bar- 
barians when  they  entered  the  empire  were  con- 
verted, not  to  Catholicism,  but  to  Arianism.  The 
Visigoths  of  Spain,  the  Ostrogoths  of  Italy,  the 
Burgundians  of  Gaul,  the  Vandals  of  Africa,  and 
the  Lombards  who  came  in  the  sixth  century,  were 
all  .Brians.  ...  It  would  seem  that  the  Germans 
had  difficulty  in  adopting  the  creed  of  Nicaea ;  per- 
haps they  hesitated  to  make  the  Son  equal  with  the 
Father.  Their  Roman  subjects  were  orthodox. 
This  difference  in  religion  caused  for  more  than  a 
century  much  strife  and  many  persecutions.  Oft«n 
the  barbarian  king  would  refuse  to  appoint  ortho- 
dox bishops;  the  see  of  Carthage  thus  remained 
vacant  for  twenty-four  years.  The  Vandal  king 
Genseric,  not  content  with  exiling  the  bishops,  en- 
deavored to  apply  to  his  subjects  the  edicts  that 
the  emperors  had  proclaimed  against  the  heretics." 
— C.  Seignobos,  History  oj  mediaeval  and  oj  mod- 
ern civilization  to  end  oj  ijth  century,  pp.  18-19. 
— "The  Vandals  and  Ostrogoths  persevered  in  the 
profession  of  .Arianism  till  the  final  ruin  (AD. 
533  and  553]  of  the  kingdoms  which  they  had 
founded  in  .Africa  and  Italy.  The  bargarians  of 
Gaul  submitted  (507]  to  the  orthodox  dominion 
of  the  Franks;  and  Spain  was  restored  to  the 
Catholic  Church  by  the  voluntary  conversion  of 
the  Visigoths  (580]." — E.  Gibbon,  History  oj  the 
decline  and  jail  oj  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  37.— 
Theodosius  form.Tlly  proclaimed  his  adhesion  to 
Trinitarian  orthodoxy  by  his  celebrated  edict  of 
380,  and  commanded  its  acceptance  in  the  Eastern 
Empire.  (See  Rome:  379-305)  "Whatever  may 
be  one's  personal  belief  upon  the  theological  point, 
the  fact  which  condemns  Western  Arianism  in  the 
sight  of  histon.',  and  makes  its  fate  deserved,  is 
that,  at  a  time  when  there  was  the  utmost  need 
that  the  shattered  fragments  of  the  empire  should 
be  held  together  in  some  way,  and  when  disor- 
ganization was  most  dangerous,  it  stood  for  separa- 
tion and  local  independence,  and  furnished  no 
strong  bond  of  unity  on  the  religious  side,  as  did 
the  Catholic  faith,  to  replace  that  political  unity 
which  was  falling  to  pieces.  Burgundian  and  Visi- 
goth, Vandal  and  Ostrogoth  and  Lombard,  had  no 
common  religious  organization  and  recognized  no 
primacy  in  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  though  they 
tolerated  the  Catholicism  of  their  Roman  subjects, 
and  did  not  break  off  the  connection  of  these  with 
the  Roman  church,  that  result  would  certainly 
have  followed  had  they  grown  into  strong  and  per- 
manent states,  still  .Arian  in  faith.  The  continued 
life  of  these  nations  would  have  meant  not  merely 

^04 


ARIBA 


ARISTOCRACY 


the  political,  but  also  the  religious  disintegration 
of  Europe.  The  unity  of  the  future,  in  a  Chris- 
tian commonwealth  of  nations,  was  at  stake  in 
the  triumph  of  the  Roman  church  and  the  Prank- 
ish empire." — G.  B.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  p.  143. — See  also  Goths:  341-381; 
Franks:  481-511;  Goths  (Visigoths):  507-sog; 
and  FmoQUE  controversy. 

Also  in:  A.  Neander,  General  history  of 
Christian  religion  and  church,  v.  2,  seel.  4. — ■ 
J.  Alzog,  Manual  of  universal  church  history,  sect. 
110-114.— W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  History  of  Christian 
doctrine,  bk.  3. — J.  H.  Newman,  Arians  of  the 
fourth  century. — A.  P  Stanley,  Lectures  on  the 
history  of  the  eastern  church,  lectures  3-7. — 
J.  A.  Dorner,  History  of  the  development  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  div.  i, 
V.  2. 

ARIBA. — Most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Arabia. 
See  Arabia:  Ancient  succession  and  fusion  of 
races. 

ARICA,  a  seaport  of  northern  Chile.  See  Latin 
America:  Map  of  South  America. 

Battle  of  (1880).     See  Chile:   1833-1884. 

Disputes  over.  See  Chile:  1885-1891;  1804- 
1900. 

ARICA-LA  PAZ  RAILWAY.  See  Bolivia: 
1Q13  (May);  Chile:  igoo-1012;  Railroads:  1872- 
1912. 

ARICIA,  Battle  of.— A  victory  won  by  the  Ro- 
mans over  the  .Aurunci  (407  B.C.),  which  sum- 
marily ended  a  war  that  the  latter  had  declared 
against  the  former. — Livy,  History  of  Rome,  bk. 
2,  ch.  26. — See  Alba. 

ARICIAN  GROVE.— The  sacred  grove  at 
Aricia  (one  of  the  towns  of  old  Latium,  near  Alba 
Longa)  was  the  center  and  meeting-place  of  an 
early  league  among  the  Latin  peoples,  about  which 
little  is  known. — W.  Ihne,  History  of  Rome,  bk.  2, 
ch.  3.— W.  Gell,  Topography  of  Rome,  v.  i.— "On 
the  northern  shore  of  the  lake  [of  Nemi]  right 
under  the  precipitous  cliffs  on  which  the  modern 
village  of  Nemi  is  perched,  stood  the  sacred  grove 
and  sanctuary  of  Diana  Nemorensis,  or  Diana  of 
the  Wood.  .  .  .  The  site  was  excavated  in  1885  by 
Sir  John  Saville  Lumley,  English  ambassador  at 
Rome.  [For  a  general  description  of  the  site  and 
excavations,  consult  the  Athenceum,  loth  October, 
1885.  For  details  of  the  finds  consult  'Bulletino 
deir  Instituto  di  Corrispondenza  Archeologica,' 
1885].  .  .  .  The  lake  and  the  grove  were  sometimes 
known  as  the  lake  and  grove  of  Aricia.  But  the 
town  of  Aricia  (the  modern  La  Riccia)  was  situated 
about  three  miles  off,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alban 
Mount.  .  .  .  According  to  one  story,  the  worship  of 
Diana  at  Nemi  was  instituted  by  Orestes,  who,  after 
killing  Thoas,  King  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese  (the 
Crimea),  fled  with  his  sister  to  Italy,  bringing 
with  him  the  image  of  the  Tauric  Diana.  .  .  . 
Within  the  sanctuary  at  Nemi  grew  a  certain  tree, 
of  which  no  branch  might  be  broken.  Only  a 
runaway  slave  was  allowed  to  break  off,  if  he 
could,  one  of  its  boughs.  Success  in  the  attempt 
entitled  him  to  fight  the  priest  in  single  combat, 
and  if  he  slew  him  he  reigned  in  his  stead  with 
the  title  of  King  of  the  Wood  (Rex  Nemorensis). 
Tradition  averred  that  the  fateful  branch  was  that 
Golden  Bough  which,  at  the  Sibyl's  bidding,  ^neas 
plucked  before  he  essayed  the  perilous  journey  to 
the  world  of  the  dead.  .  .  .  This  rule  of  succession 
by  the  sword  was  observed  down  to  imperial 
times;  for  amongst  his  other  freaks  Caligula, 
thinking  that  the  priest  of  Nemi  had  held  of- 
fice too  long,  hired  a  more  stalwart  ruffian  to 
slay  him." — J.  0.  Frazer,  Golden  bough,  ch.  i, 
sect.  1. 


ARICINI,  the  inhabitants  of  Aricia,  an  ancient 
Latin  city. 

ARICONIUM,  a  town  of  Roman  Britain 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  principal  mart  of 
the  iron  manufacturing  industry  in  the  Forest  of 
Dean. — T.  Wright,  The  Cell,  the  Roman  and  the 
Saxon,  p.  161. 

ARID  LANDS,  Reclamation  of.  See  Con- 
servation OF   natural  resources. 

ARII  (Harii),  barbarian  invaders  of  Gaul.    See 

LVGIANS. 

ARIKARA  INDIANS.  See  Indians,  Ameri- 
can: Cultural  areas  in  North  America:  Plains  Area; 
Pawnee  family. 

ARIKAREE,  or  South  Fork,  Battle  of.  See 
U.  S.  A.:   1866-1876. 

ARIMASPI,  an  ancient  and  semi-mythical 
tribe  dwelling  in  northeastern  Scythia. 

ARIMINUM,  the  Roman  colony,  planted  in 
the  third  century  B.C.,  which  grew  into  the  mod- 
ern city  of  Rimini.  (See  Rome:  B.C.  295-igi.) 
When  Csesar  entered  Italy  as  an  invader,  crossing 
the  frontier  of  Cisalpine  Gaul — the  Rubicon — his 
first  movement  was  to  occupy  Ariminum.  He 
halted  there  for  two  or  three  weeks,  making  his 
preparations  for  the  civil  war  which  he  had  now 
entered  upon  and  waiting  for  the  two  legions  that 
he  had  ordered  from  Gaul. — C.  Merivale,  History 
of  the  Romans,  ch.  14. 

ARIOBARZANES,  the  name  of  several  kings 
of  Pontus,  the  most  famous  being  the  founder  ot 
the  kingdom,  who  revolted  against  Artaxerxes  in 
362  B.  C.  (See  also  Mithradatic  Wars).  A  second 
was  the  son  of  Mithradates  III,  king  266-240  B.  C, 
who  enlisted  the  aid  of  the  invading  Gauls  in  Asia. 
Among  the  kings  of  Cappadocia  by  that  name  the 
most  important  is  the  ruler  from  51  to  41  B.C. 
who  aided  Porapey  against  Cjesar. 

ARIOSTO,  Lodovico  (1474-1533),  Italian 
poet.  During  his  service  with  Cardinal  d'Este  he 
wrote  "Orlando  Furioso,"  a  great  poem  which  uses 
the  material  of  the  chivalric  romances  in  classical 
epic  style.    See  Italian  literature:  1450-1595. 

ARIOVALDUS,  king  of  the  Lombards,  626- 
638. 

ARIOVISTUS  (c.  60  B.C.),  a  German  chief 
who  invaded  Gaul;  aided  the  Sequani  in  their  war 
with  the  Aedui;  defeated  by  Caesar  in  58  B.C. 
—See  also  Gaul:  B.C.  58-51. 

ARISTA,  Mariano  (1802-1855),  Mexican  gen- 
eral.   See  Mexico:  1846-1847;  1848-1861. 

ARISTAGORAS  ( P-497  B.C.),  leader  of  an 
unsuccessful  revolt  of  Ionian  cities  against  Persia. 
See  Greece:  B.C.  500-493:  Rising  of  lonians. 

ARISTARCHUS  (c.  220-143  B.C.),  Greek 
grammarian  and  critic.  See  Education:  Ancient: 
Alexandria. 

ARISTIDES  (c.  530-46S  B.C.),  Athenian 
statesman  and  military  leader,  called  "the  Just"; 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Marathon  (490  B.  C.) ; 
opposed  Themistocles  vigorously,  which  brought 
about  his  ostracism  in  483  B.C.;  returned  to  his 
native  land  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  victory  of 
Salamis  (480  B.C.)  and  the  battle  of  Plataea  the 
following  year;  a  strong  advocate  for  civic  reforms 
and  founder  of  the  League  of  Delos. — See  also 
Athens:  B.C.  472-462. 

ARISTIPPUS,  philosopher.  See  Ethics:  An- 
cient Greece:  B.C.  4th  Century. 

ARISTOBULUS  II  (d.  49  B.C.),  king  of 
Judaea.  Usurped  the  throne  of  Hyrcanus  II;  de- 
feated by  Pompey  and  removed  from  power.  Sup- 
ported by  Caesar  against  Pompey  in  49.  See 
Jews:  166-40  B.  C. 

ARISTOCRACY.— "If  the  supreme  governing 
authority  is  intrusted  to  a  small  group  or  class  of 


505 


ARISTOCRACY 


ARISTOTLE 


the  population,  the  government  is  said  to  be  aristo- 
cratic. .  It  is  a  government  in  which  only  a  minor- 
ity of  the  citizens  have  a  share,  the  rest  of  the 
population,  as  Montesquieu  remarks,  being  in  re- 
spect to  the  former  the  same  as  the  subjects  of  a 
monarch  in  regard  to  the  sovereign.  .  .  .  Aristoc- 
racies, like  monarchies,  may  likewise  be  of  several 
varieties.  There  may  be  aristocracies  of  wealth  as 
at  Carthage  and  later  at  Venice,  and  these  may 
be  based  either  on  ownership  of  land  or  of  all 
property  in  general ;  or  they  may  be  hereditary  and 
hence  based  upon  birth  or  family  connection;  or 
they  may  be  official  in  character,  that  is,  composed 
mainly  of  those  who  hold  or  have  held  public 
office  such  as  the  'senatorial  class'  in  both  repub- 
lican and  imperial  Rome ;  or  they  may  be  military 
•or  a  combination  of  some  or  all  of  the  above  ele- 
ments. .  .  .  Originally  it  was  one  of  the  most  re- 
spected, as  it  was  one  of  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed, of  all  forms  of  political  organization;  but 
in  recent  years  the  name  has  come  to  have  an 
unsavory  if  not  a  disreputable  ring  about  it.  The 
ancient  writers  like  Aristotle,  as  has  been  said, 
carefully  distinguished  between  aristocracy,  which 
they  defined  as  government  by  the  'best,'  and 
oligarchy,  which  they  described  as  government  by  a 
wealthy  minority  in  their  own  interest.  [For 
establishment  in  .Athens,  see  .\thens:  B.C.  753- 
'650.1  But  with  modern  notions  concerning  gov- 
ernment by  the  few  the  distinction  has  largely  dis- 
appeared, so  that  aristocracy  has  come  to  possess 
the  same  disagreeable  meaning  which  the  ancients 
associated  with  oligarchy.  In  short,  the  two,  as 
forms  of  government,  are  now  regarded  as  sub- 
stantially the  same.  One  of  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  aristocracy,  is  that  it  emphasizes 
quality  rather  than  quantity,  character  rather  than 
mere  numbers.  It  assumes  that  some  are  better 
fitted  to  govern  than  others,  attaches  great  weight 
to  experience  and  training  as  political  virtues,  and 
seeks  to  reward  special  talent  and  attract  it  into 
the  public  service.  It  is  preeminently  conservative 
government;  it  honors  authority,  especially  when 
it  has  had  the  sanction  of  long  acquiescence,  and 
has  great  reverence  for  long-established  custom  and 
tradition.  .  .  .  But  the  weakness  of  aristocracy  as 
a  practical  system  of  government  lies  in  the  dif- 
ficulty of  finding  any  safe  and  just  principle  of 
selection  by  which  the  fittest,  politically  speaking, 
may  be  differentiated  from  the  unfit  and,  when 
this  is  done,  of  providing  any  adequate  security 
against  the  temptation  of  the  former  class  to  ex- 
ercise their  powers  in  their  own  interest.  It  is 
now  generally  agreed  that  the  most  capable  and 
fit  of  the  population  cannot  be  selected  by  con- 
ferring the  power  to  govern  upon  certain  families 
and  their  descendants,  for  political  capacity  and 
probity  are  qualities  not  always  transmitted  from 
father  to  son.  .  .  .  The  possession  of  property, 
whether  of  land  or  personalty,  is  an  equally  un- 
satisfactory test  of  political  capacity,  especially  if 
it  be  inherited  wealth.  ...  In  other  words,  prop- 
erty, like  birth,  is  not  the  only  criterion,  and  there- 
fore the  governing  power  cannot  wisely  be  re- 
stricted to  either  class  or  to  both  combined.  And 
so  with  all  other  tests  which  do  not  rest  upon  in- 
trinsic merit.  Yet  to  prove  that  no  just  or  adequate 
tests  can  be  found  really  proves  nothing  against 
aristocracy  itself.  .  .  .  Public  opinion  toward  aris- 
tocracies in  recent  times  has  been  so  unfavorable 
that  no  example  of  a  pure  aristocracy  has  survived 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  anciejit 
aristocracy  of  Rome  gave  way  to  democracy.  The 
medieval  aristocracies  of  Germany  and  Italy  were 
superseded  by  the  growing  power  of  the  princes, 
and  the  royal  governments  which  they  established 


were  in  time  overwhelmed  by  the  rise  of  the 
democracy.  In  modem  tin»es  they  survive  only  in 
part,  being  associated  wherever  they  exist  with 
democracy  and  monarchy.  .  .  .  Aristocracy  is  a 
very  common  form  of  government  in  the  infancy 
of  states,  when  political  consciousness  manifests 
itself  only  in  the  minds  of  a  few.  .  .  .  Aristocracy 
proper  is  a  principle  which  all  states  have  admitted 
and  to  some  extent  followed  in  practice.  In  all 
ancient  states,  democracies  and  aristocracies  alike, 
large  classes  of  persons  were  excluded  from  par- 
ticipation in  public  affairs.  The  laboring  classes 
everywhere  have  been  enfranchised  only  in  com- 
paratively recent  years.  .  .  .  Modem  democracies 
no  longer  exclude  the  laboring  classes,  yet  prac- 
tically all  of  them  apply  standards  of  fitness,  even 
if  they  sometimes  apply  them  indirectly  and  in  a 
manner  unconsciously.  In  this  sense  the  govern- 
ments of  most  states  are  aristocratic.  Modern 
government  is  such  a  difficult  art  and  requires  so 
much  skill  and  special  knowledge  that  the  whole 
number  of  persons  really  qualified  is  very  small. 
In  short,  it  must  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case 
be  largely  government  by  specialists." — J.  W.  Gar- 
ner, Introduction  to  political  sciencf,  pp.  170-219. 
— Whoever  may  carry  on  the  machinery  of  gov- 
ernment, the  source  of  political  power  is  likely 
to  be  found  in  the  dominant  social  class.  "But 
leadership  and  aristocracy  are  progressive  factors 
only  in  so  far  as  they  produce  more  than  they 
cost:  just  to  pay  their  way  is  not  enoush.  Social 
differentiation  into  class  with  more  or  less  fixed 
status  has  served  in  the  past.  But  the  social  wastes 
through  inhibited  talent  and  productivity,  through 
exploitation  and  fostering  the  mores  of  servility 
and  resignation,  make  it  doubtful  ^'hether  aris- 
tocracy is  worth  the  price.  The  onjj'  upper  classes 
a  progressive  civilization  can  tolerate  are  men  and 
women  of  superior  mental  ability  xvho  at  the  same 
time  have  social  vision,  and  a  sense  of  social  solid- 
arity."— A.  J.  Todd,  Theoriis  vf  social  progress, 
pp.  404-405. — Historically  an  aristocracy  developed 
from  a  primitive  monarchy,  the  best  known  being 
those  of  ancient  Greece.  Among  the  states  which 
were  famous  aristocracies,  through  part,  at  least, 
of  their  history  are  the  following:  Athens,  Sparta, 
Rome,  Carthage,  Venice,  Genoa,  Dutch  Netherlands, 
and  the  Free  Imperial  Cities  of  Germany.  Great 
Britain  was  in  practice  an  aristocracy  from  1689- 
1832,  and  France  to  1789. — See  also  Democracy: 
Progress  following  the  industrial  revolution;  and 
Genesis  of  modern   democracy;   Feudalism. 

ARISTOGEITON,  Athenian  hero,  who  slew 
the  tvrant  Hipparchus  at  the  Panathenaic  festival 
(514  B.C.). 

ARISTOMNEAN  WAR.  See  Messenian 
Wars.  First  and  Second. 

ARISTOPHANES  (c.  448-385  B.C.),  greatest 
comic  dramatist  of  Athens ;  notable  also  for  the 
excellence  of  his  poetry.  His  eleven  extant  plays 
are  a  commentary  and  criticism  on  Athenian  life 
of  his  day. — See  also  Athens:  B.C.  421;  Drama; 
Greek  comedy. 

Ideas  on  position  of  women.  See  Women's 
rights:    B.C.   600-300. 

ARISTOPHANES  OF  BYZANTIUM,  li- 
brarian. See  Alexandria:  B.  C.  282-246:  Reign 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  etc. 

ARISTOTLE  (384-322  B.C.),  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Greek  philosophers.  "Aristotle,  the 
tutor  of  Alexander,  had  come  to  Athens  upon  his 
pupil's  accession  to  the  throne,  and  from  334  B.C. 
to  323  B.  C.  he  taught  philosophy  in  the  Lyceum 
in  that  city.  He  had  been  a  pupil  of  Plato  .  .  . 
but  in  his  temperament,  his  method,  and  his  con- 
clusions   h?    departed    widely    from   his    master. 


506 


ARISTOTLE 


ARIZONA 


Plato  was  a  poet,  full  of  imagination,  aiming  after 
lofty  ideals  which  he  saw  by  a  kind  of  inspired 
vision.  Aristotle  was  a  cool  and  cautious  thinker, 
seeking  the  meaning  of  the  world  by  a  study  of 
things  about  him,  not  satisfied  until  he  brought 
everything  to  the  test  of  observation.  Thus  he 
investigated  the  laws  which  governed  the  arts  of 
rhetoric  and  poetry;  he  collected  the  constitutions 
of  many  Greek  states  and  drew  from  them  some 
general  principles  of  politics ;  he  studied  animals 
and  plants  to  know  their  structure;  he  examined 
into  the  acts  and  ways  of  men  to  determine  the 
essence  of  their  right-  and  wrong-doing.  He  set 
his  students  to  this  kind  of  study  and  used  the 
results  of  their  work.  Thus  a  new  method  of  in- 
vestigation was  created  and  new  light  thrown  on 
all  sides  of  life.  A  most  learned  man,  he  had  a 
passion  for  truth  and  reason ;  one  of  his  most  fa- 
mous sayings  is  'Plato  and  truth  are  both  dear  to 
me,  but  it  is  a  sacred  duty  to  prefer  truth.'  His 
works,  especially  his  Politics,  Ethics,  and  Poetics, 
have  had  vast  power  in  guiding  the  thinking  of 
men  since  his  day."— G.  S.  Goodspeed,  History  of 
the  ancient  world,  p.  224. — "The  most  striking 
peculiarity  of  the  instruction  in  the  mediaeval  uni- 
versity was  the  supreme  deference  paid  to  Aristotle. 
Most  of  the  courses  of  lectures  were  devoted  to 
the  explanation  of  some  one  of  his  numerous  trea- 
tises,— his  Physics,  his  Metaphysics,  his  various 
treatises  on  logic,  his  Ethics,  his  minor  works  upon 
the  soul,  heaven  and  earth,  etc.  Only  his  Logic 
had  been  known  to  Abelard,  as  all  his  other  works 
had  been  forgotten.  But  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century  all  his  comprehensive  contributions  to 
science  reached  the  West,  either  from  Constanti- 
nople or  through  the  Arabs  who  had  brought  them 
to  Spain.  .  .  .  Aristotle  was,  of  course,  a  pagan. 
He  was  uncertain  whether  the  soul  continued  to 
exist  after  death;  he  had  never  heard  of  the  Bible 
and  knew  nothing  of  the  salvation  of  man  through 
Christ.  One  would  have  supposed  that  he  would 
have  been  promptly  rejected  with  horror  by  those 
who  never  questioned  the  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity. But  the  teachers  of  the  thirteenth  century 
were  fascinated  by  his  logic  and  astonished  at  his 
learning.  The  great  theologians  of  the  time,  Al- 
bertus  Magnus  (d.  1280)  and  Thomas  Aquinas 
(d.  1274),  did  not  hesitate  to  prepare  elaborate 
commentaries  upon  all  his  works.  He  was  called 
'The  Philosopher';  and  so  fully  were  scholars  con- 
vinced that  it  had  pleased  God  to  permit  Aristotle 
to  say  the  last  word  upon  each  and  every  branch 
of  knowledge  that  they  humbly  accepted  him, 
along  vidth  the  Bible,  the  church  fathers,  and  the 
canon  and  Roman  law,  as  one  of  the  unquestioned 
authorities  which  together  formed  a  complete  guide 
for  humanity  in  conduct  and  in  every  branch  of 
science." — J.  H.  Robinson,  Introduction  to  the 
history  of  western  Europe,  pp.  271-272. — See  also 
Europe:  Ancient:  Greek  civilization:  Philosophy; 
Middle  Ages:  Scholasticism;  and  Greek  litera- 
ture: Development  of  philosophical  literature. 

On  aristocracy.    See  Aristocracy. 

On  astronomy.  See  Astronomy:  B.C.  4th  cen- 
tury. 

On  biology.    See  Biology:  History. 

On  economics.    See  Economics:  Greek  theory. 

On  education.  See  Education:  Ancient:  B.C. 
7th-A.  D.  3d  centuries:  Greece. 

On  ethics.  See  Democracy:  During  classical 
period;  Ethics:  B.C.  4th  century. 

On  evolution.  See  Evolution:  Historical  evo- 
lution of  the  idea. 

On  philosophy.    See  Neoplatonism. 

On  science.    See  Science:  Ancient:  Greek. 

Influence  on  Middle  Ages.  See  Education: 
Medieval:  gth-isth  centuries:  Scholasticism;  Mod- 


ern: isth-i6th  centuries:  Humanist  aims  in  edu- 
cation. 

Also  in:  J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece  to  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  pp.  833-836. 

ARITHMETIC:  Ancient  Egyptian.  See  Edu- 
cation:  Ancient:   B.C.  4oth-6th  centuries:   Egypt. 

ARIUS,  Alexandrian  priest,  founder  of  Arian- 
ism  (318-325).    See  Arianism. 

ARIZONA,  a  state  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Utah,  on  the  east  by  New  Mexico,  on  the  south  by 
Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  California  and  Ne- 
vada. It  contains  113,956  square  miles,  ranking 
fifth  in  area  among  the  states,  and  in  1920  had  a 
population  of  333>2  73- 

Agricultural  and  mineral  resources.  See 
U.  S.  A.:  Economic  map. 

Name. — "Arizona,  probably  Arizonac  in  its  orig- 
inal form,  was  the  native  and  probably  Pima 
name  of  the  place — of  a  hill,  valley,  stream,  or 
some  other  local  feature — just  south  of  the  modern 
boundary,  in  the  mountains  still  so  called,  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  stream  flowing  past  Saric,  where 
the  famous  Planchas  de  Plata  mine  was  discovered 
in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  the  name  being 
first  known  to  Spaniards  in  that  connection  and 
being  applied  to  the  mining  camp  or  real  de  minas. 
The  aboriginal  meaning  of  the  term  is  not  known, 
though  from  the  common  occurrence  in  this  region 
of  the  prefix  'ari,'  the  root  'son,'  and  the  termina- 
tion 'ac,'  the  derivation  ought  not  to  escape  the 
research  of  a  competent  student.  Such  guesses  as 
are  extant,  founded  on  the  native  tongues,  offer 
only  the  barest  possibility  of  a  partial  and  acci- 
dental accuracy;  while  similar  derivations  from  the 
Spanish  are  extremely  absurd.  .  .  .  The  name 
should  properly  be  written  and  pronounced  Ari- 
sona,  as  our  EngUsh  sound  of  the  z  does  not  oc- 
cur in  Spanish." — H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the 
Pacific  states  of  North  America,  v.  12,  p.  520. 

Aboriginal  inhabitants.  See  Apache  group; 
Piman  family;  Pueblos. 

1540. — Exploration  by  Coronado.  See  Amer- 
ica: 1540-1541. 

1600-1800. — Beyond  the  establishment  of  Span- 
ish ranches,  and  the  activities  of  Jesuits  and  Fran- 
ciscans, there  was  very  little  growth  in  the  ter- 
ritory that  is  now  Arizona  until  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1772  there  were  only  two  missions,  and 
two  settlements:  Tuscon  and  Tubac. 

1800-1830. — The  decay  of  the  Spanish  presidios 
attendant  upon  the  struggle  of  Mexico  for  inde- 
pendence, the  expulsion  of  the  friars,  and  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Apaches  and  other  Indians  prevented 
settlers  from  seeking  homesteads  in  Arizona,  but 
American  trappers  and  traders  appeared  along  the 
Gila  river  in  the  early  nineteenth  century. 

1848. — Partial  acquisition  from  Mexico.  See 
Mexico:  1848. 

1853. — Purchase  by  the  United  States  of  the 
southern  part  from  Mexico. — Gadsden  Treaty. — 
"On  December  30,  1853,  James  Gadsden,  United 
States  minister  to  Mexico,  concluded  a  treaty  by 
which  the  boundary  line  was  moved  southward 
so  as  to  give  the  United  States,  for  a  monetary 
consideration  of  $10,000,000,  all  of  modern  Arizona 
south  of  the  Gila,  an  effort  so  to  fix  the  line  as 
to  include  a  port  on  the  gulf  being  unsuccessful. 
...  On  the  face  of  the  matter  this  Gadsden  treaty 
was  a  tolerably  satisfactory  settlement  of  a  bound- 
ary dispute,  and  a  purchase  by  the  United  States 
of  a  route  for  a  southern  railroad  to  California." — 
H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Pacific  states  of 
North  America,  v.  12,  ch.  20. 

1863-1884. — Mormon  settlements.  —  "Among 
the  early  settlers  were  the  Mormons,  who  in  1863 
had    a    settlement    at   St.   Thomas,    in    Pah-Ute 


507 


ARIZONA,  1864 


Territorial  Government 
Railroads 


ARIZONA,  1877 


county,  a  region  later  attached  to  Nevada.  In  1873 
the  authorities  in  Utah  formed  a  plan  of  coloniza- 
tion, and  a  pioneer  party  of  700  men  was  sent 
south,  intending  to  get  a  start  by  working  on  the 
Texas  Pacific  Railroad,  but  became  discontented 
with  the  prospect  and  went  home.  The  project 
was  revived  in  1876-77,  and  a  beginning  was  made 
in  two  districts — on  the  Upper  Colorado  Chiquito 
and  on  Salt  River.  At  a  meeting  held  at  Salt  Lake 
City,  in  January,  1S76,  missionaries  were  present 
from  different  parts  of  Utah,  and  an  organization 
was  effected  under  Lot  Smith  as  president.  The 
first  partv  arrived  in  March  at  the  Sunset  crossing, 
and  sooii  the  camps  of  Sunset,  Allen,  Ballinger, 
and  Obed  were  established.  Progress  was  slow,  the 
first  season's  crop  not  sufficing  for  the  colony's 
needs,  and  teams  having  to  be  sent  to  Utah  for 
supplies;  but  the  pioneers  were  resolute  men,  and 
though  many,  first  and  last,  abandoned  the  enter- 
prise, at  the  end  of  1877  the  mission  numbered 
564  souls,  and  a  year  later  587.  In  1884  the  popu- 
lation is  given  by  the  newspapers  as  2,507,  the 
chief  settlements  being  Sunset,  St.  Joseph,  and 
Brigham  City.  .  .  .  The  Mormons  have  always 
been  regarded  as  among  the  best  of  Arizona  set- 
tlers, being  quiet,  industrious,  and  economical  in 
their  habits,  and  not  disposed  to  intrude  their 
religious  peculiarities.  As  a  rule  polygamy  has  not 
been  practised,  though  there  are  many  exceptions. 
Their  neat  adobe  houses,  orchards,  gardens,  and 
well-tilled  fields  form  veritable  oases  in  the  desert. 
Their  lands  are  held  by  the  community ;  work  and 
trade  are  carried  on  for  the  most  part  on  the  co- 
operative plan,  and  they  even  live  in  community 
houses,  eating  at  a  common  table,  though  each 
family  has  its  separate  rooms.  It  has  been  their 
aim  to  produce  all  that  they  eat  and  wear,  sugar 
cane  and  cotton  being  among  their  crops.  Not- 
withstanding their  community  system,  much  free- 
dom is  conceded  to  individuals,  who  may  in  most 
respects  live  as  they  please  and  mingle  freely  with 
the  gentiles.  Less  despised  and  persecuted  than 
in  Utah  [see  also  Utah:  i857-i859]>  they  are 
naturally  less  clannish,  peculiar,,  and  exclusive.  In 
politics  they  are  nominally  democratic,  but  often 
divide  their  vote  on  local  issues,  or  put  their 
united  vote  where  it  will  do  most  good  for  their 
own  interests.  As  a  rule,  they  are  prosperous  but 
not  yet  wealthy  farmers."— H.  H.  Bancroft,  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico,  pp.  533-534- 

1864  (November). — Organization  of  the  ter- 
ritory.— "The  territorial  act  having  been  passed  by 
Congress  in  February,  1863,  and  officials  appointed 
by  President  Lincoln  in  March,  the  whole  party 
of  emigrant  statesmen,  headed  by  Governor  John 
N.  Goodwin,  of  Maine,  started  in  .\ugust  for  the 
Far  West,  leaving  Leavenworth  on  September  25th, 
Santa  Fe  November  26th,  and  Albuquerque  De- 
cember 8th,  under  the  escort  of  troops  from  Mis- 
souri and  New  Mexico.  It  was  on  the  27th  that 
the  party  crossed  the  meridian  of  loq  degrees  into 
Arizona,  and  two  days  later  in  camp  at  Navajo 
Spring,  the  government  was  formally  organized  in 
the  wilderness.  The  flag  was  raised  and  cheered ; 
a  prayer  was  said  by  H.  W.  Read;  the  oath  of 
office  taken  by  the  officials ;  and  a  proclamation  of 
Governor  Goodwin  was  read,  in  which  the  vicinity 
of  Port  Whipple,  established  only  a  month  earlier 
by  Major  Willis  of  the  California  column,  was 
named  as  the  temporary  seat  of  government ;  and 
here  all  arrived  on  January  22,  1864.  In  May  the 
fort  was  moved  some  200  miles  to  the  southwest, 
and  near  it  by  July  a  town  had  been  founded  on 
Granite  Creek  to  become  the  temporary  capital. 
It  was  named  Prescotf,  in  honor  of  the  historian. 
Meanwhile  the  governor  made  a  tour  of  inspection 
in  the  south  and  other  parts  of  the  territory;  by 


proclamation  of  April  gth  three  judicial  districts 
were  created  and  the  judges  assigned;  the  marshal 
was  instructed  to  take  a  census;  and  an  election 
proclamation  was  issued  on  the  26th  of  May.  Ac- 
cordingly, at  the  election  of  July  i8th,  there  were 
chosen  a  council  of  nine  members,  and  a  house  of 
eighteen ;  also  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  the  person 
of  Charles  D.  Poston,  The  legislature  was  in  ses- 
son  at  Prescott  from  September  26th  to  the  loth 
of  November.  Besides  attending  to  the  various 
routine  duties,  and  passing  special  acts,  this  body 
adopted  a  mining  law,  and  a  general  code  of  laws, 
prepared  by  Judge  Howell,  and  called  in  his  honor 
the  Howell  Code,  being  based  mainly  on  the  codes 
of  New  York  and  California.  It  also  divided  the 
territory  into  four  counties  under  the  aboriginal 
names  of  Pima,  Yuma,  Mojave,  and  Yavapai ;  and 
adopted  a  territorial  seal,  though  for  nearly  20 
years  a  different  seal  appears  to  have  been  in  use." 
—Ibid.,  pp.  521-523- 

1864-1883. — Development  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroad. — .Arizona  could  not  expect  to 
progress  until  her  resources  were  opened  up  by 
railroads.  "From  1864  the  subject  was  always 
under  discussion,  and  various  projects  took  more 
or  less  definite  shape;  but  there  was  a  broad  region 
to  be  crossed  before  the  iron  road  should  even 
approach  Arizona.  In  1866  the  Atlantic  and  Pa- 
cific was  chartered  with  a  land  grant  on  the 
35th  paiallel,  but  no  western  progress  was  made. 
In  1870-1  this  company  was  reorganized,  making 
some  show  of  active  work,  and  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  was  organized  to  reach  San  Diego  by  the 
Gila  route,  with  a  land  grant  like  that  of  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific,  including  the  alternate  sections 
for  a  width  of  So  miles  throughout  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  Arizona  from  east  to  west.  For  a  few 
years  from  1872  Arizonans  believed  their  railroad 
future  assured  from  this  source;  but  financial  ob- 
stacles proved  insuperable,  and  Scott's  line  never 
reached  the  eastern  line  of  the  territorj'.  In  1877, 
however,  the  Southern  Pacific  from  California  was 
completed  to  the  Arizona  line  at  Yuma,  and  in  the 
following  years,  not  without  some  serious  compli- 
cations with  the  rival  company,  was  rapidly  con- 
tinued eastward,  reaching  Tucson  in  1880,  and  in 
1881  effecting  a  junction  with  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka,  and  Santa  ¥6  road  at  Deming,  New  Mexico. 
Practically  by  the  latter  company  the  Sonora  road, 
connecting  Guaymas  with  the  Southern  Pacific  at 
Benson,  was  completed  in  1882.  .  .  .  Meanwhile 
the  completion  of  the  Atchison  line  down  the  Rio 
Grande  valley  enabled  the  .Atlantic  and  Pacific  to 
resume  operations  in  the  west,  and  in  1880-3  this 
road  was  completed  from  Isleta  to  the  Colorado 
at  the  Needles,  connecting  there  with  the  Cali- 
fornia Southern.  As  all  these  roads  were  built,  so 
they  have  been  operated  without  any  special  regard 
to  the  interests  of  Arizona ;  yet  they  have  neces- 
saril\ — even  as  masters  instead  of  servants  of  the 
people  .  .  .  been  immensely  beneficial  to  the  ter- 
ritory " — Ibid.,  pp.  603-604. 

1877. —  Subjugation  of  the  Apaches. —  "The 
principal  events  in  the  histor\'  of  Arizona,  since  the 
reesiiablishment  of  the  national  authority,  in  1864, 
have  been  those  connected  with  the  subjugation  of 
the  .Apaches.  This  work  was  not  fairly  commenced 
until  the  appointment  to  command  of  General 
Crook,  or  rather,  to  be  more  just,  to  the  appear- 
ance of  Gen.  O.  O.  Howard,  as  Special  Indian  Com- 
missioner. In  Arizona  itself,  the  only  comment, 
as  a  rule,  is  that  of  bitter  hostility,  not  alone  of 
the  aborigines,  but  of  all  who  have  adopted  or 
advocated  any  means  other  than  those  of  destruc- 
tion to  bring  about  peace.  Whatever  else  may  be 
said  of  Gen.  Howard,  it  must  also  be  acknowledged 
that  his  policy  was  the  first  successful  breach  in 


SO8 


ARIZONA,  1900 


Statehood 


ARIZONA,  1912 


the  long  and  unbroken  line  of  savage  warfare.  It 
brought  Cochise  (the  most  annoying  Indian  Chief- 
tain) to  terms,  so  far  as  the  Americans  were  con- 
cerned. The  appointment  of  Gen.  Crook  to  com- 
mand, and  the  unrelenting  warfare  he  waged,  soon 
made  other  bodies  of  Apaches  surrender.  Crook 
adopted  the  policy  of  dividing  his  foes  by  employ- 
ing them  to  fight  one  another.  Under  this  policy 
a  considerable  number  of  Apache  and  Hualapais 
Indians  have  been  used  as  scouts.  .  .  .  The  Apaches 
were,  under  Gen.  Howard's  policy,  first  congre- 
gated on  the  Chiricahui  Reservation,  occupying  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  territory.  The  unwise 
nature  of  the  location  was  soon  exemplified  by  the 
Indians  making  it  a  base  of  operations  for  attack 
on  the  people  of  Sonora.  Gen.  Crook  removed  the 
savages  to  the  White  Mountains  Reservation,  north 
of  Gila  River,  where  they  are  now  located.  Since 
the  severe  chastisement  given  by  Crook  to  the 
Tonto  Apaches  and  others,  there  has  been  no  gen- 
eral Indian  marauding,  but  for  a  long  period,  .  .  . 
the  New  Mexican  line  and  the  Chiricahui  were 
rendered  unsafe  by  small  parties  of  renegades — 
Indians  who  slipped  off  the  Arizona  or  New  Mexi- 
can reservations  and  went  on  predatory  raids,  gen- 
erally following  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  Sauz,  in 
the  Chiricahui  mountain  region,  or  that  of  the  San 
Simeon,  down  to  the  Sonora  line.  They  would 
plunder  and  murder  on  either  side  of  the  New 
Mexican  line,  carry  their  plunder  into  Chihuahua 
or  Sonora,  trading  it  off  with  the  Lipans  or  Mexi- 
cans. .  .  .  The  Santa  Rita  and  San  Pedro  regions 
were  concerned,  in  the  spring  of  1877,  when  a  new 
era  slowly  but  surely  began  to  dawn  upon  this 
wonderfully  rich  but  undeveloped  irontier  region ; 
this  territory,  the  oldest  in  civilization  to  all  ap- 
pearance of  the  vast  continental  area  embraced  by 
the  American  Union,  but  almost  the  newest  and 
least  advanced  of  any  of  our  organized  communi- 
ties."— R.  J.  Hinton,  Handbook  to  Arizona,  p.  44. 
—See  also  U.  S.  A.:   1866-1876. 

1906. — Refusal  of  statehood  in  union  with 
New  Mexico.    See  U.  S.  A.;    iqo6  (June). 

1907. — I.  W.  W.  agitation  in  mines.  See  In- 
dustrial Workers  of  the  World;  Recent  ten- 
dencies. 

1908-1911. — Admission  to  the  Union. — "After 
the  failure  of  several  attempts  to  have  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  territories  enler  the  Union  as  a  single 
state,  a  measure  for  the  separate  admission  of 
Arizona,  introduced  in  Congress  in  1908,  failed  of 
passage  in  the  Senate  because  of  charges  of  cor- 
ruption on  the  part  of  territorial  officials.  Finally, 
on  January  20,  iqio,  an  act  was  passed  enabling 
the  Governor  of  Arizona  to  call  a  Constitutional 
Convention  composed  of  elected  delegates,  to  form 
a  constitution  for  the  proposed  state  of  Arizona. 
This  was  done,  and  an  extremely  radical  constitu- 
tion was  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratification. 
The  approval  of  the  people  was  signified  by  an 
overwhelmingly  favorable  vote — 12,000  to  7,500. 
The  provision  that  aroused  most  discussion  was 
one  providing  for  the  recall  of  public  officers  by 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  all  the  voters  for  the 
office  concerned,  at  the  last  general  election.  Presi- 
dent Taft  vetoed  the  joint  resolution  for  the  ad- 
mission of  Arizona  as  a  state  on  account  of  the 
clause  providing  for  the  recall  of  judges,  and  Con- 
gress passed  another  resolution,  permitting  Arizona 
to  join  the  Union  if  the  obnoxious  provision  were 
omitted  from  the  Constitution.  Arizona  complied, 
and  was  formally  admitted  as  a  state  on  February 
14,  igi2.  The  first  legislature  that  convened  under 
the  new  Constitution  amended  the  Constitution 
again  so  as  to  provide  for  the  recall  of  judicial 
officers.  Following  is  a  discussion  of  the  question 
by  Theodore  Roosevelt;     'But  Arizona  also  should 


clearly,  and  as  a  matter  of  right  and  duty,  at  once 
be  admitted  to  Statehood.  The  only  objection  of 
consequence  to  admitting  her  is  that  her  Constitu- 
tion provides  for  the  recall  of  judges.  Outside  of 
this  provision  no  serious  objection  has  been  made 
to  her  Constitution,  and  ...  as  a  whole,  it  is  a 
Constitution  well  above  the  average.  .  .  .  The 
whole  question,  therefore,,  narrows  down  to  the 
point  as  to  whether  it  is  legitimate  to  reject  Ari- 
zona's plea  because  she  has  done  what  Oregon  has 
done,  what  CaUfornia  has  announced  she  will  do. 
.  .  .  Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  if  the 
people  of  Arizona  desire  to  exercise  the  right  of 
recall  of  the  judges  their  desire  can  be  made  ef- 
fective immediately  after  their  admission  to  State- 
hood; even  though,  in  order  to  get  in,  they  con- 
sent to  alter  the  provision  in  their  Constitution  as 
proposed.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  mere  statement 
of  these  facts  is  sufficient  to  show  that,  on  the 
ground  alleged,  there  is  no  excuse  for  failure,  to 
admit  Arizona  to  Statehood.  ...  It  is  the  nega- 
tion of  popular  government  to  deny  the  people 
the  right  to  establish  for  themselves  what  their 
judicial  system  shall  be.  Arizona  has  the  absolute 
right  to  try  the  recall  just  as  any  of  the  existing 
States  has  the  absolute  right  to  try  it  or  not  to 
try  it,  and  to  have  an  elective  or  appointive  ju- 
diciary as  it  pleases.  To  keep  Arizona  from  State- 
hood because  she  has  adopted  the  recall  as  applied 
to  the  judiciary  is  a  grave  injustice  to  Arizona, 
and  an  assault  upon  the  principles  which  under- 
lie our  whole  system  of  free  popular  government.'  " 
— T.  Roosevelt,  Arizona  and  the  recall  of  judiciary 
(Outlook,  June  24,  1911,  pp.  378-379). 

1911  (March  8). — Roosevelt  dam  opened. — 
The  construction  of  the  Roosevelt  dam  was  a  part 
of  the  United  States  plan  for  reclamation  of  arid 
lands.  It  consisted  of  a  dam  283  feet  high  and 
168  feet  thick  at  the  base.  The  water  was  supplied 
by  the  Salt  river,  which  is  high  in  winter  but  very 
low  in  summer.  The  reservoir  is  considered  one 
of  the  largest  artificial  lakes  in  the  world.  By 
means  of  this  supply  of  water  over  200,000  acres 
of  land  are  recovered  for  agricultural  purposes. 

1912. — First  legislature. — Liberal  measures 
adopted. — Ratification  of  the  16th  and  17th 
amendments. — "The  first  legislature  of  the  State 
of  Arizona,  the  newest  and  last  of  the  continental 
states  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union,  has  estab- 
lished a  record  for  social  betterment  measures 
which  will  not  be  surpassed  by  any  of  her  older 
.sisters  in  many  a  long  session.  Arizona  is  youth- 
ful and  virile,  full  of  pluck  and  ambition,  con- 
scious of  the  magnitude  of  the  great  problems 
which  confront  her,  and  eager  to  work  out  their 
solution.  She  possesses  rich  natural  resources,  but 
is  poor  in  point  of  numbers,  in  human  resources. 
For  thirty  years  she  has  been  struggling  for  state- 
hood, and  for  the  right  to  put  into  law,  through 
a  legislature  controlled  only  by  her  people,  meas- 
ures of  social  reform  and  betterment.  Her  capital- 
ists have  felt  the  need  of  developing  her  natural 
resources,  but  her  people  have  felt  the  greater  need 
of  protecting  and  conserving  her  human  resources. 
In  the  first  session  of  her  first  legislature,  recently 
concluded,  constructive  social  measures  were  passed 
of  which  any  of  the  older  states  of  the  Union 
might  be  justly  proud.  Many  of  the  men  who 
drew  up  the  constitution  continued  their  work  as 
members  of  the  legislature.  There  is,  therefore,  a 
close  harmony  between  the  two  bodies  of  legisla- 
tion. The  members  of  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion, some  of  whom  were  greatly  interested  in 
social  reform,  were  unwilling  to  rest  many  reforms 
with  the  new-legislature-to-be,  the  character  of 
which  no  man  could  foretell.  Therefore  there  were 
embodied  in  the  constitution  several  strikingly  pro- 


509 


ARIZONA,  1912 


16th  and  17th 
Amendments 


ARIZONA,  1915 


gressive  measures,  among  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  following: 

"(i)  The  common  law  doctrine  of  fellow  ser- 
vant, so  far  as  it  affects  the  liability  of  master  for 
injuries  to  his  servant,  is  forever  abrogated.  (2) 
The  right  of  action  to  recover  damages  for  in- 
juries shall  never  be  abrogated,  and  the  amount  to 
be  recovered  shall  not  be  subject  to  any  statu- 
tory limitation.  (3)  An  employers'  liability  law 
shall  be  passed,  by  the  terms  of  which  any  em- 
ployer .  .  .  shall  be  liable  for  death  or  injury 
...  in  all  cases  in  which  death  or  injury  shall  not 
have  been  caused  by  the  negligence  of  the  em- 
ployee killed  or  injured.  (4)  The  legislature  shall 
enact  a  workmen's  compulsory  compensation  law 
applicable  in  such  employments  as  the  legislature 
may  determine  to  be  especially  dangerous,  by 
which  compulsory  compensation  shall  be  required 
to  be  paid  ...  by  the  employer  ...  if  accident 
is  caused  in  whole  or  in  part,  or  is  contributed  to, 
by  a  necessary  risk  or  danger  of  such  employment, 
or  a  necessary  risk  or  danger  inherent  in  the  na- 
ture thereof  or  by  failure  of  employer  ...  to  ex- 
ercise due  care  .  .  .  ,  it  being  optional  with  em- 
ployee to  settle  for  such  compensation,  or  to  re- 
tain the  right  to  sue,  etc.  (5)  The  defence  of 
contributory  negligence,  or  assumption  of  risk,  shall 
be  a  question  of  fact,  and  left  to  the  jury.  (6) 
No  child  under  the  age  of  fourteen  shall  be  em- 
ployed in  any  gainful  occupation  during  any 
part  of  the  school  year.  (7)  It  shall  be  unlaw- 
ful for  any  corporation  ...  to  require  of  its  em- 
ployees as  a  condition  of  their  employment  any 
contract  whereby  such  corporation  .  .  .  shall  be 
released  from  liability  on  account  of  personal  in- 
juries. 

"Other  clauses  of  social  importance,  including 
the  one  of  establishing  the  office  of  mine  in- 
spector, were  embodied  in  the  constitution.  Per- 
manence and  dignity  were  added  to  the  work  of 
the  legislature  by  the  unpartisan  action  of  the 
governor  and  legislators.  Members  of  the  same 
political  party,  they  were  yet  actuated  by  the 
ambition  to  establish  a  record  for  nonpartisan  and 
enlightened  legislation  and  administration.  Re- 
publicans as  well  as  Democrats  were  put  upon 
the  most  important  committees,  and  both  houses, 
as  well  as  the  governor,  though  differing  upon 
smaller  details,  were  in  harmony  on  the  larger 
questions  and  worked  together  with  the  one  end 
in  view — strong,  progressive  legislation  that  would 
stand  the  test  of  future  political  contests.  Of 
the  three  hundred  bills  introduced,  over  100  were 
passed,  and  of  the  hundred  new  laws,  fully  one- 
third  are  of  important  social  significance.  The 
most  important  bills  dealt  with  the  following 
topics:  child  labor;  woman  labor;  mining  code, 
with  provisions  for  mine  inspection  and  important 
limitations  upon  conditions  of  underground  work 
in  mines;  miners'  labor  lien  law;  five  laws  regu- 
lating hours  of  labor,  including  eight-hour  day 
for  miners;  several  reformatory  measures,  includ- 
ing indeterminate  sentence  for  criminals  and  care 
for  unfortunate  girls;  anti-labor  black  list;  work- 
men's compulsory  compensation.  It  was  the  earn- 
est desire  of  the  legislature  to  pass  the  best  child- 
labor  law  in  the  United  States,  and  it  must  be 
conceded  that  they  did  remarkably  well.  The  act 
was  introduced  by  Mike  Cunniff,  president  of  the 
Senate  and  former  managing  editor  of  World's 
Work,  a  man  who  has  been  a  miner  and  owner 
of  mines  and  who  is  deeply  interested  in  all  labor 
questions.  The  most  important  provisions  of  this 
act  are:  no  child  under  fourteen  is  f)ermitted 
to  work  in  any  industrial  or  mercantile  pursuit ; 
it  is  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corpora- 
tion to  employ   any   child  under  fourteen  in   any 


business  whatever  during  any  part  of  the  school 
year;  more  than  sixty  dangerous  and  unhealthful 
occupations,  in  which  no  child  under  sixteen  may 
be  employed,  are  enumerated;  the  state  board  of 
health  is  empowered  to  determine  from  time  to 
time  what  other  occupations  are  dangerous  and 
unhealthful,  and  may  prohibit  employment  in  such 
additional  ones;  females  under  sixteen  are  not  per- 
mitted to  work  in  any  occupation  requiring  them 
to  stand  constantly ;  the  right  of  corporations  and 
others  to  employ  any  minors  is  conditioned  upon 
strict  examination  by  school  officials  and  the  board 
of  health,  and  upon  previously  obtaining  proper 
certificates  as  well  as  upon  keeping  correct  rec- 
ords, the  most  important  of  which  must  be  con- 
spicuously posted;  the  state  superintendent,  tru- 
ant officers,  etc.,  are  given  right  to  enter  any 
and  all  estabhshments  at  all  times;  no  child 
under  eighteen  can  be  employed  about  blast  fur- 
naces, smelters  and  twenty  other  hazardous  occu- 
pations; no  female  is  permitted  to  work  about 
any  mine,  quarry  or  coal  breaker;  no  boy  under 
sixteen  and  no  girl  under  eighteen  is  permitted 
to  work  before  seven  in  the  morning  or  after 
seven  in  the  evening.  The  presence  of  any  child 
in  an  establishment  is  prima  facie  evidence  of 
his  employment  there.  Physical  fitness  of  any 
child  must  be  passed  upon  by  the  state  board  of 
health  before  he  can  be  employed.  In  strict  com- 
pliance with  the  constitutional  mandate  the  leg- 
islature passed  the  employers'  liability  act  and 
the  workmen's  compulsory  compensation  act. 
These  strengthened  the  force  of  the  constitutional 
provisions  dealing  with  these  important  subjects, 
the  Utter  by  clearly  laying  down  the  principle 
that  'compulsory  compensation  shall  be  paid  by 
his  employer  to  any  workman  ...  if  injury  is 
caused  in  whole  or  in  part  ...  by  failure  of  em- 
ployer or  his  agents  to  exercise  due  care,  etc.,'  and 
further  by  declaring  the  common  law  doctrine  of 
'no  liability  without  fault'  to  be  abrogated.  The 
employers'  liability  act  clearly  states  that  'any 
employer  shall  be  liable  for  death  of  or  injury 
...  in  all  cases  in  which  such  death  or  injury 
.  .  .  shall  not  have  been  caused  by  the  negli- 
gence of  the  employee  killed  or  injured.'  Two  very 
important  bills  were  the  one  establishing  the  office 
and  defining  the  duties  of  mine  inspector,  and 
the  one  containing  the  new  mining  code.  A  bill 
was  passed  making  the  miner's  lien  for  wages  take 
precedence  of  a  tirst  mortgage.  The  mining  bill 
has  been  well  received  by  both  miners  and  op- 
erators. In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  several 
other  important  laws  have  been  enacted  to  pro- 
tect the  laboring  classes  in  .Arizona." — H.  A.  E. 
Chandler,  With  Arizona's  first  legislature  (Survey, 
Aug.  17,  igi2,  pp.  647-648). — On  .\pril  g,  the  Ari- 
zona legislature  ratified  the  sixteenth  federal 
amendment,  providing  for  a  federal  income  tax, 
and  on  June  3,  it  ratified  the  seventeenth  federal 
amendment,  for  the  direct  election  of  United  States 
senators. 

1915. — Alien  Labor  Law. — Foreign  objection 
to. — Upheld  by  United  States  Supreme  Court. 
— "At  a  recent  general  election  the  people  of 
Arizon^,  by  a  majority  of  10,604  iu  3  popular 
vote  upon  a  measure  submitted  to  them,  en- 
acted into  law  these  provisions:  'Any  company, 
corporation,  partnership,  association,  or  individual 
who  is  or  may  hereafter  become  an  employer 
of  more  than  five  workers  at  any  one  time,  in  the 
State  of  Arizona,  regardless  of  kind  or  class  of 
work,  or  sex  of  workers,  shall  employ  not  less 
than  eighty  per  cent  qualified  electors  or  native- 
born  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  some  sub- 
division thereof,'  and  making  any  violation  of  the 
provisions  of   the   act  a   misdemeanor  subject  to 


510 


ARIZONA,  1916 


ARKANSAS,  1819-1836 


fine  and  imprisonment.  "The  Ahib^ssadbfs  of  the 
Britisli  and  Italian  Goverrlmfcnts  at  once  made  rep- 
resentations to  the  Department  of  State  to  the 
effect  that  the  Arizona  law  was  in  violation  of  the 
priviliges  accorded  to  the  two  countries  under 
treaties  with  our  Government.  The  State  De- 
partment thereupon  requested  the  Governor  of 
Arizona  to  defer  issuing  his  proclamation  of  the 
law.  Under  the  Arizona  Constitution  and  statutes 
it  is  made  the  duty  of  the  Governor  to  issue 
that  proclamation  'forthwith,'  upon  the  certification 
of  the  returns  by  the  Secretary  of  State." — 
Arizona  alien  labor  law  {Outlook,  Jan.  20,  1915, 
pp.  log- 1 10). — When  the  constitutionaUty  of  the 
Arizona  law  was  tested  in  the  Federal  District 
Court  of  Arizona  in  the  case  of  Raich  i;.  Truax 
(January  7,  igis,  ziq  Federal  273),  the  court 
rendered  a  decision  unfavorable  to  the  law  on 
the  ground  that  it  did  not  give  equal  protection 
of  the  laws  to  all  persons;  aliens  are  entitled  to 
the  same  protection  of  the  laws  as  citizens.  The 
United  States  Supreme  Court  reversed  this  de- 
cision on  appeal,  November  i,.  1915. 

1916. — State  suffrage  granted  women.  See 
Suffrage,  Woman:  United  States:   1851-1920. 

1917. — Rival  claimants  for  the  governorship. 
— Deadlock  in  the  capital. — "The  Democratic 
governor  of  Arizona,  G.  W.  P.  Hunt,  created  a 
stir  throughout  the  state  when  he  refused  to  sur- 
render his  office  to  Thomas  E.  Campbell,  the  Re- 
publican governor-elect.  Governor  Hunt  believes 
that  when  the  ballots  cast  at  the  November  elec- 
tion [iqi6]  are  recounted  his  reelection  will  be 
established  beyond  a  doubt,  and,  acting  upon  that 
belief,  he  refuses  to  recognize  in  any  way  his  op- 
ponent. Mr.  Campbell  is  governor  upon  the  face 
of  the  returns,  and  his  election  has  been  con- 
ceded by  the  Democratic  State  Central  Commit- 
tee. The  question  as  to  which  of  the  two  claim- 
ants is  the  rightful  governor  will  be  fought  out 
in  the  courts.  ...  On  the  first  of  January  both 
governors  were  to  be  inaugurated,  and  the  town  of 
Phoenix  filled  with  partizans  of  each  side  ready  to 
take  a  hand  if  there  should  be  a  conflict.  Gover- 
nor Hunt,  however,  locked  his  rival  out  of  the 
capitol  building  and  governor-elect  Campbell  did 
not  insist  upon  going  through  the  formal  cere- 
mony. He  had  already  satisfied  the  requirements 
of  the  law  by  taking  the  oath  of  office  before 
a  notary,  and  so  he  contented  himself  with  an 
informal  address  to  the  crowd  on  the  capitol 
grounds.  Governor  Hunt  still  refusing  to  accept 
his  credentials,  governor-elect  Campbell  established 
a  temporary  executive  office  in  another  part  of 
the  city.  Feeling  on  both  sides  ran  high,  but 
trouble  was  averted  by  the  large  force  of  deputy 
police,  by  the  new  prohibition  law,  which  made 
liquor  inaccessible,  and  by  the  good  sense  and 
self-restraint  which  often  characterizes  even  a  very 
angry  American  crowd." — State  with  two  gov- 
ernors (Independent,  Jan.  15,  1917,  p.  96). — Ex- 
Governor  Hunt  eventually  relinquished  his  un- 
tenable position. 

1917. — Minimum  wage  law.  See  Labor  re- 
muneration:   1910-1920. 

1918  (May  23-24).  —  Federal  prohibition 
amendment  ratified. — Arizona  was  the  twelfth 
state   to   ratify    the   prohibition   amendment. 

1918.— Part  played  in  the  World  War.— The 
state  furnished   about   10,000  soldiers. 

1919. — Decision  of  United  States  Supreme 
Court. — This  was  the  outgrowth  of  the  em- 
ployers' liability  feature  of  the  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation act  which  provided  that  in  all  employ- 
ments inherently  dangerous  the  employer  should 
be  liable  for  accidents  whether  he  or  his  agent 
were  directly   responsible  for  it  or  not.     The  de- 


cision held  that  such  provision  is  allowable  and 
is  not  in  violation  of  the  fourteenth  amendment, 
as  claimed. — See  also  Supreme  court:  1888-1913; 
1917-1921. 

1920. — Woman  suffrage  amendment  ratified. — 
Arizona  ratified  the  woman  suffrage  (19th  federal) 
amendment  February  12. 

ARKA:  1570  B.  C— Destroyed  by  Egyptians. 
See  Phoenicians:    Origin. 

ARKANSAS,  a  south  central  state  of  the 
United  Spates.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Missouri;  on  the  east  by  the  Mississippi  River, 
which  separates  it  from  Tennessee  and  Mississippi; 
on  the  south  by  Louisiana,  and  on  the  west  by 
Oklahoma  and  Texas.  It  contains  an  area  of  53,335 
square  miles,  and  in  1920  had  a  population  of 
i.7';o.99S- 

Agricultural  and  mineral  resources.  See 
U.  S.  .\.:  Economic  map. 

Aboriginal  inhabitants.  See  Siouan  famxly: 
Sioux. 

1542. — Entered  by  Hernando  de  Soto.  See 
Florida:   1528-1542. 

1803. — Embraced  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 
See  Louisiana:  1798-1803. 

1815-1840.— Early  settlement.— Origin  of  pop- 
ulation.— "As  is  well  known,  the  American  pio- 
neer has,  as  a  rule,  emigrated  along  lines  of  lati- 
tude. The  Mississippi  River  was  the  route  by 
which  the  earliest  settlers  came  into  .'\rkansas, 
either  from  New  Orleans  or  down  the  River  from 
St.  Louis  and  the  settlements  farther  north  and 
east.  Many  came  by  boat  from  southern  Indiana 
and  Ohio  and  from  river  points  in  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  but  with  the  development  of  the 
older  states  of  the  Middle  West  and  the  building 
of  the  great  National  Road  the  methods  of  im- 
migration changed.  The  horse  became  the  motive 
power  and  the  covered  wagon  superseded  the  flat- 
boat;  so  that  a  large  majority  of  the  immigrants 
who  entered  Arkansas  between  1815  and  1S30  came 
overland  on  horseback  or  in  wagons,  entering 
the  territory  from  Missouri  at  Davidsonville  in 
old  Lawrence  County.  In  1820  their  line  had 
extended  through  Batesville  to  Cadron  in  Pulaski 
County,  and  in  182 1  down  to  Red  River  through 
Clark  and  Hempstead  Counties.  'Far-away  Hemp- 
stead,' says  Shinn,  'then  had  more  than  one  sev- 
enth of  the  population,  and  although  for  the 
most  part  from  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Virginia, 
and  Kentucky,  they  came  in  from  Missouri  in 
wagons  i-'uided  by  the  National  Road.'  Prof. 
Shinn  is  also  authority  for  the  further  statement 
that  the  English-speaking  population  who  en- 
tered Arkansas  before  1820  was  largely  cosmo- 
politan in  character;  that  for  the  decades  between 
1820  and  1840  immigrants  from  Kentucky,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana  were  dominant,  with  the  Kentuckians 
in  the  lead." — S.  B.  Weeks,  History  of  public 
school  education  in  .Arkansas  {United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  27,  1912). 

1819-1836.  —  Detached  from  Missouri.  —  Or- 
ganized as  a  territory. — Admitted  as  a  state. — 
"Preparatory  to  the  assumption  of  state  govern- 
ment, the  limits  of  the  Missouri  Territory  were 
restricted  on  the  south  by  the  parallel  of  36°  30' 
north.  The  restriction  was  made  by  an  act  of 
Congress,  approved  March  3,  1819,  entitled  an 
'Act  establishing  a  separate  territorial  government 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Missouri  Terri- 
tory.' The  portion  thus  separated  was  subse- 
quently organized  into  the  second  grade  of  terri- 
torial government,  and  Colonel  James  Miller,  a 
meritorious  and  distinguished  officer  of  the  North- 
western army,  was  appointed  first  governor.  This 
territory  was  known  as  the  Arkansas  Territory, 
and,  at  the  period  of  its  first   organization,  con- 


Sii 


ARKANSAS,  1850 


Reconstruction 


ARKANSAS,  1865-1866 


tained  an  aggregate  of  nearly  14,000  inhabitants. 
Its  limits  comprised  all  the  territory  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Mississippi  between  the  parallels  33" 
and  36°  30',  or  between  the  northern  limit  of 
Louisiana  and  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State 
of  Missouri.  On  the  west  it  extended  indefinitely 
to  the  Mexican  territories,  at  least  550  miles. 
The  Post  of  Arkansas  was  made  the  seat  of  the 
new  government.  The  population  of  this  exten- 
sive territory  for  several  years  was  comprised 
chiefly  in  the  settlements  upon  the  tributaries  of 
White  River  and  the  St.  Francis ;  upon  the  Mis- 
sissippi, between  New  Madrid  and  Point  Chicot; 
and  upon  both  sides  of  the  .\rkansas  River, 
within  100  miles  of  its  mouth,  but  especially  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Post  of  Arkansas.  ...  So 
feeble  was  the  attraction  in  this  remote  region 
for  the  active,  industrious,  and  well-disposed 
portion  of  the  western  pioneers,  that  the  Arkan- 
sas Territory,  in  1830,  ten  years  after  its  organi- 
zation, had  acquired  an  aggregate  of  only  30,388 
souls,  including  4,57b  slaves.  .  .  .  The  western  half 
of  the  territory  had  been  erected,  in  1S24,  into 
a  separate  district,  to  be  reserved  for  the  future 
residence  of  the  Indian  tribes,  and  to  be  known 
as  the  Indian  Territory.  From  this  time  the  tide 
of  emigration  began  to  set  more  actively  into 
Arkansas,  as  well  as  into  other  portions  of  the 
southwest.  .  .  .  The  territory  increased  rapidly  for 
several  years,  and  the  census  of  1835  gave  the 
whole  number  of  inhabitants  at  58,134  souls,  in- 
cluding 0,630  slaves.  Thus  the  Arkansas  Terri- 
tory in  the  last  live  years  had  doubled  its  popu- 
lation. .  .  .  The  people,  through  the  General 
Assembly,  made  application  to  Congress  for  au- 
thority to  establish  a  regular  form  of  state  gov- 
ernment. The  assent  of  Congress  was  not  withheld, 
and  a  Convention  was  authorized  to  meet  at 
Little  Rock  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1836,  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  and  adopting  a  State 
Constitution.  The  same  was  approved  by  Con- 
gress, and  on  the  13th  of  June  following  the  State 
of  Arkansas  was  admitted  into  the  Federal  Union 
as  an  independent  state,  and  was,  in  point  of 
time  and  order,  the  twenty -fifth  in  the  confed- 
eracy. .  .  .  Like  the  Missouri  Territory,  Arkansas 
had  been  a  slaveholding  country  from  the  earliest 
French  colonies.  Of  course,  the  institution  of 
negro  slavery,  with  proper  checks  and  limits,  was 
sustained  by  the  new  Constitution." — J.  W. 
Monette,  Discovery  and  settlement  of  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  bk.  s,  v.  2,  ch.  17. — See 
also  Oklahoma:  1824-1837;  U.  S.  A.:  1818- 
1821. 

1850. — Slavery  question.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1850 
(June). 

1861  (March). — Secession  voted  down.  See 
U.  S.  A.:   i8bi    (March-April). 

1861  (April). — Governor  Rector's  reply  to 
President  Lincoln's  call  for  troops.  See  U.S.A.: 
1861   (President  Lincoln's  call  to  arms). 

1862  (January-March). — Advance  of  national 
forces  into  the  state. — Battle  of  Pea  Ridge. 
See  U.  S.  .\.:  1862  (January-March:  Missouri- 
Arkansas). 

1862  (July-Septem.ber). — Progress  of  the  Civil 
War.  See  U.S.A.:  1862  (July-September:  Mis- 
souri-.\rkansas) . 

1862-1864. — Beginnings  of  Reconstruction. — 
"There  was  not  a  time  during  the  Civil  War  when 
there  were  not  many  Federal  sympathizers  in  the 
State.  Early  in  the  struggle,  the  Confederate 
State  government  arrested  many  Union  sympa- 
thizers in  north  .Arkansas.  In  1862,  General  Curtis, 
in  his  march  at  the  head  of  a  Union  army  from 
Pea  Ridge  to  Batesville,  met  with  loyal  senti- 
ments everywhere.     During  the  winter  of   1862-63 


loyal  citizens  began  to  hold  primary  assemblies 
with  a  view  to  the  re-establishment  of  a  loyal 
state  government ;  and  after  General  Steele  occu- 
pied Little  Rock,  many  original  Union  men  who 
had  fled  the  State  returned  under  protection  of 
the  Federal  army  and  set  about  the  establishment 
of  a  new  stale  government  loyal  to  the  Union. 
The  army  at  first  did  not  encourage  the  move- 
ment ;  but  October  30,  fifty  days  after  the  fall 
of  Little  Rock,  the  loyal  men  held  a  convention 
at  the  capital,  avowed  Union  sentiments  and  ap- 
pointed a  committee  ...  to  draft  resolutions, 
assuring  the  President  of  their  loyalty  to  the 
United  States  and  of  their  desire  to  have  a  loyal 
state  government  established  in  Arkansas.  Con- 
temporary with  this  convention,  similar  gatherings 
were  held  at  Fort  Smith  and  Van  Buren.  Octo- 
ber 24,  twelve  citizens  of  these  two  places  met 
in  Fort  Smith  and  inaugurated  a  movement  which 
resulted  in  the  constitutional  convention  of  1864. 
After  canvassing  the  situation,  they  called  popu- 
lar conventions  to  be  tried  for  Sebastian  County 
at  Fort  Smith  and  fur  Crawford  County  at  Van 
Buren.  At  these  conventions,  loyalty  was  avowed, 
much  enthusiasm  was  manifested  and  resolutions 
were  adopted,  calling  upon  the  people  of  the  sev- 
eral counties  to  hold  conventions  and  elect  dele- 
gates to  a  constitutional  convention  to  be  held  in 
Little  Rock  January  4,  1864.  The  purpose  of 
the  convention,  they  declared,  was  to  re-establish 
civil  government,  and  to  restore  normal  relations 
with  the  central  government.  The  committee  on 
Federal  relations  in  the  legislature  of  1S64  says 
that  there  was  an  enthusiastic  response  to  this 
call.  But  at  that  time  bushwackers  were  nu- 
merous and  south  Arkansas  was  under  control  of 
the  Confederates.  If  the  Conventions  were  held, 
many  of  them  could  not  have  been  more  than 
quiet,  informal,  irregular  gatherings  of  loyal  men 
in  the  several  counties.  Union  sentiment,  how- 
ever, was  developing  rapidly.  .  .  .  The  President 
at  an  early  date  looked  upon  .'\rkansas  as  a  favor- 
able field  for  beginning  the  work  of  reconstruc- 
tion. In  1862,  a  few  days  after  appointing  John- 
son military  governor  of  Tennessee,  the  President 
appointed  John  S.  Phelps  to  a  similar  position  in 
Arkansas.  Secretary  Stanton,  in  notifying  him  of 
his  appointment,  said  the  main  object  of  his  ap- 
pointment was  to  re-establish  Federal  authority 
in  the  State  and  provide  protection  to  loyal  in- 
habitants, until  they  could  re-establish  civil  gov- 
ernment. But  the  appointment  was  premature  and 
nothing  came  of  it.  The  office  was  abolLshed  the 
following  year." — E.  Cypert  (Arkansas  Historical 
Association,  v.  4). — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1863-1864 
( December- J uly )  ;  and  U.  S.  A.:  1865  (May- 
July). 

1863  (January). — Capture  of  Arkansas  Post 
from  the  Confederates.  See  U.S.A.:  1863 
(January:   .\rkansas). 

1863  (July). — Defense  of  Helena.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1863  (July:  On  the  Mississippi). 

1863  (August-October). — Breaking  of  Con- 
federate authority. — Occupation  of  Little  Rock 
by  national  forces.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1863  (August- 
October:  .Arkansas-Missouri). 

1863-1864  (December-July). — Attempts  to  re- 
enter Union.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1S03-1864  (December- 
July). 

1864  (March-October). — Last  important  oper- 
ations of  the  war. — Price's  raid.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
r864   (March-October:    .\rkansas-Missouri). 

1865-1866.  —  Garland  case.  —  Augustus  Hill 
Garland  was  admitted  to  the  Arkansas  bar  in 
1853,  and  in  i860  was  admitted  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  as  attorney  and  coun- 
selor, taking  the  oath  then  required.    Although  he 


512 


ARKANSAS,  1868 


Reconstruction 


ARKANSAS,  1908-1916 


opposed  secession  in  1861,  he  finally  went  with  his 
state  and  served  as  a  member  of  the  Confederate 
House  of  Representatives  and  later  as  a  Con- 
federate Senator.  In  1862,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  passed  an  act  requiring  all  candidates 
for  office  to  take  oath  that  they  had  never  in 
any  way  engaged  in  hostility  against  the  Union. 
In  186s  all  persons  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the 
United  States  Courts  were  required  to  take  this 
oath,  known  as  the  "Ironclad  Oath."  Garland, 
who  had  been  pardoned  for  his  participation  in 
the  rebellion,  entered  a  plea  before  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1866  against  his  taking  the  prescribed 
oath  in  1865.  He  contended  that  the  act  re- 
quring  this  oath  was  unconstitutional  and  void,  as 
affecting  his  status  in  court  and  that  his  pardon 
released  him  from  complying  with  it,  even  if  it 
were  unconstitutional.  The  Court  granted  his 
plea  on  the  ground  that  the  act  was  ex  post 
facto. 

1868.  —  Constitutional  Convention.  —  Recon- 
struction.— "The  State  of  Arkansas  had  enjoyed 
comparative  peace  and  quiet  for  three  years  suc- 
ceeding the  Civil  War.  Under  the  presidential 
method  of  reconstruction  inaugurated  by  President 
Lincoln,  the  loyal  people  of  the  State  had  met  in 
1864,  and  adopted  a  constitution  which  abolished 
slavery,  but  did  not  enfranchise  the  negroes.  The 
constitutional  convention  of  1S6S  was  the  result 
of  reconstruction  acts  of  Congress  which  had  been 
vetoed  by  President  Johnson,  and  passed  by  Con- 
gress over  his  veto.  For  the  purpose  of  recon- 
struction in  the  Secession  States  under  these  vari- 
ous acts,  all  negroes  and  all  other  persons  who 
had  been  in  the  State  twelve  months  were  en- 
titled to  vote  and  hold  seats  in  the  convention, 
'Provided  that  no  person  who  has  been  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  or  who  has 
held  any  executive  or  judicial  office  in  any  State, 
whether  he  has  taken  an  oath  to  support  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  or  not,  and 
whether  he  was  holding  such  office  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rebellion  or  not,  or  had  held 
it  before,  and  who  afterwards  engaged  in  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  United  States, 
or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof, 
should  be  entitled  to  vote.'  The  quaUfications 
of  all  electors  were  to  be  passed  on  by  reg- 
istrars in  the  various  counties  who  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  military  authorities  in  the  South. 
At  that  time  Arkansas  was  in  the  same  military 
■district  with  Mississippi,  and  Gen.  Edward  O.  C. 
■Ord  of  the  United  States  army  was  the  com- 
mander. The  apportionment  in  Arkansas  was 
unequal;  large  negro  counties  like  Pulaski,  Jeffer- 
son and  Phillips  were  allowed  four  delegates  in 
the  convention,  while  large  white  counties  like 
Benton,  Sebastian  and  Crawford  were  allowed 
one  each.  Six  counties  were  joined,  two  in  a  dis- 
trict, each  district  being  allowed  only  one  dele- 
gate. Some  of  these  counties  thus  joined  together 
were  not  even  adjoining  each  other.  The  whole 
membership  of  the  convention  consisted  of  sev- 
enty-five delegates,  though  several  counties  were, 
for  some  reason,  not  represented  at  all.  The 
convention  met  at  Little  Rock  on  the  7th  day 
of  January,  1868,  and  all  the  proceedings  were 
held  in  the  old  House  of  Representatives,  where 
the  first  legislature  had  convened,  and  where  also 
the  Secession  Convention  had  met  in  1861.  It 
was  composed  of  two  parties  then  known  as  Radi- 
cal and  Conservative.  The  radicals  were  largely 
in  the  majority.  They  elected  Thomas  M.  Bowen, 
of  Crawford,  president  of  the  convention  by  a  vote 
of  43,  the  conservatives  at  that  time  being  able 
to  rally  only  seven  votes  against  him." — E.  Cypert, 
Constitutional  convention   of  1868   (Arkansas  His- 


torical   Association,    v.    4,    pp.     7-8). — See    also 
U.  S.  A.:   1868-1870;   Reconstruction  complete. 

1868. — Readmitted  to  the  Union. — On  June  22, 
iSbS,  Arkansas  was  readmitted  to  the  Union  un- 
der   the    Reconstruction    act    of    1865. 

1872-1874. — Brooks-Baxter  war.  —  Democrats 
regained  power. — Constitutional  Convention. — 
Elisha  Baxter,  regular  Republican  candidate  for 
governor  in  1872,  was  opposed  by  Joseph  Brooks, 
who  was  supported  by  disaffected  Republicans  and 
by  the  Democrats.  Baxter  was  irregularly  elected 
and  Brooks  contested  the  election.  Baxter's  elec- 
tion was  confirmed  by  the  legislature,  but  in  April, 
1874,  Brooks  got  possession  of  the  public  build- 
ings by  means  of  a  judgment  of  ouster.  Fed- 
eral aid  was  invoked  and  Federal  troops  main- 
tained order  during  investigation  by  a  Con- 
gressional committee,  whose  findings  led  President 
Grant  to  decide  in  favor  of  Baxter.  The  demo- 
crats, however,  regained  power,  when  in  1873 
the  article  in  the  constitution  disenfranchising  the 
whites  was  repealed.  A  constitutional  convention 
was  held  July  to  October,  1874,  and  the  new 
constitution,  which  in  the  main  returned  to  ante- 
bellum conditions,   was  ratified  October   13,   1874. 

1885-1908. — Amendments  added  to  the  consti- 
tution of  the  state.— "Down  to  1908  .  .  .  eight 
amendments  to  the  constitution  of  1874  had 
been  adopted.  The  first  (1885)  was  an  act  of 
repudiation,  the  second  required  a  poll-tax  re- 
ceipt as  a  qualification  for  suffrage,  the  third  and 
sixth  were  administrative,  the  fourth  empowered 
the  legislature  to  correct  abuses  and  prevent  un- 
just discriminations  by  transportation  companies, 
the  fifth  provided  for  a  road  tax,  the  seventh 
re-enacted  section  16  of  the  constitution  providing 
pay  of  legislators,  and  the  eighth  increased  the 
amount  of  taxes  which  may  be  raised  for  school 
purposes." — Political  Science  Quarterly,  v.  2g,  p. 
84. 

1908-1915. — Political  issues. — "In  recent  years 
[up  to  about  igi6  at  least]  the  chief  issues  in 
state  politics  have  been  the  railroads,  the  state 
capitol,  the  deficit,  state-wide  prohibition,  and 
the  legislature.  These  have  not  been  issues  as 
between  the  Democratic  and  Republican  parties; 
indeed,  little  consideration  is  given  to  what  the 
Republicans  want.  The  issues  have  hardly  caused 
factions  within  the  Democratic  party,  but  they 
have  been  used  as  convenient  tools  in  personal 
fights  for  office.  The  railroads  have  been  pretty 
well  excluded  from  the  legislature  since  1907,  in 
which  year  the  passenger  and  freight-rate  reduc- 
tion laws  were  passed.  Everybody  wanted  a 
new  capitol,  but  the  politicians  divided  on  the 
manner  of  its  building.  For  years  the  expendi- 
tures of  the  state  have  exceeded  its  revenues.  All 
candidates  for  governor  have  agreed  that  more 
revenue  must  be  raised  without  increasing  the 
taxes  of  the  people,  but  each  has  denounced  the 
specific  proposals  of  the  others.  The  liquor  ques- 
tion has  come  nearer  being  a  real  issue  than  any 
of  the  foregoing,  though  most  candidates  have 
declined  to  take  a  decided  stand  on  the  matter 
of  state-wide  prohibition.  Every  two  years  each 
county  votes  on  the  question  of  hccnse  or  no 
license.  For  some  time  the  total  vote  against 
hcense  has  been  considerably  in  excess  of  that 
for  it.  [Important  only  as  history  since  the  pas- 
sage of  the  federal  prohibition  amendment,  in  ef- 
fect January  16,  1920.]  Encouraged  by  this 
the  prohibitionists  tried  several  times  to  get  the 
legislature  either  to  pass  a  state-wide  law  or  to 
submit  a  prohibition  amendment,  but  the  liquor 
interests  were  always  able  to  defeat  every  such 
measure.  This  led  to  a  demand  for  the  initiative." 
— Political  Science  Quarterly,  v.  29,  pp.  84-85. 


513 


ARKANSAS,  1910-1919 


ARLES 


1910. — 16th  federal  amendment  ratified. — State 
amendment  added. — The  state  ratified  the  sixteenth 
tederal  amendment,  allowing  the  federal  income 
tax,  on  April  22,  igio.  In  September  of  the  same 
year  the  state  constitution  was  amended  to  include 
the  initiative  and  referendum. 

1913. — Comaussion  government  for  cities. — 
17th  federal  amendment  ratified. — A  law  passed 
in  this  year  made  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment permissible  for  all  cities  having  between 
iS.ooo  and  40,000  population.  In  this  same  year 
the  state  ratified  the  seventeenth  federal  amend- 
ment, providing  for  direct  election   of   senators. 

1917. — Educational  and  other  legislation. — 
"Many  constructive  measures  for  social  reform 
were  passed  by  the  .Arkansas  legislature  during  its 
sixty-day  session  ending  March  8  [1917].  An 
act  that  stimulated  especial  interest  was  that  calling 
for  a  constitutional  convention  to  be  held  in 
Little  Rock,  November  19.  For  the  first  time 
Arkansas  will  have  compulsory  education,  re- 
quiring all  children  from  seven  to  fifteen,  in- 
clusive, to  attend  school.  A  compulsory  at- 
tendance law  was  passed  in  the  state  several  years 
ago,  but  the  counties  having  a  large  Negro  popu- 
lation were  exempt,  and  this  left  over  half  of  the 
state  without  any  such  attendance  law.  Here- 
tofore there  had  been  no  uniform  textbooks,  but 
they  were  changed  indiscriminately,  making  a  hard- 
ship, especially  for  those  children  who  come  from 
poor  families.  Now  a  commission  is  created  which 
will  make  contracts  for  textbooks  and  arrange 
for  their  uniformity.  The  act  also  provides  that 
school  boards  shall  furnish  books  to  children  who 
are  unable  to  buy  them.  Moreover,  a  commis- 
sion composed  of  nine  members  appointed  by  the 
Governor  is  to  investigate  means  of  eliminating 
illiteracy  in  this  state.  The  University  of  Arkan- 
sas and  the  normal  schools  have  heretofore  been 
in  politics,  since  those  interested  in  the  university 
found  it  necessary  to  lobby  at  the  state  capital 
in  order  that  the  legislature  vote  a  sufficient  ap- 
propriation. The  new  law  will  remove  these 
educational  institutions  from  politics  by  the  levy- 
ing of  a  tax  of  one-eighth  mill  to  pay  the  inter- 
est on  the  common  school  bonds  held  by  the 
state.  ...  .A  mother's  pension  bill  was  passed 
authorizing  each  county  to  allow  pensions  to  in- 
digent widowed  mothers  with  children  under 
fourteen.  Fifty-one  counties  were  exempt  from 
its  provisions,  however,  so  the  law  applies  to  prac- 
tically only  one-third  of  the  state.  The  wis- 
dom of  this  law  is  questioned,  since  the  county 
judges  under  the  present  law  can  and  do  give 
outdoor  poor  relief  and  the  law  itself  does  not 
qualify  this  relief.  Therefore,  even  without  the 
passage  of  this  law,  county  judges  can  grant 
pensions  if  they  choose,  and  since  the  law  is  not 
mandatory  they  are  not  obligated  any  more  than 
formerly." — Making  over  Arkansas  in  sixty  days 
(Survey,  Apr.  14,  1017). — The  legislature  also 
passed  a  road  act,  enabling  the  state  to  receive  its 
proportion  of  funds  according  to  the  federal 
Shackleford  .-Kct,  and  an  act  giving  women  the 
right  to  vote  in  primary  elections;  as  Democratic 
candidates  have  generally  been  elected,  the  right 
granted  was  practically  that  of  voting  for  Presi- 
dent. 

1917-1918. — Constitutional  Convention. — Rad- 
ical nature. — Constitution  defeated. — .\  constitu- 
tional convention  met  in  Little  Rock  in  November, 
1917,  but  soon  adjourned  to  July,  1Q18,  when  rad- 
ical changes  were  proposed,  including  giving  full 
vote  to  women,  recasting  the  initiative  and  referen- 
lum  provision,  providing  for  the  budget  system,  and 
establishing  "bone-dry"  prohibition  instead  of 
statutory  prohibition.    The  proposed  new  constitu- 


tion was  submitted  to  the  people  December  14, 
1918,  and  defeated. 

1918.— Part  played  in  the  World  War.— The 
state  furnished  03,632  men  to  the  military  and 
naval  forces.  An  army  cantonment.  Camp  Pike, 
was  located  near  Little  Rock  and  an  aviation  field, 
Ebert  Field,  was  located  near  Lonoke.  See  U.S.A.: 
1919:   Contribution  to  World  War. 

1919. — Legislation  and  legal  decisions. — The 
year  1919  set  a  record  in  the  state's  legislative 
history  since  there  were  three  sessions  of  the  leg- 
islature and  a  fourth  session  was  called  before 
the  year  was  ended.  The  governor  was  authorized 
by  the  legislature  to  appoint  a  commission  to 
draft  a  workmen's  compensation  law.  The  existing 
limitations  on  working  hours  were  extended  to 
women  engaged  by  employers  hiring  three  or  less. 
The  regular  session  ratified  the  federal  prohi- 
bition amendment.  .'\n  extra  session  at  the  end 
of  July  ratified  the  federal  woman  suffrage  amend- 
ment, .Arkansas  being  the  twelfth  state.  The 
regular  and  the  second  extra  session  enacted  much 
highway  construction  legislation.  Much  of  this 
legislation  was  declared  invalid  December  2,  1919, 
by  the  Supreme  Court  on  the  ground  that  the 
constitutional  provision  requiring  publication  of 
intention  to  apply  for  special  acts  had  not  been 
complied  with.  Consequently  a  third  extra  ses- 
sion was  called  for  January  26,  1920. 

Also  in:  J.  W.  Burgess,  Civil  War  and  the  con- 
stitution, V.  I,  pp.  54,  102,  175. — J.  B.  McMaster, 
History  of  the  United  Stales,  v.  4,  pp.  574-576; 
V.  7,  pp.  21,  22,  157,  184. — J.  F.  Rhodes,  History 
of  the  United  States,  v.  6,  pp.  168-169,  174,  175, 
183;  v.  7,  pp.  &6-&8.— Poland  Report  House  of 
Representatives,  43rd  Congress,  2nd  Session,  Mo. 
127. 

ARKANSAS  RIVER:  Wilkinson's  expedi- 
tion.    See  Okl.^hoiia:   1S06-1824. 

Development  of  steam  navigation.  See  Okla- 
hom.^:    1824-1837. 

ARKITES.— A  Canaanite  tribe  who  occupied 
the  plain  north  of  Lebanon. 

ARKWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard  (1732-1792), 
English  inventor,  originally  a  barber.  Celebrated 
for  his  invention  of  machinery  which  revolution- 
ized the  cotton-spinning  industry,  1732-1792;  from 
the  mills  of  .'\rkwright  the  modern  factory  sys- 
tem originated. — See  also  Industrml  revolution: 
Inventions  in  textile  industry;  Inventions:  i8th 
century;  and  U.  S.  .\  :  1703:  Whitney's  cotton  gin. 

ARLES,  a  town  of  south-eastern  France,  and 
the  capital  of  the  former  kingdom  of  Aries. 

Origin.     See  S.\lves. 

A.  D.  200-600. — Ancient  commercial  impor- 
tance.    See  Commerce:  .Ancient:   200-600. 

407. — Seat  of  government  of  Constantine.  See 
Britain-:   407. 

411. — Double  siege.     See  Britain:   407. 

425. — Besieged  by  the  Goths.  See  Goths 
(Visigoths):   419-451. 

508-510.— Siege  by  the  Franks.— After  the 
overthrow  of  the  V'isigothic  kingdom  of  Toulouse, 
507,  by  the  victory  of  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks, 
at  Voclad,  near  Poitiers,  "the  great  city  of  Aries, 
once  the  Roman  capital  of  Gaul,  maintained  a 
gallant  defence  against  the  united  Franks  and 
Burgundians,  and  saved  for  generations  the  Visi- 
gothic  rule  in  Provence  and  southern  Languedoc. 
Of  the  siege,  which  lasted  apparently  from  508 
to  510,  we  have  some  graphic  details  in  the  life 
of  St.  Casarius,  Bishop  of  Aries,  written  by  his 
disciples."  The  city  was  relieved  in  510  by  an 
Ostrogothic  army,  sent  by  King  Theodoric  of 
Italy,  after  a  great  battle  in  which  30,000  Franks 
were  reported  to  be  slain.  "The  result  of  the 
battle   of   Aries   was  to   put   Theodoric   in   secure 


514 


ARLEUX 


ARMED   NEUTRALITY 


possession  of  all  Provence  and  of  so  much  of 
Languedoc  as  was  needful  to  ensure  his  access  to 
Spain" — where  the  Ostrogothic  king,  as  guardian 
of  his  infant  grandson,  Amalaric,  was  taking  care 
of  the  Visigothic  kingdom. — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and 
her  invaders,  bk.  4,  ch.  g. 

933. — Formation  of  the  kingdom.  See  Bur- 
gundy: 843-933;  Orange,  The  principality. 

1032-1378. — Breaking  up  of  the  kingdom  and 
its  gradual  absorption  in  France.  See  Bur- 
gundy:   1032;    1127-1378. 

1092-1207. — Gay  court  of  Provence.  See 
Provence:  943-1092;  1179-1207. 

ARLEUX,  a  town  of  France,  northeast  of 
Arras  and  four  miles  due  east  of  Vimy  Ridge. 
Captured  by  British  in  battle  of  Arras,  April, 
1917.  See  World  War:  1917:  II.  Western  front: 
c,  14;  c,  19. 

ARLON,  capital  of  the  Belgian  province  of 
Luxemburg,  occupied  by  Americans  after  armis- 
tice (November,  1^18).  See  World  War:  1918: 
XI.  End  of  the  war:  c. 

ARMADA,  Spanish.  See  England:  1588: 
Spanish    armada. 

ARMAGEDDON,  a  place  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  (Rev.  .xvi,  16)  as  the  location  of  the  last 
great  decisive  battle  of  the  nations  before  the 
final  Judgment.  (See  Megiddo.)  Often  used  by 
modern  writers  to  signify  any  great  conflict  ac- 
companied by  much  slaughter  and  perhaps  in- 
volving the  downfall  of  civilization.  Applied 
specifically  to  a  plain  in  Palestine  famous  as  an 
ancient  battlefield,  where  General  Allenby  in  1918 
finally   overwhelmed   the  Turkish  army. 

ARMAGH. — "Hardly  any  town  of  importance 
in  Ireland  is  so  little  visited  as  Armagh,  for  it 
hes  on  no  main  thoroughfare  of  railroad;  yet 
there  is  hardly  any  town  or  city,  great  or  small, 
of  equal  interest  to  the  historically  minded.  Its 
ecclesiastical  primacy  is  contmuous  from  the  time 
when  St.  Patrick,  after  long  wanderings,  fixed 
there  his  own  monastic  settlerhent,  fifteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty-four  years  ago.  Yet  through  all 
that  long  tract  of  generations  Armagh  is  never 
so  salient  in  Ireland's  history  as  it  was  in  the  day 
of  its  still  earlier  glory ;  for  the  Height  of  Macha 
rivalled  Tara's  fame  when  Dublin  was  only  the 
Hurdle  Ford  across  the  Liffey ;  or  rather,  if 
the  newest  and  most  probable  theory  of  Irish 
history  be  true,  Tara  itself  was  only  the  seat  of 
a  petty  principality  when  the  heroes  of  the  Red 
Branch  mustered  round  Conchobar  MacNessa.  All 
that  is  most  glorious  in  Irish  epic  story  springs 
from  this  root;  and,  legendary  though  the  stories 
be,  they  have  certainly  a  basis  in.  fact.  We  can 
stand  to-day  in  Conchobar's  fortress  where  the 
sons  of  Usnach  were  foully  done  to  death ;  and 
we  can  fix,  by  a  tradition  which  has  in  it  noth- 
ing improbable,  the  period  of  Cuchulain's  feats. 
Emain  Macha,  the  great  rath  with  double  en- 
closure of  bank  and  mound,  which  lies  rather 
more  than  a  mile  to  the  westward  of  Armagh, 
was  none  of  Conchobar's  building.  According 
to  the  tradition  which  dates  its  foundation  about 
330  years  before  Christ,  Macha  was  daughter  of 
the  High  King,  Aedh  Ruad,  who  left  his  life  and 
his  name  in  the  dangerous  ford  of  Erne  at  As- 
saroe,  Eas  Aedh  Ruaidh,  Red  Hugh's  Waterfall. 
After  Aedh's  drowning,  Macha,  like  the  Amazon 
that  she  was,  claimed  his  throne,  but  found  her 
succession  disputed.  One  of  the  rival  claimants, 
Cimbaeth,  she  wedded,  and,  as  for  the  other 
princes,  single-handed  she  captured  them  (by  a 
stratagem  which,  says  Archbishop  Healy,  did  more 
credit  to  her  cunning  and  valour  than  to  her 
modesty)  ;  and  she  set  the  captives  digging  earth- 
works on   a   line,   which   she   traced   out   with   eo 


muin,  the  broochpin  of  her  neck;  iinde,  Emain 
Macha." — S.  Gwynn,  Fair  hills  oj  Ireland,  pp.  98, 
141. — See  also  Ireland:   Historical  map. 

5th  century.— School  founded  by  St.  Patrick. 
See  Education:  Medieval;  5th-bth  centuries:  Ire- 
land. 

1795. — Riots.     See   Ireland:    i 705-1 796. 

ARMAGNAC,  Counts  of.     See  France:   1328. 

Civil  war  between  Armagnacs  and  Burgun- 
dians.     See  France:   1380-1415. 

Destruction  of  Soissons  by  Armagnacs.  See 
SoissoNs:  1414. 

Massacre  of  Armagnacs.  See  France:  1415- 
MIO. 

ARMAMENTS:  Armies.  See  War,  Prepara- 
tion  FOR. 

Equilibrium  of. — Controversy  of  Argentina 
and   Brazil    (1902-1909).     See   War,   Preparation 

FOR. 

Limitation  proposed.  See  Hague  conferences: 
1899;  Peace  movement:  Attitude  of  governments; 
U.  S.  A.:  1921  (July-.'\ugust)  ;  Washington  Con- 
ference. 

ARMAS  TRIBES,  Colombia.  See  Colombia: 
Inhabitants. 

ARMATOLES,  a  body  of  irregular  mihtary 
police,  reciuitfd  by  the  Turkish  government  from 
the  Greek  mountaineers  who  had  turned  brigands 
after  the  capture  of  Greece  by  the  Turk;  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  They  were  given  certain  rights 
and  privileges  during  the  sixteenth  centun,-  in  ex- 
change for  policing  their  districts  against  the 
ravages  of  the  brigands.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  Turks  sought  to  weaken  their  power 
by  replacing  them  with  Mohammedan  Albanians. 
For  this  the  armatoles  gave  their  services  to  Ali 
Pasha  against  his  government  in  1S20-22.  Dur- 
ing the  Greek  revolution  they  fought  in  the  cause 
of  Greece. 

ARMED  MERCHANTMEN,  Legal  status 
of. — "The  enemy  merchant  ship  has  the  right  ot 
defense  against  belligerent  attack,  and  this  right 
it  can  exercise  against  visit,  for  this  indeed  is 
the  first  act  of  capture.  The  attacked  merchant 
ship  can,  indeed,  itself  seize  the  overpowered 
warship  as  a  prize." — Dr.  Hans  Wehberg,  Ger- 
man authority  on  international  law,  quoted  in 
American  Journal  oj  International  Law,  Oct.,  1916, 
P-  871. — As  a  corollary  of  this  right,  an  enemy 
merchant  ship  may,  of  course,  arm  for  purely  de- 
fensive purposes,  without  prejudice  to  its  status 
as  a  merchant  vessel  either  in  neutral  harbors  or 
on  the  high  seas.  This  is  the  position  which  our 
government  took  at  the  outset  of  the  war.  Early 
in  1916,  however,  it  approached  both  belligerents 
with  the  proposition  that  enemy  merchantmen 
should  forego  their  defensive  right  on  condition 
that  belligerent  submarines  should  in  all  cases  ex- 
ercise visit  and  search  preliminary  to  capture  This 
effort  at  compromise  failing,  our  government  re- 
turned to  its  original  stand  on  the  established 
principles  of  law.  The  test  of  defensive  arma- 
ment is  the  use  to  which  it  is  put,  not  its  size." 
— War  cyclopedia,  p.  19.  See  McLemore  resolu- 
tion:  Resistance,  Right  of. 

"ARMED  NEUTRALITY,"  a  league  of  Euro- 
pean states,  headed  by  Russia,  and  including  Prus- 
sia, the  Empire,  Sweden,  Holland,  Denmark,  .Aus- 
tria, Portugal  and  the  two  Sicilies,  formed  in 
1780  to  protect  neutral  flags  from  the  right  of 
search  claimed  by  Great  Britain  during  the  latter's 
struggle  with  France,  Spain  and  the  United  States. 
"England's  position  became  still  more  precarious 
on  account  of  the  Armed  Neutrality,  formed  by 
the  Baltic  Powers  and  the  Dutch  as  a  protest 
against  an  unjust  extension  by  the  English  of 
the   term    'contraband'    and    the    right    of   search. 


515 


ARMELLIN 


ARMENIA 


This  brought  about  war  between  England  and  the 
United  Provinces." — H.  E.  Bourne,  Revolutionary 
period  in  Europe  {1763-1815),  p.  68. — In  Decem- 
ber, 1800,  the  Armed  Neutrality  was  revived  by 
Bonaparte,  but  the  league,  consisting  of  Russia, 
Sweden,  Denmark  and  Prussia,  was  short-lived. 

ARMELLIN,  member  of  a  Roman  triumvirate. 
See  Rome:   Modern  city:    1849. 

ARMENIA:  Geographic  description.  —  "Al- 
most immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Caspian 
there  rises  a  high  table-land  diversified  by  moun- 
tains, which  stretches  eastward  for  more  than 
eighteen  degrees,  between  the  37th  and  41st  paral- 
lels. This  highland  may  properly  be  regarded  as 
a  continuation  of  the  great  Iranean  plateau,  with 
which  it  is  connected  at  its  southeastern  corner. 
It  comprises  a  portion  of  the  modern  Persia,  the 
whole  of  Armenia,  and  most  of  .\sia  Minor.  Its 
principal  mountain  ranges  are  latitudinal,  or  from 
west  to  east,  only  the  minor  ones  taking  the  op- 
posite or  longitudinal  direction.  .  .  .  The  heart  of 
the  mountain-region,  the  tract  extending  from  the 
district  of  Erivan  on  the  east  to  the  upper  course 
of  the  Kizil-Irmak  river  and  the  vicinity  of  Sivas 
upon  the  west,  was,  as  it  still  is,  Armenia.  Amidst 
these  natural  fastnesses,  in  a  country  of  lofty 
ridges,  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  numerous  and 
copious  streams,  and  occasional  broad  plains — a 
country  of  rich  pasture  grounds,  productive  or- 
chards, and  abundant  harvests — this  interesting  peo- 
ple has  maintained  itself  almost  unchanged  from 
the  time  of  the  early  Persian  kings  to  the  present 
day.  Armenia  was  one  of  the  most  valuable 
portions  of  the  Persian  empire,  furnishing,  as  it 
did,  besides  stone  and  timber,  and  several  most 
important  minerals,  an  annual  supply  of  20,000 
excellent  horses  to  the  stud  of  the  Persian  king." 
— G.  Rawlinson,  Five  great  monarchies:  Persia, 
cit.  I. — See  also  B.^bylonw:  Map  of  Egyptian,  As- 
syrian, Babylonian  and  Median  powers;  Turkey: 
Map  of  Asia  Minor. 

Physical  features. — ^"Lake  Van  is  the  most 
important  inland  water,  5,100  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  with  an  area  of  about  1,300  miles,  or,  says 
Lynch:  'Six  times  as  great  as  Lake  Geneva.'  It 
possesses  two  considerable  islands,  on  which  have 
stood  for  many  centuries  two  Armenian  convents. 
Other  lakes  are:  Lake  Urmia  (4,000  feet  above 
sea  level),  like  Lake  Van,  a  salt  lake;  and  Lake 
Sevan  (5,870  feet  above  sea  level),  discharging  into 
the  .\rax  [Aras].  .  .  .  The  monotony  of  the 
plateau  is  increased  by  the  treelessness  of  vast 
areas.  'There  is  no  reason  why  this  country  should 
not  be  strewn  with  woodlands  and  her  plains  ver- 
dant, with  a  kinder  rainfall  and  an  extended  ir- 
rigation. Patches  of  forest,  but  thin  and  miser- 
able, still  struggle  towards  the  interior  from  the 
luscious  zone  in  the  North.  They  are  seen  on 
the  sides  of  the  passes  at  a  distance  from  the 
villages.  But  with  the  exception  of  Kighi  and 
the  Dersim  and  the  slopes  of  the  Soghanlu  Moun- 
tains, southwest  of  Kars,  the  land  has  been  de- 
nuded of  any  covering  as  a  result  of  progressive 
economical  decline.  Centuries  of  unchecked  li- 
cense on  the  part  of  tribal  shepherds— Tartars, 
Turkomans.  Kurds — have  brought  about  the  de- 
struction of  a  source  of  salubriousness  and  wealth, 
which,  under  any  circumstances,  would  require 
careful  husbanding.  If  the  plateaus  are  mo- 
notonous in  their  lack  of  adornment,  on  the  other 
hand  the  gorges  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  pos- 
sess a  wild  beauty  of  scenery  which  is  unsurpassed. 
The  climate  varies.  On  the  higher  reaches  of  the 
plateau  the  winter  is  long  and  the  cold  severe; 
summer  is  short,  very  dry  and  hot.  The  tempera- 
ture at  Erzeroum  varies  from  22°  to  84°.  Snow 
sometimes   falls   in   June,   and   in   July   the   wells 


near  Erzeroum  are  occasionally  thinly  frozen  over. 
The  mountain  chains  with  their  heavy  snow  ac- 
cumulations are  the  sources  of  the  many  streams. 
But  the  rainfall  is  not  heavy,  and  in  summer  the 
plains  are  scorched  and  demand  irrigation.  The 
soil  shows  vulcanic  products,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Maku,  in  the  narrow  valley  which 
extends  from  the  Araxene  plain  near  .Ararat  to- 
wards Lake  Van;  and  also  in  the  country  round 
Lake  Gokcha.  In  the  interior  the  few  towns 
there  are,  lie  high — from  4,000  to  6,000  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  villages  are  on  the  gentle  slopes, 
and  the  peasantry,  as  their  forefathers  did  800 
years  ago,  burrow  in  the  hillsides,  and  find  in 
the  excavations  protection  against  the  rigours  of 
the  long  and  trying  winter.  Xenophon's  descrip- 
tion of  the  sufferings  of  the  10,000  Greeks  in  this 
climate  is  well  known.  Both  the  Taurus  and  the 
Anti-Taurus  ranges  are  crossed  at  different  points 
by  passes,  generally  at  low  elevations  and  fairly 
easy  of  access.  One  of  the  most  famous  is  the 
pass  of  Erkenek,  the  only  one  by  which  an  army 
could  descend  from  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor 
towards  Syria  or  Mesopotamia.  An  even  more 
famous  pass,  either  from  the  military  or  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  is  the  Golek  Boghaz  or 
'Cilician  Gates' — a  deep  gorge,  3,300  feet  above 
sea  level,  running  about  30  miles  north  of  Tarsus, 
over  the  Taurus  and  connecting  .\natolia  with 
North  Syria  and  the  Euphrates  Valley.  The  width 
of  the  road  through  the  Gates  proper  is  only  25 
feet.  Through  the  gorge  between  walls  of  per- 
pendicular rock,  rushes  a  tributary  of  the  Tarsus 
River.  This  famous  defile  has  been  used  in  all 
ages  by  migrating  peoples,  traders  and  conquering 
hosts.  Through  it  marched  .Alexander  to  the  con- 
quest of  Persia  and  the  far-distant  East.  In 
more  modern  times,  Mehemet  Ali,  in  his  revolt 
against  the  Ottoman  Sultan,  twice  penetrated 
through  the  'Cilician  Gates'  into  .Anatolia  on  his 
march  to  Constantinople." — W.  L.  Williams,  Ar- 
menia, pp.  8-1 1. — See  also  Asia  Minor:  Greek  col- 
onies; Caucasus:  Ethnology;  Turkey:  The  Land. 

B.  C.  1SOO-14(X).— Relations  with  Egypt.  See 
Egypt:   .About  B.C.   1500-1400. 

B.  C.  585-55. — Persian  conquest. — Reign  of 
King  Tigranes. — "The  strong  compact  Kingdom 
of  Urartu  [Urardhu,  .Ararat,  included  most  of 
Armenia]  lies  at  the  dawn  of  Armenian  history 
like  a  golden  age.  It  had  only  existed  two  cen- 
turies when  it  was  shattered  by  the  invaders 
from  the  Russian  steppes,  and  the  anarchy  into 
which  they  plunged  the  country  had  to  be  cured 
by  the  imposition  of  a  foreign  rule.  In  585  B.  C. 
the  nomads  were  cowed  and  the  plateau  annexed 
by  Cyaxares  the  Mede,  and,  after  the  Persians 
had  taken  over  the  Medes'  inheritance,  the  great 
organizer  Darius  divided  this  portion  of  it  into 
two  governments  or  satrapies.  One  of  these 
seems  to  have  included  the  basins  of  Urmia  and 
Van,  and  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Aras;  the 
other  corresponded  approximately  to  the  modern 
Vilayets  of  Bitlis,  Mamouret-ul-.Aziz  and  Diyar- 
bekir,  and  covered  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  They  were  called  respectively 
the  satrapies  of  Eastern  and  Western  Armenia, 
and  this  is  the  origin  of  the  name  by  which  the 
Haik  and  the  Haiasdan  are  now  almost  uni- 
versally known  to  their  neighbours.  The  word 
'Armenia'  (Armina)  first  appears  in  Darius's  in- 
scriptions ;  the  Greeks  adopted  it  from  the  Persian 
official  usage,  and  from  the  Greeks  it  has  spread 
to  the  rest  of  the  world,  including  the  Osmanli 
Turks.  [See  Al.\rodians  ;  Iberiavs:  Colchians.] 
Under  the  Persian  Dynasty  of  the  -Achaemenlds  and 
their  Macedonian  successors,  the  two  .Armenian 
satrapies   remained   mere   administrative   divisions. 


S16 


ARMENIA,  B.C.  105 


Arabian 
Rule 


ARMENIA,   908-1085 


Subject  to  the  payment  of  tribute,  the  satraps 
were  practically  independent  and  probably  heredi- 
tary, but  the  rulers'  autonomy  did  not  enable  their 
subjects  to  develop  any  distinctive  national  life. 
In  religion  and  culture  the  country  took  on  a 
strong  Persian  veneer;  and  the  situation  was  not 
essentially  changed  when,  early  in  the  second  cen- 
tury B.  C,  the  two  reigning  satraps  revolted 
simultaneously  from  their  overlord,  the  Seleucid 
King  of  Western  Asia,  and  each  founded  a  royal 
dynasty  of  his  own.  The  decisive  change  was 
accomplished  by  Tigranes  (Dikran)  the  Great  (94 
to  56  B.C.),  a  scion  of  the  Eastern  Dynasty, 
who  welded  the  two  principalities  into  one 
kingdom-,  and  so  created  the  first  strong  native 
sovereignty  that  the  country  had  known  since  the 
fall  of  Urartu  five  centuries  before. 

"If  Gregory  the  Illuminator  is  the  ecclesiastical 
hero  of  .Armenia,  King  Tigranes  is  his  pohtical 
forerunner  and  counterpart.  He  was  connected 
by  marriage  with  Mithradates,  the  still  more  fa- 
mous King  of  Pontic  Cappadocia,  who  may  be 
taken  as  the  first  exponent  of  the  Near  Eastern 
idea.  Mithradates  attempted  to  build  an  empire 
that  should  be  at  once  cosmopolitan  and  national, 
Hellenic  and  Iranian,  of  the  West  and  of  the  East, 
and  Tigranes  was  profoundly  influenced  by  his 
brilliant  neighbour  and  ally.  He  set  himself  the 
parallel  ambition  of  reconstructing  round  his  own 
person  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucids,  which  had 
been  shaken  a  century  before  by  a  rude  encounter 
with  Rome,  weakened  still  further  by  the  defec- 
tion of  Tigranes'  own  predecessors,  and  was  now 
in  the  actual  throes  of  dissolution.  He  laid  him- 
self out  a  new  capital  on  the  northern  rim  of 
the  Mesopotamian  steppe,  somewhere  near  the 
site  of  Ibrahim  Pasha's  Viran  Shehr,  and  peopled 
it  with  masses  of  exiles,  deported  from  the  Greek 
cities  he  devastated  in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  It  was 
to  be  the  Hellenistic  world-centre  for  an  Oriental 
King  of  Kings;  but  all  his  dreams,  like  Mith- 
radates', were  shattered  by  the  methodical  progress 
of  the  Roman  empire.  A  Roman  army  igno- 
minously  turned  Tigranes  out  of  Tigranokerta,  and 
sent  back  his  Greek  exiles  rejoicing  to  their  homes. 
The  new  Armenian  kingdom  failed  to  establish 
its  position  as  a  great  power,  and  had  to  accept 
the  position  of  a  buffer  state  between  Rome  on 
the  west  and  the  Parthian  rulers  of  Iran.  Never- 
theless, Tigranes'  work  is  of  supreme  pohtical 
importance  in  Armenian  history.  He  had  con- 
so'lidate'd  the  two  satrapies  of  Darius  into  a  united 
kingdom,  powerful  enough  to  preserve  its  unity 
and  independence  for  nearly  five  hundred  years. 
It  was  within  this  chrysalis  that  the  interaction  of 
religion  and  language  pro-duced  the  new  germ  of 
modern  Armenian  nationality;  and  when  the 
chrysalis  was  rent  at  last,  the  nation  emerged  so 
strongly  grown  that  it  could  brave  the  buffets  of 
the  outer  world.  Before  Tigranes,  Armenia  had 
belonged  wholly  to  the  East.  Tigranes  loosened 
these  links  and  knit  certain  new  links  with  the 
West.  The  period  that  followed  was  marked 
by  a  perpetual  struggle  between  the  Roman  and 
Parthian  Governments  for  political  influence  over 
the  kingdom,  which  was  really  a  battle  over 
Armenia's  soul.  Was  Armenia  to  be  wrested  away 
altogether  from  Oriental  influences  and  rallied  to 
the  European  world,  or  was  it  to  Cnk  back  into 
being  a  spiritual  and  political  appanage  of  Iran? 
It  seemed  a  clear  issue,  but  it  was  not  destined  to 
be  decided  in  either  .'iense.  Armenia  was  to  be 
caught  for  two  millenniums  in  the  uncertain  eddy 
of  the  Nearer  East." — J.  Bryce,  Treatment  of  the 
Armenians,  pp.  600-601. 

B.  C.    103. — Allied   with   kingdom   of   Pontus. 

See  MiTHRADAIIC  WARS, 


B.  C.  69-68. — War  with  the  Romans. — Great 
defeat  at  Tigranokerta. — Submission  to  Rome. 
See    Rome:    Republic:     B.C.    78-68,    and    69-63. 

B.  C.  67. — Conquest  by  Pompey.  See  Pom- 
PEius,  Gnaeus  Magnus:  In  the  East. 

A.  D.  115-117. — Annexed  to  the  Roman  em- 
pire by  Trajan  and  restored  to  independence 
by  Hadrian.    See  Rome:  Empire:  96-138. 

A.  D.  387-900. — Swing  from  the  Persian  to 
Arabian  rule. — "In  this  opposition  of  forces,  the 
political  balance  inclined  from  the  first  in  favour  of 
the  Oriental  Power.  The  Parthians  succeeded  in  re- 
placing the  descendants  of  Tigranes  by  a  junior 
branch  of  their  own  Arsacid  Dynasty ;  and  when, 
in  387  A.  D.,  the  rivals  agreed  to  settle  the 
j^rmenian  question  by  the  drastic  expedient  of 
partition,  the  Sassanid  kings  of  Persia  (who  had 
superseded  the  Parthians  in  the  Empire  of  Iran) 
secured  the  hon's  share  of  the  spoils,  while  the 
Romans  only  received  a  strip  of  country  on  the 
western  border  which  gave  them  Erzeroum  and 
Diyarbekir  for  their  frontier  fortresses.  [See  also 
Persia:  226-627.]  In  the  cultural  sphere,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  West  was  constantly  increas- 
ing its  ascendancy.  King  Tiridates  was  an  Arsacid, 
but  he  accepted  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the 
State  he  ruled;  and  when,  less  than  a  century 
after  his  death,  his  kingdom  fell  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  and  the  people  came  directly 
under  Persian  rule,  the  Persian  propaganda  failed 
to  make  any  impression.  No  amount  of  preach- 
ing or  persecution  could  persuade  the  Armenians 
to  accept  Zoroastrianism,  which  was  the  estab- 
Ushed  religion  of  the  Sassanian  State.  They 
clung  to  their  national  church  in  despite  of  their 
political  annihilation,  and  showed  thereby  that 
their  spiritual  allegiance  was  given  irrevocably  to 
the  West.  The  partition  of  387  A.  D.  produced 
as  long  a  political  interregnum  in  Armenian  his- 
tory as  the  fall  of  Urartu  in  the  seventh  cenlurj' 
B.C.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  the  mastery  of  Western  Asia  passed 
from  the  Persians  to  the  Arabs,  and  the  Armenian 
provinces  changed  masters  with  the  rest.  Persian 
governors  appointed  by  the  Sassanid  King  of  Kings 
were  superseded  by  Arab  governors  appointed  by 
the  Omayyad  and  Abbasid  Caliphs,  and  the  in- 
tolerance of  Zoroastrianism  was  replaeed  by  the 
far  stronger  and  hardly  less  intolerant  force  of 
Islam.  Then,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  political 
power  of  the  Abbasid  Caliphate  at  Baghdad  be- 
gan to  decline,  the  outlying  provinces  were  able 
to  detach  themselves,  and  three  independent 
[Bagratid]  dynasties  emerged  on  .Armenian  soil." 
— J.  Bryce,  Treatment  of  the  Armenians,  pp.  601- 
602. 

908-1085. — Seljuk  invasions. — The  Ardzunian 
Kagig  became  king  of  Van  in  908,  and  his  suc- 
cessors ruled  till  1080.  For  a  century  from  984 
Arabs,  Byzantines  and  Seljuks  held  the  ruling 
power.    Arabs  drove  many  Armenians  into  Turkey. 

"In  the  eleventh  century  A.  D.,  a  new  power  ap- 
peared in  the  East.  The  Arab  Empire  of  the 
Cahphs  had  long  been  receiving  an  influx  of 
Turks  from  Central  Asia  as  slaves  and  professional 
soldiers,  and  the  Turkish  bodyguard  had  assumed 
control  of  politics  at  Baghdad.  But  this  in- 
dividual infiltration  was  now  succeeded  by  the 
migration  of  whole  tribes,  and  the  tribes  were 
organised  into  a  political  power  by  the  clan  of 
Seijuk.  The  new  Turkish  dynasty  constituted 
itself  the  temporal  representative  of  Je  Ab- 
basid Caliphate,  and  the  dominion  of  Moham- 
medan Asia  was  suddenly  transferred  from  the 
devitalised  Arabs  to  a  vigorous  barbaric  horde  of 
nomadic  Turks.  These  Turkish  reinforcements 
brutalised  and  at  the  same  time  stimulated  the 


517 


ARMENIA,   12TH-14TH    CENTURIES      Seljuks 


ARMENIA,  1453-1878 


Islamic  world,  and  the  result  was  a  new  impetus 
of  conquest  towards  the  borderlands.  The  brunt 
of  this  movement  fell  upon  the  unprepared  and  dis- 
united Armenian  principalities.  In  the  first  quarter 
of  the  eleventh  century  the  Seljuks  began  their 
incursions  on  to  the  Armenian  plateau.  The 
Armenian  princes  turned  for  protection  to  the  East 
Roman  Empire,  accepted  its  suzerainty,  or  even 
surrendered  their  territory  directly  into  its  hands. 
But  the  Imperial  Government  brought  little  com- 
fort to  the  .'\rmenian  people.  Centred  at  Con- 
stantinople and  cut  off  from  the  Latin  West,  it 
had  lost  its  Roman  universality  and  become  trans- 
formed into  a  Greek  national  state,  while  the 
established  Orthodox  Church  had  developed  the 
specifically  Near  Eastern  character  of  a  nationalist 
ecclesiastical  organization.  The  Armenians  found 
that  incorporation  in  the  Empire  exposed  them 
to  temporal  and  spiritual  Hellenisation,  without 
protecting  them  against  the  common  enemy  on  the 
east.  The  Seljuk  invasions  increased  in  intensity, 
and  culminated,  in  1071  A.  D.,  in  the  decisive 
battle  of  Melazkerd.  in  which  the  Imperial  Army 
was  destroyed  and  the  Emperor  Romanos  II. 
taken  prisoner  on  the  field.  Melazkerd  placed  the 
whole  of  Armenia  at  the  Seljuks  mercy — and  not 
only  Armenia,  but  the  Anatolian  provinces  of 
the  Empire  that  lay  between  Armenia  and  Europe. 
The  Seljuks  carried  Islam  into  the  heart  of  the 
Near  East.  [See  also  Turkey:  1063-1073.]  The 
next  four-and-a-half  centuries  were  the  most  dis- 
astrous period  in  the  whole  political  history  of 
Armenia  It  is  true  that  a  vestige  of  inde- 
pendence was  preserved,  for  Roupen  [Rupinl  the 
Bagratid  conducted  a  portion  of  his  people  south- 
westward  into  the  mountains  of  Cilicia,  where 
they  were  out  of  the  main  current  of  Turkish 
invasion,  and  founded  a  new  principality  which 
survived  nearly  three  hundred  years  (1080-1375). 
There  is  a  certain  romance  about  this  Kingdom 
of  Lesser  Armenia.  It  threw  in  its  lot  with  the 
Crusaders,  and  gave  the  Armenian  nation  its  first 
direct  contact  with  modern  Western  Europe.  But 
the  mass  of  the  race  remained  in  Armenia  proper, 
and  during  these  centuries  the  Armenian  table- 
land suffered  almost  ceaseless  devastation.  The 
Seljuk  migration  was  only  the  first  wave  in  a 
prolonged  outbreak  of  Central  Asiatic  disturbance, 
and  the  Seljuks  were  civilised  in  comparison  with 
the  tribes  that  followed  on  their  heels.  Early  in 
the  thirteenth  century  came  Karluks  and  Khariz- 
mians,  fleeing  across  Western  Asia  before  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Mongols;  and  in  1235  came  the  first 
great  raid  of  the  Mongols  themselves — savages 
who  destroyed  civilisation  wherever  they  found 
it,  and  were  impartial  enemies  of  Christendom  and 
Islam.  All  these  waves  of  invasion  took  the  same 
channels.  They  swept  across  the  broad  plateau 
of  Persia,  poured  up  the  valleys  of  the  Aras  and 
the  Tigris,  burst  in  their  full  force  upon  the 
Armenian  highlands  and  broke  over  them  into 
Anatolia  beyond.  Armenia  bore  the  brunt  of 
them  all,  and  the  country  was  ravaged  and  the 
population  reduced  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the 
sufferings  of  the  neighboring  regions.  The  di- 
vision of  the  Mongol  conquests  among  the  family 
of  Djengis  Khan  established  a  Mongol  dynasty 
in  Western  Asia  which  seated  itself  in  Azerbaijan, 
accepted  Islam  and  took  over  the  tradition  of  the 
Seljuks,  the  Abbasids  and  the  Sassanids.  It  was 
the  old  Asiatic  Empire  under  a  new  name,  but 
it  had  now  incorporated  Armenia  and  extended 
north-westwards  to  the  Kizil  Irmak  (Halys)." — 
J.  Bryce,  Treatment  of  the  Armenians,  pp.  603- 
604. 

12th-14th     centuries.  —   Medieval     Christian 
kingdom. — "The  last  decade  of  the   12th  century 


saw  the  establishment  of  two  small  Christian 
kingdoms  in  the  Levant,  which  long  outlived  all 
other  relics  of  the  Crusades  except  the  military 
orders;  and  which,  with  very  little  help  from 
the  West,  sustained  a  hazardous  existence  in  com- 
plete contrast  with  almost  everything  around  them. 
The  kingdoms  of  Cyprus  and  .\rmenia  have  a  his- 
tory very  closely  intertwined,  but  their  origin 
and  most  of  their  circumstances  were  very  differ- 
ent. By  Armenia  as  a  kingdom  is  meant  little 
more  than  the  ancient  Cilicia,  the  land  between 
Taurus  and  the  sea,  from  the  frontier  of  the 
principality  of  Antioch,  eastward,  to  Kelcnderis  or 
Palaeopolis,  a  Httle  beyond  Seleucia ;  this  terri- 
tory, which  was  computed  to  contain  16  days' 
journey  in  length,  measured  from  four  miles  of 
Antioch,  by  two  in  breadth,  was  separated  from 
the  Greater  Armenia,  which  before  the  period  on 
which  we  are  now  employed  had  fallen  under  the 
sway  of  the  Seljuks,  by  the  ridges  of  Taurus.  The 
population  was  composed  largely  of  the  sweepings 
of  Asia  Minor,  Christian  tribes  which  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  mountains.  Their  religion  was  partly 
Greek,  partly  Armenian.  .  .  .  Their  rulers  were 
princes  descended  from  the  house  of  the  Bag- 
ratids,  who  had  governed  the  Greater  Armenia 
as  kings  from  the  year  885  to  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine  Monomachus,  and  had  then  merged 
their  hazardous  independence  in  the  mass  of  the 
Greek  Empire.  After  the  seizure  of  Asia  Minor 
by  the  Seljuks,  the  few  of  the  Bagratidae  who  had 
retained  possession  of  the  mountain  fastnesses  of 
Cilicia  or  the  strongholds  of  Mesopotamia,  acted 
as  independent  lords,  showing  little  respect  for 
Byzantium  save  where  there  was  something  to  be 
gained.  .  .  .  Rupin  of  the  Mountain  was  prince 
[of  Cilicia]  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Saladin ;  he  died  in  iiSg.  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Leo,  or  Livon,  after  having  successfully 
courted  the  favour  of  pope  and  emperor,  was 
recognised  as  king  of  Armenia  by  the  emperor 
Henry  \'I.,  and  was  crowned  by  Conrad  of  Wit- 
telsbach,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  in  1198."  The 
dynasty  ended  with  Leo  IV,  whose  "whole  reign 
was  a  continued  struggle  against  the  Moslems," 
and  who  was  assassinated  about  1342.  "The  five 
remaining  kings  of  .Armenia  sprang  from  a  branch 
of  the  Cypriot  house  of  Lusignan  [see  Cvpkus: 
1 102-1480]." — W.  Stubbs,  Lectures  on  the  study  of 
mediaeval  and  modern  history,  led.  8. — See  also 
Crus.^des:  Map  of  Mediterranean  lands  after  1204. 
1453-1878.— Under  Turkish  dominion.— "The 
Osmanii  State  is  the  greatest  and  most  character- 
istic Near  Eastern  Empire  there  has  ever  been. 
In  its  present  decline  it  has  become  nothing  but 
a  blight  to  all  the  countries  and  peoples  that 
remain  under  its  sway ;  but  at  the  outset  it 
manifested  a  faculty  for  strong  government  which 
satisfied  the  supreme  need  of  the  distracted  Near 
Eastern  world.  This  was  the  secret  of  its  amaz- 
ing power  of  organisation,  for  it  enabled  the 
Osmanlis  to  monopolise  all  the  vestiges  of  political 
genius  that  survived  in  the  Near  East.  The 
original  Turkish  germ  was  quickly  absorbed  in 
the  mass  of  Osmanlicised  native  Greeks.  The 
first  expansion  of  the  State  was  westward,  across 
the  Dardanelles,  and  before  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  whole  of  South-Eastern  Europe 
had  become  Osmanii  territory,  as  far  as  the 
Danube  and  the  Hungarian  frontier.  The  seal 
was  set  on  these  European  conquests  when  Sul- 
tan Mohammed  II  entered  Constantinople  in 
1453,  and  then  the  current  of  expansion  veered  to- 
wards the  east.  Mohammed  himself  absorbed  the 
rival  Turkish  principalities  in  Anatolia,  and  an- 
nexed the  Greek  'Empire'  of  Trebizond.  In  the 
second    decade    of    the    sixteenth    century,    Sultan 


S18 


ARMENIA,  1623-1635 


Turkish 
Atrocities 


ARMENIA,  1915 


Selim  I.  followed  this  up  with  a  sweeping  series 
of  campaigns,  which  carried  him  with  hardly  a 
pause  from  the  Taurus  barrier  to  the  citadel  of 
Cairo.  Armenia  was  overrun  in  1514;  the  petty 
Turkish  chieftains  were  overthrown,  the  new  Per- 
sian Empire'  was  hurled  back  to  the  Caspian,  and 
a  frontier  established  between  the  Osmanli  Sultans 
and  the  Shahs  of  Iran,  which  has  endured,  with 
a  few  fluctuations,  until  the  present  day.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  the  whole  Near  Eastern 
world,  from  the  gates  of  Vienna  to  the  gates  of 
Aleppo  and  Tabriz,  found  itself  united  under  a 
single  masterful  Government,  and  once  more 
Armenia  was  linked  securely  with  the  West.  From 
1514  onwards  the  great  majority  of  the  Armenian 
nation  was  subject  to  the  OsmanJi  State.  It  is 
true  that  the  province  of  Erivan  (on  the  mid- 
dle course  of  the  Aras)  was  recovered  by  the 
Persians  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  held  by 
them  till  its  cession  to  Russia  in  1834.  But,  with 
this  exception,  the  whole  of  Armenia  remained 
under  Osmanli  rule  until  the  Russians  took  Kars, 
in  the  war  of  1878.  These  intervening  centuries 
of  union  and  pacification  were,  on  the  whole, 
beneficial  to  Armenia;  but  with  the  year  1878 
there  began  a  new  and  sinister  epoch  in  the  rela- 
tions between  the  Osmanli  State  and  the  Armenian 
nation." — J.  Bryce,  Treatment  of  the  Armenians, 
pp.  604-605. 

1623-1635. — Subjugated  by  Persia  and  re- 
gained by  the  Turks.    See  Turkey;  1623-1640. 

Also  in:  K.  Asian,  Armenia  and  the  Armenians. 
— Lord  Bryce,  Trans-Caucasia  and  Ararat. — N.  and 
H.  Buxton,  Travel  and  politics  in  Armenia. — N. 
Gregor,  History  of  Armenia. — H.  F.  B.  Lynch, 
.Armenia:  travels  and  studies.  Murray's  Hand- 
book for  Asia  Minor. — John  Catholicos,  Patriarch 
of  Armenia,  Histoire  d'.irmenie. — VV.  E.  Glad- 
stone, Armenian,  question. — Ozhderian,  Turk  and 
the  land  of  Haig.  or  Turkey  and  Armenia. — W.  L. 
Williams,  Armenia  past  and  present. 

1877. — Relations  with  Kurdistan.  See  Kur- 
distan AND  THE.  Kurds. 

1890-1893. — Trouble  with  Turkey.  See  Tur- 
key: 1800-1803. 

1894-1895. — Revolts  and  massacres. — Atroci- 
ties of  Armenians  and  Turks.  See  Turkey: 
1804-1S05. 

1896  (August). — Attack  of  revolutionists  on 
Ottoman  bank  at  Galata. — Turkish  massacre  of 
Armenians.    See  Turkey:     i8q6  (August). 

1899.  —  Concessions  by  Turks.  See  Turkey: 
i8qq  (October). 

1903-1904. — Incursions  of  Armenian  revolu- 
tionists from  Russia  and  Persia  into  Asiatic 
Turkey.     See  Turkey:    1003-1004. 

1903-1907. — Revolutionary  plans  of  Young 
Turks,  and  cooperation  with  Armenians.  See 
Turkey:  1003-1007. 

1905. — Massacre  by  Tatars  in  the  Caucasus. 
See  Russu:   iqo;   (April-November). 

1909. — Massacre  of  Armenians  in  Adana. 
See  Turkey:  iqop. 

1915. — Turkish  atrocities. — Causes  of  hostility 
toward  the  Armenians. — This  year  of  the  World 
War  witnessed  some  of  the  most  terrible  atrocities. 
The  Turkish  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Russians 
in  the  Caucasus  campaign  during  the  winter  1914- 
igi5  had  roused  the  bitter  resentment  of  Enver 
Pasha  and  Talaat  Bey  againstrthe  Armenians,  many 
of  whom  had  joined  the  Russian  forces  and  con- 
tributed in  no  small  measure  to  their  military 
successes.  Hence,  early  in  iqis  "the  following  proc- 
lamation was  sent  to  all  the  officials  in  the  interior 
of  Turkey: — 

"  'Our  fellow  countrymen  the  Armenians,  who 
form  one  of  the   racial  elements  of  the  Ottoman 


Empire,  having,  under  foreign  instigation,  for 
many  years  past,  adopted  false  ideas  of  a  na- 
ture to  disturb  the  public  order  and  brought  about 
bloody  happenings  and  attempted  to  destroy  the 
peace  and  security  of  the  Ottoman  State,  the 
safety  and  interest  of  their  fellow  countrymen 
as  well  as  their  own;  and,  moreover,  as  they  have 
presumed  to  join  themselves  to  their  mortal  en- 
emy, Russia,  and  to  the  enemies  now  at  war 
with  our  State,  Be  it  known  that  our  Govern- 
ment is  compelled  to  adopt  extraordinary  meas- 
ures both  for  the  preservation  of  order  and  security 
of  the  country  and  for  the  welfare  and  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  existence  of  the  Armenian  people 
itself.  Therefore,  as  a  measure  to  be  applied  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  war,  the  Armenians  shall 
be  sent  away  to  places  which  have  been  prepared 
in  the  Vilayets  of  the  interior;  and  a  literal 
obedience  to  the  following  orders  is  categorically 
enjoined  on  all  Ottomans:  First.  All  Armenians, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sick,  shall  leave  th»ir 
villages  or  quarters,  under  the  escort  of  the 
gendarmerie,  within  five  days  from  the  date  of  this 
proclamation.  Second.  Though  they  are  free  to 
carry  with  them  on  their  journey  such  articles 
of  movable  property  as  they  may  desire,  they  are 
forbidden  to  sell  their  lands  or  their  extra  effects, 
or  to  leave  the  latter  with  other  persons,  as 
their  exile  is  only  temporary,  and  their  landed 
property  and  the  effects  they  are  unable  to  take 
with  them  will  be  taken  care  of  under  supervision 
of  the  Government,  and  stored  in  protected  build- 
ings. Any  one  who  sells  or  attempts  to  dispose 
of  his  movable  effects  or  landed  property  in  a 
manner  contrary  to  this  order,  shall  be  tried  by 
court-martial.  Persons  are  free  to  sell  to  the  Gov- 
ernment only  such  articles  as  may  answer  the 
needs  of  the  army.'  The  third  clause  contains  a 
promise  of  safe  conduct.  The  fourth  threatens 
with  severe  punishment  any  one  attempting  to 
molest  the  Armenians  on  their  way  to  the  in- 
terior. The  fifth  clause  reads:  'Since  the  Armeni- 
ans are  obliged  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the 
Government,  if  any  of  them  attempt  to  resist  the 
soldiers  or  gendarmes  by  force  of  arms,  arms  shall 
be  used  against  them,  and  they  shall  be  taken 
dead  or  alive.  In  like  manner,  those  who,  in 
opposition  to  the  Government's  decision,  refrain 
from  leaving  or  seek  to  hide  themselves,  shall  be 
sent  before  a  court-martial ;  and  if  they  are  shel- 
tered or  given  food  and  assistance,  the  persons 
who  shelter  or  aid  them  shall  be  sent  before 
the  court-martial  for  execution.' 

"In  these  few  sentences  a  responsible  gov- 
ernment sanctioned  and  set  in  motion  one  of  the 
most  terrible  of  recorded  tragedies — the  .'\rmenian 
deportation.  To  the  average  person,  these  two 
words  convey  little  but  a  vague  sense  of  injustice 
done,  of  suffering  endured.  Such,  after  all,  are 
the  chief  associations  connected  with  the  name 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  which  has  enjoyed  most 
of  its  world-prominence  through  wholesale  barbar- 
ities. Massacres  have  been  one  of  the  common 
occurrences  of  Turkish  history.  No  wonder,  then, 
that  at  a  time  when  all  Europe  is  filled  with 
blood  and  tears,  and  desolation  stalks  abroad 
among  her  nations,  it  is  difficult  to  get  people 
to  lend  an  ear  to  the  supreme  ordeal  of  the 
Armenians,  and  to  convince  them  that  at  this  mo- 
ment the  Turks  are  writing  unhindered  what  Pro- 
fessor Gibbons  justly  calls  the  'blackest  page  in 
modern  history.'  It  is  difficult  to  convince  them 
that  the  cruelties  of  Abdul  Hamid  were  merciful 
by  comparison  with  this  final  turn  of  the  screw. 
The  suffering  caused  by  massacres  was  scattering ; 
it  smote  only  a  fraction  of  the  people,  a  thousand 
here,   ten   thousand   there,  while   the  bulk   of  the 


519 


ARMENIA,  1915 


Turkish 
Atrocities 


ARMENIA,  1915 


race  survived.  Such  was  the  policy  or  wisdom 
of  the  Old  Turk;  he  kept  the  cow  aUve  that  he 
might  continually  milk  her.  Not  so  with  the 
Young  Turk.  IntelUgent,  cultured,  irreligious, 
and  unscrupulous,  the  old-fashioned  method  of 
dealing  with  the  Armenians  was  too  slow  for  him; 
he  'Set  about  finding  a  way  to  settle  the  problem 
once  for  all,  and  devised  the  scheme  of  deporta- 
tion— which,  bluntly,  is  another  way  of  saying 
the  extermination  of  the  Armenian  race  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire. 

"The  full  story  of  the  deportation  will  never 
be  written,  for  the  reason  that  it  deals  so  largely 
with  suffering  that  is  indescribable,  heartlessness 
that  is  incredible.  The  central  fact  is,  however, 
that  under  the  pretext  of  war-measures  the 
Armenians  have  been  driven  eii  masse  from  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  Marmora  southward 
as  far  as  the  Syrian  desert.  .  .  .  For  the  com- 
pleter evolution  of  the  'deportation'  system,  we 
may  again  examine  the  case  of  Marsovan.  This 
town  is  an  important  missionary  centre.  Under 
the  American  Board,  an  extensive  medical,  evan- 
gelical, and  educational  work  was  carried  on 
here.  There  was  .■\natolia  College,  with  more  than 
four  hundred  students;  a  girls'  boarding  school 
of  almost  three  hundred  pupils;  a  hospital,  a 
theological  seminary,  and  an  industrial  institu- 
tion. Forces  for  good  were  at  work  which  spread 
their  influence  throughout  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
and  beyond — into  Russia,  Greece,  and  Egypt. 
Ambassador  Morgenthau  had  secured  promises 
from  Enver  Pasha  and  Talaad  Bey  that  the  col- 
lege people  should  not  be  molested  but  the  gov- 
ernor of  Marsovan  declared  that  he  had  been 
notified  of  no  such  promise,  and  had  received  no 
orders  save  those  to  deport  all  Armenians.  Once 
more  the  Turks  had  pulled  wool  over  the 
diplomat's  eyes.  And  so,  on  August  lo,  igis. 
sixty-one  ox-carts  entered  the  college  compound. 
The  gendarmes  forced  the  great  gates  open,  and 
battered  down  every  closed  door.  They  entered 
even  the  homes  of  Americans,  and  took  away 
every  .■\rmenian  on  the  premises.  .  .  .  According 
to  the  testimony  of  the  wives  of  the  professors, 
seen  near  Sivas,  they  were  all  kept  together  un- 
til they  passed  Zilch  .  .  .  then  they  were  sep- 
arated. The  men,  bound  with  ropes,  were  driven 
in  one  direction,  the  women  and  young  children 
in  another.  According  to  the  testimony  of  the 
gendarmes,  all  the  men  were  killed.  It  should 
be  kept  in  mind  that  the  tragedy  of  Marsovan 
was  being  enacted,  on  a  greater  or  lesser  scale, 
in  hundreds  of  other  villages  and  towns,  in  all 
of  which  the  eliminative  processes  had  been  work- 
ing on  the  Armenians  in  the  same  general  fashion. 
.  .  .  This  'selection'  continued  methodically  all 
along  the  caravan  routes  which  the  refugees  were 
following.  Kurds,  Turks,  Arabs,  attacked  the  de- 
fenseless victims  and  took  their  pick  of  them 
unhindered.  The  rest  were  forced  to  go  on  under 
the  whips  of  gendarmes  and  other  officials  worse 
than  slave-drivers.  .\s  fatigue  and  hunger  made 
their  inroads  on  the  Armenians,  the  conditions 
became  indescribable.  .  .  .  During  my  stay  in  An- 
gora all  the  male  .Armenians  were  deported, 
chiefly  toward  the  southern  interior.  Villagers  and 
gendarmes  reported  that  great  numbers  of  them 
were  killed  a  short  distance  outside  the  city. 
Every  day  I  saw  them  hurrying  through  the  streets 
in  miserable  droves,  with  the  police  brutally  fol- 
lowing them  up.  The  .Armenian?  of  .^neora  were 
mostly  Catholics.  No  massacres  took  place  among 
them  under  .\bdul  Hamid.  They  were  most  loyal 
to  the  Turks:  they  took  no  part  in  nationalistic 
movements.  They  did  not  even  call  themselves 
Armenians.    The  Young  Turks,  however,  made  no 


discrimination  of  creed:  Gregorians,  Protestants, 
and  Catholics  were  all  put  on  the  same  footing 
and  ruthlessly  deported.  Gregorian  and  Catholic 
priests  were  often  driven  off  in  the  same  wagon 
and  decapitated  with  the  same  axe.  It  is  worth 
noting  that  while  I  was  still  in  Angora  the  leaders 
of  the  Turkish  Union  and  Progress  Committee 
sent  word  to  the  Catholic  bishop  of  the  city  that 
if  he  and  his  people  would  embrace  Islam,  they 
would  all  be  spared.  The  refusal  was  unanimous. 
"No  one  can  hear  the  terrible  tale  of  the  Ar- 
menian deportation  without  asking  what  the  un- 
derlying reasons  for  it  all  might  be.  Even  beasts 
of  prey,  it  will  be  said,  do  not  kill  for  the  mere 
lust  of  killing;  what  is  the  object  to  be  attained? 
What  results  do  the  Turks  hope  to  get  in  return 
for  the  energy  they  have  expended  in  prosecuting 
this  extermination?  (i)  According  to  the  Turk- 
ish Government,  the  plan  was  necessitated  by 
the  exigencies  of  war.  'Turkey,'  they  said,  'was 
engaged  in  a  tremendous  struggle  against  over- 
whelming odds,  fighting  for  her  very  life.  The 
Armenians  were  plotting  with  the  enemy  and  pre- 
paring internal  disturbances;  therefore  they  had 
to  be  removed  to  a  place  where  they  could  be 
rendered  harmless.'  This  charge  of  plotting  is 
groundless.  The  only  instance  in  which  the  Ar- 
menians made  armed  resistance  to  the  Turks  was 
at  Van— and  then  only  when  they  had  been  at- 
tacked and  saw  that  they  were  doomed  to  ex- 
termination. It  is  true  that,  when  the  sale  of 
arms  was  generally  permitted  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  iqo8,  many  Armenians  took  advantage 
of  the  occasion  to  secure  weapons  of  defense.  The 
source  of  these  arms  was  controlled  by  the  gov- 
ernment, however,  coming  as  they  did  direct  from 
Germany;  and  when,  after  the  declaration  of 
war,  the  Armenians  were  commanded  to  give  them 
up,  they  voluntarily  obeyed,  those  persons  who 
were  at  first  inclined  to  conceal  their  weapons 
finally  yielding  to  the  persuasion  of  their  priests 
or  pastors.  Some  slight  excuse  for  the  action  of 
the  Turks  might  seem  to  be  found  in  the  ex- 
istence of  the  organized  .Armenian  'Hinchakist'  and 
'Tashuagist'  societies  which,  under  the  reign  of 
Abdul  Hamid,  were  perforce  kept  secret.  But 
after  the  revolution  of  iqo8,  these  societies  openly 
proclaimed  themselves,  and  won  the  approval  of 
the  Young  Turks,  who  declared  that  'the  Ar- 
menian revolutionists  were  among  the  pioneers  of 
Ottoman  liberty.'  Their  programme  was  broadly 
socialistic  and  educational,  aiming  at  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people  and  their  elevation  to  those 
ideals  which  the  Young  Turks  themselves  had 
espoused  with  such  high-sounding  phrases.  When 
the  test  came,  it  was  shown  how  empty  these 
phrases  really  were.  (2)  Race- jealousy  is  a  fac- 
tor to  be  reckoned  with.  The  Turks  are  really 
aliens  in  the  country  they  rule:  they  came  as 
conquerors,  and  have  maintained  their  supremacy 
by  force.  The  .Armenians,  when  they  were  sub- 
jugated by  the  Turks,  were  an  ancient  and  civilized 
people,  with  an  organized  society  which  the  Turks, 
in  long  centuries,  have  never  been  able  to  ap- 
proximate: an  enterprising  race,  thrifty,  energetic, 
and  capable  of  progress  and  culture  along  all  lines. 
In  spite  of  savage  repression,  they  became  the 
leading  merchants,  traders,  lawyers,  doctors  of  the 
country,  especially  in  the  interior.  Even  in  the 
reign  of  Abdul  Hamid  the  Minister  of  Finance  was 
usually  an  Armenian.  They  amassed  great  wealth 
and  property,  and  the  Turkish  peasant  was  usually 
dependent  on  them.  Now  [1016]  the  real  pro- 
gramme of  the  Young  Turk  party  is  'Turkey  for 
the  Turks.'  Under  the  name  of  'Ottomanization,' 
they  were  determined  to  assimilate  or  eliminate  all 
the    non-Turkish    elements    in    the    Empire    and 


520 


ARMENIA,  1916 


Peace 

Conference 


ARMENIA,  1919-1920 


uplift  their  own  race  at  the  expense  of  the  non- 
Moslem  peoples  of  the  country.    They  were  drunk 
with   the   idea   of   nationalism.     They   condemned 
the  statesman-like  policy   of  Mohammed  II,  con- 
queror  of   Constantinople,   in    organizing    and   es- 
tablishing the  Greek  Patriarchate,  with  its  special 
privileges  and  immunities,  and  bewailed   the   fact 
that  the  Old  Turks  had  allowed  the   Greek,  Ar- 
menian,  Bulgarian,  Serbian,   and  Jewish   elements 
of    the    Empire    to    keep    intact    their    religious, 
linguistic,  and  racial  pecularities  for  so  many  cen- 
turies.    They   were   determined  to   be  supreme  in 
the   land    they   conquered,   absolute    masters    over 
the  subject  peoples.      (3)    All   attempts  to  reform 
Turkey  have  been  shattered  against  Mohammedan- 
ism.    The  very  first  article  of  the  Turkish   Con- 
stitution  declares:     'The   religion   of   the   Ottoman 
Empire  is  Islam.'     The  Young  Turks  are   mostly 
indifferent    to    matters    of    faith,    if    not    actually 
irreligious,    but    they    know    the    power    of    Islam 
over  the  people, — its  value  has  often  been  proved 
in  assimilating  the  non-Turkish  elements.  .  .  .  Re- 
ligious fanaticism  was  especially  appealed  to  when 
the  Russians  withdrew  from  Van  and  the  Gallipoh 
campaign  collapsed,  and  the  idea  of  the  Jehad  or 
Sacred  War  gained  in  popularity.     That  the  cause 
of    the   Armenian    atrocities   was    not   wholly    re- 
ligious, however,  is  shown  by  the  extremely  Timited 
categories  of  persons  to  whom  the  choice  between 
deportation   or   acceptance    of   Islam   was   offered. 
(4)    As   a    fourth    factor    one    must    mention    the 
conflicting  interests  and  the  intrigues  of  European 
diplomacy.     The   Christians  of  Turkey   have  suf- 
fered untold  misery  because  Europe  cannot  agree. 
Turkey  owes  her  existence  to-day  to  the  backing 
England   gave   her   in   the   nineteenth   century." — 
Calvary  of  a  nation:     A   personal  narrative    { At- 
lantic   Monthly,    November,     IQ16). — "And    now 
for   nearly    thirty   years   Turkey   gave   the   world 
an    illustration    of   government   by    massacre.  .  .  . 
Through  all  these  years  the  existence  of  the  Ar- 
menians   was    one    continuous    nightmare.      Their 
property  was  stolen,  their  men  were  murdered,  their 
women    were    ravished,    their    young    girls    kid- 
napped and  forced  to  live  in  Turkish  harems.  .  .  . 
And  now  the  Young  Turks,  who  had  adopted  so 
many    of    Abdul    Hamid's    ideas,    also    made    his 
Armenian    policy    their    own.  ...  On    April    15th 
[1915],  about  500  young  Armenian  men  of  Akantz 
were   mustered   to   hear   an   order   of   the   Sultan; 
at   sunset   they    were    marched    outside    the    town 
and  every  man  shot  in  cold  blood.    This  procedure 
was   repeated   in    about   eighty   Armenian   villages 
in  the  district  north   of  Lake  Van,  and  in  three 
days    24,000    Armenians    were    murdered    in    this 
atrocious  fashion.  .  .  .  Doctor  Ussher,  the  Ameri- 
can   medical    missionary    whose    hospital    at    Van 
was  destroyed  by  bombardment,  is  puthority   for 
the   statement   that,   after   driving   off   the   Turks, 
the  Russians  began  to  collect  and  to  cremate  the 
bodies  of  Armenians  who  had   been  murdered  in 
the   province,   with   the   result   that   55,000   bodies 
were    burned." — Ambassador    Morgenthau's   story, 
pp.  289-290;   297,  299. — In  a  vivid  description  of 
how  the  "deportation"  of  the  Armenians  was  car- 
ried  out,  and   the   barbaric  proceduie   of  Turkish 
gendarmes.  Ambassador  Morganthau  estimates  that 
''at  least  600,000  people  were  destroyed  and  per- 
haps as  many  as  1,000,000." — See  also  World  War; 
IQ15:  VI.  Turkey:  d. 

Also  in:  A.  J.  Toynbee,  Armenian  atrocities,  the 
murder  oj  a  nation. — M.  Niepage,  The  horrors  of 
Aleppo  seen  by  a  German  eyewitness. — R.  Pinon, 
La  suppression  des  Armeniens:  methode  allemande 
— travail  turc. 

1916. — Conquest  by  Russians.  See  World  War: 
1916:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  d,  1;  d,  3;  d,  5. 


1916  (May).— Southern  section  ceaed  to 
France.     See  Svria:    1908-1921. 

1918.— Speech  of  Lloyd  George  on  British  war 
aims.  See  World  War:  1918:  X.  Statements  of 
war  aims:  a. 

1918.— Military  operations.- Turkish  activ- 
ities.— Massacres.  See  World  War:  1918-  VI 
Turkish  theater:  b;  b,  2;  b,  3. 

1918.— Troops  aid  British  in  Palestine.  See 
World  War:   1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:   c    14 

1918-1920.— Republic  formed.  See  Caucasus: 
1918-1920. 

1919-1920.— Peace  Conference  on  Armenia's 
destiny.— Problems  of  mandate.— "The  libera- 
tion of  Armenia  was  the  one  outstanding  re- 
sult expected  from  the  Near  Eastern  negotiations 
at  the  Peace  Conference.  The  failure  to  meet  this 
general  expectation  was  indirectly  a  result  of  the 
struggle  among  the  Allied  Powers  for  e-quality  or 
priority  of  opportunity  in  the  commercial  exploi- 
tation of  the  old  Turkish  Empire  in  the  case  of  a 
successful  termination  of  the  war.  In  the  pursuit 
of  these  objects  the  independence  and  protection  of 
Armenia  became  a  thing  men  talked  about,  but  did 
not  work  for.  ...  In  May,  1916,  it  was  secretly 
agreed  that  Russia  was  tc  acquire  in  sovereignty  the 
four  Armenian  vilayets  of  Trebizond,  Erzerum, 
Van,  and  Bitlis.  British  and  French  negotiations, 
conducted  at  the  same  time,  roughly  defined  the 
respective  areal  acquisitions  or  spheres  of  these  two 
Powers  by  the  ill-fated  Sykes-Picot  Treaty. 

"When  the  Peace  Conference  assembled,  the  Saz- 
onof-Paleologue  Agreement  lay  buried  in  the  ruins 
of  Russia.     Constantinople  and  the  four  Armenian 
vilayets  had  lost  their  secret  tags.    The  President  of 
the  United  States  sat  in  the  chair  which  Sazonof 
or   Isvolsky   had   expected   to    occupy.     It   was   a 
natural  thing  for  men  to  assume  that  the  United 
States   would   replace   Russia   in   the   political   set- 
tlement of  the  Turkish  problems  as  she  had  in  the 
war,  by   accepting,   under  provisions  entirely   ad- 
justable  to   our   own   ideals   of   international   fair 
play,  the  territorial  assignments  which  the  Russian 
collapse  had  left  vacant.     The  Armenians  desired 
this    with    all    their    hearts.      Liberal    British    and 
French  opinion  urged  upon  our  delegation  the  ne- 
cessity of  American  acceptance  of  a  mandate  over 
Armenia.    I  was  one  who  shared  their  opinion  and 
I  still  share  it.     However  strongly  President  Wil- 
son favored  this  plan  I  never  heard  any  man  say 
that  either  he,  or  any  one  of  his  colleagues  on  the 
American    Peace    Commission,   made    any   promise 
vvhich   would   tend   to  preempt   the   constitutional 
right  of  the  American  people  to  answer  this  ques- 
tion through  their  representatives  in  Congress.  .  .  . 
From  behind  it  all  came  the  sound  of  children's 
and   women's  voices  crying   for  bread.     American 
relief  workers  began  to  drift  in  and  tell  about  the 
conditions  in  Armenia.     The  younger  men  always 
spoke  passionately:     'Why  do  the  American  people 
permit   this?     Why   do  you,   who   are   sitting    at 
Paris,  not  do  something?'     The  middle-aged  men 
spoke  more  quietly,  as  if  their  hearts  were  old  and 
their  sympathies  shrivelled.     They  were  much  the 
more   terrible   to   listen   to.  .  .  .  For  Armenia   has 
been  betrayed  by  the  civilized  world  and  thrown 
upon  the  tender  mercies  of  Bolshevist  Russia  and 
the    Turkish    Nationalist    forces.  .  .  .  The    efforts 
of   the   two   Armenian   delegations   at   Paris   were 
directed   toward   the   ultimate   end   of   establishing 
an  independent  state,  including  the  Armenians  of 
Russian  Transcaucasus  and  the   four  northeastern 
vilayets    of   Turkey,   stretching   southwestward   so 
as  to  embrace  a  part  of  Cilicia,  and  debouching 
upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the  Bay  of  Alex- 
andretta.     Their  immediate  desire  was  to  obtain 


521 


ARMENIA,  1920 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


recognition  of  the  Armenian  Republic  of  the  Trans- 
caucasus  as  a  de  facto  government,  so  that  they 
might  be  in  a  position  to  obtain  credits,  money 
for  food  for  tlie  400,000  refugees  assembled  in 
Russian  Armenia,  and  for  arms  and  ammunition 
with  which  they  might  defend  themselves  against 
Moslem  Tartar  and  Turkish  attacks  and  move  the 
refugees  back  to  their  homes  in  Turkish  Armenia. 
But  the  Armenian  mountains  have  little  to  offer 
in  exchange  for  help,  except  a  brave,  industrious, 
and  broken  people. 

"The  Armenian  desire  for  Cilicia  conflicted  with 
the  territorial  assignment  to  France  by  the  Sykes- 
Picot  Treaty.  Cilicia  and  central  Anatolia,  there- 
fore, remain  to  Turkey  in  the  Treaty  of  Sevres, 
and  are  designated  as  a  sphere  of  French  interest 
in  the  Tripartite  Agreement.  Again,  the  secret 
treaties  had  won  in  the  diplomatic  field.  But  the 
attempt  of  the  French  to  occupy  Cilicia  has  been 
frustrated  by  the  Turkish  Nationalist  opposition. 
Bitterly  disillusioned,  the  French  press  is  demanding 
that  the  entire  Cilician  adventure  be  abandoned." 
— E.  M.  House  and  C.  Seymour,  What  really  hap- 
pened at  Paris,  pp.  178-180,  182,  187-188,  igo,  195, 
202-203. 

1919-1920. — Relations  with  Georgian  republic. 
• — See  Georgia,  Republic  of;   1Q19-1920. 

1920. — Treaty  of  Sevres. — Independence  es- 
tablished.— Boundaries  fixed. — According  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  imposed  by  the 
Allied  powers  upon  Turkey,  and  signed  at  Sevres, 
France,  on  Aug.  10,  1920,  Armenia  was  definitely 
liberated  from  Turkish  rule.  Article  88  of  the 
treaty.  Section  vi,  stipulates  that — "Turkey,  in 
accordance  with  the  action  already  taken  by  the 
Allied  Powers,  hereby  recognizes  Armenia  as  a  free 
and  independent  .State. 

"Article  89. — Turkey  and  Armenia,  as  well  as 
the  other  high  contracting  parties,  agree  to  submit 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America  the  question  of  the  frontier  to 
be  fixed  between  Turkey  and  Armenia  in  the  Vila- 
yets of  Erzerum,  Trebizond,  Van  and  Bitlis,  and 
to  accept  his  decision  thereupon,  as  well  as  any 
stipulations  he  may  prescribe  as  to  access  for  Ar- 
menia to  the  sea,  and  as  to  the  demilitarization  of 
any  portion  of  Turkish  territory  adjacent  to  the 
said  frontier. 

"Article  90. — In  the  event  of  the  determination 
of  the  frontier  under  Article  89  involving  the  trans- 
fer of  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
said  Vilayets  to  Armenia,  Turkey  hereby  renounces, 
as  from  the  date  of  such  decision,  all  rights  and 
title  over  the  territory  so  transferred  The  pro- 
visions of  the  present  treaty  applicable  to  terri- 
tory detached  from  Turkey  shall  thereupon  become 
applicable  to  the  said  territory.  The  proportion 
and  nature  of  the  financial  obligations  of  Turkey 
which  Armenia  will  have  to  assume,  or  of  the 
rights  which  will  pass  to  her,  on  account  of  the 
transfer  of  the  said  territory  will  be  determined  in 
accordance  with  Articles  241  to  244,  Part  viii. 
(Financial  Clauses)  of  the  present  treaty.  Subse- 
quent agreements  will,  if  necessary,  decide  all  ques- 
tions which  are  not  decided  by  the  present  treaty 
and  which  may  arise  in  consequence  of  the  trans- 
fer of  the  said  territory. 

".Article  91 — In  the  event  of  any  portion  of 
the  territory  referred  to  in  Article  89  being  trans- 
ferred to  .Armenia,  a  boundary  commission,  whose 
composition  will  be  determined  subsequently,  will 
be  constituted  within  three  months  from  the  de- 
livery of  the  decision  referred  to  in  the  said  article 
to  trace  on  the  spot  the  frontier  between  .Armenia 
and  Turkey  as  established  by  such  decision 

".Article  92. — The  frontiers  between  .Armenia 
and   Azerbaijan   and   Georgia   respectively   will   be 


determined  by  direct  agreement  between  the  States 
concerned.  If  in  either  case  the  States  concerned 
have  failed  to  determine  the  frontier  by  agreement 
at  the  date  of  the  decision  referred  to  in  Article  89. 
the  frontier  line  in  question  will  be  determined  by 
the  Principal  .Allied  Powers,  who  will  also  provide 
for  its  being  traced  on  the  spot. 

"Article  93. — Armenia  accepts  and  agrees  to 
embody  in  a  treaty  with  the  principal  allied  powers 
such  provisions  as  may  be  deemed  necessary  by 
these  powers  to  protect  the  interests  of  inhabitants 
of  that  State  who  differ  from  the  majority  of  the 
population  in  race,  language  or  religion.  Armenia 
further  accepts  and  agrees  to  embody  in  a  treaty 
with  the  principal  allied  powers  such  provisions  as 
these  powers  may  deem  necessary  to  protect  free- 
dom of  transit  and  equitable  treatment  for  the 
commerce  of  other  nations." — British  treaty,  series 
No.  II,  1920  (Cd.  964). — See  also  Sevres,  Tre.my 
of:  1920:  Part  III.  Political  clauses:  Ar- 
menia 

"By  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  President  Wilson  was 
asked  to  fix  by  arbitration  the  boundaries  between 
Armenia  and  the  Turkish  state.  His  competence 
was  limited  to  drawing  these  boundaries  within 
the  four  vilayets  of  Erzerum,  Trebizond,  Bitlis,  and 
Van.  In  other  words,  the  territory  which  he  could 
possibly  assign  to  .Armenia  approximates  that  for- 
merly given  to  Russia  by  the  Paleologue-Sazonof 
Treaty.  Here,  too,  the  territorial  dispositions  of 
the  Treaty  of  Sevres  are  the  offspring  of  the  secret 
treaties  Though  the  Turkish  treaty  declares  them 
to  be  free,  in  actuality  the  Armenians  have  been 
betrayed  by  the  western  world.  Lenine  and  Mus- 
tapha  Kemal  have  cracked  the  whip  and  they  have 
sovietized.  WTio  of  us  dares  look  an  Armenian  in 
the  face  and  upbraid  him  for  this." — E.  M.  House 
and  C.  Seymour,  What  really  happened  at  Paris, 
p.  203. — See  also  Sevres,  Tre.^ty  of:  1920:  Part 
II. 

1920. — Free  passage  to  Black  sea  granted. 
See  Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1920:  Part  XI.  Ports,  wa- 
terways and  railways. 

1920. — Party  platforms  in  United  States  on 
Armenia.  See  US  .A.:  1920:  Democratic  plat- 
form ;    Republican   platform. 

1920. — Turk  and  Bolshevist  attacks. — League 
of  Nations  membership  denied. — "In  October, 
1920,  the  Turkish  Nationalists  and  the  Bolsheviks 
made  a  concerted  attack  upon  .Armenia.  The 
Armenians  resisted  bravely  for  two  months,  not 
without  some  success  against  the  Turks,  but 
at  the  end  of  the  year  the  Russians  overran  the 
country  and  established  a  Bolshevik  regime  at 
Erivan  The  original  .A,rmenian  Government 
asked  for  admission  [December  16]  to  the  League 
of  Nations,  but  was  refused.  President  Wil- 
son suggested  that  Armenia's  frontiers  should  be 
extended  so  as  to  include  Trebizond,  Erzerum, 
Kars,  Mush,  and  Bitlis.  This,  of  course,  ap- 
plied to  the  non-Bolshevik  State,  which  existed 
until  December." — Annual  Register,  1920,  pp.  269- 
270. — The  refusal  to  admit  Armenia,  as  well  as 
Lithuania.  Esthonia  and  Latvia  was  based  on  the 
ground  that  those  countries  were  not  sufficiently 
established. — Ibid.,  p.   15b. 

1921. — Conditions  of  self-government  of 
Sevres  Treaty  changed  in  Near  East  Conference. 
See  Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1921:  Near  East  Confer- 
ence:  -Armenia. 

ARMENIA,   Lesser.     Sec   .Armenia:    908-1085. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH.— "The  origin  of  this 
Church  is  clearly  discernible.  It  was  beyond  doubt 
.Apostolic.  Primitive  and  unvarying  traditions 
agree  in  regarding  St.  Thaddeus  and  St.  Bartholo- 
mew as  the  first  preachers  of  the  Gospel  in  Ar- 
menia,   and    as    the    founders    of    the    Christian 


522 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


churches  in  the  land.  These  two  are  spoken  of  as 
First  Illuminators  of  Armenia.  St.  Bartholomew's 
labours  and  martyrdom  in  Armenia  are  as  well 
authenticated  as  any  facts  in  the  history  of  the 
founding  of  the  first  churches  during  the  great 
forty  years  after  our  Lord's  ascension.  Concern- 
ing Thaddeus  there  is  less  certainty.  Some  affirm 
him  to  be  Thaddeus  Didymus,  brother  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Thomas,  whilst  a  second  tradition  sees 
in  him  the  Apostle  St.  Judas  Thaddeus,  surnamed 
Lebbeius.  The  details  are  lost,  but  the  broad  fact 
remains  that  the  earliest  preaching  was  by  these 
two  men,  and  that  the  first  communities  of 
Christians  in  Armenia  were  gathered  from  the 
mass  of  heathendom  as  the  result  of  their  la- 
bours. Beyond  these  facts  we  know  little  or  noth- 
ing. The  primitive  era  is  shrouded  in  darkness. 
But  the  work  did  not  cease  when  the  Apostolic 
workers  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The 
best  guarantee  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  was 
the  missionary  zeal  of  the  first  converts.  The  Ar- 
menian Church  grew  in  numbers,  influence,  en- 
dured persecution,  and  had  its  martyrology.  There 
are  records  of  religious  persecutions  by  King  Ar- 
taxerxes  (c.  no  A.  D.),  by  Chosroes  (c.  250),  and 
by  Tiradates  (c.  287).  It  is  permissible  to  argue 
that  had  the  Christians  been  small  in  numbers,  and 
of  small  social  importance,  they  would  have  es- 
caped persecution.  The  fact  points  to  the  existence 
of  a  large  body  of  Christians.  Indeed,  only  on  the 
supposition  of  a  widespread  acceptance  of  the 
faith  can  the  almost  instantaneous  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  the  whole  land  in  the  first  years 
of  the  Fourth  Century  be  explained.  It  had  al- 
ready taken  deep  root  in  the  life  of  the  nation 
when  the  events  occurred  which  issued  in  Armenia 
becoming  the  first  Christian  State.  [See  also 
Christianity:  A.D.  33-100. j  What  are  the  Dis- 
tinctive Claims  of  the  Armenian  Church?  (i)  It 
claims  to  be  Apostolic.  That  is,  in  origin  it  claims 
.  a  place  alongside  the^proudest  Churches  in  Chris- 
tendom. Hence  it  is  equal  in  point  of  antiquity 
and  authority  with  any  Churches  of  the  East  or 
West  which  make  these  the  indispensable  notes  of 
a  true  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church.  'The  Apos- 
tolic origin  of  the  Armenian  Church,'  says  Orman- 
ian,  'is  established  as  an  incontrovertible  fact  in 
ecclesiastical  history.  And  if  tradition  and  his- 
toric sources  which  sanction  this  view  should  give 
occ'tsion  for  criticism,  these  have  no  greater  weight 
than  the  difficulties  created  with  regard  to  the 
origin  of  other  Apostolic  Churches,  which  are  uni- 
versally admitted  as  such.'  (The  Church  of  Ar- 
menia, p.  S).  (2)  It  claims  to  be  Independent. 
The  dominant  Churches  of  the  East  and  West 
repudiate  this  claim,  and  affirm  that  the  Armenian 
church  owns  allegiance  to  them.  It  is  certain 
that  through  long  and  troubled  centuries  both 
Churches  have  made  endless  and  forcible  attempts 
to  assert  their  mastery  over  this  small  national 
Church.  These  efforts  to  bring  her  into  a  state 
of  dependency  and  submission  the  Armenians  have 
resisted  with  all  the  strength,  energy,  and  passion 
of  their  nature.  Deprived  of  political  independence 
they  have  clung  all  the  more  tenaciously  to  the  in- 
tegrity of  their  Church,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  grounds  upon  which  these  attacks  have  been 
made.  (3)  It  claims  to  be  National.  This  claim 
rests  equally  upon  an  unassailable  basis  of  his- 
torical fact.  Through  the  ages  whilst  every  other 
bond  has  been  broken  save  that  of  language,  the 
Church  has  knit  the  scattered  units  of  the  nation 
into  one  indivisible  whole.  Its  head  has  stood  for 
each  succeeding  generation  as  the  symbol  of  the 
national  life  Deprived  of  a  political  head  and 
even  a  political  capital  the  people  have,  for  at  least 
five  hundred  vars,  looked  to  Etchmiadzin  as  the 


home  of  their  people,  the  centre  to  which  they 
looked  for  guidance,  unfaiUng  sympathy,  and  prac- 
tical aid.  It  is  'National'  in  a  more  complete  sense 
than  any  other  Church  in  Christendom  which  em- 
ploys the  term.  Two  facts  emphasise  its  national 
character.  First,  wherever  are  members  of  the 
race,  whatever  may  be  their  dogmatic  creed  or 
ecclesiastical  polity,  Etchmiadzin  and  the  Cathol- 
icos  are  still  the  representative  of  their  race,  the 
depository  of  their  traditions,  and  the  fountain  and 
centre  of  their  hopes.  Secondly,  for  perfectly  ob- 
vious and  adequate  reasons,  the  Armenian  Church 
commands  no  adherents  outside  the  limits  of  the 
nation.  Moslem,  Orthodox  Greek,  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Evangelical  Protestants  have  all  in  turn 
proselytised,  weakened  her  still  further  by  drawing 
away  from  the  national  fold  members  of  the  flock. 
She  herself  has  proselytised  no  Church  or  nation. 
The  missionary  spirit  which  in  the  earliest  days  of 
its  history  drove  heroic  men  far  and  wide  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  steeled  them  to  win  the  crown  of 
martyrdom  has  vanished  under  the  oppressive  regi- 
men of  successive  conquerors.  Whether  under  the 
happier  conditions  which  will  follow  this  world- 
war,  this  spirit  will  not  again  lay  hold  of  a  race 
eminently  aggressive  and  enterprising,  is  a  ques- 
tion those  who  know  Armenia  best  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  answering  in  the  affirmative.  (4)  It 
claims  to  be  Democratic.  It  is  also  episcopal.  In 
other  Churches  the  hierarchical  principle  has  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  banished  the  democratic 
principle  and  shown  itself  opposed  to  the  demo- 
cratic spirit.  'Among  the  Armenians,'  says  Or- 
manian  (p.  151),  'the  clergy  are  not  looked  upon 
as  absolute  masters  and  owners  of  the  Church. 
The  Church  since  its  institution  has  belonged  as 
much  to  the  faithful  as  to  the  ministers  of  wor- 
ship. In  virtue  of  this  principle,  and  apart  from 
sacramental  acts,  for  the  performance  of  which 
ordination  is  indispensable,  nothing  is  done  in  ec- 
clesiastical administration  without  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  lay  element.'  Logically  it  follows  that 
every  ministering  servant  at  its  altars  occupies 
his  place  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  by  the  free 
choice  of  the  people.  Equally  the  pastor  of  a  re- 
mote village,  and  the  Catholicos  who  addresses 
Popes  and  Potentates  as  'Dear  Brother,'  are  where 
they  are  by  virtue  of  the  power  exercised  by  the 
laity.  The  village  priest  is  elected  by  the  people, 
often  one  of  their  own  number,  and  his  support 
is  from  their  free-will  offerings.  The  head  of  the 
Church  is  similarly  elected  by  an  assembly  of  dele- 
gates who  are  first  elected  by  their  various  dioceses. 
The  check  upon  the  election  of  the  Catholicos 
does  not  invade  this  principle  in  any  vital  degree. 
In  a  word,  so  far.  as  representation  and  adminis- 
tration go,  the  Armenian  Church  is  an  ancient  and 
successful  blend  of  two  opposite  principles  of 
church  government,  viz.,  the  Congregational  and 
the  Episcopal.  Further,  the  democratic  principle 
has  been  applied  from  most  ancient  times  not  only 
to  government  but  also  to  the  determination  of 
doctrine.  'The  Armenian  Church  is  the  one 
wherein  the  democratic  spirit,'  says  Ormanian,  'ex- 
cels in  all  vividness  and  truth.  .  .  .  The  leading  men 
and  the  deputies,  in  a  word,  the  representatives  of 
the  people,  have  ever  continued  to  take  their 
place,  side  by  side,  with  bishops  and  doctors  in 
the  Council.  They  are  known  to  have  taken  an 
active  part  in  all  discussions  bearing  on  questions 
of  doctrine  and  discipline,  and  have  set  their  sign 
manual  at  the  foot  of  deeds  and  canons  as  effec- 
tive members  of  councils.'  It  is.  therefore,  not  to 
be  marvelled  at  that  'clericalism'  is  unknown  on 
the  one  hand,  and  indifference  on  the  other.  (5) 
It  claims  to  be  Liberal.  Not  for  a  moment  must 
that  be  confused  with  lax  views  or  with  vagueness 


523 


ARMENIAN  MASSACRES 


ARMISTICE 


of  belief  in  Christian  dogmas.  Her  liberalism  arises 
from  her  historical  attitude  towards  that  develop- 
ment of  Christian  doctrine  which  it  has  been  the 
function  of  Church  councils  to  mark,  stereotype, 
and  make  binding  upon  the  consciences  of  the 
faithiul.  The  Armenian  Church  has  limited  that 
function  to  the  lowest  possible  degree  by  strictly 
Umiting  the  number  of  Councils  she  recognises. 
Each  successive  Council  has  added  to  the  number 
of  dogmas  which  must  be  received  under  penalty 
of  forfeiting  eternal  salvation.  The  Latin  Church 
recognises  twenty ;  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church 
admits  seven;  the  Armenian  Church  only  three, 
viz.,  Nicea,  Constantinople,  in  the  Fourth  Century, 
and  Ephesus  in  the  Fifth  Century." — L.  Williams, 
Armenia:  past  and  present,  pp.  100-102,  130-136. 
"The  religion  of  Armenia  could  not  derive  much 
glory  from  the  learning  or  the  power  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. The  royalty  expired  with  the  origin  of  their 
schism;  and  their  Christian  kings,  who  arose  and 
fell  in  the  13th  century  on  the  confines  of  Cilicia, 
were  the  clients  of  the  Latins  and  the  vassals  of 
the  Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium.  The  helpless  na- 
tion has  seldom  been  permitted  to  enjoy  the  tran- 
quility of  servitude.  From  the  earliest  period  to 
the  present  hour,  Armenia  has  been  the  theatre  of 
perpetual  war;  the  lands  between  Tauris  and 
Erivan  were  dispeopled  by  the  cruel  policy  of  the 
Sophis;  and  myriads  of  Christian  families  were 
transplanted,  to  perish  or  to  propagate  in  the  dis- 
tant provinces  of  Persia.  Under  the  rod  of  op- 
pression, the  zeal  of  the  Armenians  is  fervent  and 
mtrepid;  they  have  often  preferred  the  crown  of 
martvrdom  to  the  white  turban  of  Mahomet; 
they  devoutly  hate  the  error  and  idolatry  of  the 
Greeks." — E.  Gibbon.  History  of  the  decline  and 
jail  of  the  Roman  empire.,  ch.  47.— Statistics  show 
thirty-four  church  organizations  with  27,450  mem- 
bers in  the  United  States.— United  States  Census, 
Religions  bodies,  1916,  pt.  2,  p.  40. 

ARMENIAN  MASSACRES.  See  Armenia; 
igiS;  Russia:  1905  (April-November);  Syria: 
1908-1921;  Turkey:  1894-1895;  1896  (August); 
1909. 

ARMENIAN  RELIEF.  See  International 
relief:   Near  East  Relief. 

ARMINIUS,  Jacobus  (1560-1609).  See  Ar- 
MiNiANS;  Netherlands,  1603- 161 9. 
ARMENOIDS.  See  Pacific  ocean:  People. 
ARMENTIERES,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
France,  department  of  Nord,  on  the  river  Lys,  nine 
miles  northwest  of  Lille.  The  town  was  bom- 
barded, sacked,  and  ruined  by  the  German  armies 
in  the  World  War. 

1914. — Occupied  by  British.  See  World  War: 
1914:  I.  Western  front:  t,  1;  u,  1;  w. 

1918. — Battle. — Capture  by  Germans  and  with- 
drawal of  British.  See  World  War:  1918:  II. 
Western  front:  a,  2;  d,  3;  d,  7. 

1918. — Taken  by  Allies  and  abandoned  by 
Germans.  See  World  War:  1918:  11.  Western 
front:  i;  m;  q,  1. 

ARMIES,  European  and  American.  See  Mn.- 
IT.VRV  organization;  War,  Preparation  for. 
ARMINA:  See  Armenia:  B.C.  585-55. 
ARMINIANS,  a  religious  group  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  among  the  Calvinists,  followers  of 
Arminius  (Jakob  Hermansen,  1560-1609),  profes- 
sor at  the  university  of  Leyden ;  declared  their 
opinions  in  the  year  1610  opposing,  among  other 
things,  the  former  doctrine  that  Christ  died  for 
the  elect  alone;  were  also  designated  by  the  name 
of  Remonstrants. — See  also  Netherlands:  1603- 
1619. 

ARMINIUS  (17  B.C.-A.  D.  21),  early  German 
national  hero  of  the  tribe  of  Cherusci.  He  was  an 
officer  in  the  Roman  legions  in  his  youth,  but,  re- 


turning to  his  tribe,  he  led  a  rebellion  against 
Quintilius  Varus,  Roman  governor,  in  A.  D.  9. 
Varus  was  disastrously  defeated.  (See  Germany 
B.C.  S-A.  D.  II).  In  the  year  .•\.  D.  15,  German- 
icus  Ca;sar  led  the  Romans  against  Arminius  and 
in  the  year  after  defeated  him.  (See  Germany 
A,  D.  14-16),  Arminius  was  murdered  in  .\.D.  21. 
ARMISTICE.— A  cessation  of  lighting,  a  short 
truce,  during  which  it  is  possible  to  make  terms 
for  a  longer  truce,  or  for  peace.  A  modern  armis- 
tice provides  that  a  neutral  zone  shall  be  ii.xed  be- 
tween the  fronts  of  the  respective  armies  who  are 
parties  to  the  agreement,  forbids  naval  bombard- 
ment, the  taking  of  maritime  prizes,  and  the  send- 
ing of  reinforcements  into  the  theater  of  war. — See 
also  Hague  Conferences:  1899:  Convention  with 
respect  to  the  laws  and  customs  on  land. 

1797.^Such  an  armistice  was  signed  during  the 
Napoleonic  wars  at  Leoben  on  April  7,  1797,  after 
the  battle  of  Ball-Platz,  and  provided  the  prelim- 
inaries for  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio  between 
the  Emperor  Joseph  and  Napoleon.  See  France: 
1 796-1 797   (Oct.-Apr). 

1805. — In  1805  an  armistice  signed  at  Austerlitz 
paved  the  way  for  peace  (Pressburg)  between  Aus- 
tria and  France.     See  German"\':    1805-1806. 

1859. — In  1859  the  armistice  signed  at  V'illefranca 
between  Napoleon  III  and  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph,  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Zurich  signed  on 
November  10,  1859.     See  Italy:   1S56-1859. 

1801. — .\n  unusually  interesting  instance  of  a 
naval  armistice  is  that  which  was  arranged  be- 
tween the  Danes  and  the  British  in  April,  1801, 
after  which  there  were  in  fact  no  other  negotia- 
tions between  the  two  belligerents. 

1884. — On  May  11,  1S84,  an  armistice  between 
France  and  China  provided  the  preliminary  base 
of  the  definitive  treaty  which  was  concluded  at 
Tien  Tsin  on  April  4,  1885,  and  which  gave  Ton- 
quin  to  China.     See  France:   1875-1889. 

1895. — .An  armistice  was  signed  between  the  Jap-, 
anese  and  Chinese  at  the  close  of  the  Chino-Jap- 
anese  war  in  1895,  which  preceded  the  treaty  of 
Shimonoseki.    See  China:  1894-1895. 

1905. — The  peace  negotiations  held  at  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  which  ended  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war,  were  preceded  by  an  armistice  be- 
tween the  warring  countries.  (See  Japan:  1905- 
1914).  The  agreement  for  a  general  armistice  is 
made  between  the  commanders-in-chief  of  the  con- 
tending armies;  but,  unless  express  authority  has 
been  conferred  upon  them  for  this  purpose,  the 
agreement  must  be  ratified  by  their  respective  gov- 
ernments. On  the  other  hand,  a  partial  armistice 
may  be  entered  into  between  commanders,  under 
the  general  powers  which  they  possess. — See  also 
Treaties  of  peace. 

1918. — Those  ending  hostilities  in  the  World  War 
were  chronologically  as  follows: 

September  30,  IQ18,  armistice  signed  by  Bulgaria, 
yielding  control  of  railways  to  the  .Miles,  and  cut- 
ting the  connection  between  the  Teuton  powers  and 
Turkey.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary 
services:  I.  Armistices:   c. 

October  31,  1018,  armistice  signed  by  Turkey,  in- 
volving opening  the  Dardenelles  and  substantially 
an  unconditional  surrsnder.  See  World  War:  Mis- 
cellaneous auxiliary  services:  I.  Armistices:  d. 

November  3,  1918,  armistice  signed  by  Austria- 
Hungary,  yielding  completely  to  the  Allies  and 
opening  her  territory  for  an  Allied  attack  upon 
Germany.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxil- 
iary services:  I.  .Armistices:  e. 

November  11.  loiS,  armistice  signed  by  Ger- 
many, including  such  great  concessions  as  to  make 
it  physically  impossible  for  Germany  to  renew  the 
struggle.     The  terms  of  this  armistice  assured  to 


524 


ARMOR 


ARMY 


the  Allies  the  power  absolutely  to  dictate  the  con- 
ditions of  the  peace  treaty.  All  of  these  armis- 
tices were  successively  requested  by  the  four  de- 
feated countries.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous 
auxiliary  services:   I.  Armistices:   i. 

There  was  also  an  armistice  between  Germany 
and  the  Bolsheviki,  (December,  1917),  preliminary 
to  the  signing  of  the  abortive  treaty  of  Brest- 
Litovsk  on  March  3,  iqi8.  That  treaty  was  repu- 
diated in  the  final  settlement  forced  by  the  Allies. 
— See  also  U.  S.  A.:  iqi8  (September-November)  ; 
World  W.^r:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  I. 
Armistices:  a. 

ARMOR.    See  Costume:  Military. 

Ancient  Greek.  See  /Egean  civilization: 
Minoan  Age. 

Of  the  Franks.    See  Franks:  500-768. 

Viking.  See  Scandinavian  states:  Sth-gth 
centuries. 

Medieval.    See  Longbow. 

Spanish:   14th  century.    See  Spain:   1366-1369. 

In  trench  warfare.  See  Trench  warfare:  De- 
fensive weapons. 

ARMOR  PIERCING  BULLET.  See  Rifles 
AND  revolvers:    Shot-guns  in   World  War. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS,  Origin  of.— "As  to 
armorial  bearing^s,  there  is  no  doubt  that  emblems 
somewhat  similar  have  been  immemorially  used 
both  in,  war  and  peace.  The  shields  of  ancient 
warrfors,  and  devices  upon  coins  or  seals,  bear  no 
distant  resemblance  to  modern  blazonry.  But  the 
general  introduction  of  such  bearings,  as  hereditary 
distinctions,  has  been  sometimes  attributed  to  tour- 
naments, wherein  the  champions  were  distinguished 
by  fanciful  devices;  sometimes  to  the  crusades, 
wherR  a  multitude  of  all  nations  and  languages 
stood  in  need  of  some  visible  token  to  denote  the 
banners  of  their  respective,  chiefs.  In  fact,  the 
peculiar  symbols  of  heraldry  point  to  both  these 
sources  and  have  been  borrowed  in'part  from  each. 
Hereditary  arms  were  perhaps  scarcely  used  by 
private  families  before  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  From  that  time,  however,  they 
became  very  general."^ — H.  HaUam,, Europe  during 
the  middle, ages,  ch.  2,  pt.  2. 

ARMORICA,  ARMORICANS.— The  penin- 
sular projection  of  the  coast  of  Gaul  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Seine  and  the  Loire,  embracing 
modern  Brittany,  and  a  great  part  of  Normandy, 
was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Armorica.  The  most 
important  of  the  Armorican  tribes  in  Caesar's  time 
was  that  of  the  Veneti.  "In  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  the  northern  coast  from  the  Loire  to 
the  frontier  of  the  Netherlands  was  called  'Tractus 
Aremoricus,"  or  Aremorica,  which  in  Celtic  sig- 
nifies 'martitime  country.'  The  commotions  of 
the  third  century,  which  continued  to  increase  dur- 
ing the  fourth  and  fifth,  repeatedly  drove  the 
Romans  from  that  country.  French  antiquaries 
imagine  that  it  was  a  regularly  constituted  Gallic 
republic,  of  which  Chlovis  had  the  protectorate, 
but  this  is  wrong." — B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Lectures  on 
ancient  ethnography  and  geography,  v.  2,  p. 
318. — See  also  Brittany:  409;  818-912;  Ve- 
neti OF  Western  Gaul;  and  Iberians,  West- 
ern. 

.^Lso  in:  E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  ancient 
geography,  v.  2,  p.  235. 

ARMOUR,  Philip  Danforth  (1832-1901), 
American  philanthropist:  Founder  of  Armour  In- 
stitute of  Technology.     See  Gifts  and  bequests. 

ARMOUR  AND  CO.,  Case  of  U.  S.  against. 
See  Trusts:  1003-1906. 

ARMS,  Assizes  of.     See  England:    1170-1189. 

ARMS,   Hereditary.     See   Armorial  bearings. 

ARMS  EMBARGO.— Just  before  the  World 
War,  the  United  States  placed  an  embargo  on  ship- 


ments of  arms  and  munitions  to  Mexico  in  their 
recent  civil  war.  (See  Me.xico:  1912,  1914.)  Dur- 
ing the  first  years  of  the  World  War,  there 
was  much  agitation  in  the  United  States  against 
shipping  arms  and  munitions  to  the  Allies,  and  an 
embargo  was  advocated.  The  president,  however, 
maintained  that  such  shipments  were  in  accord 
with  international  usage' and  that  an  embargo  would 
set  a  precedent  that  might  be  dangerous  in  the  fu- 
ture to  America.  The  Mexican  government  also 
appealed  to  the  United  States  to  place  an  embargo 
on  shipping  arms  and  munitions  to  Europe.  See 
Mexico:  1917-1918. 

ARMSTRONG,  Vice-Consul  J.  P.:  Reports 
on  affairs  in  the  Congo  state.  See  Belgian 
Congo:  1906-1909. 

ARMSTRONG,  John  (1758-1843),  American 
soldier,  diplomatist  and  political  leader.  Served  in 
the  Revolutionary  War.  Wrote  and  issued  anony- 
mously the  famous  Newburgh  addresses.  (See 
U.  S.  A.  1782-1783).  United  States  senator,  1801- 
i8o2  and  1803-1804;  minister  to  France,  1804- 
1810;  brigadier-general,  1812-1813;  secretary  of 
war,  January,  1913-August,  1814  (see  U.  S.  A.: 
1813  (October-November));  forced  to  resign  be- 
cause of  unpopularity. 

ARMSTRONG,  Samuel  Chapman  (1839-1893), 
American  soldier  and  educator.  Founded  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  to  educate  the 
Negro  and  Indian  races,  and  became  its  principal. 

ARMSTRONG,  William  George,  first  Baron 
(1810-1900),  English  engineer,  inventor  and  scien- 
tist. He  was  celebrated  for  his  invention  of  rifled 
cannon  and  breech-loading  ordnance.  Founded 
great  armament  works  at  Elswick,  on  the  Tvne. 

ARMSTRONG,  GENERAL  (privateer).  See 
General  Armstrong,  Case  of. 

ARMY,  a  body  of  soldiers  systematically  or- 
ganized, trained  and  equipped.  In  its  broadest 
sense,  the  term  applies  to  a  nation's  entire  force 
under  arms;  in  a  narrower  sense  to  a  portion  of 
that  force  in  a  particular  locality,  as  Great  Brit- 
ain's Indian  army  or  France's  army  in  Indo-China. 
There  is  also  the  definite  technical  meaning,  of 
army,  viz.,  a  force  of  three  army  corps  with  ad- 
ditional auxiliary  units  classed  as  army  troops.  In 
this  sense  the  United  States  in  the  World  War 
formed  in  France  a  first,  a  second  and  a  third 
army,  and  the  other  principal  combatants  each 
organized  several  armies.  Such  an  army  is  prop- 
erly commanded  by  a  general,  while  a  group  of 
several  armies  is  properly  commanded  by  a  field 
marshal,  and  the  entire  armed  forces  of  a  nation 
or  an  alliance  by  a  generalissimo  or  commander- 
in-chief.  In  1918,  the  United  States  had  only  one 
general,  Pershing,  in  the  war  zone,  and  the  three 
armies  organized  by  him  were  commanded  by  of- 
ficers of  lower  rank.  The  first  and  second  armies 
were  commanded  by  lieutenant-generals,  and  the 
third  army,  which  was  the  army  of  occupation,  by 
a  major-general.  The  proper  command  of  a  lieu- 
tenant-general is  an  army  crops  and  the  proper 
command  of  a.  major-general  is  a  division.  (The 
history  of  the  armies  of  the  principal  military  na- 
tions, find  accounts  of  important  military  institu- 
tions, such  as  the  general  staff,  conscription,  etc., 
are  dealt  with  in  the  article  Military  Organiza- 
tion). 

Belgian. — 1909-1913. — Military  service  made 
general.     See  War,  Preparation  for:    1009-1913. 

English.  —  1907-1909.  —  Reorganization.  See 
War,  Preparation  for:  1907- 1909:  British  army 
reorganization. 

Hungarian  Red.    See  Hungary:  1919  (March). 

Pragmatic.     See  Austria:    1743. 

Prussian. — Reorganized  under  Frederick  Wil- 
liam.   See  Prussia:  1618-1700. 


525 


ARMY  AND  NAVY  BOARD 


ARNOLD 


Russian.  See  Russia:  1914  (August);  Status  of 
array;   IQ17    (July)  ;   iqiS-igig. 

U.  S. — Aviation  department.  See  World  War: 
1017:   \III.  United  States  and  the  war:   i,  9. 

U.   S. — Control.     See   War   department. 

U.  S. — Court-martial  law.  See  Military  law: 
igii. 

U.  S. — Engineer  departirient.  See  World  War: 
IQ17:  VIII,  United  States  and  the  war:  i,  10. 

U.  S. — National  army. — Creation. — Training 
camps.  See  World  War:  1017;  VIII.  United 
States  and  the  war:  i,  1;  i,  6;  i,  8. 

U.  S. — Power  of  Congress  to  support  army. 
See  War  powers  of  the  United  States:  Con- 
gressional power  over  state  militia. 

U.S. — Reorganization.  See  World  War:  1917: 
VIII.  United  States  and  the  war:  i,  4. 

ARMY  AND  NAVY  BOARD:  United  States. 
See  Milit.arv   organization:    7. 

ARMY  CANTEEN.  See  U.S.A.:  1901  (Feb- 
ruary). 

ARMY  CORPS,  the  largest  complete  tactical 
and  administrative  unit  in  an  array,  which  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  corps.  The  corps  is  the 
appropriate  command  of  a  lieutenant-general.  In 
the  United  States  service  an  army  corps  is  formed 
by  corabining  two  or  more  divisions,  under  orders 
given  by  the  president  when  he  deems  such  a  for- 
mation necessary.  Such  a  corps  may  consist  of 
corps  headquarters,  six  complete  divisions,  and 
special  corps  troops,  including  one  pioneer  regi- 
ment of  infantry,  two  regiments  of  cavalary,  one 
anti-aircraft  machine-gun  battalion,  one  anti-air- 
craft artillery  battalion,  one  trench  mortar  bat- 
talion, one  field  battalion,  signal  corps,  one  tele- 
graph battalion,  one  aero  wing,  one  regiment  of 
engineers,  one  pontoon  train,  one  corps  artillery 
park,  one  remount  depot,  one  veterinary  hospital, 
one  bakery  company,  one  supply  train,  one  troop 
transport  train.  In  addition,  one  artillery  brigade, 
one  sanitary  train,  and  one  corps  engineer  park 
may  be  formed  from  detachments  from  the  di- 
visional organizations.  Its  approximate  strength  is 
185,000  officers  and  men. — See  also  Division;  Mili- 
tary organization;  Tank  corps,  U.  S.  .\rmy'. 

ARMY  EQUIPMENT:  In  World  War.  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  VI. 
Military  and  naval  equipment. 

ARMY  LAW.    See  Military  law. 

ARMY  MEDALS.  See  World  War:  Miscel- 
laneous auxiliarv  services:   VIII    War  medals. 

ARMY  OF  THE  COMMONWEAL  OF 
CHRIST.     See  U.  S.  A.:   1804:   Co.xev  movement. 

ARMY  OF  THE  ORIENT.  See  World  War: 
igi6:  V.  Balkan  theater:  b. 

ARMY  OF  THE  WEST:  In  Mexican  War. 
See  Missouri:    1846-1848. 

ARMY  PURCHASE,  Abolition  of,  in  Eng- 
land.    See  England:    1871. 

ARMY  REGULATIONS  OF  WARFARE. 
See  H.\GL'E  conterences:  i8qo:  Convention  with 
respect  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  war  on  land. 

ARMY  TRAINING  CORPS.  See  Education: 
Modern  developments:  World  War  and  education: 
Students   armv   training   corps. 

ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE,  a  school  in  Washing- 
ton to  which  selected  officers  (captains  and  above) 
are  sent  to  study  the  higher  problems  of  war,  and 
to  work  upon  detailed  plans  of  national  defense.  It 
was  first  organized  in  looi,  after  the  Spanish  War, 
and  our  present  military  system  is  largely  based 
upon  its  leadership. 

ARN.^EANS.  See  Greece:  Migration  of  Hel- 
lenic   Tribes    in    the    Peninsula 

ARNAUD  AMAURY,  popes  legate,  13th  cen- 
tury. See  Albigenses  or  Albigeois:  nog;  1210- 
X313. 


ARNAULD,  Jacqueline  Marie  Ang^lique, 
Abbess  of  Port  Royal  monastery.  See  Port  Royal 
AND  the  Jansenists:  1602-1700. 

ARNAUTS.     See  .\lranians:  Medieval  period. 

ARNAY-LE-DUC,  Battle  of  (1570).  See 
France:  1563-1570. 

ARNDT,  Ernst  Moritz  (1769-1860),  German 
poet  and  patriot.  By  his  writings  stirred  German 
sentiment  against  Napoleon,  .^fter  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  National 
.Assembly  at  Frankfort.  He  was  one  of  the  depu- 
tation that  offered  the  crown  to  Frederick  W'il- 
liam  IV. 

ARNE,  Thomas  Augustine  (1710-1778),  emi- 
nent English  composer.  He  wrote  numerous  op- 
eras, masques  and  other  dramatic  works.  The 
melody  to  "Rule  Britannia,"  which  was  or^inally 
giyen  in  a  popular  performance,  the  "Masque  of 
."Mfred."  is  his  composition.  The  words  are  by 
James  Thomson  (1700-1748).  See  Music:  Modern: 
1750-1870. 

ARNIM,  Sixt  von,  Prussian  general  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  operating  in  the  Flanders  sector 
(from  the  North  sea  to  south  of  Vpres)  during 
1Q17  and  1Q18.  He  was  beaten  to  death  by 
peasants  on  his  estate  in  March,  igig. — See  also 
World  War:  IQ14:  I.  Western  front:  c,  2;  World 
War:    iqi8:   II.  Western  front:   t. 

ARNO  (c.  750-821),  archbishop  of  Salzburg. 
Acted  in  7S7  as  envoy  from  Tassilo  III,  duke  of 
the  Bavarians,  to  Charlemagne ;  drew  up  a  cata- 
logue of  church  lands  and  rights  in  Bavaria,  called 
the  hidktilus  or  Cnngestum  Arnonis. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict  (1741-1801),  American 
general  and  traitor.  Served  under  Ethan  .\llen  in 
the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  (see  U.  S.  A.:  1775: 
May).  Fought  in  campaign  against  Montreal  and 
Quebec,  and  was  wounded  at  the  attack  of  the  lat- 
ter (see  Canada:  1775-1776;  U.  S.  \.:  1775;  Au- 
gust-December). With  a  flotilla  he  had  con- 
structed on  Lake  Champlain,  he  engaged  the  Brit- 
ish fleet  off  \alcour  Island  (Oct.  11,  1776)  and 
after  inflicting  severe  damage  on  a  superior  enemy, 
managed  to  escape  at  Crown  Point  (see  U.  S.  .\.: 
'776-1777:  Washington's  retreat  through  New  Jer- 
sey). Raised  the  siege  of  Fort  Stanwix.  or  Schuy- 
ler (see  U.  S.  .\.:  1777:  July-October).  In  com- 
raand  of  Philadelphia  after  the  British  retired. 
Was  placed  in  command  of  West  Point,  1780;  was 
frustrated  in  plot  to  surrender  it  to  the  British 
(see  U  S.  .■v.:  1780:  .■\ugust-September).  Fled  to 
the  British  array,  where,  as  brigadier-general,  he 
served  against  the  Colonial  forces  until  December, 
1781  (see  U.  S.  .'\.:  17S1:  January-May).  He  died 
in   London,   June   14,   1801. 

ARNOLD,  Matthew  (1822-1888),  English  poet, 
essayist  and  literary  critic,  son  of  the  famous  Dr. 
.Arnold  of  Rugby  and  uncle  of  Mrs.  Humphrj- 
Ward,  the  novelist.  Educated  at  Rugby  and  Ox- 
ford. His  annual  reports  as  inspector  of  schools, 
1S51-1S86,  greatly  hastened  educational  reforms, 
particularly  in  secondary  schools;  was  sent  abroad 
by  the  government  to  study  foreign  educational 
systems.  Profes.sor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  1857-1867. 
Among  his  poems,  "Thyrsis,  The  Forsaken  Mer- 
man," "Dover  Beach."  and  "The  Grande  Char- 
treuse" reveal  his  Hellenic  desire  for  pure  beauty, 
common  to  many  poets  of  the  Victorian  period.  His 
essays  emphasize  the  thouHhtful.  poised  attitude  in 
criticism,  among  the  best  being  "Sweetness  and 
Light,"  "Culture  and  .Anarchy,"  and  "Essays  in 
Criticism."  Some  of  his  finest  pieces  are  "Sohrab 
and  Rustum,"  "Rugby  Chapel"  and  "The  Scholarly 
Gypsy."  He  wrote  several  critical  works  on  theol- 
ogy, notably  "Literature  and  Dogma." — See  also 
Bible,  English:  Modern  estimates  of  the  Bible; 
English  literature:  1832- 1880. 


52O 


ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA 


AROOSTOOK  WAR 


ARNOLD,  Thomas  (1795-1842),  English  clergy- 
man and  head-master  of  Rugby  School,  August, 
1828,  to  December,  1841,  when  he  took  the  chair 
of  modern  history  at  Oxford,    See  also  Classics. 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA  (c.  1100-1155), 
Italian  churchman.  Opposed  the  property-owning 
power  of  the  Catholic  church.  Leader  in  the  re- 
volt in  1 143  against  the  temporal  power  of  the 
papacy,  which  ended  in  a  papal  interdict  and  the 
execution   of  Arnold.     See  Rome:    Medieval   city: 

1145-1155- 
ARNOLD  VON   WINKELRIED.     See  Win- 

KELRIED,  Arnold. 

ARNOLDSEN,  K.  P.  See  Nobel  prizes;  Peace: 
igo8. 

ARNULF  I  (d.  965),  Count  of  Flanders,  son  of 
Baldwin  II  of  Flanders  and  .Aelfthrytha,  daughter 
of  Alfred  the  Great.  See  Belgium:  Ancient  and 
medieval  history. 

ARNULF  OF  CARINTHIA  (c.  850-899), 
duke  of  Bavaria,  king  of  the  East  Franks  (Ger- 
many), 88S-899,  king  of  Italy  and  emperor,  894- 
899.     See  Italy:  843-951. 

Capture  of  Louvain  by.  See  Scandinavian 
states:     8th-9th    centuries. 

War  with  Svatopulk.  See  Moravia:  gth  century. 

AROGI,  Battle  of  (1868).  See  Abyssinia:  1854- 
1889. 

ARONDE,  northern  France:  1918.— Captured 
by  Germans.  See  World  War:  1918;  II.  Western 
front:  d,  19. 

AROOSTOOK  WAR.— This  disturbance,  which 
occurred  during,  the  presidency  of  Van  Buren, 
threatened  to  bring  on  war  with  Great  Britain. — 
"The  blame  for  this  condition  of  affairs  was  laid, 
by  the  Whigs,  on  the  new  Democratic  Governor 
(Fairfield)  of  Maine.  In  that  State,  indeed,  the 
boundary  dispute  had  never  been  a  party  issue, 
and  men  of  every  shade  of  poUtical  belief  had 
held  but  one  view.  In  the  country  at  large,  how- 
ever, the  acts  of  Governor  Fairfield  found  no  sup- 
port, and  his  Aroostook  War  was  condemned  as 
a  piece  of  political  folly.  The  Aroostook  country, 
the  section  of  Maine  where  trouble  arose,  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Madawaska  region, 
where  Greeley  had  been  arrested  two  years  be- 
fore. The  River  St.  John,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, flows,  from  its  source  in  the  west,  almost 
due  northeast  into  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
then  turns  a  right  angle  and  flows  almost  due 
southeast  into  New  Brunswick.  Just  at  the  right 
angle  it  is  entered  by  the  Madawaska  River,  com- 
ing down  from  the  northwest.  Near  where  it 
enters  New  Brunswick  the  St.  John  is  joined  by 
the  Aroostook  River,  coming  up  from  the  south- 
west. Along  the  Madawaska  the  Crown  had  made 
grants  before  the  Revolution,  and  Great  Britain 
had  thus  some  show  of  right  to  exclusive  jurisdic- 
tion till  the  boundary  line  was  determined.  Along 
the  Aroostoook  she  had  no  claim  to  jurisdiction, 
for  there  were  no  settlements  there  prior  to  1822, 
when  they  were  made  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  by  men  who  came  from  New  Brunswick 
that  they  might  be  beyond  the  reach  of  creditors. 
Along  the  Aroostook  again  jurisdiction  had  been 
exercised  by  Massachusetts,  while  Maine  belonged 
to  her.  After  the  monument  was  placed  at  the 
source  of  the  St.  Croix,  Massachusetts  ran  from 
it  a  due  north  line  and  located  two  ranges  of 
townships,  six  miles  square,  contiguous  to  the  line 
and  extending  many  miles  north  of  the  Aroostook. 
In  1807  townships,  including  a  part  of  the  river, 
were  sold  and  conveyed  by  Massachusetts,  and 
still  others  in  later  years.  In  1826  townships  west 
'of  the  two  ranges  and  extending  nearly  to  the  St. 
John  were  surveyed  by  Maine  and  Massachusetts 
and  divided  between  them.     Later  still  a  military 


road  was  laid  out  from  the  Matawaukeog,  a 
tributary  of  the  Penobscot,  across  the  Aroostook 
to  the  St.  John.  Land  agents  of  both  states  had 
long  been  accustomed  each  year  to  sell  timber, 
grant  permits  to  cut  down  trees,  and  had  driven 
out  trespassers  in  this  region.  In  1838,  following 
the  usual  custom,  agents  of  Maine  and  Massachu- 
setts entered  the  Aroostook  country  in  April,  and 
in  October,  and  served  processes  on  certain  men 
cutting  timber,  broke  up  their  camps,  and  drove 
off  their  teams.  Later  still  a  third  official  visited 
the  region.  At  Grand  River  he  found  fifty  tres- 
passers; at  Fish  River,  seventy-five  with  sixteen 
yoke  of  oxen  and  ten  teams.  These  men  not  only 
refused  to  depart,  but  told  the  agent  they  defied 
Maine  to  put  them  out.  When  Governor  Fairfield 
was  informed  of  these  things  he  sent  a  special  and 
confidential  message  to  the  Legislature  and  asked 
for  authority  to  provide  the  agent  with  a  force 
sufficient  to  disperse  the  trespassers.  (Senate 
Documents,  25th  Congress,  3d  Session,  Vol.  IV, 
Document  270,  pp.  8,  9.)  The  authority  was  at 
once  given  and  ten  thousand  dollars  appropriated 
to  meet  the  expense,  (Ibid.,  p.  12,)  With  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men  the  land  agent,  Mr.  Rufus 
Mclntire,  set  off  from  Bangor  and,  accompanied 
by  the  sheriff  of  Penobscot  County,  repaired  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Aroostook  River  where  three 
hundred  trespassers,  well  armed,  were  ready  to  re- 
sist. Finding  he  had  with  him  a  six-pound  cannon, 
they  retreated  down  the  river  toward  New  Bruns- 
wick. The  agent  then  dispatched  a  letter  to  the 
British  warden  of  the  disputed  territory  asking  for 
a  meeting  at  the  house  of  a  certain  settler;  but 
one  night,  while  asleep  in  the  house,  Mr.  Mclntire 
was  seized  by  a  party  of  trespassers,  was  carried 
to  Woodstock  in  New  Brunswick,  and  then  under 
guard  to  the  jail  at  Frederickton.  When  the  land 
agent  reached  Woodstock,  and  news  of  his  capture 
and  the  presence  of  Maine  troops  on  the  Aroostook 
spread,  a  mob  broke  into  the  arsenal,  took  out 
several  hundred  stand  of  arms  and  set  off  for  the 
disputed  country.  On  the  ariival  of  the  prisoner 
at  Frederickton,  Lieutenant-Governor  Harvey,  of 
New  Brunswick,  issued  a  proclamation,  summoned 
all  who  had  carried  off  arms  and  munition  to  return 
them,  denounced  the  presence  of  the  Maine  forces 
on  the  Aroostook  as  an  invasion  and  outrage,  and 
ordered  the  militia  to  be  ready  to  march  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  (Senate  Document  270,  p.  13.)  A 
copy  of  the  proclamation  was  forwarded  to  the 
Governor  of  Maine,  with  a  letter  in  which  General 
Harvey  demanded  the  recall  of  the  Maine  forces, 
asserted  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  Great  Britain  over 
the  Aroostook  region,  said  that  his  instructions  did 
not  permit  him  to  suffer  any  interference  with 
this  exclusive  jurisdiction,  and  that  he  had  ordered 
a  strong  force  of  Her  Majesty's  troops  to  be  in 
readiness  to  support  her  authority.  The  Governor 
at  once  demanded  that  General  Harvey  release  Mr. 
Mclntire,  and  transmitted  the  copy  of  the  procla- 
mation to  the  Legislature,  General  Harvey  re- 
plied that  the  land  agent  was  a  State  prisoner, 
and  that  his  fate  rested  with  Her  Majesty's  Gov- 
ernment; but  that  he  had  ordered  the  release,  on 
parole,  of  Mr.  Mclntire;  that  if  it  was  the  desire 
of  the  Governor  of  Maine  that  the  friendly  rela- 
tions existing  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  should  not  be  disturbed,  the  armed 
force  then  within  the  disputed  territory  must  be 
immediately  withdrawn ;  and  that  Mr,  James  Mac- 
lauchlan  the  British  warden  of  the  territory  who, 
while  on  a  visit  to  the  camp  of  the  land  agent,  had 
been  seized  by  way  of  reprisal,  should  be  released. 
The  Governor  answered  that  Mr,  Maclauchlan 
should  be  released  on  parole  of  honor,  but  re- 
fused   to    withdraw    the    troops.     Reinforcements 


527 


AROOSTOOK  WAR 


ARRAS 


were  meantime  hurried  to  the  Aroostook  camp 
which,  since  the  arrest  of  Mclntire,  was  com- 
manded by  Charles  Jar\'is,  and  a  thousand  miUtia 
were  ordered  to  assemble  at  Bangor.  The  Legis- 
lature as  soon  as  the  Governor's  message  was  re- 
ceived unanimously  resolved  that  a  sufficient  body 
of  men  should  be  stationed  on  the  Aroostook  and 
if  practicable  on  the  St,  John  near  the  boundary 
line;  appropriated  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars 
for  the  purpose  and  instructed  the  Governor  to 
request  the  cooperation  of  Massachusetts,  and  to 
write  to  the  President  and  ask  the  aid  of  the 
Federal  Government.  When  the  appeal  for  aid 
reached  Van  Buren  he  sent  it  with  a  message  to 
Congress.  The  acts  of  the  British  Governor,  he 
said,  were  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  United 
States  had  agreed  to  leave  Great  Britain  in  sole 
possession  of,  and  with  exclusive  jurisdiction  over, 
the  disputed  territory  tUl  the  question  of  boundary 
was  settled.  No  such  agreement  existed.  Maine 
had  a  right  to  stop  the  depredations  of  the  timber 
cutters.  But  between  an  effort  on  the  part  of 
Maine  to  preserve  the  timber  and  a  military  oc- 
cupation by  that  State  of  the  disputed  territory- 
there  was  an  essential  difference.  In  such  an  en- 
terprise he  did  not  think  Maine  should  call  on  the 
Government  for  aid.  Amicable  means  alone  should 
be  used.  On  the  other  hand,  should  the  authorities 
in  New  Brunswick  seek  to  enforce  their  claim  to 
exclusive  jurisdiction  b>'  a  military  force  he  should 
feel  bound  to  consider  a  call  from  Maine  for  aid 
in  repelling  the  invasion.  The  proper  course  in 
the  present  case  was  for  Maine  to  disband  her 
force  of  militia  and  for  each  party  to  release  the 
captured  agent  of  the  other.  (Messages  and  Papers 
of  the  Presidents;  Richardson,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  512- 
21.)  The  end  of  the  session  was  near,  but  in  the 
Senate  the  message  and  documents  were  referred  to 
the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  and  in  the 
House  to  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs.  The 
House  Committee  recommended  that  a  special  min- 
ister should  be  sent  to  Great  Britain  to  aid  the 
resident  minister  in  an  attempt  to  settle  the  long- 
pending  controversy,  and  reported  a  bill,  which 
promptly  passed.  (Congressional  Globe,  25th  Con- 
gress, 3d  Session,  pp.  217,218.)  The  Senate  Com- 
mittee could  find  no  trace  of  any  understanding, 
expressed  or  implied,  much  less  of  any  agreement, 
that  the  disputed  territory  should  be  under  the 
exclusive  jurisdiction  of  Great  Britain.  There  was, 
however,  a  clear  understanding  that  neither  party 
should  exercise  jurisdiction  over  any  portions  of 
it  save  such  as  had  been  in  the  actual  possession 
of  the  one  or  the  other.  In  sending  armed  men 
to  drive  out  the  intruders  Maine  had  not  vio- 
lated the  understanding,  and  should  Her  Majesty's 
Government  persist  in  the  attempt  to  maintain  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  by  force  then  the  President 
would  be  justified  in  using  the  military  power  of 
the  United  States  to  repel  invasion.  When,  there- 
fore, the  House  bill  to  give  the  President  author- 
ity to  resist  any  attempt  of  Great  Britain  to  en- 
force by  arms  her  claim  to  exclusive  jurisdiction 
over  the  disputed  territory  in  Maine,  use  the  land 
and  naval  forces  if  necessary,  and  in  the  event  of 
the  actual  invasion  of  our  territory,  call  for  fifty 
thousand  volunteers,  borrow  ten  million  dollars, 
arm  and  equip  the  naval  force,  and  put  such  a 
fleet  of  vessels  on  the  lakes  as  he  thought  proper, 
reached  the  Senate  it  was  passed  unanimously. 
One  section  made  an  appropriation  for  the  outfit 
and  salary  of  a  special  minister  to  Great  Britain 
if  the  President  saw  fit  to  send  one.  Yet  another 
limited  the  duration  of  the  act  to  sixty  days  after 
the  meeting  of  the  first  session  of  the  next  Con- 
gress. 
"While  the  two  committees  were  considering  the 


question,  Forsyth  (J.  Forsyth,  Sec.  of  State,  June 
27,  1834  to  March  S,  1841),  and  the  British  Min- 
ister drew  up  and  signed  a  memorandum.  This 
stated  the  views  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the 
United  States  as  to  jurisdiction,  declared  that  the 
issue  could  only  be  settled  by  friendly  discussion, 
and  that  meantime  Her  Majesty's  officers  would 
not  seek  to  drive  out  the  armed  party  sent  by 
Maine;  that  the  Governor  of  Maine  would  with- 
draw it ;  and  that  the  agents  of  both  parties  who 
had  been  taken  into  custody  should  be  released. 
[Congressional  Globe,  25th  Congress,  3d  Session, 
pp.  526,  527.]  As  soon  as  the  memorandum  was 
signed  copies  were  sent  post-haste  to  the  Governors 
of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  and  General  Scott 
was  ordered  to  Augusta.  There  he  found  a  new 
levy  of  a  thousand  men  about  to  start  for  the 
Aroostook.  But  the  arrival  of  the  memorandum 
and  the  presence  of  Scott  induced  the  Governor 
to  delay  the  march  till  the  Legislature  had  con- 
sidered the  action  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  Scott 
meantime  dispatched  a  proposition  to  Governor 
Harvey.  If  the  Governor  of  New  Brunswick 
would  agree  not  to  attempt  to  take  military  pos- 
session of  the  disputed  territory,  or  seek  by  force 
of  arms  to  drive  out  the  armed  posse  or  troops  of 
Maine,  Scott  was  sure  the  Governor  of  Maine 
would  agree  not  to  disturb  New  Brunswick  in  the 
possession  of  the  Madawaska  settlements,  or  seek 
to  dislodge  the  British  by  force  of  arms.  Harvey 
at  once  agreed  to  this  (Harvey  to  Scott,  March 
23,  1839,  National  Intelligencer,  April  i,  1S39),  the 
Governor  of  Maine  also  assented  (Governor  Fair- 
field to  Scott,  March  25,  1839,  Jbid.)  ;  the  troops  at 
Augusta  were  sent  home,  others  were  recalled  from 
the  Aroostook  country,  and  the  prospect  of  war, 
for  the  present,  was  averted." — J.  B,  McMaster, 
History  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  v.  6,  pp. 
513-518. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1842:  Ashburton 
■Treaty  with  England;  Maine:  1841-1842. 

ARPAD,  ancient  city  of  Syria,  near  Aleppo. 
Siege  conducted  by  the  Assyrian  conqueror  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  beginning  742  B.  C,  and  lasting  two  years. 
The  fall  of  the  city  brought  with  it  the  submis- 
sion of  all  northern  Syria. — A.  H.  Sayce,  Assyria, 
ch.  2. 

ARPAD,  Dynasty  of,  Magyar  line  founded  by 
Arpad,  who  was  elected  chief  by  the  tribes  which 
began  the  conquest  of  Hungary  in  889.  See  Hun- 
gary: 806;  972-1116;   1116-1301. 

ARQUES,  Battles  at  (1589).  See  France: 
1589-1500- 

ARRABBIATI,  political  party  in  Florence.  See 
Florence:    1498-1500. 

ARRAN,  a  large  island  off  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Its 
caves  were  the  refuge  of  Robert  Bruce. 

ARRAN,  Earls  of,  a  line  of  Scottish  nobles, 
whose  title,  derived  from  the  island  of  Arran,  was 
first  given  to  Thomas  Boyd  and  later  transferred 
to  the  Hamilton  family.  The  latter  was  active  in 
border  wars  and  in  the  support  of  Mary,  queen 
of  Scots.    See  Scotland:  1544-1548:  and  1546. 

ARRAPACHITIS,  Semitic  country  notheast 
of  Nineveh.     See  Jews:  Early  Hebrew  History. 

ARRAS,  a  town  and  fortress  of  France,  on  the 
Scarpe  one  hundred  miles  northeast  of  Paris.  It 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  Artois,  .was  fortified  by 
Vauban  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  Robespierre.  The  city  is  partly  situ- 
ated on  high  ground  and  has  always  been  a  place 
of  considerable  military  importance.  [For  origin 
of  Arras,  see  Belg.e.]  Arras  lies  in  the  indus- 
trial region  of  northern  France  and  near  the  Lens 
coal  mines.  Here  was  held  the  first  congress  be- 
tween European  powei's,  in  1435.  In  the  spring  of 
191 7  the  British  prepared  for  an  offensive  north  oi 


528 


ARREBOE 


ART 


Arras  instead  of  planning  to  continue  the  battle 
of  the  Somnie  as  the  Germans  had  expected.  In 
the  great  German  offensive  of  the  spring  and  early 
summer  of  1918  all  attempts  to  wipe  out  the  Brit- 
ish bastion  around  Arras  were  shattered  in  some  of 
the  bitterest  fighting  of  the  war. 

1414-1435. — Treaties  of  Arras.  See  France: 
1380-1415,  and   1431-1453. 

1482. — Treaty  between  Louis  XI  and  Maxi- 
milian I. 

1583. — Submission  to  Spain.  See  Netherlands: 
1584-1585. 

1654. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  the  Spaniards 
under  Cond6.    See  Fra.n'ce:   1654. 

1914. — Scene  of  attack  by  Germans.  See 
World  War:   1914;   I.  Western  front;   u,  4. 

1915. — Region  of  fighting.  See  World  War: 
1915:   II.  Western  front:   d. 

1916. — Near  Hindenburg  line.  See  World  War: 
1916:  II.  Western  front:  e,  7. 

1917. — Battle  of  Arras.    See  World  War:  1917: 

I.  Summary:  b,  2;  II.  Western  front:  c;  c,  1;  c,  19. 
1918. — German  attack.    See  World  War:   1918: 

II.  Western  front:  b,  1;   c,  2;  c,  28;  k. 
ARREBOE,  Anders  Christensen   (1587-1637), 

Danish  poet.  See  Scandinavian  literature:  1479- 
1750. 

ARRELLANO,  Don  Cayetano,  Chief  Justice 
of  Philippine  Islands.  See  Philippine  Islands: 
1900:   Progress  toward  civil  government. 

ARRETIUM,  Battle  of  (285  B.C.),  See  Rome: 
B.  C.  295-191- 

ARRHENIUS,  Svante  August  (1859-  ),  a 
distinguished  Swedish  organic  and  electrical  chem- 
ist; since  1905  director  of  the  physico-chemical  de- 
partment of  the  Nobel  Institute;  in  1887  promul- 
gated the  important  modern  theory  of  dissociation 
in  electrolytes,  known  as  the  ionization  hypothesis ; 
was  awarded  in  1902  the  Davy  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society;  in  1903  received  the  Nobel  Prize  for 
physics,  and  in  19 14  received  the  Faraday  medal 
from  the  Chemical  Society. — See  also  Nobel  prizes: 
Chemistry:   Modern:   Lavoisier. 

ARRIAGA,  Dr.  Manoel  (1842-1917),  Portu- 
guese statesman,  formerly  a  journalist ;  member  of 
Chamber  of  Representatives,  1861-1889;  helped  es- 
tabUsh  the  republic  and  became  first  president,  1911 ; 
resigned  1915.  See  PoRruG.-u.:  1910-1912;  1911-1914. 

ARRIAN  (Latin,  Flavius  Arrianus),  Greek 
historian  and  philosopher  of  the  second  century 
A.  D.  His  most  important  work  is  the  "Anabasis 
of  Alexander,"  the  most  reliable  account  now  ex- 
isting of  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

ARRONDISSEMENT,  an  administrative  di- 
vision of  a  French  department  (q.  v.),  similar  to 
a  "congressional  district"  in  U.  S.  A.  Since  the 
Revolution  France  has  been  divided  into  depart- 
ments and  arrondissements.  The  latter  are  di- 
vided again  into  cantons  and  communes.  There 
are  362  arrondissements  in  France. — See  also  So- 
cialism:  1904-1921. 

ARROW,  Canton  river  vessel,  whose  possession 
was  disputed  by  China  and  England.  See  China: 
1856-1860. 

ARROW  HEAD  COPSE,  in  the  Somme  region, 
northern  France; '  captured  by  the  Allies  in  1916. 
See  World  W.xr:  1016:  II.  Western  front:  d,  7. 

ARROW  HEAD  WRITING.  See  Cunei- 
form Writing. 

ARROWS,  the  name  of  a  United  States  army 
division  active  in  the  Meuse-Argonne  region  dur- 
ing the  World  War.  See  World  War:  1918:  II. 
Western  front:  v,  6. 

ARSACID.S;.— The  dynasty  of  Parthian  kings 
were  so  called,  from  the  founder  of  the  lines, 
Arsaces,  who  led  the  revolt  of  Parthia  from  the 
rule  of  the  Syrian  Seleucidse  and  raised  himself  to 


the  throne.  According  to  some  ancient  writers 
Arsaces  was  a  Bactrian ;  according  to  others  a 
Scythian. — G.  Rawlinson,  Sixth  great  oriental 
monarchy,  ch.  3. 

ARSEN. — In  one  of  the  earlier  raids  of  the 
Seljukian  Turks  into  Armenia,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  city  of  Arsen  was  destroyed.  "It  had 
long  been  the  great  city  of  Eastern  Asia  Minor,  the 
centra  of  Asiatic  trade,  the  depot  for  merchandise 
transmitted  overland  from  Persia  and  India  to  the 
Eastern  Empire  and  Europe  generally.  It  was  full 
of  warehouses  belonging  to  Armenians  and  Syrians 
and  is  said  to  have  contained  800  churches  and 
300,000  people.  Having  failed  to  capture  the  city, 
Togrul's  general  succeeded  in  burning  it.  The  de- 
struction of  so  much  wealth  struck  a  fatal  blow 
at  Armenian  commerce." — E.  Pears,  Fail  of  Con- 
stantinople, ch.  2. 

ARSENALS  AND  NAVY  YARDS  WAGE 
COMMISSION  (U.  S.  A.).— During  the  World 
War  "the  arsenals  of  the  [United  States]  War  De- 
partment and  the  navy  yards  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment were  direct  competitors  for  many  classes 
of  labor.  It  was  manifestly  both  inequitable  and 
detrimental  to  efficiency  that  these  two  classes  of 
institutions  should  pay  different  rates  of  wages  for 
the  same  labor  or  in  other  respects  provide  for 
divergent  labor  conditions.  To  secure  unity  of 
action  between  the  two  Departments  in  respect  to 
such  matters,  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  of  the 
Navy,  acting  in  cooperation  with  the  Secretary  of 
Labor,  in  August,  1917,  created  a  body  known  as 
the  Arsenals  and  Navy  Yards  Wage  Commission. 
This  Commission,  composed  of  Franklin  D.  Roose- 
velt.  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Stanley 
King,  Assistant  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  Row- 
land B.  Mahaney,  mediator  of  the  Department  of 
Labor,  had  as  its  function  to  pass  upon  all  wage 
questions  arising  in  arsenals  and  navy  yards.  On 
September  17,  1917,  announcement  was  made  in 
the  Official  BuUelin  that  the  Commission  had  com- 
pleted its  work  of  revising  the  scale  of  wages  paid 
in  arsenals  and  navy  yards.  In  making  this  re- 
vision the  Commission,  although  paying  attention 
to  wages  paid  in  other  local  establishments,  sought 
to  standardize  wages  as  far  as' possible." — W.  F. 
Willoughby,  Government  organization  in  war  time 
and  after,  pp.   217-218. 

ARSEN  E,  Lake. — An  ancient  name  of  the 
lake  of  Van,  in  Armenia,  which  is  also  called 
Thopitis  by  Strabo.— -E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of 
ancient  geography,  ch.  22,  sect.  i. 

ARSIERO,  a  town  of  northern  Italy;  during 
the  World  War  captured  by  the  Austrians  in 
their  invasion  of  May,  1916;  recaptured  in  June 
when  the  Russian  offensive  called  Austrian  troops 
back  f  om  the  Italian  front.  This,  ovith  the 
similar  events  at  Asiago,  marked  the  turning 
point  of  the  Austrian  effort  to  break  thiough 
into  the  Venetian  plain.  See  World  war:  1916: 
IV.  Austro-Italian  front:  b,  2;   also  b,  4. 

ARSUF,  or  Arsouf,  a  small  town  on  the  coast 
of  Palestine,  scene  of  the  victory  of  Richard  I  of 
England  over  Saladin  in  the  third  Crusade  (1191)- 
See  Crusades:   Military  aspect  of  the  Crusades. 

ART:  Application  of  the  term. — "The  term 
'art'  covers  a  vast  field.  In  its  broader  sense  it 
includes  the  mechanical  arts  and  the  fine  arts.  The 
fine  arts  fall  into  three  divisions:  the  arts  of  poetry 
and  literature;  [also]  the  arts  of  music  (q.  v.); 
and  the  arts  of  sculpture  (q.  v.),  painting  (q.  v.) 
and  architecture  (q.  v.).  To  this  last  group,  the 
term  is  in  its  narrowest  sense  applied;  that  is,  to 
"the  fine  arts  depending  on  the  sense  of  vision  or 
sight;  the  glyptic  [relating  to  carving],  plastic  and 
graphic  arts;  the  arts  of  form  and  color;  the  arts 
of   sculpture,  carving,  drawing,  painting,   etching, 


529 


ART 


Distribution 
Definitions 


ART 


engraving,  tattooing,  decoration,  costume  (q.  v.), 
pottery,  architecture  .  .  .  the  arts  of  space,  and 
not  to  the  arts  of  thought  or  sound." — E.  S.  and 
E.  M.  Balch,  Art  and  man,  p.  ii. 

Distribution. — "Art  is  found  in  every  part  of  the 
world  e.xcept  Antarctica.  Some  of  its  branches, 
such  as  modern  European  art,  Roman  art,  Greek 
art,  Egyptian  art  and  Assyrian  art  have  been 
studied  carefully  and  voluminous  treatises  have 
appeared  upon  them.  But  when  we  turn  to  such 
arts  as  African  art  or  Brazilian  art,  there  have 
been  no  special  publications  about  them.  In  the 
case  of  the  wonderful  art  of  China,  it  is  only  in 
the  twentieth  century  that  the  first  serious  attempt 
was  made  to  trace  it  back.  From  an  artistic  or 
an  ethnological  standpoint,  the  art  of  the  world 
as  a  whole  is  so  far  almost  untouched.  .  .  .  From 
one  point  of  view,  namely  from  that  of  the  same 
kind  of  development,  art  might  be  divided  into  art 
families  as  follows;  Pleistokene,  Bushman  and 
Arctic;  Neolithic;  /Egean,  Greek  and  European; 
Egyptian  and  West  Asiatic ;  South  Asiatic ;  East 
Asiatic ;  African,  Australasian  and  Amerind.  Pos- 
sibly the  best  way  of  classifying  the  main  arts  of 
the  world  is  geographically,  namely  in  accordance 
with  their  distribution  in  the  five  great  inhabited 
divisions  of  the  world.  In  Europe  one  might  per- 
haps specify  Pleistokene  art;  NeoUthic-Bronze 
Age  art;  JEgean  art;  Graeco-Roman  art;  Byzantine 
art;  modern  European  art.  In  .\frica:  Bushman 
art,  Negro  art,  Zimbabwe  art,  Egyptian  art.  In 
Asia:  West  Asiatic  art;  Early  East-South  Asiatic 
art;  South  Asiatic  art;  East  Asiatic  art.  In  Asia 
and  Africa:  Arab  art.  ...  In  Australasia:  Poly- 
nesian art;  Melanesian  art.  In  Asia  and  America: 
.\rctic  art.  In  America:  Amerind  art.  Whilst 
there  are  certainly  many  more  arts  than  these,  it 
seems  as  if  most  of  them  were  derived  from  one 
or  more  of  these  primary  arts,  and  that  they  may 
be  considered  as  secondary  arts." — Ibid.,  pp.  13-14, 
27-28. 

Definitions. — Croce's  .Esthetic. — ".\mong  the 
ancients  the  fundamental  theory  of  the  beautiful 
was  connected  with  the  notions  of  rhythm,  sym- 
metry, harmony  of  parts:  in  short,  with  the  general 
formula  of  unity  in  variety.  Among  the  moderns  we 
find  that  more  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  idea  of 
significance,  expressiveness,  the  utterance  of  all  that 
life  contains;  in  general,  that  is  to  say,  on  the 
conception  of  the  characteristic." — B.  Bosanquet, 
History  of  ctsthetic,  pp.  4,  5.— "Not  reckoning  the 
thoroughly  inaccurate  definitions  of  beauty  which 
fail  to  cover  the  conception  of  art,  and  which 
suppose  beauty  to  consist  either  in  utility,  or  in 
adjustment  to  a  purpose,  or  in  symmetry,  or  in 
order,  or  in  proportion,  or  in  smoothness,  or  in 
harmony  of  the  parts,  or  in  unity  amid  variety,  or 
in  various  combinations  of  these — not  reckoning 
these  unsatisfactory  attempts  at  objective  defini- 
tion, all  the  aesthetic  definitions  of  beauty  lead  to 
two  fundamental  conceptions.  The  first  is  that 
beauty  is  something  having  an  independent  exist- 
ence (existing  in  itself),  that  it  is  one  of  the  mani- 
festations of  the  absolutely  Perfect,  of  the  Idea,  of 
the  Spirit,  of  Will,  or  of  God;  the  other  is  that 
beauty  is  a  kind  of  pleasure  received  by  us,  not 
having  personal  advantage  for  its  object.  The  first 
of  these  definitions  was  accepted  by  Fichte,  Schel- 
ling,  Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  and  the  philosophizing 
Frenchmen,  Cousin,  Jouffroy,  Ravaisson,  and 
others,  not  to  enumerate  the  second-rate  aesthetic 
philosophers.  And  this  same  objective-mystical 
definition  of  beauty  is  held  by  a  majority  of  the 
educated  people  of  our  day.  It  is  a  conception 
very  widely  spread,  especially  among  the  elder 
generation.  The  second  view,  that  beauty  is  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  pleasure  received  by  us,  not  having 


personal  advantage  for  its  aim,  finds  favor  chiefly 
among  the  English  ssthetic  writers,  and  is  shared 
by  the  other  part  of  our  society,  principally  by 
the  younger  generation.  .  ,  .  What  is  art,  if  we 
put  aside  the  conception  of  beauty,  which  confuses 
the  whole  matter?  The  latest  and  most  compre- 
hensible definitions  of  art,  apart  from  the  concep- 
tion of  beauty,  are  the  following:  (i  a)  Art  is  an 
activity  arising  even  in  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
springing  from  sexual  desire  and  the  propensity  to 
play  (Schiller,  Darwin,  Spencer),  and  (i  b)  accom- 
panied by  a  pleasurable  excitement  of  the  nervous 
system  (Grant  Allen).  This  is  the  physiological- 
evolutionary  definition.  (2)  Art  is  the  external 
manifestation,  by  means  of  lines,  colors,  move- 
ments, sounds,  or  words,  of  emotions  felt  by  man 
(Veron).  This  is  the  exf)erimental  definition.  Ac- 
cording to  the  very  latest  definition  (Sully),  (3) 
Art  is  'the  production  of  some  permanent  object  or 
passing  action,  which  is  fitted,  not  only  to  supply 
an  active  enjoyment  to  the  producer,  but  to  con- 
vey a  pleasurable  impression  to  a  number  of  spec- 
tators or  listeners,  quite  apart  from  any  personal 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  it.'  Notwithstanding 
the  superiority  of  these  definitions  to  the  metaphy- 
sical definitions  which  depended  on  the  conception 
of  beauty,  they  are  yet  far  from  exact.  .  .  .  The 
inaccuracy  of  all  these  definitions  arises  from  the 
fact  that  in  them  all  (as  also  in  the  metaphysical 
definitions)  the  object  considered  is  the  pleasure 
art  may  give,  and  not  the  purpose  it  may  serve 
in  the  life  of  man  and  of  humanity.  In  order  cor- 
rectly to  define  art,  it  is  necessary,  first  of  all,  to 
cease  to  consider  it  as  a  means  to  pleasure,  and 
to  consider  it  as  one  of  the  conditions  of  human 
life.  Viewing  it  in  this  way,  we  cannot  fail  to 
obser\'e  that  art  is  one  of  the  means  of  intercourse 
between  man  and  man.  Every  work  of  art  causes 
the  receiver  to  enter  into  a  certain  kind  of  rela- 
tionship both  with  him  who  produced,  or  is  pro- 
ducing, the  art,  and  with  all  those  who,  simultan- 
eously, previously,  or  subsequently,  receive  the 
same  artistic  impression.  Speech,  transmitting  the 
thoughts  and  experiences  of  men,  serves  as  a  means 
of  union  among  them,  and  art  acts  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  peculiarity  of  this  latter  means  of 
intercourse,  distinguishing  it  from  intercourse  by 
means  of  words,  consists  in  this,  that  whereas  by 
words  a  man  transmits  his  thoughts  to  another, 
by  means  of  art  he  transmits  his  feelings.  ...  If 
a  man  infects  another  or  others,  directly,  imme- 
diately, by  his  appearance,  or  by  the  sounds  he 
gives  vent  to  at  the  very  time  he  experiences  the 
feeling;  if  he  causes  another  man  to  yawn  when 
he  cannot  help  yawning,  or  to  laugh  or  cry  when 
he  himself  is  obliged  to  laugh  or  cry,  or  to  suffer 
when  he  himself  is  suffering — that  does  not  amount 
to  art.  .^rt  begins  when  one  person,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  joining  another  or  others  to  himself  in  one 
and  the  same  feeing,  expresses  that  feeling  by  cer- 
tain external  indications  To  take  the  simplest 
example:  a  boy,  having  experienced,  let  us  say,  fear 
on  encountering  a  wolf,  relates  that  encounter; 
and,  in  order  to  evoke  in  others  the  feeling  he  has 
experienced  describes  himself,  his  condition  before 
the  encounter,  the  surroundings,  the  wood,  his  own 
light-heartedncss,  and  then  the  wolf's  appearance, 
its  movements,  the  distance  between  himself  and 
the  wolf.  etc.  .Ml  this,  if  only  the  boy,  when  tell- 
ing the  story,  again  experiences  the  feelings  he 
lived  through  and  infects  the  hearers  and  compels 
them  to  feel  what  the  narrator  has  experienced,  is 
art.  .  .  .  Art  is  not,  as  the  metaphysicians  say,  the 
manifestation  of  some  mysterious  Idea  of  beauty, 
or  God;  it  is  not,  a?  the  aesthetical  physiologists 
say,  a  game  in  which  man  lets  off  his  excess  of 
stored-up  energy;  it  is  not  the  expression  of  man's 


530 


ART 


Croce's  Aesthetic 
Relation  to  History 


ART 


emotions  by  external  signs;  it  is  not  the  produc- 
tion of  pleasing  objects;  and,  above  all,  it  is  not 
pleasure;  but  it  is  a  mean^  of  union  among  men, 
joining   them   together   in   the   same    feelings,   and 
indispensable  for  the  life  and  progress  toward  well- 
being  of  individuals  and  of  humanity. — L.  Tolstoi, 
What  is  art,  pp.  38-50. — "That  art  must  have  a 
moral  motive  is  another  confusing  proposition.  .  .  . 
It  is  at  this  point  that  Tolstoy  in  bearing  with  his 
whole  colossal  weight  upon   the  subject   and  pur- 
pose of  art  gives  us  after  all  but  a  one-sided  an- 
swer to  his  question,  'What  is  Art?'  insisting   as 
he  does  in  the  conclusion  of  his  exhaustive  treatise 
that  'the  destiny   of  art  is   to  transmit   from  the 
realm  of  reason  to  the  realm  of  feeling  the  truth 
that  the  well-being  of  men  consists  in  being  united 
together.'  .  .  .  This  is  a  true  epitome  of  the  priv- 
ilege   of    art,    but    the    enthusiasm    of    the    moral 
teacher   blinds   him   to   the   simple   fact    that   this 
could  not  be  done  if  it  were  not  possible  to  inter- 
est men  in  art  by  pleasing  them  therewith.     The 
emotion    (or   feeling)    which   will   unite   two   men 
over  the  painting  of  a  landscape  cannot  be  evoked 
unless  they  enjoy  the  picture,  nor  can  the  design 
of  a  Turkish  rug  unite  men  unless  it  first  please 
them.     [Poore  does  not,  however,  define  this  plea- 
sure in  terms  of  a  special  esthetic  faculty ;  his  ar- 
gument, on  the  other  hand]   places  the  apprehen- 
sion and  appreciation  of  art  upon  the  basis  of  the 
intellectual   process  and   denies  that  there   is  such 
a    thing    as    indefinable    beauty    in    art." — H.    R. 
Poore,  Conception  of  art,  pp.  41,  63,  gs-g6. — Clive 
Bell  explicitly  dissociates  beauty  from  art,  and  de- 
fines  the   essential    quality    of    art    as   "significant 
form."     The  theory  of  Rodin,  although  less  con- 
sistently phrased,  is  similar  in  intention.     "In  fact, 
in  art,  only  that  which  has  character  is  beautiful. 
Character  is  the  essential  truth  of  any  natural  ob- 
ject whether  ugly  or  beautiful:  ;   it  is  even   what 
one  might  call  a  double  truth,  for  it  is  the  inner 
truth  translated  by  the  outer  truth ;  it  is  the  soul, 
the  feelings,  the  ideas,  expressed  by  the  features  of 
a   face,  by  the  gestures  and  actions   of   a  human 
being,   by   the   tones  of  a  sky,  by   the   lines  of   a 
horizon." — P.  Gsell,  Art,  by  Rodin,  p.  44. 

Reasoning  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  phi- 
losopher as  distinct  from  that  of  the  artist,  Bene- 
detto Croce  has  formulated  the  Expressionist 
Theory,  which  is  at  present  widely  accepted. 
"Croce's  theory  of  Beauty  rests  on  the  affirmation 
of  an  jesthetic  activity  as  a  special  sphere  of  mental 
activity,  distinct  alike  from  the  logical  activity  on 
one  hand  and  from  the  ethical  activity  on  the  other 
hand.  .  .  .  Beauty  is  successful  expression.  We 
may  even  leave  out  the  qualification  'successful' 
and  say  simply,  Beauty  is  expression,  for  unsuc- 
cessful expression  is  not  expression.  What  then  is 
expression?  It  is  the  form  the  mind  gives  to  its 
intuitions,  the  form  intuition  takes  as  it  expresses 
itself.  And  as  there  is  no  matter  without  form  and 
no  form  without  matte/,  the  intuition  is  expres- 
sion. .  .  .  'When  we  have  mastered  the  internal 
word,  when  we  have  vividly  and  clearly  conceived 
a  figure  or  a  statue,  when  we  have  found  a  musical 
theme,  expression  is  born  and  is  complete,  nothing 
more  is  needed.  If  then,  we  open  our  mouth  and 
speak  or  sing,  the  action  is  voluntary,  and  what 
we  then  do  is  say  aloud  what  we  have  already  said 
within,  sing  aloud  what  we  have  already  sung 
within.  If  our  hands  strike  the  keyboard  of  the 
pianoforte,  if  we  take  up  pencil  or  chisel,  such  ac- 
tions are  willed  and  what  we  are  then  doing  is 
executing  in  great  movements  what  we  have  al- 
ready executed  briefly  and  rapidly  within.  By 
these  actions  we  stamp  our  intuitions  on  a  material 
which  will  hold  the  traces  of  them  more  or  less 
enduringly.  .  .  .  The   work  of   art  is  always   and 

53 


only  internal,  and  what  is  called  external  is  no 
longer  a  work  of  art.'  (Croce,  Eslctica,  p.  58).  .  . 
The  beautiful  then  is  Eesthetic  value  and  a;sthetic 
value  is  successful  aesthetic  activity,  that  is,  ex- 
pression. The  ugly  is  spoilt  expression,  a  short- 
coming or  a  failure  to  express.  .  .  .  We  are  ac- 
customed to  accept  the  truth  of  the  saying  poela 
nascitiir  non  fit.  Croce  tells  us  the  true  doctrine 
is  homo  nascitur  poeta.  Every  man  is  born  a  poet, 
little  poets  some,  great  poets  others.  .  .  .  There  is 
no  difference  between  the  intuition  of  the  artist  of 
genius  and  the  intuition  of  the  humblest  individual 
who  finds  enjoyment  in  contemplating  the  work  of 
genius  so  far  as  pure  intuition  is  concerned,  not- 
withstanding the  utter  incompetence  the  one  may 
feel  in  himself  to  accomplish  what  the  other  has 
performed.  It  is  always  our  own  intuition  we 
express  when  we  are  enjoying  a  work  of  genius. 
The  great  artist  enables  me  to  express  my  intuition, 
his  work  assists  me.  I  cannot,  that  is  to  say,  have 
any  intuition  but  my  own,  and  it  can  only  be  my 
own  intuition  when  reading  Shakespeare  I  form  the 
image  of  Hamlet  or  Othello,  but  the  greatness  of 
Shakespeare  is  that  he  enables  me  to  rise  to  higher 
and  more  extensive  ranges  of  intuition  than  I  could 
hope  to  reach  without  his  assistance." — H.  W. 
Carr,  Philosophy  of  Benedetto  Croce,  pp.  70,  72, 
161-165. 

Relation    of   art   and    history. — Spirit    of   an- 
tiquity and  Renaissance  in  architecture,  sculp- 
ture and  painting. — "Art  is  a  language.     It  gives 
expression  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  the  nation,  and 
the  individual  that  produced  it.    These  three  creat- 
ing forces  of  the  age,  the  nation,  and  the  individual 
may   be   discerned   in   every   work   of   art.     They 
make  of  art  the  most  eloquent  expression  of  life." 
— E.  M.  Ku\me,  Renaissance,  Protestant  Revolution, 
and  Catholic  Reformation,  in  continental  Europe, 
p.  108. — "It  is  true  that  in  recent  centuries,  those 
namely  of  recent  modern  history,  the  arts  of  paint- 
ing  and   sculpture,  at   least,  have   become   mainly 
matters  of  luxury,  and  that  as  arts  of  popular  edu- 
cation and  instruction  they  have  been  displaced  by 
printed  books.     Hence  the  difficulty  of  making  im- 
mediately  apparent,   before   the   subject   itself   has 
been   opened  up,  that  a  history   of  art   is  not  so 
much  a  history  of  the  arts  of  design  as  it  is  a  his- 
tory of  civilization.     But  if  this  point  is  not  ap- 
parent in  advance,  it  is  notwithstanding  the  point 
which  in  recent  years  has  drawn  more  and  more 
attention   to   the  subject,  until   it   is  beginning   to 
figure  as  an  indispensable  part  of  the  philosophy 
and    knowledge   of   general   history.     As   soon    as 
history  ceases  to  be  conceived  as  a  series  of  dis- 
connected national  chronicles,  as  soon  as  it  begins 
to  be  conceived  as  a  sequent  evolution  of  races  and 
of  epochs — which  has  been  unbroken  in  continuity 
since    the   time    of   the   Chaldeans    and    Egyptians 
down  to  the  nineteenth  century — the  history  of  art 
appears  as  a  study  of  the  first  importance.     This 
is  because  it  deals  with  the  now  visible  relics  of 
the  past;  not  only  with  buildings,  statues,  reliefs, 
and    paintings,    but    with    fabrics,    utensils,    coins, 
furniture,  and  all  the  accessories  of  daily  life ;  for 
in  historic  periods  all  these  things  were  given  an 
appropriate    artistic    treatment    and    setting    forth. 
As  revelations  of  the  life  of  a  nation  or  an  epoch 
these  relics  appeal  to  the  imagination  because  they 
appeal  to  the  eye  and  assist  each  student  to  picture 
the  past  to  himself.    The  student  is  no  longer,  then, 
dependent  on  the  descriptions  and  accounts  of  an- 
other student;  he  becomes  himself  an  independent 
historian,   for  whoever  evokes  in   imagination   the 
life  of  the  past  deserves  this  title.     The  history  of 
art  has,  moreover,  especial  value  for  a  true  philos- 
ophy of  history   in   that  it   forces  the  student  to 
subordinate  the  history  of  nations  to  the  history 

I 


ART 


Relation  to 
History 


ART 


of  epochs.  The  grand  divisions  between  the  suc- 
cessive epochs  of  the  ascendency  of  the  ancient 
oriental  nations — of  the  Greeks  [see  also  ^gean 
cr\iLizATiox ;  Athens;  Sparta],  of  the  Romans, 
of  the  Germanic  races  (the  Middle  Ages),  and  of 
the  Italians  (the  Renaissance) — are  only  seen  dis- 
tinctly when  the  history  of  art  is  called  in  evi- 
dence."— \V.  H.  Goodyear,  Roman  and  medieval 
art,  pp.  iii-iv. — "Each  epoch  of  the  world  develops 
its  own  proper  form  of  expression.  Greek  archi- 
tecture is  the  embodiment  of  supreme  serenity,  of 
self-restraint,  and  the  sense  of  inevitable  fate.  It 
is  the  expression  of  an  ideal  of  life  that  never 
sought  to  leave  the  earth,  the  ideal  of  a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body.  Its  impulse  is  purely 
pagan.  Roman  architecture,  with  its  bridges  and 
acqueducts,  its  triumphal  arches,  its  domes  and  its 
auditoriums,  speaks  of  the  majesty  of  the  Roman 
government,  of  the  imperial  scope  of  its  power  and 
its  law.  When  paganism  had  fallen  and  Christian- 
ity had  built  a  new  civilization  upon  the  wreck  of 
the  old,  Gothic  architecture  gave  expression  to  the 
new  spirit,  to  the  new  ideal  of  life,  to  the  new  vi- 
sion that  soared  aloft  until  it  was  lost  in  the  blue 
sky.  Pure  beauty  was  the  sole  object  of  Hellenic 
art,  but  Gothic  architecture  strove  to  voice  the 
aspirations  of  the  human  soul.  The  predominant 
lines  of  classic  architecture  are  horizontal  lines, 
which  are  restful  and  belong  to  the  earth,  while 
those  of  Gothic  architecture  are  vertical.  In  the 
Gothic  cathedral,  slender  window,  towering  pillar, 
pointed  arch,  lofty  vault,  delicate  pinnacle,  and 
soaring  spire,  irresistibly  carry  the  eye  upward. 
Classic  architecture  was  rooted  in  the  rational  fac- 
ulty ;  Gothic  was  born  in  the  spiritual.  .  .  .  The 
Renaissance  was  in  part  a  harking  back  to  the 
classic  ideals.  The  new  classicism  of  the  time  de- 
manded an  architecture  that  could  give  it  expres- 
sion. Gothic  architecture  could  not  express  the 
lucidity  and  the  sanity  of  Greek  thought,  nor  the 
grandiose  nature  of  the  Roman  civilization.  Nor 
could  it  express  the  combination  of  classicism  and 
modernity  that  formed  the  spirit  of  the  Renais- 
sance. A  new  style  of  architecture  was  required. 
The  pure  Gothic  of  northern  and  central  France 
had  never  found  a  congenial  soil  in  Italy.  Only 
a  modified  form  of  Gothic,  in  which  the  horizontal 
principle  held  an  important  part,  had  flourished 
there.  Beadth  rather  than  height  was  its 
characteristic  attribute.  The  spire  was  al- 
most unknown,  its  place  being  taken  by 
the  dome.  In  retaining  something  of  the  char- 
acter of  classic  architecture  Italian  Gothic  ex- 
pressed the  genius  of  the  Italian  people,  a  genius 
with  a  classic  inheritance,  ns  contrasted  with  the 
genius  of  the  French  people,  a  genius  with  a 
marked  Celtic  strain.  In  the  creation  of  an  archi- 
ture  that  should  give  expression  to  the  semi-classic 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance  a  less  radical  change  was 
required  of  the  Italians  than  of  the  northern  na- 
tions. The  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  appealed  to 
the  Italian  mind  promptly  and  decisively.  A  new 
style  of  architecture,  that  rapidly  reached  matur- 
ity, gave  expression  to  that  spirit.  .  .  .  The  Greeks 
serenely  enjoyed  the  external  world.  They  drew 
the  inspiration  for  their  sculpture  from  the  men 
and  women  they  saw  about  them.  They  were  not 
much  disturbed  by  the  moral  struggles  and  the 
ceaseless  and  often-times  painful  questionings  re- 
garding the  destiny  of  the  individual  soul  that 
Christianity  emphasized.  ...  As  we  have  seen,  this 
change  in  the  attitude  towards  life,  coming  by  im- 
perceptible degrees,  brought  with  it  a  change  in 
the  ideals  of  art.  The  Greek  temple  gave  place 
to  the  Gothic  cathedral.  And  when  men  began  to 
recover  something  of  the  pagan  attitude  towards 
life  the  architecture  of  the  early  Renaissance  gave 


expression  to  that  spirit.  A  similar  change  took 
place  in  all  the  arts,  in  sculpture  and  in  painting. 
In  sculpture  the  Italian,  sense  of  reality  had  never 
been  completely  extinguished.  The  carving  of 
leaves  and  flowers  and  fruit  in  the  medieval 
churches  of  the  peninsula  give  testimony  to  a  cer- 
tain power  of  observation.  Vet  the  Italian  sculp- 
tors were  in  no  small  measure  bound  by  the  sub- 
jection of  their  art  to  the  exclusive  service  of  the 
Church.  The  men  of  the  medieval  centuries  were 
exceedingly  skilful  carvers  of  stone.  Indeed,  the 
medieval  sculptors  made  the  thirteenth  century  one 
of  the  great  periods  of  their  art.  But  the  spell 
of  the  Church  under  which  sculpture  worked  is 
seen  in  the  almost  exclusive  devotion  to  eccles- 
iastical subjects,  in  the  thin  and  gaunt  figures,  the 
emaciated  faces,  the  angular  gestures,  and  above 
all  in  the  spirit  that  informs  it.  It  was  Nicholas 
of  Piso  (i207(  ?)-8o),  .  .  .  who,  disregarding  the 
limiting  traditions  of  the  past,  first  instilled  some- 
thing of  the  new  life  into  the  forms  of  medieval 
sculpture.  ...  He  went  direct  to  nature.  And 
from  him  onwards  not  one  of  the  Itahan  sculptor^ 
copied  classical  statuary  in  a  slavish  manner.  So 
into  the  sculpture  of  the  Renaissance,  as  into  its 
Hterature,  its  architecture  and  its  painting,  there 
flowed  from  the  beginning  two  streams  of  inspira- 
tion, that  of  classic  art  and  that  of  nature  it- 
self. .  .  . 

"In  the  Middle  Ages  painting  was  merely  the 
handmaid  of  the  Church.  Its  function  was  not  to 
reveal  to  man  the  beauty  of  the  present  world,  but 
to  help  him  to  win  the  salvation  of  his  soul  in  the 
next.  In  the  latter  medieval  centuries  the  only 
school  of  painting  was  the  Byzantine  school.  It  is 
true  that  the  Greek  church  had  been  separated 
from  the  Latin  church  for  centuries,  but  the  paint- 
ing of  the  former  dominated  that  of  the  latter. 
Byzantine  painting  was  completely  under  the  spell 
of  the  Church.  The  subjects  of  the  pictures  were 
taken  from  the  Scriptures,  from  the  legends  of  the 
Church,  or  from  the  lives  of  the  saints.  An  arid 
symbolism,  void  of  all  initiative,  dominated  art. 
.  .  .  The  style  of  treatment,  the  attitudes,  the  com- 
position, and  the  colors,  were  all  determined  by 
traditional  rules.  .  .  .  There  was  no  direct  refer- 
ence to  nature.  .Ml  that  painting  had  to  do  was 
to  assist  the  Church  in  its  teaching.  .  .  .  But 
softly  and  unnoticed  a  new  era  dawned  upon  the 
world.  In  the  thirteenth  century  life  began  to 
animate  painting  once  more  as  it  had  done  in  the 
days  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  as  it  was  already 
doing  in  Italy  in  literature  and  sculpture.  Men 
once  again  became  sensitive  to  the  beauty  of  na- 
ture and  the  significance  of  humanity.  Among  the 
painters  who  first  made  their  art  more  expressive 
of  life  were  Guido  of  Siena,  Giunta  of  Pisa,  and 
more  important,  Cimabue  (1240  ( ?)-i302)  of 
Florence.  .  .  .  The  beginning  of  the  revival  01 
sculpture  preceded  that  of  painting  by  almost  half 
a  century;  but  the  genius  of  one  great  man,  Giotto 
(1276-1336),  raised  painting  to  so  high  a  pitch 
that  it  overtook  and  overshadowed  the  develop- 
ment of  sculpture.  .  .  .  Fra  .\ngelico  had  abjured 
antiquity  and  Mantagna  had  discarded  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  Middle  .Ages.  But  up  to  this  time 
most  of  the  artists  of  the  Renaissance  had  striven 
to  unite  the  pagan  and  the  Christian  elements.  It 
was  only  ver>'  gradually  that  the  classical  and  the 
modern  were  amalgamated." — E.  M.  Hulme,  Ren- 
aissance, Protestant  Revolution  and  Catholic  Re- 
formation in  continental  Europe,  pp.  108,  111-112, 
116-117,  121. 

"Now  I  think  it  may  well  profit  us  to  turn  away 
from  the  art  of  our  own  Western  tradition  and 
consider  an  art  which  has  grown  up  and  flowered 
among  races  of  a  quite  different  civilization,  among 


532 


ART 


Periods  of  Art 


ART 


a  different  order  of  ideas  and  nourished  by  a  dif- 
ferent inspiration:  the  art  of  Asia.  That  is  the 
only  other  body  of  creative  art  which  can  be  com- 
pared with  our  art,  the  art  of  the  Western  world, 
on  equal  terms.  .  .  .  We  have  always  thought  of 
perfection  as  something  completed,  and  therefore 
finite.  But,  as  Mr.  Okakura  tells  us  in  his  charm- 
ing Book  of  Ted,  Laoist  thought  rejects  the  finite, 
because  where  there  is  an  end,  where  there  is 
completion,  there  is  death.  Growth  has  stopped. 
Therefore  we  find  a  dwelling  on  the  idea  of  the 
imperfect,  the  uncompleted,  when  the  capacity  for 
growth  still  remains.  .  .  .  The  Chinese  seem  never 
to  have  felt  the  need  to  throw  their  imagination 
of  the  life-force  into  a  human  image.  They  have 
kept  their  thought  strangely  vague  and  impersonal. 
...  It  is  characteristic  of  this  art  and  poetry  that 
this  spirit  in  it  goes  out  exulting  to  the  immensi- 
ties and  profundities,  as  to  its  natural  home.  .  .  . 
We  in  the  West  have  found  that  the  vitality  of 
our  art  has  been  nourished  chiefly  by  the  influx  of 
new  material.  The  spur  to  our  artists  has  been 
the  zest  of  exploration.  The  painters  of  the  East 
have  remained  content  to  repeat  the  same  motive 
century  after  century.  And  not  only  this,  but  they 
have  remained  content  with  the  same  means  of 
expression.  .  .  ,  The  art  of  the  West  has  been 
like  a  fire,  choked  with  the  fuel  which  we  have 
heaped  on  it  so  eagerly ;  burning  fiercely  but  tur- 
bidly,  with  smoke  and  crackling.  In  the  art  of 
the  East  the  flame  has  burned  far  clearer  and 
purer;  the  danger  for  it  is  rather  inanition  from 
want  of  fresh  fuel.  How  much,  what  a  plenitude 
of  material  has  our  Western  art  to  consume !  how 
grand  an  inspiration  remains!" — L.  Binyon,  Ideas 
of  design  in  east  and  laest  {Atlantic  Monthly,  Nov., 

iqi3)- 

Also  in:  J.  Ruskin,  Seven  lamps  of  architec- 
ture; Stones  of  Venice. — W.  Pater,  Renaissance: 
studies  in  art  and  poetry. — J.  A.  Symonds,  Renais- 
sance in  Italy,  v.  3. — E.  M.  and  E.  S.  Balch,  Com- 
parative ari.—G.  B.  Brown,  Fine  arts. — Kenyon 
Cox,  Classic  point  of  view. — C.  Noyes,  Gale  of 
appreciation. — L.  M.  Phillips,  Form  and  colour. — 
P.  Gaultier,  Meaning  of  art. — E.  Rowland,  Signifi- 
cance of  art. — W.  H.  Wright,  Creative  will. 

The  following  is  an  index  of  the  various  arts, 
arranged  alphabetically  under  the  distinctive 
periods ; 

Prehistoric    Art 

American  aborigines.  See  Arch.^ology:  Im- 
portance of  American  field;  Aztec  and  Maya  pic- 
TtjEE  writing;  Indians,  American:  Cultural  areas 
in  North  America:  Southwest  area,  also  Plateau 
area;  Mayas;  Mexico:  Aboriginal  peoples;  Mu- 
sic:  Primitive;  Peru:    1200-1527;   Pueblos. 

Palaeolithic.  See  Architecture:  Prehistoric; 
Europe:  Prehistoric  period:  Palaeolithic  art;  Paint- 
ing: Pre-classical. 

Ancient  Art 

Ancient  writing.  See  Aztec  and  Maya  picture 
writing;  ^gean  civilization:  Cretan  writing,  also 
Minoan  Age:  B.C.  2200-1600;  Cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions; Egypt:  Language  and  writing;  Japan:  Lan- 
guage. 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian.  See  Architecture: 
Oriental:  Mesopotamia;  Assyria:  Art  and  archaeo- 
logical remains;  Babylon:  Nebuchadrezzar  and  the 
wall  of  Babylon;  Babylonia:  Earliest  inhabitants; 
Music:  Ancient:  B.C.  3000-7th  century;  Sculp- 
ture: Western  Asia. 

Chinese.  See  Architecture:  Oriental;  China: 
China:  Origin  of  the  people,  also  1294-1736;  Cos- 
tume: China;  Music:*  Ancient:  B.C.  2852-478; 
Painting:  Chinese;  Sculpture:  India,  China  and 
Japan. 


Egyptian.  See  Alexandria:  B.C.  282-246; 
Arch.eology:  Development;  Architecture:  Ori- 
ental; Egypt;  Costume:  Egypt;  Egypt:  Monu- 
ments, also  B.  C.  1500-1400,  and  Language  and 
writing;  Hellenism:  Hellenism  and  Alexandria; 
Music:  Ancient:  B.C.  4000-525;  Mythology: 
Egyptian;  Sculpture:   Egyptian. 

Greek.  See  Acropolis  or  Athens;  Archeol- 
ogy: Development;  Architecture:  Greek,  Doric 
and  Ionic  styles;  Athens:  B.C.  461-431:  Aspect 
of  Periclean  Athens;  CosTtiME:  Greece;  Music: 
Ancient:  B.C.  540-4th  century;  Painting:  Greek; 
Parthenon:   B.C.  445-431;  Sculpture:  Greek. 

Hebrew.  See  Architecture:  Oriental:  Pales- 
tine; Jerusalem:  B.C.  1400-700. 

Indian.  See  Architecture:  Oriental:  India: 
Hindu  architecture;  Costume:  India;  Music:  An- 
cient: B.C.  2000-A.  D.  1200;  Painting:  Asiatic:  In- 
dia and  Persia;  Sculpture:  India,  China  and 
Japan. 

Irish.  See  Dublin:  I2th-i4th  centuries;  Music: 
Folk  music  and  nationalism:   Ireland. 

Japanese.  See  Architecture:  Oriental:  Japan; 
Costume:  Japan;  Japan:  Language;  Painting: 
Japan;  Sculpture:  India,  China  and  Japan. 

Persian.  See  Architecture:  Oriental:  Persia; 
Music:  Ancient:  B.C.  2000-A.  D.  1200;  Painting: 
Asiatic:  India  and  Persia;  Sculpture:  Western 
Asia. 

Roman.  See  Amphitheatre;  Aqueducts;  Arch; 
Architecture:  Classic:  Roman;  Baths;  Costume: 
Rome;  Music:  B.C.  146-A.  D.  524;  Painting: 
Roman;   Sculpture:   Roman. 

Scotch  and  Welsh.  See  Music;  Folk  music  and 
nationalism:   Scotland,  Wales. 


Early   Christian  Art 

Early  Christian.  See  Basilicas;  Music:  B.C. 
4-A.  D.  397;  314-590;  540-604;  P.wnting:  Early 
Christian. 

Medieval   Art 

Illuminated  manuscript.  See  Books:  Books  in 
medieval  times. 

Byzantine.  See  Byzantine  empire:  Part  in 
history;  Sculpture;   Romanesque  sculpture. 

Chinese.  See  Painting:  Chinese;  Sculpture: 
India,  China  and  Japan. 

Coptic.    See  Architecture:  Medieval;  Coptic. 

Dutch.  See  Music:  Medieval:  1350-1500;  1450- 
1600;  Painting:  Dutch. 

English.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  national- 
ism:   Medieval:   England,  also   1226-1622. 

Flemish.    See  Painting:  Flemish. 

French.  See  Architecture:  Medieval:  Ro- 
manesque: French  and  Norman;  Costume:  iooo- 
1500;  Music:  Folk  music  and  nationalism:  France, 
also  12th,  I2th-i4th  century,  12th  century-1350; 
Painting:   French;   Sculpture:   Gothic. 

German.  See  Abbey:  Architectural  features: 
Architecture:  Medieval:  Romanesque:  Lombard 
and  German;  Music:  Medieval:  12th,  I2th-i4th 
century,  12th  century-1350;  Painting:  German; 
Sculpture:   Gothic. 

Gothic.    See  Architecture:  Medieval:  Gothic. 

Indian.  See  Painting:  Asiatic;  Sculpture:  In- 
dia, China  and  Japan. 

Italian.  See  Florence:  1469-1492 ;  Music:  Folk 
music  and  nationalism:  Italy;  Painting:  Italian: 
Early  Renaissance;  Rome:  Modern  city:  153 7-1 621. 

Japanese.  See  Painting:  Japanese;  Sculpture: 
India,  China  and  Japan. 

Lombard  architecture.  See  Architecture: 
Medieval:  Romanesque:  Lombard  and  German. 


533 


/RT 


ART  GALLERIES  AND  MUSEUMS 


Mohammedan  architecture.  See  Architec- 
ure:  Medieval:  Mohammedan;  Alhambra;  Amru, 
Mosque  of. 

Norman.  See  .■\RCinTECTURE;  Medieval:  Ro- 
manesque;  French  and  Norman. 

Romanesque.  See  Architecture:  Medieval: 
Romanesque. 

Scandinavian.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  na- 
tionalism:  Scandinavia. 

Spain.— Moorish  art.  See  Architecture:  Med- 
ieval: Mohammedan;  Painting:  Spanish;  Sculp- 
ture: Gothic. 

Renaissance 

English.  See  Architecture:  Renaissance:  Eng- 
lish. 

French.  See  Architeciure:  Renaissance: 
French.     See  also  Renaissance. 

Italian.  See  .\rchitecture:  Renaissance:  Ital- 
ian; P.mnting:  Italian:  Early  Renaissance,  also 
High  Renaissance;  Sculpture:  Early  Renaissance, 
also  High  Renaissance;  Venice:   i6th  century. 

Modern  Art 
American.    See  Architecture:  Modem:  Amer- 
ican;    Music:     Modern:     17  74- 1908;     Painting: 
.American;  Sculpture:  Modern  sculpture. 

Belgian.    See  .Architecture:  Modern;   Belgian; 
Music:   Folk  music  and  nationalism:   Netherlands. 
Bohemian.     See  Bohemia:   Art,  Music,  Educa- 
tion;   Music:    Folk    music   and    nationalism:    Bo- 
hemia. 

Celtic.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  national- 
ism: Celtic:  Hebrides. 

English.  See  Architecture:  Modern:  English; 
Costume:  17th  century,  also  1815-1880;  Music: 
Modern:  1660-1604;  1750-1870;  1842-1921;  Pain-t- 
ing: English,  also  Europe  (19th  century)  ;  Sculp- 
ture:   Modern  sculpture. 

Finnish.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  national- 
ism: Finland. 

French.  See  Architecture:  Modern:  French; 
Costume:  1795-1815;  Music:  Modern:  1645-1764; 
1730-1816;  1774-1864;  1800-1908;  1830-1921; 
Painting:  French;  P.unting:  Europe  (19th  cen- 
tury )  ;  Sculpture:  Modern  Sculpture. 

German.  See  .Architecture:  Modern:  German; 
Music:  Modern:  1540-1672;  1630-1800;  1700-1827; 
Later  i8th  century;  1620-1722;  1740;  1818-1921; 
1847-1921;  Painting:  Europe  (19th  century); 
Sculpture:   Modern  sculpture. 

Italian.  See  Music:  Modern:  1527-1613;  153S- 
674;  1575-1676;  1607-1737;  1675-1764;  1650-1739; 
1730-1816;   1818-1868;   1842-1921. 

Oriental.  See  Painting:  Asiatic,  also  Japanese; 
Sculpture:   India,  China  and  Japan. 

Russian.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  national- 
ism: Russia. 

Scandinavian.  See  Music:  Folk  music  and  na- 
tionalism;  Scandinavia. 

Spanish.  See  Painting:  Spanish,  also  Europe 
(19th  century). 

Besides  the  subjects  referred  to,  there  are  also 
articles  on  Art  galleries  and  museums;  Art  edu- 
cation ;  Arts  and  crafts  movement  ;  and  the  Lit- 
eratures, e.  g.,  American  literature,  English  lit- 
erature, etc.  Drama;  also  articles  on  the  princi- 
pal museums,  Abbeys,  Cathedr-U.s,  etc.,  and  names 
of  artists. 

ART  ALLIANCE  OF  AMERICA.  See  Edu- 
cation, Art;  United  States:  Museums  used  lor  art 
education. 

ART    COLLECTIONS.      See    Art    galleries 

AND    museums. 

ART  EDUCATION.    See  Education,  Art. 
ART   GALLERIES   AND   MUSEUMS.— The 
term    "museum,"    derived    from    the    Museion    or 


"Temple    of   the   muses"   at   Alexandria,   covers   a 
collection    of    all   sorts    of    art    objects,   while    an 
art  gallerv   is  occasionally,  though  not  as  a  rule, 
restricted    to    a    collection    of    pictures.      Public 
museums   are   those   supported   by    public   money, 
to  which  the  public  has  free  access.     "While  the 
Romans  were  industrious  collectors  of  statues  and 
paintings   they  sought   them  merely   as  decorative 
objects    and    not    for    the    purpose    of    cultivating 
taste,  or  as  instruments  for  the  study  and  teach- 
ing of  the  arts  of  design.     At  first  they  were  em- 
ployed  exclusively    for   the   decoration   of   temples 
and   places   of   public    resort;    but   private    collec- 
tions  began   to   be   formed   and   by    the   close    of 
the  Republic  it  had  become  fashionable  for  wealthy 
citizens   to  have   a   room  in   their   houses  for   the 
reception  and  display  of  works  of  art.  .  .  .  Natural 
objects,  such  as  we  call  curiosities,  had  long  been 
preserved  in   temples,  both   in   Greek  and   Roman 
times.  ...  By    far    the    most   important    museum 
of    antiquity    was   the    great    institution    at   -Alex- 
andria   (Museion)    founded  by   Ptolemy   Philadel- 
phus  in   the   third  century   before   Christ.  ...  In 
the    Middle    .Ages    many    monasteries    had    collec- 
tions   of    curiosities.  .  .  .  Every    church    had    its 
treasury,  and  most  treasuries  contained  relics.  .  .  . 
The   vast    treasuries    of    art    which    had    been    re- 
covered  in    Italy    [during    the    Renaissance]    were 
gradually    absorbed    into    special    collections    and 
formed    the    foundation    of    the    museums    of    the 
Vatican  and  the  Lateran  at  Rome,  of  the  museum 
of    Florence    and    of    those    of    Vienna,    Dresden, 
Munich,   Paris,  St.   Petersburg,   and  London."— D. 
Murray,  Museums,   pp.   1-18.— "It  is  only   within 
recent    years    that    communities    have    taken    or 
shared  the  initiative  in  the  foundation  of  museums 
of  art.     The  older  museums  abroad  and  at  home 
have    originated   in   private   collections   either   be- 
queathed to  the  public  or  taken  possession  of  in 
the    name    of    the    nation.      [See    .Albright    g.\l- 
lerv.]      The  purchase   of  Sir   Hans   Sloane's   col- 
lection   in    1753    was   the    nucleus    of    the    British 
Museum;     the     Pitti    and     the    Uf&zi    collections 
gathered   bv    the    Medici    family    have   now    been 
acquired  bv  the  Italian  Government.     Some  great 
museums,  like  the  Vatican   in   Rome,  still   remain 
private   propertv,   while    open    in   a    measure    free 
to  the  public.     Some,  like  our  American  museums, 
mostly    established    during    the    past    half-century, 
are  the   property   of   corporations  created   for  the 
purpose." — B.   I.   Gilman,  Museum   ideals   of  pur- 
pose and  method,  p.  383.— "The  character  of  the 
buildings  which,  as  time  went  on,  were  here  and 
there  erected   to  house   these  collections  of   price- 
less   originals,    was    determined    by    several    fac- 
tors.     .As    most    of     the    collections    had    found 
their  first  homes  in  the  palaces  of  rulers  or  mem- 
bers of   the  nobility,  it  was  quite   naturally   con- 
cluded  that   their   new   homes   should   be    also   in 
the   stvle   of   the   local   palace   or   royal   residence. 
.As    the    things   collected    were    objects    of    art,    it 
seemed    obvious   that    they    should    be   housed    in 
artistic   buildings,   and   as   for  several   centuries  it 
has  been   difficult   for   architects   or   those   having 
power  over  art  collections  to  conceive  of  an  artistic 
building   save  in   terms   of    Greek   or   Renaissance 
architecture,   nearly   all   special   museum   buildings 
imitated   either   the   Greek   temple    or   the    Italian 
palace      In   Europe,   therefore,   we   find   museums 
to    be    either    old    buildings    of    the    loyal    palace 
type    or    later    constructions    copying    the    palace 
or  the  Greek  temple,  containing  priceless  originals 
in  all  lines  of  art,  craftsmanship  and  archsology, 
arranged   as  the   characters   of   the   several   build- 
ings   compel.  .  .  .  The    prevalence    of    th"    Euro- 
pean idea  of  a  museum  determined  not  only   the 
character  of  our  museum  buildings,  but  also  their 


534 


ART  GALLERIES  AND  MUSEUMS 


ART  INSTITUTE 


location.  As  they  must  be  works  of  art,  and  as 
only  those  buildings  which  took  the  form  of 
temples  and  palaces  could  be  considered  works  of 
art,  and  as  temples  and  palaces  need  open  space 
about  them  to  display  their  excellence,  and  as 
space  in  the  centers  of  towns  is  quite  expensive, 
donors,  architects,  trustees  and  city  fathers  all 
agreed  that  the  art  museum  building  should  be 
set  apart  from  the  city  proper,  preferably  in  a 
part  with  open  space  about  it." — J.  C.  Dana, 
Gloom  of  the  museum,  pp.  11-13. — "There  is  im- 
posed upon  museums  of  the  fine  arts  by  the  nature 
of  their  contents  an  obligation  paramount  to  the 
duty  of  public  instruction  incumbent  on  all  mu- 
seums, .  .  .  namely,  to  promote  public  appre- 
ciation of  certain  visible  and  tangible  creations 
through  which  the  fancy  of  man  has  bidden  his 
sense  follow  its  flight.  ...  An  art  museum  is 
a  selection  of  objects  adapted  to  impress;  a  sci- 
entific or  technical  museum  is  a  selection  of  objects 
adapted  to  instruct.  .  .  .  Art  is  an  end,  educa- 
tion a  means  to  an  end.  The  office  of  an  art 
museum  is  one  which  is  warranted  in  itself ;  that 
of  an  educational  museum  is  one  whose  fruits  are 
its  warrant.  .  .  .  Thus  neither  in  scope  nor  in 
value  is  the  purpose  of  an  art  museum  a  pedagogic 
one.  An  institution  devoted  to  the  preservation 
and  exhibition  of  works  of  the  line  arts  is  not 
an  educational  institution,  either  in  essence  or 
in  its  claims  to  consideration.  ...  In  their  chief 
function,  it  is  theirs  to  gather  up  the  art  of  the 
past,  whose  public  no  longer  exists,  and  offer 
hospitality  to  the  art  of  foreign  lands,  whose 
public  is  another  than  ours.  They  are  instru- 
mentalities by  which  civilization  provides  that 
neither  shall  antique  art  be  lost,  nor  exotic  art 
be  non-existent  to  us.  The  distinctive  purpose 
of  an  art  museum  may  be  precisely  defineci  as 
the  aim  to  bring  about  that  perfect  contempla- 
tion of  the  works  of  art  it  preserves  which  is 
implied  in  their  production  and  forms  their  con- 
summation. .  .  .  While  museums  of  other  kinds 
are  at  bottom  educational  institutions,  a  museum 
of  fine  art  is  not  didactic  but  aesthetic  in  primary 
purpose,  although  formative  in  its  influence,  and 
both  admitting  of  and  profiting  by  a  secondary 
pedagogical  use.  The  true  conception  of  an  art 
museum  is  not  that  of  an  educational  institu- 
tion having  art  for  its  teaching  material,  but 
that  of  an  artistic  institution  with  educational  uses 
and  demands." — B.  I.  Oilman,  Museum  ideals  of 
purpose  and  method,  pp.  89-98. 

"The  educational  value  of  museums  is  recog- 
nised by  all  universities,  inasmuch  as  every  de- 
partment, where  possible,  has  its  museum  to  en- 
able the  student  to  see  the  things  and  realise 
sensually  the  qualities  described  in  lessons  or 
lectures — in  short,  to  learn  what  cannot  be  learned 
by  words.  But  the  'Teaching  Museums'  of  a 
university  are  very  different  in  character  from 
Public  Museums.  In  the  first  place  the  clientele 
is  altogether  different.  The  university  student 
comes  to  his  museum  primed  with  the  teaching 
of  the  classroom,  and  inspired  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge from  what  may  be  seen  there.  There  is  not 
the  necessity  for  special  preparation  to  attract  the 
interest,  or  even  to  preserve  the  life-like  char- 
acters of  specimens." — Proceedings  and  transaf- 
tions  of  the  Liverpool  Biological  Society,  v.  32, 
1917-1918,  pp.  3-4. — See  also  Education,  Art: 
United   States:    Museums   used   for   art   education. 

The  following  is  a  selected  list  of  art  galleries 
and  museums  in  various  parts  of  the  world: 

Argentina,  Buenos  Aires. — Museo  Nacional  de 
Bellas  Artes. 

Australia. — National  Gallery,  Melbourne. 

Austria. — Art-history  Museum,  Gallery  of  Paint- 


ings, Lichtenstein   Gallery   and  Imperial   Museum, 
Vienna  (q.v.). 

Belgium. — Galleries  of  old  and  modern  pictures 
in  the  Royal  Museums,  Brussels. 

Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro. — Eschola  Nacional  de 
Bellas  Artes. 

China. — Peking  Imperial  Museum  in  Peking. 

Denmark. — .^rt   Museum   at   Copenhagen. 

^Sypl- — Musee  Greco-Romain  at  Alexandria,  and 
Museum  of  Egyptian  Antiquities  and  National 
Museum  of  Arab  Art  at  Carlo. 

France. — Louvre  (q.v.),  Musee  du  Luxembourg, 
Musee  de  Cluny  and  Musee  Carnavalet  (see  Car- 
NA VALET,  Musee),  Paris,  and  Musee  Nationale  at 
Versailles.  Musees  des  Departments  that  have 
shown  positive  evidence  of  growth  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  are  those  of  Amiens,  Abbe- 
ville, Boulogne-sur-mer.  Clermont,  Douai,  Lille, 
Poitiers,  Saint-Quentin,  Senlis  and  Valenciennes. 

Germany — Old  and  New  Museums  and  National 
Gallery  at  Berlin,  the  Royal  Gallery  of  Paintings 
at  Dresden  (see  Dresden  museum),  and  the 
Glyptothek  and  the  Old  and  New  Pinakothek 
at  Munich  (q.v.),  Darmstadt  Museum   (q.v.). 

Great  Britain. — Museum  and  Art  Gallery  at  Bir- 
mingham, the  National  Gallery  and  the  Muni- 
cipal Gallery  of  Modern  Art  at  DubUn  (see  Dub- 
lin museum),  the  National  Gallery  of  Scotland 
at  Edinburgh,  the  Art  Gallery  and  Museum  at 
Glasgow  (see  Glasgow  museum),  the  Walker  Art 
Gallery  at  Liverpool,  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Ox- 
ford (q.v.),  the  Ruskin  Museum  at  Sheffield,  and 
the  following  in  London:  National  Gallery,  Na- 
tional Portrait  Gallery,  National  Gallery  of  British 
Art  (formerly  the  Tate),  Victoria  and  Albert  Mu- 
seum (q.v.)  (formerly  South  Kensington  Museum), 
British  Museum  (q.v),  and  Wallace  Collection. 

Greece. — National  Museum  at  Athens. 

Holland. — Koninklyk  Kabinet  van  Schilderyen 
and  Municipal  Museum  at  The  Hague  and  Ryks 
Museum  at  Amsterdam   (q.v.). 

India. — The  Indian  Museum  at  Calcutta. 

7(a/.v.— The  Accademia  di  Belle  Arti,  the  Uffizi, 
the  Pitti  Palace  and  the  Bargello,  at  Florence,  the 
Brera  at  Milan,  the  Museo  Nazionale  at  Naples 
(q.v),  Museo  Nazionale  at  Florence  (q.v.),  the 
Vatican  (q.v.),  the  Capitoline,  the  Borghese  and 
the  Doria  at  Rome,  and  the  Accademia  ed  Instituto 
di  Belle  Arti  at  Venice. 

Japan. — The  Imperial  Museums  In  Tokio,  in 
Kioto,  and  in  Nara. 

Mexico,  Mexico  City.— Museo  de  Arte  de 
Academia   de   Ciencias. 

Peru,  Lima. — Gallery  of  Paintings  in  the  Museo 
de  Historia  Natural,  Palacio  de  la  Exposicion. 

Porttigal. — Museu  Nacional  de  Antiga  and 
Museu  Nacional  de  Arte  Contemporanea  at  Lis- 
bon. 

Russia. — The  Hermitage  (q.  v.)  and  the  Rus- 
sian Museum  of  Alexander  III  at  Petrograd. 

Spain. — Museo  del  Prado  (see  Prado,  Museo 
del)  and  Academia  de  Bellas  Artes  at  Madrid,  the 
Casa  Greca  at  Toledo,  and  the  Palacio  de  Bellas 
.\rtes  at  Barcelona,  Museo  de  Artilleria. 

Siveden. — National   Museum  at  Stockholm. 

United  States  and  Canada. — Art  Institute  ot 
Chicago  (q.v.)  ;  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Science;  Hispanic  Society  of  America,  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art  (q.v.),  and  Public  Li- 
brary (paintings  and  prints  department).  New 
York  City  [see  also  New  York  City:  1870-1921]; 
Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburgh;  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  Boston ;  The  National  Gallery  of  Canada 
(Ottawa)  ;  Corcoran  Gallerv  of  Art,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

ART  INSTITUTE,  Chicago.— "From  an  art 
school  founded  in  1866  rose  the  Chicago  Academy 


535 


ART  INSTITUTE 


ARTEVELDE 


of  Design,  which  until  1882  was  the  only  notable 
art  center  of  Ihe  city.  In  1S79  it  was  organized 
anew  as  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and 
incorporated  by  the  State  'for  the  founding  and 
maintenance  of  schools  of  art  and  design,  the 
formation  and  exhibition  of  collections  of  objects 
of  art,  and  the  cultivation  and  extension  of  the 
arts  of  design,  by  appropriate  means.'  In  1883  it 
was  given  its  present  name.  First  installed  in 
rented  rooms,  the  society  obtained  in  1882  and 
1885  (obliquely  across  from  its  present  home) 
a  large  piece  of  ground,  upon  a  part  of  which 
it  built,  but  in  18S6  it  erected  there  a  fine  museum, 
100  feet  long  and  87  feet  wide,  of  a  Romanesque 
style,  after  plans  of  J.  W.  Root.  As  this  soon  be- 
came too  small  it  was  in  1892  sold  for  $400,000 
to  the  Chicago  Club  in  order  that  there  might 
be  erected  in  1893  the  present  spacious  building, 
near  the  edge  of  the  lake,  in  the  extensive  Lake 
Front  Park.  .  .  .  The  Chicago  Exposition  in  1893 
needed  a  building  for  holding  congresses,  and  by 
mutual  agreement  with  the  art  institute  this  one 
was  built  upon  a  site  belonging  to  the  city,  on 
the  lake  front,  near  the  busiest  section.  The 
exposition  paid  $200,000,  the  art  institute  $500,000, 
and  the  city  gave  the  site,  425  feet  long,  on  the 
broad  Michigan  avenue  under  the  condition  that 
the  property  rights  in  the  building  should  belong 
to  it,  but  that  the  art  institute  should  occupy 
it  rent  free,  so  long  as  they  use  it  for  its  present 
purposes.  The  art  institute  therefore  presented 
it  to  the  city.  .  .  .  The  Art  Institute  is  entirely 
independent  and  obtains  no  support  from  the  city, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  State,  except  that  the  city, 
as  already  mentioned,  gave  the  ground  for  a  site, 
in  e.xchange  for  which  it  obtained  the  property 
right  of  the  building.  The  yearly  expenditure  for 
189Q-1900  was  about  $90,000  the  art  school 
costing  $38,000,  which  was,  however,  wholly  re- 
paid by  the  pupils.  ...  At  the  head  of  the  in- 
stitute is  a  board  of  trustees  of  23  persons,  who 
from  their  number  select  a  president  and  a  vice- 
president,  as  well  as  an  executive  committee  of 
seven  and  an  art  committee  of  five  members." — 
A.  B.  Meyer,  Studies  of  the  museums  and  kindred 
institutions  of  New  York  City,  Albany,  Buffalo 
and  Chicago,  pp.  442-447. 

"The  museum  has  collections  of  paintings,  es- 
pecially Dutch,  Flemish,  French,  and  American; 
Egyptian  and  classical  antiquities;  about  1,400 
casts  of  sculpture  of  all  periods,  including  archi- 
tectural sculpture ;  prints,  inclnding  very  fine  col- 
lections of  etchings  by  Meryon,  Whistler,  and 
Zorn ;  modern  medals  and  plaquettes;  ceramics, 
notably  old  Wedgwood  and  other  English  wares; 
textiles,  furniture,  and  other  examples  of  indus- 
trial art.  Two  organizations  exist  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adding  to  the  collections — the  .\ntiquarian 
Society  and  the  Friends  of  American  Art.  Be- 
sides the  permanent  exhibitions  there  are  held  an- 
nually more  than  40  diverse  temporary  exhibitions, 
foreign  as  well  as  American.  .  .  .  2,200  students 
are  included  in  the  day,  night,  Saturday  juvenile 
classes  in  drawing,  painting,  sculpture,  design,  il- 
lustration, architecture,  and  normal  instruction, 
and  Summer  School.  Forty  teachers  including 
visiting  instructors  compose  the  regular  faculty. 
[See  Art  EnvcATioN.l  The  Ryerson  Library  of 
Art  and  the  Burnhara  Library  of  Architecture  have 
16,000  volumes,  46.000  photographs,  and  20,000 
lantern  slides.  The  Extension  Department,  in  ex- 
istence since  November  ior6,  has  carried  exhibi- 
tions of  modern  American  painting  to  forty  or 
fifty  cities;  has  conducted  art  institutes  of  three 
to  five  days'  duration  in  these  cities,  and  has 
provided  lectures  and  assisted  in  the  organiza- 
tion  of   local   exhibitions   in    many   cities   of   the 


Middle  Western  states." — Year's  art  1920,  pp.  238- 
239. — See  also  Painting:  Modern:  American. 
ART    MUSEUMS.      See    Art    galleries    and 

MUSEUMS. 

ART  SCHOOLS.  See  Education,  Art;  Amer- 
ican ACADEMY  IN  RoiiE ;  .\rt  INSTITUTE,  Chicago. 

ARTABA,  ancient  Persian  dry  measure.  See 
Ephah. 

ARTAGUETTE  (d.  1736),  French  military 
leader  under  Bienville ;  became  colonial  governor  of 
Louisiana  during  which  period  he  engaged  in  wars 
against  the  Chickasaw  Indians.  See  Louislana: 
1719-1750. 

ARTAPHERNES.— Persian  satrap  of  Sardis. 
Took  prominent  part  in  suppressing  the  Ionian 
revolt.  (See  Greece:  B.C.  500-493:  Rising  of 
lonians.)  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  together 
with  Datis,  commanded  the  expedition  sent  by 
Darius  against  Athens  and  Eretria  for  their  share 
in  this  revolt.  The  expedition  was  defeated  at 
Marathon.     See  Greece:  B.  C.  490. 

ARTAXATA,  the  ancient  capital  of  Armenia, 
said  to  have  been  built  under  the  superintendence 
of  Hannibal,  while  a  refugee'  in  Armenia.  At  i 
later  time  it  was  called  Neronia,  in  honor  of  the 
Roman  Emperor  Nero. 

Siege   of.     See    Rome:    Republic:    B.C.    78-68. 

ARTAXERXES,  the  name  of  three  ancient 
Persian  kings  of  the  .^chiemian  dynasty. 

Artaxerxes  I  (Longimanus),  reigned  465-425 
B.C.  See  Athens:  B.C.  460-455;  Persia:  B.C. 
486-405. 

Artaxerxes  II  (Mnemon),  ruled  >i0m  404  to 
359  B.C.  (See  Persia:  B.C.  486-405  and  401- 
400.)  Persian  supremacy  in  Greece  was  proclaimed 
at  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (see  Greece:  B.  C.  399- 
387)  ;  but  the  last  years  marked  the  weakening 
and  disintegration  of  his  kingdom. 

Artaxerxes  III  (Ochus),  Kin^  of  Persia,  359- 
338  B.C.  A  cruel  and  despotic  ruler;  subjugated 
Egypt  about  343  B.  C.  and  gave  his  support 
to  Perinthus  and  Byzantium  (340  B.  C.)  against 
Philip  of  Macedon. 

The  same  name  was  also  borne  by  (Be  founder 
and  two  other  rulers  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty, 
though  they  are  generally  known  as  Ardashir 
or  Ardshir.  See  Persia:  B.C.  150-A.  D.  226;  and 
Sassanun  dynasty. 

ARTEMIS,  a  Greek  divinity  known  among  the 
Romans  as  Diana,  the  protectress  of  young  men 
and  maidens,  the  goddest  of  chastity,  of  nature 
and  of  the  hunt,  and  later  regarded  as  the  moon- 
goddess.  She  has  many  symbols  in  art,  notably 
the  hind,  the  bear,  the  bow  and  arrow,  the 
torch,  and  the  crescent.  There  are  beautiful 
representations  of  her  on  the  coins  of  .Arca- 
dia, Aetolia,  Crete  and  Sicily;  her  most  famous 
statue,  the  Diana  of  \'ersailles,  is  now  in  the 
Louvre. 

Temple  of.  See  Temples:  Stage  of  culture  rep- 
resented bv   temple  architecture. 

ARTEMISIA.— (i)  Sister  and  wife  of  Mauso- 
lus,  king  of  Caria,  whom  she  followed  as  ruler, 
353-350  B.  C.  Built  the  famous  Mausoleum  in 
Halicarnassus  in  honor  of  her  husband.  (See 
Carians.)  (2)  A  queen  of  Halicarnassus  and 
Cos  (c.  480  B.  C.) ;  fought  at  the  battle  of 
Salamis  (see  Greece:  B.  C.  480:  Persian  Wars) 
on  the  side  of  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks.  She 
became  a  mvthological  heroine. 

ARTEMl'SIUM,  a  promontory  in  the  north- 
west  coast  of  Euboea.  The  Greeks,  undijr  Eury- 
biades,  won  a  naval  battle  against  the  Persians  off 
the  point  (480  B.C.).  See  Greece:  B.C.  480: 
Persian  Wars:  .^rtemisium;  also  Map  of  ancient 
Greece. 
ARTEMITA,  city  in  Assyria.     See  Dastagerd. 


536 


ARTEVELDE 


ARTHURIAN  LEGEND 


ARTEVELDE,  Jacqu»s  van  (12Q0-1345),  a 
Flemish  leader  of  the  fourteenth  century  who 
was  successful  in  repulsing  the  Count  of  Flanders, 
a  French  vassel,  and  was  instrumental  in  forming 
a  league  between  Ghent,  Bruges  and  Ypres  which 
later  made  a  treaty  with  Edward  III  of  England. 
He  was  killed  in  1345  during  an  uprising  of  the 
populace. — See  also  Flanders:  1335-1337;  134S. 

ARTEVELDE,  Philip  van  (about  1340-1382), 
a  son  of  Jacques  van  Artevelde.  He  lost  his  life 
in  the  battle  of  Roosebeke  in  which  he  led  the 
Flemings  against  the  French  army  under  Charles 
VI. — See  also  Flanders:   1382. 

ARTHUR,  King,  and  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table.    See  Arthurian  Legend;  and  Cumbria. 

ARTHUR,  Chester  Alan  (1830-1886),  the 
twenty-first  president  (Republican)  of  the  United 
States;  appointed  collector  of  the  port  of  New 
York  in  1S71  by  President  Grant;  in  1880  was 
Garfield's  running  mate  for  vice-presidency  and 
subsequently  elected;  succeeded  Garfield  (who 
died  on  September  iq)  as  president  in  1881  and 
remained  in  office  until  18S5. — See  also  Civil  serv- 
ice reform:  United  States;  Tariff:  1883;  U.  S.  A.: 
1880:  Twenty-fourth  presidential  election;  1881; 
1881-1885. 

ARTHURIAN  CYCLE.  See  Arthurian  legend. 

ARTHURIAN  LEGEND.— An  early  medieval 
romance  of  Britain,  laid  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifth,  and  first  quarter  of  the  sixth,  centuries. 
The  story  concerns  a  semi-mythical  hero,  King 
Arthur.  "On  the  difficult  question,  whether  there 
was  a  historical  Arthur  or  not,  ...  a  word  or 
two  must  now  be  devoted  .  .  .  ;  and  here  one 
has  to  notice  in  the  first  place  that  Welsh  litera- 
ture never  calls  Arthur  a  gwledig  or  prince  but 
emperor,  and  it  may  be  inferred  that  his  his- 
torical position,  in  case  he  had  such  a  position, 
was  that  of  one  filling,  after  the  departure  of  the 
Romans,  the  office  which  under  them  was  that  of 
the  Comes  Britanniae  or  Count  of  Britain.  The 
officer  so  called  had  a  roving  commission  to  de- 
fend the  Province  wherever  his  presence  might 
be  called  for.  The  other  military  captains  here 
were  the  Dux  Britanniarum,  who  had  charge  of 
the  forces  in  the  north  and  especially  on  the 
Wall,  and  the  Comes  Littoris  Saxonici  [Count 
of  the  Saxon  Shore],  who  was  entrusted  with  the 
defence  of  the  south-eastern  coa^t  of  the  island. 
The  successors  of  both  these  captains  seem  to 
have  been  called  in  Welsh  gwledigs  or  princes. 
So  Arthur's  suggested  position  as  Comes  Britan- 
niae would  be  in  a  sense  superior  to  theirs,  which 
harmonizes  with  his  being  called  emperor  and  not 
gwledig.  The  Welsh  have  borrowed  the  Latin 
title  of  imperator,  'emperor,'  and  made  it  into 
'amherawdyr,'  later  'amherawdwr,'  so  it  is  not 
impossible,  that  when  the  Roman  imperator  ceased 
to  have  anything  more  to  say  to  this  country. 
the  title  was  given  to  the  highest  officer  in  the 
island,  namely  the  Comes  Britanniae,  and  that  in 
the  words  'Yr  Amherawdyr  Arthur,'  'the  Emperor 
Arthur,'  we  have  a  remnant  of  our  insular  history. 
If  this  view  be  correct,  it  might  be  regarded  as 
something  more  than  an  accident  that  Arthur's 
position  relatively  to  that  of  the  other  Brythonic 
princes  of  his  time  is  exactly  given  by  Nennius, 
or  whoever  it  was  that  wrote  the  Historia  Brit- 
tonum  ascribed  to  him:  there  Arthur  is  represented 
fighting  in  company  with  the  kings  of  the  Brythons 
in  defence  of  their  common  country,  he  being 
their  leader  in  war.  If.  as  has  sometimes  been 
argued,  the  uncle  of  Maglocunus  or  Maelgwn, 
whom  the  latter  is  accused  by  Gilda  of  having 
slain  and  superseded,  was  no  other  than  Arthur, 
it  would  supply  one  reason  why  that  writer 
called  Maelgwn  'insularis  draco,'  'the  dragon  or 


war-captain  of  the  island,'  and  why  the  latter 
and  his  successors  after  him  were  called  by  the 
Welsh  not  gwledigs  but  kings,  though  their  great 
ancestor  Cuneda  was  only  a  gwledig.  On  the 
other  hand  the  way  in  which  Gildas  alludes  to  the 
uncle  of  Maelgwn  without  even  giving  his  name, 
would  seem  to  suggest  that  in  his  estimation  at 
least  he  was  no  more  illustrious  than  his  pred- 
ecessors in  the  position  whith  he  held,  what- 
ever that  may  have  been.  Hov,'  then  did  Arthur 
become  famous  above  them,  and  how  came  he 
to  be  the  subject  of  so  much  story  and  romance? 
The  answer,  in  short,  which  one  has  to  give  to 
this  hard  question  must  be  to  the  effect,  that 
besides  a  historic  Arthur  there  was  a  Brythonic 
divinity  named  .Arthur,  after  whom  the  man  may 
have  been  called,  or  with  whose  name  his,  in  case 
it  was  of  a  different  origin,  may  have  become 
identical  in  sound  owing  to  an  accident  of  speech; 
for  both  explanations  are  possible,  as  we  shall 
attempt  to  show  later.  Leaving  aside  for  a 
while  the  man  Arfhur,  and  assuming  the  ex- 
istence of  a  god  of  that  name,  let  us  see  what 
could  be  made  of  him.  Mythologically  speaking 
he  would  probably  have  to  he  regarded  as  a  Cul- 
ture Hero;  for,  a  model  king  and  the  institutor 
of  the  Knighthood  of  the  Round  Table,  he  is 
represented  as  the  leader  of  expeditions  to  the 
isles  of  Hades,  and  as  one  who  stood  in  some- 
what the  same  kind  of  relation  to  Gwalchmei  as 
Gwydion  did  to  Lieu.  It  is  needless  heie  to  dwell 
on  the  character  usually  given  to  Arthur  as  a 
ruler:  he  with  his  knights  around  him  may  be 
compared  to  Conchobar,  in  the  midst  of  the  Cham- 
pions of  Emain  Macha,  or  Woden  among  the 
Anses  at  Valhalla,  while  Arthur's  Knights  are 
called  those  of  the  Round  Table,  around  which 
they  are  described  as  sitting ;  and  it  would  be 
interesting  to  understand  the  signification'  of  the 
term  Round  Table.  On  the  whole  it  is  the  table, 
probably,  and  not  its  roundness  that  is  the  fact 
to  which  to  call  attention,  as  it  possibly  means 
that  Arthur's  court  was  the  first  early  court 
where  those  present  sat  at  a  table  at  all  in  Britain. 
No  such  thing  as  a  common  table  figures  at  Con- 
chobar's  court  or  any  other  described  in  the  old 
legends  of  Ireland,  and  the  same  applies,  we  be- 
lieve, to  those  of  the  old  Norsemen.  The  at- 
tribution to  Arthur  of  the  first  use  of  a  common 
table  would  fit  in  well  with  the  character  of  a  Cul- 
ture Hero  which  we  have  ventured  to  ascribe  to 
him,  and  it  derives  countenance  from  the  pretended 
history  of  the  Round  Table;  for  the  Arthurian 
legend  traces  it  back  to  Arthur's  father,  Uthr 
Bendragon,  in  whom  we  have  under  one  of  his 
many  names  the  king  of  Hades,  the  realm  whence 
all  culture  was  fabled  to  have  been  derived.  In 
a  wider  sense  the  Round  Table  possibly  signified 
plenty  or  abundance,  and  might  be  compared  with 
the  table  of  the  Ethiopians,  at  which  Zeus  and 
the  other  gods  of  Greek  mythology  used  to  feast 
from  time  to  time." — J.  Rhys,  Studies  in  the 
Arthurian  legend,  ch.  i. — See  also  Cumbria. 

Historical  basis. — The  simple  ungarnished  story 
of  Arthur's  birth,  as  set  forth  in  Welsh  tradi- 
tion, is  as  follows:  "Uter  Pendragon,  son  of 
Cystennyn  Vendigaid  or  'Constantine  the  Blessed,' 
King  of  Britain,  falls  in  love  with  Eigyr,  wife 
of  Gorlais,  Duke  of  Cornwall,  and  by  a  subtlety 
gains  access  to  her  and  begets  Arthur.  Besides 
Uter  Pendragon,  Constantine  had  two  older  sons. 
The  eldest  Constans,  a  Monk,  was  of  weak  in- 
tellect, but  nevertheless  upon  his  father's  death 
succeeded  to  the  British  throne,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  Vorti- 
gern,  who  thereupon  became  King  of  Britain.  The 
second  son  was  one  Emrys  Wledig,  or  Ambrosiu? 


537 


ARTHURIAN  LEGEND 


Sources 
Growth 


ARTHURIAN  LEGEND 


Aurelianus,  who  revenged  his  brother's  death  by 
overthrowing  Vortigern,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Britain  in  his  stead.  Upon  the  death  of  Am- 
brosius  Aurelianus,  Uter  Peiidragon,  the  third 
son,  succeeded  to  the  British  throne.  So  much 
for  the  Welsh  tradition.  The  first  historian  of  any 
repute  to  mention  Arthur  is  Nennius,  who  wrote 
his  British  History  circa  706.  He  calls  him  Arlur 
Mab  liter,  which  Vneans  'Arthur,  son  of  Uther,' 
and  he  states  that  as  'Dux  bellorum  cum  regibus 
Britonum,'  he  led  the  British  forces  victoriously 
twelve  times  against  the  Saxons.  The  twelfth 
and  last  battle  of  this  series  was  Radon  Mount. 
.  .  .  The  Anglo  Saxon  Chronicle  gives  the  date 
of  the  landing  of  the  Saxons  as  circa  449,  so  the 
battle  of  Badon  Mount  would  take  place  circa 
493.  .  .  .  Taking  the  two  statements  of  Gildas 
and  Nennius  it  seems  to  me  that  we  are  justified 
in  saying  that  Arthur  was  a  descendant  of  Am- 
brosius  Aurelianus.  The  statement  in  Gildas  that 
Ambrosius  was  the  last  of  his  race  left  alive  [in 
his  own  generation,  must  be  understood,  as  he 
left  'soboles'  or  'issue'],  altogether  upsets  the 
Welsh  tradition  that  his  younger  brother  Uther 
Pendragon  succeeded  him  upon  the  throne.  .  .  . 
There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  king  of  imaginative  historians,  is 
responsible  for  this  splitting  up  of  one  man  into 
two,  and  this  is  somewhat  indicated  by  the  com- 
plete failure  of  his  imagination  to  deal  with  them; 
he  states  that  both  .Ambrosius  and  Uther  were 
poisoned,  and  buries  them  both  at  Stonehenge, 
which  is  a  very  tame  effort  on  his  part.  So  I 
would  sugger.t  that  King  Arthur  was  the  son  of 
the  'victorious  commander-in-chief,'  in  British, 
'Uther  Pendragon,'  whose  name.  Latinized,  was, 
'Am,brosius  Aurelianus,'  or,  in  British,  'Emrys 
Wledig.'  .  .  .  Although  a  Briton  by  descent,  with 
such  progenitors,  he  must  have  been  in  cultiva- 
tion and  at  heart  a  Roman.  His  grandfather  and 
great  grandfather  Constantine  the  Blessed  and 
Maximus,  held  their  courts  in  Gaul.  His  father 
Ambrosius  Aurelianus  would  have  no  time  for 
courtly  functions,  as  he  must  have  been  fully  em- 
ployed fighting  against  the  enemies  of  his  coun- 
try; not  only  had  he  to  keep  in  check  the  Saxon 
invasion  and  the  inroads  of  the  Picts  and  Scots, 
but  also  to  iight  against  and  overthrow  the  de- 
based British  rule  under  Vortigern.  To  Arthur 
alone  of  this  line  of  Romano-British  warriors  and 
kings  did  the  opportunity  arise  of  holding  court 
in  Britain.  After  the  battle  of  Badon  Mount 
A.  D.  493,  comparative  peace  reigned  in  the  island 
for  a  considerable  period.  [See  also  E.ngland: 
449-473  to  547-633].  Then  it  would  be  that 
Arthur  settled  down  to  social  life,  and  we  may 
be  sure  that,  with  his  Roman  education  and  tastes, 
his  court  must  have  been  a  surprise  indeed  to 
the  rough  untutored  British  kings  and  chieftains, 
his  immediate  followers.  We  gtt  a  glimpse  of 
the  civilization  of  this  period  in  the  ruins,  now 
being  excavated,  of  the  Romano-British  city  of 
Silchester.  Arthur,  no  doubt,  had  accumulated 
great  we'alth  in  the  only  way  in  which  wealth 
could  be  amassed  in  those  days,  by  the  power  of 
the  sword,  and  his  court  would  therefore  be  sur- 
rounded with  all  the  luxuries  of  the  then  modern 
Roman  civilization." — A.  S.  Scott-Gatty,  (Gene- 
ologist,  n.  s.  V.   18,  pp.  209-216). 

Sources  and  growth  of  the  legend. — Com- 
posite nationality. — "At  present  there  are  two 
conflicting  views  on  the  question.  Professor  Zim- 
mer,  Professor  Foerster,  and  others — mostly  Ger- 
man scholars — have  thought  that  the  chief  source 
of  the  Arthurian  romances  and  p.-ieudo-chronicles 
was  continental.  The  kernel,  at  least,  was  Celtic; 
and  it  began   to  germinate  in   Brittany,  where  it 


had  been  carried  from  Britain  in  the  great  mi- 
gration of  southwestern  Cymri  in  the  second  half 
of  the  sixth  century.  From  Brittany,  after  taking 
on  various  legendary  additions,  the  Arthur-story 
spread  to  the  Normans;  and  from  them  over  all 
northern  France.  On  its  native  heath,  however, 
the  Arthurian  hero-story  remained  comparatively 
undeveloped;  there  it  got  but  little  beyond  the 
stage  at  which  it  appears  in  Nennius.  .  .  .  While 
the  writers  holding  this  view  are  inclined  to  min- 
imise the  Celtic  element  in  the  Arthurian  romances, 
they  differ  considerably  as  to  its  importance. 
Professor  Zimmcr,  for  instance,  sees  a  great  deal 
that  is  Celtic.  He  seems  to  think  that  the  ro- 
mances of  Chretien  de  Troies,  the  greatest  of 
the  early  French  Arthurian  writers,  have  sub- 
stantially the  same  relation  to  the  original  Celtic 
tales  as  Shakespeare's  plays  to  those  'novels' 
v/hich  gave  him  so  much  dramatic  material.  Pro- 
fessor Foerster,  on  the  other  hand,  sees  much  less 
that  is  Celtic ;  and  some  scholars  would  see  little 
more  of  a  Celtic  element  than  a  few  names  of 
people  and  of  places.  The  .Arthurian  romances, 
they  hold,  came  almost  wholly  from  general  Euro- 
pean folklore,  and  from  the  invention  of  French 
writers,  conscious  literary  artists,  especially  of 
Chretien  de  Troies.  [See  also  French  literature: 
1050-1350.]  Professor  Gaston  Paris  and  other 
scholars — French,  English  and  American — have 
held  a  different  view.  They  think  that  the 
French  gave  literary  finish  to  the  Arthurian  stories, 
but  little  else.  Incidents,  often  plots,  sometimes 
even  the  spirit  of  a  romance,  they  regard  as  Celtic. 
The  stories  took  shape,  they  think,  not  so  much 
among  the  northern  French  as  among  the  Anglo- 
Normans,  that  is,  in  England.  Before  the  con- 
quest, the  Saxons  had  got  the  stories  to  some  ex- 
tent from  the  Welsh,  among  whom  the  stories 
were  fairly  well  developed;  and  the  Saxons  gave 
them  to  the  Normans.  .  .  .  The  antecedent  prob- 
ability seems  to  be  that  there  is  truth  in  both 
theories ;  there  is  no  reason  why  a  story  should 
not  flourish  in  the  land  in  which  it  was  born  and 
in  that  to  which  it  has  been  transported.  .  .  . 
The  forms  of  many  proper  names  in  Round  Table 
romances  of  the  twelfth  century  point  to  a  Breton 
rather  than  a  Welsh  origin.  The  only  way  to 
explain  Arthurian  proper  names  in  the  south 
of  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  is  that 
the  Arthurian  stories  were  carried  there  by  the 
Normans  who  conquered  Sicily  about  the  middle 
of  the  preceding  century.  The  conclusion  seems 
inevitable,  therefore,  that  the  Normans  knew 
Arthur  and  his  knights  before  they  went  to 
England,  where  the  legend  of  the  hero  had  had 
independent  growth.  .  .  .  Not  all  the  Celtic  ma- 
terial in  Arthurian  legends  came  from  the  Britons; 
some  of  it  came  from  the  Irish.  The  more 
medieval  literature  is  studied,  the  more  it  be- 
comes evident  that  Ireland  had  considerable  in- 
fluence in  shaping  the  Round  Table  stories.  .  .  . 
Irish  influence  on  the  Arthurian  legends  appears 
in  many  proper  names.  Even  .Arthur's  sword,  the 
famous  Excalibur,  seems  to  have  come  from  Ire- 
land. .  .  .  Stray  incidents,  too,  of  Arthurian  ro- 
mance are  paralleled  in  Irish  story.  The  hideous 
damsels  that  Perceval  meets  in  the  Grail  romances, 
some  of  whom,  apparently,  can  change  at  will  into 
creatures  of  radiant  beauty,  are  the  counter- 
parts of  Irish  hags  who  are  resplendent  fairies  in 
disguise.  And.  finally,  several  whole  stories  con- 
nected with  Arthur  appear  to  have  come  from 
Irish  sources.  That  excellent  story  of  the  Green 
Knight;  the  tale,  likewise,  of  the  knight  who  was 
changed  into  a  were-wolf;  and  the  story  of  the 
Marriage  of  Sir  Gawain  ...  all  these  are  mani- 
festly of  Irish  origin.    So  now  we  have  some  idea 


53S 


ARTHURIAN  LEGEND 


Poetic 
Expansion 


ARTHURIAN  LEGEND 


of  the  popular  beginnings  of  the  Arthurian  legends. 
The  historical  hero,  a  semi-barbarous  British  war- 
rior, became  a  romantic  hero  through  the  tendency 
of  human  nature  to  fasten  stories  to  noted  char- 
acters. Once  he  had  attracted  a  few  stories  to 
himself,  he  attracted  tales  more  and  more  marvel- 
lous. As  the  hero-story  went  on  growing,  it 
attracted  popular  material  of  all  kinds.  .  .  .  Thus 
on  both  sides  of  the  British  Channel,  but  probably 
more  in  the  British  Isles  than  on  the  Continent, 
there  grew  up  a  conglomerate  mass  of  romantic 
material,  which  has  given  us  the  stories  of  Arthur 
as  we  know  them." — H.  Maynadier,  Arthur  of  the 
En[,lish  poets,  pp.  43-4Q. 

Reflex  of  Age  of  Chivalry. — Poetic  expansion 
of  the  legend. — "One  of  the  strangest  phenomena 
in  the  history  of  literature  is  the  outburst  of 
Arthurian  romance  in  the  second  half  of  the 
twelfth  century.  A  few  years  suffice  to  lift  the 
hero  of  obscure  and  half-subjugated  tribes  into 
unrivalled  popularity  and  fame,  and  the  exploits 
of  his  followers,  a  little  while  before  unknown  to 
the  world  at  large,  become  all  at  once  the  en- 
grossing topic  for  the  imagination  of  Europe. 
Whatever  circumstances  may  have  contributed  to 
this  sudden  success,  it  cannot  be  fully  explained 
save  by  supposing  that  the  new  matter  was 
exceptionally  suitable  to  the  spirit  of  the  time.  It 
must  have  met  a  deep-felt  want,  and  shown  itself 
capable  of  receiving  the  stamp  of  the  medieval 
spirit  and  expressing  the  medieval  modes  of  life 
and  thought  more  perfectly,  than  any  previous 
theme.  And  in  the  history  of  the  typical  and 
international  fiction  of  the  Middle  Ages  there 
are  indications  that  this  was  the  case.  The  im- 
aginative activity  of  these  centuries  seems  to  at- 
tempt the  satisfaction  of  certain  spiritual  de- 
mands, but  till  the  Arthurian  stories  become  avail- 
able, the  attempt  has  only  partial  success.  .  .  . 
Now  the  ideals  that  swayed  the  higher  classes 
in  those  days  were  almost  summed  up  in  what  is 
styled  Chivalry.  It  would  be  wrong  to  call  the 
romances  chivalrous,  for  only  one  group  of  them 
fully  answers  this  description ;  but,  at  least,  they 
are  all  of  chivalrous  tendency  and  aim  at  em- 
bodying its  conceptions.  And  these  conceptions 
were  essentially  ideals.  It  has  once  and  again 
been  shown  that  there  never  was  an  actual  age 
of  chivalry,  and  that  when  in  later  times  people 
tried,  as  they  thought,  to  restore  it,  they  were 
attempting  to  import  into  practical  life  what  was 
in  truth  a  minstrel's  dream.  Nevertheless,  as  it 
was  a  dream  that  flitted  before  the  eyes  of  many 
generations,  it  was  in  its  way  a  very  substantial 
reality.  There  never  was  a  time  when  the  feudal 
knights  were  exactly  knights  errant,  but  there 
was  a  time  when  the  best  of  them  wished  that 
they  might  be  such,  eagerly  attaching  themselves 
to  any  hazardous  enterprise  that  had  been  set 
on  foot  for  more  politic  objects;  and  that  time  was 
practically  over  when  the  semblances  and  out- 
ward trappings  of  knighthood  were  most  in  vogue 
for  spectacle  and  pageantry.  The  real  meaning 
of  chivalry  lay  deeper.  It  had  arisen  as  a  kind 
of  compromise  between  the  ascetic  theology  of 
the  medieval  church  and  the  unsanctified  life  of 
the  world  which  that  church  rejected  as  wholly 
bad.  .  .  .  Faithful  service,  unselfish  virtue,  chaste 
constancy  in  love,  are  celebrated  in  several  popu- 
lar poems  especially  of  England  and  Germany, 
which  are  all  more  modern,  though  more  rude 
in  feeling,  than  the  international  romances.  But 
for  that  very  reason  they  are  less  representatively 
medieval.  But  the  adaptation  of  lay  ethics  to 
clerical  ethics  was  the  problem  of  the  higher 
classes,  and  its  solution  was  found  in  chivalry. 
The  transition  from  the  primitive  to  the  medieval 


state  of  things  is  marked  by  the  picturesque  trait, 
that  the  hero  becomes  a  knight.  This  short 
statement  implies  a  very  important  change,  which 
is  symbolised  in  the  complicated  ceremonies  of 
knightly  investiture,  very  different  from  the  few 
simple  rites  that  used  to  accompany  the  Teutonic 
youth's  assumption  of  arms.  .  .  .  The  principle 
of  honour  is  introduced,  which  appeals  to  the 
individual's  desire  for  pre-eminence  and  mastery, 
but  which  gratifies  it  only  if  he  submit  to  a  cer- 
tain code  of  conditions.  His  valour  must  be  car- 
ried to  an  extravagant  pitch ;  he  must  seek  out 
adventures,  and  face  the  greatest  odds ;  he  must 
refuse  advantages  and  show  mercy  to  the  suppliant 
and  courtesy  to  all:  his  quarrel  must  be  just, 
and  he  must  succour  the  poor  and  the  distressed. 
Far  removed  is  the  knight  from  the  old  heathen 
who  fought  and  fled,  waylaid  and  slew,  precisely 
as  it  pleased  himself.  And  in  the  third  place, 
while  only  some  of  the  knightly  orders  were 
pledged  to  celibacy,  they  were  all  bound  to  uphold 
the  honour  of  women;  and  gradually,  without  oath, 
they  submitted  themselves  to  that  strange  kind 
of  gallantry  known  as  the  Service  of  Love,  which 
at  this  distance  of  time  strikes  one  almost  as 
the  most  obvious  feature  of  the  chivalrous  char- 
acter. .  .  .  Arthur's  story,  congenial  in  all  es- 
sential respects  to  the  spirit  of  the  day  but  with- 
out the  rigidity  of  a  fixed  historical  tradition, 
was  still  plastic  in  the  hands  of  the  medieval 
poets  and  lent  itself  to  all  their  desires.  His 
exploits  and  feats  could  be  made  to  reflect  the 
adventurousness,  the  sense  of  honour,  the  courtoisie 
in  love  which  were  the  dream  of  knighthood  in 
the  twelfth  century.  There  were  only  two  limita- 
tions to  the  perfect  adequacy  of  the  material.  In 
the  first  place  no  single  person  could  completely 
exhaust  the  possibilities  of  chivalry  (q.  v.);  the 
biography  of  Arthur  was  insufficient  to  portray  its 
whole  fulness  and  wealth,  and  though  it  might 
fulfil  the  requirements  in  little,  it  could  not  bring 
out  the  various  developments  of  the  one  scheme. 
Arthur's  career  invited  supplements  from  the  ca- 
reers of  his  followers.  .  .  .  But  in  the  second  place, 
these  personages  were  in  some  ways  ever  more 
suitable  for  chivalrous  treatment  than  their  chief. 
For  they  were  knights  while  he  was  king.  His 
exploits  were  necessarily  on  the  large  public  scale, 
while  they  had  leisure  for  the  private  adventures 
of  errantry.  They  offered  themselves  for  the  il- 
lumination of  the  knightly  character  in  the  in- 
dividual, which  was  the  more  important  side,  in 
all  its  various  aspects.  It  was  natural,  there- 
fore, that  medieval  poetry  should  occupy  itself 
with  them  rather  than  with  the  king.  To  make 
room  for  them  he  is  thrust  aside,  as  Charlemagne 
had  been  by  the  peers,  and  his  historical  signifi- 
cance is  altogether  forgotten." — M.  W.  Maccalum, 
Tennyson,  Idylls  of  the  King  and  Arthurian  story 
from  the  sixteenth  century,  pp.  36-52. — See  also 
Chiv.^lry. 

"In  order  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  the  sub- 
ject, we  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the 
Anglo-Norman  romancers  set  themselves  the  task 
of  drawing,  not  simply  a  series  of  separate  tales, 
but  a  connected  epic  cyclus.  Consistency  and 
unity  were  to  them,  therefore,  the  very  soul  of 
their  labours.  What  Arthur  was  as  a  simple  squire 
in  Sir  Hector's  Cornish  castle,  that  must  he  be 
as  the  dying  hero  of  Camlan,  modified  only  by 
such  changes  of  character  as  the  circumstances 
of  his  life  would  naturally  bring  about.  He 
must  be  drawn  in  accordance  with  twelfth  century 
notions,  idealised,  as  matter  of  necessity,  since  he 
was  the  hero  of  a  romance,  but,  nevertheless,  a 
being  with  all  the  passions  and  failings  of  hu- 
manity clinging  to  him.     He  must  not,  in  word, 


539 


ARTI 


ARTS  AND   CRAFTS  MOVEMENT 


thought,  or  deed,  contradict  the  majestic  move- 
ment of  the  story,  whether  with  respect  to  the 
Grail  Quest  or  the  worlcing  out  of  the  tragic  curse. 
He  must  be  true  King,  true  knight,  true  war- 
rior, true  husband,  true  man;  and  yet,  withal, 
true  to  the  honest  failings  as  well  as  to  the 
noblest  aspirations  of  poor,  frail  humanity.  If 
Lancelot  is  the  ideal  of  earthly  knighthood, 
Galahad  of  earthly  purity.  Merlin  of  worldly  wis- 
dom, Elaine  and  Vivienne  of  human  love;  so 
Arthur  must  be  the  ideal  King,  surpassing  neither 
Lancelot  in  knighthood,  Galahad  in  purity,  Elaine 
in  love,  nor  Marlin  in  wisdom;  but  surpassing  all 
his  knights  in  kingly  character.  And  we  hold  that 
this  delicate  balance  has  been  maintained  in  the 
narrative  of  the  Norman  trouveres.  In  the  Anglo- 
Norman  version  of  the  epic  there  is  a  curse  that 
dogs  the  whole  life  of  King  Arthur,  and  which 
stands  out  as  one  of  the  grand  projections  of  the 
picture;  an  idea  too  vast  to  have  had  its  birth 
in  the  imagination  of  one  man;  a  dark,  over- 
hanging shadow,  doubtless  cast  by  some  national 
tradition  of  a  terrible  disaster.  This  tragic  ele- 
ment was  seized  upon  by  the  Norman  romancer 
and  worked  into  the  legend.  Following  oider 
traditions,  Map  [or  Mapes,  medieval  author,  d. 
1208]  had  to  bring  about  the  fall  of  the  King,  in 
a  final  battle,  the  utter  ruin  and  desolation  of 
which  required  the  richest  imagination  to  scheme 
and  the  broadest  genius  to  depict.  It  was  to  be 
the  finale  of  a  knightly  epoch;  the  closing  scene 
of  a  curse;  the  death  of  King  and  knights  at  the 
hands  of  an  abandoned  and  traitorous  wretch. 
How  could  the  Norman  romancer  heighten  the 
colouring  of  the  picture  more  effectively  than  by 
adopting  the  story  already  in  existence,  and  de- 
picting the  wretch  whose  hands  were  to  be 
stained  with  the  blood  of  his  sovereign,  as  the 
natural  offspring  of  the  monarch?  And  if,  m 
addition,  this  miscreant  should  be  painted  not  only 
as  a  natural  son,  but  as  the  result  of  a  terrible 
sin,  an  incest,  on  the  part  of  the  King  himself, 
what  could  possibly  be  wanting  to  render  the 
ending,  in  the  highest  degree,  tragic?  But  the 
deadly  sin  of  incest  must  be  unwittingly  com- 
mitted, else  the  King  would  be  a  villain.  And 
all  this  is  duly  carried  out  by  the  Norman  ro- 
mancer. To  draw  Arthur  as  Tennyson  does, 
'Blameless  King  and  stainless  man,'  or  'selfless 
man  and  stainless  gentleman,'  is  to  eliminate 
the  curse,  the  tragic  element  from  the  romance, 
and  destroy  the  most  appalling,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  telling  part  of  the  narrative.  A 
'blameless'  king,  whether  of  the  sixth,  twelfth 
or  nineteenth  century,  is  unthinkable.  Even 
Tennvson  himself  tells  us:  'He  is  all  fault  who 
is  no  fault  at  all.'  To  make  Arthur  'blameless' 
and  'stainless'  is  to  confound  two  distinct  per- 
sonages, Galahad  and  Arthur,  and  by  so  doing, 
to  destroy  the  perfection  of  the  epic." — S.  H.  Gur- 
teen,  Arthurian  epic.  pp.  32S-.^3i. 

ARTI  (Guilds)  OF  FLORENCE.    See  Flor- 
ence:  1248-1278. 

ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION  (Amer- 
ican).    See   U.   S.   A.:    1777-1781,   and   1783-1787. 
ARTICLES    OF    FAITH.     See    Church    of 
Engwno:    i534-i';63;  Thirty-nine  articles. 
ARTICLES  OF  HENRY.     See  Poland:  1573. 
ARTICLES  OF  UNION.    See  Scotland:  1707. 
ARTILLERY.     See   Ordnance:    igth   century, 
also    20th    century;    World    War:    Miscellaneous 
auxiliary  services:   VI.  Military   and  naval  equip- 
ment: a,  1. 

ARTISANS:     Law    governing,    in    England 
(1562),    See  .Apprentices,  Statxite  of. 

Their  importance  in  republic  of  Rome.     See 
Guilds:  Roman. 


ARTOIS,  Comte  d',  later  known  as  Charles  X. 
See  Charles  X. 

ARTOIS  (Latin,  Atrebates,  the  name  of  a  Gal- 
lic tribe),  ancient  province  of  France,  capital 
Arras,  almost  corresponding  to  modern  depart- 
ment of  Pas-de-Calais;  under  Flemish  rule  in 
early  Middle  Ages,  and  annexed  to  France  by 
Philip  Augustus  (1180)  ;  ceded  to  Robert,  brother 
of  Louis  IX  (1237),  and  later  passed  under  con- 
trol of  Flanders  and  Burgundy  (see  also  Bur- 
gundy: 1364;  1477);  ceded  to  France  by  treaties 
of  Nimeguen,  1678-1670.  The  region  was  the  scene 
of  severe  fighting  during  the  World  War.  See 
World  War:  1915:  II.  Western  front:  a,  5;  a,  7; 
j,  2;  j,  8;   1918:  II.  Western  front:  m. 

ARTOIS,  House  of,  the  hereditary  line  of  no- 
bility attached  to  the  ancient  province  of  Artois 
in  the  extreme  north  of  France. — See  also  Bour- 
bon, House  of. 

ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  MOVEMENT.— "In 
the  preface  to  the  Catalogue  of  the  Arts  and 
Crafts  Exhibition  at  Copley  Hall,  Boston,  in  1907, 
it  is  written:  'The  Arts-and-Crafts  movement  is 
founded  on  the  belief  that  the  objects  of  daily  use 
are  just  as  capable  in  their  lesser  degree,  of  being 
made  the  vehicles  of  artistic  expression  and  thus 
of  being  works  of  art,  as  are  the  works  of  paint- 
ing or  of  sculpture.  If  they  are  to  be  so,  it  is 
clear  that  they  must  be  the  work  of  men  and 
women  who  in  their  degree  are  artists,  and  that 
they  must  thus  be  made  by  the  hand  of  the  artist 
himself.'  " — C.  Peabody,  Arts  and  crafts  movement 
(American  Anthropologist,  v.  9,  p.  437,  New  Scries) . 
— The  arts  and  crafts  movement,  as  a  conscious 
development  of  modern  art,  is  to  be  attributed 
largely  to  William  Morris  and  the  others  of  the 
pre-Raphaelite  group;  although  Ruskin's  emphasis 
on  the  same  points  was  also  influential.  [See 
English  literature.]  The  first  Arts  and  Crafts 
Society  in  America  was  organized  in  Boston  in 
1897.  About  1900  the  German  government,  after 
a  systematic  study  of  English  organizations  and 
methods,  founded  the  German  "Werkbund."  Al- 
though more  or  less  interrupted  by  the  war,  the 
movement  has  increased  steadily  in  influence  and 
popular  interest  throughout  Europe  and  America 
It  is  everywhere  characterized  by  a  return  to 
the  comparatively  spontaneous  and  unconscious  art 
of  the  medieval,  oriental,  or  primitive  crafts- 
man, as  a  guide  to  technique  and  a  source  of 
artistic  inspiration.  "The  movement,  indeed,  rep- 
resents in  some  sense  a  revolt  against  the  hard 
mechanical  conventional  life  and  its  insensibility 
to  beauty  (quite  another  thing  to  ornament). 
[See  .\rt.]  It  is  a  protest  against  that  so-called 
industrial  progress  which  produces  shoddy  wares, 
the  cheapness  of  which  is  paid  for  by  the  lives  of 
their  producers  and  the  degradation  of  their  users. 
It  is  a  protest  against  the  turning  of  men  into 
machines,  against  artificial  distinctions  in  art,  and 
against  making  the  immediate  market  value,  or 
possibility  of  profit,  the  chief  test  of  artistic  merit. 
...  It  asserts,  moreover,  the  value  of  the  prac- 
tice of  handicraft  as  a  good  training  for  the 
faculties,  and  as  a  most  valuable  counteraction 
to  that  overstraining  of  the  purely  mental  effort 
under  the  fierce  competitive  conditions  of  the  day ; 
apart  from  the  very  wholesome  and  real  pleasure 
in  the  fashioning  of  a  thing  with  claims  to  art 
and  beauty,  the  struggle  with  the  trmmph  over 
the  stubborn  technical  necessities  which  refuse  to 
be  gainsaid." — W.  Crane,  Arts  and  crafts  essays, 
pp.  12-14. — "To  give  people  pleasure  in  the  things 
they  must  perforce  use,  that  is  one  great  office 
of  decoration ;  to  give  people  pleasure  in  the  things 
they  must  perforce  make,  that  is  the  other  use 
of  it."— W.  Morris,  Hopes  and  fears  for  art,  p.  4. 


540 


ARTZYBASHEV 


ARYANS 


— See  also  Education,  Art:  England;  Guilds: 
Medieval. 

Also  in:  W.  Crane,  William  Morris  to  Whistler. 
— W.  Morris,  Art,  architecture  and  wealth. 

ARTZYBASHEV,  Mikhail  Petrovitch,  born 
1878,  Russian  writer.  See  Russian  literature: 
1905-1921. 

ARUMANI,  Rumanians.    See  Vlakhs. 

ARUNDEL,  Earls  of,  the  line  of  the  premier 
earldom  of  England.  Origiuated  in  the  grant 
of  a  large  portion  of  Sussex  by  Henry  I  to  his  sec- 
ond wife;  in  1580  passed  from  the  Fitzalan  line  to 
the  Howards,  dukes  of  Norfolk. 

ARUNDEL,  Thomas  (1353-1414),  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  1303-1414;  impeached  and  banished 
through  the  enmity  of  Richard  II  (1397);  re- 
stored to  his  archbishopric  by  Henry  IV'  (1399); 
was  spokesman  of  the  clergy  and  vigorous  op- 
ponent of  the  Lollards. — See  also  England:  1360- 
1414. 

Also  in:  W.  F.  Hook,  Lives  of  the  archbishops 
of  Canterbury,  v.  4. 

ARUNDEL  MARBLES,  a  collection  of  in- 
scribed marbles  gathered  by  Thomas  Howard, 
earl  of  Arundel,  and  presented  to  Oxford  uni- 
versity in  1667  by  the  heirs  of  the  estate. 

ARUSCHA,  town  in  former  German  East 
Africa,  southwest  of  Kilimanjaro. 

Occupied  by  the  British.  See  World  War: 
1916:  VII.  African  theater:  a,  6;  a,  7. 

ARVADITES,  Canaanite  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Aradus,  or  Arvad.    See  Ruad. 

ARVERNA.    See  Gergovia  oe  the  Arverni. 

ARVERNI,  an  ancient  Gallic  tribe,  rivals  of 
the  ^dui  (q.v.). — See  also  ^dui;  Allobroges; 
and  Gaul:  People. 

ARX,  the  citadel  of  Rome.  See  Capitoline 
Hill;  also  Gens,  Roman. 

ARXAMUS,  Battle  of.— One  of  the  defeats 
sustained  by  the  Romans  in  their  wars  with  the 
Persians.  Battle  fought  603  A.  D.— G.  Rawlinson, 
Seventh   great    oriental    monarchy,   ch.    24. 

ARYA  SAMAJ  (Society  of  the  Noble),  was 
founded  in  India,  1875,  by  Mul  Sankar,  better 
known  as  Swami  Dayanand  Sarasvati,  who  was 
born  as  a  member  of  the  Shiva  cult,  broke  away 
from  it  for  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  and  finally  be- 
came a  religious  reformer  on  the  basis  of  the 
Sankhya-Yoga  philosophies.  (See  also  India:  Ab- 
original Inhabitants).  Dayanand  Sarasvati  had 
come  in  contact  with  modern  civilization  through 
many  channels,  and  endeavored  to  reform  Hindu- 
ism to  meet  the  conditions  of  modem  life.  He 
taught  belief  in  a  personal  God,  who  is  all-truth, 
all-knowledge,  incorporeal,  almighty,  just,  merciful, 
unbegotten,  unchangeable,  all-pervading,  and  the 
cause  of  the  universe.  "The  Vedas  are  the  books 
of  true  knowledge;  one  should  always  be  ready  to 
accept  truth;  all  ought  to  be  treated  with  love, 
justice,  and  in  disregard  of  their  merits ;  ignor- 
ance should  be  dispelled ;  and  everyone  should  re- 
gard his  prosperity  as  included  in  that  of  others. 
His  great  cry  was  'back  to  the  Vedas.'  ISee  also 
I.ndia:  Immigration  and  Conquest.]  He  pro- 
fessed to  derive  all  his  teaching  from  them,  but 
the  method  of  interpretation  by  which  he  ex- 
tracted the  true  doctrine  and  put  aside  all  that 
contradicted  it  was  peculiarly  his  own.  It  con- 
formed neither  to  Hindu  canons  of  interpretation 
nor  to  those  of  scientific  exegesis.  According 
to  him  salvation  was  to  be  accomplished  by  ef- 
fort. No  distinctions  of  caste  are  regarded  valid. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  adherents  of  the  Arya 
Samaj  now  [1917]  number  about  100,000,  The 
Samaj  is  now  divided  into  a  'cultured'  and  a  con- 
servative party.  The  former  eats  meat  and  fos- 
ters  modern   education,   maintaining   a  creditable 


college  at  Lahore;  the  latter  is  vegetarian,  and 
adheres  to  the  ancient  ideas  of  education." — G.  A. 
Barton,  Religious  of  the  world,  pp.  igS-igg. — 
"Originally  it  was  a  purely  religious  movement, 
bused  upon  the  teaching  of  the  Vedas.  It  pro- 
motes the  abolition  of  caste  and  idoltary,  con- 
demns early  marriages,  and  permits  the  remarriage 
of  widows.  At  the  same  time  it  is  violently  hos- 
tile to  Christianity.  There  can  be  no  question 
tbat  laige  numl.ers  of  members  of  the  Arya  Samaj 
are  only  concerned  with  its  spiritual  side;  but 
there  can  be  equally  no  question  that  the  organiza- 
tion, as  a  whole,  has  developed  marked  political 
tendencies  subversive  of  British  rule.  .  .  .  The 
members  of  I  he  Samaj  strenuously  deny  that  their 
organization  has  a  political  side.  The  literature 
of  the  sect,  and  particularly  the  writings  of  their 
founder,  who  came  from  Kathiawar,  show  no 
trace  of  any  interest  in  mundane  politics. 
Dayanand  was  an  enthusiast  who  denounced  the 
idolatrous  tendenciss  of  modern  Hinduism,  and 
advocated  a  return  to  the  earlier,  purer  faith. 
.  .  .  Dayanand's  clarion  call  of  'Back  to  the  Vedas' 
produced  a  complete  revulsion  of  feeling,  and 
he  made  the  Punjab  a  stronghold  of  the  new 
creed.  For  that  reason,  the  Arya  Samaj  is  to 
this  day  the  bitterest  opponent  of  Christianity 
in  India;  and  Punjab  Mahomedans  declare  that 
it  is  also  their  most  formidable  foe." — India  cor- 
respondence of  The  London  Times. 

ARYABHATTA,  (c.  476),  Hindu  astronomer. 
See  Algebra. 

ARYANS,  or  Aryas. — Meaning  of  term. — 
Theories  of  origin. — "This  family  (which  is 
sometimes  called  Japhetic,  or  descendants  .  of 
Japhet)  includes  the  Hindus  and  Persians  among 
Asiatic  nations,  and  almost  all  the  peoples  of 
Europe.  It  may  seem  •  strange  that  we  English 
should  be  related  not  only  to  the  Germans  and 
Dutch  and  Scandinavians,  but  to  the  Russians, 
French,  Spanish,  Romans  and  Greeks  as  well; 
stranger  still  that  we  can  claim  kinship  with 
such  distant  peoples  as  the  Persians  and  Hindus. 
.  .  .  What  seems  actually  to  have  been  the  case 
is  this:  In  distant  ages,  somewhere  about  the 
rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  and  on  the  north  of 
that  mountainous  range  called  the  Hindoo-Koosh, 
dwelt  the  ancestors  of  all  the  nations  we  have 
enumerated,  forming  at  this  time  a  single  and 
united  people,  simple  and  primitive  in  their  way 
of  life,  but  yet  having  enough  of  a  common  na- 
tional life  to  preserve  a  common  language.  They 
called  themselves  Aryas  or  Aryans,  a  word 
which,  in  its  very  earliest  sense,  seems  to  have 
meant  those  who  move  upwards,  or  straight; 
and  hence,  probably,  came  to  stand  for  the  noble 
race  as  compared  with  other  races  on  whom,  of 
course,  they  would  look  down.  ...  As  their  num- 
bers increased,  the  space  wherein  they  dwelt  be- 
came too  small  for  them  who  had  out  of  one 
formed  many  different  peoples.  Then  began  a 
series  of  migrations,  in  which  the  collection  of 
tribes  who  spoke  one  language  and  formed  one 
people  started  off  to  seek  their  fortune  in  new 
lands.  .  .  .  First  among  them,  in  all  probability, 
started  the  Kelts  or  Celts,  who,  travelling  perhaps 
to  the  South  of  the  Caspian  and  the  North 
of  the  Black  Sea,  found  their  way  to  Europe 
and  spread  far  on  to  the  extreme  West.  .  .  .  An- 
other of  the  great  families  who  left  the  Aryan 
home  was  the  Pelasgic  or  the  Grsco-Italic.  These, 
journeying  along  first  Southwards  and  then  to 
the  West,  passed  through  Asia  Minor,  on  to  the 
countries  of  Greece  and  Italy,  and  in  time  sep- 
arated into  those  two  great  peoples,  the  Greeks 
(or  Hellenes,  as  they  came  to  call  themselves), 
and  the  Romans.  .  .  .  Next  we  come  to  two  other 


541 


ARYANS 


Distribution 
Anthropology 


ARYANS 


great  families  of  nations  who  seem  to  have  taken 
the  same  route  at  first,  and  perhaps  began  their 
travels  together  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans  did. 
These  ars  the  Teutons  and  the  Slavs.  .  .  .  The 
word  Slav  comes  from  Slowan,  which  in  old 
Slavonian  meant  to  speak,  and  was  given  by  the 
Slavonians  to  themselves  as  the  people  who  could 
speak  in  opposition  to  other  nations  whom,  as 
they  were  not  able  to  understand  them,  they 
were  pleased  to  consider  as  dumb.  The  Greek 
word  barbaroi  (whence  our  barbarians)  arose  in 
obedience  to  a  like  prejudice,  only  from  an  imita- 
tion of  babbling  such  as  is  made  by  saying,  'bar- 
bar-bar.' " — C.  F.  Keary.  Dawn  of  history  (1878), 
ch.  4. — The  above  passage  sets  forth  the  older 
theory  of  an  Aryan  family  of  nations  as  well  as 
of  languages  in  its  unqualiiied  form.  Its  later 
modifications  are  indicated  in  the  following:  "The 
discovery  of  Sanscrit  and  the  further  discovery  to 
which  it  led,  that  the  languages  now  variously 
known  as  Aryan,  Aryanic,  Indo-European,  Indo- 
Germanic,  Indo-Celtic  and  Japhetic  are  closely 
akin  to  one  another,  spread  a  spell  over  the  world 
of  thought  which  cannot  be  said  to  have  yet 
wholly  passed  away.  It  was  hastily  argued  from 
the  kinship  of  their  languages  to  the  kin:-hip  of 
the  nations  that  spoke  them.  .  .  .  The  question 
then  arises  as  to  the  home  of  the  'holethnos,'  or 
parent  tribe,  before  its  dispersion  and  during  the 
proethnic  period,  at  a  time  when  as  yet  theie 
was  neither  Greek  nor  Hindoo,  neither  Celt  nor 
Teuton,  but  only  an  undifferentiated  Aryan.  Of 
course,  the  answer  at  first  was — where  could  it 
have  been  but  in  the  East.  And  at  length  tho 
gU)ttologist  found  it  necessary  to  shift  the  cradle 
of  the  Aryan  race  to  the  neighbourhood  of  tho 
Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  so  as  to  place  it  somewhere 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  -and  the  Himalayas.  I  See 
also  India:  B.C.  2000-600.]  Then  Doctor  Latham 
boldly  raised  his  voice  against  the  Asiatic  theory 
altogether,  and  stated  that  he  regarded  the  at- 
tempt to  deduce  the  Aryans  from  Asia  as  resem- 
bling an  attempt  to  derive  the  reptiles  of  this 
country  from  those  of  Ireland.  Afterwards  Ben- 
fey  argued,  from  the  presence  in  the  vocabulary 
common  to  the  Aryan  languages  of  words  for  bear 
and  wolf,  for  birch  and  beach,  and  the  absence 
of  certain  others,  such  as  those  for  lion,  tiger 
and  palm,  that  the  original  home  of  the  .iry-ins 
must  have  been  within  the  temperate  zone  in 
Europe.  ...  As  might  be  expected  in  tho  case  of 
such  a  difficult  question,  those  who  are  inclined 
to  believe  in  the  European  origin  of  the  Aryans 
are  by  no  means  agreed  among  themselves  as  to 
the  spot  to  be  fixed  upon.  Latham  placed  it 
east,  or  south-east  of  Lithuania,  in  Podolia,  or 
\olhynia ;  Benfey  had  in  view  a  district  above 
the  Black  Sea  and  not  far  from  the  Caspian; 
Peschel  fixed  on  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus;  Cuno 
on  the  great  plain  of  Central  Europe;  Fligier  on 
the  southern  part  of  Russia ;  Posche  on  the  tract 
between  the  Niemen  and  the  Dnieper;  L.  Geiger  on 
central  and  western  Germany ;  and  Penka  on 
Scandinavia." — J.  Rhys,  Race  theories  (New 
Princeton   Review,  Jan.,   1888). 

Distribution. — Anthropological  characteristics. 
— Race  relations. — "For  the  last  two  thousand 
years,  at  least,  the  southern  half  of  Scan- 
dinavia and  the  opposite  or  southern  shores 
of  the  Baltic  have  been  occupied  by  a  race 
of  mankind  possessed  of  very  definite  charac- 
ters. Typical  specimens  have  tall  and  massive 
frames,  fair  complexions,  blue  eyes,  and  yel- 
low or  reddish  hair — that  is  to  say,  they  are 
pronounced  blond?  Their  skulls  are  long,  in  the 
sense  that  the  breadth  is  usually  less,  often  much 
less,  than   four-fifths  of  the  length,  and  they  are 


usually  tolerably  high.  But  in  this  last  respect 
they  vary.  Men  of  this  blond,  long-headed  race 
abound  from  eastern  Prussia  to  northern  Belgium ; 
they  are  met  with  in  northern  France  and  are 
common  in  some  parts  of  our  own  islands.  The 
people  of  Teutonic  speech,  Goths,  Saxons,  Ale- 
manni,  and  Franks,  who  poured  forth  out  of  the 
regions  bordering  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic, 
to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire,  were 
men  of  this  race;  and  the  accounts  of  the  ancient 
historians  of  the  incursions  of  the  Gauls  into 
Italy  and  Greece,  between  the  fifth  and  the  sec- 
ond centuries  B.C.,  leave  little  doubt  that  their 
hordes  were  largely,  if  not  wholly,  composed  uf 
similar  men.  The  contents  of  numerous  inter- 
ments in  southern  Scandinavia  prove  that,  as  far 
back  as  archaeology  takes  us  into  the  so-called 
neolithic  age,  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
had  the  same  stature  and  cranial  pecularities  as 
at  present,  though  their  bony  fabric  bears  marks 
of  somewhat  greater  ruggedness  and  savagery. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  country  was  oc- 
cupied by  men  before  the  advent  of  these  tall, 
blond  long-heads.  But  there  is  proof  of  the 
presence,  along  with  the  latter,  of  a  small  per- 
centage of  people  with  broad  skulls;  that  is, 
the  breadth  of  which  is  more,  often  very  much 
more,  than  four-fifths  of  the  length.  .•\t  th': 
present  day,  in  whatever  direction  we  travel  in- 
land from  the  continental  area  occupied  by  the 
blond  long-heads,  whether  south-west  into  cen- 
tral France;  south,  through  the  Walloon  provinces 
of  Belgium  into  eastern  France;  into  Switzerland, 
South  Germany,  and  the  Tyrol;  or  south-east  into 
Poland  and  Russia;  or  north,  into  Finland  and 
Lapland,  broad-heads  make  their  appearance,  in 
force,  among  the  long-heads.  And,  eventually,  we 
find  ourselves  among  people  who  are  as  regularly 
broad-headed  as  the  Swedes  and  North  Germans 
are  long-headed.  As  a  general  rule,  in  France. 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  South  Germany,  the 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  broad  skulls  is  ac- 
companied by  the  appearance  of  a  larger  and 
larger  proportion  of  men  of  brunet  complexion 
and  of  a  lower  stature;  until,  in  central  France 
and  thence  eastwards,  through  the  Cevennes  and 
the  .\lps  of  Dauphiny,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont,  to 
the  western  plains  of  North  Italy,  the  tall  blond 
long-heads  practically  disappear,  and  are  replaced 
by  short  brunet  broad-heads.  The  ordinary  Savoy- 
ard may  be  described  in  terms  the  converse  of 
those  which  apply  to  the  ordinary  Swede.  He  is 
short,  swarthy,  dark-eyed,  dark-haired,  and  his 
skull  is  very  broad.  Between  the  two  extreme 
types,  the  one  seated  on  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Baltic,  and  the  other  on  those  of 
the  Mediterranean,  there  are  all  sorts  of  inter- 
mediate forms,  in  which  breadth  of  skull  may  be 
found  in  tall  and  in  short  blond  men,  and  in 
tall  brunet  men.  There  is  much  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  brunet  broad-heads,  now  met  with 
in  central  France  and  in  the  west  central  Euro- 
pean highlands,  have  inhabited  the  same  region, 
not  only  throughout  the  historical  period,  but  lone 
before  it  commenced ;  and  it  is  probable  that  their 
area  of  occupation  was  formerly  more  extensive. 
For.  if  we  leave  aside  the  comparatively  late  in- 
cursions of  the  Asiatic  races  the  centre  of  erup- 
tion of  the  invaders  of  the  southern  moiety  of 
Europe  has  been  situated  in  the  north  and  west. 
In  the  case  of  the  Teutonic  inroads  upon  the 
Empire  of  Rome,  it  undoubtedly  lay  in  the  area 
now  occupied  by  the  blond  long-heads;  and,  in 
that  of  the  antecedent  Gaulish  invasions,  the 
physical  characters  ascribed  to  the  leading  tribes 
point  to  the  same  conclusion.  Whatever  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  breaking  out  of  bounds  of 


542 


ARYANS 


Anthropology 
Types 


ARYANS 


the  blond  long-heads,  in  mass,  at  particular  epochs, 
the  natural  increase  in  numbers  of  a  vigorous  and 
fertile  race  must  always  have  impelled  them  to 
press  upon  their  neighbours,  and  thereby  afford 
abundant  occasions  for  intermixture.  If,  at  any 
given  pre-historic  time,  we  suppose  the  lowlands 
verging  on  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea  lo  have 
been  inhabited  by  pure  blond  long-heads,  while 
the  central  highlands  were  occupied  by  pure  brunet 
short-heads,  the  two  would  certainly  meet  and 
intermix  in  course  of  time,  in  spite  of  the  vast 
belt  of  dense  forest  which  extended,  almost  un- 
interruptedly, from  the  Carpathians  to  the  Ar- 
dennes; and  the  result  would  be  such  an  irregular 
gradation  of  the  one  type  into  the  other  as  we 
do,  in  fact,  meet  with.  On  the  south-east,  east, 
and  north-east,  throughout  what  was  once  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  and  in  Finland,  the  pre- 
ponderance of  broad-heads  goes  along  with  i  wide 
prevalence  of  blond  complexion  and  of  good 
stature.  In  the  extreme  north,  on  the  other  hand, 
marked  broad-headedness  is  combined  with  low 
stature,  swarthiness,  and  more  or  less  strongly 
Mongolian  features,  in  the  Lapps.  And  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  this  type  prevails  increasingly 
to  the  eastward,  among  the  central  Asiatic  popula- 
tions. The  population  of  the  British  Islands, 
at  the  present  time,  offers  the  two  extremes  of 
the  tall  blond  and  the  short  brunet  types.  The 
tall  blond  long-heads  resemble  those  of  the  con- 
tinent ;  but  our  short  brunet  race  is  long-headed. 
Brunet  broad-heads,  such  as  those  met  with  in 
the  central  European  highlands,  do  not  exist 
among  us.  .  .  .  The  short  brunet  long-heads  are 
not  peculiar  to  our  islands.  On  the  contrary,  they 
abound  in  western  France  and  in  Spain,  while  they 
predominate  in  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  South  Italy, 
and,  it  may  be,  occupied  a  much  larger  area  in 
ancient  times.  Thus,  in  the  region  which  has  been 
under  consideration,  there  are  evidences  of  the 
existence  of  four  races  of  men — ( i )  blond  long- 
heads of  tall  stature,  (2)  brunet  broad-heads  of 
short  stature,  (3)  mongoloid  brunet  broad-heads 
of  short  stature,  (4)  brunet  long-heads  of  short 
stature.  The  regions  in  which  these  races  ap- 
pear with  least  admixture  are — (i)  Scandinavia, 
North  Germany,  and  parts  of  the  British  Islands; 
(2)  central  France,  the  central  European  high- 
lands, and  Piedmont;  (3)  Arctic  and  eastern  Eu- 
rope, central  Asia;  (4)  the  western  parts  of  the 
British  Islands  and  of  France,  Spain,  and  South 
Italy.  And  the  inhabitants  of  the  localities  which 
lie  between  these  foci  present  the  intermediate 
gradations,  such  as  short  blond  long-heads,  and 
tall  brunet  short-heads,  and  long-heads  v.'hich 
might  be  expected  to  result  from  their  intermix- 
ture. The  evidence  at  present  extant  is  consistent 
with  the  supposition  that-  the  blond  long-head=, 
the  brunet  broad-heads,  and  the  brunet  long-heads 
have  existed  in  Europe  throughout  historic  times, 
and  very  far  back  into  pre-historic  times.  Thure 
is  no  proof  of  any  migration  of  Asiatics  into 
Europe,  west  of  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper,  down  to 
the  time  of  Attila.  On  the  contrary,  the  first 
great  movements  of  the  European  population  of 
which  there  is  any  conclusive  evidence  is  that 
series  of  Gaulish  invasions  of  the  east  and  south, 
which  ultimately  extended  from  North  Italy  as  far 
as  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor." — T.  H.  Huxley,  Man's 
place  in  nature   (1863),  pp.  230-243. 

"(a)  It  is  held,  on  the  one  hand,  that  there 
is  but  a  single  blond  race,  type  or  stock  (Keane, 
Lapouge,  Sergi),  and  on  the  other  hand  that  there 
are  several  such  races  or  types,  more  or  less 
distinct  but  presumably  related  (Deniker,  Beddoe, 
and  other,  especially  British,  ethnologists).  (6) 
There  is  no  good  body  of  evidence  going  to  estab- 


lish a  great  antiquity  for  the  blond  stock,  and 
there  are  indications,  though  perhaps  inconclusive, 
that  the  blond  strain,  including  all  the  blond 
types,  is  of  relatively  late  date — unless  a  Berber 
(Kabyle)  blond  race  is  to  be  accepted  in  a  more 
unequivocal  manner  than  hitherto,  (c)  Neither 
is  there  anything  like  convincing  evidence  that 
this  blond  strain  has  come  from  outside  of  Europe 
— except,  again,  for  the  equivocal  Kabyle — or 
that  any  blond  race  has  ever  been  widely  or 
permanently  distributed  outside  of  its  present  Eu- 
ropean habitat,  (d)  The  blond  race  is  not  found 
unmixed.  In  point  of  pedigree  all  individuals 
showing  the  blond  traits  are  hybrids,  and  the 
greater  number  of  them  show  their  mixed  blood 
in  their  physical  traits,  (c)  There  is  no  com- 
munity, large  or  small,  made  up  exclusively  of 
blond:,  or  nearly  so,  and  there  is  no  good  e^"!- 
dence  available  that  such  an  all-blond  or  virtually 
all-blond  community  ever  has  existed,  either  in 
historic  or  prehistoric  times.  The  race  appears 
never  to  have  lived  in  isolation.  (/)  It  occurs 
in  several  (perhaps  hybrid)  variants — unless  these 
variants  are  to  be  taken  (with  Deniker)  as  sev- 
eral distinct  races.  (g)  Counting  the  Dolicho- 
blond  as  the  original  type  of  the  race,  its  nearest 
apparent  relative  among  the  races  of  mankind 
is  the  Mediterranean  (of  Sergi),  at  least  in  point 
of  physical  traits.  At  the  same  time  the  blond 
race,  or  at  least  the  Dolicho-blond  type,  has  never 
since  neolithic  times,  so  far  as  known,  extensively 
and  permanently  lived  in  contact  with  the  Medi- 
terranean, ill)  The  various  (national)  ramifica- 
tions of  the  blond  stock — or  rather  the  various 
racial  mixtures  into  which  an  appreciable  blond 
element  enters — are  all,  and  to  all  appearance  have 
always  been,  of  Aryan  ('Indo-European,'  'Indo- 
Germanic')  speech — with  the  equivocal  exception 
of  the  Kabyle.  (i)  Yet  far  the  greater  number 
and  variety  (national  and  linguistic)  of  men  who 
use  the  Aryan  speech  are  not  prevailingly  blond, 
or  even  appreciably  mi.xed  with  blond.  (;')  The 
blond  race,  or  the  peoples  with  an  appreciable 
blond  admixture,  and  particularly  the  communities 
in  which  the  Dolicho-blond  element  prevails,  show 
little  or  none  of  the  peculiarly  Aryan  institutions 
— understanding  by  that  phrase  not  the  known 
institutions  of  the  ancient  Germanic  peoples,  but 
the  range  of  institutions  said  by  competent  philolo- 
gists to  be  reflected  in  the  primitive  Aryan  speech. 
(k)  These  considerations  raise  the  presumption 
that  the  blond  race  was  not  originally  of  Aryan 
speech  or  of  Aryan  culture,  and  they  also  suggest 
(/)  that  the  Mediterranean,  the  nearest  apparent 
relative  of  the  Dolicho-blond,  was  likewise  not 
originally  Aryan." — T.  B.  Veblen,  Place  of  science 
in  modern  civilization  and  other  essays,  pp.  459- 
460. — The  theories  which  dispute  the  Asiatic  origin 
of  the  Aryans  are  strongly  presented  by  Canon 
Taylor  in  "Origin  of  the  Aryans,"  by  G.  H.  Kendall, 
in  "Cradle  of  the  Aryans,"  and  by  Dr.  O.  Schrader 
in  "Prehistoric  antiquities  of  the  Aryan  peoples." 

Aryan  types. — "And  the  man  himself,  this 
older  Aryan?  What  of  him?  Is  it  possible  after 
so  many  ages  to  form  a  race  picture  of  that 
Proto-Aryan,  the  manner  of  man  he  was  physically, 
mentally,  spiritually?  A  composite  portrait  might 
after  a  fashion  be  made  by  combinmg  the  salient 
features  of  his  various  race  descendants.  He 
certainly  had  within  him  the  germs  at  least  of 
a  masterful  man,  for  each  of  his  descendants  has 
been  somewhere,  at  some  time  in  the  world's  his- 
tory, one  of  its  masters,  and  the  history  of  the 
world  is  largely  of  their  making.  In  fact,  the 
history  of  the  world  is  largely  only  the  his- 
tory of  the  Aryan  man.  It  must  have  been  a 
vigorous  stock  that  could  thus  stamp  its  impress 


543 


ARYO-DRAVIDIANS 


ASCALON 


so  indelibly  upon  the  ages.  Reconstructing  him 
physically  from  the  transmitted  features  which 
mark  his  children  in  aU  lands,  as  one  produces 
from  a  group  of  photographs  a  composite  picture, 
and  especially  reproducing  the  picture  from  the 
race  types  of  those  of  his  children  who  are  liv- 
ing their  race  life  amid  climatic  environments 
similar  to  those  of  the  original  Proto-Aryan  race 
home,  and  making  due  allowance  for  the  varia- 
tions vvhich  are  incident  to  migration  and  civiliza- 
tion, we  may  judge  hii.i  to  have  been  in  stature 
of  medium  height,  yet  varying  from  this  toward 
tallncss  rather  than  toward  undersize;  full-chested; 
long-limbed,  yet  symmetrical  of  build;  a  free  step- 
per; a  clear  striker  whether  with  the  hand  or 
the  sword;  in  build  rather  spare,  of  active  habit; 
a  lover  of  outdoor  life,  of  the  field,  of  the  chase; 
a  man  already  feeling  that  he  was  the  superior 
of  the  races  about  him,  feeling  already  the  stir  of 
the  masterful  spirit  within  him,  features  well- 
marked  and  clean-cut;  nose  finely  chiseled  but 
rather  prominent;  chin  well  developed;  mouth 
large  yet  not  gross;  teeth  regular,  showing  ample 
jaw  space;  eyes  blue  or  gray,  rather  than  dark, 
and  set  well  under  brows  that  project  in  a  strongly 
developed  supra-orbital  ridge;  a  forehead  high 
rather  than  broad,  yet  swelling  out  above  and 
behind  the  temples;  dome  of  the  head  well  arched; 
head  long  rather  than  thick  through,  the  dolicho- 
cephalous  rathe'-  than  the  brachicephalous  type, 
broad  above  rather  than  at  the  base;  hair  fine, 
light  in  color,  reddish  or  brown  rather  than 
black,  straight  or  slightly  wavy;  complexion 
tanned  by  the  winds  of  his  life  afield,  yet  back  of 
the  tan  tlie  ruddy  skin  of  the  blonde:  in  all 
things  the  opposite  of  the  Mongol  upon  the  east 
or  the  Negroid  upon  the  south;  more  akin  in 
form  and  feature  to  the  Semite.  This  tall,  fair, 
dolichocephalous  type  we  find  everywhere  among 
the  Aryan  peoples;  and  where  another  type  is 
mixed  with  it,  the  first  type  as  here  given  domi- 
nates as  leader.  It  is  inferentially,  and  indeed  may 
be  assumed  to  be  logically,  the  true  Aryan  type, 
as,  while  it  remains  constant  in  all  the  family 
ramifications,  the  other  types  vary  and  change." — 
J.  P.  Widney,  Race  life  of  the  Aryan  peoples,  pp. 
26-27. — See  also  Anthropology;  Linguistics;  Bal- 
kan states:  Races  existing;  Brehon  laws:  Gen- 
eral character  of  ancient  Irish  laws;  Europe:  Intro- 
duction to  the  historic  period:  Distribution  of 
races;  Georgia,  Republic  of:  Ethnology;  India: 
People;  India:  B.C.  2000-600;  Macebonia:  Early 
inhabitants;  Religion:   B.C.  1000;  Shutes. 

Also  in:  S.  Leslie.  Celt  and  the  world  (1907). 
— T.  B.  Veblen,  Blond  race  and  the  Aryan  cul- 
ture  (1013)- 

ARYO-DRAVIDIANS.    See  India:  People. 

ARZ,  Field  Marshal  von,  Austrian  commander- 
in-chief,  in  an  attack  near  Lembcrg,  See  World 
War:   1915:  III.  Eastern  front:  f,  6. 

AS,  LIBRA,  DENARIUS,  SESTERTIUS. 
— "The  term  As  [among  the  Romans]  and  the 
words  which  denote  its  divisions,  were  not  con- 
fined to  weight  alone,  but  were  applied  to  meas- 
ures of  length  and  capacity  also,  and  in  gen- 
eral to  any  object  which  could  be  regarded  as 
consisting  of  twelve  equal  parts.  Thus  they 
were  commonly  used  to  denote  shares  into  which 
an  inheritance  was  divided."  As  a  unit  of 
weight  the  as,  or  libra,  "occupied  the  same  posi- 
tion in  the  Roman  system  as  the  pound  does  in 
our  own.  According  to  the  most  accurate  re- 
searches, the  As  was  equal  to  about  11  4/5  oz. 
avoirdupois,  or  .737S  of  an  avoirdupois  pound." 
It  "was  divided  into  12  equal  parts  called  uncia, 
and  the  uncia  was  divided  into  24  equal  parts 
called   scrupula."     "The   As,   regarded   as   a   coin 


[of  copper]  originally  weighed,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, one  pound,  and  the  smaller  copper  coins 
those  fractioas  of  the  pound  denoted  by  their 
names.  By  degrees,  however,  the  weight  of  the 
As,  regarded  as  a  coin,  was  greatly  diminished. 
We  are  told  that,  about  the  commencement  of 
the  first  Punic  war,  it  had  fallen  fsum  12  ounces 
to  2  ounces;  in  the  early  part  of  the  second 
Punic  war  (B.C.  217),  it  was  reduced  to  one 
ounce;  and  not  long  afterwards,  by  a  Lex  Papiria, 
it  was  fixed  at  half-an-ounce,  which  remained 
the  standard  ever  after."  The  silver  coins  of 
Rome  were  the  denarius,  equivalent  (after  217 
B.C.)  to  16  asses;  the  quinarius  and  the  sestertius, 
which  became,  respectively,  one  half  and  one  fourth 
of  the  denarius  in  value.  The  sestertius,  at  the 
close  of  the  republic,  is  estimated  to  have  been 
equivalent  in  value  to  two  pence  sterling  of 
English  money.  The  coinage  was  debased  under 
the  Empire.  The  principal  gold  coin  of  the 
Empire  was  the  denarius  Aureus,  which  passed 
for  25  silver  denarii. — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of 
Roman  antiquities,  ch.  13. 

ASAF-UD-DOWLAH,  nawab  wazir  of  Oudh, 
India,  1775-1797-  The  spoliation  of  his  mother 
and  grandmother,  the  begums  of  Oudh,  was  one 
of  the  charges  against  Warren  Hastings.  See 
India:    1773-1785. 

ASKI,  George  (1788-1S71),  Rumanian  teacher. 
See  Rumania:  19th  century. 

ASBURY,  Francis  (1745-1S16),  founder  of 
Methodist  church  in  America.  See  Bristol:  1739; 
Methodists. 

ASCALON,  Ashkelon  or  Askelon,  one  of 
the  five  chief  cities  of  ancient  Philistia,  situated 
on  the  Mediterranean  thirty-nine  miles  southwest 
of  Jerusalem;  birthplace  of  Herod  I;  scene  of 
victory  of  Crusaders  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
(1099)  ;  captured  by  the  Crusaders  under  Baldwin 
III  in  1 157,  and  by  Saladin  in  1187;  destroyed  in 
1270.  "The  Philistine  city  where  Samson  slew 
the  30  men  and  took  their  spoil,  is  now  being  ex^ 
cavated  by  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  Garstang.  The  site  of 
Ascalon  has  been  uninhabited  practically  since 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  prophecies 
in  Zephaniah  (ii,  4),  'For  Gaza  shall  be  for- 
saken and  Ashkelon  a  desolation,'  and  Zechariah 
(ix,  5),  'and  the  king  shall  perish  from  Gaza 
and  Ashkelon  shall  not  be  inhabited,'  have  been 
fulfilled.  When  the  British  troops  occupied  Ascalon 
in  1917,  a  few  squalid  huts  were  found  among 
the  ruins  of  this  once  great  city.  Terraced  gar- 
dens and  orchards  cover  the  site,  and  a  mound 
runs  round  it  composed  of  the  fallen  ramparts 
partly  covering  the  Byzantine  and  medieval 
ramparts  and  the  many  towers.  In  the  Crusades 
Ascalon  was  the  last  place  to  hold  out  against 
the  Crusaders,  being  finally  taken  by  them,  re- 
taken by  Saladin,  and  again  taken  by  Richard 
C(£ur-de-Lion,  who  renovated  the  destroyed  walls 
and  towers.  By  mutual  consent  and  cooperation 
the  fortifications  were  again  destroyed.  In  1240 
an  attempt  was  made  to  refortify  the  town,  but 
in  1270  the  complete  destruction  came  under 
the  Sultan  Bibars.  So  thorough  was  this  destruc- 
tion that  not  a  single  architectural  fragment  has 
been  found  in  its  original  position,  and  the  stones 
and  sculptures  were  destroyed,  many  being  sawn 
through.  During  the  Roman  period  Ascalon  was 
an  important  city,  and  in  104  B.  C.  was  made  a 
free  state  under  Roman  protection.  In  the  pre- 
liminary excavations  two  statues  already  known 
to  exist  were  unearthed,  one  a  statue  of  Fortune, 
the  other  of  Victory,  half  built  into  the  walls. 
These  statues  of  large  size  are  in  half  relief. 
The  statue  of  Victory  stands  with  feet  resting  on 


544 


ASCANIANS 


ASHANTI 


the  earth,  which  is  supported  on  the  shoulders 
of  Atlas.  There  has  been  excavated  a  third  statue 
presumed  to  be  of  Peace.  A  sixth  century  writer, 
Antonius  the  Martyr,  speaks  of  a  Pool  of  Peace, 
with  steps  like  the  seats  in  a  Greek  or  Roman 
theater  and  a  portico  of  steps  leading  to  the  water's 
edge;  this  has  now  been  revealed  by  the  excava- 
tions. Near  by  is  the  legendary  well  of  Abraham, 
presumably  the  legendary  sacred  lake  of  Ascalon. 
Since  the  recommencement  of  the  excavations  this 
spring,  a  gigantic  sandaled  foot,  a  yard  long, 
and  an  arm  of  a  huge  marble  statue  have  been 
found  in  a  marble  shrine.  The  history  of  Ascalon 
can  be  taken  back  to  about  1370  B.  C.  in  the 
Telel-Amarna  tablets;  at  this  time  its  inhabitants 
were  still  Canaanites.  The  Philistines  came  about 
1184  B.C.  This  Philistine  period  is  one  known 
little  about.  Caphtor,  the  ISiblical  home  of  the 
Philistines,  is  the  land  of  Kefti  of  the  Egyptian 
records,  presumed  to  be  Crete.  The  Philistines  had 
some  connection  with  Crete,  but  they  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  Cretans;  it  is  also  more  doubt- 
ful that  they  came  from  Cyprus.  They  are  rep- 
resented on  ancient  reliefs,  etc.,  as  wearing 
peculiar  headdresses  with  a  band  under  the  chin, 
and  carrying  round  shields.  There  is  a  resemblance 
in  the  Kefti  dress  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  to 
the  Hittite.  Kefti  may  possibly  be  greater  Cilicia ; 
some  of  their  vessels  and  gold  even  have  a  simi- 
larity to  those  from  the  Taurus.  From  the  pres- 
ent excavations  it  is  hoped  to  fill  up  the  gap  in 
the  Philistine  period  of  the  history  of  Ascalon,  and 
to  clear  up  many  doubts  on  the  origin  of  the  Philis- 
tines, the  circumstances  of  their  invasion,  their  rela- 
tions with  the  Jews  and  their  position  in  the  early 
Mediterranean  civilizations."  —  Christian  Science 
Monitor,  July  21,  iqai. — See  also  Jerusalem:  loqq- 
1131,  HOC,'  1144-1187;  Syria:  B.C.  64-63. 

ASCANIANS,  descendants  of  Albert  the  Bear. 
See  Brandenburg:  Q28-1142;  1168-1417;  and  Ger- 
many: 1417. 

ASCENSION  ISLAND,  South  Atlantic;  dis- 
covered by  Portuguese  in  1501.  Area,  34  square 
miles;  population  about  250.  See  British  empire: 
Extent. 

ASCETICISM.     See  Ethics:    Christian   ethics. 

ASCHAM,  Roger  (1515-1568),  English  writer, 
humanist,  and  classical  scholar.  Taught  Greek  and 
read  Greek  lectures  at  Cambridge  University ; 
master  of  languages  to  Princess  (afterward  Queen) 
Elizabeth ;  held  secretaryship  in  embassy  to  Charles 
V;  was  Latin  secretary  to  Queen  Mary.  His  fa- 
mous Toxiphilus,  a  treatise  on  archery,  ranks  for 
its  pure  English  style  among  English  classics.  His 
great  work  The  Scholemaster  (begun  1563,  pub- 
lished 1570)  was  a  treatise  on  the  proper  method 
of  teaching  Latin.  See  Education:  Modern:  1510- 
1670:   Ascham  and  The  Scholemaster. 

ASCHHOOP,  Belgium,  captured  by  the 
French  (1017).  See  World  War:  1Q17:  II.  West- 
ern front:  d,  23. 

ASCIDEANS,  or  Chasidim  (Hebrew,  "pious 
ones"),  a  Jewish  religious  sect.     See  Assideans. 

ASCLEPIADiE.— "Throughout  all  the  his- 
torical ages  [of  Greece]  the  descendants  of  As- 
klepius  '[or  Asclepius]  were  numerous  and  widely 
diffused.  The  many  families  or  gentes  called  Ask- 
lepiads,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  and 
practice  of  medicine,  and  who  principally  dwelt 
near  the  temples  of  Asklepius,  whither  sick  and  suf- 
fering men  came  to  obtain  relief — all  recognized 
the  god,  not  merely  as  the  object  of  their  com- 
mon worship,  but  also  as  their  actual  progenitor." 
— G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pi.  i,  ch.  q. — ^See 
also  Medical  science:   Ancient:   2nd  century. 

ASCRIVIUM,  supposed  Roman  site  of  modern 
Cattaro,  Dalmatia.    See  Cattaro. 


ASCULUM,  Battle  of  (279  B.  C).  See  Rome: 
Republic:    B.  C.  281-272. 

Massacre  at.    See  Rome;  Republic:  B.  C.  90-88. 

ASELLI  (Asellius  or  Asellio),  Gasparo  (1581- 
1626),  Italian  physician,  the  discoverer  of  the  lac- 
teal vessels.  For  his  experiments  with  lymph  tis- 
sue and  blood,  see  Medical  science:  Modern:  17th 
century:  Discovery  of  lymphatic  circulation; 
Science:  Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance:  i6th  cen- 
tury. 

ASHANTI,  a  British  possession  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  made  up  of  negro  tribes,  included 
for  practical  purposes  under  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  in  as  much  as  the  governor  of  the  Gold 
Coast  is  the  governor  of  Ashanti.  The  area  is 
about  20,000  square  miles  and  the  population  in 
iqii  was  287,814.    See  Africa:  Map. 

1700-1807.— Conquests  of  the  Ashantis.— King 
Osai  Tiktu  I  made  Kumasi  his  capital  and  con- 
quered most  of  the  important  neighboring  states. 
About  1807  the  Ashantis  reached  the  coast  where 
they  came  into  conflict  with  the  British. 

1807-1873.  — Conflicts  with  British. —  These 
years  were  marked  by  a  series  of  wars,  truces 
broken  and  renewed  wars,  the  British  frequently 
suffering  serious  defeats. 

1873-1874.— War  with  the  British.  See  Eng- 
land:  1873-1880. 

1895-1900.— British  occupation  of  the  coun- 
try.—Rising  of  the  tribes.— Siege  and  relief  of 
Kumasi.— In  1895,  King  Prempeh,  of  Ashanti, 
provoked  a  second  expedition  of  British  troops 
against  his  capital,  Kumasi,  or  Coomassie  (for 
some  account  of  the  former  expedition  see  Eng- 
land: 1873-1880),  by  persistence  in  slave-catching 
raids  and  in  human  sacrifices,  and  by  other  viola- 
tions of  his  treaty  engagements.  Late  in  the  year 
a  strong  force  was  organized  in  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
mostly  made  up  of  native  troops.  It  marched 
without  resistance  to  Kumasi,  which  it  entered  on 
the  17th  of  January,  i8q6.  Prempeh  made  com- 
plete submission,  placing  his  crown  at  the  feet  of 
the  Governor  of  the  Gold  Coast;  but  he  was  taken 
prisoner  to  Sierra  Leone.  A  fort  was  built  and 
garrisoned  in  the  center  of  the  town,  and  the 
country  was  then  definitely  placed  under  British 
protection,  politically  attached  to  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony.  It  submitted  quietly  to  the  practical  con- 
quest until  the  spring  of  1900,  when  a  fierce  and 
general  rising  of  the  tribes  occurred.  It  was  said 
at  the  time  that  the  outbreak  was  caused  by  ef- 
forts of  the  British  to  secure  possession  of  a 
"golden  stool"  which  King  Prempeh  had  used  for 
his  throne,  and  which  had  been  effectually  con- 
cealed when  Kumasi  was  taken  in  1896;  but  this 
has  been  denied  by  Sir  Frederic  Hodgson,  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Gold  Coast.  "The  'golden  stool,'  "  he 
declared,  "was  only  an  incident  in  the  affair  and 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  cause  of  the  rising, 
which  had  been  brewing  for  a  long  time.  In  his 
opinion  the  Ashantis  had  been  preparing  ever  since 
the  British  occupation  in  1896  to  reassert  their  in- 
dependence." The  Governor  was,  himself,  in  Kum- 
asi when  the  Ashanti  first  attacked  it,  on  the  25th 
of  March,  and  he  has  given  an  account  of  the 
desperate  position  in  which  the  few  British  officials, 
with  their  small  native  garrison  and  the  refugees 
whom  they  tried  to  protect,  were  placed.  "Our 
force,"  said  Sir  Frederic  Hodgson,  "consisted  of 
only  some  200  Hausas,  while  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  we  had  not  less  than  15,000  Ashantis 
surrounding  us.  In  addition  to  our  own  force  we 
had  to  protect  some  3,500  refugees,  chiefly  Ma- 
homedan  traders,  Fantis,  and  loyal  Kumassis,  none 
of  whom  we  were  able  to  take  into  the  fort,  where 
every  available  bit  of  space  was  required  for  mil- 
itary  purposes.     It   was  heartrending   to  see   the 


545 


ASHBOURNE   ACT 


ASIA 


efforts  of  these  poor  people  to  scale  the  walls  or 
break  through  the  gate  of  the  fort,  and  we  had 
to  withdraw  the  Hausas  from  the  cantonments  and 
draw  a  cordon  round  the  refugees.  It  is  impossible 
to  describe  the  horror  of  the  situation  with  these 
3,500  wretched  people  huddled  together  without 
shelter  under  the  walls  of  the  fort.  That  same 
night  a  tornado  broke  over  Kumassi,  and  the  scene 
next  morning  with  over  200  children  was  too  ter- 
rible for  words.  Afterwards  they  were  able  to  ar- 
range shelters  for  themselves."  Near  the  end  of 
April,  two  small  reinforcements  from  other  posts 
reached  Kumasi;  but  while  this  strengthened  the 
numbers  for  defense,  it  weakened  the  food  supply. 
Taking  stock  of  their  food,  the  besieged  decided 
that  they  could  hold  out  until  June  23,  and  that 
if  the  main  body  then  marched  out,  to  cut,  if  pos- 
sible, their  way  through  the  enemy,  leaving  a 
hundred  men  behind,  the  latter  might  keep  the 
fort  until  July  15.  This,  accordingly,  was  done. 
On  the  23d  of  June  Governor  Hodgson,  with  all 
but  100  men,  stole  away  from  Kumasi,  by  a  road 
which  the  Ashantis  had  not  guarded,  and  succeeded 
in  reaching  the  coast,  undergoing  great  hardships 
and  dangers  in  the  march.  Meantime,  an  expedi- 
tion from  Cape  Coast  Castle  was  being  energetic- 
ally prepared  by  Colonel  Sir  J.  Willcocks,  who 
overcame  immense  difficulties  and  fought  his  way 
into  Kumasi  on  July  15,  the  very  day  on  which  the 
food-supply  of  the  little  garrison  was  e.tpected  to 
give  out.  The  following  account  of  his  entry  into 
Kumasi  is  from  Colonel  Willcocks'  official  report: 
"Forming  up  in  the  main  road,  we  marched 
towards  Kumassi,  a  mile  distant,  the  troops  cheer- 
ing wildly  for  the  Queen  and  then  followed  silence. 
No  sound  came  from  the  direction  of  the  fort, 
which  you  cannot  see  till  quite  close.  For  a  mo- 
ment the  hideous  desolation  and  silence,  the  head- 
less bodies  lying  everywhere,  the  sickening  smell, 
&c.,  almost  made  one  shudder  to  think  what  no  one 
dared  to  utter — 'Has  Kumassi  fallen?  Are  we  too 
late?'  Then  a  bugle  sound  caught  the  ear — 'the 
general  salute' — the  tops  of  the  towers  appeared, 
and  again  every  man  in  the  column,  white  and 
black,  broke  into  cheers  long  sustained.  The  brave 
defenders  had  at  last  seen  us;  they  knew  for  hours 
past  from  the  firing  growing  ever  nearer,  that  we 
were  coming,  yet  they  dared  not  open  their  only 
gate;  they  perforce  must  wait,  for  even  as  we  ap- 
peared the  enemy  were  making  their  last  efforts  to 
destroy  the  outlying  buildings,  and  were  actually 
setting  them  on  fire  until  after  dark,  when  a  party 
of  100  men  went  out  and  treated  them  to  volleys 
and  cleared  them  out.  If  I  have  gone  too  fully 
into  details  of  the  final  scene,  the  occasion  was  one 
that  every  white  man  felt  for  him  comes  perhaps 
but  once,  and  no  one  would  have  missed  it  for  a 
kingdom." 

1901. — Annexed  by  British. — Sept.  26,  iqoi,  the 
country  was  definitely  annexed  to  Great  Britain. 

ASHBOURNE  ACT,  Ireland.  See  Ireland: 
1885-1003. 

ASHBURTON  TREATY.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1842: 
Treaty  with  England. 

ASHDOD,  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Philistine 
confederacy.    See  Philistines. 

ASHDOWN,  Battle  of  (871).  See  Scandi- 
navian states:  8th-oth  centuries. 

ASHIKAGA  FAMILY.    See  Japan:  600-1853. 

ASHKALA,  Armenia,  occupied  by  the  Rus- 
sians (iqi6).  See  World  War:  1916:  VI.  Turk- 
ish theater:  d,  3;  also  d,  5. 

ASHLEY,  William  H.  (1778-1838),  one  of  the 
explorers  of  Utah  and  Wyoming.  See  Utah:  1825- 
1843;  WvoimNG:   1650-1807. 

ASHLEY,  Sir  William  (James)  (i860-  ), 
English  economist  and  educator.     Lecturer  in  his- 


tory at  Lincoln  college,  Oxford,  1885-1888;  pro- 
fessor of  constitutional  history  and  political  econ- 
omy at  University  of  Toronto,  1888-1SQ2;  profes- 
sor of  economic  history  at  Harvard  university, 
1892-1901;  dean  of  faculty  of  commerce,  Univer- 
sity of   Birmingham,  England. 

ASHLEY  COOPER,  Anthony,  1st  and  7th 
Earls  of  Shaftesbury  (1621-16S3);  (1801-188S). 
See  Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  ist; 
7th  Earl  of. 

ASHMOLEAN  MUSEUM  (Oxford).— "The 
nucleus  of  this  museum,  which  is  the  oldest  in 
England,  consists  of  the  collection  formed  by  the 
travellers,  John  Tradescant,  and  his  son,  about 
1600-1650.  'Tradescant's  Ark,'  as  it  was  then  pop- 
ularly known,  subsequently  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  Elias  Ashmole,  and  was  transferred  by 
him  to  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1683.  .  .  . 
Thanks  to  the  large  contributions  made  by  the 
late  Dr.  Fortnum,  a  new  Museum  building  was 
erected  behind  the  building  formerly  known  as  the 
University  Galleries  in  Beaumont  Street.  The 
museum  contains  a  collection  of  objects  of  ancient 
art  beginning  from  prehistoric  times.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  series  includes  King  Alfred's  jewel,  one  of 
the  mo.st  important  historical  relics  in  England. 
The  Keltic  and  other  West  and  North  European 
collections  are  of  special  interest,  and  include 
those  of  the  late  Sir  John  Evans.  The  prehistoric 
period  in  Egypt  and  that  of  the  earliest  dynasties 
are  better  illustrated  here  than  in  any  other 
Museum,  as  is  also  the  Meroitic  culture  of  Nubia 
and  the  Sudan.  A  unique  section  illustrates  Sir 
Arthur  Evan's  excavations  in  the  Palace  of  Knos- 
sos,  in  Crete,  and  the  various  periods  of  'Minoan' 
and  Aegean  culture.  Among  other  collections  are 
the  best  exhibition  of  small  Hittite  objects  in 
Europe.  .  .  .  The  gallery  of  Greek  sculpture  has 
become  of  great  importance  largely  through  ac- 
quisitions from  the  Hope  and  other  collections. 
The  Department  of  Fine  Art,  in  which  is  incor- 
porated the  contents  of  the  former  University  Gal- 
leries, contains  a  collection  of  pictures  rich  in 
specimens  of  the  Primitive  Italian  Schools,  and 
of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  Schools  of  the  XVII  and 
British  School  of  the  XVIII  century." — Year's 
Art,  1021,  pp.  170-180. 

ASHOKAN  RESERVOIR.  See  Aqueducts: 
American;  Catskill  aqueduct;  New  York  City: 
iQOS-XQig. 

ASHTI,  Battle  of  (1818).  See  India:  1816- 
1819. 

ASHUR,  or  Assur.  See  Assyria:  People,  re- 
ligion and  early  history;  Babylonia:  Creation 
myths;  Religion:  B.C.  2000-200. 

ASHUR-BANI-PAL,  king  of  Assyria.  See 
Assur-bani-pal,  king  of  Assyria. 

ASHUR-NAZIR-PAL,  king  of  Assyria.  See 
Assur-Nazir-Pal,  king  of  Assyria. 

ASIA:  Name. — "There  are  grounds  for  believ- 
ing Europe  and  Asia  to  have  originally  signified 
'the  west'  and  'the  east'  respectively.  Both  are 
Semitic  terms,  and  probably  passed  to  the  Greeks 
from  the  Phccnicians.  .  .  .  The  Greeks  first  applied 
the  title  [Asia]  to  that  portion  of  the  eastern  con- 
tinent which  lay  nearest  to  them,  and  with  which 
they  became  first  acquainted — the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  opposite  the  Cyclades;  whence  they  ex- 
tended it  as  their  knowledge  grew.  Still  it  had 
always  a  special  application  to  the  country  about 
Ephesus." — G.  Rawlinson,  Notes  to  Herodotus,  v. 

3,  P-  a- 

Influence  of  geography  on  the  political  prob- 
lems of  Asia. — Climate. — Topography. — Move- 
ment of  Asia  from  north  to  south. — Powerful 
position  of  Russia. — Central  position  of  Great 
Britain  in  India. — "As  we  look  at  the  continent 


546 


ASIA 


Influence 
of  Geography 


ASIA 


of  Asia,  in  its  length  and  breadth,  we  may  note, 
first,  that  it  lies  wholly  north  of  the  equator,  and 
in  great  part  between  the  northern  tropic  and  the 
arctic  circle — that  is,  in  the  so-called  temperate 
zone.  The  inferences  as  to  climate  which  might 
be  drawn  from  this  are  deceptive,  owing  to  modifi- 
cations occasioned  by  physical  conditions.  The 
great  plains  of  the  north  and  of  the  south — of  Si- 
beria and  of  India- — are  subject,  respectively,  to 
extremes  of  cold  and  of  heat,  due  primarily  to  the 
vast  extent  of  land  in  the  continent  itself,  which 
precludes  the  moderating  power  of  the  sea  from 
e.xercising  extensive  influence.  The  effect  of  this 
immense  region  upon  temperature  is  most  strikingly 
shown  in  the  monsoons,  the  periodical  winds  which 
alternate  with  the  seasons — as  land  and  sea  breezes 
change  with  night  and  day — but  which  during 
their  continuance  have  the  steadiness  characteristic 
oi  the  permanent  trades.  This  phenomenon,  which 
prevails  throughout  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  the  China  Sea,  is  attributable  to  the 
alternate  heating  and  cooling  of  the  continent,  as 
the  sun  moves  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  in 
inducing  a  periodical  set  of  the  atmosphere — from 
the  northeast  during  the  winter,  and  from  the 
southwest  during  the  summer.  Within  its  main 
outlines,  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  continent  from 
east  to  west  is  about  five  thousand  statute  miles, 
following  the  thirtieth  degree  of  north  latitude; 
but  along  the  fortieth  this  distance  is  increased  by 
some  hundreds  of  miles,  through  the  projection  of 
two  peninsulas — Asia  Minor  on  the  west,  and 
Korea  on  the  east.  Between  these  two  parallels 
are  to  be  found,  speaking  roughly,  the  most  de- 
cisive natural  features,  and  also  those  pohtical  di- 
visions the  unsettled  character  of  which  renders 
the  problem  of  Asia  in  the  present  day  at  once 
perplexing  and  imminent.  Within  this  belt  are  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  Palestine  and  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
the  greater  part  of  Persia,  and  Afghanistan — with 
the  strong  mountain  ranges  that  mark  these  two 
countries  and  Armenia — the  Pamir,  the  huge  ele- 
vations of  Tibet,  and  a  large  part  of  the  valley 
of  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  with  the  lower  and  mo„t 
important  thousand  miles  of  that  river's  course. 
Within  it  also  are  the  cities  of  Aleppo,  Mosul,  and 
Bagdad,  of  Teheran  and  Ispahan,  of  Merv  and 
Herat,  Kabul  and  Kandahar,  and  in  the  far  east 
of  China,  Peking,  Shanghai,  Nanking,  and  Han- 
kow. No  one  of  these  is  in  the  territory  of  a  state 
the  stability  of  which  can  be  said  to  repose  securely 
upon  its  own  strength,  or  even  upon  the  certainty 
of  non-interference  by  ambitious  neighbors.  The 
chain  of  the  Himalayas  is  exterior  to,  but  only  a 
little  south  of,  the  zone  indicated.  Although  Japan 
is  extra-continental,  it  may  be  interesting  to  note 
that  the  greater  part  of  her  territory  and  the 
centre  of  her  power  lie  also  within  the  belt,  and 
extend  almost  across  it,  from  north  to  south. 
Within  these  bounds,  speaking  broadly  and  not  ex- 
clusively, is  the  debatable  and  debated  ground. 
North  and  south  of  it,  in  similar  wide  generaliza- 
tion, political  conditions  are  relatively  determined, 
though  by  no  means  absolutely  fixed.  Along  the 
northern  and  southern  borders,  where  exterior  im- 
pulses impinge,  there  are  uncertainty  and  jealousy, 
aggression  and  defence,  not  as  yet  military,  but 
political.  Still,  whatever  its  form,  such  action  is 
at  bottom  that  of  conflicting,  if  not  contending, 
impulses.  The  division  of  Asia  is  east  and  west, 
movement  is  north  and  south.  It  is  the  character 
of  that  movement,  and  its  probable  future,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  relative  forces,  and  by  the  lines 
which  in  physics  are  called  those  of  least  resistance, 
that  we  are  called  to  study;  for  in  the  greatness  of 
the  stake,  and  in  the  relative  settledness  of  condi- 
tions elsewhere,  there  is  assurance  that  there  will 


continue  to  be  motion  until  an  adjustment  is 
reached,  either  in  the  satisfaction  of  everybody, 
or  by  the  definite  supremacy  of  someone  of  the 
contestants.  .  .  .  That  the  dividing  line  of  un- 
settled political  status  is  along  the  belt  defined  may 
be  ascertained  by  a  brief  examination  of  a  map. 
That  movement  is  from  and  to  the  north  and  the 
south  is  a  matter  of  history — not  yet  a  generation 
old — and  of  names  familiar  to  all  readers  of  news. 
The  mere  sound  of  Turkestan,  Khiva,  Merv, 
Herat,  Kandahar,  Kabul,  attests  the  fact;  as  do 
Manchuria  and  Port  Arthur.  Thus  both  in  the 
western  half  and  in  the  extreme  east  is  observed 
the  same  tendency,  which  would  be  still  more 
amply  demonstrated  by  an  appeal  to  history  but 
little  more  remote.  It  is,  in  fact,  no  longer  con- 
sistent with  accuracy  of  forecast  to  draw  a  north 
and  south  line  of  severance;  to  contemplate  eastern 
Asia  apart  from  western;  to  dissociate,  practically, 
the  conditions  and  incidents  in  the  one  from  those 
in  the  other.  Both  form  living  parts  of  a  large 
problem,  to  which  both  contribute  elements  of 
perplexity.  The  relations  of  each  to  the  other, 
and  to  the  whole,  must  therefore  be  considered. 
Accepting  provisionally  the  east  and  west  belt  of 
division  as  one  stage  in  the  process  of  analysis,  we 
may  profitably  consider  next  the  character  and 
distribution  of  the  forces  whose  northward  and 
southward  impulses  constitute  the  primary  factors 
in  the  process  of  change  already  initiated  and  still 
continuing.  Upon  a  glance  at  the  map  one  enor- 
mous fact  immediately  obtrudes  itself  upon  the  at- 
tention— the  vast,  uninterrupted  mass  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire,  stretching  without  a  break  in  terri- 
torial consecutiveness  from  the  meridian  of  west- 
ern Asia  Minor,  until,  to  the  eastward,  it  over- 
passes that  of  Japan.  In  this  huge  distance  no 
political  obstacles  intervene  to  impede  the  concen- 
trated action  of  the  disposable  strength.  Within 
the  dominion  of  Russia  only  the  distances  them- 
selves, and  the  hindrances — unquestionably  great 
and  manifold — imposed  by  natural  conditions,  place 
checks  upon  her  freedom  and  fulness  of  movement. 
To  this  element  of  power — central  position — is  to 
be  added  the  wedge-shaped  outhne  of  her  terri- 
torial projection  into  central  Asia,  strongly  sup- 
ported as  this  is,  on  the  one  flank,  by  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Caucasus  and  the  inland  Caspian  Sea — 
wholly  under  her  control — and  on  the  other  by  the 
ranges  which  extend  from  Afghanistan  northeast- 
erly, along  the  western  frontier  of  China.  From 
the  latter,  moreover,  she  as  yet  has  no  serious 
danger  to  fear.  The  fact  of  her  general  advance 
up  to  the  present  time,  most  of  which  has  been 
made  within  a  generation,  so  that  the  point  of  the 
wedge  is  now  inserted  between  Afghanistan  and 
Persia,  must  be  viewed  in  connection  with  the 
tempting  relative  facility  of  farther  progress 
through  Persia  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  with  the 
strictly  analogous  movement,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  continent,  where  long  strides  have  been  made 
through  Manchuria  to  Port  Arthur  and  the  Gulf 
of  Pe-chi-li.  Thus,  alike  in  the  far  east  and  in 
the  far  west,  we  find  the  same  characteristic  of 
remorseless  energy,  rather  remittent  than  intermit- 
tent in  its  symptoms.  Russia,  in  obedience  to 
natural  law  and  race  instinct,  is  working,  geograph- 
ically, to  the  southward  in  Asia  by  both  flanks, 
her  centre  covered  by  the  mountains  of  Afghanis- 
tan and  the  deserts  of  eastern  Turkestan  and  Mon- 
golia. ...  As  north  and  south  are  logically  op- 
posed, so  it  might  be  surmised  that  practically  the 
opposition  to  this  movement  of  Russia  from  the 
north  would  find  its  chief  expression  to  the  south 
of  the  broad  dividing  belt,  between  the  thirtieth 
and  fortieth  parallels.  In  a  measure  this  is  so,  but 
with  a  very  marked  distinction,  not  only  In  degree 


547 


ASIA 


Unity  of 
Civilisation 


ASIA 


but  in  kind.  In  the  progress  of  history,  in  which, 
as  it  unrolls,  more  and  more  of  plan  and  of  pur- 
pose seems  to  become  evident,  the  great  central 
peninsula  of  southern  Asia,  also  projecting  wedge- 
shaped  far  north  into  the  middle  debatable  zone, 
has  come  under  the  control  of  a  people  the  heart 
of  whose  power  is  far  removed  from  it  locally, 
and  who,  to  the  concentration  of  territory  char- 
acteristic of  Russia's  geographical  position,  present 
an  extreme  of  racial  and  military  dispersal.  In- 
dia, therefore,  is  to  Great  Britain  not  the  primary 
base  of  operations,  political  and  military — for  mili- 
tary action  is  only  a  specialized  form  of  political. 
It  is  simply  one  of  many  contingent — secondary — 
bases,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  the  action  of 
which  is  susceptible  of  unification  only  by  means 
of  a  supreme  sea  power.  Of  these  many  bases, 
India  is  the  one  best  fitted,  by  nearness  and  by 
conformation,  both  for  effect  upon  Central  .Asia 
and  for  operations  upon  either  extremity  of  the 
long  line  over  which  the  Russian  front  extends. 
Protected  on  the  land  side  and  centre  by  the  moun- 
tains of  -Afghanistan  and  the  Himalayas,  its  flanks, 
thrown  to  the  rear,  are  unassailable,  so  long  as  the 
navy  remains  predominant.  They  constitute  also 
frontiers,  from  which,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past, 
expeditions  may  make  a  refreshed  and  final  start, 
for  Egypt  on  the  one  hand,  for  China  on  the  other ; 
and,  it  is  needless  to  add,  for  any  less  distant  des- 
tination in  either  direction. 

"It  is  not  intrinsically  only  that  India  possesses 
the  value  of  a  base  to  Great  Britain.  The  central 
position  which  she  holds  relatively  to  China  and 
to  Egypt  obtains  also  towards  Australia  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  assisting  thus  the  concentra- 
tion upon  her  of  such  support  as  either  colony 
can  extend  to  the  general  policy  of  an  Imperial 
Federation.  Even  in  its  immediate  relations  to 
.Asiatic  problems,  however,  India  is  not  unsup- 
ported. On  land  and  in  the  centre,  the  acquisition 
of  Burmah  gives  a  continuous  extension  of  frontier 
to  the  east,  which  turns  the  range  of  the  Hima- 
layas, opening  access,  political  or  peaceful,  for  in- 
fluence or  for  commerce,  to  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Vang-tse-kiang,  and  to  the  western  provinces  of 
China  proper.  By  sea,  the  Straits  Settlements  and 
Hong-Kong  on  the  one  side,  Aden  and  Egypt  on 
the  other,  facilitate,  as  far  as  land  positions  can, 
maritime  enterprises  to  the  eastward  or  to  the 
westward,  directed  in  a  broad  sense  upon  the  flanks 
of  the  dividing  zone,  or  upon  those  of  the  opposing 
fronts  of  operations  that  mark  the  deployment  of 
the  northern  and  southern  powers,  which  at  the 
present  time  are  most  strongly  established  upon 
.Asian  territory." — .A.  T.  Mahan,  Problem  of  Asia, 
pp.  20-20. — See  also  Baluchist.an;  Pacific  ocean: 
B.C.  2S00-A.  D.  1500. 

Unity  of  Asiatic  civilization. — Unifying  force 
of  Buddhism. — Embodied  in  the  spirit  of  Japan. 
— Contrast  to  western  currents  of  thought.— 
"While  the  psychological  unity  of  the  Oriental  na- 
tions has  nut  been  so  clearly  and  definitely  worked 
out  as  it  has  been  in  the  West,  notwithstanding  all 
minor  national  idiosyncrasies,  still  the  Orient  has 
also  had  its  share  of  international  unifying  influ- 
ences. The  sacred  places  in  India  where  the  great 
teacher  lived  have  for  two  thousand  years  attracted 
pilgrims  from  all  jiarts  of  the  Buddhist  world;  and 
earnest  students  have  sought  deeper  wisdom  by 
communing  with  the  monks  of  famous  monasteries 
in  Burmah  and  Ceylon.  Ever  since  the  embassy 
of  Emperor  Ming-ti  sought  for  the  new  gospel  in 
the  year  bi,  and  the  sage  Fa-hien  undertook  his 
great  journey,  India  has  thus  been  visited  by  seek- 
ers after  new  light.  .Also  the  apostles  of  India's 
missionary  religion,  in  its  first  age  of  flourishing 
enthusiasm,  spread  the  teaching  of  Gotama  to  all 


the  lands  of  southern  and  eastern  Asia,  even  from 
Palestine,  where  they  implanted  the  germs  of  the 
Western  monastic  system,  to  the  far  islands  of  the 
rising   sun.     Thus   Buddhism   became   the   greatest 
unifying  force  in  eastern  .Asia,  and  no  mind  nor 
personality   commands  a   wider   and   more  sincere 
homage  than  he  who  found  the  light  and  pointed 
the  way,  the  great  teacher  'who  never  spake  but 
good  and  wise  words,  he  who  was  the  light  of  the 
world.'     So  it  is  that  also  in  more  recent  epochs 
down  to  our  own  day,  his  thought  and  life  have 
been  and  are  the  chief  centre  of  the  common  feel- 
ings  and  enthusiasms   of   Asia.      [See  also   Budd- 
hism:   Buddha   and  his  mission.]     The  great  age 
of  illumination  under  the  Sung  dynasty  in  China 
saw  the  beginning  of  the  attempts   to  merge  and 
fuse  Taoist,   Buddhist,  and  Confucian  thought,  in 
Neo-Confucianism,  called   by   Okakura  'a  brilliant 
effort  to  mirror  the  whole  of  Asiatic  consciousness.' 
It  was  Buddhist  monks  and  missionaries  who  acted 
as  messengers   between   China   and  Japan  in   that 
great    formative    period    of    a   thousand   years,   in 
which  all  the  currents  of  Indian  and  Chinese  civi- 
lization made  their  impress  upon  Japanese  national 
character.     Then,  under  the  Tokogawa  regime  the 
independent  spirits  of  Japan  trained  themselves  for 
the  demands  of  an  exacting  epoch  in  the  thought 
of  Wang-yang-ming.  or  Oyomei,  which  combined 
with  the  noblest  ideals  and  the  deepest  insight  of 
Buddhism,  joins  to  these  a  zest  in  active  life,  an 
ardent  desire  to  participate  in  the  surging  develop- 
ment in  which  the  universe  and  human  destiny  are 
unfolding  themselves.     In  this  school,  which  com- 
bines a   truly   poetic  sentiment  for  the   pathos  of 
fading  beauty  and  fleeting  fragrance,  for  the  ghost- 
liness  of  an  existence  made  up  of  countless  vibra- 
tions of  past  joy  and  suffering,  with  the  courage- 
ous desire  to  see  clearly  and  act  with  energy,  to 
share  to  the  full  in  this  great  battle  we  call  Hfe, — 
in  this  school  were  trained  the  statesmen  and  war- 
riors of  Satsuma  and  Choshu  who  have  led  Japan 
to  greatness  in  peace  and  glory  in  war.     [See  also 
Buddhism:   Later  history;  and  Different  forms  of 
Buddhism.]     The  unity  of  .Asiatic  civilization  has 
found  an  actual  embodiment  in  the  spirit  of  Japan. 
There  it  is  not  the  product  of  political  reasoning, 
nor  the  discovery  of  philosophical  abstraction.     All 
the  phenomena  of  the  overpowering  natural  world 
of  .Asia  are  epitomized  in  the  islands  of  the  morn- 
ing sun,  where  nature  is  as  luxuriant  and  as  for- 
bidding, as  caressing  and  as  severe,  as  fertile  and 
as  destructive,  as  in  all  that  cyclorama  of  storm, 
earthquake,  typhoon,  flood,  and  mountain  vastness 
which  we  call  .Asia.     Even  thus  has  Japan  in  the 
course    of    her    historic    development    received    by 
gradual  accretion  the  spirit  of  all  Asiatic  thought 
and   endeavor.     Nor  have   these   waves   from   the 
mainland  washed  her  shores  in  vain;  her  national 
life  has  not  been  the  prey  of  capricious  conquer- 
ors— imposing  for  a  brief  time  a  sway  that  would 
leave  no  permanent  trace  on  the  national  life.    Her 
mind    and   character   have    received   and   accepted 
these   continental   influences,   as   the   needs   of   her 
own   developing   life   have   called   for   them ;    they 
have  not  been  adopted  perforce  or  by  caprice,  but 
have  exerted  a  moulding  influence  and  have  been 
assimilated   into   a  consistent,  deep,   and   powerful 
national  character.    .A  psychological  unity  has  thus 
been  created — an  actual  expression  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  life — in  touch  with  the  national  ideals  and 
ambitions  of  a  most  truly  patriotic  race.     This  is 
a  far   different   matter  from   the   mere  intellectual 
recognition  of  certain  common  beliefs,  ideals,  and 
institutions  throughout  the  Orient.    On  such  a  per- 
ception of  unity  at  most  a  certain  intellectual  sym- 
pathy could  be  founded    But  in  Japan  the  Oriental 
spirit    has    become    flesh — it    has   ceased    to   be    a 


548 


ASIA 


Movement  of  Races 


ASIA 


bloodless  generalization,  and  it  now  confronts  the 
world  in  the  shape  of  a  nation  conscious  of  the 
complicated  and  representative  character  of  its 
psychology,  and  ardently  enthusiastic  over  the 
loftiness  of  its  mission.  We  know  Japanese  pa- 
triotism as  national,  inspired  by  loyalty  to  the 
Mikado  and  by  love  for  the  land  of  Fujiyama ;  we 
are  also  learning  to  know  it  as  Asiatic — deeply 
stirred  by  the  exalting  purpose  of  aiding  that 
Asiatic  thought-life  which  has  made  Japan  to  come 
to  its  own  and  preserve  its  dignity  and  independ- 
ence through  all  the  ages.  ...  It  is  said  that  Asia 
is  pessimistic.  Yet  her  pessimism  is  not  the  sodden 
gloom  of  despair,  whose  terrifying  scowl  we  en- 
counter in  European  realistic  art,  and  which  is 
the  bitter  fruit  of  perverted  modes  of  living.  The 
pessimism  of  Asia,  which  makes  the  charm  of  her 
poetry  from  Firdusi  to  the  writers  of  the  delicate 
Japanese  Haikai,  is  rather  a  soothing,  quieting, 
ip.sthetic  influence,  like  the  feeling  of  sadness  that 
touches  the  heart  at  the  sight  of  great  beauty,  and 
which  perhaps  is  due  to  the  memory  of  all  the 
.\earnings  and  renunciations  in  the  experience  of  a 
long  chain  of  lives.  The  pessimism  of  the  Orient 
is  tragic,  rather  than  cynical,  and  Japan  at  the 
present  time  gives  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  spirit 
of  tragedy  belongs  to  strong  nations.  ...  It  is  but 
a  short  time  since  the  broader  and  more  represen- 
tative minds  among  the  Asiatic  races  have  begun 
to  realize  the  unity  of  Asiatic  civilization.  The 
endless  variety  in  speech  and  custom,  the  differ- 
ence in  character  and  temper  between  the  Chinese 
and  the  Hindu,  the  opposite  political  destiny  that 
has  made  one  nation  subject  to  foreigners  while 
it  has  led  another  into  an  honored  position  among 
the  independent  Powers — all  these  differences  can 
no  longer  obscure  the  deep  unity  of  customs  and  of 
ideals  that  pervades  the  entire  Orient.  This  unified 
character  of  Oriental  life,  in  its  essence  so  totally 
different  from  Western  civilization,  frequently  ex- 
presses itself  on  the  surface  in  customs  and  insti- 
tutions which  seem  to  us  bizarre  and  even  barbar- 
ous, and  which  invite  the  active  reformer  from  the 
West  to  sweep  them  away  and  put  in  their  place  a 
more  enlightened  system.  But  whoever  considers 
carefully  the  conditions  of  the  Orient  may  arrive 
at  a  very  different  conclusion,  and  may  see  even 
in  these  apparently  backward  institutions  the 
marks  of  a  broad  and  noble  ideal  of  life.  The 
vastncss  of  Oriental  populatioiis,  the  long  dura- 
tion of  their  institutions,  create  a  feeling  of  per- 
manence and  peace.  The  frequency  of  natural 
catastrophes,  the  overpowering  aspect  of  moun- 
tains, torrents,  and  typhoons,  have  given  the  Ori- 
entals an  entirely  deferential  attitude  toward  na- 
ture, which  they  have  not  tried  to  conquer  or 
subdue.  Busied  rather  with  the  causes  of  things 
and  with  the  general  laws  of  existence,  they  turned 
to  religion  and  philosophy,  and  gave  but  little  at- 
tention to  practical  facts,  to  scientific  control  of  the 
forces  of  nature,  and  to  the  betterment  of  social 
conditions.  The  pessimistic  tinge  of  Oriental 
thought  is  due  to  this  feeling  of  helplessness,  which 
causes  the  world  and  existence  to  appear  as  a  great 
procession  of  shadows,  full  of  suffering  anc'  evil. 
But  in  all  this  impermanence.  in  the  multitude  of 
fleeting  and  ephemeral  individual  existences,  the 
Oriental  mind  sees  the  manifestation  of  an  omni- 
present force." — P.  S.  Reinsch,  Intellectual  and  po- 
litical currents  in  the  Far  East,  pp.  20-28. — See  also 
China:  Origin  of  the  people;  Mythology:  Eastern 
Asia:    Indian  and  Chinese  influences. 

Art  of  writing.  See  Alphabet:  Theories  of  ori- 
gin and  development. 

Earliest  history. — Movements  of  Asiatic 
races. — Invasions  into  Europe. — "When  we 
search  into  the  remotest  past  of  Asia,  the  geolo- 


gist, not  the  historian,  presents  a  very  surprising 
spectacle  to  our  view:  two  lands  stand  opposite; 
one,  to  the  north,  shaping  a  long  arch  round  what 
is  to-day  Irkutsk;  the  other,  to  the  south,  consti- 
tutes a  portion  of  the  future  peninsula  of  Hindu- 
stan; a  large  mediterranean  sea,  to  which  M.  Suess 
has  given  the  name  of  Tethys,  separates  the  two 
continents;  this  ocean,  in  gradually  drying  up,  has 
by  its  folds  given  rise  to  the  Pamirs,  the  Himalayas, 
the  high  Tibetan  tableland — and  its  total  disap- 
pearance and  the  union  of  the  two,  northern  and 
southern,  lands  gave  birth  to  Asia.  If  we  seek 
in  this  vast  continent  for  the  territory  having  an 
authentic  record  of  the  oldest  times,  we  find  it 
in  the  lands  of  biblical  tradition,  Chaldea  and 
Elam,  where  Asia  tells  again  the  story  of  its  past 
with  the  most  irrefragable  evidence  in  the  in- 
scriptions registered  on  stones  which,  lying  buried 
for  centuries  have  withstood  the  wear  and  tear  of 
ages ;  thus  has  been  revealed  to  us  the  oldest  code 
of  the  world,  the  Law  of  Hammurabi,  discovered 
at  Susa  by  M.  J.  de  Morgan,  and  described  by 
the  Dominican  Father  V.  Scheil,  both  Frenchmen. 
However,  if  Elam  carries  us  back  to  a  period  fur- 
ther than  four  thousand  years  before  Christ,  other 
countries  of  Asia,  including  those  which  are  sup- 
posed to  possess  the  most  ancient  civilization,  are 
far  from  giving  the  material  proof  of  the  high  an- 
tiquity to  which  their  books  and  their  legends  lay 
an  unfounded  claim.  [See  also  BAB^LOMA:  Ear- 
liest inhabitants.]  India  cannot  boast  of  a  single 
monument  which  for  age  is  to  be  compared  with 
those  of  Nineveh  and  of  Egypt,  and  before  the 
eighth  century  B.C.,  no  solid  basis  to  the  history 
of  China  is  to  be  found.  The  perishable  quality 
of  the  materials  used  in  rearing  the  edifices  of  this 
last  country  cannot  allow  us  to  hope  that  the  zeal 
of  modern  archcBologists  will  unearth  the  secret 
of  monuments  vanished  long  ago.  ...  At  the  pres- 
ent time  [1904]  nothing  definite  gives  us  a  right 
to  broach  an  opinion  with  regard  to  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  Oriental  Asia  and  their  cradle. 

"...  During  a  long  time  Europe  remained  in 
complete  ignorance  of  the  steady  though  irregular 
movements  of  the  populations  of  Asia,  which  was 
really  a  volcano  in  eruption,  the  terrible  effects  of 
which  were  felt  afar.  When  the  Roman  Empire 
crumbling  to  pieces  was  threatened  westwards  by 
the  barbarians  of  Germanic  race, — Teutonic, 
Gothic,  or  Scandinavian, — these,  pressed  in  their 
turn  by  the  wild  hordes  from  .4sia,  like  a  rolling 
wave  invaded  the  Empire  and,  crushed  in  by  the 
newcomers,  founded  as  far  as  Spain,  more  or  less 
flourishing  kingdoms  at  the  expense  of  the  domain 
of  the  Caesars.  The  march  of  the  Huns  from  the 
heart  of  Asia  is  in  great  part  the  cause  of  these 
migrations  of  people;  menacing  the  Chinese  ter- 
ritory, driving  away  the  Yue-chi,  a  branch  of  the 
Eastern  Tartars,  who,  after  several  halts  of  which 
we  shall  speak  further  on,  carved  for  themselves 
an  empire  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  at  the  cost 
of  the  occupiers  of  the  valley  of  this  river.  The 
invading  Huns,  like  a  huge  wave,  gained  gradually 
on  from  horde  to  horde,  from  tribe  to  tribe,  from 
people  to  people,  till  they  reached  Europe  which, 
when  struck  by  the  Scourge  of  God,  could  not  dis- 
cern whence  the  blow  was  first  dealt.  During  the 
course  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Huns  under  Attila 
had  not  only  subdued  all  the  Tartar  nations  of 
Central  Asia,  but  had  also  brought  under  the  yoke 
the  whole  of  the  German  tribes  between  the  Volga 
and  the  Rhine.  The  defeat  of  the  great  chief  by 
the  allied  armies  of  the  Franks,  the  Visigoths,  and 
the  Romans  at  the  battle  of  the  Catalaunic  Fields 
(451),  his  death  two  years  later,  stopped  the  tide 
of  the  Eastern  invaders;  as  the  victory  of  Charles 
Martel  at  Poitiers  (732),  three  centuries  later,  set 


549 


ASIA 


European  Invasions 


ASIA 


bounds  to  the  throng  of  Arabs,  who  after  having 
torn  the  north  of  Africa  from  the  Roman  Empire, 
had  crossed  the  sea,  destroying  the  power  of  the 
Visigoths,  who  after  a  long  migratory  period 
throughout  Europe,  had  apparently  found  a  per- 
manent home  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  [See  also 
Huns.]  The  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  who 
flocked  together  to  share  the  spoils  of  the  agoniz- 
ing Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  will  con- 
tinue later  with  the  Mongol  raids  and  till  1453 
[See  also  Mongolia:  1206-1500],  the  year  of  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turltish  Osman- 
lis,  which  we  may  consider  to  mark  the  climax 
of  the  Asiatic  encroachments." — H.  Cordier,  Gen- 
eral survey  oj  the  history  oj  Asia  {International 
Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  v.  2,  pp.  86-89,  St. 
Louis,  igo4). 

B.  C.  334-A.  D.  1498. — European  invasions 
into  Asia. — Alexander. — Romans. — Crusaders. — 
Modern  movement. — "(i)  Taking  the  European 
advances  into  Asia  first,  and  dealing  with  them 
only,  in  order  of  date,  there  have  been  within 
historic  times  four  great  European  invasions  of 
Asia.  The  first  was  the  wonderful  campaign  of 
Alexander  of  Macedon  and  his  Greek  armies.  His 
forces  marched  unbeaten  to  the  Indus  and  defeated 
Porus  on  the  borders  of  Hindustan.  As  a  miU- 
tary  feat  the  whole  expedition  was  a  marvellous 
success.  But,  great  as  were  his  victories  in  the 
field  and  far-reaching  his  projects  for  foundins  an 
Eastern  Empire,  the  fact  remains  that  Ale.xander's 
exploits  and  those  of  his  lieutenants  produced  no 
permanent  effect  whatever  upon  the  important 
countries  over  which  they  and  their  immediate 
descendants  ruled.  There  is  nothing  to  show,  either 
in  arms  or  in  arts,  in  philosophy  or  in  religion, 
that  the  Asratics,  who  were  compelled  to  submit 
for  the  time  being,  adopted  Greek  methods  or  ab- 
sorbed Greek  ideas.  It  was  conquest  without 
colonisation:  victory  without  continuous  influence. 
The  wave  of  invasion  receded  and  matters  went  on 
below  the  surface  much  as  they  did  before.  [See 
also  MACEDO^^A:  B.C.  345-,?36,  to  B.C.  315-310.] 
(2)  Even  the  Roman  mastery  of  a  large  portion  of 
Asia  scarcely  influenced  Eastern  thought  or  East- 
ern customs  at  all.  Yet  this  second  great  Euro- 
pean invasion  lasted  for  many  centuries,  and  was 
maintained,  alike  when  Rome  was  at  the  height 
of  her  power,  and  when  her  magnificent  system  of 
civil  and  military  organisation  was  slowly  totter- 
ing to  its  fall.  Those  long,  long  years  of  peaceful 
and  successful  rule  failed  to  impress  European  con- 
ceptions, or  European  methods,  upon  the  mass  of 
the  subject  population,  or  even  upon  the  educated 
classes  as  a  whole.  They  remained  essentially 
Asiatic,  in  all  important  respects,  below  the  sur- 
face. The  Pax  Romana  passed  away  and  the 
Asiatics  of  centuries  before  became  Asiatics  again 
for  centuries  after.  This  was  so,  first  and  fore- 
most and  all  through,  from  the  days  when  the 
Parthians  on  the  frontier  routed  Crassus  and  his 
army,  to  the  period  when  the  Byzantine  emf)erors 
were  vainly  struggling  against  the  Arabs  and  Turks. 
.  .  .  [There  was]  the  great  legacy  of  administra- 
tion, laws  and  jurisprudence  in  Asia.  The  splendid 
roads,  harbours,  water-conduits  and  other  public 
works,  of  which  the  ruins  still  bear  witness  to  the 
genius  and  foresight  of  her  Emperors  and  engi- 
neers, conduced  to  great  material  prosperity,  as  the 
wealth  and  luxury  of  the  principal  cities  testified. 
But  the  whole  elaborate  system  left  the  psychology, 
habits  and  beliefs  of  the  people  untouched.  The 
Asiatic  mind  remained  impervious  to  European 
thought.  Asiatic  customs,  Asiatic  tribal  and  fam- 
ily relations,  Asiatic  religions  long  survived  Greek 
and  Latin  teaching  and  Greek  and  Latin  cults. 
Nay,  in  all  these  departments  of  human  activity. 


as  in  some  others,  Asia,  even  under  Roman  suprem- 
acy, had  a  continuous  and  peaceful  influence  upon 
her  conquerors  at  a  period  when  all  hope  of  shak- 
ing off  the  Roman  yoke  had  been  practically 
abandoned.  In  Rome  itself  and  in  other  great 
cities  of  the  Western  Empire,  Asiatic  philosophy 
and  Asiatic  superstitions  made  way  long  before  the 
Asiatic  religion  of  Christianity  spread  its  network 
from  Palestine  over  the  European  provinces.  At 
Constantinople  imitations  of  Asiatic  forms  and 
ceremonies  pervaded  the  whole  Imperial  Court. 
[See  also  Jews:  B.C.  40-A.  D.  44.]  (3)  Where 
the  powerful  organisation  and  efficiency  of  the 
Roman  Empire  had  failed  after  hundreds  of  years 
of  successful  domination  to  produce  a  permanent 
effect,  it  was  little  likely  that  other  disorderly  and 
spasmodic  efforts  from  the  West  would  prevail. 
.  .  .  The  motley  hosts  who  went  forth  under  the 
banners  of  the  Crusaders  formed  the  third  impor- 
tant invasion  of  Asia  by  Europe.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  hopes  and  intentions  of  the  more 
capable  statesmen  and  warriors  of  Europe  we  can 
now  see  that  they  were  doomed  to  disappointment, 
even  if  the  attacks  ufon  'the  infidel'  had  been  far 
better  organised  and  disciplined  than  in  fact  they 
were.  At  first,  at  any  rate,  the  Crusades  were 
nothing  more  than  spasmodic  religious  raids,  bred 
of  hysteria  and  inspired  by  fanaticism.  Later  they 
may  have  had  some  conscious,  or  unconscious, 
economic  motive;  and  unquestionably  racial  an- 
tagonism developed  as  a  result  of  the  long  series 
of  encounters  with  the  Moslem  armies.  These 
freebooters  of  Christianity  and  marauders  of  feu- 
dalism, however,  were  as  little  animated  by  any 
great  scheme  of  polity  as  were  their  opponents. 
Here  and  there  the  leaders  carved  out  short-lived 
kingdoms  for  themselves  and  their  followers, 
chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  decadent  Christian 
Empire  of  the  East,  whose  outposts  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Palestine  they  went  forth  to  defend.  But  the 
Crusades  .  .  .  made  no  lasting  impression  what- 
ever upon  'the  East.'  The  Holy  City  of  Chris- 
tianity, Jerusalem,  remained  for  centuries  after- 
wards and  continued  till  yesterday  in  the  custody 
of  those  rival  monotheists,  the  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed. Thus  the  third  assault  of  Europe  upon 
Asia  produced  even  less  effect  than  its  two  pre- 
decessors. .  .  .  [See  also  Crusades.]  (4)  The 
fourth  European  invasion  of  Asia  has  taken  place 
in  modern  times.  It  is  a  much  wider,  more  con- 
tinuous and  far  more  formidable  assault  than  any 
of  its  predecessors.  This  great  movement  is  still 
in  progress,  and  we  are  by  no  means  as  yet  in  a 
position  to  judge  of  its  final  effect.  French,  Eng- 
lish and  Russians,  following  upon  the  early  re- 
ligious and  commercial  efforts  of  the  Portuguese 
and  Dutch,  have  carried  on  for  three  centuries  a 
steady  pressure  of,  firstly  religious  propaganda, 
then  mercantile  persuasion,  and  lastly  armed  con- 
quest at  the  expense  of  the  inhabitants.  The  re- 
sult is  that  Europeans  have  now  seized  and  domi- 
nate more  than  half  of  the  area  and  Httle  less  than 
half  of  the  population  of  the  great  Eastern  Con- 
tinent, with  its  adjacent  islands." — H.  M.  Hynd- 
man,  .Awakening  of  Asia,  pp.  3-7. 

1500-1900. — Latest  European  invasion. — Ad- 
vance upon  China. — Portuguese  in  the  East. — 
Spaniards  in  the  Philippines. — East  opened  by 
the  English  after  defeat  of  French. — Russian 
movements  across  Asia. — Japan  transformed  by 
western  civilization. — "The  decline  of  China  co- 
incides with  the  efforts  of  the  Western  Powers  to 
break  her  doors  open.  Until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  centur>-,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
Catholic  missionaries,  retained  as  savants  at  the 
court  of  Peking  or  hidden  in  the  provinces,  where 
they    led    a    precarious   existence,    foreigners    were 


550 


ASIA 


European  Invasions 


ASIA 


lodged  in  a  quarter  of  the  single  port  of  Canton 
without  the  right  of  moving  freely  about  the  city ; 
moreover,  they  could  only  stay  at  the  place  the 
time  strictly  necessary  to  the  settlement  of  their 
affairs,  that  is  to  say,  during  a  pretty  short  portion 
of  the  year;  afterwards  they  had  to  return  to  the 
Portuguese  Colony  of  Macao,  where  lived  their 
families,  who  were  not  allowed  to  accompany  the 
cargoes  to  the  Chinese  port.  Business  was  not 
conducted  freely  with  the  natives,  but  through  the 
medium  of  privileged  merchants,  called  hong  mer- 
chants, whose  monopoly  was  finally  abolished  by 
the  fifth  article  of  the  treaty  signed  at  Nanking  by 
England  August  2q,  1842.  [See  also  China:  1839- 
1842.]  Wanton  vexations  were  inflicted  upon 
foreigners;  it  was  forbidden  to  the  natives  to  teach 
their  language  to  any  "Western  Devil"  (Yang- 
kwei-tse)  ;  the  lex  talioiiis,  man  for  man,  was  ap- 
plied with  all  its  cruelty  and  injustice.  This  state 
of  things  lasted  till  the  Opium  War,  which  gave 
England  the  means  of  opening  China  more  widely 
to  the  foreign  trade  and  of  making  way  for  the 
introduction  of  Western  ideas,  without  abating, 
however,  the  arrogant  pretension?  of  the  man- 
darins. In  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century 
began  the  double  march  toward  China,  by  the 
north  and  the  south,  by  land  and  by  sea,  which 
brought  into  contact  nations  of  the  Occident  and 
those  of  the  Far  East.  Ermak's  Cossacks  were 
the  pioneers  of  the  northern  route,  Vasco  da 
Gama's  sailors  and  Albuquerque's  soldiers  were  the 
pilots  and  the  conquerors  of  the  southern  route. 
To  the  Portuguese  we  owe  the  discovery,  or  more 
exactly  the  reopening,  of  the  road  of  Asia  in  mod- 
ern times.  The  cape  discovered  by  Bartholomew 
Diaz  in  1485,  doubled  by  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497, 
was  the  great  port  of  call  from  Europe  to  Asia, 
until  the  ancient  way  of  Egypt  was  resumed  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century.  [See  also  Portugal: 
1463-1498.]  Masters  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the 
capture  of  Malacca  in  1511,  their  first  voyage  to 
Canton  in  1514,  a  wreck  in  1542  at  Tanegashima, 
in  the  Japanese  Archipelago,  gave  to  the  Portu- 
guese the  possession  of  an  immense  empire  and  the 
control  of  an  enormous  trade  which  they  were  not 
able  to  keep.  The  annexation  of  Portugal  to  Spain, 
'The  SLxty  Years'  Captivity,'  under  Philip  the 
Second,  was  as  harmful  to  the  first,  drawn  by  its 
conqueror  into  a  struggle  fatal  for  her  prosperity, 
as  was  to  the  Dutch  colonies  the  absorption  of 
Holland   by   Napoleon   I. 

"The  Spaniards  settled  in  the  Philippine  Islands; 
the  Dutch,  with  the  enterprising  Cornelius  Hout- 
man,  landed  in  1596  at  Bantam,  created  the  short- 
lived colony  of  Formosa,  and  a  lasting  empire  in 
the  Sunda  Islands,  where  in  i6iq  they  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  town  of  Batavia,  on  the  ruins 
of  the  old  native  port  of  Jacatra.  However,  one 
may  say  that  England  really  opened  Eastern  Asia 
to  foreign  influence,  at  least  by  sea,  from  the  day 
in  1634  when  the  gun  of  Captain  Weddell  thun- 
dered for  the  first  time  in  the  Canton  River.  It 
was  with  the  accompaniment  of  British  powder 
that  during  two  centuries  the  countries  of  the  Far 
East  carried  on  trade  with  the  Western  merchants. 
It  was  on  sea,  and  of  course  by  the  south,  that 
England  fought  for  the  supremacy  in  Asia.  A 
terrible  struggle  in  India  against  the  French,  where 
Clive  and  Hastings  got  the  benefit  of  the  labors 
and  exertions  of  Franqois  Martin,  Dumas,  Dupleix, 
and  others,  three  wars  against  the  Mahrattas,  the 
conquest  of  the  Punjab,  the  crushing  of  the  great 
rebelUon  of  1857,  the  suppression  of  the  Empire 
of  the  great  Mogul,  have  secured  to  Great  Britain 
the  possession  of  the  Indies,  threatened  only  as  of 
yore  by  the  northwestern  invaders.  Three  lucky 
campaigns   have   given   Burmah    to    England,    al- 


ready master  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  [See  also  India:  1823-1833,  1852:  and 
BRinsH  empire:  E.xpansion:  19th  century:  Asia.] 
The  treaty  signed  by  Great  Britain  at  Nanking  in 
August,  1842,  broke  up  the  Chinese  barrier;  the 
various  Powers  followed  in  emulation  the  example 
of  England;  the  United  States,  France,  Belgium, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  by  turn  signed  treaties  or 
conventions  with  the  Son  of  Heaven.  At  that 
time  England  was  truly  without  a  rival  in  the  Far 
East,  but  was  not  far-sighted  enough;  the  pledge 
she  took  at  Hong  Kong,  important  as  it  was,  was 
but  a  small  one  with  regard  to  the  hopes  of  the 
future.  England  gave  back  to  the  Chinese  the 
Chusan  Islands,  which  had  been  in  her  hands,  as 
the  French  returned  the  Pescadores  after  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Tonquin  question;  of  course,  loyal 
and  honest  acts,  but  also  acts  of  improvident  poli- 
tics. ... 

"However,  the  two  facts  dominating  the  political 
history  of  the  Far  East  during  the  last  fifty  years 
are  the  spread  of  the  Russian  power  through  Asia 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  revolution  and  the  trans- 
formation of  the  Japanese  Empire  on  the  other. 
During  the  reign  of  Ivan  IV,  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  to  the  east  of  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains began  this  tremendous  march  of  the  Russians 
which  drove  them  beyond  the  sea,  since  the  author- 
ity of  the  Tsar  was  formerly  extended  to  this  side 
of  the  Straits  of  Behring;  indeed,  it  was  but  in 
1867  that  the  Russian  possessions  in  America, 
Alaska,  were  acquired  by  the  United  States.  The 
unification  of  the  states  of  Great  Russia,  the  con- 
quest of  the  Tartar  Kingdoms  of  Kazan  (1552) 
and  of  Astrakhan  (iSS3),  removed  the  boundaries 
of  Russia  to  the  east;  the  Russian  advance  to  the 
Baltic  had  been  stopped  by  the  victories  of  Stephen 
Bathory ;  the  East  only  was  left  open  to  their  en- 
terprise. In  1558  a  certain  Gregori  Strogonov  ob- 
tained from  the  Tsar  the  cession  of  the  wild  lands 
on  the  Kama  River.  With  some  companions  he 
settled  in  that  region,  created  colonies,  and  some 
of  the  hardy  fellows  went  as  far  as  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains. An  adventurous  Cossack  of  the  Don,  Ermak 
Timofeevitch,  whose  services  had  been  secured  by 
Strogonov,  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains  at  the  head 
of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  plucky  men,  and  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  Irtysh  and  Ob  rivers,  on  the 
way  subduing  the  Tartar  princes.  Ermak  was  the 
real  conqueror  of  Western  Siberia,  but  if  he  had 
the  luck  and  the  glory  of  adding  a  new  kingdom 
to  the  states  of  the  prince  who  has  been  surnamed 
the  Terrible,  to  his  immediate  successors  was  due 
the  foundation  of  the  first  town  in  the  territory 
snatched  from  the  Tartars,  for  Ermak  was  drowned 
in  the  Irtysh  in  1584,  and  Tobolsk  dates  only  from 
15S7.  The  effort  of  the  Russians  was  then  directed 
to  the  north  of  Siberia ;  they  did  not  meet  with 
any  resistance  until  fTiey  reached  the  Lena  River; 
in  1632  they  built  the  fort  of  Yakutsk  on  the 
banks  of  this  river,  and  pushed  their  explorations 
on  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk.  In  1636  tidings  of  the 
Amoor  River  were  for  the  first  time  heard  from 
Cossacks  of  Tomsk,  who  had  made  raids  to  the 
south.  Wasili  Poyarkov  (1643-46)  is  the  first 
Russian  who  navigated  the  Amoor  from  its  junc- 
tion with  Zeia  to  its  mouth.  In  1643-51,  Kha- 
barov  led  an  expedition  in  the  course  of  which 
he  built  on  the  banks  of  the  river  several  forts, 
Albasine  among  them.  In  1654,  Stepanov  for  the 
first  time  ascended  the  Sungari,  where  he  met  the 
Chinese,  who  compelled  him  to  trace  his  way  back 
to  the  Amoor.  In  spite  of  all  their  exertions,  after 
two  sieges  of  Albasine  by  the  Chinese,  the  Rus- 
sians were  obliged  on  the  27th  of  August,  1689, 
to  sign  at  Nerchinsk  a  treaty  by  which  they  were 
driven  out  of  the  basin  of  the  Amoor.    The  Rus- 


551 


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Russian  Movements 


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sians,  bound  to  carry  their  efforts  to  the  north, 
subdued  Kamchatka.  What  is  perhaps  most  re- 
marlcable  in  the  history  of  the  relations  of  the  two 
great  Asiatic  empires  is  the  tenacity  of  the  Mus- 
covite grappling  with  the  cunning  of  the  Chinese, 
and  the  comparison  between  the  starting-point  of 
these  relations,  the  Russia  of  Michael  and  Alexis 
and  the  China  of  K'ang-hi,  and  their  culminating- 
point  in  iS6o,  when  these  very  nations  shall  have 
passed,  one  through  the  iron  hands  of  Peter  the 
Great  and  become  the  Russia  of  Alexander  II,  and 
the  other  under  the  backward  government  of  Kia- 
K'ing  and  Tao-kwang  and  become  the  China  of 
their  feeble  successor  Hien-Fung.  Only  on  the  i8th 
of  May,  i8S4,  did  the  Governor-General  Muraviev 
navigate  again  the  waters  of  the  Amoor  River;  on 
the  i6th  of  May,  1858,  he  signed  at  Aigun  a  treaty 
which  made  the  Amoor  until  its  junction  with  the 
Usuri  the  boundary  between  the  Russian  and  Chi- 
nese Empires,  the  territory  between  the  Usuri  and 
the  sea  remaining  in  the  joint  possession  of  the  two 
Powers,  but  after  the  Pe-king  Convention  (2-14 
November,  i860)  this  land  was  abandoned  to 
Russia  and  the  Usuri  became  the  boundary.  In 
the  meantime,  the  treaty  signed  at  T'ien-tsin  by 
Admiral  Euthymus  Putiatin  (1-13  June,  1858)  se- 
cured for  Russia  all  the  advantages  gained  by 
France  and  England  after  the  occupation  of  Can- 
ton and  the  capture  of  the  Taku  forts.  [See  also 
Sibema:  1578-1800.]  The  second  Russian  move 
had  Central  Asia  as  its  aim ;  it  was  the  result  of 
the  foundation  of  the  town  of  Orenburg,  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Syr-Daria  by  Batiakov  the  build- 
ing of  Kazalinsk  (1848)  near  the  mouth  of  this 
river;  the  unsuccessful  effort  of  General  Perovsky 
(1830)  turned  the  enterprise  of  the  Russians  to 
the  Khanate  of  Khokand;  the  storming  of  Tash- 
kend  by  Colonel  Chernaiev  on  the  27th  of  June, 
1865,  was  the  crowning  point  of  the  conquest  of 
Turkestan  by  the  Russians.  The  road  to  the  T'ien- 
Shan  Nan  Lu,  had  already  been  opened  to  the 
Russians  by  the  treaty  signed  at  Kulja  (July  25- 
August  8,  1851)  by  Colonel  Kovalcsky,  which, 
however,  was  known  only  ten  years  later  (28 
February-ii  March,  1861).  While  Yakub  Bey 
had  founded  a  Mohammedan  Empire  in  the  T'ien- 
Shan  Nan  Lu,  the  Russians  took  possession  of  the 
Hi  Territory  on  the  4th  of  July,  1871.  The  re- 
trocession of  this  territory  to  China  after  the  death 
of  the  Attalik  Ghazi  was  the  cause  of  long  and 
difficult  negotiations  between  Russia  and  China, 
which  ended  with  the  treaties  of  Livadia  (October, 
1870)  and  of  St.  Petersburg  (February  12-23, 
1881).  Russia  restored  the  lands  which  she  de- 
tained illegitimately,  keeping,  however,  a  small  por- 
tion, not  the  least  valuable.  .  .  .  The  third  Russian 
move  was  aimed  at  the  countries  beyond  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  was  the  result  of  the  conquest  of  the 
Crimea  by  Potemkin  in  the  naijue  of  the  great 
Catherine,  and  of  the  treaty  of  Kutschuk  Quain- 
ardji  (1774),  which  gave  to  the  Russians  the  free 
navigation  of  the  Black  Sea.  Under  the  rei^n  of 
Nicholas  I,  Putiatin  established  a  permanent  iriari- 
time  station  on  the  Island  of  Akurade  in  the 
Gulf  of  Astrabad,  and  a  line  of  ships  on  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  securing  from  the  Persian  Government 
facilities  for  Russian  fishermen  and  traders  on  the 
southern  coast  of  that  sea.  At  last,  in  1860,  Rus- 
sia took  a  definite  position  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  in  settling  at  Kranovodsk.  Later, 
on  the  break-up  of  the  Turkish  barrier  of  Geok- 
tepe  by  Skobelev,  the  occupation  of  the  Oasis  of 
Merv  by  Aliknanov,  the  capture  of  Samarkand, 
made  of  the  Transcaspian  country  a  Russian  pos- 
session, rendered  Russian  influence  paramount  in 
the  north  of  Persia,  and  threatened  Herat  and  the 
route    of    India.     TSee   also    Russia:    :8s9-i876.1 


The  railway  which  the  ingenuity  and  tenacity  of 
Annenkov  threw  across  the  burning  desert,  united 
the  Caspian  Sea  to  Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  cross- 
ing the  Oxus  at  Charjui.  The  continuation  of  this 
railway  from  Samarkand  to  Tashkend  and  the  Si- 
berian line  was  to  place  the  whole  of  Asia  beyond 
the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Caspian  Sea  in  the 
hands  of  the  Russians.  It  seems  as  if  nothing 
could  put  a  stop  to  this  expansion ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  bold  and  rapid  construction  of  a  railway 
across  the  frozen  steppes  of  Siberia  was  to  unite 
Russia  directly  with  the  Far  East  by  an  unbroken 
chain ;  the  ports  of  Manchuria  and  Korea,  watered 
by  the  seas  of  China  and  Japan,  being  considered 
the  termini  of  the  long  line.  Work  on  the  western 
part  of  the  Siberian  Railway  began  on  July  7, 
1802.  Its  extension  beyond  the  Baikal  Lake  was 
to  take  it  on  the  one  hand  to  Vladivostock  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Russian  possessions  in 
Asia,  and  on  the  other  to  Port  Arthur  in  the  south 
of  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula.  It  was  fair  to  think 
that  the  point  where  the  two  lines  met,  in  the  very 
heart  of  Manchuria,  should  become  a  most  impor- 
tant centre  of  industry  and  population;  indeed,  this 
has  been  realized,  and  in  a  few  years,  in  the  place 
of  a  barren  spot,  the  considerable  town  of  Kharbin 
(Harbin)  has  been  built  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye 
so  to  speak.  .  .  .  [See  also  Railroads:  i8Q5-igio.] 
While  Russia  was  making  this  enormous  extension 
in  the  northwest  of  Asia,  Japan  was  pursuing  the 
series  of  reforms  which  were  to  secure  for  her  a 
very  special  position  in  the  concert  of  the  nations 
of  the  world.  Previous  to  the  revolution  of  1868, 
which  altered  entirely  the  state  of  things  in  Japan, 
a  real  duality  in  the  government  existed  in  this 
country;  while  the  Tenno,  or  Mikado,  the  only 
Emperor,  reigned  nominally  at  Kioto,  the  power 
was  held  in  fact  by  the  Shogun,  a  sort  of  Mayor  of 
the  Palace,  residing  at  Yedo.  From  lyeyasu,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  gave  to 
feudality  the  definitive  constitution  which  lasted 
to  our  days,  the  power  remained  in  his  house,  that 
of  Tokugawa.  The  foreigners,  who  landed  in 
Japan  in  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century — Portuguese  and  English — 
were  expelled  in  1637,  and  by  the  end  of  1630  the 
Dutch  and  the  Chinese  were  the  only  outsiders  al- 
lowed to  live  on  the  islet  of  Deshima,  in  the  Bay 
of  Nagasaki,  in  order  to  supply  the  Japanese  with 
the  goods  they  required.  This  state  of  things,  not- 
withstanding the  attempts  vainly  made  by  Great 
Britain  and  Russia  during  the  first  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  was  to  last  until  the  arrival  of 
the  American  Commodore  Matthew  Calbraith 
Perry,  who  in  July,  1853,  anchored  at  Uraga  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  and  who  signed 
on  March  31,  i8S4,  at  Kanagawa,  the  first  treaty 
concluded  between  Japan  and  a  foreign  power. 
.  .  .  [See  also  Japan:  1854-1863.!  Europe  used 
to  consider  .^sia,  except  in  her  western  part,  as  a 
domain  where  events  rolled  on  without  any  dis- 
tant effect  and  having  therefore  but  an  interest  of 
mere  curiosity.  Chimi.  Bossuet  could  pass  over 
in  silence,  that  is  to  say  the  third  of  the  total 
population  of  the  globe,  in  his  Discours  sur  I'his- 
toire  universelle  .  .  .  admired  only  by  those  who 
have  not  read  it.  However,  during  the  course  of 
the  fifth  century  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians, 
and  in  the  thirteenth  the  raids  of  the  Mongols, 
should  have  opened  the  eyes  of  the  most  blind  of 
observers.  And  these  considerable  events  were  not 
the  result  of  fortuitous  causes,  but  the  natural  con- 
sequence of  important  events  which  had  happened 
in  the  interior  of  Asia,  while  our  ancestors  had 
not  the  faintest  suspicion  of  them.  Moreover,  the 
great  navigators  of  the  sixteenth  century  unraveled 
the  mystery  which  shrouded  the  remote  countries 


552 


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Maps  prepaid  ^|.<■l■ially  for  the  NEW  LARNED 
under  direction  of  the  editors  and  publishers. 


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Results  of 
European  Exploitation 


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and  helped  to  make  clear  the  interest  Europe  had 
in  knowing  them  better,  and  let  us  say,  with  frank 
cynicism,  in  speculating  upon  them.  The  first  at- 
tempts to  create  factories,  then  the  conquests  at 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  during  the  eight- 
eenth centuries,  showed  that  Europe  had  aban- 
doned her  majestic  indifference,  and  was  feeling 
the  necessity  of  a  policy  which  reached  beyond 
the  horizon  bounded  by  her  small  and  greedy  con- 
tinent. 

"At  the  close  of  the  wars  of  the  First  Empire,  as 
soon  as  peace  is  signed,  we  see  the  Western  na- 
tions resume  the  routes  to  Asia,  for  a  short  pe- 
riod neglected.  England  in  India  and  China,  the 
Dutch  in  the  Spice  Islands,  France  in  Indo-China, 
later  on  the  Russians  in  Central  Asia,  then  in  the 
basin  of  the  Amoor  River,  all  rush  to  the  con- 
quest of  new  territories ;  appetites  are  sharpened, 
rivalries  created ;  means  of  more  rapid  locomotion 
shorten  distances;  a  new  nation,  Japan,  is  born  to 
civilization,  or  to  what  it  pleases  us  to  call  civiliza- 
tion; and  Central  and  Eastern  Asia,  being  no 
more  isolated,  are  dragged  into  the  inharmonious 
concert  of  universal  politics." — H.  Cordier,  Gen- 
eral survey  of  the  history  of  Asia  (International 
Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  v.  2.,  pp.  Q5-103, 
St.  Louis,   IQ04). 

Results  of  European  exploitation. — The  fol- 
lowing is  a  comparison  and  recapitulation  of  rela- 
tions between  Asia  and  Europe  by  a  very  liberal 
Englishman,  Mr.  H.  M.  Hyndman,  who  expresses 
a  rathe_r  pessimistic  attitude  toward  the  aims  and 
methods  of  Europeans  in  Asia. 

"It  is  well  to  recall  that,  within  comparatively 
recent  times,  wave  alter  wave  of  conquering  Asi- 
atic armies  broke  in  upon  Europe;  and  barbarian 
as  most  of  these  warlike  hordes  were,  great  gen- 
erals, great  organisers,  great  administrators  rose 
up  from  among  them,  both  in  West  and  East, 
whose  equals  could  not  be  found  in  the  Europe  of 
their  day.  The  Arabs  of  Spain,  the  various  Mos- 
lem rulers  of  Baghdad,  Egypt  and  Adrianople  left, 
directly  or  indirectly,  their  mark  on  the  civilisa- 
tion of  the  West.  The  Mongols  of  Delhi,  the 
Bahmany  dynasty  of  the  Deccan,  Kublai  Khan  in 
China,  and  the  rulers  of  the  Khanates  of  Central 
Asia  showed  splendid  capacity,  in  arts  as  in  arms. 
These  men  and  others  built  up  Empires  which  the 
white  races  saw  and  heard  of  dimly  from  afar. 
But  whether  as  distant  rulers  or  as  terribly  near 
invaders  these  Asians  were  very  formidable  foes, 
and  in  the  changing  course  of  time  we  may  yet 
have  good  cause  to  fear  Asians  again.  We  now 
know  to  our  cost  what  a  war  to  the  death  between 
nations  and  races,  provided  with  equal  means  of 
destruction,  really  is.  In  the  long  run,  should  no 
exceptional  military  genius  manifest  himself,  nor 
any  incalculable  spirit  animate  one  of  the  com- 
batants, the  number  of  the  trained  soldiers  on 
either  side  determines  who  shall  be  the  victor.  In 
numbers  the  East  has  an  enormous  advantage  over 
the  West.  And  there  is  no  reason  why  a  really 
great  admiral,  or  general,  should  not  appear  in 
the  countries  which  border  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
as  well  as  in  those  whose  outlet  is  the  Atlantic. 
While  all  the  Powers  of  Europe  were  engaged  in 
a  desperate  war  of  resistance  to  Teutonic  aggres- 
sion, and  we  were  looking  on,  practically  help- 
less, at  the  internecine  butchery  of  the  white  race, 
there  has  been  a  steady  revival  among  the  vast 
populations  which  inhabit  the  territories  extending 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Sooloo  Sea,  and  from 
the  Amoor  River  to  the  Straits  of  Singapore. 
Nevertheless,  we  still  talk  with  confidence  of  cap- 
turing more  of  Asiatic  trade  and  influencing  for 
all  time  Asiatic  development. 

"Not  long   ago,   European   nations  were   calmly 


discussing  and  deciding  among  themselves  how 
much  more  of  sleepy  Asia  they  should  appropriate, 
for  the  benefit,  no  doubt,  of  the  peoples  brought 
under  this  foreign  rule.  But  now  our  sense  of 
conscious  superiority  is  being  shaken,  and  when 
we  find  the  inscrutable  Asiatic  learning  to  meet  us 
successfully  with  our  own  weapons,  we  draw  back 
a  little.  We  even  begin  to  see  that  he  may  have 
good  grounds  for  regarding  his  white  rivals  as  the 
uncultured  and  discourteous  barbarians  that,  in 
many  respects,  we  really  are.  Compared  with 
the  madness  of  Europe,  also,  the  comparative 
quietude  of  Asia  has  been  sanity  itself.  Yet  this 
may  not  endure.  With  all  the  facts  before  us,  and 
with  prejudice  thrown  aside,  we  are  still  unable  to 
lay  bare  the  causes  of  the  gigantic  Asian  move- 
ments of  the  past.  They  were  certainly  not  all 
economic  in  their  origin,  unless  we  stretch  the 
boundaries  of  theory  so  far  as  to  include  the  mas- 
sacre of  whole  populations  and  the  destruction  of 
their  wealth  within  the  limits  of  the  invader's  de- 
sire for  material  gain.  And,  whether  these  move- 
ments arose  from  material  or  emotional  causes, 
they  have  been  before,  and  they  may  occur  again. 
Forecast  here  is  impossible.  .  .  .  Japan  herself, 
whose  leadership  of  Asia,  afield  and  afloat,  may 
yet,  unless  we  are  very  careful,  teach  white  men 
a  lesson  all  over  the  world,  was  driven  into  close 
contact  with  Europe  and  America  against  her 
will,  first,  by  Commodore  Perry's  dexterous  di- 
plomacy, supported  by  the  power  of  the  United 
States,  and  then  by  the  much  less  justifiable 
measures  of  other  white  nations.  .  .  .  Asia  raided 
and  scouraged  Europe  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years.  Now  for  five  hundred  years  the  counter- 
attack of  Europe  upon  Asia  has  been  going  stead- 
ily on,  and  it  may  be  that  the  land  of  long  mem- 
ories will  cherish  some  desire  to  avenge  this  period 
of  wrong  and  rapine  in  turn.  The  seed  of  hatred 
has  already  been  but  too  well  sown.  The  conti- 
nent which  has  long  regarded  itself  as  the  home  of 
the  progressive  peoples  and  the  hope  of  the  entire 
planet  is  beginning  to  forfeit  its  assumed  suprem- 
acy. The  warlike  and  industrial  potentialities  of 
the  near  future  are  passing  slowly  but  surely  to 
the  Far  East.  ...  If  all  those  portions  of  the 
globe  which  are  inhabited  or  dominated  by  the 
white  races  are  seriously  taking  account  at  the 
present  moment  of  their  strength,  their  population, 
and  their  possibilities  for  the  increase  of  their 
wealth  on  a  larger  scale  than  ever  before,  we  may 
be  sure  the  ablest  men  in  Asia  are  not  blind  to 
what  can  be  achieved  in  their  own  countries  in 
peace  and  in  war.  It  is  true  that  the  differences 
between  the  Asiatic  peoples  are  as  acute  as  any 
which  exist  in  Europe.  But  against  the  white  man 
they  are  practically  all  at  one.  Yet  the  white  man 
still  holds  control  over  nearly  half  of  Asia  and 
its  vast  population!  Asia  comprises,  including  its 
islands,  little  less  than  1,000,000,000  of  the  human 
race;  England,  France,  Russia,  Holland  and  the 
United  States  are  all  deeply  concerned  in  the  fu- 
ture of  this  mass  of  people,  in  view  of  the  scope 
of  territory  and  population  they  control.  All  will 
be  greatly  affected  by  the  general  political,  eco- 
nomic and  social  movement  of  Japan,  China  and 
India.  In  a  word,  the  position  of  Great  Britain 
foremost,  and  of  the  other  Powers  in  their  degree, 
is  now  being  steadily  undermined.  The  determined, 
effort  to  secure  Asia  for  the  Asiatics,  once  begun 
as  earnestly  in  action  as  it  is  now  being  seriously 
considered  in  thought,  might  spread  with  a  rapidity 
which  would  paralyse  all  attempts  of  reconquest,  if, 
indeed,  such  attempts  could  ever  be  effectively 
made.  The  West  deprived  of  British  India,  the  Asi- 
atic Provinces  of  Russia,  French  Tonquin  and 
Cochin    China,    Dutch    Java,    Sumatra    and    the 


553 


ASIA 


Results  of 
European  Exploitation 


ASIA 


Celebes,  the  Philippines  under  the  United  States, 
would  be   a  very   different   Europe   from   that   to 
which  we  have  been  accustomed.    That  is  a  possi- 
bility of  which  the  West,  with  forces  now  weakened 
and   depleted   to   a   wholly   unprecedented   extent, 
must  soon  take  account.     Unconsciously,  but  none 
the  less  certainly,  it  is  making  way.  Where  fifty,  or 
even  twenty  years  ago,  the  continuous  expansion  of 
Western  domination  over  the  East  was  taken  for 
granted,  now  an   uneasy   but  not  yet  openly  ad- 
mitted feeling  is  growing  that  the  tide  has  turned, 
and  that  ere  long  the  area  of  European  influence 
in    the    East    will    be    considerably    reduced.     The 
partition  of  China  among  the  'Great  Powers'  is  not 
to-day  within  the  sphere  of  practical  politics,  and 
Japan  pursues  her  policy  in  respect  to  that  mag- 
nificent Empire   with   little   regard   to   the  suscep- 
tibilities of  the  white  man  and  his  burden.    Wheth- 
er the  appeal  of  China  herself  to  the  White  Pow- 
ers, that  they  should  aid  her  to  resist  the  unwar- 
ranted demands  of  Japan,  will  obtain  a  favourable 
reception    remains    to    be    seen.      But    while     The 
League  of  Nations'  is  being  generally  discussed  it 
is  certain  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Chinese,  the 
national  independence  of  China  is  seriously  men- 
aced if  the  much-cherished   'Open   Door'  is  being 
carefully,  though  silently,  closed.     All  this  is  more 
remarkable  since  the  Ottoman  Turks,  for  centuries 
the  advance  guard  of  Asia  in  Europe,  are  at  last 
being     driven     from     their     hereditary     camping- 
ground.      Even    their    mastery    over    Asia    Minor, 
(q.  v.),    irrespective    of    the    baffled    German    pro- 
gramme of  appropriation,  is  obviously  threatened 
by  Great  Britain  and  France.     What,  under  other 
circumstances,    would    undoubtedly    be    considered 
additional  evidence  of  the  growing   predominance 
of    Europe,   seems   to-day   scarcely    a   makeweight 
against  the  probable  insecurity  of  the  white  race 
in  the  Far  East.  .  .  .  Happily  the  same  views  as 
to  the  madness  of  modern  warfare  which  are  now 
being  forced  upon  the  rest  of  the  world  are  also 
making  way  with  Asiatic  statesmen.    They  ton  see 
that   friendly  cooperation   for   common   advantage 
might  be  far  more  advantageous  to  all  than  rivalry 
for  power  or  competition   for  gain.     Freedom   of 
nationalities,  equality  of  rights,  respect  for  treaties 
and    conventions,    international    arrangements    for 
securing    permanent    peace    are    as   important    for 
Asia  as  for  any  other  continent.     But  the  respon- 
sibility   for   adopting    them,   should    the    Japanese 
democratic    party    prevail,    and    India    and    China 
press  their  demands  without  violence,  rests  entirely 
with    Europe.      The    Asiatic    nations    are    so    far 
threatening  no  legitimate  European  interest:   they 
ask  only  that  the  principles  for  which  the  Allies 
justly  claim  they  fought  Germany  should  be   ap- 
plied in  the  most  populous  regions  of  the  world. 
But  it   is   useless   to   disguise   from   ourselves  that 
this  concession  would  involve  'of  itself  a  complete 
revolution  in  the  East.     For  such  policy  honestly 
applied   would   mean:      (i)    The   emancipation    of 
India    from    foreign    rule   by   peaceful    agreements 
with  its  numerous  peoples.     (2)   The  cessation   of 
attempts   to   force   foreign   capitalism   and   foreign 
trade  upon  Asiatic  countries.     (3)  The  recognition 
that  Japanese  and   Chinese  are  entitled,  in  coun- 
tries and  colonies  inhabited  or  controlled  by  Euro- 
peans, to  rights  equal  with  those  of  Europeans  in 
China   and   Japan.      (4)    The   granting   of  similar 
rights    to    Indians    on    the   same    basis.      (5)    The 
general    acceptance    by    Europeans    of    the    princi- 
ple of  'Asia  for  the  Asiatics'  as  a  rightful  claim. 
But    no    student    and    no    statesman    would    con- 
tend  that   such   a   wide   policy   of   justice   can   be 
suddenly    realised.      Yet,    if,    in    the    near    future, 
public    opinion    in   Europe   and    America   were   to 
endorse  such  a  programme,  and   the  nations  in- 


terested  would   take    the   first   steps   towards   its 
realisation,  much  of  the   antagonism  which  is  al- 
ready manifesting  itself  in  Asia  might  be  removed. 
Past  injuries  cannot  now  be  remedied.     The  most 
to  hope  for  is  that,  in  the  Asiatic  mind,  they  may 
be  held  to  balance  those  Eastern  attacks  upon  the 
West    which    belong    to    a    past    more    remote." — 
H.  M.  Hyndman,  Awakening  of  Asia,  pp.  275-2S2. 
European   influences   on  education,  industry, 
medicine,    political    movements,    social    reform 
and  ethical  reform. — (i)    Education. — "The  edu- 
cation which  the  Orient  used  to  give  to  the  favored 
few  had  little  relation  to  modern  life  or  thought, 
and  nothing  which  fitted  for  leadership  in  conape- 
tition    with    the   West.     The    missionary    was   the 
pioneer  in  introducing  western  education  into  the 
East.     Started   by   the   missionary,   the   work   has 
now  been  taken  up  by  the  people  in  each  country. 
Under  the  lead  of  the  British  officials,  India  has 
been  given   an  educational  system  heading  up  in 
five  universities,  which  prescribe  courses  of  study, 
set  examinations,  and  confer  degrees,  which  are  the 
gateway   through  which   the  young  men  of  India 
pass  into  public  or  commercial  life.  .  .  .  India  con- 
tains  schools    of    every    grade,    from    the    kinder- 
garten  to   the   university,   including   technical   and 
professional   schools.     India   is  headed   in   the   di- 
rection  of  universal  compulsory  education,  which 
Ceylon   has   already,   in   theory   at  least,   attained. 
Japan  has  created  within  a  few  years  a  system  of 
education  from  the  elementary  schools,  attendance 
upon  which  is  compulsory,  up  to  the  universities. 
China  has  discarded  entirely  its  centuries-old  sys- 
tem of  examinations  in  the   Chinese  Classics,  and 
has  provided  on  paper  a  comprehensive  system  of 
universal  education,  which  is  gradually  being  put 
into  effect.     Siam,  too,  has  its  schools  which  teach 
western  science  and  other  western  subjects.     The 
effect  of  this  education  is  to  break  down  old  super- 
stitions,   broaden    the    vision,   and   bring    the   stu- 
dents into  touch  with  the  life,  thought,  and  ideals 
of   the   West.     All   this  is  good,  but   there  is  an- 
other side.     The   system   of   education   is   too  ex- 
clusively literary,  as,  apart  from  technical  schools, 
it  all  looks  to  preparation  for  university  courses, 
which  are  taken  by  a  very  small  fraction  of  the 
student  body.     The   remainder  get   the   idea  that 
they  are  above  a  life  of  productive  activity  in  the 
industrial   world  and   must  be  clerks,  teachers,  or 
officials.     The   supply   of   such   candidates   far  ex- 
ceeds  the   demand.     Again,   the   education   is   too 
western  in  its  character  and  tends  to  unfit  the  stu- 
dent for  life  and  work  among  his  own  people.    This 
is  especially  true  in  India  and  Ceylon,  where  the 
history    and   literature    of    Greece    and    Rome   are 
over  emphasized  as  compared  with  the  literature 
and  history  of  India.     .\n  extreme  instance  of  this 
occurred  in   Ceylon,  where  there  is  no   local  uni- 
versity and  English  examinations  are  used.    It  was 
only   after  a  struggle   that   pupils   were  permitted 
to    offer    themselves    for    examination    upon    the 
botany   of   Ceylon    and   not   upon   the   botany   of 
Great  Britain.     Instances  are  by  no  means  rare  of 
students  who  cannot  communicate  with  their  par- 
ents because  they  have  lost  their  command  of  the 
vernacular.     The  university  men   of   India  believe 
that  the  political  theories  of  the  West  cannot  be 
put  into  immediate  operation  among  people  whose 
whole  history   and  life   have  been   along  different 
lines.    Japan  has  solved  this  problem  of  adaptation 
with  tolerable  success,  and  China  believes  in  both 
western   and   Chinese  education,  but  the  two   are 
not   sufficiently   welded.     Again,   the   education   is 
apt  to  be  superficial.     This  is  true  in  India.     Jap- 
anese    education     is     more     comprehensive     than 
thorough,  and  few  schools  in  China  have  compe- 
tent teachers.     Still  more  serious  is  the  moral  ef- 


554 


ASIA 


European  Influences 


ASIA 


feet  of  this  education.  It  breaks  down  the  old 
religious  beliefs,  the  old  standards  and  sanctions, 
and  it  puts  almost  nothing  in  their  place.  The 
teaching  is  for  the  most  part  agnostic,  if  not  posi- 
tively anti-religious,  and  pupils,  in  the  life  of 
whose  nation  religion  and  ethics  have  played  a 
prominent  part,  cannot  so  easily  and  safely  ad- 
just themselves  to  the  agnostic  position  as  pupils 
who  have  back  of  them  generations  of  believers  in 
Christian  standards  of  conduct.  The  moral  waste 
of  the  new  education  of  the  Orient  is  discourag- 
ing. Men  are  cast  adrift  and  have  no  way  of 
getting  their  bearings. 

"2.  Industry. — There  are  two  phases  in  the  in- 
dustrial development  of  the  East,  the  development 
of  means  of  communication — railroads,  steamer 
lines,  telegraphs,  and  postal  faciUties — and  the 
growth  of  the  factory  system.  Much  of  the  pro- 
vincialism of  India  and  China  has  been  due  to 
isolation.  The  marvel  is  that  there  has  been  so 
much  intercommunication  by  foot  and  hy  cart. 
These  barriers  are  now  breaking  down.  The  rail- 
road, the  telegraph,  and  the  post-office  have  ex- 
tended themselves  all  over  India  and  Japan.  In 
Chma,  the  telegraph  and  the  mail  carrier  are  pene- 
trating the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  the  railroad  will  soon  bring  the  remotest  prov- 
inces within  a  few  days'  journey  of  the  capital. 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  break  down  caste  in  India 
and  provincialism  in  China,  to  unify  the  political 
life  of  these  countries,  and,  by  greater  centraliza- 
tion of  administration,  to  stop  the  graft  and  in- 
justice of  local  officials.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
railroads  and  steamers  are  throwing  into  the  ranks 
of  the  unemployed  of  China  thousands  of  coolies, 
boatmen,  carters,  and  innkeepers,  whose  occupation 
has  vanished.  It  is  no  longer  possible  in  India  to 
isolate  the  effects  of  such  calamities  as  famine  and 
pestilence.  All  parts  now  bear  their  share  of  the 
burden,  through  the  prevalence  of  famine  prices 
and  the  spread  of  contagion.  Industrially,  too, 
there  have  been  great  changes.  The  factory  sys- 
tem is  invading  India,  and  the  Indian  artisans  are 
feeling  the  competition,  not  only  of  imported 
goods,  but  also  of  the  local  factory-made  product. 
China  is  moving  in  the  same  direction.  In  weav- 
ing, it  is  using  a  more  efficient  hand  loom,  while 
at  Hanyang,  across  the  river  from  the  Chicago  of 
China,  Hankow,  is  an  up-to-date  steel  plant,  which 
has  even  exported  its  products  to  the  United 
States.  Japan  is  in  the  full  swing  of  industrial  de- 
velopment along  western  lines.  Its  great  industrial 
plants  closely  resemble  those  of  the  United  States. 
All  this  gives  promise  of  increasing  wealth,  higher 
standards  of  living,  greater  comforts,  and  a  richer 
hfe.  At  the  same  time,  it  means  that  China,  India, 
and  Japan  are  either  facing  or  are  already  strug- 
gling with  all  these  phases — industrial,  social,  sani- 
tary, and  moral — of  industrial  centers  with  which 
the  West  is  far  too  familiar.  It  is  a  suggestive 
fact  that  the  slum  problem  has  entered  Asia 
through  following  the  example  of  the  West.  What 
is  worse  is  that  these  people  do  not  have  the  high 
western  sense  of  the  value  of  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual, and  are,  comparatively  speaking,  without 
any  restraining  influence  similar  to  our  enlightened 
public  opinion,  which  has  been  aroused  by  the 
struggles  of  a  century  of  industrial  strife.  Unless 
these  elements  can  be  suppUed,  there  is  danger  of 
suffering  and  of  abuses  worse  than  any  the  West 
has  known. 

"3.  Medicine. — Within  a  generation,  Japan  has 
created  for  herself  a  corps  of  competent  physicians 
and  surgeons.  She  is  also  as  rapidly  as  possible 
applying  the  principles  of  sanitation  to  the  prob- 
lems of  public  health.  In  India,  the  British  gov- 
ernment recognizes  the  importance  of  medicine  and 


sanitation  and  there  is  a  regular  body  of  scientifi- 
cally trained  physicians  throughout  the  country. 
However,  their  number  and  their  training  are  often 
inferior,  and  the  ignorance  of  the  people  and  their 
social  customs  make  it  impossible  fully  to  relieve 
suffering  or  to  do  more  than  reduce  the  ravages  of 
cholera  and  plague.  China  is  practically  without 
competent  physicians.  Medical  missionaries  and 
those  trained  by  them  have  the  field  almost  to 
themselves,  although  now  the  government  is  aid- 
ing and  supporting  medical  schools.  Those  in  a 
position  to  judge  afhrm  that  there  is  a  greater 
amount  of  unnecessary  physical  suffering  in  China 
today  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  West- 
ern medicine  is  now  entering  China,  both  helpfully 
and  otherwise,  for  China  is  now  getting,  not  only 
fully  trained  European  and  Chinese  physicians,  but 
also  charlatans,  who  pretend  to  a  knowledge  and 
skill  utterly  foreign  to  them,  and  dealers  in  patent 
medicines  as  well.  In  nearly  every  bazaar  drugs 
are  sold  to  those  who  have  no  knowledge  what- 
ever of  their  proper  use.  The  poster  nuisance  is 
found  in  China  and  the  most  widely  advertised 
medicines  are  nostrums  for  the  diseases  of  vice. 
[See  also  Medical  science:   China.] 

"4.  Political  movements. — In  the  sphere  of  gov- 
ernment the  most  significant  change  is  the  growth 
of  the  nationalistic  spirit.  The  day  when  the  West 
could  dominate  and  control  with  arrogance  the 
great  peoples  of  Asia  has  passed.  Japan  has  al- 
ways possessed  a  spirit  of  proud  independence,  and 
ever  since  she  emerged  from  her  isolation  she  has 
bent  every  effort  to  secure  recognition  as  the  peer 
of  any  western  power.  The  same  purpose  is  back 
of  the  political  and  social  development  of  China. 
China  is  proud  of  her  ancient  civilization  and  of 
the  fact  that  she  has  gone  serenely  on  her  way 
during  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  successive  empires  of 
the  West.  She  is  firmly  resolved  to  end  forever 
the  day  when  the  young  western  nations  can  bully 
and  despoil  her.  The  provincial  spirit  is  growing 
into  a  national  spirit  and  China  is  resolved,  at  the 
earliest  possible  day,  to  make  herself  strong  enough 
to  control  China  for  the  Chinese.  Into  the  ques- 
tion of  the  unrest  of  India,  which  has  voiced 
itself  in  protests  and  in  bombs,  we  cannot  enter. 
Suffice  to  say  that  leaders  who  have  been  trained 
and  educated  by  Britain  and  have  been  taught  the 
poUtical  philosophy  of  the  western  nations  are  de- 
manding a  greater  control  over  their  own  affairs, 
either  as  a  member  of  the  British  Empire  or  as 
an  independent  people.  .  .  . 

"S-  Social  reform. — The  oriental  social  reformer 
has  been  very  active  in  recent  years.  In  India,  his 
agitation  has  chiefly  concerned  the  two  great  in- 
stitutions of  caste  and  the  family.  The  minute 
subdivision  of  the  people  of  India  into  hundreds 
or  even  thousands  of  endogamous  subdivisions, 
many  of  which  have  but  a  comparatively  small 
membership,  has  resulted  in  an  interbreeding  which 
has  reduced  the  virility  of  the  race.  Caste  is  an 
almost  insurmountable  barrier  to  the  creation  of  a 
true  public  spirit  or  to  hearty  cooperation  be- 
tween the  sections  of  society.  The  range  of  sym- 
pathy is  narrowed,  as  a  member  of  one  caste  has 
no  feeling  of  obligation  to  assist  a  member  of  an- 
other caste.  Millions,  who  are  below  even  the 
lowest  of  castes,  are  condemned  by  the  caste  sys- 
tem to  an  existence  which  is  too  often  unworthy 
of  a  human  being  and  with  no  possibility  of  relief. 
Closely  connected  with  the  caste  system  is  the  in- 
stitution of  child  marriage,  which  has  made  pres- 
ent-day India  the  offspring  of  children,  which  puts 
on  mere  boys  and  girls  the  responsibilities  of  mar- 
riage, saps  the  vitality  and  ambition  of  the  boy 
fathers,  and  prevents  the  education  of  the  girl 
mothers.     Racial   deterioration   and   physical   suf- 


555 


ASIA 


European  Influences 


ASIA 


fering  are  other  results  of  the  prevailing  marriage 
customs,  while  the  position  of  widows  and  the 
joint-family  system  bring  in  their  turn  evils  all 
their  own.  AH  these  evils  are  fully  recognized 
by  the  leaders  of  the  social-reform  movement  and 
one  can  read  such  condemnations  by  them  of  these 
customs  as  no  foreigner  would  dare  to  make. 
Progress  had  been  made,  caste  is  in  many  respects 
disintegrating,  and  the  agitation  for  raising  the 
marriage  age  of  girls,  for  the  remarriage  of  wid- 
ows, especially  child  widows,  and  for  intercaste 
marriages  has  not  been  without  results,  some  of 
which  are  seen  on  the  statute  book.  At  the  same 
time,  the  present  nationalistic  movement  tends 
strongly  toward  a  reactionary  clinging  to  those  insti- 
tutions which  are  peculiarly  Indian,  and  the  agita- 
tors are  stronger  in  talking  than  in  acting.  .  .  .  One 
of  the  social  reforms  most  agitated  in  China  is  the 
natural-foot  movement.  So  rapidly  is  this  spread- 
ing, that  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when 
no  girl  in  China  will  undergo  the  physical  suf- 
fering, with  its  resulting  disabilities,  which  come? 
from  binding  the  feet.  These  movements  mean  also 
that  woman  is  coming  to  her  own.  While,  as  has 
already  been  said,  she  has  never  been  without  her 
influence,  yet  she  has  too  often  been  denied  educa- 
tion and  freedom  to  develop  her  own  individu- 
ality. In  India,  the  government,  and  the  Chris- 
tian, Moslem,  and  Hindu  communities  are  now  all 
providing  schools  for  girls,  and  educated  young 
men  are  demanding  educated  wives,  who  can  be 
real  companions  in  their  intellectual  life  and  social 
work,  as  well  as  the  mothers  of  their  children. 
There  is  already  a  new  woman  in  China,  but,  like 
all  other  pioneers,  she  tends  to  go  to  the  extreme, 
and  these  new  women  are  not  always  models 
Many  of  them  are  too  bold,  openly  and  brazenly 
defy  all  conventions  of  Chinese  society,  and  do  not 
always  know  where  liberty  ends  and  license  be- 
gins. .  .  . 

"6.  Ethical    reform. — The    ethical    standards    of 
the  Orient  have  changed  greatly  under  western  in- 
fluence.    It  must  be  confessed  at  the   outset   that 
all  western  mfluence  has  not  been  ethically   help- 
ful.   The  moral  conditions  of  the  port  cities  are  a 
disgrace  to  that  western  civilization  upon  the  rep- 
resentatives of  which  the  chief  responsibility  rests 
There  can  be  found  in  the  bookstalls  of  Japan  and 
Korea    pictures   and    postcards   of   a   sort    all    too 
familiar   to   us  of   the   West,   but   which   formerly 
Japan   would   never   have   tolerated   outside    of    a 
brothel.     Nearly  every  nation  has  its  into.xicating 
beverages,    but    these    are    usually    less    injurious 
physically  and  morally  than  the  strongest  western 
liquors,    which    have    been    introduced    into    the 
Orient  by  westerners,  and  which  those  who  imitate 
the  foreigners  are  beginning  to  use,  often  to  excess. 
Westerners  are  trying  to  drive   out   of  China  the 
Chinese    pipe,    which    is    used    almost    universally, 
and    to    substitute    the    cigarette.      The    effect    is 
physically  harmful  and  at  the  same  time  impover- 
ishing, a  week's  or  at  least  a  month's  supply   of 
cigarettes  costing  nearly  as  much  as  a  year's  sup- 
ply of  tobacco  for  the  Chinese  pipe.    On  the  other 
hand,     it     is     undeniable     that     there     has     been 
a     great     ethical     revival     throughout     the     great 
nations   of   Asia.     India    has    been    going    through 
a    process    of    Louse-cleaning    and    the    immorali- 
ties  connected    with    religious   ceremonies   are    be- 
ing   reduced.      Teachers   devise   sports    to    prevent 
their   pupils   from   sharing    in    the    ribaldry,   if    not 
shameless    indecencies,    connected    with    the    great 
festival  of  Holt.  .  .  .  Many  temple  cars,  with  iheir 
obscene  carvings,  are  now  kept  under  cover  when 
not  in   actual  use.     The  marriage  of  girls  to  the 
gods  an(f  their  condemnation  to  a  life  of   prosti- 
tution is  now  under  the  ban.    China  is  in  the  midst 


of  its  great  anti-opium  crusade,  and  it  looks  as 
if,  within  a  reasonable  time,  the  world  would  wit- 
ness, for  the  first  time,  the  spectacle  of  a  great 
nation  curing  itself  of  a  habit  which  was  tending 
to  ruin  it  physically  and  ethically.  Ethical  stand- 
ards in  Japan  have  been  raised,  although  there  are 
many  discouraging  features  in  the  life  of  present- 
day  Japan.  But  note  this,  the  whole  tone  of  pres- 
ent-day literature,  including  magazines  and  peri- 
odicals, is  no  longer  Buddhistic  but  Christian.  Ja- 
pan means  so  to  readjust  her  customs  and  stand- 
ards that  no  western  people  can  point  at  her  a 
finger  of  scorn.  In  this  whole  matter  of  ethical 
reform,  the  chief  difficulty  is  in  the  character  of 
the  leaders,  some  of  whom  are  themselves  faithless 
to  the  new  standards.  In  other  words,  the  great- 
est need  of  the  Orient  today  is  for  a  larger  num- 
ber of  intelligent  leaders,  unselfish  and  ethically 
sound,  and  for  the  spread  of  a  spirit  of  enlightened 
progress  through  the  ranks  of  the  common  people." 
— E.  VJ.  Capen.  Sociological  appraisal  of  western 
influence  in  the  Orient  (.American  Journal  of 
.Sociology,   May.    iQii.   pp.   738-745). 

Chronology  of  the  chief  events  in  Asiatic  his- 
tory.— It  is  among  the  Asiatics  that  we  find  the 
earliest  known  stratum  of  population,  such  as  some 
of  tribes  of  China  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  the 
V'eddahs  of  Ceylon  and  the  .Ainus  of  Japan;  but. 
outside  of  Babylonia  and  .As.syria.  the  authentic 
history  of  .^sia  does  not  date  back  of  1500  B.  C 

B.  C.  4500-2000.— Babylonia,  the  ruling  power 
in  .Xsia.    See  B.abyloxw. 

B.  C.  1500. — Chinese  advance  along  the  Hwang 
Ho;  entrance  of  Aryans  into  India  from  the  north- 
west. 

B.  C.  1450-1300.— Height  of  Hittite  power  in 
Asia  Minor  ,ind  Syria.     See  Hittites 

B.  C.  10th  century. — Jewish  kingdom  at  its 
height,  overcome  by  the  .Assyrians.  See  .\ssvRi.*: 
Assyrian  empire. 

B.  C.  9th-8th  centuries. — Assyria  chief  power 
in  western  .Asia.     See  .'\ssvRW 

B.  C.  6th-5th  centuries. — Rise  of  the  Asiatic 
empire  of  Cyrus  and  its  conflicts  with  the  earliest 
European  civilization   (Greek)      See  Persi.'V:   B  C. 

S4Q-52I- 

B.  C.  4th  century. — .Alexander's  conquest  of 
western  asia  to  the  Indus  river;  marked  influence 
of  Greeco-Persian  civilization  on  India  and  Asia 
Minor.  See  IxriiA:  B.C.  327-312;  Macedonia; 
B.C    334-330;  B.C.  330-3^3- 

B.  C.  264-227. — Empire  of  Asoka  in  India  from 
Afghanistan  to  Madras.     See  India:   B.C.  312. 

B.  C.  250-A.  D.  227.— Rule  of  the  Parthians 
over  Western  .Asia.  See  Parthia,  and  the  Par- 
thian  EMPIRE. 

B.  C.  200-A.  D.  1127.— China  a  great  Asiatic 
power  under  the  Han,  T'ang  and  Sung  dynasties. 
See  China:  Origin,  etc. 

B.  C.  2nd  century-A.  D.  5th  century.— Con- 
quest of  the  Romans  over  Hellenistic  kingdoms  of 
.Alexander;  conflicts  with  rebellious  Asiatic  Mon- 
archs.  See  Rome;  Republic;  B.C.  211-202,  to 
Rome:  Empire;  404-408;  Seleiioid.*;:  B.C.  224- 
187. 

A.  D.-  3rd  century-7th  century. — Sassanids  rule 

Persia    and    western    .Asia    as    the    Roman    power 

declines     See  Persia:  B.C.  150-A.  D.  220;  220-627. 

4th-6th  centuries. — Invasion  of  Europe  by  Huns. 

Bulgarians  and  .Avars.    See  .Avars;  Huns. 

7th  century. — Conquest  by  Mohammedans  of 
many  of  the  .Asiatic  provinces  under  the  Eastern 
Roman  empire  (Byzantine).  See  Caliphate:  632- 
630,  to  680, 

7th-15th  centuries. — .Arabia  a  prominent  Asiatic 
state  as  the  center  of  Mohammedan  power;  Arabs 


556 


ASIA 


ASIA  MINOR 


in   contact  with  Europe   in   Spain.     See   Arabia; 
Spain:  711-713,  to  1031-1086. 

8th  century. — India  invaded  by  the  Moslems. 

lOth-llth  centuries. — Seljuk  Turlcs  in  Persia, 
Asia  Minor  and  Palestine;  Hindus  in  Indo  China, 
later  in  Malaysia.  See  Turkey:  999-1183,  to  1092- 
1160. 

1096-1272. — Crusades  last  medieval  struggle  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia ;  power  of  Mohammedan 
state  in  southwest  Asia  cut  off  the  western  world 
from  Asia  and  deprived  Europe  of  knowledge  of 
.\sia.     See  Crusades. 

1162-1227. — Rise  of  Mongol  power  under  Jenghis 
Khan  and  its  spread  to  the  borders  of  Europe; 
Tibet  nominally  under  the  suzerainty  of  Jenghis 
Khan;  spread  of  the  Chinese  to  Siam.  See  Mon- 
golia:  1153-1227. 

13th  century. — The  thirteenth  century  was 
marked  by  the  power  of  the  Mongol  descendants 
of  Jenghis  Khan,  and  the  conquests  of  Timur.  See 
Mongolia:  1229-1294;  1238-1391. 

1241. — Russia  invaded  by  Batu  and  the  Golden 
Horde;  Silesia  entered.    See  Russia:   1237-1294. 

1259. — Kublai  Khan,  grandson  of  Jenghis,  came 
into  possession  of  China,  Korea,  Mongolia,  Man- 
churia and  Tibet;  attempted  to  invade  Japan 
(which  has  never  been  invaded)  but  was  re- 
pulsed.   See  Mongolia:  1229-1294. 

1281. — Argun  who  came  into  possession  of  the 
Mongolian  dominions  in  Persia,  Georgia,  Armenia, 
Khorosan,  etc.,  opened  up  diplomatic  relations  with 
Europe  and  proposed  an  alliance  against  the  Mo- 
hammedan powers. 

1299-1326.— Growing  power  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks  within  the  confines  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 
See  Turkey:   1240-1326. 

14th  century. — Ming  dynasty  in  China  gained 
control  and  ruled  300  years;  sent  out  far-reaching 
expeditions  into  neighboring  states  and  Pacific 
islands;  Ottoman  Turks  a  menace  to  Europe.  See 
China:  i 294-1 736. 

1453. — Ottoman  Turks  enter  Europe.  See  Con- 
stantinople:  1453. 

Early  16th  century.— Portuguese  established  fac- 
tories at  Goa  and  Macao ;  built  up  a  littoral  em- 
pire on  coasts  of  India  and  China;  traded  with 
Japan.  See  Commerce:  Era  of  geographic  expan- 
sion:  I5th-i7th  centuries. 

16th  century. — Rise  of  modern  European  pow- 
ers and  their  commercial  explorations  brought  Eu- 
rope into  contact  with  Asia.  See  Commerce;  Era 
of  geographic  expansion. 

1526-1707. — Mogul  domination  in  India;  came 
from  Transoxiana  and  seized  Delhi;  lasted  nomi- 
nally to  the  mutiny  of  1857.  See  India:  1399-1605, 
to  1747-1761. 

Later  16th  century.— Dutch  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  Pacific  (India,  East  Indies  and  China).  See 
Netherlands:  1594-1620. 

1565. — Philippines  taken  by  Spain.  See  Phil- 
ippine Islands:   1564-1572. 

1580. — Siberia  invaded  by  Russians  under  the 
Cossack  Yermak.    See  Siberia:   1578-1890. 

1592. — Korea  taken  by  Japan.  See  Japan:  boo- 
1853- 

1603-1868. — No  foreign  contact  with  Japan  ex- 
cept through  Dutch  under  restrictions.  See  Japan: 
1542-1,593;  1593-1625. 

1627. — Manchus  capture  Korea.     See  Korea. 

1644-1912. — Manchus  overcame  the  Mings;  ruled 
China  to  the  Revolution  of  1912.  See  China:  1662- 
1838,  to  1912. 

17th  century.— Rivalry  of  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish for  possession  of  India;  English  successful.  See 
India:  1600-1702. 

1745-1761.— Wars   between   French   and   English 


for  possession  of  India;  English  successful.  See  In- 
dia:   1743-1752. 

1840-1842.— English  forced  China  to  open  her 
ports  to  trade.    See  China:  1839-1844. 

1854-1859. — Japan  opened  to  European  trade; 
Japanese  set  themselves  to  assimilate  Western  civ- 
ilization.   See  Japan:  1797-1854. 

1895. — China  defeated  by  Japan ;  Korea  taken. 
See  China:   1894-1895. 

1905. — Russia  defeated  by  Japan;  first  instance 
in  modern  history  where  an  Asiatic  power  has 
competed  on  equal  terms  with  a  European  power. 
See  Japan:   1902-1905;  1905-1914. 

For  a  detailed  treatment  of  the  historical  de- 
velopment of  the  various  countries  in  .\sia,  see 
under  names  of  countries,  e.g.,  China,  India,  etc. 

Also  in:  N.  Prjevalski,  Explorations  in  Asia. — R. 
Temple,  Central  plateau  oj  Asia.—].  T.  Walker, 
Asiatic  explorers  of  the  Indian  survey.— S.  Beal, 
Buddhist  records  of  the  western  world. — C. 
Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta. — A.  Carey, 
Explorations  in  Turkestan. — C.  Yate,  Northern 
Afghanistan. — F.  Younghusband,  Heart  of  a  con- 
tinent; Journey  through  Manchuria. — W.  W. 
Rockhill,  Land  of  the  Lamas. — N.  Elias  and  Ross, 
History  of  the  Moguls  of  Central  Asia.—S.  Hedin, 
Central  Asia  and  Tibet. — P.  M.  Sykes,  Ten  thou- 
sand miles  in  Persia. — W.  Hunter,  History  of  Brit- 
ish India. — A.  Little,  Far  East. — A.  Durand,  Making 
a  frontier. — C.  McL.  Andrews,  Contemporary 
Asia  and  Africa. — G.  N.  Curzon,  Problems  of  the 
Far  East. — H.  Norman,  Peoples  and  politics  of  the 
Far  East. — h..  R.  Colquhoun,  Russia  against  India. 
—A.  T.  Mahan,  Problem  of  Asia.—U.  G.  Wells, 
Outline  of  History. 

ASIA,  Eastern. — Common  elements  in  myth- 
ology. Sec  Mythology:  Eastern  Asia:  Indian  and 
Chinese  influences. 

ASIA,  Masonic  societies  in.  See  Masonic  so- 
cieties: .^sia,  Persia  and  India. 

ASIA,  Roman  province  (so  called). — "As 
originally  constituted,  it  corresponded  to  the  do- 
minions of  the  kings  of  Pergamus  .  .  .  left  by  the 
will  of  .'\ttalus  III  to  the  Roman  people  133  B.  C. 
...  It  included  the  whole  of  Mysia  and  Lydia, 
with  .^iolis,  Ionia  and  Caria,  except  a  small  part 
which  was  subject  to  Rhodes,  and  the  greater 
part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  Phrygian  A  portion 
of  the  last  region,  however,  was  detached  from 
it." — E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  ancient  geography, 
ch.  20,  sect.   I. — See  also  Cilicia. 

ASIA  MINOR:  Name.— Geographical  and 
physical  characteristics. — "The  name  of  Asia 
Minor,  so  famihar  to  the  student  of  ancient  geog- 
raphy, was  not  in  use  either  among  Greek  or  Ro- 
man writers  until  a  very  late  period.  Orosius,  who 
wrote  in  the  fifth  century  after  the  Christian  era,  is 
the  first  extant  writer  who  employs  the  term  in  its 
modern  sense." — E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  an- 
cient geography,  ch.  7,  sect.  2. — The  name  Anatolia, 
which  is  of  Greek  origin,  synonymous  with  "The 
Levant,"  signifying  "The  Sunrise,"  came  into  use 
among  the  Byzantines,  about  the  loth  century, 
and  was  adopted  by  their  successors,  the  Turks. 
— "The  western  portion  of  Asia  Minor  was  known 
in  the  lime  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  as  Anatolia 
(the  land  of  'the  rising  sun'),  and  the  term  was 
used  to  distinguish  the  peninsular  portion  of  Asia 
from  continental  Asia.  From  East  to  West  paral- 
lel with  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean 
run  two  ranges  of  mountains  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  seas.  Between  them  lies  the 
great  elevated  table-land  plateau  from  2,500  to 
4,500  feet  high,  broken  up  by  other  mountains 
which  give  a  peculiar  character  to  the  whole 
country,  making  it  difficult  of  access,  and  tend- 
ing  to  keep  it  what  it  has  been   from  the   very 


557 


ASIA  MINOR,  B.  C.  1500-1400 


ASIA  MINOR,  B.  C.  1100 


dawn  of  history,  a  pastoral  country,  inhabited  by 
a  people  in  the  main  nomad,  lawless,  and  in- 
tractable. The  southernmost  range  of  mountains 
are  known  as  the  Taurus  and  the  Anti-Taurus, 
of  which  the  highest  point  is  the  Akjah-Dagh 
(11,000  feet).  Till  very  recent  times,  these  moun- 
tains and  the  country  generally  were  little  known. 
They  form  the  south  and  south-west  boundary 
of  the  six  Vilayets  or  provinces  which  are  known 
as  Armenia,  and  it  is  in  their  most  northerly 
reaches  that  the  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
take  their  rise.  'Both  branches  of  the  Eu- 
phrates,' says  Lynch,  'wind  their  way  by  immense 
stages  at  the  foot  of  thesa  mountains,  in  the  lap 
of  these  plains;  the  eastern  branch,  called  Murad 
Su,  rising  .  .  .  near  the  base  of  the  Ararat  sys- 
tem, and  traversing  Armenia  almost  from  one 
extremity  to  the  other.  The  more  westerly  chan- 
nel is  composed  in  its  infancy  by  two  streams 
.  .  .  one  .  .  .  flowing  sluggishly  through  the  plain 
of  Erzeroura;  the  other  springing  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  sources  of  the  Chorokh.  The 
Kelkid  and  Chorokh  are  both  in  their  upper 
courses  typical  Armenian  rivers.  What  a  con- 
trast,' he  concludes,  'between  this  wealth  of  wa- 
ter, many  of  which  might  be  rendered  navigable, 
and  the  hopeless  sterility  of  great  parts  of  Persia, 
from  which  no  river  finds  its  way  to  the  ocean!' 

"It  is  the  mountain  systems  and  the  numerous 
and  fertilising  rivers  which  give  to  Asia  Minor 
its  striking  beauty,  its  salubriousness,  its  wealth, 
and  its  extraordinary  economic  promise.  'There 
is  nothing  needed,'  Lynch  declares,  'but  less  per- 
versity on  the  part  of  the  human  animal  to 
convert  Armenia  into  an  almost  ideal  nursery  of 
his  race.  The  strong  highland  air,  the  rigorous 
but  bracing  winters,  and  the  summers  when  the 
nights  are  always  cool;  a  southern  sun,  great 
rivers,  immense  tracts  of  agricultural  soil,  an 
abundance  of  minerals — such  blessings  and  subtle 
properties  are  calculated  to  develop  the  fibre  in 
man,  foster  with  material  sufficiency  the  growth 
of  his  winged  mind  and  cause  it  to  expand  like 
a  flower  in  a  generous  light.  One  feels  that  for 
various  reasons  outside  inherent  qualities,  this 
land  has  never  enjoyed  at  any  period  of  history 
the  fulness  of  opportunity.  And  one  awaits  her 
future  with  expectant  interest.'  The  country 
which  is  known  as  Armenia  lies  in  the  extreme 
east  of  the  peninsula,  south  of  the  Black  Sea 
and  of  the  Caucasus." — VV.  L.  Williams,  Armenia, 
past  and  present,  pp.  4-6. — See  also  Asia:  Influ- 
ence of  geography  on  the  political  problems ;  Tur- 
key: Map  of  Asia  Minor. 

Earlier  kingdoms  and  people.  See  Phrygians 
AND     MvsiANs;     Lydians;     Carians;     Lycians; 

BiTHYNIANS;    PaPHLAGONIANS  ;    MlTHRADATIC   WARS; 

Isaurians;  Galatia,  Galatians;  Lucians;  Troy; 
Dorians  and  Ionians;  etc. 

B.  C.  1500-1400. — Relations  with  Egypt.  See 
Egypt:   About  B.C.   1500-1400. 

B.C.  1100. — Greek  colonies. — "The  tumult  .  .  . 
caused  by  the  irruption  of  the  Thesprotians  into 
Thessaly  and  the  displacement  of  the  population 
of  Greece  [see  Greece:  Migrations  to  .^sia  Minor 
and  islands  of  the  ^^gean]  did  not  subside  within 
the  limits  of  the  peninsula.  From  the  north 
and  the  south  those  inhabitants  who  were  unable 
to  maintain  their  ground  against  the  incursions 
of  the  Thessalians,  Arnaeans,  or  Dorians,  and  pre- 
ferred exile  to  submission,  sought  new  homes  in 
the  islands  of  the  /Egean  and  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  migrations  continued 
for  several  generations.  When  at  length  they 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  Anatolian  coast  from 
Mount  Ida  to  the  Triopian  headland,  with  the 
adjacent    islands,    was    in    the    possession    of    the 


Greeks,  three  great  divisions  or  tribes  were  dis- 
tinguished in  the  new  settlements:  Dorians,  Ioni- 
ans, and  Aeolians.  In  spite  of  the  presence  of 
some  alien  elements,  the  Dorians  and  Ionians  of 
Asia  Minor  were  the  same  tribes  as  the  Dorians 
and  Ionians  of  Greece.  The  Aeolians,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  a  composite  tribe,  as  their  name 
implies.  ...  Of  these  three  divisions  the  Aeolians 
lay  farthest  to  the  north.  The  precise  Umits 
of  their  territory  were  differently  fixed  by  differ- 
ent authorities.  .  .  .  The  Aeolic  cities  fell  into 
two  groups:  a  northern,  of  which  Lesbos  was 
the  centre,  and  a  southern,  composed  of  the 
cities  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the 
Hermus,  and  founded  from  Cyme.  .  .  .  The  north- 
ern group  included  the  islands  of  Tenedos  and 
Lesbos.  In  the  latter  there  were  originally  six 
cities:  Methymna,  Mytilene,  Pyrrha,  Eresus, 
Arisba,  and  Antissa,  but  Arisba  was  subsequently 
conquered  and  enslaved  by  Mytilene.  .  .  .  The 
second  great  stream  of  migration  proceeded  from 
Athens  [after  the  death  of  Codrus — according  to 
Greek  tradition,  the  younger  sons  of  Codrus  lead- 
ing these  Ionian  colonists  across  the  ^gean,  first 
to  the  Carian  city  of  Miletus — [see  Miletus] — 
which  they  captured,  and  then  to  the  conquest 
of  Ephesus  and  the  island  of  Samos].  .  .  .  The 
colonies  spread  until  a  dodecapolis  was  estab- 
lished, similar  to  the  union  which  the  Ionians 
had  founded  in  their  old  settlements  on  the  north- 
ern shore  of  Peloponnesus.  In  some  cities  the 
Ionian  population  formed  a  minority.  .  .  .  The 
colonisation  of  Ionia  was  undoubtedly,  in  the 
main,  an  achievement  of  emigrants  from  Attica, 
but  it  was  not  accomplished  by  a  single  family, 
or  in  the  space  of  one  life-time.  .  .  .  The  two 
most  famous  of  the  Ionian  cities  were  Miletus  and 
Ephesus.  The  first  was  a  Carian  city  previously 
known  as  Anactoria.  .  .  .  Ephesus  was  originally 
in  the  hands  of  the  Lelcges  and  the  Lydians,  who 
were  driven  out  by  the  Ionians  under  Androclus. 
The  ancient  sanctuary  of  the  tutelary  goddess  of 
the  place  was  transformed  by  the  Greeks  into 
a  temple  of  Artemis,  who  was  here  worshipped  as 
the  goddess  of  birth  and  productivity  in  accordance 
with  Oriental  rather  than  Hellenic  ideas."  The 
remaining  Ionic  cities  and  islands  were  Myus 
(named  from  the  mosquitoes  which  infested  it, 
and  which  finally  drove  the  colony  to  abandon 
it),  Priene,  Erythrae,  Clazomenae,  Teos,  Phocaea, 
Colophon,  Lebedus,  Samos  and  Chios.  "Chios  was 
first  inhabited  by  Cretans  .  .  .  and  subsequently 
by  Carians.  ...  Of  the  manner  in  which  Chios 
became  connected  with  the  Ionians  the  Chians 
could  give  no  clear  account.  .  .  .  The  southern 
part  of  the  Anatolian  coast,  and  the  southern- 
most islands  in  the  ^-Egean  were  colonised  by  the 
Dorians,  who  wrested  them  from  the  Phoenician 
or  Carian  occupants.  Of  the  islands,  Crete  is  the 
most  important.  .  .  .  Crete  was  one  of  the  old- 
est centres  of  civilisation  in  the  i^gean  [see 
Crete;  and  ^gean  civilization].  .  .  .  The  Dor- 
ian colony  in  Rhodes,  like  that  in  Crete,  was 
ascribed  to  the  band  which  left  Argos  under 
the  command  of  Althaemenes.  .  .  .  Other  islands 
colonised  by  the  Dorians  were  Thera,  .  .  .  Melos, 
.  .  .  Carpathus,  Calydnae,  Nisyrus,  and  Cos.  .  .  . 
From  the  islands,  the  Dorians  spread  to  the  main- 
land. The  peninsula  of  Cnidus  was  perhaps  the 
first  settlement.  .  .  .  Halicarnassus  was  founded 
from  Troezen,  and  the  Ionian  element  must  have 
been  considerable.  ...  Of  the  Dorian  cities,  six 
united  in  the  common  worship  of  Apollo  on 
the  headland  of  Triopium.  These  were  Lindus, 
lalysus,  and  Camirus  in  Rhodes,  Cos,  and,  on  the 
mainland,  Halicarnassus  and  Cnidus.  .  .  .  The  ter- 
ritory   which    the    Aeolians   acquired   is   described 


558 


ASIA  MINOR,  B.  C.  724-539 


ASIA  MINOR,  B.  C.  192-189 


by  Herodotus  as  more  fertile  than  that  occupied 
by  the  lonians,  but  of  a  less  excellent  climate. 
It  was  inhabited  by  a  number  of  tribes,  among 
Which  the  Troes  or  Teucri  were  the  chief.  .  .  . 
In  Homer  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  the  Troad 
are  Dardani  or  Troes,  and  the  name  Teucri  does 
not  occur.  In  historical  times  the  Gergithes, 
who  dwelt  in  the  town  of  the  same  name  .  .  . 
near  Lampsacus,  and  also  formed  the  subject 
population  of  Miletus,  were  the  only  remnants  of 
this  once  famous  nation.  But  their  former  great- 
ness was  attested  by  the  Homeric  poems,  and  the 
occurrence  of  the  name  Gergithians  at  various 
places  in  the  Troad  [see  Troy].  To  this  tribe 
belonged  the  Troy  of  the  Grecian  epic,  the  site 
of  which,  so  far  as  it  represents  any  historical 
city,  is  fixed  at  Hissarlik.  In  the  Iliad  the 
Trojan  empire  extends  from  the  Aesepus  to  the 
Caicus;  it  was  divided — or,  at  least,  later  his- 
torians speak  of  it  as  divided — into  principali- 
ties which  recognised  Priam  as  their  chief.  But 
the  Homeric  descriptions  of  the  city  and  its  emi- 
nence are  not  to  be  taken  as  historically  true. 
Whatever  the  power  and  civilisation  of  the 
ancient  stronghold  exhumed  by  Dr.  Schliemann 
may  have  been,  it  was  necessary  for  the  epic 
poet  to  represent  Priam  and  his  nation  as  a  dan- 
gerous rival  in  wealth  and  arms  to  the  great 
kings  of  Mycenae  and  Sparta.  .  .  .  The  tradi- 
tional dates  fix  these  colonies  [of  the  Greeks  in 
Asia  Minor]  in  the  generations  which  followed 
the  Trojan  war.  .  .  .  We  may  suppose  that  the 
colonisation  of  the  JE^can  and  of  Asia  Minor  by 
the  Greeks  was  coincident  with  the  expulsion  of 
the  Phoenicians.  The  greatest  extension  of  the 
Phoenician  power  in  the  ^^Lgean  seems  to  fall  in 
the  15th  century  B.C.  From  the  13th  it  was 
gradually  on  the  decline,  and  the  Greeks  were 
enabled  to  secure  the  trade  for  themselves.  .  .  . 
By  HOC  B.C.  Asia  Minor  may  have  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Greeks,  though  the  Phoenicians 
still  maintained  themselves  in  Rhodes  and  Cyprus. 
But  all  attempts  at  chronology  are  illusory." — 
E.  Abbott,  History  of  Greece,  v.  i,  ch.  4.— See  also 
Miletus;  Phoc.ians. 

Also  in:  E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  2, 
V.  I,  ch.  3. — G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  2, 
ch.  13-15. — J.  A.  Cramer,  Geographical  and  his- 
torical description  of  Asia  Minor,  v.  i,  sect.  6. 

B.  C.  724-539. — Prosperity  of  the  Greek  col- 
onies.—Their  submission  to  Croesus,  king  of 
Lydia,   and  their   conquest    and   annexation   to 


reduce  these  states  were  unavailing.  At  length 
(Ol.  SS)  [568  B.C.]  the  celebrated  Croesus 
mounted  the  throne  of  Lydia,  and  he  made  all 
Asia  this  side  of  the  River  Halys  (Lycia  and 
Cilicia  excepted)  acknowledge  his  dominion.  The 
Aeolian,  Ionian  and  Dorian  cities  of  the  coast 
all  paid  him  tribute ;  but,  according  to  the  usual 
rule  of  eastern  conquerors,  he  meddled  not  with 
their  political  institutions,  and  they  might  deem 
themselves  fortunate  in  being  insured  against  war 
by  the  payment  of  an  annual  sura  of  money. 
Croesus,  moreover,  cultivated  the  friendship  of 
the  European  Greeks."  But  Crcrsus  was  over- 
thrown, 554  B.C.,  by  the  conquering  Cyrus  and 
his  kingdom  of  Lydia  was  swallowed  up  in 
the  great  Persian  empire  then  taking  form  [see 
Persia:  B.C.  549-531]  Cyrus,  during  his  war 
with  Croesus,  had  tried  to  entice  the  lonians 
away  from  the  latter  and  win  them  to  an  alliance 
with  himself.  But  they  incurred  his  resentment 
by  refusing.  "They  and  the  /^iolians  now  sent 
ambassadors,  praying  to  be  received  to  submis- 
sion on  the  same  terms  as  those  on  which  they 
had  obeyed  the  Lydian  monarch;  but  the  Mile- 
sians alone  found  favour:  the  rest  had  to  prepare 
for  war.  They  repaired  the  walls  of  their  towns, 
and  sent  to  Sparta  for  aid.  Aid,  however,  was 
refused;  but  Cyrus,  being  called  away  by  the 
war  with  Babylon,  neglected  them  for  the  pres- 
ent. Three  years  afterwards  (01.  SQ.  2).  Harpa- 
gus,  who  had  saved  Cyrus  in  his  infancy  from 
his  grandfather  Astyages,  came  as  governor  of 
Lydia.  He  instantly  prepared  to  reduce  the 
cities  of  the  coast.  Town  after  town  submitted. 
The  Teians  abandoned  theirs,  and  retired  to  Abdera 
in  Thrace;  the  Phocsans,  getting  on  shipboard, 
and  vowing  never  to  return,  sailed  for  Corsica, 
and  being  there  harassed  by  the  Carthagenians  and 
Tyrrhenians,  they  went  to  Rhegion  in  Italy,  and 
at  length  founded  Massalia  (Marseilles)  on  the 
coast  of  Gaul.  The  Grecian  colonies  thus  became 
a  part  of  the  Persian  empire."— -T.  Keightley,  His- 
tory of  Greece,  pt.  i,  ch.  9. 

Also  in:  Herodotus,  History  (tr.  and  ed.  by  G. 
Rawlinson),  bk.  i,  and  app.—M.  Duncker,  His- 
torv   of  antiquilv,  bk.  8,  v.  6,  ch.  6-7. 

B.  C.  501-493. — The  Ionian  revolt  and  us 
suppressions.     See  Persia:   B.  C.  521-493- 

B.  C.  477.— Formation  of  Confederacy  or 
Delos.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  478-477- 

B.  C.  413. — Tribute  again  demanded  from  the 
Greeks     by     the     Persian     king.— Conspiracy 


the    Persian   empire.— "The    Grecian   colonies   on      aeainst  Athens.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  413 


the  coast  of  Asia  early  rose  to  wealth  by  means 
of  trade  and  manufactures.  Though  we  have  not 
the  means  of  tracing  their  commerce,  we  know 
that  it  was  considerable,  with  the  mother  coun- 
try, with  Italy,  and  at  length  Spain,  with  Phoenicia 
and  the  interior  of  Asia,  whence  the  productions 


B.  C.  413-412.— Revolt  of  the  Greek  cities 
from  Athens.— Intrigues  of  Alcibiades.  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  413-412.  . 

B.  C.  412.— Re-submission  to  Persia.  See  Per- 
sia: B.  C.  486-405. 

B.     C.    401-400. — Expedition    of     Cyrus    the 


of  India   passed   to   Greece.     The   Milesians,  who      youneer  and  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand.    See 


had  fine  woolen  manufactures,  extended  their  com 
merce  to  the  Euxine,  on  all  sides  of  which  they 
founded  factories,  and  exchanged  their  manu- 
factures and  other  goods  with  the  Scythians  and 
the  neighbouring  peoples,  for  slaves,  wool,  raw 
hides,  bees-wax,  flax,  hemp,  pitch,  etc.  There 
is  even  reason  to  suppose  that,  by  means  of 
caravans,  their  traders  bartered  their  wares  not 
far  from  the  confines  of  China  [see  Miletus].  .  .  . 
But  while  they  were  advancing  in  wealth  and  pros- 
perity, a  powerful  monarchy  formed  itself  in 
Lydia,  of  which  the  capital  was  Sardes,  a  city 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus."  Gygcs,  the  first 
of  the  Mermnad  dynasty  of  Lydian  kings  (see 
Lydians),  whose  reign  is  supposed  to  have  begun 
about  724  B.  C,  "turned  his  arms  against  the 
Ionian  cities  on  the  coast.  During  a  century  and 
a  half  the   efforts   of   the   Lydian   monarchs  to 


Persia:  B.  C.  401-400. 

B.  C.  399-387. — Spartan  war  with  Persia  on 
behalf  of  the  Greek  cities.— Their  abandonment 
by  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See  Greece:  B.  C. 
399-387. 

B.  C.  363. — Mithradatic  wars. — Kingdom  of 
Pontus.     See  Mithradatic  wars. 

B.  C.  334. — Conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
See  MACEnoNiA:   B.  C.  334-330. 

B.  C.  301. — Largely  annexed  to  the  Thracian 
kingdom  of  Lysimachus.  See  Macedonia,  &c.: 
B.  C.  310-301. 

B.  C.  281-224. — Battle-ground  of  the  warring 
monarchies  of  Syria  and  Egypt.— Changes  of 
masters.     See  Seleucid.«. 

B.  C.  192-189. — Conquest  by  Rome.  See  Rome: 
Republic:   B.  C.   192-189- 


559 


ASIA  MINOR,  B.C.  191 

B  C.  191.— First  entrance  of  the  Romans.— 
Their  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great.— Their  ex- 
pansion of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamum  and  the 
republic  of  Rhodes.  See  Seleucid.e:  B.  C.  224- 
18? 

B.  C.  133. — Further  conquest  by  Rome.  See 
Rome:   Republic:  B.  C    171-167. 

B  C  120-65.— Mithradates.— Complete  Ro- 
man conquests.  See  Mithrad.^tic  Wars;  and 
Rome:  Republic:  B.  C.  78-68.  60-63. 

A  D.  33-52.— Rise  of  Christian  churches.— 
Paul's  teachings.    See  Christianity:  .\.T>.  33-S2; 

^^29°!— Diocletian's  seat  of  empire  established 
at  Nicomedia.     See  Rome:   Empire:    284-305. 

602-628.— Persian  invasions.— Deliverance  by 
Heraclius.     See   Rome:    Medieval   City:    565-628^ 

1063-  1092.— Conquest  and  ruin  by  the  6el]UK 
Turks      See  Turkey:    1063-1073;    1073-10Q2. 

1097-1149— Wars  of  the  Crusaders.  See  Cru- 
sades: 10Q6-10Q9;  1147-1149;  and  Military  aspect 
of  the  crusades.  _ 

1204-1261.— Empire  of  Nicaa  and  the  empire 
of  Trebizond.     See  Nic.?:a,  Greek  empire  of. 

1261-1453.— Abandoned  to  Turks.  See  Con- 
stantinople:  1261-1453- 

1453-1878. — Turkish  control  in  Armenia. — 
Capture    of    Trebizond.      See    .\rmenia:     1453- 

1878 
1481-1520.— Conquest  of  Mameluke  sultans  by 

Turkey.     See  Turkey:    1481-1520- 

1623-1640. — Persian  war  with  Turkey. — Ar- 
menia subjugated  by  Persia  and  regained  by 
Turkey.    See  Turkey:  1623-1640. 

1831-1840.— Siege  and  capture  of  Acre  by  Me- 
hemet  Ali.    See  Turkey:   1831-1840. 

1890-1893.— Armenian  troubles  with  Turkey. 
See   Turkey:    1800-1893. 

1894-1895.— Armenian  massacres  by  Turkey. 
See  Turkey:    1804-1805. 

1896  (August),  and  1899  (October).— Ar- 
menian and  Turkish  troubles.  See  Turkey: 
i8q6    (.\uKUSt);    and    iSgq    (October). 

1899-1916. — German  interests.— Berlin  to  Bag- 
dad railway.  See  Bagdad  Railway;  Germany: 
iqi2:  Balkan  and  Asia  Minor  interests;  Turkey: 
1QIS-IQ16;   World  War:    Diplomatic   background: 

71,  xvi.  . 

1903-1904.— Incursions  of  Armenian  revolu- 
tionists into  Asiatic  Turkey.  See  Turkey:  1903- 
1Q04. 

1903-1907. — Revolutionary  plan  of  Young 
Turks  and  cooperation  with  Armenians.  See 
Turkey:   1Q03-1Q07. 

1909. — Massacre  of  Armenians  in  Adana.  See 
Turkey:   igoq. 

1914-1918.  —  Dardanelles  campaign  in  the 
World   War.     See  Bosporus:    1914-1918. 

1915-1916. — Turkish    interests.      See    Turkey: 

I9I5-I9I6.  .  .        o  C 

1919. — Greek  occupation  of  Smyrna.  aee 
Greece:   1919. 

1919.— Revolt  stirred  up  by  Kemal  Pasha.  See 
Sevres,  treaty  or:   1920;  Contents  of  treaty. 

1919-1920. — Interests  of  Russia  and  Turkey  in 
Armenia.— President  Wilson's  attitude  on 
boundary  dispute.  See  Armenia:  igiq-iqio; 
1920. 

1920.— Treaty  of  England,  France  and  Italy 
regarding  Anatolia.  See  Sevres,  treaty  of:  1920 
(August  10). 

1920.— Italy's    interest.     See    Italy:    1920. 

1920. — French  mandate  for  Syria.  See  Syria: 
1908-1921. 

1920-1921. — War  between  Turkish  National- 
ists and  Greece  over  provisions  of  Treaty  of 


ASPERN 

Sevres.    See  Sevres,  Treaty  of:   1921:  Near  East 
conference;  Greece:  1020;  192 1. 

1921.— Negotiations  of  Turkey  and  Italy  re- 
garding Anatolia.  See  Sevres,  treaty  of:  1921; 
Italv's  pact  with  Kemalist  Turks. 

ASIAGO,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Vicenza, 
chief  place  of  the  district  known  as  "The  Seven 
Communes"  (sette  communi)  ;  the  population 
is  largelv  of  German  descent.  The  town  gives 
its  name  to  the  high  ground  in  the  neighbor- 
hood and  the  .^siago  plateau  was  the  theater  of 
some  of  the  niost  si:vere  fighting  on  the  .\u5tro- 
Italian  front  in  the  World  War.  See  World  War: 
1916:  IV.  .\u5tro-Italian  front:  b,  2;  b,  4;  1917: 
IV.  ,\ustro-Italian  front:  b;  d;  e;  e,  7;  1918: 
IV   .\ustro-Italian  theater:  b,  1;  b,  6;  c,  2;  c,  8. 

ASIATIC  EXCLUSION  LEAGUE  (1005), 
California.     See   California:    1900-1020. 

ASIATIC  IMMIGRATION:  Resistance  to  it 
in  South  Africa,  Australia,  America,  and  else- 
where. See  R.\CE  problems;  and  Immigration 
and  Emigration:  Australia:  1909-1921;  Canada: 
1020;  and  United  States:  1862-1913;  Labor  legis- 
lation:   1864-1020. 

ASIENTO,  or  Assiento,  a  Spanish  word 
meaning  contract;  applied  specifically  to  agree- 
ments made  by  Spain  giving  subjects  of  other 
powers  the  exclusive  privilege  of  furnishing  negro 
slaves  and  a  limited  quantity  of  manufactured 
goods  to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  The 
Asiento  treaty  of  1713  was  one  of  the  conventions 
of  the  Peace'  of  Utrecht  and  gave  the  monopoly 
to  the  English  for  thirty  years.  See  Aix-la- 
Ciiapelle,  "  Congress  of;  Engl.and:  i739- 
1741;  Georgia:  1738-1743;  Slavery:  1698-1776; 
Utrecht:    1712-1714. 

ASIENTO  TREATY:  Relation  to  slave 
trade.     See  America:   i 720-1 744- 

ASINELLO  ISLAND,  North  Adriatic,  prom- 
ised to  Italy  by  Treaty  of  London  (1915)-  See 
London,  Treaty-  or  Pact  of. 

ASIR.      See    Arabia:    Political    divisions;    also 

Map.  , 

ASKARIS  V'asker".  Turkish  word  for  sol- 
dier"), native  East  African  troops  in  German  service 
during  the  World  War. 

ASKE,   Robert,  executed    iS37;   leader   ot   the 
Yorkshire    insurrection    called    the   "Pilgrimage    of 
Grace." 
ASKELON.    SeeAscALON;  Philistines. 
ASKLEPIADS.     See   Asclepiad.e. 
ASMONEANS.    See  Jews:  B.  C.  166-40. 
ASOKA,  emperor  of   India,   294-227   B.C.     He 
is  famous  as  the  great  patron  of  Buddhism.     He 
convoked  great  councils  for   the  establishment   of 
the  unity   of   the   faith,   and   made   Buddhism   the 
state     religion— See     also     Buddha;     Buddhism: 
Early  spread  of  teaching;  India:   B.C.  312. 

King  of  Magadha. — Introduction  of  Buddhism 
to   Ceylon.     Sec   Ceylon:    Earliest   history. 

ASOKAN  (Ashokan)  RESERVOIR.  See 
.\queducts. 

ASOLONE,  Mount,  the  scene  during  the  World 
War  of  a  protracted  struggle  on  the  .\ustro- 
Italian  front  between  the  Piave  and  Brenta  rivers. 
See  World  W.\r:  1918:  IV.  .\ustro-Italian  theater: 
c,  3;  c,  5. 
ASOV.    See  Azov. 

ASPASIA,  born  440  B.C.;  celebrated  mistress 
of  Pericles;  her  house  became  the  center  of  liter- 
ary and  philosophical  society  of  Athens;  the 
Samian  and  Peloponnesian  wars  are  ascribed  in 
part  to  her  influence. 

ASPERN,  a  village  in  Austria,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  five  miles  northeast  of 
Vienna;  in  the  summer  of  1809,  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  of  the  French  army  under  Napoleon  I  by 


560 


ASPHYXIATING  GASES 


ASSASSINATIONS 


the  Austrians  under  Archduke  Charles  in  battle 
of  Aspern-Essling  (or  the  Marchfeld).  See  Ger- 
many:   1809    (Januarv-Tune). 

ASPHYXIATING  AND  POISONOUS 
GASES  AND  SHELLS  IN  WARFARE.  See 
Poison  gas. 

ASPROMONTE,  Defeat  of  Garibaldi  at 
(1862).     See  Italy:   1862-1866. 

ASPROPOTAMO,  modern  name  for  Achelous. 
See  Achelous. 

ASQUITH,  Herbert  Henry  (1852-  ),  British 
statesman.  Home  secretary  in  Gladstone's  last 
ministry,  1892-1804,  and  Rosebery's  ministry,  1894- 
1895;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  1905-1908; 
prime  minister,  1008-1916;  in  1915  he  formed  a 
coalition  cabinet,  but  was  forced  to  resign  in 
favor  of  David  Lloyd  George  in  December,  1916. 
— See  also  England:  1008  (April)  ;  191 6  (Decem- 
ber) ;  Ireland:  1914-1916;  and  Liberal  party: 
1906-1918;  War,  Preparation  for:  1909;  British 
navy  war  council. 

Hia  surroundings  and  life.  See  World  War: 
Diplomatic  background,:   71,  xxi. 

On  the  importance  of  the  Defense  Committee. 
See  War,  Preparation  for:  1907-1909:  British 
army  reorganization. 

On  the  rejection  of  the  licensing  bill  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  See  Liqltor  Problem:  England: 
1908. 

On  the  budget  of  1909.  See  England:  1909 
(April-Dec). 

Dreadnaught  debate  for  1909.  See  War,  Prep- 
aration for:  1000-1913. 

His  speech  at  the  Imperial  press  conference. 
See  British  Empire:  Colonial  and  Imperial  con- 
ference: igog  (June). 

Desires  for  reform  in  Suffrage.  See  Suffrage, 
Manhood:  British  Empire:  1910-1918;  Suffrage, 
Woman:  England:   i9o6-ic>i4. 

Speech  on  the  Fryatt  case.  See  World  War: 
1916:  IX.  Naval  operations:  d. 

HisT  resignation.  See  World  War:  1916:  XII. 
Political  conditions  in  the  belligerent  countries:   f. 

ASSAM,  a  province  of  British  India  near  Ben- 
gal, with  which  it  was  uni,ted.  in  1905  under  the 
title  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  (See  India: 
190S-1910;  also  Map.)  For  the  English  acquisi- 
tion of  .^ssam,  see  India,:   1S2V1833. 

ASSANDUN,  Battle  of.— The  sixth  and  last 
battle.  1016,  between  Edmund  Ironsides,  the 
English  King,  and  his  Danish  rival.  Cnut,  or 
Canute,  for  the  cro.wn  of  England.  The  English 
were  terribJy  defeated  and  the  flower  of  their 
nobility  perished  on  the  field.  The  result  was 
a  division  of  the  kingdom ;  but  Edmund  soon 
died,  or  was  killeid  Ashington,  in  Essex,  was 
the  battle-ground. 

ASSASSINATIONS.— Of  the  poUticaL  assassi- 
nations, many  of  which  had  a  great  influence  upon 
the  historj'  of  a  country,  the  most  important  are 
the  following: 

Abbas  Pasha,  of  Egypt.   See  Egypt:  18,10-1869. 

Abdul  Aziz,  Sultan.    Sec  Turkey:    1861-1876. 

Albert  I,  German  king.    See  .Austria:  1291-1349. 

Alexander,  King,  and  Queen  Draga.  See 
Serbia:   1S85-1903. 

Alexander  II.    Sec  Russia:   1879-1S81. 

AH,  Caliph.    See  Caliphate:  66 i. 

Ali  Akbar  ^han,  the  Atabek  Azam,  in  Persia 
(1907). 

Ashutosh  Biswas,  in  India  (Feb.  10,  1909). 

Barrios,  President.    See  Guatemala:  1885-1898. 

Beaton,  Cardinal.     See   Scotland:    1546. 

Becket,  Thomas  a..   See  England:  1162-1170. 

Beckman,  General.  See  Denmark:  1909 
(June). 


Bobrikov,    Governor-general.      See    Finland: 

1904. 

Bogoliepov,  in  Russia  (Feb.  27,  1901). 

Boniface,  St    See  Christianity:  496-800. 

Borda,  President  of  Uruguay.  See  Uruguay: 
1821-1905. 

Boutros,  Prime  Minister  of  Egypt.  See  Egypt: 
iqii-1014. 

Buckingham,    Duke   of.     See    England:    1628. 

Caceres,  President.  See  Santo  Domingo: 
1911. 

Cassar,  Julius.     See  Rome:  Republic:   B.C.  44. 

Canalejas,   Premier.     See  Spain:    1910-1914. 

Canovas  del  Castillo.  See  Spain:  1897 
(August-October). 

Capo  d'Istria,  Count,  president  of  Greece. 
See  Greece:    1830-1862. 

Carlos,  King,  and  Crown  Prince  Luiz  Felipe. 
See  Portugal:   1906-1909. 

Carnot,  President.  See  Anarchism:  1894  (June 
24)  ;  France:   1804-1895, 

Carranza,  Venustiano,  President.  See  Mexi- 
co:  1920  (May). 

Cavendish,  Lord  Frederick,  and  T.  H.  Burke. 
See   Ireland:    1882. 

Charles  III,  Duke  of  Parma   (1854). 

Concini.     See  France:    1610-1619. 

Curzon-Wyllie,  Sir  William  H.,.  in  London 
(July,  1909). 

Danilo,  Prince  of  Montenegro  (i860).  See 
Montenegro:    1389-1869. 

Dato,  premier  of  Spain..    See  Spain:   1921. 

Darboy,  Archbishop,_  in  Commune  (1S71), 

Darnley,  Lord.     See  Scotland:    1561-1568. 

Delyannis,  Premier.     See  Greece:    1905. 

Droubi  Pasha,  Syrian  Premier,  near  Haifa, 
Syria,  August  20,  1920. 

Eichhorn,  von.  Field  Marshal,  of  Germany 
(191S). 

Eisner,  Kurt,  Premier  (Feb.  21,  igig).  See 
Bavaria:   1918-iqio. 

Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Austria  and  Queen  of 
Hungary.  See  Austria-Hungary:  i8qS  (Septem- 
ber). 

Ellsworth,  Captain.  Sec  U.  S.  A.:  1861  (May: 
Virginia). 

Essad   Pasha.     See  Albania:    1920   (June   13), 

Falcon,  Colonel.     See  Argentina:    1909. 

Fehim  Pasha.  See  Tukkey:  1909  (May- 
December). 

Franz  Ferdinand,  Archduke,  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  his  wife.  See  Austria-Hungary: 
1014  (June);  Serajevo:  1914;  Serbia:  1914; 
World  War:  Causes:  Indirect:  a. 

Francis  of  Guise.     See  France:   1560-1563, 

Gallienus,  Publius  Licinius,  Roman  emperor. 
See  Milan:  268. 

Gar&eld,  President.    See  U.  S,  A,:  1881. 

George  I,  King  of  Greece.     See  Greece:   1913. 

Goebel,  Governor.    See  Kentucky:   1895-1900. 

Gustavus  III,, of  Sweden.  See  Sweden:  1720- 
1792, 

Haase,  Hugo.     See  Haase. 

Habibullah  Khan,  Amir.  See  Afghanistan: 
1919. 

Harrison,  Mayor  of  Chicago   (1893). 

Henry  of  Guise.    See  France:   1584-1589. 

Henry  III  of  France.    See  France:   1584-1589. 

Henry  IV  of  France.    See  France:   1599-1610. 

Heureaux,  President.  See  Santo  Domingo: 
1899. 

Hipparchus.     See  Athen:  B.C.  560-510. 

Humbert,  King.  See  Italy;  1870-1901;  and 
1899-1900;  Rome:  Modern  City. — 1871-1907. 

Ignatiev,  Alexei,  Count,  in  Russia  (1906). 

Ito,  Prince  of  Japan  (October,  1909). 


561 


ASSASSINATIONS 


ASSASSINS 


James  I.    See  Scotland:   1437. 

Jaures,  Jean.  See  France:  1914  (August- 
September). 

John,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  See  France:  1415- 
1419. 

Karpofi,  Colonel,  in  Russia   (December,   looq). 

Kleber,  General.  See  France:  1800  (January- 
June). 

Kotzebue.     See  Germany:   1817-1820. 

Liebknecht,  Karl.  See  Germany:  1919  (Jan- 
uary). 

Lamberg.     See  Hungary:    1847-1849. 

Latour,  Hungarian  Minister.  See  Hungary: 
1847-1849. 

Lincoln,  President.  See  U.  S.  A.:  i85i  (Febru- 
ary-March) ;  and  1S6S   (April  14). 

Luxemburg,  Rosa.  See  Germany:  1919 
(January). 

McKinley,  President.  See  McKinley,  Wil- 
liam: iQOi;  and  U.S.  A.:  1901  (September). 

Madero,  President.    See  Mexico:   1910-1913. 

Marat.     See  France:   1793   (July). 

Mayo,  Lord.     See  India;    1864-1893. 

Michael,  prince  of  Serbia.    See  Seicia:   181 7- 

1875- 

Mihaileano,  Professor.  See  Balkan  States: 
1899-1901. 

Min,  General,  in  Russia  (August,  1906). 

Mirbach,  Count  von,  of  Germany    (1918). 

Murray,  Earl  of,  Regent  of  Scotland  (1570). 
See  Scotland:   1561-1508. 

Nasr-ed-din,  shah  of  Persia.    See  Persia:  1896. 

Nicholas  II,  ex-tsar  of  Russia.  See  Russia: 
1918. 

Omar,  Caliph.    See  Caliphate:  661. 

Omar  II,  Caliph.     See  Caliphate:  644. 

Paes,  President.     See  Portugal:  19x9. 

Paul,  Czar  of  Russia.    See  Russia:  1801. 

Pavlov,  General,  in  Russia  (1907). 

Perceval,   Spencer.     See   England:    1806-1812. 

Peter  III.    See  Russia:  1761-1762. 

Philip  of  Macedon.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  357-336. 

Plehve,  V.  K.     See  Russla:   1902-1904. 

Potocki,  Polish  Count.  See  Poland:  1867- 
1910;  Ukraine:   1S40-1914. 

Prim,  General   (1870).     See  Sp.ain:    1868-1873. 

Rasputin.    See  Russia:   1916-1917. 

Rizzio.    See  Scotland:   1561-1568. 

Rossi,  Count.     See  Italy:   1848-1849. 

Sakharov,  General.     See  Russia:    1909-1911. 

Shuvalov.     See  Russia:  1905  (.\pr.-Nov.). 

Sergius,  Grand  Duke.  See  Russia:  1905 
(January). 

Shevket  Pasha.  See  Turkey:  1914:  Turkey  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War. 

Sipiaguin  (Sipiaghin).     See  Russia:   1900-1901. 

Stambulov.     See  Bulgaria:    189S-1S96. 

Steunenburg,  ex-governor  of  Idaho.  See  Labor: 
Organization:  U.  S.  A.:  1899-1907. 

Stevens,  D.  W.,  in  Korea. 

Stilicho,  Flavins.  See  B.\rbarian  invasions: 
395-408. 

Stolypin,  Premier.    See  Russia:   1909-1911. 

Stiirgkh,  Count,  Premier.  See  Austrh-Hun- 
Gary:  191 6:  Legislative  standstill;  World  War: 
1916:  XII.  PoUtical  conditions  in  the  belligerent 
countries:  g. 

Sung  Chias-jeu,  Revolutionary  leader.  See 
China:  1913. 

Tisza,  Count.  See  .Austria-Hungary:  1918, 
and  Hungary:   1918   (November). 

Wallenstein  (1634)     See  Germany:   1632-1634. 

William  the  Silent.  See  Netherlands:  1581- 
1584- 

Witt,  John,  and  Cornelius  de.  See  Nether- 
lands: 1672-1674. 


ASSASSINS,  a  secret  order  developed  from 
one  of  the  Islamic  sects,  but  ultimately  rejecting 
the  Koran  and  all  Mohammedan  teachings.  It 
was  founded  about  1090  by  Hassan  Sabbah,  a 
discontented  politician,  in  the  fortress  of  Alamut, 
Persia,  and  lor  more  than  150  years  terrorized 
surrounding  peoples  by  its  system  ot  secret  murder. 
(See  also  CARiiATiiiANS.)  It  vifas  practically  de- 
stroyed in  1255  by  a  Mongol  army,  led  by  Hulagu, 
though  some  fragments  are  said  to  be  in  existence. 
The  name  was  derived  from  hashishin,  or  hemp- 
eaters,  referring  to  the  practice  of  stupefying  the 
members  of  the  order  with  a  drug  derived  from 
hemp,  the  intoxicating  fumes  of  which  created 
fantastic  dreams,  which  were  explained  as  a  fore- 
taste of  the  paradisal  joys  awaiting  those  who 
obeyed  blindly  the  commands  of  the  heads  of  the 
order.  "I  must  speak  ...  of  that  wonderful 
brotherhood  of  the  Assassins,  which  during  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries  spread  such  terror  through 
all  Asia,  Mussulman  and  Christian.  Their  deeds 
should  be  studied  in  \on  Hammer's  history  of 
their  order,  of  which  however  there  is  an  excel- 
lent analysis  in  Taylor's  History  of  Moham- 
medanism. The  word  Assassin,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, in  its  ordinary  signification,  is  de- 
rived from  this  order,  and  not  the  reverse.  The 
Assassins  were  not  so  called  because  they  were 
murderers,  but  murderers  are  called  assassins  be- 
cause the  Assassins  were  murderers.  The  origin 
of  the  word  .Assassin  has  been  much  disputed 
by  oriental  scholars;  but  its  application  is  suffi- 
ciently written  upon  the  Asiatic  history  of  the 
12th  century.  The  Assassins  were  not,  strictly 
speaking,  a  dynasty,  but  rather  an  order,  like 
the  Templars;  only  the  office  of  Gr.ind-Mastcr, 
like  the  Caliphate,  became  hereditary.  They  were 
originally  a  branch  of  the  Egyptian  Ishmaelites 
[see  Caliphate:  908-1171]  and  at  first  professed 
the  principles  of  that  sect.  But  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  their  inner  doctrine  became  at 
last  a  mere  negation  of  all  religion  and  all  mor- 
ality. 'To  believe  nothing  and  to  dare  every- 
thing' was  the  summary  of  their  teaching.  Their 
esoteric  principle,  addressed  to  the  non-initiated 
members  of  the  order,  was  simple  blind  obedience 
to  the  will  of  their  superiors.  If  the  -Assassin 
was  ordered  to  take  off  a  Caliph  or  a  Sultan  by 
the  dagger  or  the  bowl,  the  deed  was  done; 
if  he  was  ordered  to  throw  himself  from  the 
rampants,  the  deed  was  done  likewise.  .  .  .  Their 
founder  was  Hassan  Sabah,  who,  in  1090,  shortly 
before  the  death  of  Malek  Shah,  seized  the  castle 
of  Alaraout — the  Vulture's  nest — in  northern  Per- 
sia, whence  they  extended  their  possessions  over 
a  whole  chain  of  mountain  fortresses  in  that  coun- 
try and  in  Syria.  The  Grand-Master  was  the 
Sheikh-al-Jebal,  the  famous  Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain,  at  whose  name  Europe  and  Asia 
shuddered." — E,  A.  Freeman,  History  and  con- 
quests of  the  Saracens,  lect.  4. — "In  the  Fatimide 
Khalif  of  Egypt,  they  [the  .Assassins,  or  Ismailiens 
of  Syria  and  Persia]  beheld  an  incarnate  deity. 
To  kill  his  enemies,  in  whatever  way  they  best 
could,  was  an  action,  the  merit  of  which  could 
not  be  disputed,  and  the  reward  for  which  was 
certain."  Hassan  Sabbah,  the  founder  of  the  Order, 
died  at  Alamut  11 24.  "From  the  day  he  en- 
tered Alamut  until  that  of  his  death — a  period  of 
thirty-five  years — he  never  emerged,  but  upon 
two  occasions,  from  the  seclusion  of  bis  house. 
Pitiless  and  inscrutable  as  Destiny,  he  watched 
the  troubled  world  of  Oriental  politics,  himself 
invisible,  and  whenever  he  perceived  a  formida- 
ble foe,  caused  a  dagger  to  be  driven  into  his 
heart."  It  was  not  until  more  than  a  century 
after   the   death   of   its   founder   that   the   fearful 


562 


ASSAYE 


ASSIZES 


organization  of  the  Assassins  was  extinguished 
(1257)  by  the  same  flood  of  IVIongol  invasion 
which  swept  Bagdad  and  the  Caliphate  out  of 
existence.— R.  D.  Osborn,  Isham  under  the  Khalifs 
of  Bagdad,  pt.  3,  ch.  3.— W.  C.  Taylor,  History 
of  Mohammedanism  and  its  sects,  ch.  9. — The 
Assassins  were  rooted  out  from  all  their  strong- 
holds in  Kuhistan  and  the  neighboring  region, 
and  were  practically  exterminated,  in  1257,  by 
the  Mongols  under  Hulagu  or  Khulagu,  or  Houla- 
gou,  brother  of  Mongu.  Khan,  the  great  sovereign 
of  the  Mongol  empire,  then  reigning.  Alamut,  the 
Vulture's  Nest,  was  demolished.— H.  H.  Howorth, 
History  o'f  the  Mongols,  part  i,  p.  193;  and 
part  3,  pp.  31-108.    See  Bagdad:  1258. 

ASSAYE,  a  small  village  in  southern  India,  in 
1803  the  scene  of  the  victory  of  Major-General 
Wellesley  (later  the  Duke  of  Wellington)  over 
a  large  Indian  force.     See  India:    1798-1805. 

ASSEMBLY:  Athenian.  See  Athens:  B.C. 
461-431;  Periclean  democracy;  Suffrage,  Man- 
hood:  B.,C.  5th  century. 

Early  English.  See  Suffrage,  Manhood: 
British  Empire:  500-1295. 

German  tribal. — Voting.  See  Suffrage,  Man- 
hood: A,  D.  I  St  century. 

Irish  (Dail  Eireann).    See  Ireland:  1919. 

Northmen.    See  Thing-Thingvalla-Althing. 

ASSEMBLY  GOVERNMENT,  China.  See 
China:  1909  (Oct. -Nov.). 

ASSEMBLY  OF  NOTABLES,  France.  See 
France:    1774-1788;   and  1787-1789. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  WISE.    See  Witenage- 

MOT. 

ASSENISIPIA,  Proposed  state.    See  North- 

WESff  TERRITORY  OF  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA: 
1784. 

ASSER,  Tobias  Michael  Carel.  (1838-1913), 
Dutch  statesman.    See  Nobel  prizes:  Peace:  1911. 

ASSESSMENT  (derived  from  the  Latin 
assessare,  to  judge),  a  term  signifying  a  valua- 
tion of  property  determined  for  the  purpose  of 
taxation,  or  the  amount  of  the  tax  so  deter- 
mined by  means  of  the  valuation. — See  also  Tax- 
ation. 

ASSESSORE.     See  Adelantado. 

ASSHUR,  ancient  name  of  Kileh-Sherghat. 
See  Assyria;  Land. 

ASSHUR-BANI-PAL,   king   of   Assyria.     See 

ASSUR-BANI-PAL. 

ASSHUR-EMID-ILIN,     king     of     Ninevah. 
See  EssARBADDON,  king  of  Ninevah. 
ASSHUR-NAZIR-PAL,  king  of  Assyria.    See 

ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL. 

ASSIDEANS.  (from  the  Hebrew  Hasidim  or 
Chasidim)  meaning  "the  pious,"  the  name  of 
a  group  among,  the  Jews  of  the  second  century 
before  Christ,  who  resisted  the  encroachments  of 
Greek  customs-;  believed  to  have  been  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Essenes.    See  Chasidim. 

ASSIENTO.    See  Asiento. 

ASSIGNATS.  See  France:  1789-1791:  1794. 
I79S  (July-April) ;  also  Money  and  banking: 
1789-1796. 

ASSINARUS,  river  in  Sicily;  scene  of  Athenian 
defeat  in  B.  C.  414.    See  Syracuse:  415-413  B.  C. 

ASSINIBOIA.  See  Northwest  Territories 
OP  Canada. 

Absorbed  in  the  province  of  Saskatchewan. 
See  Canada:   1905. 

ASSINIBOIN  INDIANS.  See  Indians,  Amer- 
ican: Cultairal  areas  in  North  America:  Plains  area; 
SiouAN  Family. 

ASSIOUT,  or  Assiut,  Nile  barrage  at.  See 
Egypt:   1898-1901. 

ASSISI,  a  town  of  central  Italy,  the  birthplace 
of  St.  Francis  and  the  cradle  of  the  Franciscan 


order.  The  cathedral  and  several  other  churches, 
notably  the  Portiuncula,  possess  great  artistic 
and  historical  interest. 

ASSISTANCE,  Writs  of.  See  Massachusetts: 
1761;  and  U.  S.  A.:   1761. 

ASSIUT  DAM.    See  Egypt:  1898-1901. 

ASSIZES. — "The  formal  edicts  known  under 
the  name  of  Assizes,  the  Assizes  of  Clarendon 
and  Northampton,  the  Assize  of  Arms,  the  Assize 
of  the  Forest,  and  the  Assizes  of  Measures,  are 
the  only  relics  of  the  legislative  work  of  the 
period  [reign  of  Henry  II  in  England].  These 
edicts  are  chiefly  composed  of  new  regulations 
for  the  enforcement  of  royal  justice.  ...  In  this 
respect  they  strongly  resemble  the  capitularies 
of  the  Frank  Kings,  or,  to  go  farther  back,  the 
edicts  of  the  Roman  prjetors.  .  .  .  The  term  As- 
size, which  comes  into  use  in  this  meaning  about 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  both  on  the 
continent  and  in  England,  appears  to  be  the  proper 
Norman  name  for  such  edicts.  ...  In  the  'Assize 
of  Jerusalem'  it  simply  means  a  law;  and  the 
same  in  Henry's  legislation.  Secondarily,  it  means 
a  form  of  trial  established  by  the  particular  law, 
as  the  Great  Assize,  the  Assize  of  Mort  d'Ancester; 
and  thirdly  the  court  held  to  hold  such  trials, 
in  which  sense  it  is  commonly  used  at  the  present 
day." — W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  history  of 
England,  ch.  13. — See  also  England:   1170-1189. 

Development  of  assize  courts.  See  Criminal 
law:  1066-1272. 

Trial  by  assize.    See  Common  law:  1164-1176. 

Assize  of  arms.  See  England:  1170-1189; 
Longbow. 

Bloody  assize.  See  England:  1685  (Septem- 
ber). 

Assizes  to  the  borough.  See  Birmingham, 
England:    1884. 

Assize  of  bread  and  ale. — The  assize  of  bread 
and  ale  was  an  English  ordinance  or  enactment, 
dating  back  to  the  time  of  Henry  III  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  which  fixed  the  price  of  those 
commodities  by  a  scale  regulated  according  to 
the  market  prices  of  wheat,  barley  and  oats,  "The 
Assize  of  bread  was  re-enacted  zo  lately  as  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  and  was  only  abol- 
ished in  London  and  its  neighbourhood  about 
thirty  years  ago" — that  is,  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century. — G.  L.  Craik,  History  of  British  com- 
merce, V.  I,  p.  137. 

Assize  of  Clarendon.    See  England:  1162-1170. 

Assize  of  Jerusalem. — "No'sooner  had  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon  [who  was  elected  king  of  Jerusalem, 
after  the  taking  of  the  Holy  City  by  the  Cru- 
saders, 1099]  accepted  the  office  of  supreme  mag- 
istrate than  he  solicited  the  public  and  private 
advice  of  the  Latin  pilgrims  who  were  the  best 
skilled  in  the  statutes  and  customs  of  Europe. 
From  these  materials,  with  the  counsel  and  ap- 
probation of  the  Patriarch  and  barons,  of  the 
clergy  and  laity,  Godfrey  composed  the  Assize 
of  Jerusalem,  a  precious  monument  of  feudal 
j'urisprudence.  The  new  code,  attested  by  the 
seals  of  the  King,  the  Patriarch,  and  the  Viscount 
of  Jerusalem,  was  deposited  in  the  holy  sepulchre, 
enriched  with  the  improvements  of  succeeding 
times,  and  respectfully  consulted  as  often  as  any 
doubtful  question  arose  in  the  tribunals  of  Pales- 
tine. With  the  kingdom  and  city  all  was  lost; 
the  fragments  of  the  written  law  were  preserved 
by  jealous  tradition  and  variable  practice  till 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  code 
was  restored  by  the  pen  of  John  d'Ibelin,  Count 
of  Jaffa,  one  of  the  principal  feudatories;  and 
the  final  revision  was  accomplished  in  the  year 
thirteen  hundred  and  sixty-nine,  for  the  use  of 
the  Latin  kingdom  of  Cyprus." — E.  Gibbon,  His- 


563 


ASSOCIATED  PRESS 


ASSYRIA 


tory  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire, 
ch.  s8. — See  also  Jerusalem:  iioo. 

ASSOCIATED  PRESS:  Its  origin.— Compe- 
tition.— Legality  established.  See  Printing  and 
THE  press:  1805-1917. 

ASSOCIATION  INTERNATIONALE  DU 
CONGO.    See  Belgian  Congo. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  EASTERN  MARCHES: 
Its  organization.    See  Poland:  1872-1910. 

ASSOCIATIONS,  French  Law  of.— .\  new  era 
in  agricultural  and  industrial  organization  in 
France  was  launched  with  "the  repeal,  by  a  law 
of  March  23,  1884,  of  the  restrictions  on  pro- 
fessional associations  which  had  been  imposed 
by  the  Constituent  Assembly  and  later  had  been 
incorporated  in  the  Napoleonic  Penal  Code.  It 
had  been  required  that  no  association  of  any 
sort  comprising  more  than  twenty  members  should 
be  formed  except  with  the  consent  of  the  govern- 
ment. Now,  by  the  law  of  1S84,  it  was  stipulated 
that  associations  having  exclusively  for  their  ob- 
iect  'the  study  and  defence  of  commercial  and 
agricultural  economic  interests,'  might  be  formed 
and  maintained  without  special  authorisation,  and 
that  such  organisations  should  be  accorded  full 
legal  rights,  including  those  of  owning  property 
and  appearing  in  the  courts." — F.  A.  Ogg,  Economic 
development  of  modern  Europe,  pp.  196-197. — 
The  growth  of  French  syndicalism — in  the  theory 
of  political  thinkers  like  Sorel  and  Lagardelle — 
and  in  the  concrete  organization  of  syndicats  in 
France — dates  from  the  repeal  of  this  law.  In 
1901  Parliament  again  passed  an  Associations 
Law  mainly  designed  to  limit  reactionary  Cath- 
olic education  by  requiring  authorization  for  all 
orders  of  monks  or  nuns.  This  was  one  of  the 
first  radical  measures  embodying  state  opposi- 
tion to  the  Church,  which  was  finally  entirely 
separated  from  the  state  in  1905.  See  France: 
1900-1904. 

ASSUAN,  or  Aswan,  town  and  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  upper  Egypt;  situ- 
ated on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile;  popular  health 
resort  and  stopping-place  for  tourists.  (For  origin 
of  word,  see  Egypt:  Position  and  nature  of  the 
country.)  The  .Assuan  Dam,  which  stretches  across 
the  Nile  three  miles  above  the  town  proper,  is  a 
great  feat  of  engineering,  completed  at  the  close 
of  1902.  The  capacity  of  the  reservoir  was 
at  first  1,065,000.000  cubic  meters,  but  later  the 
level  of  the  dam  was  raised  and  the  present  ca- 
pacity is  2,423,000.000  cubic  meters.  .\  regrettable 
fact,  incident  to  this  improvement,  was  the  flood- 
ing of  the  island  of  Philae. — See  also  Egypt:  1898- 
1901 ;  and  1002   (December). 

ASSUAN,  Treaty  of.    See  Abyssinia:  190J. 

ASSUMPSIT,  Action  of,  in  equity  law.  See 
Equity  law:  1567-1632. 

In  common  law.  See  Common  law:  1841-1505; 
1623;  1750;  1778. 

ASSUMPTIONIST  FATHERS,  Dissolution 
of  the  Society  of  the.  See  France:  1899-1900 
(August-January). 

ASSUR.  See  .Assyria:  People,  religion  and  early 
history;  Babylonia:  Creation  myths;  Religion: 
B.  C.  2000-200. 

ASSUR-BANI-PAL,  king  of  Assyria  668-626 
B.C.;  last  of  the  great  kings  of  the  Sargonide 
dynasty;  suppressed  coalition  of  Babylonia,  Arabia, 
Ethiopia,  Phanicia,  and  Palestine  which  revolted 
against  him;  captured  and  destroyed  Susa  (646- 
640  B.C.);  under  his  protection  and  promotion, 
Assyrian  art  attained  its  highest  development ; 
[see  also  Education:  Ancient:  B.C.  35th-6th 
centuries:  Babylonia  and  .\ssyria]  caused  the  re- 
editing  of  the  whole  cuneiform  literature  then 
in  existence,  from  which  we  to-day  get  our  knowl- 


edge of  Assyrian  history  and  civilization;  largely 
responsible  for  the  creation  of  the  great  Nineveh 
library.— See  also  Assyria;  People,  religion  and 
early  history ;  Later  Assyrian  Empire,  and 
Libraries:  .'\ncient:  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 

ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL,  king  of  .\ssyria,  884- 
860  B.C.;  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  war- 
hke  of  Assyrian  kings;  most  important  of  his  nu- 
merous campaigns  were  those  against  Nairi  and 
Syria  and  those  which  culminated  in  a  westward 
extension  of  his  boundaries,  rebuilt  Colah,  his 
capital,  adorning  it  with  a  magnificent  palace  and 
temple  of  Adar. — See  also  Assyria:  Later  Assyrian 
Empire. 

ASSYRIA:  The  Land.— "There  is,  on  care- 
fully drawn  maps  of  Mesopotamia,  a  pale  un- 
dulating line  (considerably  to  the  north  of  the 
city  of  .\ccad  (q.  v.)  or  Agad),  which  cuts  across 
the  valley  of  the  two  rivers,  from  Is  or  Hit  on 
the  Euphrates, — the  place  famous  for  its  in- 
exhaustible bitumen  pits, — to  Samarah  on  the 
Tigris.  This  line  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
alluvium,  i.e.,  of  the  rich,  moist  alluvial  land 
formed  by  the  rivers,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
natural  boundary  of  Northern  Babylonia  Be- 
yond it  the  land,  though  still  a  plain,  is  not  only 
higher,  rising  till  it  meets  the  transversal  lime- 
stone ridge  of  the  Sinjar  Hills,  but  of  an  entirely 
different  character  and  formation.  It  is  distress- 
ingly dry  and  bare,  scarcely  differing  in  this  re- 
spect from  the  contiguous  Syrian  Desert,  and 
nothing  but  the  most  laborious  irrigation  could 
ever  have  made  it  productive,  except  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  rivers.  What  the  country 
has  become  through  centuries  of  neglect  and  mis- 
rule, we  have  seen.  It  must  have  been  much  in 
the  same  condition  before  a  highly  developed 
civilization  reclaimed  it  from  its  natural  barren- 
ness and  covered  it  with  towns  and  farms.  It 
is  probable  that  for  many  centuries  a  vast  tract 
of  land  south  of  the  alluvium  line,  as  well  as 
all  that  lay  north  of  it,  was  virtually  unoccupied; 
the  resort  of  nameless  and  unclassed  nomadic 
tribes,  for  .\gade  is  the  most  northern  of  im- 
portant Accadian  cities  we  hear  of.  Yet  some 
pioneers  must  have  pushed  northward  at  a  pretty 
early  time,  followed  at  intervals  by  a  steadier 
stream  of  emigrants,  possibly  driven  from  their 
populous  homes  in  Accad  by  the  discomfort 
and  oppression  consequent  on  the  great  Elamite 
invasion  and  conquest.  At  least  there  are,  near 
the  present  hamlet  of  Kileh-Sherghat,  on  the 
right  bank  o!  the  Tigris,  the  ruins  of  a  city, 
whose  most  ancient  name  is  Accadian — Aushar — 
and  appears  to  mean,  'well-watered  plain,'  but 
was  afterwards  changed  into  Asshur,  and  which 
was  governed  by  king-priests — palesis — after  the 
manner  of  the  ancient  Caldean  cities.  There  are 
temple-ruins  there,  of  which  the  bricks  bear  the 
names  of  Ishmi-Dagan  and  his  son,  Shamash- 
Raman,  who  are  mentioned  by  a  later  king  in 
a  way  to  show  that  they  lived  very  close  on 
1800  B.  C.  The  colony  which  settled  here  and 
quickly  grew,  spreading  further  north,  appropriat- 
ing and  peopling  the  small  but  fertile  region  be- 
tween the  Tigris,  its  several  tributary  streams 
and  the  tirst  hills  ot  the  Zagros  highlands,  wa; 
Semitic ;  their  first  city's  name  was  extended  to 
all  the  land  they  occupied,  and  they  also  called 
themselves  by  it.  They  were  the  'people  of  As- 
shur'; their  land  was  'the  land  of  Asshur';  and 
not  many  centuries  elapsed  before  all  their  neigh- 
bors, far  and  wide,  had  good  reason  to  know 
and  dread  the  name.  This  sheltered  nook,  nar- 
rowly circumscribed,  but  exceptionally  well  situ- 
ated as  regards  both  defence  and  natural  ad- 
vantages,  may   well   be  called  the   cradle   of   the 


564 


ASSYRIA 


Land,  People 
and  Ri'li^ian 


ASSYRIA 


great  Assyrian  Empire,  where  the  young  nation 
built  its  first  cities,  the  stronghold  in  which, 
during  many  years,  it  gathered  strength  and  in- 
dependence, gradually  working  out  its  peculiarly 
vigorous  and  aggressive  character,  and  finding  its 
military  training  in  petty  but  constant  conflicts 
with  the  surrounding  roving  tribes  of  the  hill  and 
the  plain.  Accordingly,  it  is  this  small  district 
of  a  few  square  miles, — with  its  three  great  cities, 
Kalah,  Nineveh,  and  Arbela,  and  a  fourth,  Dur- 
Sharrukin.  added  much  later, — which  has  been 
known  to  the  ancients  as  Asuria  or  Assyria  proper, 
and  to  which  the  passage  in  the  tenth  chapter 
of  Genesis  (11-12)  alludes.  At  the  period  of  its 
greatest  expansion,  however,  the  name  of  'As- 
syrian'— 'land  of  Asshur' — covered  a  far  greater 
territory,  more  than  filling  the  space  between  the 
two  rivers,  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia  to 
the    alluvial    line.      This   gives    a    length    of    350 


But  the  kinship  goes  deeper  than  that,  and  asserts 
itself  in  certain  spiritual  tendencies,  which  find 
their  expression  in  the  national  religion,  or,  more 
correctly,  in  the  one  essential  modification  in- 
troduced by  the  Assyrians  into  the  Babylonian 
religion,  which  they  otherwise  adopted  wholesale, 
just  as  they  brought  it  from  their  Southern  home. 
[For  ancient  mythology,  see  Babylonia:  Creation 
myths.]  Like  their  Hebrew  brethren,  they  arrived 
at  the  perception  of  the  Divine  Unity;  but 
while  the  wise  men  of  the  Hebrews  took  their 
stand  uncompromisingly  on  monotheism  and  im- 
posed it  on  their  reluctant  followers  with  a  fervor 
and  energy  that  no  resistance  or  backsliding 
could  abate,  the  Assyrian  priests  thought  to  recon- 
cile the  truth,  wnich  they  but  imperfectly  grasped, 
with  the  old  traditions  and  the  established  re- 
ligious system.  They  retained  the  entire  Babylo- 
nian  pantheon,   with   all   its   theory   of  successive 


ASSYRIAN  PALACE,  NINEVEH 
Kecoiistrdcted  by  Layard 


miles  by  a  breadth,  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Zagros,  varying  from  above  300  to  170  miles. 
The  area  was  probably  not  less  than  75,000 
square  miles,  which  is  beyond  that  of  the  German 
provinces  of  Prussia  or  Austria,  more  than  double 
that  of  Portugal,  and  not  much  below  that  of 
Great  Britain.  Assyria  would  thus,  from  her 
mere  size,  be  calculated  to  play  an  important 
part  in  history ;  and  the  more  so,  as,  during  the 
period  of  her  greatness,  scarcely  any  nation  with 
which  she  came  in  contact  possessed  nearly  so 
extensive  a  territory." — Z.  A.  Ragozin,  Story  of 
Assyria,  pp.  1-4. — See  also  Adiabenne;  Asia;  His- 
tory: 14;  and  Mesopotamia. 

People,  religion  and  early  history. — "That  the 
nation  of  Asshur,  which  the  biblical  table  of 
nations  places  second  among  Shem's  own  children, 
was  of  purely  Semitic  race,  has  never  been 
doubted.  The  striking  likeness  of  the  Assyrian 
to  the  Hebrew  type  of  face  would  almost  alone 
have  sufficed  to  establish  the  relationship,  even 
were  not  the  two  languages  so  very  nearly  akin. 


emanations,  its  two  great  triads,  its  five  planetary 
deities,  and  the  host  of  inferior  divinities,  but, 
at  the  head  of  them  all,  and  above  them  all,  they 
placed  the  one  God  and  Master  whom  they  rec- 
ognized as  supreme.  They  did  not  leave  him 
wrapped  in  uncertainty  and  lost  in  misty  re- 
moteness, but  gave  him  a  very  distinct  individu- 
ality and  a  personal  name:  they  called  him  Asshur; 
and  whether  the  city  was  named  after  the  god 
or  the  god  after  the  city,  and  then  the  land  and 
people  after  both, — a  matter  of  dispute  among 
scholars, — one  fact  remains,  and  that  the  all-im- 
portant one:  that  the  Assyrians  identified  them- 
selves with  their  own  national  god,  called  them- 
selves 'his  people,'  believed  themselves  to  be 
under  his  especial  protection  and  leadership  in 
peace  and  war.  [See  also  Religion:  B.  C.  2000- 
200.1  ■  •  •  Whether  Assyria  in  its  infancy  was 
a  mere  dependency  of  the  mother  country, 
ruled,  may  be,  by  governors  sent  from  Baby- 
lon, or  whether  it  was  from  the  first  an  inde- 
pendent  colony    (as   the   young   bee-swarm   when 


.S65 


ASSYRIA 


Early  History 


ASSYRIA 


it  has  flown  from  the  old  hive),  has  never 
yet  been  ascertained.  There  have  been  no  means 
of  doing  so  ...  as  there  is  no  narrative  monu- 
mental inscription  earlier  than  iico  B.C.  Still, 
all  things  considered,  the  latter  supposition  ap- 
pears the  more  probable  one.  The  Semitic  emi- 
grants who  retired  to  the  distant  northern  settle- 
ment of  Aushar,  possibly  before  the  Elamitic  con- 
querors, took  their  departure  at  a  time  when  the 
mother  country  was  too  distracted  by  wars  and 
the  patriotic  struggle  against  the  hated  foreigners 
to  exercise  much  control  or  supervision  over  its 
borders;  and  they  will  have  e.xperienced  as  little 
of  both  as  did  their  brethren  of  Ur,  when  they 
wandered  forth  into  the  steppes  of  Canaan.  The 
bond  must  have  been  merely  a  moral  one,  that 
of  community  in  culture,  language,  and  religion 
— a  bond  that  could  not  prevent  rivalry  as  soon 
as  the  young  country's  increasing  strength  allowed 
it,  and,  as  a  consequence,  a  frequently  hostile 
attitude.  At  all  events,  border  feuds  must  have 
begun  early  and  proved  troublesome,  from  the 
indefiniteness  of  the  natural  boundary,  if  the  slight 
elevation  of  the  alluvial  line  may  be  so  termed, 
and  the  first  positive  record  we  have  of  Assyria 
as  a  political  power  is  one  which  shows  us  a 
king  of  Assyria  and  a  king  of  Kar-Dunyash 
(Babylon)  making  a  treaty  in  order  to  determine 
the  boundaries  of  the  two  countries,  and  giving 
each  other  pledges  for  the  observance  thereof ; 
this  happened  about  1450  B.  C,  and  the  succes- 
sors of  the  two  kings  renewed  the  treaty  about 
1400  B.  C." — Ibid.,  pp.  5,  iQ-20. — "With  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  the  Huns,  or  the  wild  hordes 
of  Tamerlane,  there  has  probably  never  existed 
in  the  history  of  the  world  a  power  so  purely 
and  solely  destructive,  so  utterly  devoid  of  the 
slightest  desire  to  make  any  real  contribution  to 
the  welfare  of  the  human  race,  as  Assyria.  But 
the  Huns  and  the  hordes  of  Tamerlane  were  un- 
taught savages.  In  the  case  of  Assyria  you  have 
a  highly  organized  and  civilized  people,  skilled 
to  an  astounding  degree  in  the  arts,  with  all  the 
power  to  do  great  things  for  humanity,  but  abso- 
lutely deficient  in  the  will.  If  you  can  imagine 
a  man  with  no  small  amount  of  learning,  with  all 
the  externals  of  civilLzatlon,  with  a  fine  taste  in 
certain  aspects  of  art,  and  a  tremendous  aptitude 
for  organization  and  discipline,  and  then  im- 
agine such  a  man  imbued  with  the  ruthless  spirit 
of  a  Red  Indian  brave  and  an  absolute  delight 
in  witnessing  the  most  ghastly  forms  of  human 
suffering,  you  will  have  a  fairly  accurate  concep- 
tion of  the  ordinary  Assyrian,  king  or  commoner; 
the  outside,  a  splendid  specimen  of  highly  de- 
veloped humanity — the  inside  a  mere  ravening 
tiger.  There  have  been  other  great  conquering 
races  which  could  be  cruel  enough  on  occasion, 
but  at  least  they  contributed  something  to  the 
sum  of  human  knowledge  or  achievement.  The 
Roman  Empire,  for  instance,  ruthless  as  were  its 
methods  often,  was  actually  a  great  boon  to  the 
world.  Assyria  made  no  such  contribution  to 
human  Ufe.  Totally  lacking  In  originality,  she 
took  her  art,  her  language,  her  literature,  and  her 
science  from  the  elder  Babylonian  race  upon  which 
she  waged  such  constant  war.  She  created  noth- 
ing; she  existed  simply  to  destroy;  and  when  she 
ceased  to  destroy,  she  was  destroyed.  In  a 
word,  she  was  the  scourge  of  God,  or,  as  Isaiah 
put  it,  with  his  vivid  insight,  her  function  in  the 
world  was  just  to  be  God's  ax  and  saw  to  do 
the  rough  hewing  that  Providence  needed  for  the 
shaping  of  the  race.  Early  in  their  history  the 
Babylonians  seem  to  have  sent  a  colony  north- 
westward up  the  rivers  into  the  land  of  Mesopo- 
tamia.    There  the  colonists  founded  a  city  which 


they  called  Assur,  after  their  god  Ashur.  In  the 
time  of  Hammurabi,  Assur  was  still  merely  a 
colony  of  Babylonia  and  subject  to  the  empire." 
— J.  Baikie.  Lands  and  peoples  of  the  Bible,  pp. 
97-98. 

"When  and  why  the  Semites  first  occupied 
Assyria  is  not  clear;  but  the  conquest  certainly 
preceded  the  time  of  Hammurabi,  who  held  As- 
syria as  a  garrisoned  province ;  and  it  may  very 
well  have  been  part  of  either  or  both  of  the 
first  two  Semitic  movements.  It  is  still  less  clear 
what  the  conquerors  found  there.  Probably  it  was 
a  simple  upland  culture  like  that  of  early  Elam, 
only  little  removed  from  the  neolithic  phase. 
What  the  Semites  brought  with  them  was  knowl- 
edge and  organization.  With  experience  won  in 
Babylonia,  they  practised  extensive  irrigation;  they 
exploited  metals  and  timber  in  the  hills,  rapidly 
dominated  the  moister  upper  valley,  civilized  its 
Kurdish  occupants,  and  completely  interbred 
them." — J.  L.  Myres.  Dawn  of  history,  p.  126. — 
See  also  Seiotes:  Primitive  Babylonia. — "During 
the  thousand  years  which  go  roughly  from  1600 
to  600  B.C.  the  centre  of  power  is  no  longer 
in  Shinar  (Babylonia),  but  with  the  kindred 
Semitic  people  farther  up  the  Tigris — the  Assyrians. 
Babylon  sees  itself  outshone  by  its  rivals  Asshur 
or  Nineveh.  The  Assyrian  kingdom  presents  the 
aspect  of  a  strongly  organized  monarchy  with 
a  restless  appetite  for  conquest.  Its  culture,  its 
writing,  its  art,  its  religion,  are  still  those  of 
Shinar,  but  it  is  animated  by  a  new  aggressive 
spirit.  And  yet  for  Assyria  to  maintain  its  posi- 
tion required  a  continued  effort,  and  it  could 
not  but  be  that  its  periods  of  supremacy  should 
alternate  with  periods  when  its  arm  failed  against 
the  pressure  from  outside.  For  on  its  eastern  and 
northern  frontiers  Assyria  adjoined  a  mountain 
country  whose  races  were  not  easily  held  under, 
and  were  always  ready  to  attack  the  conqueror; 
and  if  it  strove  to  extend  its  power  across  Meso- 
potamia to  the  west,  it  again  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  peoples  of  Northern  Syria  and  of 
the  mountains  which  separate  Northern  Syria 
from  Asia  Minor.  It  was  part  of  the  ambition  of 
the  kings  of  Assyria  to  dominate  the  land  of 
Shinar.  The  old  cities  and  temples  of  that  land, 
the  cradle  of  their  culture,  had  for  their  imagina- 
tion a  prestige,  which,  with  all  their  military  pre- 
dominance, they  must  bow.  And,  besides,  the 
riches  of  the  alluvial  country  continued  to  make 
it  in  one  way  the  centre  of  the  world.  In  Shinar, 
since  the  days  of  Hammurabi,  the  city  of  Babylon 
held  its  place  as  the  capital  city,  and  the  cities 
lower  down,  which  had  been  great  before  Babylon 
was  heard  of,  decayed  or  fell  to  a  subordinate 
grade.  And  the  kings  of  Babylon  did  not  readily 
submit  to  the  supremacy  of  the  kings  of  Assyria. 
The  history  of  these  thousand  years  arc,  there- 
fore, full  of  wars  between  the  Assyrians  and  their 
Babylonian  cousins.  Sometimes  the  king  of  .\s- 
syria  succeeded  in  combining  with  his  title  of 
'King  of  .Assyria'  the  title  of  'King  of  Sumer  and 
Akkad';  sometimes  the  kings  of  Babylon  were  able 
to  drive  back  the  Assyrian  armies  and  assert 
their  independence.  The  first  expansion  of  the 
Assyrian  power  took  place  in  the  twelfth  century. 
King  Tiglath-pileser  I  .  .  .  conquered  on  thi;  west 
the  Moschians  and  the  Commagenians  in  the  hill- 
country  of  the  Upper  Euphrates  between  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Asia  Minor,  marched  victoriously  cast- 
wards  into  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  pene- 
trated into  what  Is  now  .Armenia  to  the  north. 
subjugated  the  petty  kingdoms  of  Northern  Syria, 
crossed  over  Lebanon  to  the  Phoenician  coast,  and 
looked  upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  king  01 
Egypt,  alarmed  at  his  approach,  sent   him   pres- 


566 


ASSYRIA 


Later  Empire 


ASSYRIA 


ents,  amongst  them  crocodiles  and  hippopotami 
for  the  royal  menagerie  on  the  Tigris.  Tiglath- 
pileser  on  another  campaign  marched  down  the 
Tigris  and  subjugated  the  land  of  Shinar,  but  here 
the  king  of  Babylon  succeeded  in  inflicting  bloody 
reverses  upon  the  Assyrian  armies  and  driving 
them  back  to  their  own  land.  The  son  of  Tigiath- 
pileser  took  revenge  and  we  hear  of  Baghdad 
(not  yet  of  great  importance  among  the  towns 
of  Shinar)  being  captured  by  the  Assyrians.  But 
within  a  few  reigns  the  empire  of  Tiglath-pileser 
had  broken  up,  and  the  peoples  of  Syria  and 
Palestine  did  not  know  again  the  Assyrian  ter- 
ror for  many  generations  to  come." — E.  Bevan, 
Land  of  the  two  rivers,  pp.  3S-42.— See  also 
Babylonia:   Earliest  inhabitants. 

Xater  Assyrian  empire. — "According  to  all 
appearance  it  was  the  Egyptian  conquest  about 
sixteen   centuries  B.  C,   that   led   to   the  partition 


tury  her  revolts  were  always  suppressed,  and  the 
Assyrian  supremacy  re-established  after  more  or 
less  desperate  conflicts.  During  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury, from  about  1060  to  io;o  B.  C,  Babylon 
seems  to  have  recovered  the  upper  hand.  The 
victories  of  her  princes  put  an  end  to  what  is 
called  the  First  Assyrian  Empire.  But  after  one 
or  two  senerations  a  new  family  mounted  the 
northern  throne,  and  toiling  energetically  for  a 
century  or  so  to  establish  the  grandeur  of  the 
monarchy,  founded  the  Second  Assyrian  Empire. 
The  upper  country  regained  its  ascendancy  by  the 
help  of  military  institutions  whose  details  now 
escape  us,  although  their  results  may  be  traced 
throughout  the  later  history  of  Assyria.  From 
the  tenth  century  onwards  the  effects  of  these  m- 
stitutions  become  visible  in  expeditions  made  by 
the  armies  of  Assyria,  now  to  the  shores  of  the 
Persian    Gulf   or   the   Caspian,   and   now   through 


KING  TIGLATH-PILESER  IN  HIS  CHARIOT 
From  a  wall-frieze  found  at  Nineveh 


of  Mesopotamia  [see  Egypt:  About  B.C.  1500- 
1400.]  Vassals  of  Thothmes  and  Rameses,  called 
by  Berosus  the  'Arab  kings,'  sat  upon  the  throne 
of  Babylon.  The  tribes  of  Upper  Mesopotamia 
were  farther  from  Egypt,  and  their  chiefs  found 
it  easier  to  preserve  their  independence.  At  first 
each  city  had  its  own  prince,  but  in  time  cne 
cf  these  petty  kingdoms  absorbed  the  rest,  and 
Nineveh  became  the  capital  of  an  united  Assyria. 
As  the  years  passf-d  away  the  frontiers  of  the 
nation  thus  constituted  were  pushed  gradually 
southwards  until  all  Mesopotamia  was  brought  un- 
der one  sceptre.  This  consummation  appears  to 
have  been  complete  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  at  which  period  Egypt,  enfeebled  and 
rolled  back  upon  herself,  ceased  to  make  her  in- 
fluence felt  upon  the  Euphrates.  Even  then 
Babylon  kept  her  own  kings,  but  they  had  sunk 
to  be  little  more  than  hereditary  satraps  re- 
ceiving investiture  from  Nineveh.  Over  and  over 
again  Babylon  attempted  to  shake  off  the  yoke 
of  her  neighbour;   but  down  to  the  seventh  cen- 


the  mountains  of  Armenia  into  the  plains  of  Cap- 
padocia,  or  across  the  Syrian  desert  to  the  Leba- 
non and  the  coast  cities  of  Phcenicia.  [See  also 
Samaria:  Samaritans:  Repopulation  of  city  and 
district  by  Assyrian  conqueror.]  The  first  princes 
whose  figured  monuments — in  contradistinction  to 
mere  inscriptions — have  come  down  to  us,  belonged 
to  those  days.  The  oldest  of  all  was  Assurnazirpal, 
whose  residence  was  at  Calach  (Nimroud) .  The 
bas-reliefs  with  which  his  palace  was  decorated  are 
now  in  the  Louvre  and  the  British  Museum, 
most  of  them  in  the  latter.  ...  To  Assumazlrpal's 
son  Shalmaneser  III.  belongs  the  obelisk  of  basalt 
which  also  stands  in  the  British  Museum.  .  .  . 
Shalmaneser  was  an  intrepid  man  of  war.  The 
inscriptions  on  his  obelisk  recall  the  events  of 
thirty-one  campaigns  waged  against  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples  under  the  leadership  of  the  king 
himself.  .  .  .  Under  the  immediate  successors  of 
Shalmaneser  the  Assyrian  prestige  was  maintained 
at  a  high  level  by  dint  of  the  same  lavish  blood- 
shed and  truculent  energy;  but  towards  the  eighth 


567 


ASSYRIA 


Later  Empire 


ASSYRIA 


cpntury  it  began  to  decline.  There  was  then  a 
period  of  languor  and  decadence,  some  echo  of 
which,  and  of  its  accompanying  disasters,  seems 
to  have  been  embodied  by  the  Greeks  in  the  ro- 
mantic tale  of  Sardanapalus.  No  shadow  of  con- 
firmation for  the  story  of  a  first  destruction  of 
Nineveh  is  to  he  found  in  the  inscriptions,  and, 
in  the  middle  of  the  same  century,  we  again  find 
the  Assyrian  arms  triumphant  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Tiglath  Pileser  II.,  a  king  modelled  after 
the  great  warriors  of  the  earlier  days.  This  prince 
seems  to  have  carried  his  victorious  arms  as  far 
east  as  the  Indus,  and  west  as  the  frontiers  of 
Egypt.  And  yet  it  was  only  under  his  second 
successor,  Saryoukin,  or,  to  give  him  his  popular 
name,  Sargon.  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty,  that 
Syria,  with  the  exception  of  Tyre,  was  brought 
into  complete  submission  after  a  great  victory 
over  the  Egyptians  (721-704).  .  .  .  His  son  Sen- 
nacherib equalled  him  both  as  a  soldier  and  as  a 
builder.     [See   also   Jerusalem:    B.  C.    1400-700.] 


rebel  king,  Assur-dain-pal,  who  reigned  B.C.  827- 
820,  and  whose  name  and  history  fit  the  talel, 
pushed  the  adventures  and  conquests  of  the  As- 
syrian arms  =till  farther.  They  subdued  the  whole 
north  of  Arabia,  and  invaded  Egypt  more  than 
once.  [See  also  Egypt:  B.C.  670-525.]  .  .  .  There 
was  a  moment  when  the  great  Semitic  Empire 
founded  by  the  Sargonides  touched  even  the 
/Egiean,  for  Cyges,  king  of  Lydia,  finding  him- 
self menaced  by  the  Cimmerians,  did  homage  to 
Assurbanipal,  and  sued  for  help  against  those  foes 
to  all  civilization."— G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez. 
History  of  art  in  Chaldcca  and  Assyria,  v.  i, 
ch.  I,  sect.  5. — See  also  Svrh:  B.  C.  700-500. — 
"The  power  of  Assurbanipal  was  equal  to  the 
task  of  holding  under  control  the  subjects  of 
Assyria  at  all  points.  He  boasts  of  having  com- 
pelled the  king  of  Tyre  to  drink  sea-water  to 
quench  his  thirst.  The  greatest  opposition  he 
met  with  was  in  Elam,  but  this  too  he  was  able 
to   suppress.  .  .  .  Assurbanipal    says   that   he   in- 


PALA'CE  OF  SENNACHERIB,  KING  OF  ASSYRIA,  70s  B.  C. 
Restoration 


He  began  by  crushing  the  rebels  of  El.im  and 
Chaldjea  with  unflinching  severity;  in  his  anger 
he  almost  exterminated  the  inhabitants  of  Baby- 
lon, the  perennial  seat  of  revolt;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  repaired  and  restored  Nineveh: 
Most  of  his  predecessors  had  been  absentees  from 
the  capital,  and  had  neglected  its  buildings.  .  .  . 
He  chose  a  site  well  within  the  city  for  the  mag- 
nificent palace  which  Mr.  Layard  h'is  been  the 
means  of  restoring  to  the  world.  This  building 
is  now  known  a?  Kouyoundjik,  from  the  name 
of  the  village  perched  upon  the  mound  within 
which  the  buildings  of  Sennacherib  were  hidden. 
Sennacherib  rebuilt  the  walls,  the  towers  and 
the  quays  of  Nineveh  at  the  same  time,  so  that 
the  capital,  which  had  never  ceased  to  be  the 
strongest  and  most  populous  city  of  the  empire, 
again  became  the  residence  of  the  king — a  dis- 
tinction which  it  was  to  preserve  until  the  fast 
approaching  date  of  its  final  destruction.  The 
son  of  Sennacherib.  Esarhaddon,  and  his  grand- 
son, Assurbanipal  [long  identified  with  the  Sar- 
danapalus of  the  Greeks;  but  Prof.  Sayce  now 
finds    the   Sardanapalus    of    Greek    romance    in    a 


creased  the  tributes,  but  that  his  action  was  op- 
posed by  his  own  brother,  whom  he  had  formerly 
maintained  by  force  of  arms  in  Babylon.  This 
brother  now  seduced  a  great  number  of  other 
nations  and  princes  from  their  allegiance.  .  .  . 
The  king  of  Babylon  placed  himself,  so  to  speak, 
at  their  head.  .  .  .  The  danger  was  immensely 
increased  when  the  king  set  up  by  Assurbanipal 
in  Elam  joined  the  movement.  It  was  necessary 
to  put  an  end  to  this  revolt,  and  this  was  effected 
for  once  without  much  difficulty.  .  .  .  There- 
upon the  rebellious  brother  in  Babylon  has  to 
give  way.  The  gods  who  go  before  Assurbani- 
pal have,  as  he  says,  thrust  the  king  of  Babylon 
into  a  consuming  fire  and  put  an  end  to  his  life. 
His  adherents  .  .  .  are  horribly  punished.  .  .  .  The 
provinces  which  joined  them  are  subjected  to 
the  laws  of  the  Assyrian  gods.  Even  the  Arabs, 
who  have  sided  with  the  rebels,  bow  before  the 
king,  whilst  of  his  power  in  Egypt  it  is  said  that 
it  extended  to  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  His 
dominion  reached  even  to  Asia  Minor.  .  .  .  As- 
syria is  the  first  conquering  power  which  we  en- 
counter in   the  history   of  the   world.     The  mcBt 


568 


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3 

ASSYRIA 


Fall  of  Die  Empire 
Art  and  Archaeology 


ASSYRIA 


effective  means  which  she  brought  to  bear  in 
consolidating  her  conquests  consisted  in  the  trans- 
portation of  the  principal  inhabitants  from  the 
subjugated  districts  to  Assyria,  and  the  settle- 
ment of  Assyrians  in  the  newly  acquired  provinces. 
.  .  .  The  most  important  result  of  the  action  of 
Assyria  upon  the  world  was  perhaps  that  she 
limited  or  broke  up  the  petty  sovereignties  and 
the  local  religions  of  Western  Asia.  ...  It  was 
...  an  event  which  convulsed  the  world  when 
this  power,  in  the  full  current  of  its  life  and 
progress,  suddenly  ceased  to  exist.  Since  the  loth 
century  every  event  of  importance  had  originated 
in  Assyria;  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  she  sud- 
denly collapsed.  ...  Of  the  manner  in  which  the 
ruin  of  Nineveh  was  brought  about  we  have  no- 
where any  authentic  record.  .  .  .  Apart  from  their 
miraculous  accessories,  the  one  circumstance  in 
which  .  .  .  [most  of  the  accounts  given]  agree, 
is  that  .Assyria  was  overthrown  by  the  combination 
of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians.  Everything  else 
that  is  said  on  the  subject  verges  on  the  fabulous; 
and  even  the  fact  of  the  alliance  is  doubtful,  since 
Herodotus,  who  lived  nearest  to  the  period  we 
are  treating  of,  knows  nothing  of  it,  and  ascribes 
the  conquest  simply  to  the  Medes." — L.  von 
Ranke,  Universal  history:  Oldest  historical  group 
of  nations,  ch.  3. — See  also  Babylonia:  Map; 
Phcenicians:  B.  C.  850-538. 

Fall  of  the  empire. — The  story,  briefly  told, 
of  the  alliance  by  which  the  Assyrian  monarchy  is 
said  to  have  been  overthrown,  is  as  follows; 
About  bid  or  625  B.  C,  a  new  revolt  broke  out 
in  Babylonia,  and  the  Assyrian  king  sent  a  gen- 
eral named  Nabu-pal-usur  or  Nabopolassar  to 
quell  it.  Nabu-pal-usur  succeeded  in  his  under- 
taking, and  seems  to  have  been  rewarded  by  be- 
ing made  governor  of  Babylon.  But  his  ambi- 
tion aimed  higher,  and  he  mounted  the  ancient 
Babylonian  throne,  casting  off  his  allegiance  to 
Assyria  and  joining  her  enemies.  "He  was  wise 
enough  to  see  that  Assyria '  could  not  be  com- 
pletely crushed  by  one  nation,  and  he  therefore 
made  a  league  with  Pharaoh  Necho,  of  Egypt, 
and  asked  the  Median  king,  Cyaxares,  to  give  his 
daughter,  .^mytes,  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  his  son, 
to  wife.  Thus  a  league  was  made,  and  about 
B.  C.  6oq  the  kings  marched  against  Assyria. 
They  suffered  various  defeats,  but  eventually  the 
Assyrian  army  was  defeated,  and  Shalman,  the 
brother  of  the  king  of  Assyria,  slain.  The  united 
kings  then  besieged  Nineveh.  During  the  siege 
the  river  Tigris  rose  and  carried  away  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  wall.  The  Assyrian  king  [Sar- 
danapalus  of  legend]  gathered  together  his  wives 
and  property  in  the  palace,  and  setting  fire  to  it, 
all  perished  in  the  flames.  The  enemies  went  into 
the  city  and  utterly  destroyed  all  they  could  lay 
their  hands  upon.  With  the  fall  of  Nineveh, 
Assyria  as  a  power  practically  ceased  to  exist." — 
E.  A.  W.  Budge,  Babylonian  life  and  history,  ch. 
5. — See   also   .'\kkad;    Babylonia;    Chaldea;    and 

SUMER. 

Art  and  archaeological  remains. — "The  archi- 
tecture of  the  Assyrians  is  the  brickwork  of  Baby- 
lonia, faced  heavily  with  sculptured  stone,  the 
doorways  guarded  by  monstrous  human-headed 
bulls;  everywhere  are  scenes  and  long  cuneifoim 
inscriptions  glorifying  Asshur  and  the  king.  .Their 
art,  Babylonian  at  bottom,  gains  in  technical  skill, 
but  forfeits  originality  to  the  sombre  realism  of 
the  national  temper.  Only  in  its  last  days  does 
it  borrow,  perhaps  from  the  far  west,  a  new 
grace,  and  joy  in  the  natural  beauty  of  land- 
scape, horses,  hounds,  and  hunted  lions,  which 
strike  us  as  almost  modern." — J.  L.  Myres,  Dawn 
of  history,  p.   128. — See  Architecture:    Oriental: 


Mesopotamian ;  and  Temples:  Stage  of  culture  rep- 
resented by  temple  architecture. — "M.  Botta,  who 
was  appointed  French  consul  at  Mosul  in  1842, 
was  the  first  to  commence  excavations  on  the 
sites  of  the  buried  cities  of  Assyria,  and  to  him 
is  due  the  honour  of  the  first  discovery  of  her 
long  lost  palaces.  M.  Botta  coijimenced  his  la- 
bours at  Kouyunjik,  the  large  mound  opposite 
Mosul,  but  he  found  here  very  little  to  com- 
pensate for  his  labours.  New  at  the  time  to 
excavations,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  worked 
in  the  best  manner;  M.  Botta  at  Kouyunjik  con- 
tented himself  with  sinking  pits  in  the  mound,  and 
on  these  proving  unproductive  abandoning  them. 
While  M.  Botta  was  excavating  at  Kouyunjik,  his 
attention  was  called  to  the  mounds  of  Khorsabad 
by  a  native  of  the  village  on  that  site;  and  he 
sent  a  party  of  workmen  to  the  spot  to  com- 
mence excavation.  In  a  few  days  his  perseverance 
was  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  some  sculp- 
tures, after  which,  abandoning  the  work  at  Kou- 
yunjik, he  transferred  his  establishment  to  Khorsa- 
bad and  thoroughly  explored  that  site.  .  .  .  The 
palace  which  M.  Botta  had  discovered  ...  is  one 
of  the  most  perfect  Assyrian  buildings  yet  ex- 
plored, and  forms  an  excellent  example  of  Assyrian 
architecture.  Besides  the  palace  on  the  mound 
of  Khorsabad,  M.  Botta  also  opened  the  re- 
mains of  a  temple,  and  a  grand  porch  decorated 
by  six  winged  bulls.  .  .  .  The  operations  of  M. 
Botta  were  brought  to  a  close  in  1S45,  and  a 
splendid  collection  of  sculptures  and  other  an- 
tiquities, the  fruits  of  his  labours,  arrived  in 
Paris  in  1846  and  was  deposited  in  the  Louvre. 
Afterwards  the  French  Government  appointed  M. 
Place  consul  at  Mosul,  and  he  continued  some 
of  the  excavations  of  his  predecessor.  .  .  .  Mr. 
Layard,  whose  attention  was  early  turned  in  this 
direction,  visited  the  country  in  1840,  and  after- 
wards tooks  a  great  interest  in  the  excavations  of 
M.  Botta.  At  length,  in  1845,  Layard  was  en- 
abled through  the  assistance  of  Sir  Stratford  Can- 
ning to  commence  excavations  in  Assyria  himself. 
On  the  8th  of  November  he  started  from  Mosul, 
and  descended  the  Tigris  to  Nimroud.  .  .  .  Mr. 
Layard  has  described  in  his  works  with  great 
minuteness  his  successive  excavations,  and  the  re- 
markable and  interesting  discoveries  he  made. 
.  .  .  After  making  these  discoveries  in  Assyria, 
Mr.  Layard  visited  Babylonia,  and  opened  trenches 
in  several  of  the  mounds  there.  On  the  return  of 
Mr.  Layard  to  England,  excavations  were  continued 
'  in  the  Euphrates  valley  under  the  superintendence 
of  Colonel  (now  Sir  Henry)  Rawlinson.  Under 
his  directions,  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  Mr.  Loftus, 
and  Mr.  Taylor  excavated  various  sites  and  made 
numerous  discoveries,  the  British  Museum  re- 
ceiving the  best  of  the  monuments.  The  materials 
collected  in  the  national  museums  of  France  and 
England,  and  the  numerous  inscriptions  published, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  learned,  and  very 
soon  considerable  light  was  thrown  on  the  history, 
language,  manners,  and  customs  of  ancient  As- 
syria and  Babylonia." — G.  Smith,  Assyrian  dis- 
coveries, ch.  I. — "One  of  the  most  importint  re- 
sults of  Sir  A.  H.  Layard's  explorations  at  Nineveh 
was  the  discovery  of  the  ruined  library  of  the 
ancient  city,  now  buried  under  the  mounds  of 
Kouyunjik.  The  broken  clay  tablets  belonging 
to  this  library  not  only  furnished  the  student 
with  an  immense  mass  of  literary  matter,  but 
also  with  direct  aids  towards  a  knowledge  of 
the  Assyrian  syllabary  and  language.  Among 
the  literature  represented  in  the  library  of  Kou- 
yunjik were  lists  of  characters,  with  their  various 
phonetic  and  ideographic  meanings,  tables  of 
synonyms,  and  catalogues  of  the  names  of  plants 


569 


ASSYRIA 

and  animals.  This,  however,  was  not  all.  [See 
aUo  Libraries:  Ancient:  Babylonia  and  Assyria.] 
The  inventors  of  the  cuneiform  system  of  wntinp; 
had  been  a  people  who  preceded  the  Semites  m 
the  occupation  of  Babvlonia,  and  who  spoke  an 
asglutinative  language  utterly  different  from  that 
of  their  Semitic  successors.  These  Accadians,  as 
thev  are  usually  termed,  left  behind  them  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  literature,  which  was  highly 
prized  by  the  Semitic  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 
A  large 'portion   of   the   Ninevite   tablets,   accord- 


ASSYRIA,  EPONYM  CANON  OF 

later  ones  by  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  have  added 
lar-'elv  to  the  stock  of  tablets  from  Kouyunjik 
orilinallv  acquired  for  the  British  Museum  by 
Sir  A  H  Layard,  and  have  also  brought  to  light 
a  few-  other  tablets  from  the  libraries  ot  Baby- 
lonia "—A  H.  Sayce,  Fresli  light  from  the  an- 
cient monuments,  ch.  i.— See  also  Education: 
Ancient:    B.C.  .?sth-6th  centuries:    Babylonia  and 

Assyria.  „       ,,  «     ■     . 

Development  of  music.     See  Music:   Ancient: 

B.C.  3000- 7th  century. 


ASSURNAZIR-PAL  ON   HIS  THRONE,  WITH  ATTENDANT  CARRYING  THE  ROYAL  ARMS 
Bas-relief  found  at  Nimroud,  now  in  the   BriJsh  Museum 


ingly,  consists  of  interlinear  or  parallel  transla- 
tions from  Accadian  into  Assyrian,  as  well  as 
of  reading  books,  dictionaries,  and  grammars,  in 
which  the  .\ccadian  original  is  placed  by  the 
side  of  its  Assyrian  equivalent.  .  .  .  The  bilingual 
texts  have  not  only  enabled  scholars  to  recover 
the  long-forgotten  Accadian  language;  they  have 
also  been  of  the  greatest  possible  assistance  to 
them  in  their  reconstruction  of  the  Assyrian  dic- 
tionary itself.  The  three  expeditions  conducted 
by  Mr.  George  Smith  [1873-1870],  as  well  as  (he 


Ethics.     See  Ethics;   Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Monetary  system.  See  Money  and  banking: 
Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia. 

ASSYRIA,  Eponym  canon  of.— "Just  as  there 
were  archons  at  Athens  and  consuls  at  Rome  who 
were  elected  annually,  so  among  the  Assyrians 
there  was  a  custom  of  electing  one  man  to  be 
over  the  year,  whom  they  called  'limu,'  or 
'eponym.'  .  .  .  Babylonia  and  Assyrian  documents 
were  more  generally  dated  by  the  names  of  these 
cponyms  than  by  that  of  the  reigning  King.  .  .  . 


570 


ASSYRO-CHALDEANS 


ASTOR 


In  1862  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  discovered  the  frag- 
ment of  the  cponym  canon  of  Assyria.  It  was 
one  of  the  grandest  and  most  important  discoveries 
ever  made,  for  it  has  decided  definitely  a  great 
many  points  which  otherwise  could  never  have 
been  cleared  up.  Fragments  of  seven  copies  of 
this  canon  were  found,  and  from  these  the 
chronology  of  Assyria  has  been  definitely  settled 
from  B.  C.  1330  to  about  B.  C.  620."— E.  A.  W. 
Budge,  Babylonian  life  and  Iiistorv,  ch.  3. 

ASSYRO-CHALDEANS.  —'This  interesting 
little  people,  the  last  surviving  fragment  of  two 
great  empires,  adopted  Christianity  at  an  early 
date  and  have  maintained  it  against  every  persecu- 
tion, under  the  Nestorian  Patriarchate.  See  Chris- 
tianity: A.  D.  33-52;  35-60. 

In  World  War. — The  following  is  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  the  part  which  was  played  by  the  Assyro- 
Chaldeans    during    the    war — as    put    forward    by 
their    two    official    delegates    to    the    Peace    Con- 
ference.     "On    18    September,    1914,    at    the    in- 
stigation   of    Mr.    Vedeniski,    Russian    Consul    at 
Urmia,     and     of     his     military     attache,     Colonel 
Andreviski,  who  had  been  officially  instructed  by 
their  Government  and  its  Allies  to  treat  with  our 
nation,  the  Assyro-Chaldeans,  after  a  long  discus- 
sion   decided    to    reject    the    overtures    made    by 
representatives  of  the  Central  Powers  and  to  join 
the    ranks    of    the    Allies.      This    action    was    to 
assure  our  autonomy  at  the  end  of  the  war.     Our 
declaration   of   war  was  followed   by   an   enthusi- 
astic   demonstration.      Thousands    of    our    future 
soldiers   paraded    the   streets    of    Urmia,    carrying 
Allied  flags,  before  the  French,  Russian  and  Ameri- 
can  agencies.     There   exist   photographs  taken   on 
this    occasion    by    the    heads    of    these    agencies. 
The   Russian   authorities   provided   our    men   with 
3,000  rifles  of  the  Burdenka  model.     On  the  same 
day   the   German   flag   was   pulled   down   and   the 
flagstaff   smashed.      During    the.  first    three    years 
of    war,    till    the    collapse    of    Russia,    these    men 
fought    side    by    side    with    the    Russians,    under 
Cernizohov,    Andreviski    and    Simonov,    in    many 
fierce  combats.    Meanwhile  in  Turkey  the  Assyro- 
Chaldeans   of   the    mountain    district    of    Hakkiari 
enjoyed  a  real  autonomy.     When  war  broke  cut, 
we  realised  that  it  was  being  waged  by  the  great 
western   democracies   for  the   cause   of   civilisation 
and  the  liberty   of   oppressed  peoples.     Moreover, 
our  brothers  of  Persia  had  already  ranged  them- 
selves on  the  side  of  the  Entente,  despite  all  the 
pressure    and    promises    of    the    Turks    and    Ger- 
mans.    Early  in  igi5,  then,  our  nation  in  Turkey 
also   threw   in    its   lot    with    the   Allies.      Kurdish 
tribes,  urged  on  by  the  Turkish  Government,  at- 
tacked us,  but  were  driven  off  during  May,  1915. 
.  .  .  The   Turks   then   sent   regular  troops   to   the 
aid  of  the  Kurds;   but,  aided  by  our  kinsmen  in 
neighbouring   districts,   we   were    able    to   hold    at 
bay,   first   the    Governor   of    Mosul,    Haider    Cey, 
and   then    a   second    army   of    mixed    regular   and 
Kurdish  bands,  commanded  by  Djevdet  Bey,  Gov- 
ernor   of    Van    (brother-in-law    of    the    notorious 
Enver  Pasha),  advancing   from   the   north.     Out- 
numbered   by    ten    to    one,    our    forces    withdrew 
in  good  order  towards  the  Persian   frontier,  and, 
fusing   with   their  kinsmen   on   the  Russian   front, 
continued   the  struggle.     At   the  beginning  of  the 
Bolshevik  revolution,  a  British  General,  and  soon 
after    Colonel    Chardigny    of    the    French    Army, 
reached  Urmia.    They  encouraged  the  Assyro-Chal- 
deans to  continue  the  war  against  the  Turks,  re- 
placing the  Russians  on  the  Turco-Persian  frontier. 
The   Russian    troops   were    retiring   homewards    in 
disorder,  leaving  the  whole  front   (extending  from 
Serai     through     Bashkala,     Deza,     Oashnou      to 
Saoutchboulak)   to  our  sole  defence.    At  the  end 


of  191 7,  Captain  Gracey,  as  special  envoy  of 
the  British  Government,  took  part  at  Urmia  in 
a  meeting  between  the  civil  and  religious  chiefs 
of  the  Assyro-Chaldeans  and  representatives  of 
the  greater  Allies.  Among  them  were  the  Rus- 
sian Consul,  the  American  Vice-Consul,  Colonel 
Caujol  of  the  French  Army,  the  Apostolic  Dele- 
gate Monsignor  Lentak,  and  several  Russian  gen- 
erals and  other  French  and  Russian  officers.  Cap- 
tain Gracey  encouraged  the  Assyro-Chaldeans  and 
confirmed  the  engagements  made  to  him  by  Mr. 
Vedeniski  regarding  the  autonomy  which  they 
would  receive  from  the  Allies  if  they  continued 
the  struggle.  He  further  declared  that  the  Allies 
were  ready  to  accord  them  moral  and  material  sup- 
port, and  to  supply  arms,  munitions,  money  and 
officers.  These  guarantees  were  confirmed  by  the 
representatives  of  France,  America  and  Russia. 
They  were  unanimously  accepted  by  the  Assembly, 
which  decided  to  reorganise  the  Assyro-Chaldean 
army,  with  a  view  to  replacing  the  Russian." — 
Nedjib  and  Namik  (New  Europe,  April  15,  1920, 
pp.  21-22). — See  also  World  War:  191S:  VI.  Turk- 
ish theater:  a,  9. 

ASTELL,  Mary  (1668-1731),  English  author 
and  educator.  Proposed  plan  for  a  college  for 
women.     See  Women's  rights:   1673-1800. 

ASTOLF,  or  Aistulf,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
749-756. — Laid  siege  in  756  to  Rome,  which  was 
relieved  by  Pepin.  See  Italy:  568-800;  Lombards: 
754-774- 

ASTON,  Sir  George  (Grey)  (1861-  ), 
British  general;  served  as  brigadier  general  on 
the  general  staff  in  South  Africa  (1908-1912); 
commandant  Royal  Marine  Artillery  (1914-1917)  ; 
led  an  expedition  to  Ostend  (1914)  ;  in  the  sec- 
retariat   of    the    war   cabinet    (1018-1919). 

ASTOR,  John  Jacob  (1763-1848),  American 
merchant.  In  an  attempt  to  establish  the  fur  trade 
from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Pacific  and  thence 
to  China  and  India,  he  founded  Astoria  on  the 
Columbia  river  in  1811,  which  was  later  seized 
by  the  English.  (See  Oregon:  1808-1826;  St. 
Louis:  1819;  Wisconsin:  1812-1825.)  Erected 
many  buildings  in  New  York  City  and  founded 
the  Astor  Library,  since  1895  part  of  the  New 
York  public  library. — See  also  Libraries:  Modern: 
U.  S.  A.:  New  York  Public  Library;  Gifts  and 
bequests. 

Also  in:  J.  Parton,  Life  of  John  Jacob  Astor. 
ASTOR,  John  Jacob  (1864-1912),  American 
capitalist,  inventor,  and  soldier,  fourth  of  the 
name.  Devoted  himself  to  the  management  of  his 
vast  interests  in  New  York;  in  1898  commissioned 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  United  States.  Volun- 
teered and  served  as  a  staff  officer  in  the  Santiago 
campaign;  presented  to  the  Government  fully 
equipped  mountain  battery  which  did  useful  work 
before  Manila.  He  invented  some  useful  devices, 
notably  bicycle  brake,  a  pneumatic  road  improver, 
and  a  marine  turbine.  (See  also  Inventions:  19th 
century:  Piano.)  He  was  drowned  at  sea  at  the 
sinking  of  the  Titanic.    See  Titanic. 

ASTOR,  Nancy  Langhorne,  Lady.  Elected  to 
House  of  Commons,  1919,  on  the  Unionist  ticket, 
being  the  first  woman  to  serve  in  the  British 
Parliament. 

ASTOR,  William  Backhouse  (1792-1875),  son 
of  John  Jacob  Astor. 

Gift  to  Astor  library.  See  Gifts  and  bequests. 
ASTOR,  William  Waldorf,  1st  Viscount  of 
Hever  (1848-1919).  Served  in  the  legislature  of 
New  York  state  1877-1881;  United  States  min- 
ister to  Italy,  1882-1885;  moved  to  England,  1800, 
and  in  1899  was  naturalized.  Created  a  peer,  1916; 
encountered  much  criticism  in  both  his  native  and 
his  adopted  country. 


571 


ASTOR 


ASTROLOGY 


ASTOK,  Lenox  and  Tilden  foundation.     See 

Libraries:     Modern;     U.    S.:    New    York    Public 
Library. 

ASTOR  OF  HEVER,  1st  viscount.    See  As- 

TOR,  William  Waldorf. 

ASTORIA,  a  city  and  county  seat  of  Clatsop 
County,  Oregon,  situated  on  the  Columbia  river, 
100  miles  northwest  of  Portland;  was  founded  by 
John  Jacob  Astor  in  iSii,  although  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  expedition  established  Fort  Clatsop  there 
in  iSos.  See  Oregon;  1808-1826;  Washington 
state:   1811-1846. 

ASTRAKHAN,  the  khanate.  See  Mongolia: 
1238-1391;  Russia:  Map  of  Russian  and  border 
states. 

1569. — Russian  repulse  of  the  Turks.  See 
Russia:   1560-1571. 

1918. — In  union  with  Soviet  Russia.  See 
World  War;   1018:  \'I.     Turkish  theater:  b,  1. 

ASTROLABE,  an  instrument  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  stellar,  solar  and  lunar  alti- 
tudes and  consequently  the  latitude  of  the  ob- 
server. The  instrument  was  considerably  improved 
by  the  astronomer  Tycho,  whose  astrolabes 
("armillae")  resembled  the  modern  equatorial. 
The  mariner's  astrolabe,  the  same  instrument  used 
by  Columbus,  which  is  modeled  after  those  of 
the  astronomers',  was  first  constructed  by  Martin 
Behaim  (1480),  but  later  (1731)  superseded  by 
John  Hadley's  quadrant. 

ASTROLOGY:  Origin  and  history.  — "The 
first  inhabitants  of  the  world  were  compelled  to 
accommodate  their  acts  to  the  daily  and  annual 
alternations  of  light  and  darkness  and  of  heat 
and  cold,  as  much  as  to  the  irregular  changes  of 
weather,  attacks  of  disease,  and  the  i'ortune  of 
war.  They  soon  came  to  regard  the  influence  of 
the  sun,  in  connection  with  light  and  heat,  as  a 
cause.  This  led  to  a  search  for  other  signs  in 
the  heavens.  If  the  appearance  of  a  comet  was 
sometimes  noted  simultaneously  with  the  death  of 
a  great  ruler,  or  an  eclipse  with  a  scourge  of 
plague,  these  might  well  be  looked  upon  as  causes 
in  the  same  sense  that  the  veering  or  backing  of 
the  wind  is  regarded  as  a  cause  of  fine  or  foul 
weather.  For  these  reasons  we  find  that  the 
earnest  men  of  all  ages  have  recorded  the  oc- 
currence of  comets,  eclipses,  new  stars,  meteor 
showers,  and  remarkable  conjunctions  of  the  plan- 
ets, as  well  as  plagues  and  famines,  floods  and 
droughts,  wars  and  the  deaths  of  great  rulers. 
Sometimes  they  thought  they  could  trace  connec- 
tions which  might  lead  them  to  say  that  a  comet 
presaged  famine,  or  an  eclipse  war." — G.  Forbes, 
History  of  astronomy,  p.  2. — "The  oldest  work 
which  has  come  down  to  our  day  upon  astrology 
is  the  Telrabiblos,  or  Quadripartite  of  Claudius 
Ptolemy,  which  was  written  about  A.  D.  133 ;  in- 
deed, this  work,  as  an  eminent  writer  remarks,  'is 
the  entire  groundwork  of  those  stupendous  tomes 
in  folio  and  quarto  on  the  same  subject  which  were 
produced  in  myriads  during  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries.'  Ptolemy,  however,  does  not 
claim  to  have  invented,  or  rather  discovered,  the 
principles  of  astral  influence,  but  to  have  com- 
pleted, as  he  says,  'the  rules  of  the  ancients,  whose 
observations  were  founded  in  nature.'  It  is  quite 
probable,  however,  that  the  science  took  its  rise  in 
Egypt.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  says  that  astrology  was 
studied  in  Babylon  seven  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  Christ.  The  science  flourished  in  Persia  in 
the  time  of  Zoroaster,  who  was  himself  a  star-wor- 
shipper; and  to  this  day  it  is  held  in  great  repute 
in  that  country,  as  high  as  six  million  livres  being 
paid  to  astrologers  annually  by  the  Persian  kings. 
According  to  Pliny,  who  himself  believed  in  stellar 
influences,    Anaximander,    the    friend    and    disciple 


of  Thalcs.  by  the  rules  of  astrology  'foretold  the 
earthquake  which  overthrew  Lacedemon.'  This 
was  in  Greece,  nearly  six  hundred  years  before 
Christ.  .\naxagoras,  a  famous  philosopher  of 
Greece,  and  preceptor  of  Socrates,  is  said  to  have 
devoted  his  whole  life  to  astrology.  Pythagoras, 
Plato,  Porphyry,  .\ristotle,  and  the  great  Hippo- 
crates, the  Father  of  Medicine,  were  all  supporters 
of  the  doctrines  of  this  ancient  science.  In  Rome 
the  science  was  equally  popular  at  an  early  day 
among  the  most  cultivated  and  enlightened. 
.•\mong  others  who  speak  in  its  favor  may  be  men- 
tioned Virgil,  Cicero,  and  especially  Horace.  Ma- 
crobius  wrote  a  poem  on  astrology.  The  name  of 
the  most  learned  proctor  of  Rome,  Nigidius  Figu- 
lus,  should  not  be  omitted,  as  he  was  a  most  gifted 
philosopher  and  astrologer.  In  .'\rabia,  China,  In- 
dia, and  among  the  Buddhists,  astrology  was  first 
established  centuries  before  the  Christian  era;  and 
even  in  Mexico  traces  of  this  ancient  science  are 
found  on  the  ruins  of  massive  temples  and  crum- 
bling pyramids  built  by  a  race  long  since  extinct." 
— E.  H.  Bennett,  Astrology,  pp.  2-3. — During  the 
14th,  15th  and  i6th  centuries  astrology  had  a 
strong  hold  on  many  minds,  both  of  scientific 
thinkers  such  as  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler  and  of 
the  common  people.  Its  mode  of  thought  was 
curiously  interwoven  with  that  of  more  recognized 
sciences  and  its  influence  is  still  recorded  in  mod- 
ern language.  But  the  acceptance  of  the  Copern; 
can  theory  did  much  to  discredit  astrology  and  in 
England  Dean  Swift's  famous  satire.  Prediction  for 
the  year  lyoS,  by  Isaac  Bickerstaff,  Esq.,  was 
largely  effective  in  turning  popular  opinion  away 
from  it. — See  also  Astronomy:  Ptolemaic  and 
Copernican  theories;  Chaldea;  Wise  men  of  the 
East;  Medical  science:  Medieval:  12th  century; 
China:  Origin  of  the  people. 

Theory  and  methods. — "It  would  be  impossible 
to  give  even  a  brjef  history  of  astrology  without 
mentioning  the  basis  of  the  entire  science — the  zo- 
diac. The  zodiac  is  composed  of  twelve  constella- 
tions, or  star-groups,  through  which  the  sun  ap- 
parently pas-ses  in  his  so-called  path  around  the 
earth.  The  fact  that  this  ecliptic  is  formed  by  the 
motion  of  the  earth,  rather  than  that  of  the  sun, 
was  known  to  the  Egyptians,  to  Pythagoras  in 
700  B.C.  and  to  Plato  in  400  B.C.,  though  in  317 
A.  D.  Lactantius,  the  preceptor  of  Crispus  Cssar, 
son  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  taught  his  pupil 
that  the  earth  was  a  plane  surrounded  by  sky,  and 
warned  the  lad  against  accepting  the  'wicked 
heresy  of  a  round  world.'  .  .  .  Planets  are  worlds 
revolving  around  the  sun,  they  shine  principally 
by  the  solar  light  which  they  receive  and  reflect 
into  space.  Their  visible  luminosity  as  compared 
with  that  of  either  the  sun  or  the  moon  is  incon- 
siderable and  this  fact  has  long  been  one  of  the 
strongest  scientific  arguments  against  astrology. 
The  recently  discovered  knowledge  that  the  most 
powerful  vibrations  are  invisible  has  to  a  great 
extent  rehabilitated  the  ancient  science.  The  plan- 
ets being  comparatively  near  the  earth  mav  be 
brought  within  range  of  observation  by  the  tele- 
scope, but  this  instrument  has  no  apparent  effect 
upon  oui  knowledge  of  the  stars,  which  are  suns 
in  infinitude  and  at  such  vast  distances  that  draw- 
ing them  a  few  thousand  times  nearer  our  world 
does  not  make  them  appreciably  clearer  to  our 
vision.  Astrology  teaches  that  each  planet  possess- 
es its  own  specific  vibration,  and  students  learn 
the  effect  of  the  positions,  relations  and  distinctive 
forces  emanating  from  each  body  or  group  of  bod- 
ies in  the  solar  system,  and  recognize  their  influ- 
ence upon  the  moral,  mental  and  physical  nature 
of  mankind." — K.  T.  Craig,  Stars  of  destiny,  pp. 
10,  65-66. — "The  alphabet  of  astrology   is  simple. 


572 


ASTRONOMIA  NOVA 


ASTRONOMY 


It  consists  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  and 
the  nine  planets,  Neptune,  Herschel  [Uranus], 
Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury, 
and  the  Moon.  The  rules  to  be  observed  are  few. 
Each  sign  contains  30  degrees,  and  thus  there  are 
360  degrees  in  the  zodiac.  Mars  is  most  powerful 
in  Aries  and  Scorpio,  Venus  in  Taurus  and  Libra, 
Mercury  in  Gemini  and  Virgo,  the  Moon  in  Can- 
cer, the  Sun  in  Leo,  Jupiter  in  Sagittarius  and  Pis- 
ces, Saturn  in  Capricorn,  and  Herschel  in  Aquarius. 
Neptune  seems  to  delight  in  Pisces,  but  no  sign  has 
yet  been  accorded  to  him.  When  the  planets  are 
in  the  signs  opposite  to  those  in  which  they  are 
powerful,  they  are  very  weak  and  unfortunate. 
...  A  horoscope,  or  map  of  the  heavens,  contains 
twelve  houses,  of  which  the  first,  or  ascendant, 
rules  the  personal  appearance  and  temperament ; 
the  second  wealth ;  the  third  brothers  and  sisters 
and  short  journeys;  the  fourth  the  father,  property 
and  condition  at  close  of  life;  the  fifth  children, 
speculation  and  pleasures;  the  sixth  servants  and 
health,  the  seventh  marriage,  lawsuits  and  public 
enemies;  the  eighth  death  legacies,  the  ninth  re- 
ligion and  lofig  journeys  chiefly  by  water,  the 
tenth  the  mother  and  the  trade  or  profession,  the 
eleventh  friends,  hopes  and  wishes,  and  the  twelfth 
private  enemies,  sorrow,  and  imprisonment.  The 
position  of  the  signs  and  planets  as  regards  these 
houses  at  the  time  of  any  one's  birth  will  show 
conclusively  the  good  and  evil  fortune  and  the 
causes  thereof  that  will  befall  him  or  her  during 
life.  The  strongest  houses  are  the  first,  tenth, 
eleventh,  and  seventh,  and  the  weakest  are  the 
fifth,  sixth  and  eighth.  ...  A  map  or  figure  of 
the  heavens  is  erected  as  follows:  First  learn 
where  and  when  the  person  for  whom  the  horo- 
scope is  desired  was  born,  and  then  after  you  have 
drawn  the  map  with  its  twelve  houses,  find  in  an 
almanac  or  ephemeris  for  the  year  required  the 
sidereal  time  for  the  exact  moment  of  birth.  Next 
place  the  signs  and  planets  in  the  proper  places, 
as  shown  by  the  ephemeris,  always  remembering 
to  observe  the  correct  latitude.  The  aspects  can 
then  be  calculated  and  predictions  made." — J. 
Kingston,  Gospe!  of  the  stars,  pp.  38-42. 

ASTRONOMIA  NOVA:  Kepler's  great  work 
on  astronomy.  See  Astronomy:  Ptolemaic  and 
Copernican  theories. 

ASTRONOMY:  Early  history  of.  —  "The 
astronomy  of  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Assyri- 
ans is  known  to  us  mainly  through  the  Greek  his- 
torians, and  for  information  about  the  Chinese  we 
rely  upon  the  researches  of  travellers  and  mission- 
aries in  comparatively  recent  times.  The  testimony 
of  the  Greek  writers  has  fortunately  been  con- 
firmed, and  we  now  have  in  addition  a  mass  of 
facts  translated  from  the  original  sculptures,  papyri, 
and  inscribed  bricks,  dating  back  thousands  of 
years.  In  attempting  to  appraise  the  efforts  of  the 
beginners  we  must  remember  that  it  was  natural 
to  look  upon  the  earth  (as  all  the  first  astrono- 
mers did)  as  a  circular  plane,  surrounded  and 
bounded  by  the  heaven,  which  was  a  solid  vault, 
or  hemisphere,  with  its  concavity  turned  down- 
wards. The  stars  seemed  to  be  fixed  on  this  vault ; 
the  moon,  and  later  the  planets,  were  seen  to 
crawl  over  it.  .  .  .  Probably  the  greatest  step  ever 
made  in  astronomical  theory  was  the  placing  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  at  different  distances 
from  the  earth  instead  of  having  them  stuck  on 
the  vault  of  heaven.  It  was  a  transition  from 
'flatland'  to  a  space  of  three  dimensions.  .  .  .  The 
Chaldaeans,  being  the  most  ancient  Babylonians, 
held  the  same  station  and  dignity  in  the  State  as 
did  the  priests  in  Egypt,  and  spent  all  their  time 
in  the  study  of  philosophy  and  astronomy,  and 
the  arts  of  divination   and  astrology.     They   held 


that  the  world  of  which  we  have  a  conception 
is  an  eternal  world  without  any  beginning  or  end- 
ing, in  which  all  things  are  ordered  by  rules  sup- 
ported by  a  divine  providence,  and  that  the  heav- 
enly bodies  do  not  move  by  chance,  nor  by  their 
own  will,  but  by  the  determinate  will  and  ap- 
pointment of  the  gods.  They  recorded  these 
movements,  but  mainly  in  the  hope  of  tracing  the 
will  of  the  gods  in  mundane  affairs.  Ptolemy 
(about  130  A.  D.)  made  use  of  Babylonian  eclipses 
in  the  eighth  century  B.  C.  for  improving  his 
solar  and  lunar  tables.  [See  Astrolocy.]  Frag- 
ments of  a  library  at  Agade  have  been  preserved 
at  Nineveh,  from  which  we  learn  that  the  star- 
charts  were  even  then  divided  into  constellations, 
which  were  known  by  the  names  which  they  bear 
to  this  day,  and  that  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  were 
used  for  determining  the  courses  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  the  five  planets  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupi- 
ter, and  Saturn.  We  have  records  of  observations 
carried  on  under  Asshurbanapal,  who  sent  as- 
tronomers to  different  parts  to  study  celestial 
phenomena.  .  .  .  The  Phoenicians  are  supposed  to 
have  used  the  stars  for  navigation,  but  there  are 
no  records.  The  Egyptian  priests  tried  to  keep 
such  astronomical  knowledge  as  they  possessed  to 
themselves.  It  is  probable  that  they  had  arbi- 
trary rules  for  predicting  eclipses. "^G.  Forbes, 
History  of  astronomy,  pp.  6-15. — "While  their  ori- 
ental predecessors  had  confined  themselves  chiefly 
to  astronomical  observations,  the  earlier  Greek 
philosophers  appear  to  have  made  next  to  no  ob- 
servations of  importance,  and  to  have  been  far 
more  interested  in  inquiring  into  causes  of  phe- 
nomena. Thales,  the  founder  of  the  Ionian  school, 
was  credited  by  later  writers  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  Egyptian  astronomy  into  Greece,  at  about 
the  end  of  the  7th  century' B.  C;  but  both  Thales 
and  the  majority  of  his  immediate  successors  ap- 
pear to  have  added  little  or  nothing  to  astronomy, 
e.vcept  some  rather  vague  speculations  as  to  the 
form  of  the  earth  and  its  relation  to  the  rest  of 
the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  some  real  prog- 
ress seems  to  have  been  made  by  Pythagoras  and 
his  followers.  Pythagoras  taught  that  the  earth, 
in  common  with  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  a  sphere, 
and  that  it  rests  without  requiring  support  in  the 
middle  of  the  universe." — A.  Berry,  Short  history 
of  astronomy,  p.  24. — See  also  Chaldea:  Wise  men 
of  the  East;  Hellenism:  Science  and  Invention; 
and  Science:  Ancient:  Egyptian  and  Babylonian, 
also  Greek,  Arabian;  Chronology:  Solar  chrono- 
logical scheme  of  the  Egyptians;  Babylonian  meth- 
od; Basis  of  Hindu  calendar;  Use  of  astronomical 
constants. 

B.C.  4th  century.  —  Aristotelian  astronomy. 
— "Only  the  second  of  the  four  books  on  the  Heav- 
ens is  devoted  to  atronomy.  He  considers  the 
universe  to  be  spherical,  the  sphere  being  the  most 
perfect  among  solid  bodies,  and  the  only  body 
which  can  revolve  in  its  own  space.  ...  He  holds 
that  the  stars  are  spherical  in  form,  that  they  have 
no  individual  motion,  being  merely  carried  all  to- 
gether by  their  one  sphere. 

"  'Furthermore,  since  the  stars  are  spherical,  as 
others  maintain  and  we  also  grant,  because  we 
let  the  stars  be  produced  from  that  body,  and 
since  there  are  two  motions  of  a  spherical  body, 
rolling  along  and  whirling,  then  the  stars,  if  they 
had  a  motion  of  their  own,  ought  to  move  in 
one  of  these  ways.  But  it  appears  that  they  move 
in  neither  of  these  ways.  For  if  they  whirled 
(rotated),  they  would  remain  [in]  the  same  spot 
and  not  alter  their  position,  and  yet  they  mani- 
festly do  so.  .  .  .  It  would  also  be  reasonable  that 
all  should  [move!  in  the  same  motion,  and  yet 
among  the  stars  the  sun  only  seems  to  do  so  at 


573 


ASTRONOMY 


Aristotelian,  Piolmaic 
and  Copernican  Theories 


ASTRONOMY 


its  rising  or  setting.  .  .  .  The  planets  are  so  near 
that  the  eyesight  reaches  them  in  its  full  power, 
but  when  turned  to  the  fixed  stars  it  shakes  on 
account  of  the  distance,  .  .  .  now  its  shaking 
makes  the  motion  seem  to  belong  to  the  star,  for 
it  makes  no  difference  whether  .  .  .  the  sight  or 
the  seen  object  be  in  motion.  But  that  the  stars 
have  not  a  rolling  motion  is  evident ;  for  what- 
ever is  rolling  must  of  necessity  be  turning. — 
Dreyer. 

"Aristotle  adopts  the  system  of  spheres  of 
Eudoxus  and  Calippus,  but  seems  to  suppose  these 
spheres  to  be  concrete,  and  not  a  merely  geometri- 
cal device  for  interpreting  the  phenomena  or  de- 
termining the  positions.  In  order  however  to  se- 
cure what  he  conceives  to  be  the  necessary  rela- 
tion between  the  motions  of  the  spheres,  he  is 
obliged  to  increa.^e  their  total  number  from  33 
to  not  less  than  55.  The  earth  is  tixed  at  the 
centre  of  the  universe.  That  the  earth  is  a  sphere 
is  shown  logically,  and  is  also  evident  to  the 
senses.  During  eclipses  of  the  moon,  namely,  the 
boundary  hne,  which  shows  the  shadow  of  the 
earth,  is  always  curved.  ...  If  we  travel  even  a 
short  distance  south  or  north,  the  stars  over  our 
heads  show  a  great  change,  some  being  visible  in 
Egypt,  but  not  in  more  northern  lands,  and  stars 
are  seen  to  set  in  the  south  which  never  do  so  in 
the  north.  It  seems  therefore  not  incredible  that 
the  vicinity  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules  is  connected 
with  that  of  India,  and  that  there  is  thus  but  one 
ocean.  The  bulk  of  the  earth  he  considers  to  be 
'not  large  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  other 
stars.'  The  estimated  circumference  of  400,000 
stadia — about  30,000  miles — is  the  earliest  known 
estimate  of  the  size  of  the  earth,  and  is  of  unknown 
origin,  but  may  quite  likely  be  due  to  Eudoxus. 
While  the  heavens  proper  are  characterized  by 
fixed  order  and  circular  motion,  the  space  below 
the  moon's  sphere  is  subject  to  continual  change, 
and  motions  within  it  are  in  general  rectilinear — 
a  theory  destined  long  to  block  progress  in  me- 
chanics. Of  the  four  elements,  earth  is  nearest  the 
centre,  water  comes  next,  lire  and  air  form  the 
atmosphere,  fire  predominating  in  the  upper  part, 
air  in  the  lower.  In  this  region  of  fire  are  gen- 
erated shooting  stars,  auroras,  and  comets,  the  lat- 
ter consisting  of  ignited  vapors,  such  as  constitute 
the  Milky  Way.  Against  any  orbital  motion  of 
the  earth  Aristotle  urges  the  absence  of  any  ap- 
parent displacement  of  the  stars.  Reviewing  his 
astronomical  theories,  Dreyer  says: — 

"  'His  careful  and  critical  examination  of  the 
opinions  of  previous  philosophers  makes  us  regret 
all  the  more  that  his  search  for  the  causes  of  phe- 
nomena was  often  a  mere  search  among  words,  a 
series  of  vague  and  loose  attempts  to  find  what 
was  according  to  nature  and  what  was  not;  and 
even  though  he  professed  to  found  his  speculations 
on  facts,  he  failed  to  free  his  discussion  of  these 
from  purely  metaphysical  and  preconceived  no- 
tions. It  is,  however,  easy  to  understand  the  great 
veneration  in  which  his  voluminous  writings  on 
natural  science  were  held  for  so  many  centuries, 
for  they  were  the  first,  and  for  many  centuries  the 
only,  attempt  to  systematize  the  whole  amount  of 
knowledge  of  nature  accessible  to  mankind ;  while 
the  tendency  to  seek  the  principles  of  natural 
philosophy  by  considering  the  meaning  of  the 
words  ordinarily  used  to  describe  the  phenomena 
of  nature,  which  to  us  is  his  great  defect,  appealed 
strongly  to  the  mediaeval  mind,  and,  unfortunately, 
finally  helped  to  retard  the  development  of  science 
in  the  days  of  Copernicus  and  Galileo.' 

"At  times  Aristotle  shows  consciousness  that  his 
theones  are  based  on  inadequate  knowledge  of 
facts.    'The  phenomena  are  not  yet  sufficiently  in- 


vestigated. When  they  once  shall  be,  then  one 
must  trust  more  to  observation  than  to  specula- 
tion, and  to  the  latter  no  farther  than  it  agrees 
with  the  phenomena.'  .  .  .  'An  astronomer,'  he 
says,  'must  be  the  wisest  of  men;  his  mind  must  be 
duly  disciplined  in  youth ;  especially  is  mathemati- 
cal study  necessary;  both  an  acquaintance  with 
the  doctrine  of  number,  and  also  with  that  other 
branch  of  mathematics,  which,  closely  connected 
as  it  is  with  the  science  of  the  heavens,  we  very 
absurdly  call  geometrv,  the  measurement  of  the 
earth.'  "— W.  T.  Sedgwick  and  H.  W.  Tyler,  Short 
history  oj  science,  pp.  &1-S2. 

A.  D.  130-1609. — Ptolemaic  and  Copernican 
theories. — Popular  ideas  regarding  astronomy 
in  the  Middle  Ages. — Great  discoveries  of 
Johann  Kepler. — "Ptolemy  (130  .\.  D.)  wrote  the 
Suntaxis  [Syntaxis]  or  Almagest,  which  includes  a 
cyclopaedia  of  astronomy,  containing  a  summary 
of  knowledge  at  that  date.  We  have  no  evidence 
beyond  his  own  statement  that  he  was  a  practical 
observer.  He  theorised  on  the  planetary  motions, 
and  held  that  the  earth  is  fixecl  in  the  centre  of 
the  universe.  He  ado|ited  the  exceniric  and  equant 
of  Hipparchus  to  explain  the  unequal  motions  of 
the  sun  and  moon.  He  adopted  the  epicycles  and 
deferents  which  had  been  used  by  .\pollonius  and 
others  to  explain  the  retrograde  motions  of  the 
planets.  We.  who  know  that  the  earth  revolves 
round  the  sun  once  a  year,  can  understand  that 
the  apparent  motion  of  a  planet  is  only  its  mo- 
tion relative  to  the  earth.  If,  then,  we  suppose 
the  earth  fixed  and  the  sun  to  revolve  round  it 
once  a  year,  and  the  planets  each  in  its  own  period, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  impose  upon  each  of  these 
an  additional  annual  motion  to  enable  us  to  rep- 
resent truly  the  apparent  motions.  .  .  .  The  cum- 
brous system  advocated  by  Ptolemy  answered  its 
purpose,  enabling  him  to  predict  astronomical 
events  approximately.  He  improved  the  lunar 
theory  considerably,  and  discovered  minor  inequal- 
ities which  could  be  allowed  for  by  the  addition 
of  new  epicycles.  We  may  look  upon  these  epi- 
cycles of  .ApoUonius,  and  the  excentric  of  Hip- 
parchus, as  the  responses  of  these  astronomers  to 
the  demand  of  Plato  for  uniform  circular  motions. 
Their  use  became  more  and  more  confirmed,  until 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  accurate  obser- 
vations of  Tycho  Brahe  enabled  Kepler  to  abolish 
these  purely  geometrical  makeshifts,  and  to  sub- 
stitute a  system  in  which  the  sun  became  physic- 
ally its  controller." — G.  Forbes,  History  of  astron- 
omy, pp.  27-20. 

"In  the  early  Church,  in  view  of  the  doctrine 
so  prominent  in  the  New  Testament,  that  the  earth 
was  soon  to  be  destroyed,  and  that  there  were  to 
be  'new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,'  astronomy,  like 
other  branches  of  science,  was  generally  looked 
upon  as  futile.  Why  study  the  old  heavens  and 
the  old  earth,  when  they  were  so  soon  to  be  re- 
placed with  somelhing  infinitely  better?  This  feel- 
ing appears  in  St.  .Augustine's  famous  utterance, 
'What  concern  is  it  to  me  whether  the  heavens  as 
a  sphere  inclose  the  earth  in  the  middle  of  the 
world  or  overhang  it  on  either  side?'  As  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  theologians  looked  on  them  as  at 
best  only  objects  of  pious  speculation.  Regarding 
their  nature  the  fathers  of  the  Church  were  di- 
vided. Origen,  and  others  with  him.  thoucht  them 
living  beings  possessed  of  souls,  and  this  belief  was 
mainly  based  upon  the  scriptural  vision  of  the 
morning  stars  singing  together,  and  upon  the  beau- 
tiful appeal  to  the  'stars  and  light'  in  the  song  of 
the  three  children — the  Benedicite- — which  the  An- 
glican communion  has  so  wisely  retained  in  its 
Liturgy.  Other  fathers  thought  the  stars  abiding- 
places  of  the  angels,  and  that  stars  were  moved  by 


574 


ASTRONOMY 


Middle  Ages 
Popular  Ideas 


ASTRONOMY 


angels.  The  Gnostics  thought  the  stars  spiritual 
beings  governed  by  angels,  and  appointed  not  to 
cause  earthly   events  but  to  indicate  them. 

"As  to  the  heavens  in  general,  the  prevailing  view 
in  the  Church  was  based  upon  the  scriptural  dec- 
larations that  a  soUd  vault — a  'firmament' — was 
extended  above  the  earth,  and  that  the  heavenly 
bodies  were  simply  lights  hung  within  it.  This 
was  for  a  time  held  very  tenaciously.  St.  Philas- 
trius,  in  his  famous  treatise  on  heresies,  pronounced 
it  a  heresy  to  deny  that  the  stars  are  brought 
out  by  God  from  his  treasure-house  and  hung  in 
{he  sky  every  evening ;  any  other  view  he  declared 
'false  to  the  Catholic  faith.'  This  view  also  sur- 
vived in  the  sacred  theory  established  so  firmly 
by  Cosmas  in  the  sixth  century.  Having  estab- 
lished his  plan  of  the  universe  upon  various  texts 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  having  made 
it  a  vast  oblong  box,  covered  by  the  solid  'firma- 
ment,' he  brought  in  additional  texts  from  Scrip- 
ture to  account  for  the  planetary  movements,  and 
developed  at  length  the  theory  that  the  sun  and 
planets  are  moved  and  the  'windows  of  heaven' 
opened  and  shut  by  angels  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose. How  intensely  real  this  way  of  looking  at 
the  universe  was,  we  find  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Isidore,  the  greatest  leader  of  orthodox  thought 
in  the  seventh  century.  He  affirms  that  since  the 
fall  of  man,  and  on  account  of  it,  the  sun  and 
moon  shine  with  a  feebler  light;  but  he  proves 
from  a  text  in  Isaiah  that  when  the  world  shall 
be  fully  redeemed  these  'great  lights'  will  shine 
again  in  all  their  early  splendour.  But,  despite 
these  authorities  and  their  theological  finalities,  the 
evolution  of  scientific  thought  continued,  its  main 
germ  being  the  geocentric  doctrine — the  doctrine 
that  the  earth  is  the  centre,  and  that  the  sun  and 
planets  revolve  about  it.  This  doctrine  was  of  the 
highest  respectability:  it  had  been  developed  at  a 
very  early  period,  and  had  been  elaborated  until 
it  accounted  well  for  the  apparent  movements  of 
the  heavenly  bodies;  its  final  name,  'Ptolemaic 
theory,'  carried  weight;  and,  having  thus  come 
from  antiquity  into  the  Christian  world,  St.  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  demonstrated  that  the  altar  in 
the  Jewish  tabernacle  was  'a  symbol  of  the  earth 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  universe':  nothing 
more  was  needed;  the  geocentric  theory  was  fully 
adopted  by  the  Church  and  universally  held  to 
agree  with  the  letter  and  spirit  of  Scripture. 
Wrought  into  this  foundation,  and  based  upon  it, 
there  was  developed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  mainly 
out  of  fragments  of  Chaldean  and  other  early 
theories  preserved  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  a 
new  sacred  system  of  astronomy,  which  became 
one  of  the  great  treasures  of  the  universal  Church 
— the  last  word  of  revelation.  Three  great  men 
mainly  reared  this  structure.  First  was  the  un- 
known who  gave  to  the  world  the  treatises  ascribed 
to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 

"It  was  unhesitatingly  believed  that  these  were 
the  work  of  St.  Paul's  Athenian  convert,  and  there- 
fore virtually  of  St.  Paul  himself.  Though  now 
known  to  be  spurious,  they  were  then  considered 
a  treasure  of  inspiration,  and  an  emperor  of  the 
East  sent  them  to  an  emperor  of  the  West  as  the 
most  worthy  of  gifts.  In  the  ninth  century  they 
were  widely  circulated  in  western  Europe,  and 
became  a  fruitul  source  of  thought,  especially  on 
the  whole  celestial  hierarchy.  Thus  thj  old  ideas 
of  astronomy  were  vastly  developed,  and  the  heav- 
enly hosts  were  classed  and  named  in  accordance 
with  indications  scattered  through  the  sacred 
Scriptures. 

"The  next  of  these  three  great  theologians  was 
Peter  Lombard,  professor  at  the  University  of 
Paris.     About  the  middle  of  the  twelfth   century 


he  gave  forth  his  collection  of  Sentences,  or  State- 
ments by  the  Fathers,  and  this  remained  until  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  universal  manual  of 
theology.  In  it  was  especially  developed  the  theo- 
logical view  of  man's  relation  to  the  universe. 
The  author  tells  the  world:  'Just  as  man  is  made 
for  the  sake  of  God — that  is,  that  he  may  serve 
Him, — so  the  universe  is  made  for  the  sake  of  man 
— that  is,  that  it  may  serve  him;  therefore  is  man 
placed  at  the  middle  point  of  the  universe,  that 
he  may  both  serve  and  be  served.'  The  vast  sig- 
niticance  of  this  view,  and  its  power  in  resisting 
any  real  astronomical  science,  we  shall  see,  es- 
pecially in  the  time  of  Galileo.  The  great  triad 
of  thinkers  culminated  in  St.  Thomas  Aquinas — 
the  sainted  theologian,  the  glory  of  the  mediaeval 
Church,  the  'Angelic  Doctor,'  the  most  marvellous 
intellect  between  Aristotle  and  Newton;  he  to 
whom  it  was  believed  that  an  image  of  the  Cruci- 
fied had  spoken  words  praising  his  writings.'  .  .  . 
With  great  power  and  clearness  he  brought  the 
whole  vast  system,  material  and  spiritual,  into  its 
relations  to  God  and  man.  Thus  was  the  vast  sys- 
tem developed  by  these  three  leaders  of  mediaeval 
thought;  and  now  came  the  man  who  wrought  it 
yet  more  deeply  into  European  belief,  the  poet 
divinely  inspired  who  made  the  system  part  of  the 
world's  life.  Pictured  by  Dante,  the  empyrean 
and  the  concentric  heavens,  paradise,  purgatory, 
and  hell,  were  seen  of  all  men;  the  God  Triune, 
seated  on  his  throne  upon  the  circle  of  the  heavens, 
as  real  as  the  Pope  seated  in  the  chair  of  St.  Peter; 
the  seraphim,  cherubim,  and  thrones,  surrounding 
the  Almighty,  as  real  as  the  cardinals  surrounding 
the  Pope;  the  three  great  orders  of  angels  in 
heaven,  as  real  as  the  three  great  orders,  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,  on  earth;  and  the  whole 
system  of  spheres,  each  revolving  within  the  one 
above  it,  and  all  moving  about  the  earth,  subject 
to  the  primum  mobile,  as  real  as  the  feudal  sys- 
tem of  western  Europe,  subject  to  the  Emperor. 
...  Its  first  feature  shows  a  development  out  of 
earlier  theological  ideas.  The  earth  is  no  longer  a 
flat  plain  inclosed  by  four  walls  and  solidly  vaulted 
above,  as  theologians  of  previous  centuries  had 
believed  it,  under  the  inspiration  of  Cosmas;  it 
is  no  longer  a  mere  flat  disk,  with  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  hung  up  to  give  it  light,  as  the  earlier  cathe- 
dral sculptors  had  figured  it;  it  has  become  a 
globe  at  the  centre  of  the  universe.  Encompassing 
it  are  successive  transparent  spheres,  rotated  by 
angels  about  the  earth,  and  each  carrying  one  or 
more  of  the  heavenly  bodies  with  it:  that  nearest 
the  earth  carrying  the  moon;  the  next.  Mercury; 
the  next,  Venus;  the  next,  the  sun;  the  next  three. 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn ;  the  eighth  carrying  the 
fixed  stars.  The  ninth  was  the  primum  mobile, 
and  inclosing  all  was  the  tenth  heaven — the  Empy- 
rean. This  was  immovable — the  boundary  between 
creation  and  the  great  outer  void ;  and  here,  in  a 
light  which  no  one  can  enter,  the  Triune  God  sat 
enthroned,  the  'music  of  the  spheres'  rising  to 
Him  as  they  moved.  Thus  was  the  old  heathen 
doctrine  of  the  spheres  made  Christian.  ...  All 
this  vast  scheme  had  been  so  riveted  into  the 
Ptolemaic  view  by  the  use  of  biblical  texts  and 
theological  reasonings  that  the  resultant  system  of 
the  universe  was  considered  impregnable  and  final. 
To  attack  it  was  blasphemy.  It  stood  for  centu- 
ries. Great  theological  men  of  science,  like  Vin- 
cent of  Beauvais  and  Cardinal  d'Ailly,  devoted 
themselves  to  showing  not  only  that  it  was  sup- 
ported by  Scripture,  but  that  it  supported  Scrip- 
ture. Thus  was  the  geocentric  theory  embedded 
in  the  beliefs  and  aspirations,  in  the  hopes  and 
fears,  of  Christendom  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth   century.  .  .  .  But,    on    the    other   hand, 


575 


ASTRONOMY 


Copernicus 
Opposition  of  the  Church 


ASTRONOMY 


there  had  been  planted,  long  before,  the  gerins  of  a 
heliocentric  theory.  In  the  sixth  century  before 
our  era,  Pythagoras,  and  after  him  Philolaus,  had 
suggested  the  movement  of  the  earth  and  planets 
about  a  central  fire;  and,  three  centuries  later, 
Aristarchus  had  restated  the  main  truth  with  strik- 
ing precision.  Here  comes  in  a  proof  that  the 
antagonism  between  theological  and  scientific  meth- 
ods is  not  confined  to  Christianity;  for  this  state- 
ment brought  upon  Aristarchus  the  charge  of 
blasphemy,  and  drew  after  it  a  cloud  of  preju- 
dice which  hid  the  truth  for  six  hundred  years. 
Not  until  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  did  it  tim- 
idly appear  in  the  thoughts  of  Martinus  Capella; 
then  it  was  again  lost  to  sight  for  a  thousand 
years,  until  in  the  fifteenth  century,  distorted  and 
imperfect,  it  appeared  in  the  writings  of  Cardinal 
Nicholas  de  Cusa.  .  .  .  Copernicus  had  been  a  pro- 
fessor at  Rome,  and  even  as  early  as  1500  had  an- 
nounced his  doctrine  there,  but  more  in  the  way 
of  a  scientific  curiosity  or  paradox,  as  it  had  been 


COPERNICUS 


previously  held  by  Cardinal  de  Cusa,  than  as  the 
statement  of  a  system  representing  a  great  fact  in 
Nature,  .\bout  thirty  years  later  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples, Widmanstadt,  had  explained  it  to  Clement 
VII ;  but  it  still  remained  a  mere  hypothesis,  and 
soon,  like  so  many  others,  disappeared  from  the 
public  view.  But  to  Copernicus,  steadily  study- 
ing the  subject,  it  became  more  and  more  a  real- 
ity and  as  this  truth  grew  within  him  he  seemed 
to  feel  that  at  Rome  he  was  no  longer  safe.  To 
announce  his  discovery  there  as  a  theory  or  a 
paradox  might  amuse  the  papal  court,  but  to  an- 
nounce it  as  a  truth — as  the  truth — was  a  far  dif- 
ferent matter.  He  therefore  returned  to  his  little 
town  in  Poland.  To  publish  his  thought  as  it  had 
now  developed  was  evidently  dangerous,  even 
there,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  it  lay  slum- 
bering in  the  mind  of  Copernicus  and  of  the  friends 
to  whom  he  had  privately  intrusted  it.  At  last 
he  prepared  his  great  work  on  the  Revolutions  of 
the  Heavenly  Bodies,  and  dedicated  it  to  the  Pope 
himself.  He  next  sought  a  place  of  publication. 
He  dared  not  send  it  to  Rome,  for  there  were  the 
rulers  of  the  older  Church  ready  to  seize  it ;  he 
dared  not  send  it  to  Wittenberg,  for  there  were 


the  leaders  of  Protestantism  no  less  hostile ;  he 
therefore  intrusted  it  to  Osiander,  at  Nuremberg. 
.  .  .  But  Osiander's  courage  failed  him:  he  dared 
not  launch  the  new  thought  boldly.  He  wrote  a 
grovelling  preface,  endeavouring  to  excuse  Coper- 
nicus for  his  novel  idea,  and  in  this  he  inserted 
the  apologetic  lie  that  Copernicus  had  propounded 
the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  movement  not  as  a 
fact,  but  as  a  hypothesis.  He  declared  that  it  was 
lawful  for  an  astronomer  to  indulge  his  imagina- 
tion, and  that  this  was  what  Copernicus  had  done. 
Thus  was  the  greatest  and  most  ennobling,  perhaps, 
of  scientific  truths — a  truth  not  less  ennobling  to 
religion  than  to  science — forced,  in  coming  before 
the  world,  to  sneak  and  crawl.  On  the  24th 
of  May,  IS43,  the  newly  printed  book  arrived 
at  the  house  of  Copernicus.  It  was  put  into 
his  hands;  but  he  was  on  his  deathbed.  A 
few  hours  later  he  was  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
conscientious  men  who  would  have  blotted  his 
reputation  and  perhaps  have  destroyed  his  life. 
.  .  .  The  preface  of  Osiander,  pretending  that  the 
book  of  Copernicus  suggested  a  hypothesis  in- 
stead of  announcing  a  truth,  served  its  purpose 
well.  During  nearly  seventy  years  the  Church 
authorities  evidently  thought  it  best  not  to  stir  the 
matter,  and  in  some  cases  professors  like  Calganini 
were  allowed  to  present  the  new  view  purely  as  a 
hypothesis.  There  were,  indeed,  mutterings  from 
time  to  time  on  the  theological  side,  but  there  was 
no  great  demonstration  against  the  system  until 
1616.  Then,  when  the  Copernican  doctrine  was 
upheld  by  Galileo  as  a  truth,  and  proved  to  be  a 
truth  by  his  telescope,  the  book  was  taken  in  hand 
by  the  Roman  curia.  The  statements  of  Coper- 
nicus were  condemned,  'until  they  should  be  cor- 
rected'; and  the  corrections  required  were  simply 
such  as  would  substitute  for  his  conclusions  the 
old  Ptolemaic  theory.  .  .  .  Doubtless  many  will 
exclaim  against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for 
thus;  but  the  simple  truth  is  that  Protestantism 
was  no  less  zealous  against  the  new  scientific  doc- 
trine. All  branches  of  the  Protestant  Church — 
Lutheran,  Calvinist,  Anglican — vied  with  each 
other  in  denouncing  the  Copernican  doctrine  as 
contrary  to  Scripture ;  and,  at  a  later  period,  the 
Puritans  showed  the  same  tendency.  Said  Martin 
Luther:  'People  gave  ear  to  an  upstart  astrologer 
who  strove  to  show  that  the  earth  revolves,  not 
the  heavens  or  the  firmament,  the  sun  and  the 
moon.  Whoever  wishes  to  appear  clever  must  de- 
vise some  new  system,  which  of  all  systems  is  of 
course  the  very  best.  This  fool  wishes  to  reverse 
the  entire  science  of  astronomy;  but  sacred  Scrip- 
ture tells  us  that  Joshua  commanded  the  sun  to 
stand  still,  and  not  the  earth.'  Melanchthon,  mild 
as  he  was,  was  not  behind  Luther  in  condemning 
Copernicus.  In  his  treatise  on  the  Elements  of 
Physrrs,  published  six  years  after  Copernicus's 
death,  he  says:  'The  eyes  are  witnesses  that  the 
heavens  revolve  in  the  space  of  twenty-four  hours. 
But  certain  men,  either  from  the  love  of  novelty, 
or  to  make  a  display  of  ingenuity,  have  concluded 
that  the  earth  moves;  and  they  maintain  that 
neither  the  eighth  sphere  nor  the  sun  revolves.  .  .  . 
Now,  it  is  a  want  of  honesty  and  decency  to  as- 
sert such  notions  publicly,  and  the  example  is 
pernicious.  It  is  the  part  of  a  good  mind  to  ac- 
cept the  truth  as  revealed  by  God  and  to  acquiesce 
in  it.'  Melanchthon  then  cites  the  passages  in  the 
Psalms  and  Ecclesiastes,  which  he  declared  assert 
positively  and  clearly  that  the  earth  stands  fast 
and  that  the  sun  moves  around  it,  and  adds  eight 
other  proofs  of  his  proposition  that  'the  earth 
can  be  nowhere  if  not  in  the  centre  of  the  uni- 
verse.' So  earnest  does  this  mildest  of  the  Re- 
formers become,  that  he  suggests  severe  measures 


576 


ASTRONOMY 


Telescope  of  Galileo 
Discoveries  of  Kepler 


ASTRONOMY 


to   restrain   such    impious   teachings   as   those   of 
Copernicus. 

"While  Lutheranism  was  thus  condemning  the 
theory  of  the  earth's  movement,  other  branches  of 
the  Protestant  Church  did  not  remain  behind. 
Calvin  took  the  lead,  in  his  Commentary  on  Gen- 
esis, by  condemning  all  who  asserted  that  the  earth 
is  not  at  (he  centre  of  the  universe.  He  clinched 
the  matter  by  the  usual  reference  to  the  first 
verse  of  the  ninety-third  Psalm,  and  asked,  'Who 
will  venture  to  place  the  authority  of  Copernicus 
above  that  of  the  Holy  Spirit?'  Turretin,  Calvin's 
famous  successor,  even  after  Kepler  and  Newton 
had  virtually  completed  the  theory  of  Copernicus 
and  Galileo,  put  forth  his  compendium  of  the- 
ology, in  which  he  proved,  from  a  multitude  of 
scriptural  texts,  that  the  heavens,  sun,  and  moon 
move  about  the  earth,  which  stands  still  in  the 
centre.  .  .  .  But  the  new  truth  could  not  be  con- 
cealed; it  could  neither  be  laughed  down  nor 
frowned  down.  Many  minds  had  received  it,  but 
within  the  hearing  of  the  papacy  only  one  tongue 
appears  to  have  dared  to  utter  ft  clearly.  This  new 
warrior  was  that  strange  mortal,  Giordano  Bruno. 
He  was  hunted  from  land  to  land,  until  at  last 
he  turned  on  his  pursuers  with  fearful  invectives. 
For  this  he  was  entrapped  at  Venice,  imprisoned 
.during  six  years  in  the  dungeons  of  the  Inquisition 
at  Rome,  then  burned  alive,  and  his  ashes  scat- 
tered to  the  winds.  Still,  the  new  truth  lived  on. 
Ten  years  after  the  martyrdom  of  Bruno  the  truth 
,.qf  Copernicus's  doctrine  was  established  by  the 
-l^elescope  of  Galileo.  Herein  was  fulfilled  one  of 
•tbe  most  touching  of  prophecies.  Years  before, 
'.the  opponents  of  Copernicus  had  said  to  him,  'If 
yovT  doctrines  were  true,  Venus  would  show  phases 
like  the  moon.'  Copernicus  answered;  'You  are 
right;  I  know  not  what  to  say;  but  God  is  good, 
and  will  in  time  find  an  answer  to  this  objection.' 
The  God-given  answer  came  when,  in  1611,  the 
rude  telescope  of  Galileo  showed  the  phases  of 
Venus.  .  .  .  The  war  on  the  Copernican  theory, 
which  up  to  that  time  had  been  carried  on  quietly, 
now  flamed  forth.  It  was  declared  that  the  doc- 
trine was  proved  false  by  the  standing  still  of  the 
sun  for  Joshua,  by  the  declarations  that  'the  foun- 
.dations  of  the  earth  are  fixed  so  firm  that  they 
can  not  be  moved,'  and  that  the  sun  'runneth  about 
from  one  end  of  the  heavens  to  the  other.'  But 
the  little  telescope  of  Galileo  still  swept  the  heav- 
ens, and  another  revelation  was  announced— the 
mountains  and  valleys  in  the  moon.  This  brought 
on  another  attack.  It  was  declared  that  this,  and 
the  statement  that  the  moon  shines  by  light  re- 
flected from  the  sun,  directly  contradict  the  state- 
ment in  Genesis  that  the  moon  is  'a  great  light.' 
.  .  .  Still  another  struggle  was  aroused  when  the 
hated  telescope  revealed  spots  upon  the  sun,  and 
their  motion  indicating  the  sun's  rotation.  Mon- 
signor  Elci,  head  of  the  University  of  Pisa,  for- 
bade the  astronomer  Castelli  to  mention  these  spots 
to  his  students.  Father  Busaeus,  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Innspruck,  forbade  the  astronomer  Scheine"-, 
who  had  also  discovered  the  spots  and  proposed  a 
safe  explanation  of  them,  to  allow  the  new  dis- 
covery to  be  known  there.  At  the  College  of 
Douay  and  the  University  of  Louvain  this  dis- 
covery was  expressly  placed  under  the  ban,  and 
this  became  the  general  rule  among  the  Catholic 
universities  and  colleges  of  Europe.  The  Spanish 
universities  were  especially  intolerant  of  this  and 
similar  ideas,  and  up  to  a  recent  period  their  pres- 
entation was  strictly  forbidden  in  the  most  im- 
portant university  of  all^that  of  Salamanca." — 
A.  D.  White,  History  of  the  warfare  of  science 
with  theology,  pp.  114-118,  120-124,  126-127,  129- 
130,  132-133. 


"New  champions  pressed  on.  Campanella,  full 
of  vagaries  as  he  was,  wrote  his  Apology  for 
Galileo,  though  for  that  and  other  heresies,  relig- 
ious and  political,  he  seven  times  underwent  tor- 
ture. And  Kepler  comes:  he  leads  science  on  to 
greater  victories.  Copernicus,  great  as  he  was, 
could  not  disentangle  scientific  reasoning  entirely 
from  the  theological  bias:  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle 
and  Thomas  Aquinas  as  to  the  necessary  superior- 
ity of  the  circle  had  vitiated  the  minor  features 
of  his  system,  and  left  breaches  in  it  through  which 
the  enemy  was  not  slow  to  enter ;  but  Kepler  sees 
these  errors,  and  by  wonderful  genius  and  vigour 
he  gives  to  the  world  the  three  laws  which  bear 
his  name,  and  this  fortress  of  science  is  complete. 
He  thinks  and  speaks  as  one  inspired.  His  battle 
is  severe.  He  is  solemnly  warned  by  the  Protestant 
Consistory  of  Stuttgart  'not  to  throw  Christ's  king- 
dom into  confusion  with  his  silly  fancies.'  and  as 
solemnly  ordered  to  'bring  his  theory  of  the  world 
into  harmony  with  Scripture':  he  is  sometimes 
abused,  sometimes  ridiculed,  sometimes  imprisoned. 
Protestants  in  Styria  and  Wiirtemberg,  Catholics 
in  Austria  and  Bohemia,  press  upon  him;  but  New- 
ton, Halley,  Bradley,  and  other  great  astronomers 
follow,  and  to  science  remains  the  victory.  Yet 
this  did  not  end  the  war.  During  the  seventeenth 
century,  in  France,  after  all.  the  splendid  proofs 
added  by  Kepler,  no  one  dared  openly  teach  the 
Copernican  theory,  and  Cassini,  the  great  astrono- 
mer, never  declared  for  it.  In  1672  the  Jesuit 
Father  Riccioli  declared  that  there  were  precisely 
forty-nine  arguments  for  the  Copernican  theory 
and  seventy-seven  against  it.  Even  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century — long  after  the 
demonstrations  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton — Bossuet,  the 
great  Bishop  of  Meaux,  the  foremost  theologian 
that  France  has  ever  produced,  declared  it  con- 
trary to  Scripture." — Ibid.,  pp.  153-154. 

"It  is  still  well  under  four  hundred  years  since 
the  modern,  or  Copernican,  theory  of  the  universe 
supplanted  the  Ptolemaic,  which  had  held  sway 
during  so  many  centuries.  In  this  new  theory, 
propounded  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  by  Nicholas  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  a 
Prussian  [Polish]  astronomer,  the  earth  was  de- 
throned from  its  central  position  and  considered 
merely  as  one  of  a  number  of  planetary  bodies 
which  revolve  around  the  sun.  As  it  is  not  a 
part  of  our  purpose  to  follow  in  detail  the  history 
of  the  science,  it  seems  advisable  to  begin  by 
stating  in  a  broad  fashion  the  conception  of  the 
universe  as  accepted  and  believed  in  to-day.  The 
Sun,  the  most  important  of  the  celestial  bodies  so 
far  as  we  are  concerned,  occupies  the  central  posi- 
tion ;  not,  however,  in  the  whole  universe,  but  only 
in  that  limited  portion  which  is  known  as  the 
Solar  System.  Around  it,  in  the  following  order 
outwards,  circle  the  planets  Mercury,  Venus,  the 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Nep- 
tune. At  an  immense  distance  beyond  the  solar 
system,  and  scattered  irregularly  through  the 
depth  of  space,  lie  the  stars.  The  two  first-men- 
tioned members  of  the  solar  system.  Mercury  and 
Venus,  are  known  as  the  Inferior  Planets ;  and  in 
their  courses  about  the  sun,  they  always  keep  well 
inside  the  path  along  which  our  earth  moves,  f  !)e 
remaining  members  (exclusive  of  the  earth)  3re 
called  Superior  Planets,  and  their  paths  lie  all 
outside  that  of  the  earth." — C.  G.  Dolmage,  As- 
tronomy of  to-day,  pp.  20-22. 

"Johann  Kepler  is  the  name  of  the  man  whose 
place,  as  is  generally  agreed,  would  have  been  the 
most  difficult  to  fill  among  all  those  who  have  con- 
tributed to  the  advance  of  astronomical  knowl- 
edge. .  .  .  Kepler's  first  great  discovery  was  that 
the  planes  of  all  the  orbits  pass  through  the  sun; 


577 


ASTRONOMY 


Heavenly  Bodies 


ASTRONOMY 


his  second  was  that  the  line  of  apses  of  each  plan- 
et passes  through  the  sun;  both  were  contradictory 
to  the  Copernican  theory.  He  proceeds  cautiously 
with  his  propositions  until  he  arrives  at  his  great 
laws,  and  he  concludes  his  book  by  comparing  ob- 
servations of  Mars,  of  all  dates,  with  his  theory. 
His  first  law  states  that  the  planets  describe  ellipses 
with  the  sun  at  a  focus  of  each  ellipse.  His 
second  law  (a  far  more  difficult  one  to  prove) 
states  that  a  line  drawn  from  a  planet  to  the  sun 
sweeps  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  These  two 
laws  were  published  in  his  great  work,  Astronomia 
Nova,  seu  Physica  Coelestis  Tradila  Commentariis 
de  Motibus  Stellce  Martis,  Prague,  1609.  It  took 
him  nine  years  more  to  discover  his  third  law, 
that  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  are  propor- 
tional to  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances  from 
the  sun.  These  three  laws  contain  implicitly  the 
law  of  universal  gravitation.  They  are  simply  an 
alternative  way  of  expressing  that  law  in  dealing 
with  planets,  not  particles.  Only,  the  power  of 
the  greatest  human  intellect  is  so  utterly  feeble 
that  the  meaning  of  the  words  in  Kepler's  three 
laws  could  not  be  understood  until  expounded  by 
the  logic  of  Newton's  dynamics." — G.  Forbes,  His- 
tory of  astronomy,  pp.  48-53. — See  also  Scienxe: 
Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance. 

1781-1846. — Planets  and  Asteroids. — Constel- 
lations, comets  and  meteors. — "The  five  planets, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  have 
been  known  from  all  antiquity.  Nothing  then  can 
bring  home  to  us  more  strongly  the  immense  ad- 
vance which  has  taken  place  in  astronomy  during 
modern  times  than  the  fact  that  it  is  only  127  years 
since  observation  of  the  skies  first  added  a  planet 
to  that  time-honoured  number.  It  was  indeed  on 
the  13th  of  March,  1781,  while  engaged  in  observ- 
ing the  constellation  of  the  Twins,  that  the  justly 
famous  Sir  William  Herschel  caught  sight  of  an 
object  which  he  did  not  recognise  as  havine  met 
with  before.  He  at  first  took  it  for  a  comet,  but 
observations  of  its  movements  during  a  few  days 
showed  it  to  be  a  planet.  This  body,  which  the 
power  of  the  telescope  alone  had  thus  shown  to 
belong  to  the  solar  family,  has  since  become  known 
to  science  under  the  name  of  Uranus.  By  its  dis- 
covery the  hitherto  accepted  limits  of  the  solar 
system  were  at  once  pushed  out  to  twice  their 
former  extent,  and  the  hope  naturally  arose  that 
other  planets  would  quickly  reveal  themselves  in 
the  immensities  beyond.  For  a  number  of  years 
prior  to  Herschel's  great  discovery,  it  had  been 
noticed  that  the  distances  at  which  the  then 
known  planets  circulated  appeared  to  be  arranged 
in  a  somewhat  orderly  progression  outwards  from 
the  sun.  This  seeming  plan,  known  to  astronomers 
by  the  name  of  Bode's  Law,  was  closely  confirmed 
by  the  distance  of  the  new  planet  Uranus.  There 
still  lay,  however,  a  broad  gap  batween  the  planets 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  Had  another  planet  indeed 
circulated  there,  the  solar  system  w'ould  have  pre- 
sented an  appearance  of  almost  perfect  order.  But 
the  void  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  was  unfilled; 
the  space  in  which  one  would  reasonably  expect  to 
find  another  planet  circling  was  unaccountably 
empty.  On  the  first  day  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  mystery  was  however  explained,  a  body  being 
discovered  which  revolved  in  the  space  that  had 
hitherto  been  considered  planetless.  But  it  was  a 
tiny  globe  hardly  worthy  of  the  name  of  planet. 
In  the  following  vear  a  second  body  was  dis- 
covered revolving  in  the  same  space;  but  it  was 
even  smaller  in  size  than  the  first.  During  the 
ensuing  five  years  two  more  of  these  little  planets 
were  discovered.  Then  came  a  pause,  no  more 
such  bodies  being  added  to  the  system  until  half- 
way through  the  century,  when  suddenly  the  dis- 


covery of  these  so  called  'minor  planets'  began 
anew.  Since  then  additions  to  this  portion  of  our 
system  have  rained  thick  and  fast.  The  small 
bodies  have  received  the  name  of  Asteroids  or 
Planetoids;  and  up  to  the  present  time  some  six 
hundred  of  them  are  known  to  exist,  all  revolving 
in  the  previously  unfilled  space  between  Mars  and 
Jupiter. 

"In  the  year  1S46  the  outer  boundary  of  the 
solar  system  was  again  extended  by  the  discovery 
that  a  great  planet  circulated  beyond  Uranus. 
The  new  body,  which  received  the  name  of  Nep- 
tune, was  brought  to  light  as  the  result  of  calcula- 
tions made  at  the  same  time,  though  quite  inde- 
pendently, by  the  Cambridge  mathematician 
Adams,  and  the  French  astronomer  Le  Verrier. 
The  discovery  of  Neptune  differed,  however,  from 
that  of  Uranus  in  the  following  respect.  Uranus 
was  found  merely  in  the  course  of  ordinary  tele- 
scopic survey  of  the  heavens.  The  position  of 
Neptune,  on  the  other  hand,  was  predicted  as  the 
result  of  rigorous  mathematical  investigations  un- 
dertaken with  the  object  of  fixing  the  position  of 
an  unseen  and  still  more  distant  body,  the  attrac- 
tion of  which,  in  passing  by,  was  disturbing  the 
position  of  Uranus  in  its  revolution  around  the 
sun.  Adams  actually  completed  his  investigation 
first;  but  a  delay  at  Cambridge  in  examining  that 
portion  of  the  sky,  where  he  announced  that  the 
body  ought  just  then  to  be,  allowed  France  to 
snatch  the  honour  of  discovery,  and  the  new 
planet  was  found  by  the  observer  Galle  at  Berlin, 
very  near  the  place  in  the  heavens  which  Le  Ver- 
rier had  mathematically  predicted  for  it." — C.  G. 
Dolmage,  Astronomy  of  to-day,  pp.  22-24. — "The 
most  careless  observer  of  the  sky  has  noticed  that 
the  stars  are  not  uniformly  spread  over  it.  Al- 
most everyone  is  familiar  with  the  Big  Dipper  and 
the  Pleiades,  otherwise  known  as  the  Little  Dip- 
per. These  natural  groups  of  stars  were  given 
names  in  antiquity  by  early  observers  and  are 
called  constellations.  Their  names  often  strike  us 
as  being  most  fantastic  and  far-fetched.  Many  of 
them  are  the  names  of  wild  animals.  For  example, 
we  have  the  Great  Bear,  the  Lesser  Bear,  the  Lion, 
the  Eagle,  the  Leopard,  etc.  .  .  .  Comets  are  wan- 
dering bodies  which  pass  around  the  sun,  usually 
in  sensibly  parabolic  orbits.  If  their  orbits  are 
exactly  parabolas  it  means  they  have  come  in 
from  the  sun  from  an  infinite  distance,  and  will 
go  out  again  to  an  infinite  distance,  never  to  re- 
turn. .  .  .  While  the  statement  is  true  that  the 
great  majority  of  comets  move  in  sensibly  para- 
bolic orbits,  and  that  it  is  not  certain  that  they 
move  in  exactly  parabolic  orbits,  there  are  cer- 
tainly some  which  move  in  elliptical  orbits.  These 
comets  come  in  from  finite,  through  in  some  cases 
great  distances  and  go  out  again  to  the  same  dis- 
tances. They  return  to  the  sun  time  after  time, 
their  periods  of  revolution  depending  upon  the 
lengths  of  their  orbits.  There  are  a  very  few  cases 
in  which  it  seems  that  comets  move  in  hyperbolic 
orbits,  though  there  is  some  room  for  doubt  re- 
garding the  conclusion.  ...  If  the  comets,  as  a 
whole,  move  in  parabolic  orbits  they  can  not  be 
considered  as  permanent  members  of  the  solar 
system.  On  the  other  hand,  if  their  orbits,  instead 
of  being  parabolas,  are  very  elongated  ellipses  they 
are  permanent  members  of  the  system.  The  opin- 
ion seems  to  be  growing  among  astronomers  that 
the  comets  are  actually  in  this  sense  permanent 
members  of  the  solar  system,  though  no  rigorous 
proof  of  the  statement  is  at  present  at  hand.  It 
has  been  seen  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  all 
nearly  in  the  same  plane  and  that  the  planets  re- 
volve around  the  sun  in  the  same  direction.  In 
the  case  of  comets  it  is  quite  different.    Their  or- 


578 


ASTRONOMY 


Laplacian  and 
Planetesimal   Theories 


ASTRONOMY 


bits  lie  in  every  plane  and  they  revolve  in  all  di- 
rections. There  is  no  uniformity  in  their  distribu- 
tion. The  only  thing  that  can  be  said  is  that  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  perihelia  of  comet  orbits  to 
cluster  on  the  side  of  the  sun  which  is  ahead  in 
its  motion  through  space.  .  .  .  Comets  consist  of 
a  head  containing  in  it,  usually,  a  small  bright 
nucleus,  and  a  long  tail  streaming  out  in  the  direc- 
tion opposite  to  the  sun.  The  head  may  vary 
anywhere  from  10,000  miles  up  to  more  than 
1,000,000  miles.  The  nucleus  is  generally  a  few 
hundred,  and  at  the  most  a  few  thousand,  miles 
in  diameter.  The  tails  are  in  length  from  a  few 
millions  up  to  more  than  100,000,000  miles," — 
F.  R.  Moulton,  Descriptive  astronomy,  pp.  660, 
185-186. 

"Occasionally,  on  a  clear  night,  a  long  trail  of 
light  flashes  for  a  moment  across  the  sky.  This 
is  the  well-known  phenomenon  of  the  'falling'- 
or  'shooting-star.'  Sometimes,  in  a  tremendous 
blaze  and  with  a  great  rushing  sound,  often  almost 
explosive,  a  mass  of  stone  or  metal  hurls  from  the 
sky  to  the  Earth,  is  found,  and  called  a  meteorite, 
an  aerolite,  a  bolide,  or  half  a  dozen  other  tech- 
nical names.  They  are  really  all  one  and  the  same 
thing — a  meteor.  The  meteors  are  particles  of 
matter  of  various  sizes  and  compositions,  revolv- 
ing through  the  Solar  System  in  regular  orbits, 
usually  very  elliptical.  Most  of  them  travel  in 
swarms,  and  it  is  when  the  Earth  meets  such  that 
we  have  the  'shower  of  shooting  stars.'  The  orbits 
of  most  of  these  swarms  are  well-known.  The 
visibility  of  a  meteor  depends  entirely  upon  its 
collision  with  the  atmosphere  of  the  Earth  at  very 
high  speed — up  to  40  miles  a  second.  This,  by 
the  great  friction,  generates  a  terrific  heat,  and  the 
meteor  (i)  is  either  dissipated  in  fine  dust,  (which 
is  often  found  on  the  Arctic  ice)  or,  (2)  if  it  be  a 
large  one,  reaches  the  surface  of  the  Earth  as  a 
much  pitted  and  scarred  mass  of  stone  or  metal, 
or,  (3)  only  grazing  the  atmosphere,  passes  out 
before  being  entirely  consumed.  The  Earth  is 
undergoing  a  constant  meteoric  bombardment,  and 
were  it  not  for  our  protective  atmospheric  shield, 
we  undoubtedly  should  suffer  greatly." — E.  W. 
Putnam,  Essence  of  astronomy,  pp.   loo-ioi. 

1796-1921. — Laplacian  and  planetesimal  hy- 
potheses of  the  origin  of  the  solar  system. — 
Nebulse. — Sun. — Moon. — "In  outline  the  theory 
of  Laplace  [1749-1S27]  is  that  originally  the  solar 
atmosphere  was  a  nebulous  envelope  in  an  in- 
tensely heated  condition,  and  that  it  extended  out 
beyond  the  orbit  of  the  farthest  planet.  He  sup- 
posed the  whole  mass  rotated  as  a  solid,  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  planets  now  revolve.  It 
was  supposed  in  this  theory  that  the  dimensions 
of  the  system  were  maintained  by  gaseous  expan- 
sions the  same  as  the  dimensions  of  the  sun  or  the 
earth's  atmosphere  are  at  present.  This  great 
nebulous  mass  would  lose  heat  by  radiation  into 
space  and  consequently  would  contract.  ...  If  a 
mass  rotates  faster,  the  tendency  for  the  material 
at  its  equalor  to  fly  off  because  of  the  centrifugal 
acceleration  continually  increases.  Laplace  said 
that  it  seemed  reasonable  that  the  contracting  solar 
mass  would  reach  such  a  state  that  this  tendency 
of  the  particles  at  its  equator  to  fly  out  would 
exactly  balance  their  tendency  to  go  in  because 
of  the  attraction  of  the  mass  interior  to  it.  When 
this  state  was  reached  he  supposed  a  ring  would 
be  left  off.  .  .  .  Unless  the  ring  were  perfectly 
circular  and  uniform,  and  subject  to  no  disturbing 
influences,  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  break, 
Laplace  thought,  at  some  place  and  to  concentrate 
on  the  place  in  it  where  there  was  the  greatest 
mass.  That  is,  if  there  were  a  nucleus  unit  at  any 
point,  this  excess  of  matter  would  gradually  draw 


to  it  all  the  rest  of  the  whole  ring,  while  it  would 
continue  to  revolve  around  the  sun  in  the  same 
period  as  the  ring  did  at  the  time  it  was  aban- 
doned. .  .  .  Laplace  then  supposed  the  system  of 
planets  grew  up  from  a  system  of  rings  abandoned 
successively  by  the  sun,  beginning  with  the  outer- 
most and  ending  with  the  innermost.  The  rings 
concentrating  would  give  rise  to  large,  globular 
masses  revolving  around  the  sun  at  their  respective 
distances  from  it.  These  globular  masses  might 
in  turn  be  rotating  so  rapidly  that  they  would 
abandon  rings  which  in  a  similar  manner  would 
give  rise  to  satellites.  He  supposed  that  perhaps 
Saturn's  rings  were  examples  of  this  process  in 
which  the  satellites  were  not  yet  formed.  .  .  .  The 
solar  system  exists  and  is  in  the  midst  of  an  evo- 
lution ;  the  problem  is  to  trace  out  the  mode  of  this 
evolution.  The  Laplacian  theory  has  been  seen 
to  have  fatal  weaknesses  and  to  be  no  longer  ten- 
able. We  shall  now  outline  a  theory  which  has 
been  developed  by  Professor  Chamberlin  and  the 
author  to  take  its  place. 

"Instead  of  supposing  that  the  solar  system 
started  from  a  vast  gaseous  mass  in  equilibrium 
under  the  law  of  gravitation  and  the  laws  of  gas- 
eous expansion,  the  Planetesimal  Hypothesis  postu- 
lates that  the  matter  of  which  the  sun  and  clanets 
are  composed  was  at  a  previous  stage  of  its  evolu- 
tion in  the  form  of  a  great  spiral  swarm  of  sep- 
arate particles  whose  positions  and  motions  were 
dependent  upon  their  mutual  gravitation  and  their 
velocities.  Gaseous  expansion  preserved  the  di- 
mensions of  the  Laplacian  nebula  but  had  no  sen- 
sible influence  in  the  spiral.  Because  of  the  fact 
that  every  particule  according  to  this  theory  is 
considered  as  being  an  essentially  independent  unit 
it  is  called  the  planetesimal  theory.  Before  con- 
sidering in  detail  the  planetesimal  hypothesis  .  .  . 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  there  is 
not  in  all  the  heavens  a  single  example  known  of 
a  nebula  of  the  Laplacian  type.  On  the  other 
hand,  recent  discoveries,  particularly  those  made 
at  the  Lick  Observatory,  show  that  the  spiral  nebu- 
la is  not  only  a  common  form  but  is,  indeed,  the 
dominant  type.  There  are  within  range  of  our 
instruments  at  least  ten  times  as  many  of  them  as 
of  all  other  types  combined,  and  they  range  in 
extent  and  brightness  from  the  great  Andromeda 
nebula  down  to  small  faint  masses  which  are  barely 
distinguishable  with  long  exposure  photograph; 
taken  with  the  most  powerful  instruments." — 
F.  R.  Moulton,  Descriptive  astronomy,  pp.  23Q- 
244. 

"In  the  star-catalogs  of  the  early  writers  [before 
the  eighteenth  century]  we  find  mentioned  a  class 
of  'nebulous  or  cloudy  stars.'  The  telescope  proved 
that  the  very  great  majority  of  these  are  merely 
clusters  of  stars  so  apparently  close  together  that 
they  shine,  except  under  fairly  high  magnification, 
as  a  blur  of  misty  light.  With  the  improvement 
of  the  telescope,  however,  many  other  'patches  of 
light'  were  found,  some  of  which  could  be  resolved 
into  separate  stars,  while  others  could  not.  The 
former  of  these  were  called  star-clusters,  and  the 
latter  nebulae.  There  are  many  thousands  of  these 
nebula;;  but  only  about  ten  thousand  of  them 
have  been  cataloged,  and  only  two  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eyes,  the  great  nebula  in  Andromeda, 
and  the  great  Orion  nebula.  For  many  years 
(until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century],  the  ne- 
bula; were  considered  as  anomalies  in  the  cosmic 
system.  Now,  however,  they  are  believed  to  be  a 
regular  and  usual  step  in  stellar  evolution.  It  is 
considered  that  they  are  stellar  systems  in  embryo." 
■ — E,  W,  Putnam,  Essence  of  astronomy,  pp.  128- 


129, 


"The  sun  is  the  chief  member  of  our  system.    It 


579 


ASTRONOMY 


Solar  system 


ASTRONOMY 


controls  the  motions  of  the  planets  by  its  im- 
mense gravitative  power.  Besides  this  it  is  the 
most  important  body  in  the  entire  universe,  so 
far  as  we  are  concerned;  for  it  pours  out  con- 
tinually that  flood  of  light  and  heat,  without  which 
life,  as  we  know  it,  would  quickly  become  extinct 
upon  our  globe.  ...  It  is  extremely  difficult  to 
arrive  at  a  precise  notion  of  the  temperature  of 
the  body  of  the  sun.  However,  it  is  far  in  e.xcess 
of  any  temperature  which  we  can  obtain  here, 
even  in  the  most  powerful  electric  furnace.  A 
rough  idea  of  the  solar  heat  may  be  gathered  from 
the  calculation  that  if  the  sun's  surface  were  coated 
all  over  with  a  layer  of  ice  4000  feet  thick,  it 
would  melt  through  this  completely  in  one  hour. 
The  sun  cannot  be  a  hot  body  merely  cooling;  for 
the  rate  at  which  it  is  at  present  giving  off  heat 
could  not  in  such  circumstances  be  kept  up,  ac- 
cording to  Professor  Moullon  (1914),  for  more 
than  jooo  years.  Further,  it  is  not  a  mere  burn- 
ing mass,  like  a  coal  fire,  for  instance;  as  in  that 
case  about  a  thousand  years  would  show  a  certain 
drop  in  temperature.  Xo  perceptible  diminution 
of  solar  heat  having  taken  place  within  historic 
experience,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  we  are 
driven  to  seek  some  more  abstruse  explanation. 
The  theory  which  seems  to  have  received  most  ac- 
ceptance is  that  put  forward  by  Helmholtz  in  1S54. 
His  idea  was  that  gravitation  produces  continual 
contraction,  or  falling  in  of  the  outer  parts  of  the 
sun;  and  that  this  falling  in,  in  its  turn,  generates 
enough  heat  to  compensate  for  what  is  being  given 
off.  The  calculations  of  Helmholtz  showed  that 
a  contraction  of  about  100  feet  a  year  from  the 
surface  towards  the  centre  would  suffice  for  the 
purpose.  In  recent  years,  however,  this  estimate 
has  been  extended  to  about  iSo  feet.  Nevertheless, 
even  with  this  increased  figure,  the  shrinkage  re- 
quired is  so  slight  in  comparison  with  the  im- 
mense girth  of  the  sun,  that  it  would  take  a  con- 
tinual contraction  at  this  rate  for  about  6000 
years,  to  show  even  in  our  finest  telescope  that  any 
change  in  the  size  of  that  body  was  taking  place 
at  all.  Upon  this  assumption  of  continuous  con- 
traction, a  time  should,  however,  eventually  be 
reached  when  the  sun  will  have  shrunk  to  such  a 
degree  of  solidity,  that  it  will  not  be  able  to  shrink 
any  further.  Then,  the  loss  of  heat  not  being 
made  up  for  any  longer,  the  body  of  the  sun  should 
begin  to  grow  cold.  But  we  need  not  be  d'.stressed 
on  this  account ;  for  it  will  take  some  10.000,000 
years,  according  to  the  above  theory,  before  the 
solar  orb  becomes  too  cold  to  support  life  upon 
our  earth." — C.  G.  Dolmage,  Astronomy  of  to-day, 
pp.  I27-I2q. 

"The  Moon  is  the  only  visible  satellite  of  the 
Earth,  and  revolves  about  it.  .  .  .  The  diameter  of 
the  Moon  is  2,162  miles;  like  Venus  and  Mercury 
it  shows  no  polar  flattening.  Its  surface  contains 
about  15,000,000  square  miles,  about  one  thirteenth 
that  of  the  Earth.  Its  volume  is  about  one  fiftieth 
that  of  the  Earth.  ...  Its  mean  distance  from 
the  Earth  is  nearly  230000  miles.  Its  orbit,  like 
all  celestial  orbits,  is  more  or  less  elliptical  and  its 
distance  may  van.'  between  slightly  more  than 
221,000  miles  and  253,000  miles.  Its  usual  varia- 
tion is  such,  however,  that  in  one  revolution  it 
amounts  to  a  difference  in  distance  from  us  of 
about  25,000  miles.  It  revolves  around  the  Earth 
in  27  days  7  hours  43  minutes  and  11.5  seconds. 
It  rotates  upon  its  axis  in  the  same  time,  and,  in 
consequence,  always  keeps  the  same  side  turned  to 
the  Earth,  as  do  Mercury  and  Venus  to  the  Sun. 
...  It  has  no  atmosphere,  or  at  least,  if  any,  but 
the  veriest  ghost  of  one.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  details  of  the  lunar  surface  are  so  clear-cut 
when   viewed   through   a  telescope,  and   that   the 


shadows  are  so  intensely  black.  .  .  .  The  surface 
of  the  moon  is  broken  into  great  mountain  ranges, 
enormous  'craters,'  wide  and  deep  cracks  or  'clefts,' 
and  innumerable  smaller  cracks  or  rills.  The 
whole  of  its  visible  surface  has  been  mapped  and 
measured  more  carefully  and  accurately  than  that 
of  the  Earth,  and  over  30.000  craters  have  been 
counted  on  the  Earthw'ard  hemisphere.  .  .  .  The 
height  of  the  mountains  is  enormous  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  Moon,  several  being  over  18,000 
feet  high.  The  craters  vary  in  size  from  tiny  pits 
to  vast  cavities  over  100  miles  in  diameter.  Many 
of  the  larger  craters  have  great  central  mountain 
peaks  rising  from  their  floors,  and  many  others 
show  smaller  craters  within  their  boundaries." — 
E.  W.  Putnam,  Essence   of  astronomy,  pp.  38-45. 

Photographic  astronomy. — "If  we  speak  of  the 
progress  of  astronomy  in  the  past  fifty  years,  we 
must  constantly  refer  to  photography,  for  without 
it  the  progress  would  have  been  relatively  small. 
Photography  as  it  was  when  the  Dearborn  Ob- 
servatory was  young  could  never  have  done  much 
for  astronomy.  It  has  passed  through  two  periods, 
the  wet  and  dry  processes.  It  was  in  the  earlier 
period  at  that  time,  where  the  plate  must  remain 
wet  throughout  the  process  of  making  the  nega- 
tive, and  was  relatively  very  slow  in  its  action. 
.\s  the  plate  must  remain  wet,  long  exposures  could 
not  be  given  to  overcome  the  want  of  sensitive- 
ness. At  that  time,  in  the  hands  of  Rutherford, 
it  had  pictured  the  surface  of  the  Moon  and  had 
recorded  the  spots  on  the  Sun.  In  both  these 
cases  there  was  plenty  of  light.  It  had  had  a  try 
at  the  Stars  but  with  little  success.  It  had  at- 
tempted to  show  the  great  comet  of  1858  but  had 
made  a  failure  of  it.  \o  one  had  even  hoped  that 
it  could  register  the  forms  of  the  fainter  nebulae. 
It  had  made  no  promise  to  the  spectroscope,  which 
itself  was  just  beginning  to  awaken  to  the  marvels 
of  astronomy.  In  the  application  of  photography 
to  almost  every  branch  of  astronomy  the  Harvard 
College  Observatory,  under  the  administration  of 
Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  has  attained  to  the  very 
highest  importance.  In  the  case  of  the  discovery 
of  a  nova,  its  early  history  and  the  actual  time  of 
its  appearance  within  close  limits  are  always  found 
on  the  plates  of  this  one  observatory.  The  entire 
history  of  a  variable  star  can  be  traced  back  al- 
most from  day  to  day  for  many  years  and  in 
some  cases  for  over  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
Though  no  new  worlds,  in  the  ordinar>'  sense, 
have  been  discovered  there  have  been  added  to  the 
known  worlds  at  least  eight  new  moons,  five  to 
the  planet  Jupiter,  one  to  Saturn,  and  two  to  Mars. 
Five  of  these  are  due  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
photographic  plate.  At  least  two  of  them  have 
not  yet  been  seen  with  the  human  eye.  The 
known  asteroids  or  small  planets,  which  lie  in  a 
zone  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  have 
increased  rapidly  until  not  far  from  a  thousand 
are  now  known.  The  discovery  of  these  small 
bodies  since  i8g2,  when  Dr.  Max  Wolf  first  found 
one  by  the  new  process,  has  been  almost  wholly 
due  to  photography.  New  ones  are  constantly 
being  found.  Sometimes  as  many  as  five  or  six 
are  shown  on  one  plate.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
Sun  has  increased  tremendously  in  recent  years. 
This  has  been  due  almost  entirely  to  the  spectro- 
scope and  to  its  applications  to  the  spectro  helio- 
graph. The  spectroscope  has  introduced  to  us  a 
new  class  of  double  stars,  whose  periods  in  many 
cases  are  only  a  few  hours  or  a  few  days,  and 
which  will  never  be  seen  separately  with  any  tele- 
scope— E.  E.  Barnard,  A  few  astronomical  events 
of  the  past  fifty  years  (Scientific  American  Supple- 
ment, Dec.   16,   iqi6). — See  also   .^stfol.^be. 

"The   discovery    of    double    and    multiple   stars 


580 


ASTRONOMY 


Photography  in 
Modern  Research 


ASTRONOMY 


from  the  effects  of  the  gravitational  attraction  on 
their  luminous  components  is  known  as  the  'As- 
tronomy of  the  Invisible.'  It  was  first  suggested 
by  the  illustrious  Bessel  about  1840.  .  .  .  The 
greatest  extension  of  the  Astronomy  of  the  Invisible 
has  been  made  by  Professor  Campbell,  of  the  Lick 
Observatory.  In  the  course  of  the  regular  work 
on  the  motion  of  stars  in  the  line  of  sight,  carried 
out  with  a  powerful  spectroscopic  apparatus  pre- 
sented to  the  Observatory  by  Hon.  D.  O.  Mills, 
of  New  York,  he  has  investigated  .  .  .  the  motion 
of  several  hundred  of  the  brighter  stars  of  the 
northern  heavens.  .  .  .  With  such  unprecedented 
telescopic  power  and  a  degree  of  precision  in  the 
spectrograph  which  can  be  safely  depended  upon, 
it  is  not  unnatural  that  some  new  and  striking 
phenomena  should  be  disclosed.  These  consisted 
of  a  large  number  of  spectra  with  double  lines, 
which   undergo   a   periodic   displacement,    showing 


"The  development  of  planetary  astronomy  has 
not  been  in  keeping  with  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
science  in  almost  all  other  directions.  This  has 
been  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that,  as  in  the  case 
with  the  double  stars,  the  magnifying  power  of  the 
telescopic  eyepiece  is  a  necessary  factor  in  the 
work.  The  direct  image  formed  by  the  object 
glass  must  be  magnified  before  the  components  of 
a  close  double  star  can  be  seen — and  the  close 
double  stars  in  general  are  the  most  interesting. 
In  the  same  way  the  unmagnified  image  of  a 
planet  is  so  small  even  in  the  largest  telescopes 
that  the  surface  features  either  cannot  be  seen  or 
are  so  crowded  together  that  they  become  one  on 
the  photograph.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  the 
direct  image  of  a  planet  must  be  magnified  before 
it  falls  on  the  sensitive  plate.  Much  progress  has 
been  made  in  this  direction  by  the  use  of  a  sec- 
ondary enlarging  lens  which  projects  an  enlarged 


MOUNT  WILSON  SOLAR  OBSERVATORY 


that  the  stars  in  question  were  in  reality  double, 
made  up  of  two  components,  moving  in  opposite 
directions, — one  approaching,  the  other  receding 
from  the  Earth.  There  were  thus  disclosed  spec- 
troscopic binary  stars,  systems  with  components 
so  close  together  that  they  could  not  be  separated 
in  any  existing  telescope,  yet  known  to  be  real 
binary  stars  by  the  periodic  behaviour  of  the  lines 
of  the  spectra  so  faithfully  registered  on  different 
days.  .  .  . 

"Campbell's  work  at  the  Lick  Observatory  de- 
rives increased  importance  from  its  systematic 
character,  which  enables  us  to  draw  some  general 
conclusions  of  the  greatest  interest.  He  has  thus 
far  made  known  the  results  of  his  study  of  the 
spectra  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  of  the  brighter 
stars  of  the  northern  heavens.  Out  of  this  num- 
ber he  finds  thirty-one  spectroscopic  binaries,  or 
one  ninth  of  th?  whole  number  of  objects  studied." 
— T.  J.  J.  See,  Recent  progress  in  astronomy  {At- 
lantic Jltonthly,  January,  IQ02). 


image  of  the  planet  directly  on  the  plate.  This 
process  was  first  used  with  considerable  success 
by  Prof.  W.  H.  Pickering  at  the  temporary  station 
of  Harvard  University  on  Mount  Wilson  in 
1889.  He  secured  fairly  good  enlarged  images 
of  Saturn  and  excellent  ones  of  Jupiter  at  that 
time  with  the  thirteen  inch  Boyden  telescope  and 
a  positive  eyepiece  to  enlarge  the  image.  The  real 
advance  in  planetary  photography,  however,  is  due 
to  Lampland  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  who  has 
succeeded  in  making  excellent  photographs  of  the 
planets — especially  of  Mars.  Similar  work  has 
also  been  carried  out  at  Mount  Wilson  bv  Prof. 
Hale  and  at  the  Yerkes  Observatory.  Astrono- 
mers with  usual  telescopes  are  greatly  indebted 
to  color-filter  photography,  as  adapted  by  Richey 
at  the  Yerkes  Observatory  to  ordinary  refractors, 
which  from  their  nature  were  not  intended  for 
photography.  The  splendid  photographs  of  the 
Moon  and  of  the  star  clusters  made  by  him  with 
the  forty-inch  telescope  were  a  great  advance  over 


581 


ASTRONOMY 


Measuring 
the  Stars 


ASTRONOMY 


earlier  work  with  regular  photographic  telescopes. 
This  simple  application  of  the  color-filter  ami  the 
isochromatic  plate  has  made  the  forty-inch  tele- 
scope one  of  the  most  important  instruments  for 
the  determination  of  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars.  Photographic  parallax  work  was  first  done 
with  it  by  Dr.  Frank  Schlesinger,  who  showed  the 
remarkable  accuracy  that  could  be  obtained  by 
this  method.  Van  Moanen  has  shown  that  par- 
allax determinations  made  with  the  five-foot  re- 
flector of  the  Solar  Observatory  at  Mount  Wilson 
(a  regular  photographic  telescope)  are  of  the  very 
highest  accuracy.  Astronomers  now  know  quite 
accurately  the  distances  of  a  large  number  of  the 
fixed  stars.  In  this  way  we  find  that  it  is  not 
always  the  brightest  stars  that  are  nearest  to  us. 
A  considerable  percentage  of  the  nearest  stars  are 
not  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  There  are  perhaps 
(if  we  leave  out  the  work  of  the  spectroscope)  no 
astronomical  subjects  that  have  been  so  vastly 
benefitted  by  photography  as  the  nebulcE  and  the 
comets — the  comets  and  the  nebulfc,  which  at 
times  look  so  much  alike  and  at  other  times  are  so 
wonderfully  different,  and  which  have  no  relation- 
ship in  reality.  The  ordinary  photographic  plate 
is  sensitive  to  a  region  of  the  spectrum  to  which 
the  eye  is  almost  blind.  Many  of  the  nebula;  shine 
mostly  with  this  light  and  thus  the  photograph 
has  a  great  advantage  over  the  eye,  for  though 
seen  but  dimly  they  are  bright  to  the  photographic 
plate.  Faint  ncbulasities  whose  light  could  never 
affect  the  eye,  are  finally  shown  as  a  clear  and 
accurate  picture  which  can  be  preserved  and  stud- 
ied afterwards  for  the  detection  of  changes  in 
these  bodies."  In  1908  appeared  Morehouse's 
comet  "which  in  the  telescope  was  a  rather  in- 
significant affair,  and  which  was  only  feebly  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  for  almost  one  day.  This  object 
has  given  us  a  greater  knowledge  of  the  physical 
conditions  of  these  bodies  than  all  other  comets 
that  have  appeared.  The  photographic  plate  was 
especially  sensitive  to  its  light,  while  the  eye  was 
not.  A  bewildering  amount  of  structure  was  shown 
in  its  tail,  which  was  frequently  twisted  and  dis- 
torted in  its  rapid  changes.  Several  times  the  tail 
was  discarded  and  new  ones  formed  within  a  few 
hours'  time.  All  of  these  remarkable  peculiarities 
would  have  been  wholly  unknown  were  it  not  been 
for  the  photographic  plate.  Through  the  informa- 
tion thus  gained  from  this  comet  and  others  that 
preceded  it  we  have  learned  that  though  comets 
are  dependent  on  the  Sun  for  most  of  their  ac- 
tivity, they  really  take  a  larger  part  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  tail  and  the  direction  of  the  streamers 
than  we  had  previously  given  them  credit  for. 
These  photographs  show  that  perhaps  electrical 
conditions  have  much  to  do  with  the  phenomena 
of  a  comet's  tail.  They  also  suggest  that  other 
forces  are  at  w-ork  in  the  interplanetary  spaces 
than  gravity  alone.  The  investigations  of  Kapteyn 
on  the  star  streams  of  the  sky  gives  us  an  insight 
into  the  makeup  of  our  stellar  universe  that  is  new, 
impressive,  and  of  the  utmost  importance." — E.  E. 
Barnard,  A  few  nstronomical  events  of  the  past 
fifty  years  (Scientific  American  Supplement,  Dec. 
16,  1916). — In  1Q14,  the  ninth  satellite  of  Jup- 
iter was  discovered,  in  a  photographic  search  con- 
ducted by  Nicholson  at  the  Lick  Observatory  in 
California.  The  satellite  accomplishes  its  revolu- 
tion in  three  years,  and  is  the  most  distant  of  the 
satellites.  Like  the  eighth,  it  has  a  retrograde 
motion.  In  iqis,  from  perturbations  in  the  orbit 
of  Uranus,  Professor  Percival  Lowell  calculated 
that  a  trans-Neptunian  planet  exists  with  an  orbit 
about  12,000,000,000  miles  in  diameter. 

Measuring  star  distances. — Parallax  method. 
— The  parallax  of  a  star  is  its  apparent  dbplace- 


ment  in  the  sky  due  to  the  change  in  the  earth's 
position  in  its  orbit.  It  is  the  angle  that  93,- 
000,000  miles,  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the 
sun,  subtends  at  the  star.  Viewed  from  the  vast 
majority  of  the  stars  this  base-line  shrinks  to 
an  immeasurable  point.  The  direct  measurement 
of  the  parallax  of  the  stars  by  the  triangulation 
method,  by  which  the  star's  displacement  at  dif- 
ferent times  of  year  is  determined  either  pho- 
tographically or  visually  with  reference  to  faint 
stars  so  distant  as  to  have  zero  parallax,  is  pos- 
sible only  for  a  few  stars  near  the  solar  system. 
The  distances  of  nearly  a  thousand  stars  have 
been  determined  with  more  or  less  accuracy  by 
this  method.  Since  to  express  the  distance  of  the 
stars  in  miles  would  be  as  cumbersome  and  mean- 
ingless as  to  express  the  distance  from  the  earth  to 
the  moon  or  neighboring  planets  in  inches,  a 
new  unit  for  the  measurement  of  stellar  dis- 
tances has  been  found  in  the  velocity  of  light. 
In  one  second  light  travels  186,000  miles,  in  one 
year  it  travels  nearly  six  trillion  miles.  The  dis- 
tance light  travels  in  one  year  is  spoken  of  as 
the  light  year.  The  triangulation  method  is  long 
and  tedious  and  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  sys- 
tematic as  well  as  accidental  errors.  The  finally 
determined  parallax  is  usually  the  result  of  a 
large  number  of  independent  measurements.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  on  November  6, 
igiOi  its  president.  Sir  J.  J.  Thompson,  is  reported 
to  have  stated  that  the  Einstein  theory  was  the 
greatest  discovery  in  connection  with  gravitation 
since  Newton  enunciated  that  principle.  "The 
Einstein  theory  may  be  said  to  have  its  origin 
in  an  effort  to  explain  the  experiment  on  the 
so-called  ether-drift,  made  by  Professors  Michelson 
and  Morely  somewhat  more  than  thirty  years  ago 
(1S99)  at  the  Western  Reserve  University.  Michel- 
son  suggested  that  the  negative  result  of  the 
experiment  could  be  accounted  for  by  supposing 
that  the  apparatus  underwent  a  shortening  in 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  motion.  Later  Pro- 
fessor Lorenz,  the  Dutch  physicist,  assumed  that 
everything  gets  shortened  as  it  moves  through 
space;  that  the  8.000  miles  of  the  earth  diameter 
is  shortened  up  by  three  or  four  inches,  an 
amount  sufficient  io  provide  a  scientific  explanation 
for  the  failure  of  the  Michelson  and  Mofely 
attempt  to  detect  that  the  earth  was  moving 
through  the  elher.  Then  Einstein  proposed  his 
generalization  that  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the 
effects  of  motion,  except  when  it  is  relative  to 
another  material  body,  or  that  it  is  impossible  to 
detect  the  absolute  velocity  of  any  body  moving 
through  space." — Principle  of  relativity  and  the 
deflection  of  light  by  gravitation  {Scientific 
Monthly,  December,  1919,  pp.  586-587). — Since  the 
exposition  of  this  theory,  photographic  plates, 
taken  during  the  solar  eclipse  of  May  29,  igig, 
show  a  deflection  of  the  rays  of  light  from  the 
.stars  in  their  passage  past  the  sun  that  accords 
with  the  theoretical  degree,  1.7  second  of  arc, 
predicted  by  the  relativity  theory  of  Einstein. 
It  has  also  been  confirmed  by  observation  of  the 
motion  of  the  planet  Mercury  which  is  in  accord 
with  the  theory  of  relativity,  but  cannot  be  ac- 
counted for  on  the  exact  assumptions  of  New- 
ton's law  of  gravitation. 

Measuring  the  size  of  stars. — Michelson's  dis- 
coveries. —  Measuring  of  Betelgeuse.  —  "Pro- 
fessor Albert  A.  Michelson  of  the  University  _  of 
Chicago,  speaking  before  the  .American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  on  Dec.  29  [1920], 
told  of  his  achievement  in  measuring  the  sizes  of 
stars,  and  of  the  astounding  results  shown  by 
his  measurement  of  Betelgeuse  (Alpha  Orionis), 
the  dull  red  star  in  the  upper  shoulder  of  Orion. 


582 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTURIAS 


The  distances  of  stars  have  long  been  measured 
by  means  of  the  parallax,  the  angle  between 
lines  made  by  viewing  a  star  from  two  different 


TELESCOPE    TOWER,    PASADENA, 
CALIFORNIA 

A  tower  built  within  a  tower,  to  prevent  wind 
vibration 

points;  but  until  the  perfection  of  Professor 
Michelson's  'interferometer'  [1887]  there  had  been 
no  known  means  of  direct  measurement  of  a  star's 


size.  He  had  been  using  this  instrument  for  some 
years  in  spectroscopic  analysis,  and  even  in  de- 
termining the  diameter  of  Jupiter's  satellites;  but 
its  chief  triumph  came  last  Summer  at  the  Mount 
Wilson  Observatory  in  Southern  Cahfornia,  when 
he  succeeded  in  measuring  Betelgeuse, 

"If  the  professor's  instrument  is  correct — and  he 
believes  it  is — the  diameter  of  Betelgeuse  is  260,- 
000,000  miles,  «r  300  times  the  diameter  of  our 
sun,  making  its  volume  27,000,000  times  that  of 
the  sun.  In  other  words,  if  Betelgeuse  were  placed 
where  our  sun  now  is,  its  solid  sphere  would 
extend  far  beyond  the  whole  ■  orbit  in  which 
the  earth  swings,  out  almost  to  the  orbit  of 
Mars. 

"Professor  Michelson  used  the  eight-foot  reflect- 
ing telescope  of  the  observatory,  with  the  mirror 
of  the  telescope  obscured  by  an  opaque  cap,  in 
which  were  two  slits  adjustable  in  width  and  dis- 
tance apart.  Thus,  when  the  telescope  was  focused 
on  a  star,  it  showed,  instead  of  an  image  of  the 
star,  a  series  of  interference  bands  arranged  at 
equal  distances  apart  and  parallel  to  the  two 
slits.  He  separated  the  sUts  to  a  distance  at  which 
the  fringes  disappeared.  Then,  by  a  simple 
formula,  he  obtained  the  angle  subtended  by  the 
star.  The  distance  of  the  star  had  been  obtained 
long  before  by  the  parallax  method,  and,  having 
both  the  distance  and  the  angle,  he  readily  cal- 
culated the  star's  diameter,  approximately.  In  its 
perfected  form  the  interferometer  attachment  to 
the  telescope  has  two  adjustable  mirrors  instead 
of  the  slits.  The  great  service  of  the  inter- 
ferometer is  that  it  obviates  the  atmospheric 
tremor  which  has  been  the  chief  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  measurements.  Heretofore  star  diameters 
have  been  calculated,  but  have  never  been  actu- 
ally   measured. 

"This  achievement  by  Professor  Michelson  is  the 
crowning  one  among  many  in  his  long  years  of 
experimentation  in  the  phenomena  of  light.  It 
was  the  Michelson-Morely  light  experiment  which 
raised  the  problem  out  of  which  grew  the  famous 
Einstein  theory  of  relativity." — New  York  Times 
Current  History,  March,  1021. — For  further  dis- 
cussion see  Astrology;  and  Science:  Modern:  20th 
century:   Astronomy. 

International  societies  for  I'esearch.  See  In- 
ternational ORGANIZATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  RESEARCH. 

ASTROWNO,  Battle  of.  See  Austria:  1809- 
1814. 

ASTRUC,  Jean  (1684-1766),  distinguishes  Elo- 
hist  and  Jahwish  records  in  Genesis.  See  History: 
14. 

ASTURIAS,  Princes  of.— In  1388  the  heir  of 
Juan  I,  Prince  Henry,  was  married  to  the  English 
duke  of  Lancaster's  daughter.  "Thus  was  the 
conflict  of  Pedro  I  and  Henry  II  [rivals  for  the 
crown  of  Castile,  1363-1369]  resolved.  Their 
descendants,  though  tainted  with  illegitimacy  in 
both  cases,  had  joined  to  form  the  royal  family 
Df  Spain.  The  young  prince  and  his  consort  took 
the  titles  of  Prince  and  Princess  of  Asturias, 
which  have  been  used  ever  since  by  the  heirs 
to  the  Spanish  throne." — C.  E.  Chapman,  History 
of  Spain,  p.   121. 

ASTURIAS,  ASTURIANS.— "It  has  usually 
been  held,  although  the  matter  is  in  dispute,  that  the 
Visigoths  resisted  the  invaders  continuously  at  only 
one  point  in  Spain, — in  Asturias.  In  the  moun- 
tains of  Asturias  there  gathered  various  nobles , 
of  the  centre  and  south  of  Spain,  a  number  of 
bishops,  and  the  remains  of  the  defeated  Chris- 
tian armies,  and,  aided  perhaps  by  the  natives 
of  that  land,  they  prepared  to  make  a  stand 
against  the  Moslems.  .  .  .  Since  the  invaders  re- 
spected the  religion  and  customs  of  the  conquered, 


583 


ASTURIAS 


ASYLUM 


the  war  of  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Asturias 
against  them  did  not  at  first  have  a  religious  or 
even  a  racial  character.  It  was  a  war  of  the 
nobles  and  clergy  for  the  reconquest  of  their 
landed  estates  and  of  the  king  for  the  restora- 
tion of  his  royal  authority  over  the  peninsula. 
The  little  Asturian  kingdom  was  like  the  old 
Visigothic  state  in  miniature;  for  example,  there 
were  the  struggles  between  the  nohility  and  the 
crown  for  precisely  the  same  objects  as  formerly. 
For  a  century  the  history  of  Asturias  reduced 
itself  primarily  to  these  quarrels.  Nevertheless, 
the  Moslem  frontier  tended  to  withdraw  from 
the  far  northwest,  not  that  the  Moslems  were 
forced  out  by  the  Christians,  but  possibly  be- 
cause their  own  civil  wars  drew  them  together 
in  the  centre  and  south,  or  because  their  num- 
bers were  not  great  enough  to  make  them  seek 
the  less  desirable  lands  in  the  northwest.  The 
frontier  became  fixed  south  of  the  Douro  along 
a  line  running  through  Coimbra,  Coria,  Talavera, 
Toledo,  Guadalajara,  and  Pamplona,  although  the 
last-named  place  was  not  long  retained.  It  can- 
not be  said  that  the  Christians  took  a  conscious 
offensive  until  the  eleventh  century.  In  this 
period,  despite  the  internal  dissension  of  the 
Moslem  state,  the  Christian  frontier  did  not  pass 
the  Guadarrama  Mountains  e%'en  at  the  most 
favorable  moments,  leaving  Aragon  and  central 
and  southern  Spain  in  the  enemy's  hands.  The 
line  of  the  Douro  was  far  from  being  held  con- 
sistently,— as  witness  the  conquests  of  Abd-er- 
Rahman  III  and  Almansor.  The  only  notable 
kings  of  Asturias  in  the  century  following  the 
death  of  Pelayo  (737)  were  Alfonso  I  'the  Cath- 
olic' (73g-7S7)  and  Alfonso  II  'the  Chaste'  (701- 
842).  Both  made  successful  campaigns  against 
the  Moslems,  although  their  principal  importance 
was  that  they  brought  back  many  Mozarabes 
[as  the  Christians  living  under  Moslem  rule  were 
called]  from  the  temporarily  conquered  regions, 
and  these  helped  to  populate  the  north.  [See  also 
Spain:  713-QSo.]  To  assure  his  power  Alfonso  II 
sought  an  alliance  with  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror, Charlemagne,  and  with  his  son,  Louis 
the  Pious.  It  is  this  which  gave  rise  to  the 
legend  of  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  who  is  said  to 
have  compelled  the  king  to  forbear  making  treaties 
with  foreign  rulers  which  lowered  the  dignity  of 
the  Spanish  people.  Some  writers  have  found  in 
this  supposed  incident  (for  the  figure  of  Bernardo 
Is  a  later  invention)  an  awakening  sense  of  na- 
tionalism, but  it  seems  rather  to  reflect  the  tradi- 
tional attitude  of  the  nobility  lest  the  king  be- 
come too  strong  for  them,  for  real  patriotism 
did  not  exist.  The  two  Alfonsos  did  much  to 
reorganize  their  kingdom  internally,  and  .Mfonso 
the  Chaste  moved  the  capital  to  Oviedo.  In 
his  reign,  too,  there  occurred  a  religious  event 
of  great  importance, — the  finding  of  what  was 
believed  to  be  the  tomb  and  body  of  the  apostle 
Santiago  (Saint  James)  in  northwestern  Galicia. 
The  site  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  a 
village  grew  up  there,  named  Santiago  de  Com- 
postela.  Compostela  became  a  leading  political 
and  industrial  factor  in  the  Christian  northwest, 
but  was  far  more  important  as  a  holy  place  of 
the  first  grade,  ranking  with  Jerusalem,  Rome 
and  Loreto.  Thenceforth,  bands  of  pilgrims  not 
only  from  Spain  but  also  from  all  parts  of  the 
Christian  world  came  to  visit  the  site,  and, 
.through  them,  important  outside  influences  began 
*o  filter  into  Spain.  More  noteworthy  still  was 
the  use  of  the  story  of  the  miraculous  discovery 
to  fire  the  Christian  warriors  with  enthusiasm 
in  their  battles  against  the  Moslems,  especially 
at   a   later   period,   when   the   war   entered   upon 


more    of    a    crusading    phase." — C.    E.    Chapman, 
History    of    Spain,    pp.    54-55- — See    also    Canta- 

BRIANS  AND  AsTURIANS. 

1833. — The  Province  of  Asturias  received  the 
name  of  Oviedo,  the  capital;  total  area,  4,205 
square  miles;  population   (1018),  715,476. 

ASTURIAS,  a  British  hospital  ship  attacked 
on  February  i;  1915,  by  a  German  submarine. 
This  act  was  declared  by  the  German  ambassador 
at  Washington  to  have  resulted  from  an  error.— 
See  also  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  serv- 
ices; X.  Alleged  atrocities  and  violations  of  inter- 
national law:  e. 

ASTY,  or  Astu. — The  ancient  city  of  Athens 
proper,  as  distinguished  from  its  connected  har- 
bors, was  called  the  Asty,  or  Astu. — J.  A.  St. 
John,  Hellenes,  bk.  i,  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  W.  M.  Leake,  Topography  of  Athens, 
sect.  10. 

ASTYAGES,  king  of  the  Median  empire,  584- 
549  B.C.;  defeated  and  dethroned  the  following 
year  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  who,  according  to 
Herodotus  was  his  (Astyages")  grandson.  With 
Media  annexed  to  Persia  Cyrus  restored  Astyages 
to  favor  and  appointed  him  satrap  of  Hyrcania. 
— See  also  Persia:  B.C.  54Q-521. 

ASTYNOMI,  certain  police  officials  in  ancient 
Athens,  ten  in  number.  "They  were  charged 
with  all  that  belongs  to  street  supervision,  e.  g., 
the  cleansing  of  the  streets,  for  which  purpose 
the  coprologi,  or  street-sweepers,  were  under  their 
orders ;  the  securing  of  morality  and  decent  be- 
haviour in  the  streets," — G.  F.  Schomann,  An- 
tiquities of  Greece:   The  State,  pt.  3,  ch.  3. 

ASUNCION,  Nuestra  Seiiora  de  la,  the 
capital  of  Paraguay,  situated  on  the  Paraguay 
river;  founded  in  1536  and  served  as  center  of 
Spanish  dominion  for  the  following  one  hundred 
years.  The  city  is  an  important  commercial  cen- 
ter being  connected  with  Buenos  Aires  and  Monte- 
video by  a  number  of  river  steamship  lines.  See 
Latin  America:  Map;  Par.^guay:  1515-1557;  and 
1Q02-IQ15. 

ASUNDEN,  Battle  of  (1520).  See  Scandi- 
na\ian  States;  1307-1522. 

ASURIA.     See  Assyria:   The  Land. 

ASYLUM,  Right  of.— The  ancient  Greeks  held 
that  all  temples  and  altars  were  inviolable,  and 
that  the  curse  of  the  gods  would  rest  upon  him 
who  took  a  suppliant  from  an  altar  or  temple 
by  force.  This  curse  would  be  transmitted  to 
the  descendants  of  the  one  who  did  violence 
to  a  suppliant.  The  curse  rested  upon  the  descend- 
ants of  Megacles,  archon  of  Athens,  for  fully 
two  centuries.  .'Vbuses  of  this  right  of  sanctuary 
led  to  the  limiting  of  the  number  of  temples  that 
gave  perfect  security  to  the  refugee.  When  Greece 
came  under  Roman  rule  the  number  of  such 
temples  was  further  reduced.  Under  the  Roman 
Empire  the  eagles  of  the  legions  and  the  statues 
of  the  emperors  gave  similar  protection.  The 
right  of  asylum  or  sanctuary  was  attached  to 
Christian  churches  and  churchyards. 

Immunity  from  arrest  when  asylum  is  sought 
on  board  vessels  of  war. — "Under  the  general 
rule  of  international  law  and  courtesy  it  is  con- 
sidered wrong  to  offer  or  afford  an  asylum  to 
a  criminal  or  to  a  person  charged  solely  with  a 
crime  against  the  state  in  whose  friendly  waters 
a  vessel  of  war  happens  to  be  for  the  time.  If, 
however,  a  criminal  of  any  kind  succeeds  in  get- 
ting on  board  a  foreign  vessel  of  war,  he  can- 
not be  apprehended  or  followed  on  board  by 
the  police  or  local  authorities.  The  commanding 
officer  has  a  right  to  judge  for  himself  whether 
the  crime  charged  as  non-political  is  so  or  is 
only  used  as  a  pretext  to  prevent  asylum  being 


584 


ASYLUM 


Vessels  of  War 
Legations  and  Embassies 


ASYLUM 


granted  lO'  a  person  in  flight  for  his  life  on  ac- 
count of  his  political  acts.  The  regulations  of 
the  United  States  navy  read  as  follows  upon  this 
subject:  'The  right  of  asylum  for  political  or 
other  refugees  has  no  foundation  in  international 
law.  In  countries,  however,  where  frequent  in- 
surrections occur  and  constant  instability  of  gov- 
ernment exists,  usage  sanctions  the  granting  of 
asylum;  but  even  in  the  waters  of  such  coun- 
tries, officers  should  refuse  all  applications  for 
asylum  except  when  required  by  the  interests  of 
humanity  in  extreme  or  exceptional  cases,  such 
as  the  pursuit  of  a  refugee  by  a  mob.  Officers 
must  not,  directly  or  indirectly,  invite  refugees 
to  accept  asylum.'  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that  a  rigid  impartiality  should  prevail  in 
all  such  cases  between  political  parties,  and  that 
refugees  granted  asylum  should  not  be  allowed 
to  open  nor  maintain  communication  with  the 
shore  for  political  or  any  other  purpose.  In  for- 
mer times,  when  slavery  existed  in  countries  that 
were  classed  as  enlightened,  it  was  customary  to 
surrender  fugitive  slaves  who  had  sought  refuge 
on  board  vessels  of  war.  This  was  urged  as  a 
policy  of  the  United  States  in  the  earlier  days 
of  the  republic.  Since  slavery  is  now  practically 
abolished  by  all  members  of  the  family  of  nations, 
the  right  of  such  slaves  to  refuge  and  freedom 
has  become  the  usage.  By  Article  28  of  the 
general  act  of  the  Brussels  conference  relative 
to  the  African  slave  trade,  signed  July  2,  i8qo, 
and  ratified  by  the  United  States  and  most  of  the 
civilized  states,  it  is  agreed  that  any  slave  who 
may  have  taken  refuge  on  board  a  ship  of  war 
flying  the  flag  of  one  of  the  signatory  powers 
shall  be  immediately  and  definitely  freed.  Such 
freedom,  however,  shall  not  withdraw  him  from 
the  competent  jurisdiction  if  he  has  committed  a 
crime  or  offence  at  common  law.  Before  clos- 
ing this  portion  of  the  subject  which  deals  with 
the  conduct  and  privileges  and  obligations  of  the 
officers  and  men  of  a  man-of-war  in  foreign  ports, 
it  is  well  to  give  an  article  of  the  United  States 
Navy  Regulations  upon  the  subject  of  their  deal- 
ings with  foreigners  when  in  foreign  ports.  The 
<:ommander-in-chief  of  a  fleet,  or  in  his  absence 
Ihe  commanding  officer,  is  directed  to  'impress 
upon  all  officers  and  men  that  when  in  foreign 
ports  it  is  their  duty  to  avoid  all  possible  causes 
.of  offence  to  the  authorities  or  inhabitants;  that 
due  deference  must  be  shown  by  them  to  the 
local  laws,  customs,  ceremonies,  and  regulations; 
Ihat  in  all  dealings  with  foreigners  moderation  and 
courtesy  should  be  displayed,  and  that  a  feeling 
of  good-will  and  mutual  respect  should  be  cul- 
tivated.' No  officer  or  man  can  be  allowed 
to  violate  the  jurisdiction  on  shore  by  arresting 
or  attempting  to  arrest  a  deserter  or  straggler 
from  his  vessel.  If  any  officer  or  member  of 
the  crew  while  on  shore  commits  an  offence 
against  the  laws  of  the  country,  the  local  author- 
ities have  jurisdiction  over  such  persons  while 
they  are  on  shore  and  may  cause  them  to  be 
arrested  while  there  and  to  be  tried  and  punished 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  foreign  state. 
The  commanding  officer  of  the  vessel,  or  the  ad- 
miral if  he  should  be  present,  should  be  at  once 
informed  of  the  arrest  and  the  causes  which  led 
to  it,  so  that  either  he  or  the  diplomatic  or 
consular  agents  of  his  government  may  procure 
the  return  of  the  person  accused  to  his  vessel 
or  be  enabled  to  observe  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment and  trial.  If  the  offender,  however,  escapes 
to  his  vessel  he  cannot  be  apprehended  by  the 
local  authorities;  but  the  commanding  officer  can, 
if  he  sees  fit,  without  loss  of  dignity  or  prestige, 
surrender  the  offender  for  trial  and  punishment  by 


the  local  courts,  or  the  matter  can  be  left  to 
the  usual  diplomatic  channels,  as  mentioned 
above." — C,  H.  Stockton,  Outlines  of  international 
law,  pp.  163-164. 

Right  of  asylum  in  legations  and  embaSsiei. 
— "The  privileges  of  immunity  from  local  juris- 
diction do  not  embrace  the  right  of  asylums 
for  persons  outside  of  a  representative's  diplo- 
matic or  personal  household.  In  regard  to  the 
right  of  asylum  Bynkershoek  states  very  strongly 
'that,  whether  common  sense,  the  reason  of  the 
thing,  or  the  end  and  object  of  embassies  be 
considered,  there  is  not  even  that  faint  color  of 
reason  which  the  most  absurd  pretensions  can 
generally  put  forth  to  be  alleged  in  favor  of 
such  a  custom.'  Spain  seems  to  be  the  only  na- 
tion in  Europe  in  which  the  right  of  asylum 
for  political  refugees  is  sanctioned  or  tolerated  in 
later  years.  In  the  revolutionary  period  of  1865- 
75,  which  in  respect  of  disorder  and  violence  re- 
produced the  decade  of  1840-50,  the  practice  was 
resumed.  In  1873,  after  the  abdication  of  Amadeus, 
Marshal  Serrano,  who  had  taken  an  active  part 
in  placing  that  prince  on  the  throne,  was  hunted 
by  a  mob.  He  fled  from  house  to  house,  but 
at  last  repaired  to  the  abode  of  the  British  min- 
ister, Mr.  Layard,  who  subsequently  disguised 
him  and  accompanied  him  by  rail  to  Santander, 
where  he  embarked  for  St.  Jean  de  Luz.  Secre- 
tary Fish  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Caleb  Gushing,  our 
minister  to  Spain  in  1875,  says:  'The  frequency 
of  resort  in  Spain  to  the  legations  for  refuge 
and  the  fact  mentioned  by  you  that  nobody  there 
disputes  the  claim  of  asylum  but  that  it  has 
become,  as  it  were,  the  common  law  of  the  land 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  prevalence  of  'con- 
spiracy as  a  means  of  changing  a  cabinet  or  a 
government,'  and  the  continued  tolerance  of  the 
usage  is  an  encouragement  of  this  tendency  to 
conspiracy.  It  is  an  annoyance  and  embarrass- 
ment probably  to  the  ministers  whose  legations  are 
thus  used  but  certainly  to  the  governments  of 
those  ministers,  and,  as  facilitating  and  encourag- 
ing chronic  conspiracy  and  rebellion,  it  is  wrong 
to  the  government  and  to  the  people  where  it 
is  practised — a  wrong  to  the  people,  even  though 
the  ministry  of  the  time  may  not  remonstrate, 
looking  to  the  possibility  of  finding  a  convenient 
shelter  when  their  own  day  of  reckoning  and 
of  flight  may  come.'  To  a  limited  extent  the 
practice  of  asylum  still  exists  in  certain  Spanish- 
American  countries.  In  these  countries,  where  fre- 
quent insurrections  occur  and  consequent  instability 
of  government  exists,  the  practice  of  seeking 
asylum  has  become  so  firmly  established  that  it 
is  often  invoked  by  unsuccessful  insurgents  and 
is  practically  recognized  by  the  local  government. 
'The  government  of  the  United  States  does  not 
sanction  the  usage  and  enjoins  upon  its  repre- 
sentatives in  such  countries  the  avoidance  of  all 
pretexts  for  its  e.xercfse.  While  mdisposed  to 
direct  its  representatives  to  deny  temporary  shel- 
ter to  any  person  whose  life  may  be  threatened  by 
mob  violence,  it  deems  it  proper  to  mstruct  them 
that  it  will  not  countenance  them  in  any  attempt 
knowingly  to  harbor  offenders  against  the  laws 
from  the  pursuit  of  the  legitimate  agents  of  jus- 
tice.' " — C.  H.  Stockton,  Outlines  of  international 
law,  pp.  210-211. — See  also  Exterritoriality:  Ap- 
plication to  diplomatic  agents. 

Arrest  of  Mason  and  Slldell.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1861  (November). 

Right  of  asylum  on  merchant  ships. — "Apart 
from  acts  affecting  their  internal  order  and  disci- 
pline and  not  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  port, 
merchant  vessels,  as  a  rule,  enjoy  no  exemption 
from  local  jurisdiction.     It  is,  therefore,  generally 


585 


ASYLUM 


On  Merchant  Ships 


ASYLUM 


laid  down  that  they  cannot  grant  asylum.  Cer- 
tain cases  in  which  opposite  ground  was  taken, 
especially  as  to  passengers  in  transit,  are  here- 
with mentioned  as  matters  of  interest  and  in- 
formation. The  case  of  Sotelo  is  one  of  interest 
and  is  given  by  Moore  as  follows:  'In  1840  the 
French  packet-boat  L'Ocean,  which  made  regular 
voyages  between  Marseilles  and  the  coast  of  Spain 
and  Gibraltar,  received  on  board,  at  her  anchor- 
age at  Valencia,  M.  Sotelo,  a  Spanish  ex-min- 
ister who  was  under  prosecution  for  political 
offences.  The  vessel,  having  put  to  sea  without 
knowledge  of  the  number  and  personality  of  the 
passengers  who  had  embarked,  entered  the  port  of 
Alicante,  where,  during  the  customs  and  police 
inspection,  M.  Sotelo  was  recognized,  seized,  taken 
ashore,  and  imprisoned.  The  captain  of  L'Ocean 
protested  against  what  he  described  as  a  viola- 
tion of  his  flag  and  in  vain  demanded  that  his 
passenger  be  set  at  liberty,  invoking  at  the  same 
time  the  right  of  asylum  and  the  principle  of 
extraterritoriality.  Diplomatic  communications  on 
the  subject  which  were  exchanged  between  the 
governments  of  France  and  Spain  established  it 
in  the  clearest  manner  that  the  conduct  of  the 
authorities  at  Alicante  was  above  reproach;  that 
no  injury  was  done  to  the  flag,  since  the  acts 
in  question  pertained  to  an  ordinary  merchant 
ship  and  to  a  high  measure  of  police  power  ex- 
ecuted inside  the  port;  that  M.  Sotelo,  sur- 
reptitiously embarked  at  Valencia,  a  Spanish  port, 
could  have  been  regularly  seized  and  arrested  on 
L'Ocean  at  another  port  of  the  same  country; 
and,  finally,  that  the  fact  that  she  had  been 
on  the  high  seas  a  certain  time  before  entering 
Alicante  could  not  alter  the  nature  of  the  act 
done  at  the  place  of  departure  and  proved  at 
the  place  of  arrival,  under  the  dominion  of  the 
same  laws  and  of  the  same  territorial  legisla- 
tion.' 

"The  case  of  Gamez  [1885]  was  that  of  a 
political  fugitive  from  Nicaragua  who  voluntarily 
took  passage  at  San  Jose  de  Guatemala  for 
Punta  Arenas,  Costa  Rica,  on  board  the  Pacific 
mail  steamship  Honduras,  knowing  that  the  vessel 
would  enter  en  route  the  port  of  San  Juan 
del  Sur,  Nicaragua.  Upon  learning  the  fact  of 
his  being  on  board  this  steamer,  the  government 
of  Nicaragua  ordered  the  commandant  of  the  port 
of  San  Juan  del  Sur,  Nicaragua,  to  arrest  Gamez 
upon  the'  arrival  of  the  Honduras.  When  the 
Honduras  reached  San  Juan  the  authorities  of 
that  port  requested  the  captain  of  the  steamer 
to  deliver  up  Mr.  Gamez,  which  he  declined  to 
do,  and  set  sail  without  proper  clearance  papers. 
Of  this  case  Mr.  Bayard,  the  secretary  of  state, 
says:  'It  is  clear  that  Mr.  Gamez  voluntarily 
entered  the  jurisdiction  of  a  country  whose  laws 
he  had  violated.'  Under  the.  circumstances,  it 
was  plainly  the  duty  of  the  captain  of  the  Hon- 
duras to  deliver  him  up  to  the  local  authorities 
upon  their  request.  It  may  be  safely  affirmed 
that  when  a  merchant  vessel  of  any  country 
visits  the  ports  of  another  for  the  purposes  of 
trade  it  owes  temporary  allegiance  and  is  amen- 
able to  the  jurisdiction  of  that  country  and  is 
subject  to  the  laws  which  govern  the  port  it 
visits  so  long  as  it  remains,  unless  it  is  otherwise 
provided  by  treaty.  Any  exemption  or  immunity 
from  local  jurisdiction  must  be  derived  from  the 
consent  of  that  country.  No  such  exemption  is 
made  in  the  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation 
concluded  between  this  country  and  Nicaragua, 
on  the  2ist  day  of  June,  1867.'  In  the  Bar- 
rundia  case  [1800]  the  facts  were  as  follows: 
General  Barrundia,  an  ex-minister  of  war  of 
Guatemala,   had   been   attempting   for  some   time 


to  incite  an  insurrection  in  Guatemala  from  his 
temporary  residence  within  the  Mexican  border, 
Guatemala  being  at  war  with  Salvador  at  the 
time.  When,  upon  complaint  of  Guatemala,  the 
government  of  Mexico  required  Barrundia  to 
leave  the  borders  of  Guatemala,  he  proceeded  with 
two  of  his  followers  to  Acapulco,  a  Mexican 
port,  and  embarked  on  board  an  American  mail- 
steamer  ostensibly  for  Panama,  but  with  reasonable 
certainty  for  Salvador,  to  join  the  Salvadoran 
forces  against  Guatemala.  Upon  reaching  a 
Guatemalan  port,  Champerico,  his  arrest  was  de- 
termined upon  by  the  Guatemalan  authorities,  but 
the  master  of  the  mail-steamer  declined  to  give 
him  up  without  the  written  authority  of  the 
American  minister  resident  in  Guatemala  City. 
Upon  arrival  at  San  Jose,  the  second  Guatemalan 
port  of  call,  the  letter  of  the  minister  was 
brought  on  board  by  the  arresting  force,  which 
advised  the  master  to  give  Barrundia  up  to  the 
Guatemalan  officials,  stating  that  the  government 
had  promised  that  his  life  would  be  spared.  The 
arrest  was  then  permitted,  but  Barrundia,  resist- 
ing arrest  with  firearms,  was  killed  on  board  the 
steamer  by  the  officials  attempting  arrest.  The 
American  minister  was  removed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  for  authorizing  the 
arrest,  and  the  senior  naval  officer  of  the  United 
States  in  port,  commanding  the  U.S.S.  Ranger, 
was  relieved  from  his  command  for  not  offering 
an  unsolicited  asylum  to  Barrundia  on  board  of  his 
vessel.  The  Guatemalan  Government  desired  the 
arrest  of  Barrundia  both  for  common  crimes  and  as 
an  enemy  of  the  country  within  its  borders.  The 
arrest  was  desired  as  a  matter  of  self-preserva- 
tion, as  Barrundia  was  on  his  way  to  wage  war 
from  the  southern  border,  as  he  already  had 
attempted  to  do  upon  the  northern  border.  It 
can  hardly  be  claimed  that  Barrundia  possessed 
immunity  from  arrest  because  he  was  on  board 
of  a  merchant  vessel  carrying  the  American  flag, 
as  there  is  no  foundation  in  international  law  for 
this  position.  As  to  offering  an  unsolicited  asylum 
on  board  the  Ranger,  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
position  of  both  the  State  and  Navy  Departments 
is  in  opposition  to  such  voluntary  action.  The 
reason  given  for  claiming  immunity  from  arrest 
under  the  circumstances  is  that  an  exceptional  rule 
should  be  adopted  or  usage  acknowledged  to 
exist  in  Spanish-American  states  which  is  in  viola- 
tion of  their  rights  as  sovereign  states.  Secre- 
tary Grcsham's  letter  of  December  30,  1803,  must 
be  conceded  to  give  the  final  and  authoritative 
statement  of  our  policy  in  the  matter.  In  the 
paragraph  that  is  applicable  to  the  Barrundia 
case  he  states  as  follows:  'The  so-called  doc- 
trine of  asylum  having  no  recognized  application 
to  merchant  vessels  in  port,  it  follows  that  a 
ship-master  can  found  no  exercise  of  his  discre- 
tion on  the  character  of  the  offence  charged. 
There  can  be  no  analogy  to  proceedings  in  ex- 
tradition when  he  permits  a  passenger  to  be  ar- 
rested by  the  arm  of  the  law.  He  is  not  com- 
petent to  determine  whether  the  offence  is  one 
justifying  surrender  or  whether  the  evidence  in 
the  case  is  sufficient  to  warrant  arrest  and  commit- 
ment for  trial  or  to  impose  conditions  upon  the 
arrest.  His  function  is  passive  merely,  being 
confined  to  permitting  the  regular  agents  of  the 
law,  on  exhibition  of  lawful  warrant,  to  make 
the  arrest.  The  diplomatic  and  consular  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  in  the  country 
making  the  demand  are  as  incompetent  to  order 
surrender  by  way  of  9«a.«'-extradition  as  the  ship- 
master is  to  actively  deliver  the  accused.  This 
was  established  in  the  celebrated  Barrundia  case 
by  the  disavowal  and  rebuke  of  Minister  Mizner's 


586 


ASYUT  DAM 


ATHAPASCAN  FAMILY 


action  in  giving  lo  tlie  Guatemalan  autliorities 
an  order  for  the  surrender  of  the  accused.  If 
it  were  generally  understood  that  the  masters  of 
American  merchantmen  are  to  permit  the  orderly 
operations  of  the  law  in  ports  of  call,  as  re- 
gards persons  on  board  accused  of  crime  com- 
mitted in  the  country  to  which  the  port  per- 
tains it  is  probable,  on  the  one  hand,  that  oc- 
casions of  arrest  would  be  less  often  invited  by 
the  act  of  the  accused  in  taking  passage  with  a 
view  to  securing  supposed  asylum  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  regular  resort  to  justice 
would  replace  the  reckless  and  offensive  resort  to 
arbitrary  force  against  an  unarmed  ship  which, 
when'threatened  or  committed,  has  in  more  than 
one  instance  constrained  urgent  remonstrance  on 
the  part  of  this  government.'  " — C.  H.  Stockton, 
Outlines  of  international  law,  pp.  169-173. — See  also 
Hague  conference:  1007. 

ASYUT  (Assiut)  DAM.  See  Egypt:  i8g8- 
1901. 

ATABEGS,  Attabegs,  or  Attabecks.— "From 
the  decline  of  the  dynasty  of  Seljook  to  the  con- 
quest of  Persia  by  Hulakoo  Khan,  the  son  of 
Chenghis,  a  period  of  more  than  a  century,  that 
country  was  distracted  by  the  contests  of  petty 
princes,  or  governors,  called  Attabegs,  who,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  v/eakness  of  the  last  Sel- 
jookian  monarchs,  and  of  the  distractions  which 
followed  their  final  extinction,  established  their 
authority  over  some  of  the  finest  provinces  of 
the  Empire.  Many  of  these  petty  dynasties 
acquired  such  a  local  fame  as,  to  this  day,  gives 
an  importance  to  their  memory  with  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  countries  over  which  they  ruled 

The  word  Attabeg  is  Turkish:  it  is  a  compound 
word  of  'atta,'  master,  or  tutor,  and  'beg,'  lord; 
and  signifies  a  governor,  or  tutor,  of  a  lord  or 
prince." — J.  Malcolm,  History  of  Persia,  v.  i,  cli.  9. 
— "It  is  true  that  the  Atabeks  appear  but  a  short 
space  as  actors  on  the  stage  of  Eastern  history; 
but  these  'tutors  of  princes'  occupy  a  position 
neither  insignificant  nor  unimportant  in  the  course 
of  events  which  occurred  in  Syria  and  Persia 
at  the  time  they  flourished." — W.  H.  Morley, 
Preface  to  Mirkhond's  history  of  the  Atabeks. — 
See  also  Saladin",  Empire  of. 

ATACAMA:  Taken  from  Bolivia  by  Peru, 
Dispute  over.     See  Chile:   1804-1900. 

ATAHUALPA,  son  of  the  Peruvian  sovereign, 
Huayna  Capac,  at  whose  death  (1527)  he  be- 
came ruler  of  Quito  while  his  brother,  Huascar, 
succeeded  his  father.  War  broke  out  between 
the  two  brothers  and  Atahualpa,  'the  last  of  the 
Incas,'  succeeded  in  capturing  his  brother  and 
threw  him  into  prison  Pizarro  tri.  J  to  force  the 
Inca  to  accept  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  give 
up  his  kingdom  to  Spanish  rule  and  pay  tribute 
to  Charles  V.  Atahualpa  refused  Pizarro's  con- 
ditions, was  seized  and  was  condemned  to  death 
for  plotting  against  the  Spaniards.  He.  however, 
accepted  the  Christian  faith  and  received  bap- 
tism. For  this  his  sentence  was  commuted  from 
death  at  the  stake  to  strangulation. — See  also 
Peru:   15.^1-1533. 

ATAKPAME,  a  town  in  southern  Togoland 
on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  Africa,  captured  by  the 
British  in  1914.  See  World  War:  1914:  VI.  Af- 
rica: a. 
ATAMAN,  or  Hetman  (title).  See  Cossacks, 
ATAULF,  AtawuU,  or  Ataulphus  (d.  415), 
king  of  the  West  Goths.  Evacuated  Italy  412; 
conquered  Aquitaine;  went  to  Spain  to  subdue  the 
Vandals  and  Suevi.  See  Barbarian  invasions:  408- 
423- 

ATAULPHUS.  See  Ataulf,  or  Atawulf  or 
Ataulphus  (d.  415). 


ATBARA,  a  river  in  the  Sudan.  See  StniAN: 
1014. 

Battle  of  (1808).     See  Egypt:  1897-1898. 

ATCHIN.     See  Achin. 

ATCHINSON,  David  Rice  (1807-1886),  Amer- 
ican politician.  Strong  agitator  for  the  passage  of 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  act,  which  would  involve  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1853-1854. 

ATELIERS  NATIONAUX,  Paris  (1848). 
See  France:  184S;  and  1848  (April-December). 

ATH,  a  town  southwest  of  Brussels  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hainaut,  Belgium. 

1597. — Captured  by  French.  See  France:  169s- 
1696. 

1706. — Taken  by  Marlborough.  See  Nether- 
lands:  1706-1707. 

ATHABASCA,  a  region  of  the  Canadian 
Northwest  (covering  251,300  square  miles),  for- 
nierly  a  distinct  political  division,  but  in  1905 
divided  between  Alberta  and  the  new  province  of 
Saskatchewan;  in  1912  the  east  part  was  included 
in  Manitoba.  The  western  territory,  now  in 
Alberta,  is  highly  fertile;  wheat,  potatoes,  and 
the  hardier  cereals  are  raised  in  abundance. 
Athabasca  also  gives  name  to  a  river  and  a  lake. 
— See  also  Canada:   1905. 

ATHALARIC  (516-534),  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths. 

ATHALAYAS.  See  Sardinia,  The  Island: 
Name  and  early  historv. 

ATHALIAH:  Worship  of  Baal.  See  Jerusa- 
lem:   B.C.   1400-700. 

ATHANAGILD  (d.  547),  king  of  the  Visi- 
goths in  Spain. 

ATHANARIC  (d.  381),  ruler  of  the  Visigoths, 
with  the  title   of  jud  e. 
ATHANASIAN     CREED.       See     Ahianism; 

NiC.EA. 

AT,HANASIUS,  Saint  (293-373),  bishop  of 
Alexandria.  Chief  opponent  of  Arianism  at  the 
Council  of  Nicsa  (Nice)  in  325.  See  Arianism; 
Monasticism:   Primitive  forms;   Nic.ea. 

ATHAPASCAN  FAMILY:  Chippewyans.— 
Tinneh. — Sarcees. — "This  name  [Athapascans  or 
Athabascans]  has  been  applied  to  a  class  of  tribes 
who  are  situated  north  of  the  great  Churchill 
river,  and  north  of  the  source  of  the  fork  of  the 
Saskatchawine,  extending  westward  till  within 
about  150  miles  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  .  .  .  The 
name  is  derived,  arbitrarily,  from  Lake  Athabasca, 
which  is  now  more  generally  called  the  Lake  of  the 
Hills.  Surrounding  this  lake  extends  the  tribe  of 
the  Chippewyans,  a  people  so-called  by  the  Kenis- 
tenos  and  Chippewas,  because  they  were  found  to 
be  clothed,  in  some  primary  encounter,  in  the 
scanty  garb  of  the  fisher's  skin.  ...  We  are  in- 
formed by  Mackenzie  that  the  territory  occupied 
by  the  Chippewyans  extends  between  the  parallels 
of  60°  and  65°  north  and  longitudes  from  100°  to 
no  west." — H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  Information  re- 
specting the  Indian  tribes,  pt.  $,  p.  172. — "The 
Tinneh  may  be  divided  into  four  great  families  of 
nations;  namely,  the  Chippewyans,  or  Athabascas, 
living  between  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains; the  Tacullies,  or  Carriers,  of  New  (Taledonia 
or  North-western  British  America;  the  Kutchins, 
occupying  both  banks  of  the  Upper  Yukon  and  its 
tributaries,  from  near  its  mouth  to  the  Mackenzie 
River,  and  the  Kenai,  inhabiting  the  interior  from 
the  lower  Yukon  to  Copper  River." — H.  H.  Ban- 
croft, Native  races  of  the  Pacific  states,  ch.  2. — 
"The  Indian  tribes  of  Alaska  and  the  adjacent  re- 
gion may  be  divided  into  two  groups  .  .  .  :  i.  Tin- 
neh— Chippewyans  of  authors.  .  .  .  Father  Petitot 
discusses   the   terms   Athabaskans,   Chippewayans, 


587 


ATHARVAVEDA 


ATHEISM 


Montagnais,  and  Tinneh  as  applied  to  this  group 
of  Indians.  .  .  .  This  great  family  includes  a  large 
number  of  American  tribes  extending  from  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  south  to  the  borders 
of  Mexico.  The  Apaches  and  Navajos  belong  to  it, 
and  the  family  seems  to  intersect  the  continent  of 
North  America  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direc- 
tion, principally  along  the  flanks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  .  .  .  The  designation  [Tinneh]  pro- 
posed by  Messrs.  Ross  and  Gibbs  has  been  accepted 
by  most  modern  ethnologists.  ...  2.  T'Unkets," 
which  family  includes  the  Yakutats  and  other 
groups.— W.  H.  Dall,  Tribes  of  the  extreme  North- 
west (Contributions  to  A'.  .4m.  Ethnology,  v.  i). — 
"Wherever  found,  the  members  of  this  group  pre- 
sent a  certain  family  resemblance.  In  appearance 
they  are  tall  and  strong,  the  forehead  low  with 
prominent  superciliary  ridges,  the  eyes  slightly  ob- 
lique, the  nose  prominent  but  wide  toward  the 
base,  the  mouth  large,  the  hands  and  feet  small. 
Their  strength  and  endurance  are  often  phenome- 
nal, but  in  the  North,  at  least,  their  longevity  is 
slight,  few  living  beyond  fifty.  Intellectually  they 
rank  below  most  of  their  neighbors,  and  nowhere 
do  they  appear  as  fosterers  of  the  germs  of  civiliza- 
tion. Where,  as  among  the  Navajos,  we  find  them 
having  some  repute  for  the  mechanical  arts,  it 
turns  out  that  this  is  owing  to  havini;  captured  and 
adopted  the  members  of  m.ore  gifted  tribes.  .  .  . 
Agriculture  was  not  practised  either  in  the  north  or 
south,  the  only  exception  being  the  Navajos,  and 
with  them  the  inspiration  came  from  other  stocks. 
.  .  .  The  most  cultured  of  their  bands  were  the 
Navajos,  whose  name  is  said  to  signify  'large  corn- 
fields,' from  their  extensive  agriculture.  When  the 
Spaniards  first  met  them  in  1541  they  were  tillers 
of  the  soil,  erected  large  granaries  for  their  crops, 
irrigated  their  fields  by  artificial  water  courses  or 
acequias,  and  Hved  in  substantial  dwellings,  partly 
underground;  but  they  had  not  then  learned  the  art 
of  weaving  the  celebrated  'Navajo  blankets,'  that 
being  a  later  acquisition  of  their  artisans." — D.  G. 
Brinton,  American  race,  pp.  60-72. — See  also 
Apache  croup;  Blackfeet;  Indians,  American: 
Cultural  areas  in  North  America:  North  Pacific 
coast  area;  also  Southwest  area;  and  Linguistic 
characteristics. 

ATHARVAVEDA.      See    Mythology:    India: 
Unparalleled  length  of  life. 

ATHEISM,  a  mode  of  thought  resting  on  total 
disbelief  in  the  existence  of  a  God.  It  should 
not  be  confounded  with  agnosticism  (q.  v.),  which 
is  a  profession  of  ignorance  on  the  subject  of  a 
possible  deity,  nor  with  deism,  which  admits  a 
God  of  nature,  unrevealed  except  in  his  works. 
Unlike  the  different  systems  of  pantheism,  poly- 
theism and  non-Christian  theism,  as  well  as  the 
several  distinct  religions  based  on  a  belief  in 
some  form  of  immediate  revelation,  atheism  con- 
tains no  body  of  doctrine,  and  is  consistent  with 
many  widely  differing  views  of  the  universe.  In 
the  case  of  many  modern  scientists  and  philoso- 
phers, it  consists  simply  in  the  tacit  omission 
of  God  from  their  conception  of  the  universe 
and  in  the  formation  of  hypotheses  to  account  for 
the  existence  and  development  of  the  cosmos  with- 
out any  interposition  cA  deity.  Atheism  has 
been  improperly  used  as  a  term  of  reproach 
against  dissenters  from  prevailing  religious  doc- 
trine. Thus,  Socrates  was  condemned  to  death 
as  an  atheist,  although  the  exponent  of  a  pure 
belief  in  God.  A  like  reproach  was  brought  by 
the  polytheistic  world  against  the  early  Chris- 
tians. Spinoza,  whose  philosophy  posited  God  as 
the  one  reality,  was  nevertheless  branded  as  an 
atheist,  as  in  modem  times  have  been  Thomas 
Paine,   the   deist,   and   Colonel   Robert   G.   Inger- 


soll,  the  eloquent  champion  of  agnosticism.     The 
most  notable  atheists  of  antiquity  were  Deraocritus 
and  Leucippus  in  Greece  and  Lucretius  in  Rome. 
Among  its  strongest  partisans  in  later  times  may 
be     cited     d'Holbach     and     Feuerbach     in     the 
eighteenth    and    Charles    Bradlaugh    in    the    nine- 
teenth  century.     At    the    present   time,   the   more 
radical  wing  of  the  Freethought  and  various  anti- 
clerical movements  which  are  organized  and  active 
in  various  countries  denominates  itself  as  atheistic. 
"In    1674    Hume,    at    a    dinner    in    Paris,    hap- 
pened to  say  that  he  had  never  chanced  to  meet 
an    atheist.      'You    have    been    somewhat    unfor- 
tunate,' said  his  host;  'but  at  the  present  moment 
you  are  sitting  at  table  with  seventeen  of  them.' 
Indeed,    it    is    altogether    probable    that    in    no 
other   age  has   the   great  mass   of   intelligent   per- 
sons  so   uniformly   endeavored   to   fulfill   the   law 
of    atheistic    philosophy    and    rid    themselves    of 
'the   fear   of   invisible    powers.'     Horace   Walpole, 
who    would    scarcely    be    classed    among    radical 
Christians,  writes  with   fine  sarcasm   from   France 
in   1765,  'They  think   me   quite  profane   for  hav- 
ing   any   belief   left.'     Yet   it   is   possible   that    as 
in  so  many  aspects  of  French  life  a  reaction  had 
set  in  by  1780,  for  the  more  atheistic  philosophy 
of  Diderot  had  quite  given  way  to  the  teachings 
of   Rousseau,   in    which   the   idea    of    God   played 
no    small    logical    part.      The    philosophical    opin- 
ions contained   in   the   Encyclopedia   itself   are   by 
no   means   conservative,   as   its   history   may   very 
well  suggest,  but   it  gave  its  name   to   the  group 
of  scholars  and  philosophers  most  intimately  con- 
cerned   in    its    production,    and    the    philosophical 
and    political    opinions   expressed    in    other    works 
of  these  Encyclopedists  were  radical  in  the  extreme. 
In   religion   they  did  not  stop  with   the  deism   of 
\'o;taire,   plead   with   them   though   he   might,  but 
they   attacked   not   only   Christianity,   but   immor- 
tality and  God  as  well.     If,  according  to  Voltaire, 
God    wound    up    the    universe    like    a    clock,    and 
then  from  unknown  space  watched  it  go,  accord- 
ing  to    Diderot,    D'Alembert,   Helvetius,    Holbach, 
and    their    confreres    there    never    was    any    God, 
and    the    universe    wound    up    itself.      In    politics 
they    were    quite    as    extreme       .^s    for    morality, 
Diderot    will   have    none    of    such    conventions   as 
marriage,    and    champions    the    most    extreme    of 
free-love    doctrines.      He    finds    in    the    'natural,' 
the  uncivilized  man   the  ideal  being,  and  believes 
thit    he   continues   to    live    in    every    person.     To 
give   this  'natural   man'   free  scope   was   the   ideal 
of    the    Encyclopedist    school.      Government    was 
'a  mere  handful  of  knaves'  who  impose  their  yoke 
upon   men.     'We  see.'  they  said,   'on   the  face  of 
the   globe    only    incapable,   unjust   sovereigns,   en- 
ervated   by    luxury,    corrupted    by    flattery,    de- 
praved   through    unpunished   license,   and    without 
talent,   morals,   or   good   qualities.'     And   all    this 
philosophical  madness  was  set   forth  with  such  a 
wealth    of    learning    and    such    a    delightful    self- 
assurance    that    the    philosophers    of    France    and 
the    brilliant    talkers    of    the    salons    were    soon 
atheists    and    anarchists    of   the    most    fashionable 
sort.     When    these   enthusiasts    went    further   and 
preached  doctrines  of  natural  rights  to  the  masses, 
results   could    not    fail    to    be    revolutionary.      In 
truth  the  theorists  of  the  eighteenth  century  were 
summoning  a  dangerous  genius  when  they  under- 
took   to    inspire     restless,    ignorant^    ill-regulated 
minds   with   dreams   of  liberty.     Voltaire  put  the 
matter    to    the    Encyclopedists    distinctly:      'Phi- 
losophize between  yourselves  as  much  as  you  please. 
I   fancy    I    hear    dilettanti    giving    for    their    own 
pleasure    a    refined    music ;    but    take    good    care 
not  to  perform   this  concert   before   the  ignorant, 
the   brutal,   the   vulgar;    they    might    break   youi 


588 


ATHEISM 


ATHENS 


instruments  over  your  heads. '  It  was  this  same 
sense  of  the  danger  attending  the  destructive  philos- 
ophy of  the  day  that  led  to  Voltaire's  other  re- 
mark: 'Atheism  and  fanaticism  are  two  mon- 
sters which  may  tear  society  to  pieces. '  But 
neither  the  Encyclopedists  nor  these  philanthropic 
enemies  of  the  privileges  upon  which  they  de- 
pended for  their  incomes  saw  the  wisdom  of  the 
observation,  and  the  ferment  was  ever  the 
greater." — S.  Mathews,  French  revolution,  pp.  48, 
62-63,  85-86. — "Men  who  cherished  the  opin- 
ions of  Voltaire  and  the  Encyclopedists  confused 
their  contempt  of  Catholicism  with  love  of  coun- 
try. The  [French  Revolutionary]  Convention 
[elected  1792]  gave  countenance  to  this  feeling 
by  adopting  a  new  calendar  and  by  substituting 
for  the  Christian  era  a  new  republican  era.  In 
the  same  anti-Christian  spirit  they  welcomed 
deputations  which  offered  at  the  bar  of  the  Con- 
vention the  spoils  of  parish  churches.  .  .  .  The 
radicals  of  the  Commune  concluded  that  they  were 
in  the  presence  of  a  great  popular  movement  which 
would  lift  to  supreme  influence  those  who  man- 
aged to  appear  as  its  leaders.  They  forced 
Gobel,  metropolitan  bishop  of  Paris,  and  his  vicars, 
to  proceed  to  the  Convention  and  renounce  their 
offices.  Three  days  later,  on  November  10,  they 
organized  a  festival  of  liberty  in  the  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  transformed  for  the  occasion  into 
a  'Temple  of  Reason.'  In  the  municipal  council 
they  ventured  still  further,  voting  to  close  all 
churches  in  Paris  and  to  place  the  priests  under 
surveillance.  The  Convention  was  at  first  in- 
timidated by  the  Parisian  phase  of  the  movement, 
and  many  of  the  ecclesiastics  among  its  members 
renounced  their  functions  or  abjured  their  faith. 
A  few,  led  by  Bishop  Gregoire,  stood  firm.  The 
most  influential  men  in  the  Convention  and  in 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  realized  that  such 
a  movement  would  compromise  the  cause  of  the 
Republic  abroad,  foment  civil  strife  at  home,  and 
jeopardize  the  national  defense.  Robespierre  be- 
came the  spokesman  of  this  feeling  and  denounced 
the  leaders  of  the  movement  as  ill-disguised  emis- 
saries of  the  invader.  The  Convention  solemnly 
reaffirmed  the  liberty  of  worship,  but  threw  so 
many  qualifications  about  the  act  that  in  most 
cases  the  decree  remained  a  dead  letter  Notre 
Dame  was  still  called  the  Temple  of  Reason,  and 
the  movement  spread  from  Paris  to  other  large 
towns,  sometimes  supported  by  the  'deputies  on 
mission,'  occasionally  restrained  by  them.  .  .  .  Be- 
fore the  anti-Christian  movement  ran  its  course  it 
led    to    violent    factional    struggles    within     the 


Jacobin  party  and  was  responsible  for  a  long 
list  of  proscriptions.  The  faction  which  had  or- 
ganized the  festival  of  liberty  and  the  Worship 
of  Reason  was  called  Ilebertist  because  its  lead- 
ing member  was  Hebert,  assistant  city  solicitor  and 
editor  of  the  Pere  Duchesne." — H.  E.  Bourne,  Rev- 
olutionary period  in  Europe,  pp.  210-212. — See 
also  Deism  ;  TimsM. 
ATHEL,  ATHELING,  ATHELBONDE.   See 

ATHELBY.    See  Adel,  Adeling;  ^ihel. 

ATHELNEY,  a  small  district  in  the  county  of 
Somerset,  England,  at  one  time  an  island,  famous 
as  the  retreat  of  Alfred  the  Great  in  878-879, 
where  he  planned  the  overthrow  of  the  Danes. 

ATHELSTANE,  or  Aethelstan  (895-940), 
king  of  the  West  Saxons.  Defeated  the  Danes  and 
Celts  at  Brunanburgh  937.  By  marriages,  brought 
England  into  close  touch  with  the  continent.  See 
England:   03S. 

ATHENA,  also  called  by  the  Greeks  Pallas 
Athene,  and  by  the  Romans  Minerva,  the  god- 
dess of  knowledge,  arts,  sciences  and  righteous 
wars.  She,  together  with  Zeus  and  Apollo  con- 
stituted a  triad,  regarded  as  the  embodiment  of 
all  divine  power.  To  her  as  the  patron  deity 
of  Athens,  the  Acropolis  was  dedicated  and  the 
Parthenon  erected.  (See  also  Athens:  B.C.  461- 
431:  General  aspect  of  Periclean  Athens.)  Many 
other  temples  were  built  in  her  honor,  notably 
at  /Egine,  Assus,  and  Syracuse.  (See  also 
Temples:  Stage  of  culture  represented  by  temple 
architecture.)  Among  the  most  famous  of  the 
ancient  representations  of  her  were  the  colossal 
bronze  statue  on  the  Acropolis,  known  as  Athena 
the  Defender,  and  the  ivory  and  gold  statue  In 
the   Parthenon. 

ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION.  See  Athens: 
B.C.  650-594- 

ATHENIAN  CONTINENTAL  LEAGUE, 
Fall  of.    See  Athens:  B.  C.  447. 

ATHENIAN  EMPIRE:  Formed  after  revolts 
of  Allies.  See  Athens:  B.C.  466-461;  and  Eu- 
rope: .Ancient:  Greek  civilization:  Political  develop- 
ment. 

ATHENIAN  FAMILY  FESTIVAL.  See 
Apaturia. 

ATHENRY,  Battle  of.— The  most  desperate 
battle  fought  by  the  Irish  in  resisting  the  Eng- 
lish conquest  of  Ireland.  They  were  terribly 
slaughtered  and  the  chivalry  of  Connaught  was 
crushed.  The  battle  occurred  Aug.  10,  13 16. — 
M.  Haverty,  History  of  Ireland,  p.  282.— See  also 
Ireland:    1314-1318. 


ATHENS 


B.  C.  1000-700. — Attica  in  the  Mycenaean  Age. 
— Unification  of  Attica  with  Athens  the  metrop- 
olis.— "When  recorded  history  begins,  the  story 
of  Athens  is  the  story  of  Attica,  the  inhabitants 
of  Attica  are  Athenians.  But  Attica,  like  its 
neighbour  Boeotia  and  other  countries  of  Greece, 
was  once  occupied  by  a  number  of  independent 
states"  (J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  p.  163), 
"each  having  its  own  court-house  .  .  .  and  mag- 
istrates .  .  .  and  uniting  only  under  a  central  gov- 
ernment in  times  of  some  pressing  national  danger. 
At  times  there  was  even  war  between  these  com- 
munes, as  between  the  Eleusinians  under  Eumolpus 
and  the  Athenians  under  Erectheus;  and,  since 
some  of  the  small  independent  states  of  early 
Greece  subdued  one  another,  a  part  of  the  unity 
of  Attica  may  have  been  the  result  of  conquest. 
But  the  main  bond  of  union  seems  to  have  been 


religion." — A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Handbook  of  Greek 
constitutional  history,  p.  125. — See  also  Attica. 
— "Of  all  the  lordships  between  Mount  Cithaeron 
and  Cape  Sunium  the  two  most  important  were 
those  of  Eleusis  and  Athens,  severed  from  one 
another  by  the  hill-chain  of  Aegaleos.  It  was 
upon  Athens,  the  stronghold  in  the  midst  of  the 
Cephisian  plain,  five  miles  from  the  sea,  that 
'  destiny  devolved  the  task  of  working  out  the 
unity  of  Attica.  .  .  .  The  first  Greeks  who  won 
the  Pelasgic  acropolis  were  probably  the  Cecropes, 
and,  though  their  name  was  forgotten  as  the  name 
of  an  independent  people,  it  survived  in  another 
form.  For  the  later  Athenians  were  always  ready 
to  describe  themselves  as  the  sons  of  Cecrops. 
This  Cecrops  was  numbered  among  the  imaginary 
pre-historic  kings  of  Athens;  he  was  nothing 
more  than  the  fabulous  ancestor  of  the  Cecropes. 


589 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  753-650 


Aristocracy 
Timocracy 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  650-594 


But  the  time  came  when  other  Greek  dwellers 
in  Attica  won  the  upper  hand  over  the  Cecropes, 
and  brought  with  them  the  worship  of  Athena, 
It  was  a  momentous  day  in  the  history  of  the 
land  when  the  goddess,  whose  cult  was  already 
established  in  many  other  Attic  places,  took  pos- 
session of  the  hill  which  was  to  be  pre-eminently, 
and  for  all  time,  associated  with  her  name.  .  .  . 
In  the  course  of  time  the  feeling  of  unity  in 
Attica  became  so  strong  that  all  the  smaller 
lordships,  which  formed  parts  of  the  large  state, 
but  still  retained  their  separate  political  organisa- 
tions, could  be  induced  to  surrender  their  home 
governments  and  merge  themselves  in  a  single 
community  with  a  government  centralised  in  the 
city  of  the  Cephisian  plain.  .  .  .  From  this  time 
forward  she  is  no  longer  merely  the  supreme 
city  of  Attica.  She  is  neither  the  head  of  a  league 
of  partly  independent  states,  nor  is  she  a  despotic 
mistress  of  subject-communities.  .  .  .  She  is  the 
central  city  of  an  united  state;  and  to  the  people 
of  every  village  in  Attica  belong  the  same  political 
rights  as  to  the  people  of  Athens  herself.  The 
man  of  Marathon  or  the  man  of  Thoricus  is  no 
longer  an  Attic,  he  is  an  Athenian.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  the  synoecism  was  the  work 
of  one  of  the  kings  [legend  attributed  it  to 
Theseus].  It  was  undoubtedly  the  work  of  one 
man;  but  it  is  possible  that  it  belongs  to  the 
period  immediately  succeeding  the  abolition  of 
the  royal  power." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece, 
163-166. — See  also  Dorians  .^nd  Ionians;  Greece: 
Migrations    of    Hellenic    tribes. 

B.  C.  753-650. — Transition  from  monarchy  to 
aristocracy. — Magistrates  and  assembly. — "The 
transition  from  monarchy  to  aristocracy  was  grad- 
ual; and  though  no  ancient  writer  informs  us 
we  may  be  sure  that  it  was  brought  about  by 
the  council  of  nobles,  who  alone  benefited  by 
the  change.  [See  also  Aristocracy.]  It  must 
therefore  have  been  this  body  which,  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  reduced  the  tenure 
of  the  royal  office  to  a  single  decade.  Although 
the  incumbent  was  still  termed  king,  the  monarchy 
in  fact  ceased,  the  supreme  power  passing  to  the 
council.  At  this  point  accordingly  dates  the  be- 
ginning of  the  aristocracy  (753).  As  the  decen- 
nial kings  proved  incapable  of  efficient  military 
leadership,  the  office  of  'polemarch' — war  archon 
— was  instituted,  probably  to  lead  the  army  in 
the  conflict  with  Eleusis.  No  long  time  after- 
ward the  Medontidae  fa  royal  family]  were 
deposed,  and  the  royal  office  thrown  open  to  all 
the  nobles.  Then,  about  700,  the  office  of  archon 
was  instituted  with  the  function  of  caring  for 
widows  and  orphans  and  their  estates.  As  the 
decennial  magistrates  proved  too  strong  and  in- 
dependent to  serve  the  interests  of  the  ruling 
power,  all  offices  were  made  annual  in  683-2  ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  archon  supelseded  the  king 
as  head  of  the  state.  In  this  way  the  govern- 
ment became  in  form  as  well  as  in  fact  a  re- 
public. In  this  year  or  shortly  afterward  were 
instituted  the  six  Ihesmothetac,  'that  they  might 
record  the  customary  laws  and  keep  them  for 
the  trial  of  offenders.'  (.Arist.  Const.  Ath.  .?.)  In 
the  time  of  Solon  the  archon,  king,  polemarch  and 
fhesmothetae  were  brought  together  under  the* 
name  of  archons.  [See  Archon.]  The  aris- 
tocracy was  now  at  the  summit  of  its  power. 
The  assembly  of  citizens,  which  had  never  been 
really  important,  fell  into  practical  desuetude.  The 
elective  power  resided  in  the  Council,  who  'called 
up  men  and  on  its  own  judgment  assigned  them 
according  to  their  qualifications  to  the  several 
offices  for  the  year.'  (Arist.  Const.  .\th.  8.)  It 
supervised  their  administration,  and  watched   rig- 


orously over  the  lives  of  the  citiEens,  with  power 
to  punish  for  immoral  as  well  as  for  lawless  con- 
duct. The  members  of  this  body  were  pow- 
erful lords,  recruited  annually  from  those  who 
had  worthily  filled  the  nine  magistracies  des- 
cribed above." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Hellenic  history, 
ch.  6. 

B.  C.  700-565. — Beginnings  of  Athenian  ex- 
pansion.— Anne.xation  of  Eleusis  (700)  and  the 
conquest  of  Salamis  (570-565). — One  important 
achievement  of  the  aristocracy  was  the  conquest 
of  the  little  Eleusinian  kingdom,  bound  in  by 
Athens  on  one  side  and  Megara  on  the  other 
(700  B.C.)  Before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury Megara  hjd  developed  into  a  formidable 
rival  to  Athens.  .'Mmost  equidistant  between  these 
two  states  lay  an  island,  Salamis,  whose  pos- 
session must  decide  the  future  history  of  both 
states.  Therefore,  "The  Athenians  sought  to 
occupy  Salamis,  but  all  their  efforts  to  gain  a 
permanent  footing  failed,  and  they  abandoned  the 
attempt  in  despair.  Years  passed  away.  At  length 
Solon  saw  that  the  favourable  hour  had  come. 
.  .  .  An  intimate  friend  of  Solon  took  part  in 
the  enterprise, — Pisistratus,  son  of  Hippocrates, 
whose  home  and  estates  were  near  Brauron.  .  .  . 
He  helped  the  expedition  to  a  successful  issue. 
Not  only  was  the  disputed  island  wrested  from 
Megara,  but  he  captured  the  port  of  Nisaea  over 
against  the  island.  .  .  .  But  Salamis  now  became 
permanently  annexed  to  Attica.  The  island  was 
afterwards  divided  in  lots  among  Athenian  citi- 
zens, who  were  called  cleriichs  or  'lot-holders.' 
Salamis,  unlike  Eleusis,  was  not  incorporated  in 
.■\ttica,  though  it  was  nearer  Athens.  .  .  .  The 
conquest  of  Salamis  was  a  decisive  event  for 
Athens.  Her  territory  was  now  rounded  off ;  she 
had  complete  command  of  the  landlocked  Eleu- 
.inian  bay ;  it  was  she  who  now  threatened  Meg- 
ara."— J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  100-102. 
— See  also  Megara. 

B.  C.  650-594. — Timocracy  of  the  heavy  infan- 
try.— Constitution. — Threatened  by  foreign  con- 
quest the  ."Mhenian  nobles  found  it  necessary  to 
adopt  the  Spartan  phalanx.  Since  their  number 
was  small  they  were  compelled  to  take  into  the 
ranks  of  the  phalanx  all  the  commoners  who  were 
•vealthy  enough  to  provide  a  complete  military 
equipment.  With  a  view  to  determine  who  could 
afford  to  supply  the  necessary  equipment,  a  general 
census  was  taken.  The  result  was  that  these  newly 
recruited  men  of  wealth  immediately  began  to  take 
part  in  the  government,  and  since  political  privi- 
leges were  based  on  property,  the  government  be- 
came a  timocracy  ("rule  of  the  wealthy").  This 
occurred  about  650  B.  C,  and  after  this  date  it 
became  customary  to  divide  the  citizens  into  four 
census  classes  according  to  the  productive  value  of 
their  land.  [See  also  Liturgies.]  It  was  not,  how- 
aver,  until  a  later  period  of  the  history  of  Athens 
that  the  census  classes  became  important.  The 
chief  features  of  the  .'\thenian  Constitution  were 
as  follows: 


I. 


II. 


"III. 


Territorial   Divisions   of   Attica 

The   four   tribes   and   forty-eight   townships 

(naucraries)    for  the  local  administration. 

The  Four  Census  Classes 

For    determining    the    public    burdens    and 

privileges    of    the    citizens;    not   known    in 

detail  for  this  period. 

The  Principal  Magistrates 

I.  The  Archon 

(a)  Chief  executive. 

(b)  Judge     in     cases     affecting     family 
rights. 

(c)  Head  of  the  board  of  'nine  archons.' 


590 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  624-621 

2.  The   King 

(a)  A   priest. 

(b)  Judge   in   murder  cases. 

3.  The  Polemarch 

(a)  Commander  of  the   army. 

(b)  Judge  in  cases  affecting  alien  resi- 
dents. 

4.  The    six    Tresmothetae,    'legislators' 

(a)  Keepers  of  the  laws  and  public  docu- 
ments. 

(b)  Judges  in  certain  civil  cases. 
"These   nine   magistrates   sometimes   acted   as   a 

board  under  the  presidency  of  the  Archon. 
"IV.     The  Councils 

1.  The  Council   (Boule)    of  the  Areopagus 

(a)  Composed  of  retired  archons;  mem- 
bership  lifelong. 

(b)  As  highest  authority  in  the  state  it 
supervised  the  magistrates  and  the 
conduct   of   the   citizens. 

(c)  As  a  court  it  tried  wilful  murder. 

2.  The  Council  (Boule)  of  Four  Hundred 
and  One 

Representing  the  tribes  and  townships 

(a)  Assisted  the  magistrates  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

(b)  Prepared  decrees  for  presentation  to 
the  assembly. 

"   V.     The  Assembly — Ecclesia 

1.  Composed  of  all  those  who  could  fur- 
nish a  complete  military  equipment. 

2.  It  elected  magistrates  and  voted  on  ques- 
tions brought  before  it  by  the  Four 
Hundred  and  One. 

"  VI.     Form  of  Governnient 

As  political  rights  were  graded  according 
to  property  assessments,  the  government 
was  a  timocracy. 

"The  above  is  an  outline  of  the  Athenian  Con- 
stitution. Occasionally  parts  of  it  were  changed 
and  new  features  added,  but  It  was  never  dis- 
placed by  a  new  constitution.  In  brief  Athens 
had  but  one  constitution." — G.  W.  Botsford,  His- 
tory of  the  ancient  world,  p.  127. 

B.  C.  624-621. — Draco,  the  law-giver,  and  his 
reforms. — Among  the  common  people  "one  chief 
cause  of  complaint  was  that  they  alone  (the 
nobles)  knew  the  law  and  administered  it  ac- 
cording to  their  own  will.  Hence,  the  demand 
arose  for  the  publication  of  the  law.  It  was  se- 
cured in  a  truly  Greek  fashion.  One  man  was 
chosen,  the  best  man  in  the  state,  to  whom  all 
power  was  given  that  he  might  prepare,  publish, 
and  administer  a  code  of  law  which  should  be 
binding  upon  the  people.  Thus,  almost  every 
Greek  state  of  the  time  had  its  law-giver,  or 
in  later  times  traced  its  law-code  back  to  some 
great  man  who  was  thought  to  be  its  author." 
— G.  S.  Goodspeed,  History  of  the  ancient  world, 
p.  104-105. — "The  Athenians  accordingly  appointed 
Draco  as  their  law-giver  (about  624).  "His  leg- 
islation gave  Athens  written  provisions  for  set- 
tHng  business  and  other  disputes,  thus  limiting 
the  power  of  magistrates  in  recognizing  cases,  con- 
ducting trials  and  imposing  penalties.  The  most 
durable  of  these  drew  a  noteworthy  distinction 
between  the  penalty  for  different  sorts  of  mur- 
der. Heretofore,  all  killing  had  been  murder  and 
its  penalty  death  at  the  hands  of  the  relatives 
of  the  dead  man.  Now,  accidental  or  justifiable 
homicide  was  distinguished  in  its  punishment  from 
wilful  murder.  As  Draco's  laws  were  chiefly 
a  collection  of  the  old  customs  of  the  land, 
they  seemed  to  the  later  Athenians  exceedingly 
severe  and  were  said  to  have  been  'written  in 
blood.'" — Ibid.,  p.  117. — "Draco's  laws  were  very 


Draco 
Solon 


ATHENS,  B.C.  594 


harsh,  death  being  the  punishment  for  many 
minor  offences  such  as  stealing,  and  enslavement 
being  the  punishment  of  a  person  who  got  in 
debt  and  could  not  pay  the  debt  when  due. 
Although  the  people  had  made  some  progress  in 
obtaining  a  written  law,  they  found  that  they 
were  not  much  better  off,  because  the  laws  were 
so  severe." — R.  L.  Ashley,  Anci-ent  civilization,  p. 
116. 

B.  C.  612-595. — Conspiracy  of  Cylon. — Banish- 
ment of  the  Alcmzeonidce. — The  first  attempt  at 
Athens  to  overturn  the  oligarchical  government 
and  establish  a  personal  tyranny  was  made,  6i2 
B.C.,  by  Cylon  (Kylon),  a  patrician,  son-in-law 
of  the  tyrant  of  Megara,  who  was  encouraged  and 
helped  in  his  undertaking  by  the  latter.  The 
conspiracy  failed  miserably.  The  partisans  of 
Cylon,  blockaded  in  the  acropolis,  were  forced  to 
surrender;  but  they  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  the  goddess  Minerva  and  were 
promised  their  lives.  More  effectually  to  retain  the 
protection  of  the  goddess  until  their  escape  was 
effected,  they  attached  a  cord  to  her  altar  and 
held  it  in  their  hands  as  they  passed  olit  through 
the  midst  of  their  enemies.  Unhappily  the  cord 
broke,  and  the  archon  Megacles  at  once  declared 
that  the  safeguard  of  Minerva  was  withdrawn 
from  them,  whereupon  they  were  massacred  with- 
out mercy,  even  though  they  fled  to  the  neighbor- 
ing altars  and  clung  to  them.  The  treachery  and 
bad  faith  of  this  cruel  deed  does  not  seem  to  have 
disturbed  the  Athenian  people,  but  the  sacrilege 
involved  in  it  caused  horror  and  fear  when  they 
had  had  time  to  reflect  upon  it.  Megacles  and 
his  whole  family — the  Alcmaionidae  as  they  were 
called,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  ancestors 
— were  held  accountable  for  the  affront  to  the 
gods  and  were  considered  polluted  and  accursed. 
Every  public  calamity  was  ascribed  to  their  sin, 
and  at  length,  after  a  solemn  trial,  they  were 
banished  from  the  city  (about  596  or  5g5  B.C.), 
while  the  dead  of  the  family  were  disinterred  and 
cast  out.  The  agitations  of  this  affair  exercised 
an  important  influence  on  the  course  of  events, 
which  opened  the  way  for  Solon  and  his  con- 
stitutional reforms. — C.  Thirlwall,  History  of 
Greece,  ch.  11. — See  also  Delphi. 

Also  in;  G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  pt.  2, 
ch.  10. 

B.  C.  600-300. — Seclusion  of  women.  See 
Women's  rights:  B.  C.  600-300. 

B.  0.  6th  century. — Relations  with  Argos.  See 
Argos,  Argolis,  Argives. 

B.  C.  594. — Constitution  and  reforms  of  Solon. 
— "The  necessity  for  drastic  reform  was  as  great  as 
before  and  in  504  or  593  B.C.,  Solon  was  ap- 
pointed law-maker,  with  full  power  to  relieve  the 
social  distress  and  revise  the  constitution.  His 
social  reforms  cancelled  debts  and  thus  cleared  the 
land  from  mortgages  and  set  free  debtors  from 
selfdom ;  others,  who  had  been  sold  as  slaves,  he 
ransomed  from  abroad,  and  he  enacted  that  for  the 
future  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  pledge  his 
liberty." — L,  Whibley,  ed..  Companion  to  Greek 
studies,  p.  355. — See  also  Debt,  Laws  concerning: 
Ancient  Greek. — "He  fixed  a  limit  for  the  measure 
of  land  which  could  be  owned  by  a  single  person,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  dangerously  large  es- 
tates. And  he  forbade  the  exportations  of  Attic 
products,  except  oil.  For  it  had  been  found 
that  so  much  corn  was  carried  to  foreign  mar- 
kets, where  the  prices  were  higher,  that  an  in- 
sufficient supply  remained  for  the  population  of 
Attica.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  at  this  time 
the  Athenians  had  not  yet  begun  to  import  Pontic 
corn." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  p.  182. — 
"Solon  then  repealed  the  laws  of  Draco  and  pro-. 


591 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  560-510 


Pisisiraius 
Quarrel  with  Sparta 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  509-506 


ceeded  to  reconstruct  the  constitution.  He  di- 
vided the  citizens  into  four  property  classes, 
based  on  the  produce  of  corn,  oil,  or  wine  from 
their  land.  .  .  .  Only  members  of  the  first  three 
classes  were  eligible  for  offices  of  state,  only  mem- 
bers of  the  first  class  for  the  highest  offices." — 
L.  Whibley,  ed.,  Compatiion  to  Greek  studies,  p. 
3SS- — "He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future 
Athenian  democracy  by  extending  the  franchise  to 
the  Thetes  (literally,  'hirelings')  the  lowest  of 
the  four  classes,  by  instituting  the  Heliaea  (q.  v.), 
or  popular  courts  of  justice,  in  which  every  citi- 
zen in  turn  could  take  his  place  among  the 
dicasts  (judges  or  jurymen),  and  by  introducing 
election  by  lot.  Moreover,  he  formed  a  new 
council  (Boule)  of  400  members  chosen  from 
the  whole  people  except  the  Thetes,  and  trans- 
ferred to  this  council  from  the  Areopagus  the 
work  of  preparing  measures  to  be  submitted  to 
the  Ecclesia." — H.  B.  Cotterill,  Ancient  Greece, 
pp.  139-140. — "The  Assembly  had  the  decision  of 
war  and  peace,  and  perhaps  of  some  other  im- 
portant questions.  Solon  introduced  the  right  of 
appeal  from  the  sentence  of  the  judicial  magis- 
trates to  the  law  court,  and  this  was  regarded  as 
his  most  important  democratic  institution.  .  .  . 
The  Council  of  the  Areopagus  (q.  v.)  was  left 
in  possession  of  its  extensive  power  to  watch  over 
the  laws  and  the  constitution,  to  supervise  the 
administration  and  to  exercise  a  censorship  over 
the  citizens." — L.  Whibley,  ed..  Companion  to 
Greek  studies,  p.  355. — "Solon's  laws  were  writ- 
ten or  inscribed  on  tablets  or  pillars,  which  re- 
volved on  a  pivot,  and  were  first  kept  in  the 
Acropolis,  but  later,  by  the  advice  of  Ephialtes, 
were  placed  in  the  Agora."  '[Compare  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Timocracy:  Athens,  650-594  B.C.]. — 
H.  B.  Cotterill,  History  of  Greece,  p.  140.— -See 
also  Prytanes. 

B.C.  560-510.— The  tyranny.— Reforms  and 
public  works  under  Pisistratus  and  his  sons. 
— "When  Solon  had  made  his  laws  he  went  abroad 
for  ten  years,  so  as  to  give  his  constitution  a  fair 
run.  When  he  returned  he  found  that  everything 
was  once  more  in  confusion.  As  usual  the  trouble 
was  economic.  .  .  .  The  village  population  was 
unhappy  and  restless.  The  peasants  had  been 
put  back  on  their  holdings  and  plied  with  good 
advice  as  to  how  to  manage  their  vines  and  olive 
trees;  but  they  had  no  capital  to  go  on  with  and 
of  course  they  could  not  borrow.  The  craftsmen 
and  small  traders,  whose  interests  were  bound 
up  with  theirs,  were  equally  clamorous.  Dis- 
content grew  more  and  more  fierce,  till  finally 
the  state  was  openly  divided  into  three  hostile 
parties,  each  prepared  to  fight  for  its  own  eco- 
nomic and  territorial  interests.  There  were  the 
men  of  the  plain,  with  their  city  interests.  There 
were  the  men  of  the  shore,  that'  is,  the  popula- 
tion Hving  in  the  country  villages  and  small 
ports  of  South-Eastern  Attica,  from  the  settle- 
ments behind  Hymettus  down  to  Sunium.  Thirdly, 
there  were  the  men  of  the  mountains,  the  poorer 
peasants  and  shepherds  and  woodcutters  and  char- 
coal-burners from  the  rough  region  of  northern 
Attica.  It  seemed  for  a  moment  as  if  Theseus 
had  attempted  too  much  in  trying  to  make  a 
united  nation  out  of  a  territory  larger  than  that 
of  any  other  Greek  City  State.  But  fortunately 
for  Athens  'a  man  arose  in  Israel.'  The  Moun- 
taineers had  at  their  head  a  leader,  Pisistratus, 
who  was  not  only  a  friend  of  the  poor  but  also 
a  noted  soldier  and  a  man  of  large  private  means 
and  influential  connections  He  succeeded,  after 
some  vicissitudes,  in  making  his  party  supreme 
in  the  State,  as  he  had  already  made  himself  su- 
preme  in   his   party.  .  .  .  But   Pisistratus's   most 


durable  achievement  was  his  settlement  of  the 
economic  difficulties.  He  solved  them  once  and  for 
all  by  advancing  capital  out  of  his  private  fortune 
to  the  poorer  landowners,  largely  of  course  his 
own  political  supporters.  Once  they  had  margin 
enough  to  keep  them  through  lean  years,  or 
while  their  trees  were  growing  to  maturity,  their 
troubles  were  at  an  end.  There  is  no  more  land 
question  in  Attica  till  the  Spartans  came  and 
ruined  the  cultivation  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  later." — A.  E.  Zimmern,  Greek  common- 
wealth, pp.  183-184. — "It  is  difficult  to  estimate 
his  services  to  Athens,  for  later  generations  did 
their  utmost  to  deny  and  conceal  them,  giving  some 
of  his  achievements  to  Solon  and  some  to  Theseus, 
and  some  even  to  Erechtheus.  He  [Pisistratus] 
founded  an  early  Athenian  empire.  He  won  the 
island  of  Salamis  from  Megara,  and  until  she 
possessed  Salamis,  Athens  had  no  open  road  to 
the  sea.  [See  also  Megara.]  Later  Athenians 
ascribed  this  feat  to  Solon.  He  regained  Sigeum, 
on  the  Troad,  after  a  war  with  Mytilene.  He 
established  the  elder  Miltiades  as  tyrant  of  the 
Thracian  Chersonese.  In  these  movements  his 
policy  was  obviously  to  open  up  trade  with  the 
Black  Sea,  the  granary  of  Greece.  He  extended 
olive-culture  in  Attica.  He  probably  began  to 
work  the  silver  mines  at  Laurium,  which  were 
thenceforth  the  principal  source  of  Athenian  rev- 
enue. He  made  the  unfree  tillers  of  the  soil 
into  peasant  proprietors  by  confiscating  the  es- 
tates of  his  noble  opponents.  He  was  allied  with 
Sparta  and  Argos,  Thebes  and  Thessaly  and 
Naxos.  He  introduced  a  police  armed  with  bows 
into  the  city  of  Athens.  He  probably  did  much 
of  what  Theseus  is  supposed  to  have  done  in 
synoecising  Athens — that  is,  transforming  Attica 
from  a  number  of  villages  with  a  capital  into  a 
city-state  with  surrounding  territory.  We  know 
that  he  sent  judges  on  circuit  round  the  country 
demes.  The  other  indications  are  that  Pisistratus 
pulled  down  the  city  wall  in  order  that  she  might 
be  able  to  expand,  that  he  constructed  a  proper 
water-supply,  and  that  he  fostered  the  worship 
of  the  Olympian  or  city  deities.  At  the  same  time 
he  fostered  agriculture,  and  tried  to  get  the  poor 
of  Athens  back  to  the  land." — J.  C.  Stobart,  Glory 
that  was  Greece,  pp.  iio-iii. — See  also  Ceram- 
icus. — "Tyranny  lasted,  with  two  interruptions, 
until  510.  After  his  second  restoration  Pisistratus 
established  his  power  and  ruled  with  a  wise  mod- 
eration. The  constitution  was  not  changed,  but 
the  tyrant  took  care  that  the  chief  offices  should 
be  held  by  his  friends.  He  relied  on  the  support 
of  poets  for  his  dynasty,  and  extended  the  power 
of  .Athens  in  the  Aegean.  Hippias  succeeded  his 
father  in  527,  and  after  the  assassination  of  Hip- 
parchus  became  a  harsh  and  suspicious  despot, 
until  the  Alcmaeonids,  who  had  been  exiled  by 
Pisistratus,  gained  the  support  of  Sparta  and 
overthrew  the  tyranny." — L.  Whibley,  ed.,  Com- 
panion to  Creek  studies,  p.  356. 

B.  C.  509-506. — ^^Hostile  undertakings  of  Cleo- 
menes  and  Sparta. — Help  solicited  from  the 
Persian  king. — Subjection  refused. — Failure  of 
Spartan  schemes  to  restore  tyranny. — Protest 
of  the  Corinthians.  —  Successful  war  with 
Thebes  and  Chalcis. — "With  Sparta  it  was  obvi- 
ous that  the  Athenians  now  had  a  deadly  quarrel, 
and  on  the  other  side  they  knew  that  Hippias 
was  seeking  to  precipitate  on  them  the  power  of 
the  Persian  king.  It  seemed  therefore  to  be  a 
matter  of  stern  necessity  to  anticipate  the  in- 
trigues of  their  banished  tyrant;  and  the  Athenians 
accordingly  sent  ambassadors  to  Sardeis  to  make 
an  independent  alliance  with  the  Persian  despot. 
The  envoys,  on  being  brought  into  the  presence  of 


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Cleisfhenes 
Ostracism 


ATHENS,  B.  C.SOe 


Artaphernes,  the  Satrap  of  Lydia,  *ere  told  that 
Dareios  would  admit  them  to  an  alliance  if  they 
would  give  him  earth  and  water, — in  other  words, 
if  they  would  acknowledge  themselves  his  slaves. 
To  this  demand  of  absolute  subjection  the  en- 
voys gave  an  assent  which  was  indignantly  re- 
pudiated by  the  whole  body  of  Athenian  citizens. 
.  .  .  Foiled  for  the  time  in  his  efforts,  Kleo- 
menes  was  not  cast  down.  Regarding  the  Kleis- 
thenian  constitution  as  a  personal  insult  to  him- 
self, he  was  resolved  that  Isagoras  should  be 
despot  of  Athens.  Summoning  the  allies  of  Sparta 
[including  the  Boeotian  League  headed  by  Thebes, 
and  the  people  of  Chalcis  in  Eubcea],  he  led 
them  as  far  as  Eleusis,  12  miles  only  from  Athens, 
without  informing  them  of  the  purpose  of  the 
campaign.  He  had  no  sooner  confessed  it  than 
the  Corinthians,  declaring  that  they  had  been 
brought  away  from  home  on  an  unrighteous  er- 
rand, went  back,  followed  by  the  other  Spartan 
King,  Demaratos,  the  son  of  Ariston ;  and  this 
conflict  of  opinion  broke  up  the  rest  of  the  array. 
This  discomfiture  of  their  enemy  seemed  to  in- 
spire fresh  strength  into  the  Athenians,  who  won  a 
series  of  victories  over  the  Boeotians  and  Euboeans" 
— completely  overthrowing  the  latter — the  Chalci- 
dians — taking  possession  of  their  city,  and  making 
it  a  peculiar  colony  and  dependency  of  Athens. 
[See  Cleruchs.]  The  anger  of  Cleomenes  "on 
being  discomfited  at  Eleusis  by  the  defection  of 
his  own  allies  was  heightened  by  indignation  at 
the  discovery  that  in  driving  out  his  friend  Hip- 
pias  he  had  been  simply  the  tool  of  Kleisthenes 
and  of  the  Delphian  priestess  whom  Kleisthenes 
had  bribed.  It  was  now  clear  to  him  and  to  his 
countrymen  that  the  Athenians  would  not  ac- 
quiesce in  the  predominance  of  Sparta,  and  that 
if  they  retained  their  freedom,  the  power  of 
Athens  would  soon  be  equal  to  their  ovn.  Their 
only  safety  lay,  therefore,  in  providing  the  Athenians 
with  a  tyrant.  An  invitation  was,  therefore,  sent 
to  Hippias  at  Sigeion,  to  attend  a  congress  of 
the  allies  at  Sparta,  who  were  summoned  to  meet 
on  the  arrival  of  the  exiled  despot."  The  ap- 
pointed congress  was  held,  and  the  Spartans  be- 
sought their  allies  to  aid  them  in  humbling  the 
Athenian  Democracy,  with  the  object  of  restoring 
Hippias  to  power.  But  again  the  Corinthians 
protested,  bluntly  suggesting  that  if  the  Spartans 
thought  tyranny  a  good  thing  they  might  first 
try  it  for  themselves.  Hippias,  speaking  in  his 
own  behalf,  attempted  to  convince  them  that  the 
time  was  coming  "in  which  they  would  find  the 
Athenians  a  thorn  in  their  side.  For  the  present 
his  exhortations  were  thrown  away.  The  allies 
protested  unanimously  against  all  attempts  to 
interfere  with  the  internal  administration  of  any 
Hellenic  city ;  and  the  banished  tyrant  went  back 
disappointed  to  Sigeion." — G.  W.  Cox.  Greeks  and 
the  Persians,  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  G.  Grote,  History  0;  Greece,  pt.  2, 
ch.  31    {v.  4). 

B.  C.  508. — Reforms  of  Cleisthenes. — Ostra- 
cism.— Beginnings  of  democracy. — "In  the  con- 
fusion which  ensued  Cleisthenes,  the  Alcmaeonid, 
adopted  the  cause  of  democracy,  triumphed  over 
hb  rivals,  and  in  508  or  507  B.C.  was  given 
authority  to  revise  the  constitution.  The  tyranny 
had  broken  the  power  of  the  nobles  and  thus 
prepared  the  way  for  democracy,  but  the  laws  of 
Solon  had  in  great  part  fallen  into  disuse.  The 
aim  of  Cleisthenes  was  to  give  free  play  to  the 
democratic  elements  in  the  constitution  of  Solon, 
to  prevent  the  domination  of  the  nobles  or  the 
usurpation  of  tyrants.  To  effect  this  end,  he 
took  measures  to  abolish  the  political  importance 
of  the   old   divisions  .  .  .  based  upon   birth,   and 


to  substitute  new  artificial  divisions,  so  arranged 
as  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  local  factions.  He 
enrolled  the  citizens  in  ten  new  tribes,  which 
superseded  the  four  Ionic  tribes  for  political  and 
administrative  purposes.  Further  the  whole  of 
Attica  was  divided  into  thirty  [demes  or  districts) 
...  ,  ten  of  which  included  the  city  and  its 
neighbourhood,  ten  the  coast  and  ten  the  interior. 
Each  tribe  was  composed  of  three  [demes]  .  .  , 
chosen  one  from  each  of  these  sections.  Each 
[deme]  .  .  .  contained  a  number  of  townships. 
.  .  .  Both  tribes  and  demes  had  their  own  officers 
and  administered  their  own  affairs.  The  tribes 
served  for  military  purposes,  each  furnishing 
contingents  of  infantry  and  cavalry ;  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  State,  magistrates,  appointed 
in  general  to  form  boards  of  ten,  were  appointed 
one  from  each  tribe  or  one  for  each  tribe.  Solon's 
Council  of  Four  Hundred  was  increased  to  Five 
Hundred,  and  fifty  members  were  chosen  from 
each  tribe.  The  election  of  archons,  Cleisthenes 
seems  to  have  given  to  the  assembly." — L.  Whibley, 
ed.,  Companion  to  Greek  studies,  pp.  356-357. — 
"Not  content  with  fostering  the  tendencies  that 
might  make  for  democracy  in  the  existing  members 
of  the  state,  Cleistenes  infused  into  Athens  a  fresh 
strain  of  plebeian  blood  and  sentiment  by  con- 
ferring civil  rights  on  a  large  number  of  in- 
dividuals of  foreign  birth,  or  of  the  lowest  origin. 
These  were  metoeci  [metics] — either  stranger  resi- 
dents or  enfranchised  slaves,  doubtless  engaged  in 
mercantile  callings  and  therefore  of  advanced  and 
liberal  views — whom  he  enrolled  in  his  new  tribes." 
— A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Greek  constitutional  his- 
tory, p.  158. — "Ostracism  (see  Ostracism)  was 
introduced  to  guard  against  tyranny  (though 
within  a  few  years  it  was  employed  to  remove 
politicians  who  had  no  designs  against  the  con- 
stitution)."— L.  Whibley,  ed..  Companion  to  Greek 
studifs,  p.  357. — See  also  Democracy:  During 
classical  period. — "Cleisthenes  introduced  into  the 
constitution  no  new  principle,  but  brought  into  far 
greater  prominence  the  democratic  elements  al- 
ready existing  in  it.  This  he  did  chiefly  by  equaliz- 
ing the  ranks,  as  above  described,  and  by  slighting 
the  power  of  the  Areopagus.  The  government 
was  democratic,  strictly  speaking,  only  in  po- 
tentiality. In  its  practical  working  it  was  a 
timocracy  of  the  milder  class,  while  the  state  was 
still  a  clan-state,  and  remained  such  through  the 
whole  period  of  its  freedom.  Yet  the  adoption 
of  the  Cleisthenean  constitution,  exhibiting  greatly 
strengthened  democratic  tendencies,  may  be  justly 
regarded  as  the  beginning  of  a  new  petiod, — the 
fifth  in  the  history  of  the  government.  The  yoke 
of  the  tyranny  was  broken,  and  the  Solonian  con- 
stitiition,  as  lately  modified  and  improved,  became, 
for  the  first  time,  a  living,  political  organism. 
This  constitution,  by  conferring  large  benefits  upon 
the  people,  and  by  opening  to  them  new  and 
attractive  spheres  of  activity,  inspired  them  with 
a  patriotism  hitherto  unknown.  A  great  tide  of 
public  enthusiasm  and  public  energy,  arising  at 
this  point,  surged  onward  through  the  Persian 
wars,  carrying  the  Athenians  victoriously  through 
those  crises  in  the  history  of  their  country  and 
the  world,  liberating  the  Ionic  Greeks,  founding 
a  great  maritime  empire,  gaining  in  height  and 
strength,  with  each  political  advance,  till  it 
reached  its  climax  in  the  marvelous  activity  of  the 
Peridean  age." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Development  of 
the  Athenian  constitution,  pp.  207-208. 

Bibliography:  Athens  from  monarchy  to 
democracy:  G.  W.  Botsford,  Athenian  constitu- 
tion, ch.  vii-xi.— J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  ch. 
iv,  V. — G.  Busolt,  Griechische  geschiohte,  v.  II,  pp. 
1-449. — E.   Curtius,   History   of  Greece,  v.  II,  ch. 


593 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  500-493 


Persian    Wars 
Aristides  and   Themistocles 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  479-476 


ii. — A.  L.  D'Ooge,  Acropolis  of  Athens. — Fowler 
and  Wheeler,  Handbook  oj  Greek  archceology .■ — • 
E.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  oj  Greek  scidpture  and 
ancient  Alliens. — G.  Gilbert,  Constitutional  antiqui- 
ties oj  Sparta  and  .ithens. — A.  H.  J.  Greenidge, 
Greek  constitutional  history,  pp.  124-162,  342,  389. 
— G.  Grote.  History  oj  Greece. — A.  Haussoullier,  La 
vie  municipaie  en  .iltique.- — A.  Holm,  History  oj 
Greece,  v.  I,  ch.  xxvi-xxviii. — H.  B.  Walters,  His- 
tory oj  Greek  pottery. — C.  H.  Weller,  Athens  and 
iUs  monuments. — A.  E.  Zimmern,  Greek  com- 
monwealth. 

B.  C.  500-493. — Aid  to  lonians  against  Persia. 
See  Greece:  B.C.  500-493:  Rising  of  lonians  of 
.'\sia  Minor  against  Persians;  Persia;  B.C.  521-493. 

B.  C.  492-479. — War  between  the  Greeks  and 
Persia. — Athens'  share  in  the  victory. — Sum- 
mary of  the  war. — (1)  'After  the  conquest  of 
Ionia,  the  Persians  attempted  to  subdue  Greece. 
(2)  The  first  expedition  was  led  by  Mardonius 
through  Thrace  into  Macedon.  Its  failure  was 
owing  to  the  wreck  of  the  fleet  and  attacks  upon 
his  army  by  the  natives.  (3)  The  second  ex- 
pedition crossed  the  Aegean  Sea,  captured  Eretria, 
and  landed  at  Marathon.  There  the  Persian  army 
met  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Athenians  (490). 
[See  also  Persm;  B.C.  521-493.]  The  event  en- 
couraged the  Greeks  to  hope  for  success  in  the 
war.  While  the  Persians  were  preparing  for 
another  invasion,  (4)  the  .Athenians  built  a  navy 
and  (s)  the  Peloponnesian  League  was  expanded 
into  a  union  of  all  the  loyal  Creek  states.  (6) 
Xerxes  in  person  led  his  great  army  in  the  third 
expedition.  (7)  It  annihilated  a  Spartan  force 
at    Thermopylae     (4S0),    and    destroyed    .■\then5. 

(8)  But  the  Persian  fleet  suffered  an  overwhelming 
defeat    at    Salamis;    and    in    the    following    year 

(9)  the  Greeks  defeated  the  Persians  decisively  at 
Plataea  and  at  Mycale.  (10)  Meanwhile  a  Car- 
thaginian army  which  invaded  Sicily  was  over- 
thrown at  Himera  (480)." — G.  W.  Botsford,  His- 
tory 0}  the  ancient  world,  p.  180. — "When  the 
great  attack  from  the  East  was  visibly  impend- 
ing over  that  collection  of  small  states  that  we 
call  Greece,  all  was  confusion  and  disorder.  The 
jealousies  of  Argos  and  Sparta,  of  Thebes  and 
Athens,  and  other  similar  jealousies  elsewhere, 
made  resistance  by  united  Greece  impossible.  If 
the  oracle  at  Delphi  had  boldly  championed  the 
national  defence,  the  effect  upon  the  wars  and 
upon  its  own  future  influence  could  not  have 
failed  to  be  great.  But  the  oracle  gave  answers 
sometimes  ambiguous,  sometimes  directly  counsel- 
Hng  submission  and  despair.  In  this  crisis,  put- 
ting aside  for  the  present  the  vices  and  follies 
of  the  Persians,  Greece  was  saved  by  two  influ- 
ences. In  the  first  place,  at  this  crisis  .Athens 
displayed  an  absence  of  petty  vanity,  and  a  Pan- 
hellenic  patriotism,  rarely  met  with  in  any  Greek 
state,  along  with  an  activity  and  clearsighted- 
ness of  the  most  remarkable  kind.  It  was  the 
supremacy  of  Sparta  which  gave  to  Greece  the 
very  moderate  amount  of  unity  that  she  .-howed 
during  the  contest ;  but  in  every  instance  it  was 
from  Athens  that  the  ablest  leaders  and  the  best 
ideas  came.  And  thus  Greece  weathered  the 
storm,  .■\thens  had  borne  the  brunt  of  the  first 
attack  in  400,  and  alone,  save  for  the  not  very 
important  help  rendered  by  Plataea,  had  fought 
the  battle  of  Marathon.  [See  also  Greece:  B.C. 
490.]  In  480  and  479,  through  .Argos,  Thebes, 
Thessaly,  and  others  stood  sullenly  aloof,  most 
of  the  Greek  states  followed  the  leadership  of 
Sparta,  and  were  represented  in  the  glorious 
struggles  of  Thermopylje,  Salamis  (480)  [See 
Greece:  B.C.  480:  Persian  wars:  Salamis], 
Plataea,  and  Mycale  (479).     With  these  last  bat- 


tles Greece  emerged  victoriously  from  the  con- 
test."— .\.  J.  Grant,  Greece  in  the  .Age  oj  Pericles, 
PP-  93-94- — See  also  Greece:  B.  C.  481-479. 
For  separate  battles  see  Greece:  B.  C.  480:  Persian 
wars;  Persw:  B.  C.  486-405. 

B.C.  490-485.  —  Athenian  politics.  —  Struggle 
between  Aristides  and  Themistocles. — "Aristides 
insisted  upon  laying  the  foundation  of  Athenian 
military  power  in  the  heavy-armed  as  most  con- 
ductive to  the  stability  of  private  and  public 
character,  while  he  'regarded  the  navy  as  the 
seed-bed  of  novelty  and  change.'  .Athens,  engaged 
at  this  time  in  a  war  with  .\egina,  was  meeting 
with  ill-success  owing  to  her  weakness  by  sea. 
But  Themistocles  must  have  looked  beyond  the 
present,  to  the  defense  of  his  country  against  a 
more  formidable  enemy,  already  far  advanced  in 
its  preparations  for  overwhelming  Europe  with 
a  flood  of  barbarians.  Nor  was  his  view  most 
probably  confined  to  this  horizon,  but  included 
all  the  future  greatness  of  .Athens,  her  walls  and 
Peiraeus,  her  hegemony  and  empire.  For  these 
were  the  results  of  his  decree.  Aristeides  was 
ostracised  and  an  obstacle  to  the  furtherance  of 
the  Themistoclean  naval  policy  thus  removed.  It 
was  probably  in  the  following  year  that  Themis- 
tocles held  the  office  of  archon,  and  began  his 
great  work  of  fortifying  the  Peiiaeus.  .  .  .  Thus 
the  fortifications  of  the  Peiraeus  was  but  a  nat- 
ural continuation  of  his  naval  policy.  The  build- 
ing of  triremes  went  on.  .  .  .  The  fear  of  the 
Persian  invaders  brought  about  a  reconciliation 
of  political  opponents,  the  ostracised  were  re- 
called, and  all  united  in  loyal  service  to  their 
country  in  its  supreme  peril." — G.  W.  Botsfoid, 
Development   of  the  .Athenian  constitution,  p.  200. 

B.  C.  479. — Significance  of  the  Greek  victory 
over  Persia. — "Persian  domination,  had  it  been 
possible,  would  certainly  have  checked  the  growth 
of  Greek  civilization  in  Europe,  just  as  it  did 
in  .Asia  Minor.  Europe  might  have  become  for 
centuries  a  part  of  Asia.  It  would  be  idle  to 
speculate  at  length  on  what  might  have  been; 
but  certainly  the  victory  saved  Europe  from  even 
the  possibility  of  such  a  misfortune.  It  left  the 
continent  free  to  advance  along  the  lines  marked 
out  for  it  by  Greek  genius.  From  these  considera- 
tions it  is  clear  that  the  Greco-Persian  war  was 
one  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  world's 
history." — G.  W.  Botsford,  History  oj  the  ancient 
world,  p.  180. — "The  former  terror  of  the  Per- 
sian arms  passed  into  contempt,  and  though  be- 
tween East  and  West  there  was  constant  friction 
until  the  time  when,  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
later,  .Alexander  the  Great  broke  up  the  Persian 
Empire,  never  again  did  Persia  seem  at  all  likely 
to  overwhelm  Greek  civilization.  The  Persian 
wars,  by  their  result,  allowed  the  Greek  world 
freely  to  bequeath  its  inheritance  of  art,  science, 
and  thought  to  later  centuries.  That  is  the  great 
significance  of  the  struggle." — A.  J.  Grant,  Greece 
in  the  .Ige  of  Pericles,  p.  94. 

B.  C.  479-476. — Fortification  of  Athens  and  of 
Peiraeus. — Athens  the  first  state  of  Hellas. — 
"Immediately  after  the  danger  of  Persian  in- 
vasion was  removed,  .Athens  set  about  to  rebuild 
her  city  and  its  defences.  To  this  latter  project 
several  Greek  states,  including;  Sparta,  objected 
By  skilfully  delaying  discussion  on  this  subject 
with  Sparta,  Themistocles  afforded  .Athenian  build- 
ers sufficient  time  in  which  to  complete  this 
work.  Of  even  greater  importance  perhaps  was 
the  fortification  of  Peiraeus.  This  town,  the  sea- 
port of  Athens,  Themistocles  proceeded  to  sur- 
round with  a  massive  wall  seven  miles  in  circuit. 
It  was  due  in  large  measure  to  the  farsighted- 
ness   and   energy    of    Themistocles   that    Peiraeus 


594 


ATHENS,  B.C.  478 


Naval   Leadership 
Delian    Confederacy 


ATHENS,  B.C.  477 


became  a  famous  mart  of  industry  and  trade,  and 
for  centuries  remained  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing commercial  cities  of  the  ancient  world.  [See 
also  Commerce:  .-Vncient:  B.C.  1000-200.]  Athens 
lay  now  right  in  the  centre  of  the  Greek  world,  and 
before  long  city  and  harbour  were  linked  by  strong 
walls  and  made  into  a  twin  fortress  impregnable 
by  land.  And  if  she  did  not  own  the  wheat- 
growing  regions,  she  controlled  the  trade  in  grain. 
The  cornfields  of  Southern  Russia  had  only  one 
outlet — by  the  Hellespont,  and  Athens  held  it — 
held  it  in  virtue  of  her  fleet  of  warships.  Mean- 
while, from  the  days  of  Solon  and  Pisistratus 
foreigners  with  trades  had  been  settling  in  the 
city.  Solon  was  one  of  the  greatest  economists 
of  antiquity  and  Pisistratus  one  of  the  shrewdest 
of  rulers;  and  they  meant  to  have  an  Athens  eco- 
nomically strong  and  prosperous.  Industries  grew, 
free  labour  moved  in  from  the  country,  and  slave 
labour  was  imported  from  abroad.  And  then  the 
slave  began  to  encroach  on  the  freeman's  labour 
market,  and  the  freeman  took  to  another  and  a 
greater  trade — the  greatest  of  all.  Empire-ruling; 
and  that  too  brought  wealth  to  Athens.  Mines 
were  opened  up,  and  Laurium  (q.  v.)  still  con- 
tinued to  yield  silver,  while  on  Thasos  and  in 
Thrace  Athenian  valour  and  enterprise  made 
Athenians  masters  of  gold  production.  The  hor- 
rible condition  of  the  slaves  in  the  silver  mines  of 
Attica  is  sometimes  noticed  by  .incient  writers, 
but  there  is  no  indication  that  it  troubled  the 
capitalists  or  the  public  conscience.  Mining  and 
manufacture,  grain  and  the  carrying  trade  of  the 
world,  brought  wealth  and  brought  with  it  new 
standards — a  new  scale  for  the  measurement  of 
riches  and  of  poverty — new  tastes  in  food,  and 
perhaps  a  new  sense  of  hunger." — T.  R.  Glover, 
From  Pericles  to  Philip,  pp.  44-55. 

Also  in:  [Period  of  the  war  heroes,  479- 
461  B.  C] — (o)  Political  and  economic  bibliogra- 
phy: J.  B.  Bury,  History  oj  Greece,  ch.  viii. — A 
Holm,  History  oj  Greece,  II,  chs.  vii-ix. — E.  Cur- 
tius.  History  of  Greece,  III,  ch.  ii. — G.  Grote, 
History  of  Greece,  V,  chs.  xliv-xlv. — E.  Meyer, 
Forschmigen  zitr  alten  Geschithte,  HI,  pp.  45Q- 
570. — J.  Beloch,  Griechische  Geschichte,  II,  i,  chs. 
iii,  iv. — G.  Busolt,  Griechische  Geschichte,  III,  pp. 
1-295. — E.  A.  Freeman,  History  of  Sicily,  II,  chs. 
vi.  vii.  Cavaignac,  Histoire  de  Vantiquite,  II, 
1-54. — Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles. — 
L.  W.  Hopkinson,  Greek  leaders. — (b)  Society  and 
culture:  J.  Beloch,  loc-cil.,  II,  i,  pp.  74-122. — E. 
Meyer,  loc.  cit..  Ill,  pp.  418-459. — A.  Holm,  loc. 
cil.  11,  ch.  xii. — H.  N.  Fowler  and  Wheeler,  Hand- 
book of  Greek  archaeology,  pp.  96-144,  317-229. — 
E.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  sculpture  and 
ancient  .-llhens,  pp.  241-279. — C.  H.  Weller,  Athens 
and  its  monuments. — M.  L.  D'Ooge,  Acropolis  of 
Athens. — E.  Abbott,  Hellenica,  pp.  1-32.— L.  Whib- 
ley,  ed.,  Companion  to  Greek  studies,  105-111,  479- 
561. — W.  C.  Wright,  Greek  literature,  pp.  119-125, 
185-215. — E.  Capps,  Homer  to  Theocritus,  pp.  168- 
'214. — A.  and  M.  Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  litterature 
Grecque,  II,  ch.  vii.  III,  chs.  ii-v. — 6.  G.  Sihler, 
Testimonium  Animce,  viii. 

B.  C.  478.— Transfer  of  naval  leadership  from 
Sparta  to  Athens. — "The  first  task  which  awaited 
the  victors  was  to  drive  the  Persians  from  the 
coasts  of  the  /Egean  Sea  and  deliver  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  from  Persian  domination.  The  Greek  fleet 
under  the  Spartan  king  Pausanias  undertook  this 
task.  That,  as  things  were,  it  must  prove;  too 
great  an  undertaking  for  a  state  like  Sparta  with 
not  more  than  four  thousand  citizens,  who,  more- 
over, lacked  money,  ships  and  maritime  experience, 
and  had,  besides,  to  stand  on  guard  at  home  against 
a  serf   population   of  sixty   thousand  males,  was 


foreseen  by  both  Pausanias  and  the  authorities  at 
home ;  but  whereas  the  latter  were  loath  to  con- 
duct naval  operations  in  far  distant  Asia,  the 
over-ambitious  victor  of  Plataea  was  set  on  keep- 
ing his  own  country  at  the  head  of  all  Greek  en- 
terprises, even  though  to  do  so  he  must  secure 
the  assistance  of  Persia.  He  accordingly  offered 
his  services  to  the  Great  King  as  satrap  of  Greece 
and  conducted  himself  as  the  master  and  not  as 
the  leader  of  the  forces  serving  under  his  com- 
mand. His  arrogance  together  with  the  indiffer- 
ence of  the  ruling  powers  at  Sparta,  however, 
provoked  a  prompt  reaction  which  resulted  in  the 
transference  of  the  leadership  to  the  Athenians 
under  Aristides.  They  had  by  far  the  largest  num- 
ber of  ships  and  hence  an  irresistible  claim  to 
naval  command.  The  work  was  brilliantly  ac- 
complished. With  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated 
cities,  the  Greek  settlements  on  the  entire  ^li^gean 
coast  and  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  as  far  as 
Cyprus  were  made  free." — G.  S.  Goodsped,  History 
of  the  ancient  world,  pp.  144-145. 

B.  C.     478-477. — Reduction     of     Byzantium. — 
Asiatic  Greeks.     See  Greece;  B.C.  478-477. 

B.  C.  477. — Organization  of  the  Delian  Con- 
federacy and  its  aims. — This  league  was  the 
outgrowth  of  the  Panhellenic  union  brought  about 
by  the  Persian  war,  with  Athens,  by  right  of  her 
character  and  past  achievements,  as  its  logical 
head.  "The  arrangement  of  the  Delian  League  had 
been  largely  the  work  of  Aristides.  His  reputa- 
tion for  fairness  had  given  the  allies  full  confidence 
in  the  justice  of  his  assessments.  ...  It  had  been 
formed  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Persia,  and  to 
give  to  its  members  security  in  their  lately  won 
Hberties.  To  this  end  an  army  and  a  navy,  a  fund 
of  money  and  a  recognised  leader,  were  necessary, 
(i)  Athens  was  of  course  the  leader.  No  other 
state  in  the  alliance  could  possibly  command  the 
same  amount  of  obedience.  She  was  at  first  by 
no  means  a  despot  city.  Representatives  from  the 
various  states  met  year  by  year  in  the  island  of 
Delos,  there  to  deliberate  on  matters  concerning 
the  whole  confederacy,  and  especially  on  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  operations  of  the  year.  That  every 
state  had  a  vote  is  certain.  But  of  the  procedure 
of  the  synod  we  know  almost  nothing.  Yet  both 
the  future  history  of  the  league  and  analogous 
cases  in  Greek  history  go  to  show  that  Athens 
would  not  be  merely  the  executive  officer  of  the 
decrees  of  the  league.  Her  power  and  prestige 
would  give  her  from  th  first  a  commanding  posi- 
tion. (2)  The  contributions  to  the  common  fund 
were  arranged  by  Aristides.  That  we  know ;  and 
we  know  also  that  these  contributions  amounted 
at  first  to  460  talents.  ...  (3)  .'Vt  the  head  of 
every  expedition,  naval  or  military,  stood  an 
Athenian  commander.  ...  (4)  The  centre  of  the 
whole  league  during  its  early  and  independent 
period  was  Delos.  That  small  and  barren  island 
had  been  once  the  great  religious  centre  of  the 
Ionian  race.  Its  glory  had  declined,  but  still  there 
was  the  great  temple  of  Apollo.  The  place  was 
full  of  venerable  legends  and  memories  of  the 
past.  This  then  was  naturally  chosen  as  the 
centre  of  the  revival  of  the  Ionian  race,  for  as 
such  the  Delian  league  must  have  been  regarded. 
Here  the  yearly  meetings  of  the  synod  were  held ; 
here  was  the  treasury  of  the  contributions  of  the 
allies.  The  general  aims  of  the  league  must  com- 
mend themselves  to  every  modem  observer.  That 
some  check  should  be  given  to  the  state-inde- 
pendence of  Greece;  that  some  union  should  be 
created  in  which  each  separate  state  should  rec- 
ognize something  higher  than  her  own  personal 
interests;  that  some  broad  political  basis  should 
be   formed    capable    of    insuring    stability,— some- 


595 


ATHENS,  B.C.  477-461 


Fall    of 
Themistocles 


ATHENS,   B.C.  465-454 


thing  of  this  sort  was  quite  essential  if  Greece 
was  to  remain  independent.  But  it  may  be 
doubted  wiiether  it  was  possible  to  make  the  Dclian 
League  strong  enough  for  the  task  that  it  would 
have  to  face.  The  league  was  the  same  sort  of 
organisation  that  the  supporters  of  Imperial  [Brit- 
ish] Federation  propose  to  create:  a  confederacy 
of  independent  states  with  a  common  origin,  and 
supposed  common  interests  for  common  purposes. 
But  in  Greece  the  instinct  for  state-independence 
was  so  deeply  rooted  that  even  the  slack  bonds 
of  the  league  proved  too  tight.  No  single  state 
in  its  internal  government  showed  cohesion  or  a 
sufficient  discipline;  and  it  was  little  likely,  there- 
fore, that  their  union  should  display  these  quali- 
ties. There  was  no  power  except  that  of  physical 
force  that  would  in  the  long  run  be  able  to  hold 
the  various  states  together.  Panhellenic  patriot- 
ism was  hardly  felt;  the  god  Apollo  was  losing 
his  power;  Athens  was  unable  to  inspire  the  states 
with  sufficient  personal  veneration  for  herself,  nor 
did  she  try  to  keep  the  league  together  by  con- 
ciliation and  kindness." — A.  J.  Grant,  Greece  in 
the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp.  132-135. — See  also  Greece: 
B.C.  478-477- 

Also  in:  J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  pp. 
346-367,  382-385. — A.  Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II, 
chs.  xiv,  xvii-xix.^G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece, 
chs.  xlv  (latter  part),  xlvi. — J.  Beloch,  History  of 
Greece,  II,  chs.  v,  vi. — G.  Busolt,  History  of 
Greece,  III,  pp.  296-438,  518-540. — Meyer,  For- 
schungen  zur  altenen  Geschichte,  III,  pp.  574-624, 
IV,  3-84. — E.  A.  Freeman,  History  of  Sicily  III, 
ch.  viii. — Abbott,  Pericles  and  the  Golden  Age  of 
Athens. — A.  J.  Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of  Per- 
icles.— Greenidge,  Handbook  of  Greek  constitu- 
tional history. — Gilbert,  Greek  constitutional  an- 
tiquities, pp.  416-435. — Ferguson,  Greek  imperial- 
ism, pp.  65-78. — P.  Gardner,  Earliest  coins  of  Greece 
proper. 

B.  C.  477-461. — Rise  of  Athenian  empire.  See 
Greece:   B.C.  477-461. 

B.  C.  472. — Ostracism  of  Themistocles. — Esti- 
mate of  his  genius. — "The  boldness  of  Themis- 
tocles in  opposing  Spartan  interests  at  every  turn, 
added  to  envy  of  a  greatness  which  eclipsed  all 
his  contemporary  politicians,  stirred  against  him 
a  formidable  combination  headed  by  Cimon,  which 
forced  his  ostracism  (472  B.C.)." — G.  W.  Bots- 
ford,  Hellenic  history,  ch.  xii. — He  finally  died  an 
exile  in  Asia  Minor,  but  not  until  he  had  been 
accused  by  his  enemies  of  the  ridiculous  charge 
of  seeking  to  regain  his  former  power  through  the 
help  of  the  Persian  king.  "Of  the  genius  of  The- 
mistocles it  is  needless  to  speak.  It  is  attested  by 
the  victory  which  he  won,  and  the  career  of  the 
great  city,  to  which  he  gave,  as  it  were,  a  second 
foundation.  In  defence  of  his  honesty,  we  may 
say  that  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he 
cherished  treasonable  designs  against  his  country 
before  the  moment  when  it  was  no  longer  possible 
for  him  to  remain  safely  in  it;  and  when  the  com- 
bination of  his  enemies  in  Sparta  and  Athens  drove 
him  out  of  Hellas,  there  was  no  place  but  Persia 
to  which  he  could  retire.  It  is  extremely  doubt- 
ful whether  there  was  any  real  ground  for  the 
charge  of  medism  upon  which  he  was  hunted  out 
of  Greece.  The  evidence  comes  to  us  from  a  very 
suspicious  source — from  the  Spartans,  who  knew 
that  Themistocles  was  their  enemy,  and  who  had 
at  the  time  very  urgent  reasons  for  securing  his 
expulsion  from  the  Peloponnesus.  Unhappily,  the 
enemies  of  Themistocles  at  .\thens  were  only  too 
ready  to  join  in  the  work.  They  had  succeeded 
in  banishing  him  from  the  city,  but  they  knew 
that  while  he  was  in  Greece  he  might  return  and 
find  some  means  of  revenging  himself  upon  them. 


It  did  not  occur  to  their  minds  that  the  honour  of 

their  city  was  bound  up  with  that  of  her  greatest 
citizen.  In  the  malice  of  party  spirit  they  forgot 
what  they  owed  to  the  world  and  posterity." — E. 
Abbott,  Pericles,  p.  63. 

B.  C.  472-462. — Aristides  and  the  growth  of 
democracy. — Political  parties  at  Athens  and 
their  attitude  toward  Sparta. — "While  Athens 
was  thus  entering  upon  an  imperial  policy,  she 
was  encaged  in  making  her  own  government  more 
democratic.  The  patriotic  and  efficient  conduct  of 
the  .\reopagites  in  supervising  the  exodus  of  the 
inhabitants  in  the  face  of  Xerxes'  invasion  had 
given  them  an  ascendancy  in  public  life  which 
they  had  scarcely  known  since  the  time  of  Solon; 
but  their  authority  was  rapidly  undermined  by 
the  admission  of  the  nine  ex-archons  appointed 
by  lot,  and  hence  of  mediocre  talent,  and  even 
more  by  the  genuine  advance  of  democracy.  [See 
,  also  Areopagus.  1  In  the  opinion  of  .Aristotle, 
Aristeides  was  chiefly  responsible  for  this  develop- 
ment. .  .  .  (He)  introduced  pay  for  military  ser- 
vice and  to  some  extent  for  official  duty,  thus 
making  it  possible  for  any  Athenian,  however 
poor,  to  take  part  in  public  affairs.  He  more  than 
any  other,  therefore,  was  the  founder  of  the  radi- 
cal democracy.  The  double  object  was  to  furnish 
subsistence  to  the  populace  and  to  gain  a  more 
thorough  control  of  the  alliance.  .  .  .  While  there 
was  among  the  leading  statesmen  of  Athens  no 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  treatment  of  the 
confederacy,  a  sharp  line  of  cleavage  was  drawn 
through  the  group  in  relation  to  home  politics. 
Those  who  favored  the  popularization  of  the  con- 
stitution were  led  by  .'\risteides ;  the  conservatives, 
by  Cimon.  Inevitably  the  latter  party  clung  close 
to  the  Peloponnesian  league,  and  looked  to  Sparta 
as  an  example  and  a  moral  support;  whereas  the 
democrats,  understanding  the  incompatibility  of 
the  two  states,  were  ready  to  break  with  the 
Peloponnesian  league.  Their  hands  were  strength- 
ened by  the  fact  that  Sparta  gave  secret  encour- 
agement to  rebellion  within  the  Confederacy,  and 
stood  forth  as  the  champion  of  particularism — of 
the  complete  independence  and  isolation  of  the  city 
states — in  opposition  to  the  Athenian  efforts  at 
political  aggregation." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Hellenic 
history,  ch.  xii. 

B.  C.  466-454.— Revolt  of  Allies  and  begin- 
ning of  the  Athenian  empire. — Completion  of 
the  change  from  confederacy  to  empire. — Indi- 
vidual treaties. — Duties  of  the  allies  to  Athens. 
— Imperial  funds. — In  the  confederacy  "only  the 
Chians,  Lesbians,  and  Samians  were  allowed  to 
retain  their  constitutions,  that  they  might,  in  re- 
turn for  assured  freedom,  aid  in  maintaining  the 
empire.  Undoubtedly  .Athens  was  forced  to  this 
policy  by  the  character  of  the  lonians,  their  indis- 
position to  long-continued  personal  military  ser- 
vice, and  their  desire  to  shake  off  the  burden  of 
taxation,  when  once  the  danger  from  the  Persians 
had  been  removed  from  their  doors.  To  most  of 
the  other  allies  Athens  permitted  the  substitution 
of  money  payments  for  military  or  naval  service. 
With  the  danger  of  Persian  aggression  removed 
[see  Greece:  B.C.  480;  Persia:  B.C.  486-405], 
however,  even  the  payment  of  this  tribute  soon 
became  irksome.  In  466  Naxos  revolted,  but  was 
reduced  by  siege  and  deprived  of  its  autonomy  by 
the  Athenians.  Soon  after,  the  example  set  by 
Naxos  was  followed  by  Thasos.  The  Thasians 
were  encouraged  in  their  revolt  by  the  Spartans, 
who,  however,  failed  to  give  the  promised  aid  be- 
cause of  troubles  at  home.  Thasos  fell,  apparently 
in  463,  after  a  siege  of  two  years.  .Mhens  now 
deprived  the  seceding  states  of  their  autonomy,  and 
although  still  legally  allies,  in  actual  fact  the  de- 


596 


ATHENS,  B.C.  466-554 


Empire 
Spread  of  Culture 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  466-431 


pendent  states  formed  an  Athenian  empire.  One 
by  one  the  remaining  states  were  brought  into 
subjection  until,  in  the  Age  of  Pericles,  the  entire 
confederacy  became  an  empire.  The  majority  of 
its  citizens  were  well  pleased  with  this  change, 
for  they  retained  complete  freedom  of  local  gov- 
ernment. In  another  sense,  however,  the  coercion 
of  a  free  state  was  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
ideals  of  the  Greeks,  many  of  whom  came  to  look 
upon  Athens  more  and  more  as  a  tyrant  city." — 
G.  W.  Botsford,  Hellenic  history,  cli.  xii. — "But 
no  efforts  could  be  made  to  stay  the  development 
of  the  confederacy  into  an  empire,  which  was 
finally  attained  in  the  year  454,  when  the  com- 
mon treasury  was  transferred  from  Delos  to 
Athens,  and  the  first-fruits  of  the  tribute  (one- 
sixtieth  of  each  state's  assessment),  which  had 
formerly  been  paid  to  Apollo  of  Delos,  were  now 
presented  to  Athene  of  the  Athenians.  At  this 
time  the  only  states  whose  autonomy  was  guar- 
anteed by  the  supply  of  ships  in  place  of  tribute 
were  apparently  Samos,  Lesbos,  Chios,  and  the 
Eubcean  towns;  and  it  is  probable  that  tributary 
states  had  now  been  excluded  from  all  direct  in- 
fluence in  the  league — that,  in  fact,  the  votes  of 
the  great  congress  had  dwindled  down  to  the  votes 
of  these  four  islands  and  the  city  of  Athens.  After 
the  defection  of  the  greater  part  of  Lesbos  and  its 
reduction  in  427,  one  of  its  towns,  Methymna,  still 
shared  with  Chios  the  honour  of  remaining  a  tree 
city;  while  Samos  for  good  service  to  the  democ- 
racy regained  its  autonomy  in  412.  These  autono- 
mous allies  were  strictly  speaking  not  under  the 
dominion  of  Athens  at  all,  and  their  independence 
was  defined  as  consisting  in  control  of  their  own 
courts  and  of  their  own  finances.  They  brought 
neither  suits  nor  tribute  to  Athens,  and  were  per- 
haps bound  only  by  the  prescriptions  of  the  old 
Delian  league,  but  they  were  by  no  means  free 
from  the  practical  interference  of  the  leading  state, 
which  stopped  any  procedure  likely  to  lead  to  their 
revolt.  The  charter  of  Erythrae  gives  that  state 
a  constitution,  and  is  a  remarkable  and  no  doubt 
exceptional  instance  of  the  detailed  reorganisation 
of  a  city  which,  when  it  passed  into  the  power 
of  Athens,  possessed  no  regular  form  of  polity. 
The  constitution  is  closely  modelled  on  that  of 
Athens.  The  general  duties  of  the  allies  to  Athens 
maj'  be  easily  gathered  from  these  two  charters. 
They  consist  in  a  promise  of  fealty,  a  promise  to 
pay  the  required  tribute  and  to  furnish  active  as- 
sistance in  case  Athens  required  it,  and,  further, 
in  an  agreement  to  give  up  some  of  their  autono- 
mous rights,  the  chief  of  these  rights  surrendered 
being  that  of  jurisdiction  in  exceptional  cases, 
such  as  those  of  treason  to  the  central  state  and 
to  the  empire.  The  return  that  Athens  made  for 
all  this  was  her  protection.  She  is  irresponsible, 
a  'tyrant  city,'  and  in  the  position  of  one  who 
commands.  If  she  makes  concessions,  they  are  in 
the  nature  of  privileges.  She  might  impose  limits 
to  her  own  irresponsible  power,  and  she  sometimes 
grants  special  favours — such  as  immunity  to  in- 
dividuals or  practical  exemption  from  tribute  to 
whole  states,  which  she  allows  to  pay  only  the 
sixtieth,  as  first-fruits  to  the  goddess.  But  these 
are  acts  of  grace,  and  the  exemption  granted  to 
states  was  perhaps  as  much  intended  to  promote 
differences  of  interests  as  to  cultivate  the  loyalty 
of  important  outposts.  The  chief  burden  was  the 
tribute,  but  its  variations  show  it  to  have  been 
always  on  a  moderate  scale.  The  amount  imposed 
at  the  formation  of  the  league  in  478  is  said  by 
Thucydides  to  have  amounted  to  four  hundred  and 
sixty  talents.  By  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  War  in  431  it  had  risen  to  only  six  hundred 
talents.  .  .  .  The    moderation    of    the    tribute    is 


shown  by  the  fact  that  this  commutation  could 
be  made  with  the  hope  of  increasing  the  total; 
but  the  tribute  list,  when  the  assessment  is  at  its 
highest,  tells  the  same  tale." — A.  H.  J.  Greenidge, 
Handbook  of  Greek  constitutional  history,  pp. 
192-194. 

B.  C.  466-445. — Colonization. — Material  bene- 
fits of  empire. — Thurii,  a  model  town. — "But  the 
surplus  was  employed  by  Athens  for  public  build- 
ings and  for  the  theoric  fund,  and  land  was  an- 
ne.xed  in  the  conquered  districts  for  the  establish- 
ment of  cleruchies.  The  primary  object  of  these 
settlements  was  to  provide  land  for  the  poorer 
citizens  of  Athens;  they  seem  usually  to  have  been 
settled  on  territory  that  had  become  the  prize  of 
war,  and  their  advent  came  to  be  dreaded  rather 
as  a  sign  of  military  coercion  than  because  they  in- 
terfered with  the  rights  of  peaceful  members  of 
the  league.  For  their  strategic  came  to  outweigh 
their  social  importance,  and  one  of  their  main 
functions  was  to  inspire  fear  into  the  allies  and  to 
serve  as  a  guard  against  intended  revolt.  They 
assumed  the  form  of  organized  communities,  and 
as  such  mark  the  last  stage  in  the  history  of  state- 
directed  colonisation.  The  settlement  was  de- 
creed by  the  people  and  the  settlers  chosen  from 
the  poorer  citizens  by  lot.  The  cleruchs  remained 
Athenian  citizens;  collectively  they  were  but  a 
fragment  of  the  demos  settled  in  a  distant  outpost, 
individually  they  still  bore  the  designations  which 
marked  them  as  members  of  the  Attic  tribes. 
These  settlements  present  rather  the  theory  of  an 
extended  local  government  than  that  of  the  pos- 
session of  a  twofold  citizenship  by  the  same  in- 
dividuals. In  some  respects  they  resembled  the 
states  of  the  empire,  and  their  jurisdiction  was 
limited  by  the  provision  that  all  important  cases 
had  to  be  brought  to  Athens.  Their  structure  was 
that  of  the  typical  democracy,  and  decrees  were 
voted  by  their  council  and  assembly.  But  they 
paid  no  tribute,  and,  unlike  the  allied  cities,  re- 
ceived magistrates  from  Athens." — A.  H.  J.  Green- 
idge, Handbook  of  Greek  constitutional  history, 
p.  199. — "It  was  not  a  mere  collection  of  houses, 
like  the  Grecian  cities,  where  old  and  new  jostled 
each  other  in  gay  confusion,  but  a  town  con- 
structed with  a  view  to  convnience,  health,  and 
protection.  It  is  from  these  points  of  view  that 
Thurii  becomes  the  ideal  colony  of  the  Periclean 
era;  other  cities  were  of  far  more  use  to  Athens 
by  supporting  her  citizens,  or  holding  places  of 
strategical  value;  but  none  reflects  so  much  of  the 
mind  of  Pericles  as  the  Hellenic  town  by  the 
waters  of  the  Crathis  [river  Crati] — where  Herod- 
otus, the  most  Hellenic  of  Greek  historians,  was 
wont  to  talk  and  meditate." — E.  Abbott,  Pericles, 
pp.  148-149. 

B.  C.  466-431. — Spread  of  Athenian  culture  and 
influence. — "Athens  has  thus  become  recognized 
as  a  model  state ;  and  Greece  was  in  the  mood  to 
adopt  or  imitate  her  ways  in  small  things  as  in 
great.  We  can  see  this  in  the  rapid  spread  of 
Athenian  weights  and  measures  and  the  Athenian 
coinage,  or  of  systems  arranged  so  as  to  work  in 
with  them.  Athens  was  standardizing  Greek  coin- 
age as  she  was  unifying  Greek  law.  She  did  not, 
of  course,  compel  her  allies  to  use  only  Attic 
money,  or  money  coined  on  the  Attic  standard. 
But  she  naturally  preferred  that  contributions 
should  be  paid  in  it ;  and  there  were  indirect  ways 
by  which  she  could  encourage  it.  It  was  only 
decent  to  pay  Apollo  and  later  Athena,  in  the 
coinage  they  preferred  to  see.  And  as  Athenian 
coins  could  always  be  relied  upon  for  good  weight, 
and  as  the  device  upon  them,  the  famous  owl,  was 
so  conveniently  uncouth  that  you  could  tell  it  at 
a  glance,  there  was  really  no  need  for  a  compul- 


597 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  462-461 


Periclean 
Democracy 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


sion  which  would  have  been  against  the  principle 
of  free  exchange.  Example  was  better  than  pre- 
cept. Attic  silver  began  to  be  known  and  used 
not  only  in  the  Confederacy  but  all  over^  Greece 
and  among  distant  barbarians.  When  Gylippus 
after  Aegospotami  kept  back  some  of  the  Spartan 
State  booty,  and  hid  it  under  his  roof  tiles,  the 
man  who  denounced  him  merely  said  that  there 
were  'owls  in  the  potters'  quarter.'  In  fact,  much 
as  the  Spartans  hated  strangers,  and  Athenians 
above  all,  there  were  a  great  many  such  owls'  nests 
all  over  their  city.  Athenian  influence  was  thus 
spreading,  as  Pericles  realized,  far  beyond  the 
/Egean  and  the  confines  of  the  Empire.  Her  trad- 
ers were  moving  East  and  West,  finding  their  way 
into  every  land  and  every  sea,  fetching  goods  and 
paying  for  them  in  owls  and  pottery,  from  the 
iron  mines  of  Elba  or  the  caravans  at  Gaza  and 
Cyrene.  For  this  also  was  part  of  the  imperial 
inission — to  mix  freely  with  all  mankind  and  to 
give  of  their  best  to  men  and  nations.  Friend- 
ships were  knit  and  alliances  made  with  Greek, 
and  even  with  barbarian,  powers  without  a  thought 
of  the  Persians  or  the  original  object  of  the  league. 

.  .  We  must  imagine  houses  without  drains,  beds 
without  sheets  or  springs,  rooms  as  cold,  or  as 
hot  as  the  open  air,  only  draughtier,  meah  that 
began  and  ended  with  pudding,  and  cities  that 
could  boast  neither  gentry  nor  millionaires.  We 
must  learn  to  tell  the  time  without  watches,  to 
cross  rivers  without  bridges,  and  seas  without  a 
compass;  to  fasten  our  clothes  (or  rather  our  two 
pieces  of  cloth)  with  two  pins  instead  of  rows 
of  buttons,  to  wear  our  shoes  or  sandals  without 
stockings,  to  warm  ourselves  over  a  pot  of  ashes. 
to  judge  open-air  plays  or  law  suits  on  a  cold 
winter's  morning,  to  study  poetn,'  without  books, 
geography  without  maps,  and  politics  without 
newspapers.  In  a  word  we  must  learn  how  to  be 
civilized  without  being  comfortable  .  .  .  for  it  was 
the  doom  of  Athens  that  Poverty  and  Impossibility 
dwelt  in  her  midst  from  first  to  last.  It  is  to  the 
immortal  glory  of  her  citizens  that,  though  they 
were  too  clear-eyed  not  to  behold  them,  they 
bravely  refused  to  submit,  either  in  mind  or  in 
body,  to  the  squalid  tyranny  which  they  have  im- 
posed upon  the  great  mass  of  humankind." — \.  E. 
Zimmern,  Greek  commonwealth,  pp.  iqo-iqi. — See 
also  Edttcation:  Ancient:  B.C.  7th-.\.D.  3rd  cen- 
turies: Greece;  and  Libraries:  Ancient:  Greece. 

B.  C.  462-461. — Withdrawal  of  Athens  from 
the  Peloponnesian  League  following  her  break 
with  Sparta. — Ostracism  of  Cimon. — "During 
the  absence  of  Cimon  the  popular  party,  led  by 
Ephialtes,  held  complete  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  proceeded  to  make  it  more  democratic 
than  it  had  ever  been  before.  Meanwhile  the 
Athenian  troops  at  Ithome  were  unsuccessful  (see 
Greece:  B.C.  477-461);  and  the  Lacedaemonian 
authorities,  suspecting  them  of  treachery,  inso- 
lently dismissed  them.  Cimon  returned  to  .\thens 
an  unpopular  man.  In  trying  to  check  the  rising 
tide  of  democracy,  he  was  met  with  taunts  of 
over-fondness  for  Sparta.  Athens  abandoned  his 
policy,  broke  loose  from  Sparta,  and  began  to 
form  an  alliance  of  her  own,  wholly  independent 
of  the  Peloponnesian  League.  Cimon's  resistance 
to  these  new  movements  caused  his  ostracism  in 
461  B.C.  For  fifteen  years  (476-461  B.C.)  he  had 
been  leading  the  Athenian  fleets  to  victory  or  up- 
holding the  principles  of  old  .Mhens  against  what 
he  believed  to  be  the  dangerous  tendencies  of 
demagogues,  such  as  Themistocles  and  Ephi.altes; 
during  this  time  his  influence  maintained  friend- 
ship between  his  city  and  Sparta  and  harmony 
among  the  states  of  Greece.  Under  his  patron- 
age  Athens   advanced   beyond   all   other   Hellenic 


cities  in  civilization.  But  with  his  ostracism  the 
political  leadership  of  his  state  passed  into  other 
hands." — G.  W.  Botsford,  History  of  the  ancient 
world,  p.  iSg. 

B.  C.  461-431. — Periclean  democracy. — Ideal 
of  equality  at  its  zenith. — Law  courts. — Assem- 
bly. —  Magistrates.  —  "Seldom,  indeed,  has 
'equality'  been  pushed  to  so  extreme  a  point  as  it 
was,  politically  at  least,  in  ancient  Athens.  The 
class  of  slaves,  it  is  true,  existed  there  as  in  every 
other  state ;  but  among  the  free  citizens,  who  in- 
cluded persons  of  every  rank,  no  political  distinc- 
tion at  all  was  drawn.  All  of  them,  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest,  had  the  right  to  speak  and 
vote  in  the  great  assembly  of  the  people  which 
was  the  ultimate  authority ;  all  were  eligible  to 
every  administrative  post;  all  sat  in  turn  as  jurors 
in  the  law-courts.  The  disabilities  of  poverty 
were  minimized  by  payment  for  attendance  in  the 
assembly  and  the  courts.  And,  what  is  more  ex- 
traordinary, even  distinctions  of  ability  were 
levelled  by  the  practice  of  filling  all  offices,  ex- 
cept the  highest,  by  lot.  [See  also  Lot,  Use  of,  in 
election:  .\thens.]  Had  the  citizens  been  a  class 
apart,  as  was  the  case  in  Sparta,  had  they  been 
subjected  from  the  cradle  to  a  similar  discipline 
and  training,  forbidden  to  engage  in  any  trade  or 
business,  and  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
state,  there  would  have  been  nothing  surprising 
in  this  uncompromising  assertion  of  equality.  But 
in  .\thens  the  citizenship  was  extended  to  every 
rank  and  calling;  the  poor  man  jostled  the  rich, 
the  shopman  the  aristocrat,  in  the  Assembly;  cob- 
blers, carpenters,  smiths,  farmers,  merchants,  and 
retail  traders  met  together  with  the  ancient  landed 
gentry,  to  debate  and  conclude  on  national  affairs; 
and  it  was  from  such  varied  elements  as  these  that 
the  lot  impartially  chose  the  officials  ol  the  law, 
the  revenue,  the  police,  the  highways,  the  markets, 
the  ports,  as  well  as  the  jurors  at  whose  mercy 
stood  reputation,  fortune,  and  life.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  in  .Athens,  at  least  in  the  later 
period  of  her  history,  the  middle  and  lower  classes 
tended  to  monopolize  political  power.  Of  the 
popular  leaders,  Cleon,  the  most  notorious,  was  a 
tanner;  another  was  a  baker,  another  a  cattle- 
dealer.  Influence  belonged  to  those  who  had  the 
gift  of  leading  the  mass;  and  in  that  competition 
the  man  of  tongue,  of  energy,  and  of  resource, 
was  more  than  a  match  for  the  aristocrat  of  birth 
and  intellect.  In  Athens,  as  in  every  Greek  state, 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  was  unfree; 
and  the  government  which  was  a  democracy  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  freeman,  was  an  oligarchy 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  slave.  For  the 
slaves,  by  the  nature  of  their  position,  had  no 
political  rights;  and  they  were  more  than  half  of 
the  population.  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  the 
freedom  and  individuality  which  were  character- 
istic of  the  Athenian  citizen,  appear  to  have  reacted 
favourably  on  the  position  of  the  slaves.  Not  only 
had  they,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  protection  of  the 
law  against  the  worst  excesses  of  their  masters, 
but  they  were  allowed  a  license  of  bearing  and 
costume  which  would  not  have  been  tolerated  in 
any  other  state." — .-X.  E.  Zimmern,  Greek  cotn- 
monweailh. — See  also  Diobalv. — "Several  thou- 
sands of  the  citizens— men  over  thirty  years  of 
age— spent  their  time  in  deciding  the  differences 
which  arose  between  .Athenians  or  between  Athe- 
nians and  foreigners.  All  offences  except  murder, 
arson,  and  one  or  two  more,  which  were  left  to 
the  cognisance  of  the  Areopagus,  were  decideci  in 
these  courts,  which  without  any  direct  participa- 
tion in  politics  exercised  by  this  means  a  great 
influence  on  the  policy  of  the  Athenians.  .  .  .  K 
was  through   the   law-courts   that   Athens,   in   the 


598 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  461-431 


Periclean 
Democracy 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  461-431 


days  of  Pericles,  maintained  her  authority  over 
the  executive  of  the  government,  an  authority  en- 
forced by  the  severest  penalties  and  extending  to 
the  most  minute  details.  It  was  through  them 
that  she  controlled  the  trade  of  her  great  empire. 
And  from  the  decision  of  these  courts  there  was  no 
appeal.  The  public  Assembly  often  referred  mat- 
ters to  the  decision  of  the  court,  but  the  converse 
process  was  unknown.  Nor  was  any  decision  of  a 
law-court  ever  cancelled  or  revised.  The  jurors 
were  exempt  from  all  responsibility — a  privilege 
which  they  shared  with  the  public  Assembly  and 
with  that  only.  They  were  also  the  only  power 
capable  of  enacting  laws.  .  .  .  The  Assembly  was 
competent  to  change  the  whole  constitution  of 
Athens;  it  could  decide  whether  the  laws  of  Solon 
should  be  maintained  or  superseded  by  a  new 
code;  it  could  close  the  law-courts;  it  could  give 
permission  for  new  laws  to  be  passed,  or  withhold 
it,  but  it  had  not  the  power,  by  a  mere  resolution, 
to  add  to  the  statute-book." — E.  Abbott,  Pericles, 
pp.  259-261. — "The  administrative  offices  held  by 
individuals  were  particularly  large  in  number,  and 
were  at  least  doubled  when  Athens  became  an  im- 
perial state  and  a  new  Athens  grew  up  in  the 
cleruchies  and  colonies  beyond  the  sea.  ...  It  is 
sufficient  to  observe  that  the  Constitution  of 
Athens,  in  an  attempt  to  estimate  the  numbers  of 
the  bureaucracy  for  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, makes  the  total  reach  the  alarming  propor- 
tions of  fourteen  hundred,  of  which  half  were 
'home'  and  half  'foreign'  offices.  As  appointment 
to  most  of  these  was  made  by  lot,  the  Athenian 
citizen  was  unfortunate  who  did  not  once  in  his 
lifetime  get  his  share  of  individual  rule.  .  .  .  Few 
states  have  ever  been  more  completely  under  the 
sway  of  great  personalities.  ...  It  is  a  phase  of 
national  life  which,  on  general  grounds,  should  not 
create  the  least  surprise ;  for  it  is  one  of  the  old- 
est lessons  in  history  that,  while  oligarchy  is  the 
true  leveller  of  merit,  a  democracy  brings  with  it 
a  hero-worship  generally  of  an  extravagant  kind, 
and  that  the  masses  attain  sufficient  union  for  the 
exercise  of  power  only  through  the  worship  of  a 
supposed  intellectual  king.  The  first  (and  most 
important)  office  which  attracts  attention  is  that 
of  the  generals,  who  formed,  as  we  saw,  a  college 
of  ten  based  on  the  ten  Cleisthenean  tribes.  Their 
most  distinctive  right  was  that  of  procuring  special 
meetings  of  the  ecclesia,  debate  in  which  seems  to 
have  been  strictly  limited  to  proposals  put  before 
them  by  the  general.  .  .  .  The  stralegoi  were  thus 
ministers  of  finance  for  foreign  affairs,  and  con- 
trolled the  details  of  expenditure  in  their  own 
departments,  all  the  funds  voted  from  the  treas- 
uries for  military  purposes  passing  through  their 
hands.  Amongst  their  special  military  duties  we 
may  reckon,  besides  their  actual  leadership  in  war, 
the  general  command  of  the  home  forces  and  con- 
trol of  the  home  defences.  They  possessed  juris- 
diction in  military  matters,  for  the  appeal  against 
the  levy  was  m.ade  to  them,  and  they  had  the  di- 
rection of  the  court  in  all  offences  against  martial 
law,  which  they  either  undertook  in  person  or 
remitted  to  the  taxiarchs;  while  in  the  field  they 
had  the  right  of  punishing  summarily  with  death 
the  most  serious  offences;  such  as  treasonable 
negotiations  with  the  enemy.  One  of  their  chief 
responsibilities  at  home  was  the  care  of  the  corn 
supply  of  Athens.  In  the  details  of  foreign  ad- 
ministration their  influence  must  also  have  been 
very  great.  It  was  they  who  introduced  most  of 
such  business  to  the  assembly  and  brought  for- 
ward questions  arising  from  treaties  or  from  ne- 
gotiations with  foreign  states.  They  officiated  in 
treaties  and  were  responsible  for  their  formal 
execution,    seeing    that    the    oath    was    taken    and 


that  the  proper  sacrifices  were  then  offered  on  the 
occasion.  The  existence  of  the  Athenian  Empire 
added  to  the  sphere  of  their  powers.  They  were 
the  commanders-in-chief  of  the  garrisons  and  of 
the  captains  of  the  guard  whom  we  find  in  the 
subject  states.  They  saw  to  the  exaction  of  the 
tribute  when  it  was  in  arrears  by  commanding  the 
'tribute-collecting  ships,'  and  probably  had  the 
levying  of  the  contingents  from  the  allies  both  in 
ships  and  men.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  enumer- 
ation of  their  functions  that  the  Athenian  gener- 
als were  at  once  leaders  in  war,  ministers  of  war, 
foreign  ministers,  and  to  a  great  extent  ministers 
of  finance." — A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Handbook  of 
Greek   constitutional   history,   pp.   178-181. 

Also  in:  A.  Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II,  ch. 
xvi. — G.  Grote.  History  of  Greece,  clis.  xlvi,  xlvii. 
— E.  Meyer,  Forscliurigen  ziir  aiten  Geschichte,  III, 
PP-  570-583.— A,  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Greek  constitu- 


©  Publishers*  Photo  Co. 
PORCH  OF  THE  MAIDENS 
Portico  on   the-  Erechtheum,  Acropolis 

tional  history,  pp.  166-189. — Gilbert,  Constitutional 
antiquities,  pp.  170-416. — A.  E.  Zimmern,  Greek 
comnionweaith. — G.  W.  Botsford,  Development  of 
Athenian  constitution. — W.  S.  Ferguson,  Greek  im- 
perialism, pp.  38-65.— M.  H.  E.  Meier  and  G.  F. 
Schbmann,  Der  attiscbe  Process. — Whibley,  Com- 
panion to  Greek  Studies,  pp.  383-402. — Francotte, 
Les  finances  des  cites  grecques. 

B.  C.  5th  century. — Voting. — Primitive  theory 
of  suffrage.  See  Suffrage,  Manhood:  B.C.  sth 
century. 

B.  C.  461-431. — General  aspect  of  Periclean 
Athens. — Public  works  and  art  under  Pericles. 
— The  Pnyx,  Theseum  and  the  Acropolis. — 
"Some  years  after  the  Persian  Wars,  Peiraeus  was 
laid  out  by  the  Milesian  architect  Hippodamus  in 
rectangular  blocks,  but  Athens  itself,  like  most  an- 
cient and,  indeed,  most  modern  cit'es  until  recent 
times,  grew  up  after  no  comprehensive  plan.  A 
few  wide  avenues  led  from  the  principal  gates  in 


599 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


Periclean  Age 
Plan  of  the  City 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  461-431 


the  city  wall.  The  broadest  was  the  street  leading 
from  the  Dipylurn  to  the  Agora,  which  was  lined 
with  colonnades  on  both  sides.  At  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Acropolis  was  the  impressive  street  of  the 
Tripods,  a  favorite  promenade.  South  of  the 
Areopagus  a  considerable  stretch  of  the  famous 
road  along  which  the  Panathenaic  procession 
passed,  has  been  uncovered,  but  this  is  found  to 
be  only  thirteen  to  eighteen  feet  wide,  and  shut 
in  closely  on  either  side  by  blank  walls  of  pre- 
cincts and  dwellings.  The  streets  debouching  on 
these  main  arteries  were  narrow,  in  great  part  like 
alleys.  Few  of  the  streets  were  paved,  and  side- 
walks were  unknown.  We  have  little  information 
about  the  private  houses  of  the  city  and  must  de- 
pend chiefly  for  our  knowledge  upon  those  ex- 
cavated at  such  places  as  Priene  and  Deles.     The 


Along  the  more  frequented  streets  the  lower  front 
rooms  seem  often  to  have  been  used  as  shops, 
either  by  owners  or  tenants,  as  at  Pompeii.  The 
erection,  in  a  niche  or  a  vestibule  before  the  house, 
of  a  pillar  altar  of  .\pollo  of  the  Streets,  or  a 
herm,  or  a  hecateum,  or  all  three,  was  a  general 
custom.  Herms  were  also  set  up  at  street  cross- 
ings. The  location  of  a  house  was  rarely  or  never 
designated  by  streets,  the  names  of  which,  in  fact, 
were  usually  without  marked  significance,  but  by 
some  well-known  building  or  site  near  which  it 
stood.  The  traces  of  dwellings  in  Coele  [Coela], 
between  the  extremities  of  the  Long  Walls  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Pnyx  hills,  deserve  mention. 
The  exposed  rock  of  this  dictrict  is  scarred  by 
hundreds  of  cuttings  where  once  stood  the  simple 
habitations  of  a  considerable  population.     At  one 


(C^  Publithcrt'  I'LoXo  Co. 


TEMPLE    OF    THE    OLYMPIAN    ZEUS,    ATHENS 
The  .Acropolis  is  seen   in  the  distance 


houses  were  built  about  central  courts,  which  af- 
forded light  and  air,  and  most  of  them  were  but 
one  story  in  height.  The  front  wall,  built  on  the 
edge  of  the  street,  was  pierced  only  by  an-  occa- 
sional window  and  by  the  door,  the  latter  some- 
times set  back  in  a  vestibule.  .\  traveler  of  the 
Hellenistic  period  remarks  (P.-Dicaarchus  i,  i): 
'The  majority  of  the  houses  are  cheap,  but  there 
are  a  few  good  ones;  strangers  who  come  upon 
them  unexpectedly  could  hardly  be  made  to  be- 
lieve that  this  is  the  celebrated  city  of  the  Atheni- 
ans.' This  statem^t.  however,  has  a  bearing 
only  upon  the  general  appearance  of  the  exterior, 
for  the  interiors  of  many  houses  must  have  been 
fairly  ornate.  Alcibiades  is  said  to  have  had  his 
walls  decorated  by  a  painter,  and  after  his  time 
some  houses  must  have  been  still  more  sumptuous. 
In  the  fourth  century  B.C. .we  find  Demosthenes 
complaining  that  'some  have  built  private  houses 
more    magnificent     than     the     public     buildings.' 


point,  possibly  an  open  meeting  place,  seven  rude 
seats  are  hewn  in  the  native  rock.  Another  deep 
cutting,  with  three  adjacent  rock-hewn  chambers 
(now  closed  by  iron  gratings),  has  long  been  called 
the  Prison  of  Socrates,  with  whom  it  has  nothing 
to  do;  it  was  doubtless  the  site  of  an  unusually 
pretentious  dwelling.  The  patriotic  Athenian  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  the  open,  and  the  glory  of 
his  city  was  the  public  buildings.  The  center  of 
.Athenian  life  was  the  -Agora,  situated  on  the  lower 
ground  north  of  the  Areopagus.  It  was  entered 
from  the  northwest  by  the  brilliant  avenue  leading 
from  the  Dipylum  gate,  and  was  flanked  on  all 
sides  by  works  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting.  [See  Painting:  Greek]  To  mention 
only  the  objects  of  chiefest  note,  the  entering 
visitor,  if  he  turned  to  the  right,  saw  the  Royal 
Stoa,  or  Colonnade,  the  Stoa  of  Zeus  Savior, 
and  the  temple  of  Paternal  .Apollo.  The  ridge 
behind  these  bore  the  temple   of  Hephaestus  and 


600 


,"ii:??7K!l'/«5r:.-;'« 


LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  ATHENS 
An  incident  in   the  life  of  a   lady  of  ancient   Greece 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


Public 
Buildings 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  461-431 


the  shrine  of  the  hero  Eurysaces.  Against  the  slope 
of  the  Areopagus  stood  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Mother  of  the  Gods,  where  were  the  public  ar- 
chives; in  her  precinct,  too,  were  the  senate  house 
and  the  circular  Tholus.  Not  far  away  were  the 
Orchestra,  with  the  revered  images  of  the  Tyran- 
nicides, the  temple  of  Ares,  and  the  statues  of  the 
Namesake  Heroes  of  the  tribes.  On  the  left  stood 
the  Painted  Porch  and  the  Trcseum.  Back  of 
these  rose  the  imposing  Stoa  of  Attains,  and  near 
it  the  Ptolemaeum,  Still  farther  on  stood  the 
spacious  Stoa  of  Hadrian  and  the  great  Market  of 
Cjesar  and  Augustus;  in  the  rear  of  these  the 
octagonal  Tower  of  the  Winds.  Then,  among  and 
within  all  the  buildings  and  precincts  we  must  im- 
agine almost  countless  images  of  gods  and  heroes 
and  distinguished  men ;  while  everywhere  graceful 
and  brightly  appareled  men  and  women,  not  a  few 
of  whom  are  known  and  dear  to  us,  round  out  the 
brilliant  picture  with  warmth  and  life.  Following 
the  road  from  the  Prytaneum  about  the  east  end 
of  the  Acropolis,  our  traveler  came  upon  another 
famous  quarter  in  southeast  Athens.  Here  the 
huge  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  and,  across  the 
river,  the  Stadium,  stood  out  conspicuously ;  while 
not  far  away  were  the  famous  Gardens  and  the 
shaded  parks  of  the  Lyceum  [see  Education:  An- 
cient; B.C.  7th-A.  D.  3rd  centuries:  University 
of  Athens]  and  Cynosarges.  Or,  following  the 
street  of  Tripods  at  the  east  foot  of  the  Acropolis, 
he  passed  the  Music  Hall  of  Pericles  to  the  great 
theater  of  Dionysus  and  the  two  temples  hard  by ; 
then  continuing  westward  he  came  to  the  shrine 
of  Asclepius  and  Health,  or  walked  through  the 
long  colonnade  of  Eumenes  to  the  lofty  Music 
Hall  of  Herodes,  with  its  spreading  roof  of  cedar. 
To  crown  all,  the  visitor  ascended  the  Acropolis, 
past  the  delicate  temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  be- 
tween the  exquisite  columns  and  through  the  open 
doors  of  the  Propylaea,  into  the  middle  of  the 
sacred  area.  All  about  him  were  scores  of  statues, 
masterpieces  in  marble  and  bronze  [see  Sculp- 
ture: Greek  sculpture:  5lh  century]  ;  on  every 
side  great  works  of  architecture;  the  whole  a 
marvelous  harmony  of  brightness  and  color.  Fore- 
most among  the  buildings,  the  graceful  Erechtheum 
and  the  stately  Parthenon ;  and  in  the  Parthenon, 
towering  on  its  pedestal  the  awe-compelling  statue, 
in  gold  and  ivory,  of  Athena,  the  city's  guardian." 
— C.  H.  Weller,  Athens  and  its  monuments,  pp.  21- 
26. — See  also  Acropolis  at  Athens. 

"Athens  reached  the  zenith  of  her  majesty  under 
the  administration  of  Pericles,  during  approximate- 
ly the  third  quarter  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  The 
administrative  center  of  the  Delian  Confederacy, 
which  was  formed  after  the  war,  in  order  to  resist 
Persia,  was,  in  454  B.C.,  transferred  from  Delos 
to  Athens,  and  Pericles  found  a  way  to  make  its 
funds  available  for  beautifying  the  new  capital. 
The  defensive  poHcy  of  Themistocles  and  Cimon 
was  approved  and  continued.  The  harbor  of 
Peiraeus  was  supplied  with  an  elaborate  and  costly 
system  of  shipsheds,  and  the  seaport  town  itself 
was  laid  out  regularly  by  Hippodamus  of  Miletus. 
The  long  Walls  connecting  Peiraeus  with  Athens 
were  finally  completed,  a  new  South  Wall,  par- 
allel with  the  North  Wall  being  erected  in  place 
of  the  less  direct  Phaleric  Wall.  The  earliest  of 
the  splendid  buildings  of  this  period  seems  to  have 
been  the  Odeum,  or  Music  Hall,  of  Pericles,  on 
the  southeast  slope  of  the  Acropolis.  Its  conical 
roof  is  said  to  have  been  made  of  masts  from  the 
ruined  ships  of  Xerxes.  The  gymnasium  of  the 
Lyceum  was  also  constructed,  and  numerous  other 
buildings  in  the  lower  city,  to  say  nothing  of  scores 
of  statues  and  paintings,  of  which  we  have  only 
scanty  knowledge,  or  have  even  lost  the  names. 
But  the  buildings  of  the  Acropolis  are  the  glory 


of  the  age.  Whether  or  not  at  the  outset  Pericles 
had  conceived  a  systematic  plan  for  adorning  the 
sacred  hill,  is  still  a  moot  question.  At  about  the 
middle  oL  the  century,  perhaps  after  the  battle  of 
Oenophyta,  in  457  B.  C.,  when  Athens  first  tri- 
umphed over  her  old  rival,  Sparta,  a  decree  waa 
passed  providing  for  the  construction  of  the  little 
temple  of  Athena  Victory  on  the  high  bastion  be- 
side the  entrance  to  the  sacred  inclosure.  Some- 
doubt  has  been  entertained  as  to  its  immediate 
erection,  but  this  seems  most  likely.  The  Parthe- 
non, as  a  worthy  home  of  the  city's  protectress^ 
Athena,  was  probably  begun  in  447  B.  C.  on  the 
site  of  the  building  destroyed  by  the  Persians.  Iw 
438  B.  C.  the  temple  was  ready  for  the  great  gold 
and  ivory  statue  of  Athena,  by  Pheidias,  and  five 
or  six  years  later  it  was  completed.  Built  en- 
tirely of  white  Pentelic  marble,  like  the  majority 
of  the  buildings  of  this  age,  it  was  executed 
throughout  with  extraordinary  painstaking,  and 
was  richly  decorated  with  sculptures,  as  it  would 
seem  by  several  of  the  leading  artists  of  the  day. 
On  the  south  the  wall  of  the  Acropolis  was  in- 
creased in  height  to  support  the  terrace,  which,  was 
thus  brought  to  a  level  with  the  rock  on  the  iiortt 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

TEMPLE   OF    NIKE    (VICTORY) 
ACROrOLIS 

side  and  afforded  a  wide  promenade  about  the 
temple." — Ibid.,  pp.  36-37. 

"The  Pnyx,  as  we  now  have  it,  consists  of  an 
irregularly  semi-circular  space  nearly  400  feet  in 
its  longitudinal  diameter  and  about  230  feet  wide. 
The  ground  here  by  nature  slopes  toward  the 
north,  and  the  area  was  raised  on  its  curved  side 
by  a  supporting  wall  of  carefully  joined  stones, 
some  of  them  of  enormous  size,  ...  In  the  ob- 
tuse angle  at  the  middle  of  the  south  side  lies  the 
bema,  or  orators'  platform.  The  rock  has  been 
hewn  down  vertically  along  this  side  of  the  area, 
a  portion  at  the  east  corner  never  having  been 
removed,  and  the  bema  with  its  steps  is  cut  from 
a  projection  of  the  solid  rock.  Niches  for  votive 
offerings  are  cut  in  the  scarped  rock  at  one  side 
of  the  bema,  and  inscriptions  referring  to  Most 
High  Zeus  indicate  that  a  sanctuary  of  Zeus  was 
at  some  time  located  here.  Above  and  behind  the 
bema  are  seats,  probably  seats  of  honor,  cut  from 
the  rock  and  facing  the  assembly,  while  back  of 
these  are  remains  of  an  altar  and  various  bases 
belonging  to  some  shrine." — Ibid.,  pp.  111-113. — 
See  also  Pnyx. 

"The  name  'Theseum'  was  first  applied  to  this 
building  in  the  Middle  Ages,  probably  hecause  on 


601 


ATHENS,  B.C.   461-431 


Parthenon 
Sophists 


ATHENS,  B.  C.   461-431 


some  of  its  metopes  and  a  part  of  its  frieze  deeds  tion  given  by  professional  teachers — the  Sophists, 

of  Theseus  are  depicted.     But  inference  from  the  The  last  half  of  the  fifth  century  is  often  called 

sculptural  decoration  of  a  temple  has  been  shown  with  good  reason   the  '.^ge   of   the  Sophists.'  .  .  . 

to    be    hazardous.  .  .  .  The    claim    of    Heahasstus  The  Sophists  of  the  fifth  century   neither  formed 

seems  most  conclusive,  though  complete  agreement  a    philosophic    school    nor    were    they    charlatans. 

of   scholars   has   not    been    reached.      The    temple  The  most  prominent  among  them  was  Protagoras 


measures  104  by  45  feet.  ...  It  is  built  of  Pen- 
telic  and  Parian  marble,  save  the  lowest  of  the 
three  steps,  which  is  of  poros.  .  .  .  The  temple  was 
richly  decorated  with  sculptures.  Of  the  pedi- 
mental  groups  only  the  traces  remain,  unfortun- 
ately not  enough  to  indicate  clearly  their  motive. 
A  plausible  argument  has  been  offered  to  show 
that  the  east  pediment  represented  the  birth  of 
Erichthonius,  the  west,  Hephaestus  with  Thetis 
and   Eurynorae." — Ibid.,  pp.   117-11Q. 

The  Parthenon — "It  is  a  noble  building  by  mere 
size;  228  feet  measure  its  side,  loi  feet  at  its  front. 
Forty-six  majestic  Doric  columns  surround  it; 
they  average  thirty-four  feet  in  height,  and  six 
feet  three  inches  at  the  base.  All  these  facts, 
however,  do  not  give  the  soul  of  the  Parthenon. 
Walk  around  it  slowly,  tenderly,  lovingly.  Study 
the  elaborate  stories  told  by  the  pediments, — on 
the  east  front  the  birth  of  Athena,  on  the  west 
the  strife  of  Athena  and  Poseidon  for  the  posses- 
sion of  Athens.  Trace  down  the  innumerable 
lesser  sculptures  on  the  'metopes'  under  the  cor- 
nice,— showing  the  battles  of  the  Giants,  Centaurs, 
Amazons,  and  of  the  Greeks  before  Troy ;  finally 
follow  around,  on  the  whole  inner  circuit  of  the 
body  of  the  temple,  the  frieze,  showing  in  bas- 
relief  the  Panathenaic  procession,  with  the  beauty, 
nobility,  and  youth  of  .\thens  marching  in  glad  fes- 
tival; comprehend  that  these  sculptures  will  never 
be  surpassed  in  the  twenty-four  succeeding  cen- 
turies; that  here  are  supreme  examples  for  the 
artists  of  all  time, — and  then,  in  the  face  of  this 
final  creation,  we  can  realize  that  the  Parthenon 
will  justify  its  claim  to  immortality.  One  thing 
more.  There  are  hardly  any  straight  lines  in  the 
Parthenon.  To  the  eye,  the  members  and  the  steps 
of  the  substructure  may  seem  perfectly  level;  but 
the  measuring  rod  betrays  marvelously  subtle 
curves.  As  nature  abhors  right  angles  in  her  crea- 
tions of  beauty,  so  did  these  Greeks,  Rigidity,  un- 
naturalness,  have  been  banished.  The  Parthenon 
stands,  not  merely  embellished  with  inimitable 
sculptures,  but  perfectly  adjusted  to  the  natural 
world  surrounding." — VV.  S.  Davis,  Day  in  old 
Athens,  pp.  2i8-2ig. — See  also  Parthenon;  and 
Arcuitecture:     Classic:     Greek   Doric  and   Ionic. 

Also  in:  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  pp.  367-378. 
—Holm,  History  of  Greece,  II,  ch.  xx. — Beloch, 
History  of  Greece,  II,  i,  pp.  155-164,  203-218. — 
Busolt,  History  of  Greece,  III,  pp.  451-490,  560- 
582. — .A.bbott,  Pericles  and  the  Golden  Age  of 
Greece,  chs.  xvii,  xviii. — Zimmern,  Greek  common- 
wealth.— Guiraud,  Etudes  economiques  sur  V  an- 
tiquite. — Francotte,  L'industrie  dins  la  Grece  an- 
cienne. — Glover,  From  Pericles  to  Philip,  ch.  ii. — 
Judeich,  Topographic  von  Athen. — Fowler  and 
Wheeler,  Handbook  of  Greek  archceology,  pp.  144- 
158,  229-251. — Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture, pp.  279-326. — Whibley,  Companion  to  Greek 
studies,  pp.  213-224,  237-245,  416-421,  518-534.— 
Stobart,  Glory  that  ivas  Greece,  ch.  iv.— Meyer, 
Die  vjirtschafiliche  entwickelung  der  aniiken  Welt; 
also,   Sklaverei   in   Altertum,    in    Kleine   Schriften. 

B.  C.  461-431. — Age  of  rationalism  and  scep- 
ticism.— Sophists  and  Protagoras. — "The  intel- 
lectual spirit  of  the  age  was  stimulated  to  inquiry 
and  to  scepticism.  Herodotus  is  wholly  sceptical, 
and  the  agnostic  tendency  of  the  time  is  shown  by 
the  entire  lack  of  mythology  and  superstition  dis- 
played by  Thucydides.  .•X  further  stimulus  was 
furnished'  by  the  development  of  a  higher  educa- 

602 


of  Abdera  whose  ability  and  character  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Pericles  selected  him  to  draw  up 
the  laws  for  Thurii  in  444-43  B.C....  These 
Sophists  were  simply  men  devoted  to  the  pursuit 
of  wisdom,  frequently  professional  teachers  who 
undertook  to  give  a  general  culture,  to  train  their 
pupils  to  take  part  in  society  and  the  state  For 
the  old  training  which  had  been  gained  by  ob- 
servation they  substituted  a  formal  discipline ;  they 
offered  instruction  in  rhetoric,  politics,  music,  in 
short  in  all  the  higher  branches,  as  we  should  call 
them.  But  they  had  no  unity  of  doctrine.  By  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century  they  had  fallen  some- 
what into  disrepute  and  were  under  suspicion, 
since  in  the  ."Mhenian  state  all  the  youths  who 
could  afford  to  pay  the  fees  which  these  profes- 
sional teachers  charged  belonged  to  the  aristocratic 
class,  which  frequently  voted  against  the  democ- 
racy. The  Sophists  ow'ed  their  great  influence  to 
the  fact  that  they  met  an  actual  need  in  the  small 
society  of  .-Vthens  which  included  an  unusual  num- 
ber of  men  with  eager  alert  minds  and  great  in- 
tellectual curiosity.  .  .  .  Furthermore  the  Sophists 
were  sceptical  as  to  the  possibility  of  acquiring 
absolute  knowledge  about  anything.  .  .  .  Prota- 
goras maintained  that  all  knowledge  was  relative, 
since  the  only  way  in  which  a  man  can  know 
anything  is  through  his  senses;  through  them  he 
perceives  that  an  object  is  hot  or  cold,  round  or 
square,  sweet  or  bitter.  He  pointed  out,  also, 
that  the  same  object  will  not  always  appear  thi 
same  even  to  the  same  individual ;  hence  he  de- 
clared that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  absolute  truth, 
but  that  whatever  seems  true  to  you  or  to  me  at 
the  moment  is  the  truth  for  you  or  for  me,  and 
that  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  you  and  I  should 
hold  the  sam.e  thing  to  be  true  at  one  and  the  same 
time.  Whatever  seems  to  the  individual  true  is 
true,  according  to  him.  From  this  came  his  fa- 
mous dictum  that  man,  that  is  the  individual,  is  the 
measure  of  all  things.  It  is  clear  that  this  doctrine 
when  applied  to  politics,  morals,  or  religion  was 
upsetting.  So  long  as  men  studied  nature,  they 
were  concerned  with  discovering  the  inflexible 
laws  which  govern  the  world.  But  when  they 
turned  their  attention  from  nature  to  society  or 
government,  they  realized  that  human  institutions 
seemed  to  be  the  result  on  the  whole  of  conven- 
tions agreed  upon  and  adopted  by  mankind  The 
Sophists  held  in  general  that  the  form  of  the  state, 
the  current  moral  and  religious  beliefs  and  social 
customs  had  no  absolute  validity ;  that  they  were 
the  results  of  convention;  and  that  their  only 
warrant  was  that  they  worked  well  in  practice, 
that  they  were  profitable  to  the  individual  and  to 
society.  This  pragmatic  view  of  institutions  fell 
in  welt  with  the  temper  of  the  last  half  of  the 
fifth  century,  both  in  the  period  of  .Athens'  im- 
perial supremacy  and  in  the  time  of  her  trial  dur- 
ing the  Peloponnesian  War,  when  in  passion  or 
despair  the  people  disregarded  law  and,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Melians,  all  that  humanity  had  counted 
sacred.  It  was  an  age  when  many  held  that  might 
and  right  were  identical,  and  for  this  view  the 
Sophists,  even  though  unwittingly,  furnished  argu- 
ments; for  if  the  test  of  an  institution  or  act  is 
that  it  works  well  when  put  into  practice,  suc- 
cess proves  validity.  The  Sophists,  too,  taught 
that  virtue  was  nothing  else  than  what  we  call 
today  efficiency.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  con- 
servative .Athenians  came   to   look   on   them  with 


ATHENS,  B.  C.   461-431 


Sophocles 
Pericles 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


suspicion.  With  regard  to  the  gods  Protagoras 
was  naturally  agnostic.  He  began  his  'Treatise  on 
the  Gods'  with  the  words:  'So  far  as  the  gods 
are  concerned,  I  cannot  know  whether  they  exist  or 
do  not  exist ;  or  what  their  nature  is.  Many  things 
prevent  our  knowing.  The  matter  is  obscure  and 
life  is  short.'  One  may  be  curious  to  know  what 
large  matter  Protagoras  found  for  his  discussion 
when  he  began  with  this  frank' confession  of  ig- 
norance; but  it  should  be  observed  that  in  this 
^  confession  there  is  nothing  necessarily  antagonistic 
to  the  popular  theology  of  his  day.  It  only  shows 
what  the  words  plainly  declare,  that  a  belief  in 
the  gods  cannot  depend  upon  knowledge.  Another 
Sophist,  Prodicus,  maintained  that  the  divinities 
were  nothmg  but  the  kindly  powers  of  nature 
which  man  had  deified;  and  the  'Gentle  Critias,' 
one  of  the  worst  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  a 
ready  pupil  of  the  earlier  Sophists,  is  said  to 
have  set  forth  in  a  satyric  drama  the  theory 
that  the  gods  were  the  clever  invention  of  some- 
one who  wished  to  scare  men  out  of  their  desire 
to  do  evil.  The  effect  of  such  scepticism  and 
agnosticism  we  can  easily  imagine.  [See  also 
AcNosnciSM.]  Many  things  had  been  wrongly 
laid  at  the  door  of  the  Sophists,  but  it  is  small 
wonder  that  the  conservative  Athenian  citizens 
came  to  look  with  distrust  and  alarm  on  these 
new-fangled  subversive  notions;  tha;:  they  ban- 
ished Protagoras  and  burned  his  books  in  the 
market  place;  or  finally  that  they  should  have  put 
Socrates  to  death." — C.  H.  Moore,  Religious 
thought  of  the  Creeks,  from  Homer  to  the  trinmph 
of   Christianity,   pp.   124-129. 

B.  C.  461-431. — Development  of  Greek  drama. 
— Sophocles. — "Sophocles  was  born  at  Colonus,  a 
village  about  a  mile  northwest  of  Athens,  in  497 
B.  C,  twenty-eight  years  after  the  birth  of  ^-Eschy- 
lus.  His  father,  Sophilus,  was  wealthy,  though  not 
of  noble  descent.  The  boy  Sophocles  was  care- 
fully educated,  receiving  instruction  in  music  from 
Lamprus,  a  well-known  teacher  of  the  time.  He 
excelled  in  personal  beauty,  in  dancing,  and  in 
music,  so  that  when  a  chorus  of  boys  was  to  chant 
the  pjean  of  victory  after  the  battle  of  Salamis 
he  was  chosen  to  be  the  leader.  The  first  appear- 
ance of  Sophocles  as  a  tragic  poet  was  in  46S  B.  C, 
wlicn  he  was  twenty-eight  years  old.  .  .  .  More 
than  one  hundred  plays  are  ascribed  to  him,  and 
with  these  he  won  eighteen  victories  at  the  city 
Dionysia,  besides  others  at  the  Lenaca.  .  .  .  For 
over  sixty  years  he  composed  a  tetralogy  every 
second  year,  showing  no  falling  off  in  invention, 
imagination,  dramatic  skill,  or  poetic  diction.  He 
died  in  405  B.  C,  more  than  ninety  years  of  age, 
and  his  latest  tragedy,  the  Qi^dipus  at  Colonus, 
was  brought  out  after  his  death  by  his  grandson. 
Several  innovations  in  the  dramatic  art  are  as- 
cribed to  Sophocles.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  the  introduction  01  the  third  actor,  which 
made  the  dialogue  henceforth  more  important  than 
the  choral  songs,  though  the  latter  continued  to 
occupy  nearly  half  the  time  of  the  performance. 
The  second  innovation  consisted  in  enlarging  the 
chorus  from  twelve  to  fifteen  members,  which 
doubtless  occasioned  some  changes  in  its  arrange- 
ment and  movements.  Sophocles  also  ceased  to 
compose  tetralogies  of  four  plays  on  connected 
subjects,  but  competed  at  the  festivals  with  sep- 
arate plays — three  tragedies  and  a  satyr  drama,  to 
be  sure,  but  not  dealing  with  one  myth.  This, 
with  the  reduction  of  the  length  of  the  lyric  por- 
tions of  his  plays,  made  it  possible  for  him  to  make 
his  plots  less  simple  than  those  of  ^schylus  and 
to  introduce  more  dramatic  situations.  It  is  also 
said  that  Sophocles  was  the  first  to  use  painted 
scenery    to   any   great   extenf,   and   several   minor 


changes  in  the  costume  of  the  chorus  as  well  as  in 
the  music  employed  are  attributed  to  him.  [See 
also  Drama:  Origin]  All  these  things  show  that 
he  was  interested  in  the  practical  side  of  his  pro- 
fession as  well  as  in  the  writing  of  tragedies.  He 
even  wrote  a  book  in  prose.  On  the  Chorus,  de- 
fending his  innovations.  In  his  early  days  he  was 
himself  an  actor  in  his  plays,  but  his  weak  voice 
compelled  him  to  give  up  acting.  Sophocles  is 
justly  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  great  Greek 
tragic  poets.  He  found  the  drama  already  de- 
veloped by  the  genius  of  ^schylus  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  beauty  and  power,  and  he  carried  it  fur- 
ther ...  by  refining  the  language  employed,  by 
giving  more  variety  to  the  plot,  which  he  enriched 
with  many  fine  details,  and  by  perfecting  the  por- 
trayal of  character." — H.  N.  Fowler,  History  of 
ancient  Greek  literature,  pp.  205,  218. 

B.  C.  461-431. — Pericles:  Estimate  of  his  char- 
acter.— -"But  though  Greece  hated  him,  and 
Athens  spoke  of  him  with  mingled  feelings,  the 
debt  which  the  world  owes  to  Pericles  is  immense. 
Without  him  and  his  personal  government ;  with- 
out the  money  which  he  lavished  on  shows 
and  spectacles,  on  temples  and  statutes;  with- 
out the  sophists  and  philosophers  whom  he  shel- 
tered, we  should  have  been  the  poorer  by  the  loss 
of  half  our  intellectual  life.  And  in  his  political 
aims,  however  unfortunate  the  results,  we  can 
trace  the  outlines  of  a  purpose  which  must  always 
be  the  guiding  light  of  the  greatest  statesmen:  the 
wish  to  give  to  every  citizen  in  and  through  the 
state,  not  only  the  blessings  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity, but  the  still  greater  blessing  of  unimpeded 
action  in  all  noble  aspirations;  to  awaken  in  him 
such  a  devotion  to  his  state  as  shall  prove  an 
unerring  guide  in  conduct;  to  train  his  intellectual 
and  moral  powers,  not  with  the  lessons  of  a  school, 
but  by  the  experience  of  life;  to  develop  an  equal 
balance  between  the  individual  and  the  citizen;  to 
make  duty  a  delight,  and  service  an  honour;  to 
remove  the  sting  from  poverty  and  the  charm 
from  wealth ;  and  to  recognise  benefits  to  the  com- 
munity as  the  only  ground  of  civic  distinction. 
Such  a  purpose  was  perhaps  a  distant  ideal,  even 
at  .Athens,  and  it  is  far  more  distant  now;  but 
near  or  far  away,  it  is  from  such  ideals  that  the 
spark  is  sent  which  kindles  the  flame  of  our 
highest  efforts.  A  few  details  have  come  down  to 
us  of  the  personal  appearance  and  manners  of 
Pericles.  .  .  .  His  head,  which  was  of  unusual  size 
and  shape,  was  a  common  theme  of  merriment 
with  the  comedians:  they  compared  it  to  a  kind 
of  bean,  called  Schinus,  and  exercised  their  wits 
in  all  kinds  of  allusions  to  the  heavy  head  of  the 
new  Olympian.  To  conceal  the  defect,  Pericles 
was  accustomed,  when  in  public,  to  wear  a  helmet, 
a  practice  which,  as  we  have  said,  provoked  Cra- 
tinus  into  declaring  that  he  went  'about  with  the 
Odeum  on  his  head.'  The  suspicions  which  his 
appearance  excited  were  not  diminished  by  his 
education  and  manners.  His  tutor  in  'music,' 
which  at  Athens  included  most  of  the  intellectual 
part  of  education,  as  opposed  to  the  physical,  was 
Damon,  the  'friend  of  tyrants'  and  a  'consummate 
sophist,'  who,  under  cover  of  his  art,  was  thought 
to  cherish  designs  against  the  democracy.  Whether 
this  view  was  correct  or  not,  Damon  was  ostra- 
cised from  Athens.  Another  teacher  was  Zeno, 
from  whom  Pericles  learned  the  art  of  disputation 
as  it  was  practised  in  the  Eleatic  School.  More 
important  still  was  his  connexion  with  Anaxa- 
goras.  In  the  society  of  this  eminent  man  he  not 
only  acquired  a  knowledge  and  an  elevation  of 
thought  which  raised  him  above  the  superstitions 
of  his  time,  but  the  influence  extended  to  his 
language   and   demeanor.     As   an   orator,   Pericles 


603 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


Estimate  of 
the  Periclean   Age 


ATHENS,  B.C.  461-431 


was  stately  and  dignified,  carefully  avoiding  any- 
thing familiar  or  common  in  his  language;  calm 
and  quiet  in  his  delivery,  and  by  these  very 
qualities  producing  a  deep  impression  on  his  audi- 
ence. His  movements  were  at  all  times  sedate; 
his  dress  was  careful  and  becoming ;  he  was 
rarely  seen  to  smile,  and  nothing  could  provoke 
him  to  anger.  .  .  .  His  power  was  far  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  man  of  his  time.  Yet  he  never 
abused  it  for  mean  or  malicious  purposes.  In  his 
last  utterance  ...  he  declared  that  no  Athenian 
had  ever  put  on  mourning  owing  to  any  act  of 
his.  ...  In  graciousness  and  clemency,  in  the  for- 
bearance and  patience  with  which  they  endured 
the  attacks  of  foolish  and  ignorant  enemies,  the 
Roman  and  the  Grecian  were  fairly  matched.  But 
not  less  admirable  than  his  clemency  was  the 
loftiness  of  spirit  which  prompted  Pericles  to 
utter  that  last  noble  speech,  giving  the  foremost 
place  among  his  triumphs  to  the  self-restraint 
which  had  governed  his  exercise  of  suorcme  au- 
thority."— E.    Abbott,   Pericles,   pp.   363-366. 

B.C.  461-431. — Appreciation  of  the  age  of 
Pericles  and  summary  of  its  achievements. — 
"Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  Periclean 
Athens  chiefly  as  the  most  perfect  example  of 
Greek  civic  life;  as  an  imperial  city,  in  which  the 
fullest  individual  freedom  was  enjoyed  without 
prejudice  to  the  strength  of  the  State;  as  a  great 
seat  of  industry  and  a  focus  of  commerce.  The 
memorials  of  all  these  things  have  well-nigh  van- 
ished; but  the  modern  world  still  possesses  monu- 
ments of  the  literature,  and  at  least  fragments  of 
the  art,  which  proclaim  Athens  to  have  been,  above 
all,  the  great  intellectual  centre  of  that  age.  The 
influence  of  Periclean  Athens  is  deeply  impressed 
on  the  History  of  Herodotus,  and  moulded  the 
still  greater  work  of  Thucydides;  Athens  was  the 
home  of  the  philosopher  Anaxagoras,  and  the  as- 
tronomer Meton  [inventor  of  the  Metonyc  Cycle] ; 
it  was  at  Athens  that  prose  composition,  which  had 
hitherto  been  either  colloquial  or  poetical,  was 
first  matured;  at  Athens,  too,  oratory  first  became 
the  effective  ally  of  statesmanship;  both  tragedy 
and  comedy  were  perfected ;  the  frescoes  of  Polyg- 
notus,  the  architecture  of  Ictinus,  the  sculpture 
of  Phidias,  combined  to  adorn  the  city ;  and  when 
we  think  of  these  great  writers  and  artists,  we 
must  remember  that  they  are  only  some  of  the 
more  eminent  out  of  a  larger  number  who  were 
all  living  at  Athens  within  the  same  period  of 
thirty  years.  How  far  can  this  wonderful  fact  be 
directly  connected  with  the  influence  of  the  politi- 
cal work  done  by  Pericles,  or  with  the  personal 
influence  of  the  man?  We  must  beware  of  ex- 
aggerating such  influences.  Statesmanship  may 
encourage  men  of  genius,  but  it  cannot  make  them. 
When  we  look  back  on  that  age,  we  seem  to  rec- 
ognize in  its  abounding  and  versatile  brilliancy 
rather  the  golden  time  of  a  marvelously  gifted 
race,  than  merely  the  attraction  which  a  city  of 
unique  opportunities  exercised  over  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  great  national  victory  over  Persia 
had  raised  the  vital  energy  of  the  Greek  spirit  to 
the  highest.  But  we  must  also  recollect  that, 
owing  to  the  very  nature  of  Greek  literature  and 
art,  such  a  city  as  the  Athens  of  Pericles  could 
do  more  for  it  than  any  modern  city  could  do 
for  modern  art  or  literature.  Greek  literature  was 
essentially  spontaneous,  the  free  voice  of  life,  re- 
strained in  its  freedom  only  by  a  sense  of  mea- 
sure which  was  part  of  the  Greek  nature;  the 
Greek  poet,  or  historian,  or  philosopher,  was  not 
merely  a  man  of  letters  in  the  narrower  modern 
meaning  of  the  term;  he  was  first,  and  before  all 
things,  a  citizen,  in  close  sympathy,  usually  in 
active  contact,   with   the   public   life   of   the  city. 


For  a  Greek,  therefore,  as  a  poet  or  historian  or 
philosopher,  nothing  could  be  more  directly  im- 
portant than  that  this  public  life  should  be  a: 
noble  as  possible;  since,  the  nobler  it  was,  the 
higher  and  the  more  invigorating  was  the  source 
from  which  he  drew  his  inspiration.  Among  the 
great  literary  men  who  belonged  to  the  age  ol 
Pericles,  there  are  especially  two  who  may  be 
regarded  as  representative  of  it — its  chief  historian 
and  its  most  characteristic  poet — Thucydides  and 
Sophocles.  The  mind  of  Thucydides  had  been 
moulded  by  the  ideas  of  Pericles,  and  probably  " 
in  large  measure  by  personal  intercourse  with 
him.  We  recognize  that  Periclean  stamp  in  the 
clearness  with  which  Thucydides  perceives  that 
the  vital  thing  for  a  state  is  the  spirit  in  which 
it  is  governed;  and  that,  apart  from  this  spirit, 
there  is  no  certain  efficacy  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
stitution, no  sovereign  spell  in  the  name.  In  Soph- 
ocles, again,  we  feel  the  Periclean  influence  work- 
ing with  the  same  general  tendency  as  in  the 
plastic  arts;  he  holds  with  the  ancient  traditions 
of  piety,  but  invests  them  with  a  more  spiritual 
and  more  intellectual  meaning.  With  regard  to 
the  fine  arts,  it  was  the  resolve  of  Pericles  that  they 
should  find  their  supreme  and  concentrated  mani- 
festation in  the  embellishment  of  Athens.  Thucy- 
dides, with  all  his  reticence  as  to  art,  is  doubtless 
a  faithful  interpreter  of  the  spirit  in  which  that 
work  was  done,  when  he  makes  Pericles  speak  of 
the  abiding  monuments  w-hich  will  attest  to  all 
posterity  the  achievements  of  that  age.  This  feel- 
ing was  not  prompted  merely  by  Athenian  patriot- 
ism; Athens  was  the  city  which  the  Persian  in- 
vader, bent  on  avenging  Cardis,  had  twice  laid 
in  ruins.  The  fact  that  .Athens  should  have  risen 
from  its  ashes  in  unrivaled  strength  and  grace 
was,  as  Pericles  might  well  feel,  the  most  impres- 
sive of  all  testimonies  to  the  victory  of  Hellene 
over  barbarian.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the 
story  of  Greece  was  not  closed  when  the  Greek 
genius  reached  the  brief  term  of  its  creative  ac- 
tivity. It  is  well  to  follow  the  work  of  the  Greek 
mind  through  later  periods  also;  but  those  quali- 
ties which  were  distinctive  of  its  greatness  can 
best  be  studied  when  the  Greek  mind  was  at  its 
best.  That  period  was  unquestionably  the  Fifth 
Century  before  Christ — the  Age  of  Pericles." — S.  R, 
Jebb,  Age  oj  Pericles  (L.  Cooper,  Greek  genius  and 
its  influence,  pp.  73-75). — ".Accepting  this  (the  will 
to  be  good)  as  a  concise  description  of  the  Hellenic 
ideal,  we  find  that  the  period  during  which  it  was 
most  fully  realized  was  that  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  call  the  age  of  Pericles.  The  period  so 
named  may  be  roughly  defined  as  extending  from 
460  to  430  B.  C.  Within  those  thirty  years  the 
political  power  of  .'\thens  culminated;  the  Atheni- 
ans developed  that  civic  life  which,  as  sketched  in 
the  great  oration  attributed  to  Pericles  by  Thucy- 
dides, made  .Athens,  as  the  orator  says,  the  school 
of  Greece,  and,  as  we  moderns  might  add,  the 
teacher  of  posterity;  within  those  thirty  years 
were  created  works  of  art,  in  literature,  in  archi- 
tecture, and  in  sculpture,  which  the  world  has 
ever  since  regarded  as  unapproachable  master- 
pieces. This  period,  so  relatively  short  and  yet  so 
prolific  in  varied  excellence,  followed  closely  on 
the  war  in  which  united  Greece  repelled  the  Per- 
sian invasion.  It  immediately  preceded  the  war 
of  the  two  leading  Greek  cities  against  each  other, 
in  which  Sparta  ultimately  humbled  Athens. 
Athens,  as  it  appears  in  the  national  struggle 
against  Persia,  is  not  yet  the  acknowledged  head 
of  Hellas.  The  formal  leadership  belongs,  by  com- 
mon consent,  to  Sparta;  and  though  Athens  is  al- 
ready pre-eminent  in  moral  qualities — in  unselfish 
devotion   to   the   national   cause,   and   in   a   spirit 


604 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  460-455 


Defeat  in  Egypt 
Long  Walls 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  457-456 


which  no  reverses  can  break, — these  qualities  ap- 
pear as  they  are  embodied  in  a  few  chosen  men, 
in  a  Themistocles  and  an  Aristides ;  the  mass  of 
Athenians  whom  they  lead  is  still  a  comparatively 
rude  multitude,  not  yet  quickened  into  the  full 
energy  of  conscious  citizenship.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  look  to  the  close  of  the  age  of  Pericles — 
if  we  pass  to  the  opening  years  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war — we  find  that  the  Athenian  democracy 
already  bears  within  it  the  seeds  of  decay.  The 
process  of  degeneration  has  already  begun,  though 
a  century  is  still  to  elapse  before  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  shall  overthrow  the  liberties  of  Greece  at 
Chseronea." — Ibid,  pp.  63-64. 

B.  C.  460-455. — The  disastrous  expedition  to 
Egypt.  —  Attacks  on  the  Peloponneaian  coast. 
■ — Defeat  at  Tanagra. — "Inarus,  king  of  some  of 
the  Libyan  tribes  on  the  western  border  of  Egypt, 
had  excited  an  insurrection  there  against  the  Per- 
sians [about  460  B.C.],  and  his  authority  was 
acknowledged  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
country.  Artaxerxes  sent  his  brother  Achjemenes 
with  a  great  army  to  quell  this  rebellion.  An 
Athenian  armament  of  200  galleys  was  lying  at 
the  time  off  Cyprus,  and  Inarus  sent  to  obtain 
its  assistance.  The  Athenian  commanders,  whether 
following  their  own  discretion,  or  alter  orders  re- 
ceived from  home,  quitted  Cyprus,  and  having 
joined  with  the  insurgents,  enabled  them  to  defeat 
Achaemenes,  who  fell  in  the  battle  by  the  band 
of  Inarus.  They  then  sailed  up  the  Nile  to  Mem- 
phis, where  a  body  of  Persians,  and  some  Egyp- 
tians, who  still  adhered  to  their  cause,  were  in 
possession  of  one  quarter  of  the  city,  called  White 
Castle.  The  rest  was  subject  to  Inarus,  and  there 
the  Athenians  stationed  themselves,  and  besieged 
the  Persians.  .  .  .  Artaxerxes  sent  a  Persian,  named 
Megabazus,  to  Sparta,  with  a  sum  of  money,  to 
be  employed  in  bribing  the  principal  Spartans  to 
use  their  influence,  so  as  to  engage  their  country- 
men in  an  expedition  against  Attica.  Megabazus 
did  not  find  the  leading  Spartans  unwilUng  to  re- 
ceive his  money ;  but  they  seem  to  have  been  un- 
able to  render  him  the  service  for  which  it  was 
offered.  Ithome  still  held  out:  and  Sparta  had 
probably  not  yet  sufficiently  either  recovered  her 
strength  or  restored  internal  tranquility,  to  ven- 
ture on  the  proposed  invasion.  Some  rumours  of 
this  negotiation  may  have  reached  Athens,  and 
have  quickened  the  energy  with  which  Pericles  now 
urged  the  completion  of  the  long  walls.  .  .  .  But 
among  his  opponents  there  was  a  faction  who 
viewed  the  progress  of  this  great  work  in  a  dif- 
ferent light  from  Cimon,  and  saw  in  it,  not  the 
means  of  securing  the  independence  of  Athens,  but 
a  bulwark  of  the  hated  commonalty.  They  too 
would  have  gladly  seen  an  invading  army  in 
Attica,  which  might  assist  them  in  destroying  the 
work  and  its  authors." — C.  Thirlwall,  History  of 
Greece,  v.  3,  ch.  17. — This  party  was  accused  of 
sympathy  with  the  Spartan  expedition  which  came 
to  the  help  of  Doris  against  the  Phocians  in  457 
B.  C,  and  which  defeated  the  Athenians  at  Tan- 
agra (See  also  Greece:  B.C.  458-456).  In  455, 
"the  Spartans  were  reminded  that  they  were  also 
liable  to  be  attacked  at  home.  An  Athenian  arma- 
ment of  so  galleys,  and,  if  we  may  trust  Diodorus, 
with  4,000  heavy  armed  troops  on  board,  sailed 
round  Peloponnesus  under  Tolmides,  burnt  the 
Spartan  arsenal  at  Gythium,  took  a  town  named 
Chalcis  belonging  to  the  Corinthians,  and  defeated 
the  Sicyonians,  who  attempted  to  oppose  the  land- 
ing of  the  troops.  But  the  most  important  ad- 
vantage gained  in  the  expedition  was  the  capture 
of  Naupactus,  which  belonged  to  the  Ozolian  Locri- 
ans,  and  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Athe- 
nians at  very  seasonable  juncture.    The  third  Mes- 


senian  war  had  just  come  to  a  close.  The  brave 
defender.,  of  Ithome  had  obtained  honourable 
terms.  .  .  .  The  besieged  were  permitted  to  quit 
Peloponnesus  with  their  families,  on  condition  of 
being  detained  in  slavery  if  they  ever  returned. 
Tolmides  now  settled  the  homeless  wanderers  in 
Naupactus.  .  .  .  But  these  successes  were  counter- 
balanced by  a  reverse  which  befell  the  arms  of 
Athens  this  same  year  in  another  quarter.  After 
the  defeat  of  Achsmens,  Artaxerxes,  disappointed 
in  his  hopes  of  assistance  from  Sparta,  .  .  .  raised 
a  great  army,  which  he  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  an  abler  general,  Megabyzus,  son  of 
Zopyrus.  Megabyzus  defeated  the  insurgents  and 
their  allies,  and  forced  the  Greeks  to  evacuate 
Memphis,  and  to  take  refuge  in  an  island  of  the 
Nile,  named  Prosopitis,  which  contained  a  town 
called  Byblus,  where  he  besieged  them  for  18 
months.  At  length  he  resorted  to  the  contrivance 
of  turning  the  stream.  .  .  .  The  Greek  galleys  were 
all  left  aground,  and  were  fired  by  the  Athenians 
themselves,  that  they  might  not  fall  into  the 
enemy's  hands.  The  Persians  then  marched  into 
the  island  over  the  dry  bed  of  the  river:  the 
Egyptians  in  dismay  abandoned  their  allies,  whO' 
were  overpowered  by  numbers  and  almost  all  de- 
stroyed. .  .  .  Inarus  himself  was  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Persians  and  put  to  death.  .  .  .  Egypt 
.  .  .  was  again  reduced  under  the  Persian  yoke, 
except  a  part  of  the  Delta,  where  another  pre- 
tender, named  Amyrtaeus,  who  assumed  the  title 
of  king  .  .  .  maintained  himself  for  several 
years  against  the  power  of  the  Persian  monarchy. 
But  the  misfortune  of  the  Athenians  did  not  end 
with  the  destruction  of  the  great  fleet  and  army 
which  had  been  first  employed  in  the  war.  They 
had  sent  a  squadron  of  50  galleys  to  the  relief  of 
their  countrymen,  which,  arriving  before  the  news 
of  the  recent  disaster  had  reached  them,  entered 
the  Mendesian  branch  of  the  Nile.  They  were  here 
surprised  by  a  combined  attack  of  the  Persian  land 
force  and  a  Phoenician  fleet,  and  but  few  escaped 
to  bear  the  mournful  tidings  to  Athens.  Yet  even 
after  this  calamity  we  find  the  Athenians,  not 
suing  for  peace,  but  bent  on  extending  their 
power,  and  annoying  their  enemies." — G.  Grote,, 
History  of  Greece,  v.  $,  pt.  2,  ch.  45. 

B.  C.  458. — Athens'  triumph  over  Corinth. — 
Long  walls. — Now  that  her  break  with  Sparta 
was  complete,  Athens  proceeded  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  Megara,  and  that  meant  war  with 
Corinth,  the  ally  of  Sparta  (462-461  B.C.).  Simi- 
lar alliances  were  concluded  with  Argos  and  Thes- 
saly,  while  Corinth  won  the  aid  of  ^^gina.  In  458 
B.C.,  the  Athenians  administered  a  crushing  de- 
feat to  the  allied  fleets  of  the  enemy  at  Cecry- 
phalea.  At  the  same  time  they  drove  back  in 
disorder  the  Corinthian  army,  which  they  finally 
annihilated.  Meanwhile  the  Athenians  were  tak- 
ing steps  to  render  their  own  position  impregnable. 
Themistocles  had  been  the  first  to  insist  that  the 
real  strength  of  Athens  lay  in  the  wooden  walls 
of  her  ships.  Carrying  out  this  policy,  the 
Athenians  proceeded  to  join  Athens  to  the  Peiraeus 
and  the  sea  by  lines  of  fortified  walls.  To  un- 
derstand the  magnitude  of  the  task,  we  h^ve  only 
to  remember  that  it  meant  the  construction  of 
nine  miles  of  wall  impregnable  to  the  siege  ap- 
paratus of  the  time.  Upon  the  advice  of  Pericles 
this  work  was  begun.— See  also  Long  walls. 

B.  C.  457-456.— Battle  of  Oenophyta.— New 
Athenian  alliances. — Fall  of  .Sgina. — "Sixty-two 
days  after  the  battle  of  Tanagra  an  Athenian 
force,  under  Myronides,  entered  Bceotia,  and  in 
a  great  battle  at  Oenophyta  (4'6),  of  which  we 
know  nothing  but  the  fact  and  the  result,  en- 
tirely  overthrew   the  Theban   army.     The  smaller 


60s 


ATHENS,  B.C.  456 


Cimon 
Thirty   Years'    War 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  446-445 


cities  were  freed  from  the  supremacy  of  Thebes, 
and  the  oligarchies  overthrown.  Even  in  Thebes 
the  defeat  brought  about  a  political  change  and 
the  establishment  of  a  democracy.  The  cities 
of  BcEOtia  became  members  of  the  Athenian  Al- 
liance and  furnished  troops.  And  soon  afterwards 
Phocis,  already  hostile  to  Sparta  for  her  recent 
raid  into  their  territory,  joined  Athens  also.  Soon 
afterward  the  long  blockade  of  .ligina  came  to  a 
successful  conclusion;  the  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed, the  ships  of  war  surrendered,  the  obliga- 
tion to  pay  tribute  for  the  future  recognized.  And 
meanwhile  the  long  walls  that  connected  Athens 
with  the  sea  were  completed." — A.  J.  Grant, 
Greece  in  the  Age  of  Perides,  p.  123. 

B.  C.  456. — Height  of  Athenian  power  on 
land. — "The  year  456  gave  new  evidence  of  the 
unapproachable  power  of  .\thens  at  sea.  Her  ad- 
miral Tolmides  sailed  round  the  Peloponnese. 
He  burnt  the  Spartan  dock-yard  at  Gythium,  and 
nowhere  met  with  any  resistance  at  sea.  Corinth 
found  herself  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  the 
dependencies  of  Athens.  On  the  west,  Megara, 
.(Egina,  and  Troezen  closed  her  round.  On  the 
east,  at  the  very  narrowest  part  of  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  the  Athenians  had  captured  the  important 
station  of  Naupactus,  and  when,  in  45=;.  the 
Helots  on  Mount  Ithome  surrendered  on  condi- 
tion that  they  should  be  allowed  to  depart  freely, 
they  were  planted  in  Naupactus  by  Athens.  The 
bitter  enemies  of  Sparta,  and  therefore  of  Corinth, 
they  held  the  gate  of  the  western  waters  against 
her.  It  was  by  her  commerce  that  Corinth  lived 
and  now  she  could  only  carry  on  her  commercial 
enterprises  with  the  permission  of  .Athens.  For 
the  jealousy  which  she  then  created  she  was  to 
pay  dearly  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  .Athens  had  reached  the  highest  point  of 
her  material  power.  The  .^igean  Sea  w-as  hers, 
and  hers  was  the  centre  of  Greece.  No  power 
on  earth  could  cope  with  her  on  the  waters ; 
on  land  Sparta  could  boast  no  assured  superiority. 
The  extent  of  territory  that  she  controlled  was 
greater  than  any  that  in  historical  times  had 
belonged  to  any  state  of  Greece.  Her  revenues 
were  for  the  age,  immense.  .\nd  her  intellectual 
supremacy,  though  doubtless  to  contemporaries  not 
so  important  as  her  material  greatness,  helped  to 
increase  her  splendour  in  the  eyes  of  Greece.  But 
this  increase  in  dominion  was  too  sudden  a  growth 
to  last.  Such  extraordinary  energy  was  feverish, 
and  could  not  be  permanent.  She  could  not  hope 
to  win  many  victories  with  those  who  were  too 
old  or  young  for  regular  service.  Side  by  side 
with  her  conquests  went  the  development  of  the 
democracy,  and  we  shall  see  shortly  how  quite 
unsuitable  were  the  institutions  of  the  democracy 
for  the  management  of  an  empire.  -And  so  the 
might  of  .Athens  from  this  point  changes  only 
to  decrease." — K.  J.  Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of 
Pericles,  pp.  124-125 — See  also  B.^lance  of  power: 
.Ancient  Greece  and  Rome. 

B.  C.  454  or  453. — Return  of  Cimon. 

B.  C.  449-446. — Cimon's  expedition. — Peace 
with  Persia. — ".And  during  these  years  the  contest 
with  Persia  was  renewed  by  Cimon  with  con- 
spicuous success.  The  war  is  of  importance,  and 
it  would  be  interesting  to  watch  in  detail  the  last 
struggle  between  the  great  combatants.  But  our 
authorities  here  are  meagre,  and,  except  for  the 
main  features,  contradictory ;  nor  does  the  war 
in  the  East  bear  directly  upon  the  development 
of  .Athenian  power  in  Central  Greece.  It  is 
enough  then  to  say  that  in  440  Cimon  at  the 
head  of  the  .Athenian  armament  was  engaged  in 
the  attempt  to  reduce  Cyprus,  when  he  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Persian  fleet.     He  died  before  the 


engagement,  but  his  spirit  animated  his  troops. 
.And  off  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  the  Persians  were 
entirely  defeated  on  the  same  day,  both  by  sea 
and  land.  The  defeat  was  an  exceedingly  severe 
one.  and  now  the  Persian  king  acquiesced  in  an 
arrangement  whereby  the  status  quo  was  accepted 
and  all  hostilities  terminated.  It  is  forty  years 
before  there  is  any  further  collision  between 
Greeks  and  Persians.  Meanwhile  the  fleet  returned 
with  Cimon's  body.  .Athens  never  again  produced 
a  commander  of  such  distinction." — A.  J.  Grant, 
Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp.  126-127. — For 
second  Lacred  war,  see  S.acred  war.  Seco.nd. 

B.  C.  447.— Battle  of  Coronea.— Fall  of 
Athenian  Continental  League. — "The  first  blow 
came  from  Boeotia.  There  by  a  sudden  revolu- 
tion the  democracies  were  overthrown,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  cities  of  Ba-otia  declared  against  the 
.Athenian  supremacy.  It  was  clear  that  the  move- 
ment must  be  suppressed  at  once.  .  .  .  The  Athe- 
nian forces  were  surprised  at  Coronea  (447)  and 
entirely  defeated.  Tolmides  and  many  were  slain; 
the  rest  were  taken  prisoners.  The  Egyptian 
catastrophe  had  already  depleted  .Athens;  she 
could  ill  afford  to  spare  any  more  citizens.  To 
get  back  those  who  had  been  taken  prisoners,  she 
consented  to  abandon  Bccotia.  The  oligarchs  at 
once  came  back ;  again  Boeotia  was  organized  under 
the  supremacy  of  Thebes ;  and  .Athens  had  upon 
the  north  a  jealous  and  victorious  rival,  embittered 
by  the  memory  of  a  recent  humiliation.  The  loss 
of  Boeotia  was  followed  by  blows  still  more  danger- 
ous. First,  in  the  summer  of  445  the  cities  of 
the  great  and  most  important  island  of  Eubcea 
revolted  from  .Athens.  Eubcea  had  been  from 
the  first  a  member  of  the  Delian  League;  her 
position  and  her  wealth  made  her  friendship  or 
her  hostility  of  the  first  importance  to  Athens. 
Pericles  with  all  the  available  forces  marched 
to  repress  the  revolt.  But  no  sooner  was  his  back 
turned  than  the  storm  broke  from  the  west.  .  .  . 
Bceotia,  Eub(Ea,  Megara,  Sparta — attacked  by 
these  formidable  foes  and  taken  by  surprise,  it 
seemed  impossible  for  .Athens  to  survive.  Pericles 
turned  hastily  back  from  Eubcea.  But  Pleistoanax 
made  no  attack  on  .Athens  herself.  The  Spartan 
army  got  as  far  as  the  plain  of  Eleusis,  within 
fifteen  miles  of  .Athens,  and  then  turned  back 
and  retired  over  the  Isthmus  to  Sparta.  ...  So 
the  greatest  danger  of  all  had  rolled  away.  Megara 
could  not  be  retaken:  it  was  doubtless  held  by 
a  Spartan  garrison.  But  from  this  day  forth 
.Athens  hated  Megara  as  she  hated  no  state  in 
Greece,  though  she  hated  many.  But  the  Spartans 
could  not  get  at  Eubcea.  and  thither  Pericles 
marched.  We  hear  of  no  resistance,  and  quickly 
the  island  became  a  portion  of  the  .Athenian 
power  once  more.  But  not  on  the  old  terms; 
Euboea  was  no  longer  a  free  member  of  the  con- 
federacy. She  was  now  strictly  subject  to  .Athens. 
Everywhere  the  oligarchical  constitutions  were  de- 
stroyed and  democracies  were  set  up.  All  ad- 
herents of  the  old  system  were  expjelled  and 
not  allowed  to  return.  .And  the  new  democracies 
were  not  free  to  govern  themselves  as  they  liked. 
They  were  free  only  as  long  as  they  freely  chose 
to  be  subjects  of  .Athens." — .A.  J.  Grant,  Greece 
in  the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp.  127-129.— See  also 
Greece:  B.  C.  478-477.  440-445. 

B.  C.  446-445. — Thirty  years'  peace. — "Pericles 
and  his  colleagues  saw-  clearly  the  exhaustion  of 
their  state.  The  disaster  in  Egypt,  the  substantial 
failure  of  the  great  expedition  to  Cyprus,  the 
heavy  loss  in  men  from  the  domestic  wars,  and 
the  vast  expense  of  all  these  undertakings  had 
overstrained  the  ability  of  .Athens  and  had  neces- 
sitated a  breathing  time.    In  445,  accordingly,  after 


606 


ATHENS,  B.C.  440-437 


Peloponnesian 
War 


ATHENS,   B.C.  431-429 


the  Euboic  campaign,  the  Athenians  agreed  with 
the  Peloponnesians  to  a  Thirty  Years'  Peace  on 
the  basis  of  the  status  quo.  Athens  gave  up 
all  her  recently  acquired  continental  allies,  re- 
taining only  Plataea  and  Naupactus.  On  the 
other  hand,  she  received  an  acknowledgment  of 
her  maritime  empire.  Neither  party  was  to  in- 
terfere with  the  allies  of  the  other  but  each  re- 
mained free  to  make  treaties  with  neutral  states. 
The  principle  of  the  'open  door'  was  established 
for  their  commercial  relations;  and  it  was  agreed 
that  disputes  should  be  settled  by  arbitration. 
The  lack  of  a  clear  understanding  as  to  the  means 
and  method  of  arbitration,  however,  rendered  the 
last-mentioned  article  inoperative.  However  faulty 
the  terms,  both  parties  to  the  treaty,  freed  from 
the  heavy  burden  of  the  conflict,  rejoiced  in  the 
advantages  of  neutral  commerce,  of  internal  re- 
cuperation, and  improvement  promised  them  by 
the  truce." — G.  W.  Botsford,  Hellenic  history,  cit. 
xiv. — See  also  Greece:  B.C.  449-445. 

B.  C.  440-437. — New  settlements  of  Cleruchies. 
See  Cleruciis. 

B.  C.    438-284. — Relations    with    kingdom    of 
Bosporus.     See  Bosporus;   City  and  kingdom. 

B.C.  431.  — Peloponnesian  War  (431-404 
B.C.):  Causes  of  the  war. — Conflict  of  eco- 
nomic interests. — Athenian  designs  upon  Me- 
gara. — Athenian  interests  in  Corcyra. — Trouble 
with  Corinth. — Athenian  menace  to  Pelopon- 
nese. — Political  parties  as  a  cause. — Spartan 
fear  and  Corinthian  jealousy  of  Athens. — "The 
Thirty  Years'  Peace  put  an  end  to  open  hostilities 
between  .Athens  and  Sparta,  but  it  failed  to  settle 
the  fundamental  and  vexing  questions  of  rivalry 
and  to  remove  the  mutual  bad  feeling  and  distrust. 
The  balance  was  too  delicate.  To  avoid  giving 
Sparta  any  occasion  for  opposition,  Pericles  de- 
parted from  his  earlier  aggressive  policy  to  one 
of  conservation  and  consolidation.  The  first  step 
in  the  direction  of  aggrandizement  was  certain  to 
be  challenged.  Events  and  exigencies  of  Athenian 
trade  and  industry  forced  the  leaders  of  Athens 
into  such  a  step  and  trouble  followed.  The 
Megarian  decrees  formed  the  first  piece  of  re- 
newed aggression  on  the  part  of  Athens.  A  small, 
over-populated  state,  once  of  great  commercial 
importance,  Megara  had  sunk  to  the  position  of 
a  second-rate  industrial  city.  However,  her 
farmers  furnished  vegetables  and  meat  to  the 
Athenian  markets,  and  her  wares,  which  were 
good,  made  her  merchants  strong  competitors  of 
the  Athenian  merchants  and  manufacturers.  In 
response  to  local  demands  for  protection  the 
Athenian  assembly  passed  a  decree  excluding  the 
Megarians  from  the  markets  of  the  empire.  The 
Athenians  had  resented  the  withdrawal  of  Megara 
from  their  federation  and  probably  hoped  to  force 
the  Megarians  into  subjection  that  they  might 
regain  the  favorable  position  on  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth.  This  decree  meant  financial  ruin  and 
starvation  to  the  Megarians  and  served  as  a 
warning  to  any  other  state  of  the  Spartan  al- 
liance which  might  block  the  Athenians.  It 
aroused  much  apprehension  on  the  part  of  other 
commercial  states,  particularly  in  Corinth.  The 
Corcyreean  episode  added  another  element  to 
Corinthian  unrest  at  the  increasing  power  of 
Athens.  Corcyra,  a  colony  of  Corinth,  but  one 
of  the  few  remaining  independent  naval  powers, 
finding  herself  at  war  with  Corinth,  appealed  to 
Athens  for  aid.  They  had  cogent  arguments — 
their  navy,  which  would  be  a  valuable  addition 
to  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  the  control  which  they 
were  able  to  exercise  over  the  trade  route  to 
Sicily.  In  vain  did  the  Corinthians  argue  that 
the  true  path  of  expediency  is  the  path  of  right. 


Athenian  refusal  of  the  Corcyrsean  offer  meant  the 
strengthening  of  the  only  important  naval  rival  of 
Athens   and    a    loss    of    prestige    to   Athens   itself 
if  it  yielded  to  the  desires  of  Corinth.     To  avoid 
any   infraction    of   the   peace    the   Athenians   con- 
cluded   a    defensive    alliance    with    Corcyra.      In 
the   resulting   war   the   Corinthians   were   worsted. 
The    enmity    thus    aroused    between    Athens    and 
Corinth   was   increased   by    a    minor   difficulty    at 
Potidaea.       The   crisis  in  Hellenic   affairs  and  the 
test   of   the   Thirty   Years'   Peace   came   when   the 
Corinthians,   fully   aroused,  invited  the  envoys  of 
the   Peloponnesian   League   to   meet   at  Sparta   to 
consider  the  situation.     The  grievances  were  sub- 
mitted to  the  Spartan  assembly.    Thucydides  made 
use   of   the   situation    to    draw   a   comparison    be- 
tween the  Spartans,  conservative,  reluctant  to  as- 
sume the  aggressive  and  willing  to  take  defensive 
action    only    when    absolutely    necessary,    and    the 
Athenians,   revolutionary,   always  on   the   alert   to 
seize  the  advantage,  ready  to  risk  all  to  gain  their 
ends.     They   were  born,  said   the   Corinthian  am- 
bassadors, neither  to  have  peace  themselves  nor  to 
allow  it  to  other  men.     The  Corinthians  made  the 
veiled    threat    that    if    their    plea    met    with    no 
success  they  would  turn  elsewhere  for  aid.    Sparta 
was   in    this   way    forced    into    action.     Athenians 
present  endeavored  to  prevent  such  a  result.    They 
recounted    the    glorious    deeds    of    Athens    in    the 
past.     They   explained  the  establishment   of   their 
empire  and  justified  it  on  the  ground  of  necessity. 
They  pointed  out  the  risks  involved  in   war  and 
called   upon   the  Spartans  to  submit  the   disputes 
to  arbitration  according  to  the  treaty.    Archidamus, 
the  conservative  king   of  Sparta,  counseled  delay. 
He  supported  the  Athenian  demand  for  arbitration, 
pointing  out  the  absence  of  a  real  cause,  the  su- 
periority   of    the    Athenians    in    the    materials    of 
war   and   in    money,   and   the   uncertainty   of   the 
issue.     The  war  party,  however,  was  the  stronger. 
They    realized    that   the   basic   issue   was   not   the 
immediate    charges    against    Athens    but    the    ex- 
istence  of  the  Athenian  empire   itself,  which   was 
not  a  debatable  question.  ...  It  was  voted  then 
that   the    Athenians   were   guilty   of   an   infraction 
of  the  treaty.     At  the  assembly  of  the  league  which 
followed   at  Sparta   the  keynote   of   the   war  was 
sounded.      Athens   was    a    menace    to    all.     Some 
states  she  already  ruled.     If  from  a  love  of  peace 
and  ease  the  Peloponnesians  failed  to  make  war 
upon  her,  she  would  soon  dominate  the  rest.  .  .  . 
The  league  voted  for  war.     A  series  of  minor  de- 
mands  were   made    upon    Athens,    followed    by    a 
peremptory   order  for  the   dissolution   of   the  em- 
pire.    The  Athenians  refused  to  yield.     The  least 
concession  would  be  a  confession  of  wrong-doing 
or    of    weakness.      Pericles    regarded    the    war   as 
inevitable  and   felt  that  Athens  was  ready.     Act- 
ing on  his  advice  they  made  counter-propositions 
to  Sparta,  put  the   onus  of  blame  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  upon  that  city  by  offering  arbitra- 
tion 'upon  fair  terms  according  to  the  treaty,  well 
aware   that   war   was   at   hand,   anxious   for  peace, 
but    ready     and     willing    to    defend    themselves.' 
(Thucydides,  i,  140).  .  .  .  When  the  issue  came  it 
was   found  to   be   unarbitrable.     The  existence  of 
the   Athenian   empire  was  not   a   debatable   ques- 
tion.    Spartan    fear    and    Corinthian    jealousy    of 
Athenian    expansion    could    not    be    submitted    to 
a  tribunal.    Considerations  of  individual  expediency 
founded  on  fear  or  ambition  were  more  powerful 
than    the   most   binding    of   sacred    oaths." — W.   E. 
Caldwell,  Hellenic  conceptions  of  peace,  pp.  87-Qi. 
— See  also  Greece;   B.C.  435-432;   B.C.  432  and 
B.C.    432-4,V. 

B.  C.    431-429.— Attitude     of     Hellas    toward 
war. — Spartan    preparations     (431). — Gathering 


607 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  429-427 


Peloponnesian 
War 


ATHENS,  B.C.  421 


of  Athenian  population  into  the  city. — Plague 
(43D).— Death  of  Pericles  (429).— "•-■Ml  Hellas  was 
excited  by  the  corning  conflict.  Prodigies  and 
prophecies  abounded.  Enthusiasm  was  manifest  on 
both  sides.  Outside  of  the  .Athenian  empire  the 
war  was  extremelv  popular  and  the  Spartans  were 
hailed  as  the  liberators  of  Hellas.  The  Spartan 
youth  were  eager  for  the  e.xcitement  of  war.  Nor 
was  this  feeling  confined  to  Sparta.  The  Athenian 
young  men  gladly  exchanged  soft  cloaks  and  snow- 
white  slippers,  flowing  ringlets,  baths  and  oil,  for 
the  breastplate  and  the  greaves,  and  dropped  the 
games  of  the  banquet  for  the  greater  game  of 
war,  to  fight  for  gods  and  country  as  their 
fathers  had  fought  before  them.  In  the  defence 
tof  the  city  all  parties  were  united.  In  the 
spring  of  431  the  Spartan  king  Archidamus  pre- 
pared his  forces  for  an  invasion  of  .Attica.  Pericles 
countered  by  bringing  all  the  Athenians  within  the 
jLong  Walls  (q.  v.)  and  thus  avoided  a  decisive 
tattle  on  land,  while  the  fleet  was  ravaging  the 
Peloponnesian  coasts.  The  suffering  among  the 
Athenians,  most  of  whom  were  small  farmers  un- 
used to  city  life,  was  great,  and  their  enmity  to- 
ward Sparta  was  increased  by  the  destruction  of 
their  crops  and  their  olive  orchards.  The  plague 
•which  ravaged  .Athens  added  to  the  general  dis- 
comfort and  brought  the  peace  party  tem- 
porarily into  power.  Pericles  triumphed  over 
their  attacks,  but  the  following  year  himself  died 
of  the  disease.  His  place  as  leader  of  the  people 
was  taken  by  a  new  type  of  men,  products  of 
the  people,  like  Cleon,  the  tanner,  and  Hyperbolus, 
the  lamp-maker."— \V.  E.  Caldwell,  Hellenic  con- 
ceptions  of  peace,   p.   02. 

B.  C.  429-427.— Siege  and  destruction  of  Pla- 
tjea.'  See  Greece:  B.C.  4^9-427:  Peloponnesian 
war. 

B.  C.  428-427. — Revolt  of  Lesbos. — Invasion 
of  Attica. — Longing  for  peace.— "In  the  year 
.after  Cleon  had  come  to  the  front,  the  oligarchs 
oT  Lesbos  induced  Mytilene  and  nearly  all  the 
other  cities  of  the  island  to  revolt.  There  was 
danger  that  all  the  maritime  cities  would  fol- 
low this  example.  But  the  Peloponnesians  were 
too  slow  in  sending  the  promised  aid,  and  the 
Athenians  made  desperate  efforts  to  conquer  the 
island.  As  a  last  resort  (427  B.C.)  the  oligarchs 
of  Mytilene  armed  the  commons;  but  the  latter 
promptly  surrendered  the  city  to  the  Athenian 
commander.  Thereupon  he  sent  the  oligarchs,  who 
alone  were  guilty  of  revolt,  to  Athens  for  trial. 
The  Athenians  were  angry  because  the  Lesbians 
had  revolted  without  cause;  they  feared,  too,  for 
the  safety  of  their  empire,  and  indeed  for  their 
own  lives.  With  no  great  difficulty,  therefore, 
Cleon  persuaded  them  to  condemn  and  put  to 
death  all  the  captive  oligarchs.  Cleon's  idea  was 
to  make  an  example  of  them  that  other  com- 
munities might  fear  to  revolt.  The  punishment, 
decreed  under  excitement,  was  too  severe,  and  out 
of  keeping  with  the  humane  character  of  the 
Athenians.  In  putting  down  this  revolt,  they 
passed  the  dangerous  crisis,  and  were  again  un- 
disputed masters  of  the  .^gean  Sea." — G.  W.  Bots- 
ford.  History  of  the  ancient  world,  p.  222. — The 
invasion  of  Attica  in  the  year  J27  B.C.  Thucydides 
regarded  as  unusually  severe.  As  a  result  the 
peace  party  gained  new  courage.  The  wealthier 
noble  class  had  suffered  particularly.  They  hail 
lost  their  fair  estates  in  the  country,  with  all  their 
houses  and  rich  furniture;  their  pleasures  were 
restricted  in  the  city ;  the  exigencies  of  war  hud 
led  to  the  imposition  of  a  property  tax,  which 
fell  upon  them  with  heavy  weiaht;  and  they 
were  bitterly  opposed  to  the  new  developments 
of  the  democracy.    The  center  of  their  op|)Osition 


was  in  the  oligarchic  clubs.  The  small  farmer, 
through  his  hatred  of  Sparta  was  so  strong  that 
he  refused  to  support  any  movement  for  peace 
and  demanded  revenge  for  the  destruction  of  his 
vineyards  and  orchards,  had  grown  weary  of  the 
cramped  and  confused  life  in  the  city  and  was 
longing  for  the  end   of   the  war. 

B.  C.  426-422.  —  War-weariness.  —  Barbarous 
war  practices. — Battle  of  Pylos  (425). — Peace 
proposals. — Athenian  defeats. — Battle  of  Am- 
phipolis. — "All  of  Hellas  was  in  confusion  as  a 
result  of  the  war.  In  most  of  the  cities  factions 
had  arisen.  The  democratic  leaders  were  endeavor- 
ing to  establish  or  to  assure  their  power  by  ap- 
pealing to  the  Athenians,  and  the  leaders  of  the 
oligarchs  to  the  Lacedemonians.  Party  strife 
brought  many  terrible  calamities;  anarchy  and 
violence,  crime  and  perfidy  were  rife ;  religion  and 
oaths  were  forgotten.  The  practices  of  war  were 
hardened  by  the  intensity  of  feeling.  Sailors  who 
fell  into  Spartan  hands  were  killed  forthwith  and 
the  -Athenians  retaliated  in  kind.  W'hen  Plataea 
fell  the  Spartans  put  to  death  all  the  men  who 
remained  and  sold  the  women  and  children  into 
slavery  with  no  softening  of  the  ancient  custom. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  oligarchic  revolt  in 
Mytilene  the  .Athenians  on  the  motion  of  Cleon, 
voted  to  put  all  male  citizens  to  death.  They  re- 
considered this  action,  and  on  the  ground  of  bet- 
ter policy  killed  only  the  most  guilty.  Against 
the  general  policy  of  Cleon  towards  the  allies 
as  exemplified  in  this  affair,  and  in  a  later  in- 
crease of  the  tribute,  the  comic  poets  protested. 
.  .  .  The  capture  of  the  Spartans  at  Pylos  in  425 
furnished  an  opportunity  for  peace.  The  Spartans 
offered  peace,  alliance  and  friendly  relations.  'Let 
us  be  reconciled  and,  choosing  peace  instead  cf 
war  ourselves,  let  us  give  relief  and  rest  to  all 
the  Hellenes.'  The  credit  for  the  peace  would  go 
to  Athens.  The  peace  party  were  hopeful,  but  the 
imperialistic  element  among  the  democracy,  led  by 
Cleon,  had  gained  new  hopes  and  the  Spartan 
offer  was  rejected.  .Athenian  forces  were  defeated 
in  the  following  years  at  Delium  and  by  Brasidas, 
the  ablest  of  the  Spartan  generals,  in  the  Chal- 
cidice.  The  .Athenians  then  attempted  to  secure 
peace,  but  without  success.  In  the  final  battle  of 
Amphipoiis  both  Cleon  and  Brasidas  were  killed. 
The  two  chief  obstacles  to  the  making  of  terms 
were  thus  removed.  The  conservatives  on  both 
sides  came  into  control  and  peace  was  .igreed 
upon.  The  Spartan  allies  were  dissatisfied,  but 
they  were  overruled.  The  treaty,  which  is  known 
as  the  Peace  of  Xjcias,  after  the  .Athenian  com- 
mander, provided  for  mutual  restoration  and  peace 
for  fifty  years." — W.  E.  Caldwell,  Hellenic  concep- 
tions of  peace,  pp.  05-96. — See  also  Greece:  B.C. 

425. 

B.  C.  421. — Peace  of  Nicias. — Joys  of  peace. 
— Return  to  the  farms. — "The  Peace,  of  which 
Nicias  and  Pleistoanax  were  the  chief  authors,  was 
fixed  for  a  term  of  fifty  years.  .Athens  under- 
took to  restore  all  the  posts  which  she  had  oc- 
cupied during  the  war  against  the  Peloponnesians. 
...  All  captives  on  both  sides  were  to  be  lib- 
erated. [See  also  Greece:  B.  C.  424-421.]  It  ap- 
peared immediately  that  the  situation  was  not  fa- 
vorable to  a  durable  peace;  for,  when  the  terms 
were  considered  at  Sparta  by  a  meeting  of  deputies 
of  the  Peloponnesian  allies,  they  were  emphatically 
denounced  as  unjust  by  three  important  states,  Cor- 
inth, Boeotia,  and  Megara.  .  .  .  But  since  the  deep- 
est cause  of  the  war  lay  in  the  commercial  com- 
petition between  .Athens  and  Corinth,  and  since 
the  interests  of  Sparta  were  not  at  stake,  the 
treaty  might  seem  at  least  to  have  the  merit  of 
simplifying  the  situation." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of 


608 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  419-416 


Petoponnesian 
War 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  413-411 


Greece,  pp.  455-456. — "Aristophanes  burst  forth 
into  jubilations  in  a  play  called  The  Peace.  He 
represented  the  farmers  as  rejoicing  in  the  advent 
of  peace.  One  Trygsus  has  scaled  Olympus  to 
find  the  goddess  Peace,  only  to  be  told  by  Hermes 
that  the  gods,  disgusted  with  Hc'.las  because  of 
its  failure  to  end  the  war,  had  buried  Peace 
and  determined  to  grind  the  cities  to  pieces  in 
a  huge  mortar.  With  the  death  of  Cleon  and  of 
Brasidas  their  pestles  had  been  lost,  however. 
Trygius  hails,  this  as  a  glorious  opportunity 
and  calls  upon  all  Hellenes,  farmers,  merchants, 
artisans,  craftsmen,  aliens,  islanders  and  all,  to 
unite  with  him  in  the  task  of  digging  up  Peace. 
The  whole  Hellenic  nation  throws  away  its  ranks 
and  squadrons  to  engage  in  the  task,  midst 
laughter  and  dancing.  Only  the  Megarians,  the 
dissatisfied  ones,  the  Argives  who  have  been 
gaining  from  both  sides,  the  professional  soldier 
who  desires  a  commission,  and  the  merchant  who 
sells  spears  and  shields,  stand  aside.  Hermes  must 
be  bribed  to  keep  quiet.  After  an  effort  Peace 
is  brought  into  view.  The  cities  are  reconciled. 
The  crest-maker  and  the  sword-cutter  and  the 
spear-burnisher  may  despair,  but  the  pitchfork- 
maker  and  the  manufacturer  of  sickles  rejoice. 
The  farmers  lay  aside  their  arms  and  return  to 
their  fig  trees  and  their  farms.  Peace  smells  of 
'harvests,  banquets,  festivals,  flutes,  thrushes,  plays, 
the  odes  of  Sophocles,  Euripidean  wordlets  .  .  . 
the  bleating  lambs,  the  ivy-leaf,  the  vat,  full- 
bosomed  matrons  .  .  .  the  tipsy  maid,  the  drained 
and  empty  flask,  and  many  another  blessing.' 
(Aristophanes,  Peace,  204^)." — W.  E.  Caldwell, 
Hellenic  conceptions  of  peace,  pp.  Qfi-gy. 

B.  C.  419-416. — Rise  of  Alcibiades. — Renewal 
of  hostilities. — Slaughter  of  the  Melians. — "Edu- 
cated by  his  kinsman  Pericles  in  democratic  tradi- 
tions, he  was  endowed  by  nature  with  extraordi- 
nary beauty  and  talents,  by  fortune  with  the  in- 
heritance of  wealth  which  enabled  him  to  in- 
dulge an  inordinate  taste  of  ostentation.  He  had 
shocked  his  kinsfolk  and  outraged  the  city,  not 
by  his  dissoluteness,  but  by  the  incredible  in- 
solence which  accompanied  it.  .  .  .  Alcibiades  in- 
deed had  not  in  him  the  stuff  of  which  true 
statesmen  are  made;  he  had  not  the  purpose, 
the  perseverance,  or  the  self-control.  An  extremely 
able  and  dexterous  politician  he  certainly  was; 
but  he  wanted  that  balance  which  a  politician, 
whether  scrupulous  or  unscrupulous,  must  have  in 
order  to  be  a  great  statesman.  Nor  had  Alcibiades 
any  sincere  belief  in  the  democratic  institutions 
of  his  country,  still  less  any  genuine  sympathy 
with  the  advanced  democratic  party  whose  cause 
he  espoused.  .  .  .  The  accession  of  Alcibiades  was 
particularly  welcome  to  the  radical  party,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  his  family  connexions,  his 
diplomatic  and  rhetorical  talents,  but  because  he 
had  a  military  training  and  could  perform  the  func- 
tions of  strategos.  Unfitness  for  the  post  of 
strategos  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  weak  point  in 
the  position  of  men  like  Hyperbolus  and  Cleon. 
When  Alcibiades  was  elected  a  strategos  and  Nicias 
was  not  re-elected,  the  prospects  of  the  radical 
party  looked  brighter.  The  change  was  immedi- 
ately felt.  Athens  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Argos,  and  her  allies  Elis  and  Mantinea,  for  a 
hundred  years;  and  the  treaty  was  sealed  by  a 
joint  expedition  against  Epidaurus.  Sparta  as- 
sisted Epidaurus,  and  then  the  Athenians  de- 
clared that  the  Lacedaemonians  had  broken  the 
Peace." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  pp.  459- 
460. — "The  armies  of  these  two  unions  met  in 
battle  at  Mantinea  in  418  B.C.  The  Lacedaemoni- 
ans, who  still  had  the  best  organization  and  disci- 
pline   in    Greece,    were    victorious.     This   success 


wiped  out  the  disgrace  which  had  lately  come 
upon  them,  and  enabled  them  to  regain  much  of 
their  former  influence  in  Peloponnese.  Argos  and 
Mantinea  now  made  peace  with  Lacedaemon  apart 
from  Athens." — G.  W.  Botsford,  History  of  the 
ancient  world,  p.  224. — See  also  Greece:  B.C. 
421-418. — "The  island  of  Melos  had  hitherto  re- 
mained outside  the  sea-lordship  of  the  Athenians, 
and  Athens,  under  the  influence  of  Alcibiades, 
now  attacked  her.  The  town  of  Melos  was  in- 
vested in  the  summer  by  land  and  sea,  and  sur- 
rendered at  discretion  in  the  following  winter. 
All  the  men  of  military  age  were  put  to  death, 
the  other  inhabitants  were  enslaved,  and  the 
island  was  colonised  by  Athenians." — J.  B.  Bury, 
History  of  Greece,  p.  462. — See  also  Greece:  B.C. 
416. 

B.  C.  415-413. — Disastrous  Athenian  expedi- 
tion against  Syracuse. — Alcibiades  a  fugitive  in 
Sparta. — His  enmity  for  Athens.  See  Syracuse: 
B.C.  415-413- 

B.  C.  413-412. — Consequence  of  Sicilian  expe- 
dition.— Spartan  alliance  with  Persians. — Plot- 
ting of  Alcibiades. — Decelian  War. — Revolt  of 
Chios,  Miletus,  Lesbos  and  Rhodes  from 
Athens. — Revolution  of  Samos.  See  Greece: 
B.C.  413-412,  and   B.C.  413. 

B.C.  413-411. — Democracy  curbed. — New  sys- 
tem of  taxation. — Probuli. — Intrigues  of  Alci- 
biades.— Conspiracy  against  the  constitution. — 
The  Four  Hundred  and  the  Five  Thousand. — 
"The  Sicilian  expedition  was  part  of  the  general 
aggressive  policy  of  Athens  which  made  her  un- 
popular in  Greece.  ...  If  there  were  ever  an  en- 
terprise of  which  the  wisdom  cannot  be  judged 
by  the  result,  it  is  the  enterprise  against  Syra- 
cuse. All  the  chances  were  in  its  favour.  .  .  .  The 
necessity  of  a  counterweight  to  Corinthian  in- 
fluence in  Sicily  and  Italy  had  long  ago  been 
recognised;  some  attempts  had  been  made  to 
meet  it;  and  when  peace  with  Sparta  set  Athenian 
forces  free  from  service  outside  Greece  and  the 
^gean,  it  was  natural  that  the  opportunity  should 
be  taken  to  act  effectively  in  the  west.  .  .  .  And 
after  the  disaster  .  .  .  there  was  a  feeling  that 
some  change  must  be  made  in  the  administra- 
tion. .  .  .  The  treasury  was  at  a  low  ebb,  and 
there  were  no  men  to  replace  those  who  were 
lost  in  Sicily.  It  was  felt  that  the  committees 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  were  hardly 
competent  to  conduct  the  city  through  such  a 
crisis;  a  smaller  and  more  permanent  body  was 
required;  and  the  chief  direction  of  affairs  was 
entrusted  to  a  board  of  Ten,  named  Probuli 
[q.v.],  which  practically  superseded  the  Council 
for  the  time  being.  A  very  important  change 
in  the  system  of  taxation  was  made  at  the  same 
time.  The  tribute,  already  as  high  as  it  could 
be  put  with  impunity,  was  abolished;  and  was 
replaced  by  a  tax  of  5  per  cent  on  all  imports  and 
exports  carried  by  sea  to  or  from  the  harbours  of 
the  Confederacy.  It  was  calculated  that  this 
duty  would  produce  a  larger  income  than  the 
tribute,  and  it  would  save  the  friction  which  gen- 
erally occurred  in  the  business  of  collecting  the 
tribute  and  caused  more  than  anything  else  the 
unpopularity  of  Athens.  But  further,  the  change 
had  a  great  political  significance.  The  duty  was 
collected  in  the  Peirxus  as  well  as  elsewhere,  and 
thus  fell  on  Athens  herself.  This  might  prove  a 
step  towards  equalising  Athens  with  her  allies, 
and  converting  the  Confederacy  or  dominion  into 
a  national  state." — J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  Greece, 
pp.  4S5-486.— See  also  Apodect.e. — Immediately 
after  the  dreadful  calamity  at  Syracuse  became 
known,  "extraordinary  measures  were  adopted  by 
the   people;    a   number   of   citizens   of   advanced 


609 


ATHENS.  B.C.  413-411 


Peloponnesian 
War 


ATHENS,  B.C.  404 


age  were  formed  into  a  deliberative  and  executive 
body  under  the  name  of  Probuli,  and  empowered 
to  iit  out  a  fleet.  Whether  this  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  oligarchical  machinations  or  not,  those 
aged  men  were  unable  to  bring  back  men's  minds 
to  their  former  course ;  the  prosecution  of  the 
Hermocopidae  had  been  most  mischievous  in  its 
results;  various  secret  associations  had  sprung  up 
and  conspired  to  reap  advantage  to  themselves 
from  the  distress  and  embarrassment  of  the  state ; 
the  indignation  caused  by  the  infuriated  excesses 
of  the  people  during  that  trial,  possibly  here,  as 
frequently  happened  in  other  Grecian  states,  de- 
termined the  more  respectable  members  of  the 
community  to  guard  against  the  recurrence  of 
similar  scenes  in  future,  by  the  establishment  of 
an  aristocracy.  Lastly,  the  watchful  malice  of 
Alcibiades,  who  was  the  implacable  enemy  of  that 
populace,  to  whose  blind  fury  he  had  been  sac- 
rificed, baffled  all  attempts  to  restore  confidence 
and  tranquillity,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  whilst 
he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  his  partisans 
at  home,  he  did  everything  in  his  power  to  in- 
crease the  perplexity  and  distress  of  his  native  city 
from  without,  in  order  that  he  might  be  re- 
called to  provide  for  its  safety  and  defence.  A 
favourable  opportunity  for  the  execution  of  his 
plans  presented  itself  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  exile, 
01.  82,  i;  411  B.C.;  as  he  had  incurred  the 
suspicion  of  the  Spartans,  and  stood  high  in  the 
favour  of  Tissaphernes,  the  .\thenians  thought  that 
his  intercession  might  enable  them  to  obtain  as- 
sistance from  the  Persian  king.  The  people  in 
.Athens  were  headed  by  one  of  his  most  In- 
veterate enemies,  Androcles ;  and  he  well  knew 
that  all  attempts  to  effect  his  return  would  be 
fruitless,  until  this  man  and  the  other  dema- 
gogues were  removed.  Hence  .Alcibiades  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  commanders  of  the  Atheniaii 
fleet  at  Samos,  respecting  the  establishment  of 
an  oligarchical  constitution,  not  from  any  attach- 
ment to  that  form  of  government  in  itself,  but 
solely  with  the  view  of  promoting  his  own  ends. 
Phrynichus  and  Pisander  were  equally  insincere 
in  their  co-operation  with  .-Mcibiades.  .  .  .  Their 
plan  was  that  the  latter  should  reconcile  the  peo- 
ple to  the  change  in  the  constitution  which  he 
wished  to  effect,  by  promising  to  obtain  them  the 
assistance  of  the  great  king;  but  they  alone  re- 
solved to  reap  the  benefit  of  his  exertions. 
Pisander  took  upon  himself  to  manage  the  Athe- 
nian populace.  It  was  in  truth  no  slight  under- 
taking to  attempt  to  overthrow  a  democracy  of 
a  hundred  and  twenty  years'  standing,  and  of 
intense  development;  but  most  of  the  able  bodied 
citizens  were  absent  with  the  fleet,  whilst  such 
as  were  still  in  the  city  were  confounded  by 
the  imminence  of  the  danger  from  without;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  prospect  of  succour  from  the 
Persian  king  doubtless  had  some  weight  with  them, 
and  they  possibly  felt  some  symptoms  of  return- 
ing affection  for  their  former  favourite  Alcibiades. 
Nevertheless,  Pisander  and  his  accomplices  em- 
ployed craft  and  perfidy  to  accomplish  their  de- 
signs; the  people  were  not  persuaded  or  con- 
vinced, but  entrapped  into  compliance  with  their 
measures.  Pisander  gained  over  to  his  purpose 
the  above  named  clubs,  and  induced  the  people 
to  send  him  with  ten  plenipotentiaries  to  the 
navy  at  Samos.  In  the  mean  time  the  rest  of 
the  conspirators  prosecuted  the  work  of  remodel- 
ing the  constitution." — W.  Wachsmuth,  Historical 
antiquities  of  the  Greeks,  v.  2,  pp.  252-255. — The 
people,  or  an  assembly  cleverly  made  up  and 
manipulated  to  represent  the  people,  were  induced 
to  vote  all  the  powers  of  government  into  the 
hands  of  a  council  of   Four   Hundred,   of   which 


council  the  citizens  appointed  only  five  members. 
Those  five  chose  ninety-five  more,  to  make  one 
hundred,  and  each  of  that  hundred  then  chose 
three  colleagues.  The  conspirators  thus  easily 
made  up  the  Four  Hundred  to  their  liking,  from 
their  own  ranks.  This  council  was  to  convene 
an  assembly  of  Five  Thousand  citizens,  whenever 
it  saw  fit  to  do  so.  But  when  news  of  this  con- 
stitutional change  reached  the  army  at  Samos, 
where  the  Athenian  headquarters  for  the  Ionian 
war  were  fixed,  the  citizen  soldiers  refused  to  sub- 
mit to  it — repudiated  it  altogether — and  organized 
themselves  as  an  independent  state.  The  ruling 
spirit  among  them  was  Thrasybulus,  and  his  in- 
fluence brought  about  a  reconcihation  with  Alci- 
biades, then  an  exile  sheltered  at  the  Persian 
court.  Alcibiades  was  recalled  by  the  army  and 
placed  at  its  head.  Presently  a  reaction  at  Athens 
ensued,  after  the  oligarchical  party  had  given 
signs  of  treasonable  communication  with  Sparta, 
and  in  June  the  people  assembled  in  the  Pnyx 
and  reasserted  their  sovereignty.  "The  Council 
was  def)osed,  and  the  supreme  sovereignty  of 
the  state  restored  to  the  people — not,  however,  to 
the  entire  multitude;  for  the  principle  was  re- 
tained of  reserving  full  civic  rights  to  a  commit- 
tee of  men  of  a  certain  amount  of  property ;  and, 
as  the  lists  of  the  Five  Thousand  had  never 
been  drawn  up,  it  was  decreed,  in  order  that  the 
desired  end  might  be  speedily  reached,  to  follow 
the  precedent  of  similar  institutions  in  other ' 
states  and  to  constitute  all  ."Mhenians  able  to 
furnish  themselves  with  a  complete  military  equip- 
ment from  their  own  resources,  full  citizens  with 
the  rights  of  voting  and  participating  in  the 
government.  Thus  the  name  of  the  Five  Thou- 
sand had  now  become  a  very  inaccurate  designa- 
tion; but  it  was  retained,  because  men  had  in 
the  last  few  months  become  habituated  to  it.  At 
the  same  time,  the  abolition  of  pay  for  civic 
offices  and  functions  was  decreed,  not  merely  as 
a  temporary  measure,  but  as  a  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  the  new  commonwealth,  which  the  citi- 
zens were  bound  by  a  solemn  oath  to  maintain. 
This  reform  was,  upon  the  whole,  a  wise  com- 
bination of  aristocracy  and  democracy;  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  Thucydides,  the  best 
constitution  which  the  Athenians  had  hitherto 
possessed.  On  the  motion  of  Critias,  the  recall 
of  .Alcibiades  was  decreed  about  the  same  time; 
and  a  deputation  was  despatched  to  Samos,  to 
accomplish  the  union  between  army  and  city." — 
E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  4,  cli.  5. — Most 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Four  Hundred  fled  to  the 
Spartan  camp  at  Decelea.  Two  were  taken,  tried 
and  executed. — Thucydides,  History  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian War,  bk.  8,  sect.  48-49. — See  also 
Greece:  B.C.  41.3-412. 
Also  ix;     V.  Duruy,  Historw  oi  Greece,  ch.  26 

(v.  ?.)■ 

B.C.  411-407. — Victories  at  Cynossema  and 
Abydos. — Exploits  of  Alcibiades. — His  trium- 
phal return. — His  appointment  to  command. — 
His  second  deposition  and  e.xile.  See  Greece: 
411-407   B.C. 

B.C.  406. — Peloponnesian  War:  Battle  and 
victory  of  Arginusse. — Condemnation  and  execu- 
tion of  the  generals.     See  Greece:  406  B.C. 

B.  C.  405. — Peloponnesian  War. — Decisive'de- 
feat  at  .Sgospotami.     See  Greece:  405  B.C 

B.  C.  404 — Surrender  to  Lysander. — After  the 
battle  of  j^igospotami  (.August,  405  B.C.),  which 
destroyed  their  navy,  and  cut  off  nearly  all 
supplies  to  the  city  by  sea,  as  the  Spartans  at 
Decelea  had  long  cut  off  supplies  upon  the  land 
side,  the  Athenians  had  no  hope.  They  waited 
in   terror   and   despair   for  their  enemies   to   close 


610 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  404-403 


Rule  of 

the   Thirty 


ATHENS,  B.C.  378-357 


in  upon  them.  The  latter  were  in  no  haste,  lor 
they  were  sure  of  their  prey.  Lysander,  the  vic- 
tor at  yEgospotami,  came  leisurely  from  the 
Hellespont,  receiving  on  his  way  the  surrender 
of  the  cities  subject  or  allied  to  Athens,  and  plac- 
ing Spartan  harmosts  and  garrisons  in  them,  with 
the  local  oligarchs  established  uniformly  in  power. 
About  November  he  reached  the  Saronic  gulf 
and  blockaded  the  Athenian  harbor  of  Peiraeus, 
while  an  overwhelming  Peloponnesian  land  force, 
under  the  Lacedsmonian  king  Pausanias,  arrived 
simultaneously  in  Attica  and  encamped  at  the 
gates  of  the  city.  The  Athenians  had  no  longer 
any  power  except  the  power  to  endure,  and  that 
they  e.xercised  for  more  than  three  months,  mainly 
resisting  the  demand  that  their  Long  Walls — the 
walls  which  protected  the  connection  of  the  city 
with  its  harbors — should  be  thrown  down.  But 
when  famine  had  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  citi- 
zens and  broken  the  spirit  of  the  survivors,  they 
gave  up.  "There  was  still  a  high-spirited  minority 
who  entered  their  protest  and  preferred  death  by 
famine  to  such  insupportable  disgrace.  The  large 
majority,  however,  accepted  them  [the  terms] 
and  the  acceptance  was  made  known  to  Lysander. 
It  was  on  the  i6th  day  of  the  Attic  month 
Munychion, — about  the  middle  or  end  of  March, 
— that  this  victorious  commander  sailed  into  the 
Peiraeus,  twenty-seven  years,  almost  exactly,  after 
the  surprise  of  Plataea  by  the  Thebans,  which 
opened  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Along  with  him 
came  the  Athenian  exiles,  several  of  whom  ap- 
pear to  have  been  serving  with  his  army  and 
assisting  him  with  their  counsel." — G.  Grote,  His- 
tory of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  65  (v,  8). — The 
Long  Walls  and  the  fortifications  of  Peiraeus 
were  demolished,  and  then  followed  the  organiza- 
tion of  an  oligarchical  government  at  Athens,  re- 
sulting in  the  reign  of  terror  under  "The  Thirty." 
— E.  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  4,  cli.  $■ 

Also  in;  Xenophon,  Hellenica,  bk.  2,  ch.  2. — 
Plutarch,  Lysander. 

B.  C.  404-403.— Tyranny  of  the  Thirty.— Year 
of  anarchy. — In  the  summer  of  404  B.  C,  follow- 
ing the  siege  and  surrender  of  Athens,  and  the 
humiliating  close  of  the  long  Peloponnesian  War, 
the  returned  leaders  of  the  oligarchical  party,  who 
had  been  in  exile,  succeeded  with  the  help  of 
their  Spartan  friends,  in  overthrowing  the  demo- 
cratic constitution  of  the  city  and  establishing 
themselves  in  power.  The  revolution  was  accom- 
plished at  a  public  assembly  of  citizens,  in  the 
presence  of  Lysander,  the  victorious  Lacedaemonian 
adiTiiral,  whose  fleet  in  the  Peiraeus  lay  ready 
to  support  his  demands.  "In  this  assembly, 
Dracontides,  a  scoundrel  upon  whom  repeated  sen- 
tences had  been  passed,  brought  forward  a  mo- 
tion, proposing  the  transfer  of  the  government 
into  the  hands  of  Thirty  persons;  and  Theramenes 
supported  this  proposal  which  he  declared  to 
express  the  wishes  of  Sparta.  Even  now,  these 
speeches  produced  a  storm  of  indignation ;  after 
all  the  acts  of  violence  which  Athens  had  under- 
gone, she  yet  contained  men  outspoken  enough 
to  venture  to  defend  the  constitution,  and  to 
appeal  to  the  fact  that  the  capitulation  sanctioned 
by  both  parties  contained  no  provision  as  to  the 
internal  affairs  of  Athens.  But,  hereupon,  Ly- 
sander himself  came  forward  and  spoke  to  the 
citizens  without  reserve,  like  one  who  was  their 
absolute  master.  ...  By  such  means  the  motion 
of  Dracontides  was  passed;  but  only  a  small  num- 
ber of  unpatriotic  and  cowardly  citizens  raised 
their  hands  in  token  of  assent.  All  better  patriots 
contrived  to  avoid  participation  in  this  vote. 
Next,  ten  members  of  the  government  were  chosen 
by  Critias  and  his  colleagues  [the  Critias  of 
Plato's  Dialogues,  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  now  the 


violent  and  blood-thirsty  leader  of  the  anti-demo- 
cratic revolution],  ten  by  Theramenes,  the  con- 
fidential friend  of  Lysander,  and  finally  ten  out  of 
the  assembled  multitude,  probably  by  a  free  vote; 
and  this  board  of  Thirty  was  hereupon  established 
as  the  supreme  government  authority  by  a  resolu- 
tion of  the  assembly  present.  Most  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  new  government  had  formerly  been 
among  the  Four  Hundred,  and  had  therefore  long 
pursued  a  common  course  of  action."  The  Thirty 
Tyrants  so  placed  in  power  were  masters  of 
Athens  for  eight  months,  and  executed  their  will 
without  conscience  or  mercy,  having  a  garrison 
of  Spartan  soldiers  in  the  Acropolis  to  support 
them.  They  were  also  sustained  by  a  picked 
body  of  citizens,  "the  Three  Thousand,"  who  bore 
arms  while  other  citizens  were  stripped  of  every 
weapon.  Large  numbers  of  the  more  patriotic 
and  high-spirited  Athenians  had  escaped  from 
their  unfortunate  city  and  had  taken  refuge,  chiefly 
at  Thebes,  the  old  enemy  of  Athens,  but  now 
sympathetic  in  her  distress.  At  Thebes  these 
exiles  organized  themselves  under  Thrasybulus  and 
Anytus,  and  determined  to  expel  the  tyrants  and 
to  recover  their  homes.  They  first  seized  a 
strong  post  at  Phyle,  in  Attica,  where  they 
gained  in  numbers  rapidly,  and  from  which  point 
they  were  able  in  a  few  weeks  to  advance  and 
occupy  the  Peiraeus.  When  the  troops  of  The 
Thirty  came  out  to  attack  them,  they  drew  back 
to  the  adjacent  height  of  Munychia  and  there 
fought  a  battle  which  delivered  their  city  from 
the  Tyrants.  Critias,  the  master-spirit  of  the 
usurpation,  was  slain ;  the  more  violent  of  his  col- 
leagues took  refuge  at  Eleusis,  and  Athens,  for 
a  time,  remained  under  the  government  of  a  new 
oligarchical  Board  of  Ten ;  while  Thrasybulus  and 
the  democratic  liberators  maintained  their  head- 
quarters at  Munychia.  All  parties  waited  the 
action  of  Sparta.  Lysander,  the  Spartan  general, 
marched  an  army  into  Attica  to  restore  the 
tyranny  which  was  of  his  own  creating;  but 
one  of  the  two  Spartan  kings,  Pausanias,  inter- 
vened, assumed  the  command  in  his  own  person, 
and  applied  his  efforts  to  the  arranging  of  peace 
between  the  Athenian  parties.  The  result  was  a 
restoration  of  the  democratic  constitution  of  the 
Attic  state,  with  some  important  reforms.  Sev- 
eral of  The  Thirty  were  put  to  death, — treacher- 
ously, it  was  said, — but  an  amnesty  was  extended 
to  all  their  partisans.  The  year  in  which  they 
and  The  Ten  controlled  affairs  was  termed  in  the 
official  annals  of  the  city  the  Year  of  Anarchy, 
and  its  magistrates  were  not  recognized. — E, 
Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  bk.  4,  ch.  5,  and  bk. 
5,  ch.  I. — See  also  Greece:   B.C.  404-350. 

.^Lso  in:  Xenophon,  Hellenica,  bk.  2,  ch.  3-4. 
— C.  Sankey,  Spartan  and  Theban  supremacies,  ch. 

2-3. 

B.  C.  395-387. — Confederacy  against  Sparta. 
— Alliance  with  Persia. — Corinthian  War. — 
Conon's  rebuilding  of  the  Long  Walls. — 
Athenian  independence  restored. — Peace  of 
Antalcidas,     See  Greece:  B.  C.  3Qg-387. 

B.  C.  378-371.— Brief  alliance  with  Thebes 
against  Sparta.    See  Greece:  B  C.  370-371 

B.  C.  378-357. — New  confederacy  and  the 
Social  War. — Upon  the  liberation  of  Thebes  and 
the  signs  that  began  to  appear  of  the  decline  of 
Spartan  power — during  the  year  of  the  archon- 
ship  of  Nausinicus,  378-377  B.  C,  which  was  made 
memorable  at  Athens  by  various  movements  of 
political  rcgeneration.^the  organization  of  a  new 
confederacy  was  undertaken,  analagous  to  the 
confederacy  of  Delos,  formed  a  century  before 
Athens  was  to  be,  "not  the  ruling  capital,  but 
only  the  directing  city  in  possession   of   the  pri- 


611 


ATHENS,   B.C.  370-362 


Philip  of 

Macedon 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  359-338 


macy,  the  seat  of  the  federal  council.  .  .  .  Calli- 
stratus  was  in  a  sense  the  Aristides  of  the  new 
confederation  and  doubtless  did  much  to  bring 
about  an  agreement ;  it  was  likewise  his  work 
that,  in  place  of  the  'tributes'  of  odious  memory, 
the  payments  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the 
confederation  were  introduced  under  the  gentler 
name  of  'contributions.'  .  .  .  Amicable  relations 
were  resumed  with  the  Cyclades,  Rhodes  and 
Perinthus;  in  other  words,  the  ancient  union  of 
navies  was  at  once  renewed  upon  a  large  scale 
and  in  a  wide  extent.  Even  such  states  joined 
it  as  had  hitherto  never  stood  in  confederate  re- 
lations with  Athens,  above  all  Thebes." — E.  Cur- 
tius.  History  of  Greece,  bk.  6,  ch.  i. — See  also 
Greece:  B.  C.  4th  century. — This  second  con- 
federacy renewed  much  of  the  prosperity  and 
influence  of  Athens  for  a  brief  period  of  about 
twenty  years.  But  in  357  B.C.,  four  important 
members  of  the  confederacy,  namely,  Chios,  Cos, 
Rhodes,  and  Byzantium  leagued  themselves  in 
revolt,  with  the  aid  of  Mausolus,  prince  of  Caria, 
and  an  inglorious  war  ensued,  known  as  the 
Social  War,  which  lasted  three  years,  .■\thens 
was  forced  at  last  to  assent  to  the  secession  of 
the  four  revolted  cities  and  to  recognize  their 
independence,  which  greatly  impaired  her  prestige 
and  power,  just  at  the  time  when  she  was  called 
upon  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  Philip  of 
Macedonia. — C.  Thirlwall,  History  oj  Greece,  ch. 
42. 

B.  C.  370-362.— Alliance  with  Sparta  against 
Thebes. — Battle  of  Mantineia.  See  Greece:  B.C. 
371-362. 

B.  C.  359-338. — Collision  with  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.— Policy  of  Demosthenes  and  policy  of 
Phocion. — "A  new  period  opens  with  the  growth 
of  the  Macedonian  power  under  Philip  (35g- 
336  B.C.).  We  are  here  chiefly  concerned  to 
notice  the  effect  on  the  City-State  [of  Athens], 
not  only  of  the  strength  and  policy  of  this  new 
power,  but  also  of  the  efforts  of  the  Greeks 
themselves  to  counteract  it.  At  the  time  of 
Philip's  accession  the  so-called  Theban  supremacy 
had  just  practically  ended  with  the  death  of 
Epaminondas.  There  was  now  a  kind  of  balance 
of  power  between  the  three  leading  States,  Sparta, 
Athens,  and  Thebes,  no  one  of  which  was  greatly 
stronger  than  the  others;  and  such  a  balance 
could  easily  be  worked  upon  by  any  great  power 
from  without.  Thus  when  Macedon  came  into 
the  range  of  Greek  politics,  under  a  man  of 
great  diplomatic  as  well  as  military  capacity, 
who,  like  a  Czar  of  to-day  [i8q3],  wished  to 
secure  a  firm  footing  on  the  sea-board  of  the 
/Egean  [see  Greece:  B.C.  359-358],  she  found 
her  work  comparatively  easy.  The  strong  im- 
perial policy  of  Philip  found  no  real  antagonist 
except  at  Athens.  Weak  as  she  was,  and 
straitened  by  the  break-up  of  her  new  con- 
federacy, Athens  could  still  produce  men  of  great 
talent  and  energy ;  but  she  was  hampered  by 
divided  counsels.  Two  Athenians  of  this  period 
seem  to  represent  the  currents  of  Greek  political 
thought,  now  running  in  two  different  direc- 
tions. Demosthenes  represents  the  cause  of  the 
City-State  in  this  age,  of  a  union,  that  is,  of 
perfectly  free  Hellenic  cities  against  the  common 
enemy.  Phocion  represents  the  feeling,  which 
seems  to  have  been  long  growing  up  among 
thinking  men  at  Athens,  that  the  City-State  was 
no  longer  what  it  had  been,  and  could  no  longer 
stand  by  itself;  that  what  was  needed  was  a 
general  Hellenic  peace,  and  possibly  even  an 
arbiter  from  without,  an  arbiter  who  not  wholly 
un-Hellenic  like  the  Persian,  yet  one  who  might 
succeed  in  stilling  the  fatal  jealousies  of  the  lead- 

61: 


ing  States.  .  .  .  The  efforts  of  Demosthenes  to 
check  Philip  fall  into  two  periods  divided  by 
the  peace  of  Philocrates  in  346  B.  C.  In  the 
first  of  these  he  is  acting  chiefly  with  Athens 
alone;  Philip  is  to  him  not  so  much  the  common 
enemy  of  Greece  as  the  dangerous  rival  of 
Athens  in  the  north.  His  whole  mind  was  given 
to  the  internal  reform  of  Athens  so  as  to 
strengthen  her  against  Philip.  In  her  relation 
to  other  Greek  States  he  perhaps  hardly  saw 
beyond  a  balance  of  power.  .  .  .  After  346  his 
Athenian  feeling  seems  to  become  more  dis- 
tinctly Hellenic.  But  what  could  even  such  a 
man  as  Demosthenes  do  with  the  Hellas  of  that 
day  ?  He  could  not  force  on  the  Greeks  a  real 
and  permanent  union ;  he  could  but  urge  new  al- 
liances. His  strength  was  spent  in  embassies  with 
this  object,  embassies  too  often  futile.  No  alli- 
ance could  save  Greece  from  the  Macedonian 
power,  as  subsequent  events  plainly  showed.  What 
was  needed  was  a  real  federal  union  between  the 
leading  States,  with  a  strong  central  controlling 
force ;  and  Demosthenes'  policy  was  hopeless  just 
because  Athens  could  never  be  the  centre  of  such 
a  union,  nor  could  any  other  city.  Demosthenes 
is  thus  the  last,  and  in  some  respects  the  most 
heroic  champion  of  the  old  Greek  instinct  for 
autonomy.  He  is  the  true  child  of  the  City- 
State,  but  the  child  of  its  old  age  and  decrepitude. 
He  still  believes  in  Athens,  and  it  is  on  Athens 
that  all  his  hopes  are  based.  He  looks  on 
Philip  as  one  who  must  inevitably  be  the  foe  alike 
of  Athens  and  of  Greece.  He  seems  to  think 
that  he  can  be  beaten  off  as  Xerxes  was,  and 
to  forget  that  even  Xer.xes  almost  triumphed 
over  the  divisions  of  the  Greek  States,  and  that 
Philip  is  a  nearer,  a  more  prominent,  and  a  far 
less  barbarian  foe.  /  .  .  Phocion  was  the  some- 
what odd  exponent  of  the  practical  side  of  a 
school  of  thought  which  had  been  gaining  strength 
in  Greece  for  some  time  past.  This  school  was 
now  brought  into  prominence  by  the  rise  of 
Macedon,  and  came  to  have  a  marked  influence 
on  the  history  of  the  City-State.  It  began  with 
the  philosophers,  and  with  the  idea  that  the 
philosopher  may  belong  to  the  world  as  well  as 
to  a  particular  city.  .  .  .  Athens  was  far  more 
open  to  criticism  now  than  in  the  days  of  Pericles; 
and  a  cynical  dislike  betrays  itself  in  the  Re- 
public for  the  politicians  of  the  day  and  their 
tricks,  and  a  longing  for  a  strong  government 
of  reason.  .  .  .  Aristotle  took  the  facts  of  city  life 
as  they  were  and  showed  how  they  might  be 
made  the  most  of.  .  .  .  To  him  Macedon  was 
assuredly  not  wholly  barbarian;  and  war  to  the 
death  with  her  kings  could  not  have  been  to 
him  as  natural  or  desirable  as  it  seemed  to  Demos- 
thenes. And  though  he  has  nothing  to  tell  us 
of  Macedon,  we  can  hardly  avoid  the  conclusion 
that  his  desire  was  for  peace  and  internal  re- 
form, even  if  it  were  under  the  guarantee  of 
the  northern  power.  ...  Of  this  philosophical 
view  of  Greek  politics  Phocion  was  in  a  manner 
the  political  exponent.  But  his  poHcy  was  too 
much  a  negative  one ;  it  might  almost  be  called 
one  of  indifferentism,  like  the  feeling  of  Lessing 
and  Goethe  in  Germany's  most  momentous  period. 
So  far  as  we  know,  Phocion  never  proposed  an 
alliance  of  a  durable  kind,  either  Athenian  or 
Hellenic,  with  Macedon ;  he  was  content  to  be 
a  purely  restraining  influence.  Athens  had  been 
constantly  at  war  since  432 ;  her  own  resources 
were  of  the  weakest ;  there  was  little  military  skill 
to  be  found  in  her,  no  reserve  force,  much  talk, 
but  little  solid  courage.  Athens  was  vulnerable 
at  various  points,  and  could  not  possibly  defend 
more  than  one  at  a  time,  therefore  Phocion  de- 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  351-348 


Death  of 
Demosthenes 


ATHENS,  B.  C.   336-322 


spaired  of  war,  and  the  event  proved  him  right. 
The  faithfulness  of  the  Athenians  towards  him  is 
a  proof  that  they  also  instinctively  felt  thrt  he 
was  right.  But  he  was  wanting  on  the  practical 
and  creative  side,  and  never  really  dominated 
either  Athens,  Greece,  or  Philip.  ...  A  policy 
of  resistance  found  the  City-State  too  weak  to 
defend  itself;  a  policy  of  inaction  would  land  it 
in  a  Macedonian  empire  which  would  still  further 
weaken  its  remaining  vitality.  The  first  policy, 
that  of  Demosthenes,  did  actually  result  in  dis- 
aster and  the  presence  of  Macedonian  garrisons 
in  Greek  cities.  The  second  policy  then  took 
its  place,  and  initiated  a  new  era  for  Greece. 
After  the  fatal  battle  of  Cha;ronea  (338  B.C.) 
Philip  assumed  the  position  of  leader  of  the 
Greek  cities."— W.  W.  Fowler,  City  Stale  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  ch.  10. — See  also  Greece: 
B.C.  357-336. 

B.  C.  351-348.— In  league  with  Olynthus.  See 
Greece:   B.  C.  351-34S. 

B.  C.  340. — Alliance  with  Byzantium  against 
Philip  of  Macedon.     See  Greece:   B.  C.  340. 

B.  C.  336-322.— End  of  the  struggle  with  the 
Macedonians. — Fall  of  democracy. — Death  of 
Demosthenes. — Athenian  decline. — "An  unex- 
pected incident  changes  the  whole  aspect  of  things. 
Philip  falls  the  victim  of  assassination ;  and  a 
youth,  who  as  yet  is  but  little  known,  is  his  suc- 
cessor. Immediately  Demosthenes  institutes  a  sec- 
ond alliance  of  the  Greeks;  but  Alexander  sud- 
denly appears  before  Thebes;  the  terrible  vengeance 
which  he  here  takes,  instantly  destroys  the  league; 
Demosthenes,  Lycurgus,  and  several  of  their  sup- 
porters, are  required  to  be  delivered  up;  but 
Demades  is  at  that  time  able  to  settle  the  diffi- 
culty and  to  appease  the  king.  His  strength 
was  therefore  enfeebled  as  Alexander  departed  for 
Asia ;  he  begins  to  raise  his  head  once  more 
when  Sparta  attempts  to  throw  off  the  yoke;  but 
under  Antipater  he  is  overpowered.  Yet  it  was 
about  this  very  time  that  by  the  most  celebrated 
of  his  discourses  he  gained  the  victory  over  the 
most  eloquent  of  his  adversaries;  and  ^schines 
was  forced  to  depart  from  Athens.  But  this 
seems  only  to  have  the  more  embittered  his 
enemies,  the  leaders  of  the  Macedonian  party ; 
and  they  soon  found  an  opportunity  of  prepar- 
ing his  downfall.  When  Harpalus,  a  fugitive  from 
the  army  of  Alexander,  came  with  his  treasures 
to  Athens,  and  the  question  arose,  whether  he 
could  be  permitted  to  remain  there,  Demosthenes 
was  accused  of  having  been  corrupted  by  his 
money,  at  least  to  be  silent.  This  was  sufficient 
to  procure  the  imposition  of  a  fine;  and  as  this 
was  not  paid,  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  From 
thence  he  succeeded  in  escaping;  but  to  the  man 
who  lived  only  for  his  country,  exile  was  no  less 
an  evil  than  imprisonment.  He  resided  for  the 
most  part  in  /F.gina  and  at  Troezen,  from  whence 
he  looked  with  moist  eyes  toward  the  neigh- 
bouring Attica.  Suddenly  and  unexpectedly  a 
new  ray  of  light  broke  through  the  clouds.  Tid- 
ings were  brought,  that  Alexander  was  dead.  The 
moment  of  deliverance  seemed  at  hand;  the  ex- 
citement pervaded  every  Grecian  state;  the  am- 
bassadors of  the  Athenians  passed  through  the 
cities;  Demosthenes  joined  himself  to  the  nurnber 
and  exerted  all  his  eloquence  and  power  to  unite 
them  against  Macedonia.  In  requital  for  such 
services,  the  people  decreed  his  return;  and  years 
of  sufferings  were  at  last  followed  by  a  day  of 
exalted  compensation.  A  galley  was  sent  to  /Egina 
to  bring  back  the  advocate  of  liberty.  ...  It  was 
a  momentary  glimpse  of  the  sun,  which  still 
darker  clouds  were  soon  to  conceal.  Antipater 
and  Craterus  were  victorious;  and  with  them  the 


Macedonian  party  in  Athens;  Demosthenes  and 
his  friends  were  numbered  among  the  accused, 
and  at  the  instigation  of  Demades  were  con- 
demned to  die.  .  .  .  Demosthenes  had  escaped  to 
the  island  of  Calauria  in  the  vicinity  of  Troezen ; 
and  took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Neptune.  It 
was  to  no  purpose  that  Archias,  the  satellite 
of  Antipater,  urged  him  to  surrender  himself  un- 
der promise  of  pardon.  He  pretended  he  wished 
to  write  something;  bit  the  quill,  and  swallowed 
the  poison  contained  in  it." — A.  H.  L.  Heeren, 
Reflections  on  the  politics  of  ancient  Greece, 
trans,  by  G.  Bancroft,  pp.  278-280. — See  also 
Macedonia:  B.  C.  345-336  and  also,  on  the 
"Lamian  War,"  the  suppression  of  democracy  at 
Athens,  and  the  expulsion  of  poor  citizens,  Greece: 
B.C.  323-322. — "With  the  decline  of  political  in- 
dependence, .  .  .  the  mental  powers  of  the  nation 
received  a  fatal  blow.  No  longer  knit  together 
by  a  powerful  esprit  de  corps,  the  Greeks  lost  the 
habit  of  working  for  the  common  weal;  and,  for 
the  most  part,  gave  themselves  up  to  the  petty 
interests  of  home  life  and  their  own  personal 
troubles.  Even  the  better  disposed  were  too 
much  occupied  in  opposing  the  low  tone  and 
corruption  of  the  times,  to  be  able  to  devote 
themselves,  in  their  moments  of  relaxation,  to  a 
free  and  speculative  consideration  of  things.  What 
could  be  expected  in  such  an  age,  but  that 
philosophy  would  take  a  decidedly  practical  turn, 
if  indeed  it  were  studied  at  all?  And  yet  such 
were  the  political  antecedents  of  the  Stoic  and 
Epicurean  systems  of  philosophy.  .  .  .  Stoic 
apathy.  Epicurean  self-satisfaction,  and  Sceptic  im- 
perturbability, were  the  doctrines  which  re- 
sponded to  the  political  helplessness  of  the  age. 
They  were  the  doctrines,  too,  which  met  with 
the  most  general  acceptance.  The  same  political 
helplessness  produced  the  sinking  of  national  dis- 
tinctions in  the  feeling  of  a  common  humanity, 
and  the  separation  of  morals  from  politics  which 
characterise  the  philosophy  of  the  Alexandrian 
and  Roman  period.  The  barriers  between  nations, 
together  with  national  independence,  had  been 
swept  away.  East  and  West,  Greeks  and  bar- 
barians, were  united  in  large  empires,  being  thus 
thrown  together,  and  brought  into  close  contact 
on  every  possible  point.  Philosophy  might  teach 
that  all  men  were  of  one  blood,  that  all  were 
equally  citizens  of  one  empire,  that  morality  rested 
on  the  relation  of  man  to  his  fellow  men,  inde- 
pendently of  nationalities  and  of  social  ranks;  but 
in  so  doing  she  was  only  explicitly  stating  truths 
which  had  been  already  realised  in  part,  and 
which  were  in  part  corollaries  from  the  existing 
state  of  society." — E.  Zeller,  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and 
Sceptics,  pp.  16-18, — "What  we  have  said  con- 
cerning the  evidence  of  comedy  about  the  age  of 
the  first  Diadochi  amounts  to  this:  Menander 
and  his  successors — they  lasted  barely  two  gen- 
erations— printed  in  a  few  stereotypes  a  small  and 
very  worthless  society  at  Athens.  There  was  no 
doubt  a  similar  set  of  people  at  Corinth,  at  Thebes, 
possibly  even  in  the  city  of  Lycurgus.  These 
people,  idle,  for  the  most  part  rich,  and  in  good 
society,  spent  their  earlier  years  in  debauchery, 
and  their  later  in  sentimental  reflections  and  re- 
grets. They  had  no  serious  object  in  life,  and 
regarded  the  complications  of  a  love  affair  as 
more  interesting  than  the  rise  and  fall  of  king- 
doms or  the  gain  and  loss  of  a  nation's  liberty. 
They  were  like  the  people  of  our  day  who  spend 
all  their  time  reading  novels  from  the  libraries, 
and  who  can  tolerate  these  eternal  variations  in 
twaddle  not  only  without  disgust  but  with  in- 
terest. They  were  surrounded  with  slaves,  on 
the    whole    more    intelligent    and    interesting,    for 


613 


ATHENS,  B.C.  336-322 


Decline 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  336-322 


in  the  first  place  slaves  were  bound  to  exercise 
their  brains,  and  in  the  second  they  had  a  great 
object — liberty — to  give  them  a  keen  pursuit  in 
life.  The  relations  of  the  sexes  in  this  set  or 
portion  of  society  were  bad,  owing  to  the  want 
of  education  in  the  women,  and  the  want  of 
earnestness  in  the  men.  As  a  natural  conse- 
quence a  class  was  found,  apart  from  household 
slaves,  who  took  advantage  of  these  defects,  and. 
bringing  culture  to  fascinate  unprincipled  men, 
established  those  relations  which  brought  estrange- 
ments, if  not  ruin,  into  the  home  life  of  the  day." 
— J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Greek  life  and  thought  from 
death  of  Alexander  to  Rome.  pp.  123-124. — "The 
amount  of  Persian  wealth  poured  into  Greece  by 
the  accidents  of  the  conquest,  not  by  its  own 
industries,  must  have  produced  a  revolution  in 
prices  not  since  equalled  except  by  the  influx  of 
the  gold  of  the  .•Vztecs  and  Incas  into  Spain.  I 
have  already  pointed  out  how  this  change  must 
have  pressed  upon  poor  people  in  Greece  who 
did  not  share  in  the  plunder.  The  price  of  even 
necessary  and  simple  things  must  have  often  risen 
beyond  their  means.  For  the  adventurers  brought 
home  large  fortunes,  and  the  traders  and  pur- 
veyors of  the  armies  made  them ;  and  with  these 
Eastern  fortunes  must  have  come  in  the  taste 
for  all  the  superior  comforts  and  luxuries  which 
they  found  among  the  Persian  grandees.  Not  only 
the  appointments  of  the  table,  in  the  way  of 
plate  and  pottery,  but  the  very  tastes  and  flavours 
of  Greek  cookery  must  have  profited  by  com- 
parison with  the  knowledge  of  the  East.  So 
also  the  furniture,  especially  in  carpets  and  hang- 
ings, must  have  copied  Persian  fashion,  just  as 
we  still  affect  oriental  stuffs  and  designs.  It 
was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  example  of  so 
many  regal  courts  and  so  much  royal  ceremony 
should  not  affect  those  in  contact  with  them. 
These  intluences  were  not  only  shown  in  the 
vulgar  'braggart  captain,'  who  came  to  show  off 
his  sudden  wealth  in  impudent  extravagance 
among  his  old  townspeople,  but  in  the  ordinary 
life  of  rich  young  men.  So  I  imagine  the  personal 
appointments  of  .\lcibiades,  which  were  the  talk 
of  Greece  in  his  day,  would  have  appeared  poor 
and  mean  beside  those  of  Aratus,  or  of  the  gen- 
eration which  preceded  him.  Pictures  and  statues 
began  to  adorn  private  houses,  and  not  temples 
and  public  buildings  only — a  change  beginning 
to  show  itself  in  Demosthencs's  day,  but  coming 
in  like  a  torrent  with  the  opening  of  Greece 
to  the  Eastern  world.  It  was  noticed  that 
Phocion's  house  at  .'\thens  was  modest  in  size 
and  furniture,  but  even  this  was  relieved  from 
shabbiness  by  the  quaint  wall  decoration  of  shin- 
ing plates  of  bronze — a  fashion  dating  from  pre- 
historic times,  but  still  admired  for  its  very 
antiquity." — J.  P  Mahaffy.  Greek  life  and  llwiight. 
pp.  105-106. — "The  modern  historians  of  Greece 
are  much  divided  on  the  question  where  a  his- 
tory of  Hellas  ought  to  end.  Curtius  stops  with 
the  battle  of  Chseroneia  and  the  prostration  of 
.\thens  before  the  advancing  power  of  Maccdon 
Grote  narrates  the  campaigns  of  Alexander,  but 
stops  short  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Lamian 
War,  when  Greece  had  in  vain  tried  to  shake  off 
the  supremacy  of  his  generals.  Thirlwall  brings 
his  narrative  down  to  the  time  of  Mummius. 
the  melancholy  sack  of  Corinth  and  the  con- 
stitution of  .^chaia  as  a  Roman  province.  Of 
these  divergent  views  we  regard  that  of  the  Ger- 
man historian  as  the  most  correct.  .  .  .  The  his- 
toric sense  of  Grote  did  not  exclude  prejudices, 
and  in  this  case  he  was  probably  led  astray  by 
political  bias.  .\t  the  close  of  his  ninety-sixth 
chapter,   after   mentioning   the    embassies  sent   by 

6 


the  degenerate  .Athenians  to  King  Ptolemy,  King 
Lysimachus,  and  .\ntipater,  he  throws  down  his 
pen  in  disgust,  'and  with  sadness  and  humiliation 
brings  his  narrative  to  a  close.'  Athens  was  no 
longer  free  and  no  longer  dignified,  and  so  Mr. 
Grote  will  have  done  with  Greece  at  the  very 
moment  when  the  new  Comedy  was  at  its  height, 
when  the  Museum  was  founded  at  .Alexandria, 
when  the  plays  of  Euripides  were  acted  at  Baby- 
lon and  Cabul,  and  every  Greek  soldier  of  for- 
tune carried  a  diadem  in  his  baggage.  Surely 
the  historian  of  Greece  ought  either  to  have 
stopped  when  the  iron  hand  of  Philip  of  Macedon 
put  an  end  to  the  liberties  and  the  political 
wranglings  of  Hellas,  or  else  persevered  to  the 
time  when  Rome  and  Parthia  crushed  Greek 
power  between  them,  like  a  ship  between  two 
icebergs.  No  doubt  his  reply  would  be,  that  he 
declined  to  regard  the  triumph  abroad  of  Mace- 
donian arms  as  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
Hellas.  .  .  .  The  truth  is,  that  the  history  of 
Greece  consists  of  two  parts,  in  every  respect 
contrasted  one  with  the  other.  The  first  recounts 
the  stories  of  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  wars, 
and  ends  with  the  destruction  of  Thebes  and  the 
subjugation  of  .\thens  and  Sparta.  The  Hellas  of 
which  it  speaks  is  a  cluster  of  autonomous  cities 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Islands,  and  Northern 
Greece,  together  with  their  colonies  scattered  over 
the  coasts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Thrace,  the  Black  Sea, 
Asia  Minor,  and  -Africa.  These  cities  care  only 
to  be  independent,  or  at  most  to  lord  it  over  one 
another.  Their  political  institutions,  their  religious 
ceremonies,  their  customs,  are  civic  and  local. 
Language,  commerce,  a  common  Pantheon,  and  a 
common  art  and  poetry-  are  the  ties  that  bind 
them  together.  In  its  second  phase,  Greek  his- 
tory begins  with  the  expedition  of  .Alexander.  It 
reveals  to  us  the  Greek  as  everywhere  lord  of 
the  barbarian,  as  founding  kingdoms  and  federal 
systems,  as  the  instructor  of  all  mankind  in  art 
and  science,  and  the  spreader  of  civil  and  civilized 
life  over  the  known  world.  In  the  first  period 
of  her  history  Greece  is  forming  herself,  in  her 
second  she  is  educating  the  world.  We  will 
venture  to  borrow  from  the  Germans  a  convenient 
expression,  and  call  the  history  of  independent 
Greece  the  history  of  Hellas,  that  of  imperial 
Greece  the  history  of  Hellenism.  ,  .  .  The  .Athens 
of  Pericles  was  dictator  among  the  cities  which 
joined  her  alliance.  Corinth,  Sparta,  Thebes,  were 
each  the  political  head  of  a  group  of  towns, 
but  none  of  the  three  admitted  these  latter  to 
an  equal  share  in  their  councils,  or  adopted  their 
political  views.  Even  in  the  Olynthian  League,  the 
city  of  Olynthus  occupied  a  position  quite  su- 
perior to  that  of  the  other  cities.  But  the  Greek 
cities  had  not  tried  the  experiment  of  an  al- 
liance on  equal  terms.  This  was  now  attempted 
by  some  of  the  leading  cities  of  the  Peloponnese, 
and  the  result  was  the  .Achaean  League,  whose 
history  sheds  a  lustre  on  the  last  days  of  in- 
dependent Greece,  and  whose  generals  will  bear 
comparison  with  the  statesmen  of  any  Greek 
Republic  [see  Greece:  B.C.  280-146].  .  .  .  On 
the  field  of  Sellasia  the  glorious  hopes  of  Cleomenes 
were  wrecked,  and  the  recently  reformed  Sparta 
was  handed  over  to  a  succession  of  bloodthirsty 
tyrants,  never  again  to  emerge  from  obscurity. 
But  to  the  .Achjeans  themselves  the  interference 
of  Macedon  was  little  less  fatal.  Henceforth  a 
Macedonian  garrison  occupied  Corinth,  which  had 
been  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  League;  and 
King  .Antigonus  Doson  was  the  recognized  arbiter 
in  all  disputes  of  the  Peloponnesian  Greeks.  .  .  . 
In  Northern  Greece  a  strange  contrast  presented  it- 
self.     The    historic    races    of    the    .Athenians    and 


14 


ATHENS,  B.C.  336-322 


Decline 


ATHENS,  B.C.  200 


Boeotians  languished  in  peace,  obscurity,  and  lux- 
ury. With  them  every  day  saw  something  added 
to  enjoyments  and  elegancies  of  life,  and  every 
day  politics  drifted  more  and  more  into  the 
background.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rude  semi- 
Greeks  of  the  West,  .45tolians,  Acarnanians,  and 
Epirotes,  to  whose  manhood  the  repulse  of  the 
Gauls  was  mainly  due,  came  to  the  front  and 
showed  the  bold  spirit  of  Greeks  divorced  from 
the  liner  faculties  of  the  race.  The  Acarnanians 
formed  a  league  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  the 
Acha5an.  But  they  were  overshadowed  by  their 
neighbors  the  .-Etolians,  whose  union  was  of  a 
different  character.  It  was  the  first  time  that 
there  had  been  formed  in  Hellas  a  state  framed 
in  order  to  prey  upon  its  neighbours.  ...  In  the 
course  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  Greek  religion 
began  to  lose  its  hold  on  the  Greeks.  This  was 
partly  the  work  of  the  sophists  and  philosophers, 
who  sought  more  lofty  and  moral  views  of 
Deity  than  were  furnished  by  the  tales  of  popular 
mythology.  Still  more  it  resulted  from  growing 
materialism  among  the  people,  who  saw  more 
and  more  of  their  immediate  and  physical  needs, 
and  less  and  less  of  the  underlying  spiritual 
elements  in  life.  But  though  philosophy  and 
materialism  had  made  the  religion  of  Hellas  paler 
and  feebler,  they  had  not  altered  its  nature  or 
expanded  it.  It  still  remained  essentially  na- 
fior?l,  almost  tribal.  When,  therefore,  Greeks 
and  Macedonians  suddenly  found  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  nations  of  the  East,  and  in  close  con- 
tact with  a  hundred  forms  of  religion,  an  ex- 
traordinary and  rapid  change  took  place  in  their 
religious  ideas.  In  religion,  as  in  othc  matters, 
Egypt  set  to  the  world  the  example  of  prompt 
fusion  of  the  ideas  of  Greeks  and  natives.  .  .  . 
Into  Greece  proper,  in  return  (or  her  population 
which  flowed  out,  there  flowed  in  a  crowd  of 
foreign  deities.  Isis  was  especially  welcomed  at 
Athens,  where  she  found  many  votaries.  In  every 
cult  the  more  mysterious  elements  were  made 
more  of,  and  the  brighter  and  more  materialistic 
side  passed  by.  Old  statues  which  had  fallen 
somewhat  into  contempt  in  the  days  of  Pheidias 
and  Praxiteles  were  restored  to  their  places  and 
received  extreme  veneration,  not  as  beautiful,  but 
as  old  and  strange.  On  the  coins  of  the  previous 
period  the  representations  of  deities  had  been 
always  the  best  that  the  die-cutter  could  frame, 
taking  as  his  models  the  finest  contemporary  sculp- 
ture; but  henceforth  we  often  find  them  strange, 
uncouth  figures,  remnants  of  a  period  of  strug- 
gling early  art,  like  the  Apollo  at  .'Kmyclse,  or  the 
Hera  of  Samos.  ...  In  the  intellectual  life  of 
Athens  there  was  still  left  vitality  enough  to 
formulate  the  two  most  complete  expressions  of  the 
ethical  ideas  of  the  times,  the  doctrines  of  the 
Stoics  and  the  Epicureans,  towards  one  or  the 
other  of  which  all  educated  minds  from  that 
day  to  this  have  been  drawn.  No  doubt  our 
knowledge  of  these  doctrines,  being  largely  drawn 
from  the  Latin  writers  and  their  Greek  con- 
temporaries, is  somewhat  coloured  and  unjust. 
With  the  Romans  a  system  of  philosophy  was 
considered  mainly  in  its  bearing  upon  conduct, 
whence  the  ethical  elements  in  Stoicism  and  Epi- 
cureanism have  been  by  their  Roman  adherents 
so  thrust  into  the  foreground,  that  we  have 
almost  lost  sight  of  the  intellectual  elements, 
which  can  have  had  little  less  importance  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Greeks.  Notwithstanding,  the  rise  of 
the  two  philosophies  must  be  held  to  mark  a  new 
era  in  the  history  of  thought,  an  era  when  the 
importance  of  conduct  was  for  the  first  time  rec- 
ognized by  the  Greeks.  It  is  often  observed  that 
the   ancient   Greeks  were   more   modern   than   our 


own  ancestors  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  it  is  less 
generally  recognized  how  far  more  modern  than 
the  Greeks  of  Pericles  were  the  Greeks  of  Aratus. 
In  very  many  respects  the  age  of  Hellenism  and 
our  own  age  present  remarkable  similarity.  In 
both  there  appears  a  sudden  increase  in  the 
power  over  material  nature,  arising  alike  from 
the  greater  accessibility  of  all  parts  of  the  world 
and  from  the  rapid  developments  of  the  sciences 
which  act  upon  the  physical  forces  of  the  world. 
In  both  this  spread  of  science  and  power  acts 
upon  religion  with  a  dissolving  and,  if  we  may 
so  speak,  centrifugal  force,  driving  some  men  to 
take  refuge  in  the  most  conservative  forms  of 
faith,  some  to  fly  to  new  creeds  and  superstitions, 
some  to  drift  into  unmeasured  scepticism.  In 
both  the  facility  of  moving  from  place  to  place, 
and  finding  a  distant  home,  tends  to  dissolve  the 
closeness  of  civic  and  family  life,  and  to  make 
the  individual  rather  than  the  family  or  the  city 
the  unit  of  social  life.  And  in  the  family  re- 
lations, in  the  character  of  individuals,  in  the 
state  of  morality,  in  the  condition  of  art,  we 
find  at  both  periods  similar  results  from  the 
similar  causes  we  have  mentioned." — P.  Gardner, 
New  chapters  in  Greek  history,  eh.  15. 

B.  C.  317-316.— Siege  by  Polyperchon.— De- 
mocracy restored. — Execution  of  Phocion. — De- 
metrius of  Phaleron  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment.    See  Greece;   B.  C.  321-312. 

B.  C.  307-197. — Under  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
and  the  Antigonids.    See  Greece;  B.  C.  307-197. 

B.  C.  288-263. — Twenty  years  of  independence. 
— Siege  and  subjugation  by  Antigonus  Gonatas. 
— When  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  lost  the  Macedonian 
throne,  288  B.  C,  his  fickle  Athenian  subjects 
and  late  worshippers  rose  against  his  authority, 
drove  his  garrisons  from  the  Museum  and  the 
Peirsus  and  abolished  the  priesthood  they  had 
consecrated  to  him.  Demetrius  gathered  an  army 
from  some  quarter  and  laid  siege  to  the  city,  but 
without  success.  The  Athenians  went  so  far  as 
to  invite  Pyrrhus,  the  warrior  king  of  Epirus, 
to  assist  them  against  him.  Pyrrhus  came  and 
Demetrius  retired.  The  dangerous  ally  contented 
himself  with  a  visit  to  the  Acropolis  as  a  wor- 
shipper, and  left  Athens  in  possession,  undisturbed, 
of  her  freshly  gained  freedom.  It  was  enjoyed 
after  a  fashion  for  twenty  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  period,  268  B.  C,  Antigonus  Gonatas,  the 
son  of  Demetrius,  having  regained  the  Macedonian 
crown,  reasserted  his  claim  on  Athens,  and  the 
city  was  once  more  besieged.  The  Lacedaemonians 
and  Ptolemy  of  Egypt  both  gave  some  ineffectual 
aid  to  the  Athenians,  and  the  siege,  interrupted 
on  several  occasions,  was  prolonged  until  263 
B.  C,  when  Antigonus  took  possession  of  the 
Acropolis,  the  fortified  Museum  and  the  Peiraeus 
as  a  master  (see  Macedonw:  B.C.  277-244).  This 
was  sometimes  called  the  Chremonidean  War,  from 
the  name  of  a  patriotic  Athenian  who  took  the 
most  prominent  part  in  the  long  defence  of  his 
city. — C.  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  ch.  61. 

B.  C.  229. — Liberation  by  the  Achaean  league. 
See  Greece;   B.C.  280-146. 

B.  C.  200. — Vandalism  of  the  second  Mace- 
donian Philip. — In  the  year  200  B.  C.  the  Mace- 
donian king,  Philip,  made  an  attempt  to  surprise 
Athens  and  failed.  "He  then  encamped  in  the 
outskirts,  and  proceeded  to  wreak  his  vengeance 
on  the  .■\thenians,  as  he  had  indulged  it  at 
Thermus  and  Pergamus.  He  destroyed  or  de- 
faced all  the  monuments  of  religion  and  of  art, 
all  the  sacred  and  pleasant  places  which  adorned 
the  suburbs.  The  Academy,  the  Lyceum,  and 
Cynosarges,  with  their  temples,  schools,  groves 
and  gardens,  were  all  wasted  with  fire.     Not  even 


615 


ATHENS,  B.C.  197- A.  D.  138 


Roman 
Rule 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  54 


the  sepulchres  were  spared." — C.  Thirlwall,  History 
of  Greece,  ch.  64. 

B.  C.  197-A.  D.  138.— Under  Roman  rule.— 
"Athens  .  .  .  affords  the  disheartening  picture  of 
a  commonwealth  pampered  by  the  supreme  power, 
and  financially  as  well  as  morally  ruined.  By 
rights  it  ought  to  have  found  itself  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition.  ...  No  city  of  antiquity  elsewhere 
possessed  a  domain  of  its  own,  such  as  was  Attica, 
of  about  700  square  miles.  .  .  .  But  even  beyond 
Attica  they  retained  what  they  possessed,  as  well 
after  the  Mithridatic  War,  by  favour  of  Sulla, 
as  after  the  Pharsalian  battle,  in  which  they  had 
taken  the  side  of  Pompeius,  by  the  favour  of 
Caesar ; — he  asked  them  only  how  often  they 
would  still  ruin  themselves  and  trust  to  be  saved 
by  the  renown  of  their  ancestors.  To  the  city 
there  still  belonged  not  merely  the  territory,  for- 
merly possessed  by  Haliartus,  in  Boeotia,  but  also 
on  their  own  coait  Salamis,  the  old  starting-point 
of  their  dominion  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  Thracian 
Sea  the  lucrative  islands  Scyros,  Demnos,  and 
Imbros,  as  w-ell  as  Delos  in  the  .^igean.  ...  Of 
the  further  grants,  which  they  had  the  skill  to 
draw  by  flattery  from  .Antoninus,  Augustus, 
against  whom  they  had  taken  part,  took  from 
them  certainly  .^igina  and  Eretria  in  Euboea,  but 
they  were  allowed  to  retain  the  smaller  islands  of 
the  Thracian  Sea.  .  .  .  Hadrian,  moreover,  gave  to 
them  the  best  part  of  the  great  island  of  Cephal- 
lenia  in  the  Ionian  Sea.  It  was  only  by  the 
Emperor  Severus,  who  bore  them  no  good  will, 
that  a  portion  of  these  extraneous  possessions  was 
withdrawn  from  them.  Hadrian  further  granted 
to  the  Athenians  the  delivery  of  a  certain  quan- 
tity' of  grain  at  the  e.-^pense  of  the  empire,  and 
by  the  extension  of  this  privilege,  hitherto  re- 
served for  the  capital,  acknowledged  .•\thens,  as 
it  were,  as  another  metropolis.  Not  less  was  the 
blissful  institute  of  alimentary  endowments,  which 
Italy  had  enjoyed  since  Trajan's  time,  extended 
by  Hadrian  to  .Athens,  and  the  capital  requisite 
for  this  purpose  certainly  presented  to  the  .Mhe- 
nians  from  his  purse.  .  .  .  Yet  the  community  was 
in  constant  distress."— T.  Mommsen,  History  of 
Rome,  bk.  8,  ch.  7. — See  also  Greece:  B.  C.  146- 
A.  D.  180. 

Also  in:  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Greek  world  under 
Roman  s'd'ay. 

B.  C.  87-86. — Siege  and  capture  by  Sulla. — 
Massacre  of  citizens. — Pillage  and  depopulation. 
— Lasting  injuries. — The  early  successes  of  Mith- 
radates  of  Pontus,  in  his  savage  war  with  the 
Romans,  included  a  general  rising  in  his  favor 
among  the  Greeks  [see  MiTHRADAnc  Wars],  sup- 
ported by  the  fleets  of  the  Pontic  king  and  by  a 
strong  invading  army.  .Mhens  and  the  Peiraeus 
were  the  strongholds  of  the  Greek  revolt,  and 
at  Athens  an  adventurer  named  Aristion,  bringing 
from  Mithradates  a  body-guard  of  2,000  soldiers, 
made  himself  tyrant  of  the  city.  A  year  passed 
before  Rome,  distracted  by  the  beginnings  of 
civil  war,  could  effectively  interfere.  Then  Sulla 
came  (B.C.  87)  and  laid  siege  to  the  Peirseus, 
where  the  principal  Pontic  force  was  lodged,  while 
he  shut  up  Athens  by  blockade.  In  the  following 
March,  Athens  was  starved  to  such  weakness  that 
the  Romans  entered  almost  unopposed  and  killed 
and  plundered  with  no  mercy ;  but  the  buildings 
of  the  city  suffered  little  harm  at  their  hands. 
The  siege  of  the  Peinus  was  carried  on  for  some 
weeks  longer,  until  Sulla  had  driven  the  Pontic 
forces  from  every  part  except  Munychia.  and  that 
they  evacuated  in  no  long  time. — W'.  Ihne,  His- 
tory of  Rome,  bk.  7,  ch.  17.— ".Mhens  was  .  .  . 
taken  by  assault.  .  .  .  The  majority  of  the  citi- 
zens was  slain;  the  carnage  was  so  fearfully  great 

61 


as  to  become  memorable  even  in  that  age  of 
bloodshed ;  ihe  private  movable  property  was 
seized  by  the  soldier>',  and  Sylla  assumed  some 
merit  to  himself  for  not  committing  the  rifled 
houses  to  the  flames.  .  .  .  The  fate  of  the  Peiraeus, 
which  he  utterly  destroyed,  was  more  severe  than 
that  of  .\thens.  From  Sylla's  campaign  in  Greece 
the  commencement  of  the  ruin  and  depopulation 
of  the  country  is  to  be  dated.  The  destruction 
of  property  caused  by  his  ravages  in  .\ttica  was 
so  great  that  Athens  from  that  time  lost  its 
commercial  as  well  as  its  political  importance. 
The  race  of  .Athenian  citizens  was  almost  extirpated, 
and  a  new  population,  composed  of  a  heterogene- 
ous mass  of  settlers,  received  the  right  of  citizen- 
ship."— G.  Finlay,  Greece  under  the  Romans,  ch.  i. 
A.  D.  54  (?).-TVisit  of  St.  Paul.— Planting 
of  Christianity. — "When  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica 
had  knowledge  that  the  word  of  God  was  pro- 
claimed of  Paul  at  Berea  also,  they  came  thither 
likewise,  stirring  up  and  troubling  the  multitude. 
And  then  immediately  the  brethren  sent  forth 
Paul  to  go  as  far  as  to  the  sea:  and  Silas  and 
Timotheus  abode  there  still.  But  they  that  con- 
ducted Paul  brought  him  as  far  as  .Athens;  and 
receiving  a  commandment  unto  Silas  and  Timotheus 
that  they  should  come  to  him  w-ith  all  speed, 
they  departed.  Now  while  Paul  waited  for  them 
at  Athens,  his  spirit  was  provoked  within  him, 
as  he  beheld  the  city  full  of  idols.  So  he  reasoned 
in  the  synagogue  with  the  Jews,  and  the  devout 
persons,  and  in  the  market  place  every  day  with 
them  that  met  with  him.  And  certain  also  of 
the  Epicureans  and  Stoic  philosophers  encountered 
him.  And  some  said,  what  would  this  Ijabbler 
say  ?  other  some,  He  seemeth  to  be  a  setter  forth 
of  strange  gods:  because  he  preached  Jesus  and 
the  resurrection.  And  they  took  hold  of  him,  and 
brought  him  unto  the  .Areopagus,  saying.  May  we 
know  what  this  new  teaching  is  which  is  spoken 
by  thee  ?  For  thou  bringest  certain  strange  things 
to  our  ears:  w'e  would  know  therefore  what  these 
things  mean.  (Now  all  the  .Athenians  and  the 
strangers  sojourning  there  spent  their  time  in  noth- 
ing else,  but  either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new 
thing.)  And  Paul  stood  in  the  midst  of  the  .Areo- 
pagus, and  said.  Ye  men  of  .Athens,  in  all  things 
I  perceive  that  ye  are  somewhat  superstitious. 
For  as  I  passed  along  and  observed  the  objects  of 
your  worship,  I  found  also  an  altar  with  this  in- 
scription. 'To  an  Unknown  God.'  What  there- 
fore ye  worship  in  ignorance,  this  set  I  forth  unto 
you.  .  .  .  Now  when  they  heard  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  some  mocked ;  but  others  said, 
We  will  hear  thee  concerning  this  yet  again. 
Thus  Paul  went  out  from  among  them.  Howbeit 
certain  men  clave  unto  him,  and  believed:  among 
whom  also  was  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and 
a  woman  named  Damaris,  and  others  with  them." 
— Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Revised  Version,  ch.  17. — 
"Consider  the  difficulties  which  must  have  beset 
the  planting  of  the  Church  in  Athens.  If  the 
burning  zeal  of  the  great  Apostle  ever  permitted 
him  to  feel  diffidence  in  addressing  an  assembly, 
he  may  well  have  felt  it  when  he  addressed  on 
Mars'  Hill  for  the  first  time  an  .Athenian  crowd. 
No  doubt  the  Athens  of  his  time  was  in  her 
decay,  inferior  in  opulence  and  grandeur  to  many 
younger  cities.  Yet  even  to  a  Jew,  provided  he 
had  received  some  educational  impressions  beyond 
the  fanatical  shibboleths  of  Pharisaism,  there  was 
much  in  that  wonderful  centre  of  intelligence  to 
shake  his  most  inveterate  prejudices  and  inspire 
him  with  unwilling  respect.  Shorn  indeed  of 
her  political  greatness,  deprived  even  of  her  philo- 
sophical supremacy,  she  still  shone  with  a  bril- 
liant afterglow   of   esthetic   and  intellectual   pres- 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  54 


Planting  of 
Christianity 


ATHENS,  1205-1308 


tige.  Her  monument  flashed  on  the  visitor  mem- 
ories recent  enough  to  dazzle  his  imagination.  Her 
schools  claimed  and  obtained  even  from  Emperors 
the  homage  due  to  her  unique  past.  Recognis- 
ing her  as  the  true  nurse  of  Hellenism  and  the 
chief  missionary  of  human  reftnement,  the  best 
spirits  of  the  age  held  her  worthy  of  admiring 
love  not  unmixed  with  awe.  As  the  seat  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  popular  university,  young  men 
of  talent  and  position  flocked  to  her  from  every 
quarter,  studied  for  a  time  within  her  colonnades, 
and  carried  thence  the  recollection  of  a  culture 
which  was  not  always  deep,  not  always  erudite, 
but  was  always  and  genuinely  Attic.  To  sub- 
ject to  the  criticism  of  this  people  of  doctrine 
professing  to  come  direct  from  God,  a  religion 
and  not  a  philosophy,  depending  not  on  argu- 
ment but  on  revelation,  was  a  task  of  which  the 
difficulties  might  seem  insuperable.  When  we 
consider  what  the  Athenian  character  was,  this 
language  will  not  seem  exaggerated.  Keen,  subtle, 
capricious,  satirical,  sated  with  ideas,  eager  for 
novelty,  yet  with  the  eagerness  of  amused  frivolity, 
not  of  the  truth-seeker:  critical  by  instinct,  ex- 
quisitely sensitive  to  the  ridiculous  or  the  absurd, 
disputatious,  ready  to  listen,  yet  impatient  of  all 
that  was  not  wit,  satisfied  with  everything  in 
life  except  its  shortness,  and  therefore  hiding  all 
references  to  this  unwelcome  fact  under  a  veil  of 
complacent  euphemism — where  could  a  more  un- 
congenial soil  be  found  for  the  seed  of  the  Gospel? 
...  To  an  Athenian  the  Jew  was  not  so  much 
an  object  of  hatred  (as  to  the  Roman),  nor  even 
of  contempt  (as  to  the  rest  of  mankind),  as  of 
absolute  indifference.  He  was  simply  ignored.  To 
the  eclectic  philosophy  which  now  dominated  the 
schools  of  Athens,  Judaism  alone  among  all  hu- 
man opinions  was  as  if  non-existent.  That  Athe- 
nians should  be  convinced  by  the  philosophy  of  a 
Jew  would  be  a  proposition  expressible  in  words 
but  wholly  destitute  of  meaning.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Jew  was  not  altogether  uninfluenced  by 
Greek  thought.  Wide  apart  as  the  two  minds 
were,  the  Hebraic  proved  not  insensible  to  the 
charm  of  the  Hellenic ;  witness  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  witness  Philo,  witness  the  intrusion  of 
Greek  methods  of  interpretation  even  into  the 
text-books  of  Rabbinism.  And  it  was  Athens, 
as  the  quintessence  of  Hellas,  Athens  as  repre- 
sented by  Socrates,  and  still  more  by  Plato,  which 
had  gained  this  subtle  power.  And  just  as  Judaea 
alone  among  all  the  Jewish  communities  retained 
its  e.xclusiveness  wholly  unimpaired  by  Hellen- 
ism, so  Athens,  more  than  any  Pagan  capital, 
was  likely  to  ignore  or  repel  a  faith  coming  in 
the  garb  of  Judaism.  And  yet  within  less- than 
a  century  we  find  this  faith  so  well  established 
there  as  to  yield  to  the  Church  the  good  fruits  of 
martyrdom  in  the  person  of  its  bishop,  and  of 
able  defences  in  the  person  of  three  of  its  teachers. 
The  early  and  the  later  fortunes  of  the  Athenian 
Church  are  buried  in  oblivion ;  it  comes  but  for 
a  brief  period  before  the  scene  of  history.  But 
the  undying  interest  of  that  one  dramatic  moment 
when  Paul  proclaimed  a  bodily  resurrection  to 
the  authors  of  the  conception  of  a  spiritual  im- 
mortality, will  always  cause  us  to  linger  with  a 
strange  sympathy  over  every  relic  of  the  Chris- 
tianity of  Athens." — C.  T.  Cruttwell,  Literary  his- 
tory of  early  Christianity,  v.  i,  bk.  3,  ch.  4. — See 
Jso  Christianity:  A.  D.  35-60. 

Also  in:  W.  J.  Conybeare  and  J.  S  Howson, 
Life  and  letters  of  St.  Paul,  v.  i,  ck.  to. — F.  C. 
Baur,  Paul,  v.  i,  pt.  i,  ch.  7. — On  the  inscrip- 
tion, see  E.  de  Pressense,  Early  years  of  Cliris- 
tianity:  Apostolic  era,  bk.  2,  ch.  i. 

125-134.— Works    of    Hadrian.— The    Emperor 

61 


Hadrian  interested  himself  greatly  in  the  vener- 
able decaying  capital  of  the  Greeks,  which  he 
visited,  or  resided  in,  for  considerable  periods,  sev- 
eral times,  between  125  and  134.  These  visits 
were  made  important  to  the  city  by  the  great 
works  of  rebuilding  which  he  undertook  and 
supervised.  Large  parts  of  the  city  are  thought  to 
have  been  reconstructed  by  him,  "in  the  open  and 
luxurious  style  of  Antioch  and  Ephesus."  One 
quarter  came  to  be  called  "Hadrianapolis,"  as 
though  he  had  created  it.  Several  new  temples 
were  erected  at  his  command;  but  the  greatest  of 
the  works  of  Hadrian  at  Athens  was  the  complet- 
ing of  the  vast  national  temple,  the  Olympieum, 
the  beginning  of  which  dated  back  to  the  age  of 
Pisistratus,  and  which  Augustus  had  put  his  hand 
to  without  finishing. — C.  Merivale,  History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire,  ch.  66. 

267. — Captured  by  the  Goths.  See  Goths:  258- 
267. 

395. — Surrender  to  Alaric  and  the  Goths. — 
When  the  Goths  under  Alaric  invaded  and  ravaged 
Greece,  395,  Athens  was  surrendered  to  them,  on 
terms  which  saved  the  city  from  being  plundered. 
"The  fact  that  the  depredations  of  Alaric  hardly 
exceeded  the  ordinary  license  of  a  rebellious  gen- 
eral, is  .  .  .  perfectly  established.  The  public 
buildings  and  monuments  of  ancient  splendour  suf- 
fered no  wanton  destruction  from  his  visit;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Alaric  and  his  troops 
levied  heavy  contributions  on  the  city  and  its  in- 
habitants."— G.  Finlay,  Greece  under  the  Romans, 
ch.  2,  sect.  8. — See  also  Goths:  A.  D.  3qs:  Alaric's 
invasion  of  Greece. 

Also  in:  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  30. 

A.  D.  529. — Suppression  of  the  schools  by 
Justinian. — -"The  Attic  schools  of  rhetoric  and 
philosophy  maintained  their  superior  reputation 
from  the  Peloponnesian  War  to  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian. Athens,  though  situate  in  a  barren  soil, 
possessed  a  pure  air,  a  free  navigation,  and  the 
monuments  of  ancient  art.  That  sacred  retire- 
ment was  seldom  disturbed  by  the  business  of 
trade  or  government ;  and  the  last  of  the  Athenians 
were  distinguished  by  their  lively  wit,  the  purity 
of  their  taste  and  language,  their  social  manners, 
and  some  traces,  at  least  in  discourse,  of  the  mag- 
nanimity of  their  fathers.  In  the  suburbs  of  the 
city,  the  Academy  of  the  Platonists,  the  Lycaeum  of 
the  Peripatetics,  the  Portico  of  the  Stoics  and  the 
Garden  of  the  Epicureans  were  planted  with  trees 
and  decorated  with  statues;  and  the  philosophers, 
instead  of  being  immured  in  a  cloister,  delivered 
their  instructions  in  spacious  and  pleasant  walks, 
which,  at  different  hours,  were  consecrated  to  the 
exercises  of  the  mind  and  body.  The  genius  of  the 
founders  still  lived  in  those  venerable  seats.  .  .  . 
The  schools  of  Athens  were  protected  by  the  wisest 
and  most  virtuous  of  the  Roman  princes.  .  .  . 
Some  vestige  of  royal  bounty  may  be  found  under 
the  successors  of  Constantine.  .  .  .  The  golden 
chain,  as  it  was  fondly  styled,  of  the  Platonic  suc- 
cession, continued  ...  to  the  edict  of  Justinian 
[520]  which  imposed  a  perpetual  silence  on  the 
schools  of  Athens,  and  excited  the  grief  and  indig- 
nation of  the  few  remaining  votaries  of  Greek 
science  and  superstition." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  40. 

6th-llth  centuries. — Between  the  sixth  and 
eleventh  centuries  Athens  practically  disappeared 
from  history.  Here  in  1018  Basil  H  celebrated  his 
victory  over  the  Bulgarians.  Michael  Akominatus 
became  metropolitan  of  Athens  in  1260  and  from 
his  writings  we  get  a  desolate  picture  of  the  state 
into  which  the  city  had  fallen. 

1205-1308. — Founding  of  the  Latin  dukedom. 

7 


ATHENS,  1205-1308 


Founding   of 
Latin  Dukedom 


ATHENS,  1205-1308 


— Otto  de  la  Roche  takes  title  of  "Lord  of 
Athens." — Guy  de  la  Roche  created  "Duke  of 
Athens." — Prosperity  of  Athens  under  Guy  II. — 

"The  portion  of  Greece  lying  to  the  south  of  the 
kingdom  of  Saloniki  was  divided  by  the  Crusaders 
[after  their  conquest  of  Constantinople,  1204 — see 
Byzantine  Empire:  1203-1204]  among  several 
great  feudatories  of  the  Empire  of  Romania.  .  .  . 
The  lords  of  Boudonitza,  Salona,  Negropont,  and 
Athens  are  alone  mentioned  as  existing  to  the  north 
of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  the  history  of  the 
petty  sovereigns  of  .-Kthens  can  alone  be  traced  in 
any  detail.  .  .  .  Though  the  Byzantine  aristoc- 
racy and  dignified  clergy  were  severe  sufferers  by 
the  transference  of  the  government  into  the  hands 
of  the  Franks,  the  middle  classes  long  enjoyed 
peace  and  security.  .  .  .  The  social  civilization  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  their  ample  command  of  the 
necessaries  and  many  of  the  luxuries  of  life,  were 
in  those  days  as  much  superior  to  the  condition 
of  the  citizens  of  Paris  and  London  as  they  are 
now  inferior.  .  .  .  The  city  was  large  and  wealthy, 
the  country  thickly  covered  with  villages,  of  which 
the  ruins  may  still  be  traced  in  spots  affording  no 
indications  of  Hellenic  sites.  .  .  .  The  trade  of 
.Athens  was  considerable,  and  the  luxury  of  the 
Athenian  ducal  court  was  celebrated  in  all  the 
regions  of  the  West  where  chivalry  flourished." — 
G.  Finlay,  History  of  Greece  from  its  conquest  by 
the  Crusaders,  cli.  7. — "Boniface  [king-marquis  of 
Montferrat]  having  settled  a  dispute  with  the  Em- 
peror Baldwin  I.  which  threatened  to  undermine 
the  Latin  dominion  in  the  Levant  at  the  outset, 
marched  into  Greece  at  the  head  of  an  army  of 
Crusaders  in  order  to  assert  his  claim  to  that 
country,  which  had  been  included,  although  it  was 
still  unconquered,  in  his  share.  M  the  moment  of 
the  Latin  expedition  against  Constantinople  the 
two  themes  of  Hellas  and  the  Peloponnesos  had 
been  a  prey  to  anarchy.  Instead  of  combining  in 
the  presence  of  the  common  danger  which  menaced 
the  existence  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the  wealthy 
families  thought  only  of  advancing  their  own  in- 
terests even  at  the  expense  of  the  Government. 
Of  these  archontes,  by  far  the  ablest  and  most  am- 
bitious was  Leon  Sgouros  of  Nauplia,  who  was 
Bent  upon  carving  out  for  himself  an  independent 
principality  in  the  Peloponnesos  and  Central 
Greece.  His  first  step  was  to  obtain  possession  of 
Argos;  Corinth  was  his  next  acquisition.  ...  He 
then  traversed  the  Isthmus,  and  invested  Athens  by 
land  and  sea.  The  city,  whose  walls  had  fallen 
into  decay,  succumbed  without  a  struggle;  but  the 
Akropolis  was  defended  by  a  second  Dexippos,  the 
noble  Archbishop  Akominatos,  who  appealed  to 
the  patriotism  of  the  .Athenians,  with  such  success 
that  Sgouros  had  to  content  himself  with  burning 
the  unprotected  houses  before  the  eyes  of  the  gar- 
rison. ...  .At  Larissa  Sgouros  met  the  fugitive 
Emperor  .Alexios  III.,  and  received  from  him  the 
hand  of  his  daughter  in  marriage.  But  the  ad- 
vance of  Boniface's  army  cut  short  the  further 
success  of  the  bold  adventurer.  .  .  .  Boniface's 
march  now  became  a  royal  progress.  He 
first  secured  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae  by  bestow- 
ing the  ueighbouring  position  of  Boudonitza  as  a 
fief  on  Guido  Pallavicini,  and  then  proceeded 
southward.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  which 
had  so  lately  felt  the  tyranny  of  Sgouros,  welcomed 
the  foreigner  as  a  deliverer.  Without  disturbing 
those  municipal  institutions  which  the  Greeks  have 
always  specially  prized,  the  King  of  Salonica  lost 
no  time  in  distributing  the  classic  lands  of  Greece 
as  feudal  fiefs  among  his  trusty  followers.  .  .  . 
Attica  and  Bceotia  were  bestowed  upon  Otto  de  la 
Roche,  a  Burgundian  noble,  who  had  distinguished 
himself   at    the   siege    of    Constantinople    and   had 

6 


successfully  mediated  in  the  dispute  between  Bald- 
win I.  and  Boniface.  Athens  made  no  opposition 
to  the  Franks,  for  this  time  even  the  heroic  Arch- 
bishop saw  that  resistance  would  be  in  vain.  It 
was  with  a  bitter  pang  that  he  beheld  his  cathe- 
dral, the  venerable  Parthenon,  robbed  of  its  relics 
by  men  who  were  hostile  to  the  orthodox  religion 
and  ignorant  of  classic  learning.  For  the  first 
time  since  the  days  of  Sulla  a  Latin  army  was  in 
possession  of  .Athens;  yet  the  Roman  conqueror 
had  been  kinder  to  the  ancient  seat  of  culture  than 
the  Christian  Franks.  Leaving  his  beloved  church 
in  the  occupation  of  Latin  monks,  Akominatos 
left  with  a  heavy  heart  the  city  where  he  had 
lived  so  long.  .After  wandering  from  one  plaCe  to 
another  in  search  of  rest,  he  finally  settled  in  the 
island  of  Kea,  from  which  he  could  still  .-ee  the 
.Attic  coast.  .Akominatos  had  once  been  disap- 
pointed with  .Athens;  but  he  had  learned  to  love 
it  as  his  second  home,  and  now,  in  his  island  cell, 
he  lamented  the  loss  of  his  books  and  wrote  of 
.Attica  as  'a  second  garden  of  Eden.'  Once,  in 
secret,  he  ventured  over  to  .Athens;  but  he  could 
not  endure  the  galling  spectacle  of  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic archbishop  officiating  in  what  had  once  been 
his  own  cathedral.  .At  length  he  died  in  exile,  the 
last  of  a  long  line  of  heroes  whose  names  are  as- 
sociated with  the  story  of  the  violet-crowned  city. 
Central  Greece  was  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
Franks.  .  .  .  Otto  de  la  Roche  .  .  .  had  time  to 
instal  himself  in  his  dominions,  which  included, 
besides  Attica  and  Boeotia,  the  ancient  Megarid, 
with  its  coasts  on  the  Saronic  and  Corinthian 
Gulfs,  and  the  former  land  of  the  Opuntian  Loc- 
rians  to  the  north.  His  first  care  was  to  select  a 
title,  and  he  chose  that  of  Sire  d'Athenes,  or  'Lord 
of  Athens,'  which  was  magnified  by  the  Greeks 
into  that  of  Megas  Kyr  ....  or  'Great  Lord.'  He 
then  proceeded  to  organize  his  State  on  the  feu- 
dal system,  just  as  Guy  of  Lusignan  had  done  in 
Cyprus,  reserving  Athens  and  Thebes  as  his  private 
domains,  and  assigning  the  lands  cf  the  former 
Greek  proprietors  to  his  own  followers.  No  op- 
position was  offered  to  these  confiscatory  meas- 
ures, which  scarcely  affected  the  peasants  at  all. 
.  .  .  The  Church  question  was  far  more  difficult, 
for  the  difference  between  the  two  religions  formed 
an  insuperable  barrier  between  the  two  races.  .A 
Frenchman  named  Berard  was  appointed  first 
Latin  .Archbishop  of  .Athens,  and  was  duly  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Innocent  III.  as  successor  of  Ako- 
minatos in  the  cathedral  on  the  Akropolis.  An 
army  of  monks  followed  in  the  steps  of  the  sol- 
diers. The  Franciscans  founded  numerous  mon- 
asteries, and  the  famous  Convent  of  Daphne,  be- 
tween Athens  and  Eleusis,  was  bestowed  on  a  body 
of  Cistercians  from  the  Burgundian  home  of  the 
Lord  of  .Athens.  But  Otto  soon  incurred  the  cen- 
sure of  the  Latin  clergy  by  his  refusal  to  allow 
donations  of  land  to  the  Church,  and  by  his  ap- 
propriation of  Greek  ecclesiastical  property.  He 
felt  that  it  was  essential  to  his  position  as  a  con- 
queror in  a  foreign  country  that  only  those  who 
could  render  him  military  service  should  be  en- 
titled to  receive  estates.  Events  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Salonica  caused  Otto  de  la  Roche  to  transfer 
his  allegiance  from  the  King  to  the  Emperor  of 
Romania.  .  .  .  Otto  extended  his  dominions  by 
the  acquisition  of  Sgouros's  old  possessions,  Argos 
and  Nauplia,  which  X'illehardouin  gave  him  as 
fiefs  in  return  for  his  valuable  assistance  in  the 
conquest  of  those  cities.  .  .  .  Otto  thus  owed  feu- 
dal service  to  Villehardouin  for  fiefs;  and  this  re- 
lationship was  extended  by  another  Prince  of 
.Achaia  to  a  claim  of  overlordship  over  .Athens  .ind 
Thebes.  .  .  .  Otto  was  a  firm  ally  of  Villehardouin, 
and  numbers  of  his  relatives  flocked  from  distant 

18 


ATHENS,  1205-1308 


Guv  de  la  Roche 


ATHENS,  1203-1308 


Burgundy  to  settle  in  the  El  Dorado  which  he 
ruled.  Yet  twenty  years  of  state  in  Athens  and 
Thebes  were  enough  for  the  'Great  Lord.'  In 
1225  he  departed  for  Burgundy  with  his  wife  and 
sonf,  leaving  his  Greek  dominions  to  his  nephew, 
Guy  de  la  Roche.  Guy  I.  resided  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  reign  of  nearly  forty  years  at 
Thebes,  then  the  most  flourishing  town  which 
owned  his  sway;  .  .  .  while  the  continuance  of  the 
silk  manufacture  there  had  attracted  colonies  of 
Jews  and  Genoese,  to  the  latter  of  whom  Guy  I. 
gave  special  privileges  both  in  Thebes  and  in 
Athens.  .  .  .  Villehardouin  now  aimed  at  an  ex- 
tension of  his  sway  beyond  the  Isthmus,  and  this 
led  to  the  first  civil  war  between  the  Franks  in 
Greece.  The  occasion  of  the  war  was  the  State 
of  Euboea,  or  Negroponte  as  the  Franks  called  it. 
That  island,  after  its  conquest  by  Jacques  d'Aves- 
nfs,  had  been  divided  by  Boniface  of  Salonica  into 
three  fiefs,  which  were  bestowed  upon  the  Vero- 
nese family  of  Dalle  Carceri,  and  gave  them  the 
title  of  Terzieri,  or  'the  three  lords.'  But  the  Vene- 
tians, to  whom  the  north  and  south  of  the  island 
had  been  assigned  by  the  partition  treaty,  soon 
established  a  factory  there  and  acquired  authority 
over  the  three  barons.  Villehardouin,  who  had 
married  into  the  Dalle  Carceri  family,  demanded 
his  wife's  third  of  the  island  and  claimed  the  over- 
lordship  of  the  whole.  The  claim  was  resisted, 
and  Villehardouin  summoned  all  his  vassals  to  as- 
sist him  in  the  conflict.  Among  others  he  called 
upon  Guy  of  Athens,  as  holder  of  the  liefs  of 
Nauplia  and  Argos,  and  that  energetic  ruler 
promptly  repudiated  the  idea  that  he  was  bound  to 
render  military  service  to  the  Prince  of  Achaia, 
whose  manifest  aim  was  to  establish  his  supreme 
authority  over  all  the  Frank  States  in  the  East. 
In  fact,  it  was  pretended  that  Boniface  of  Salonica 
had  placed  Athens  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
first  Prince  of  Achaia.  War  at  once  began  be- 
tween the  allied  forces  of  Venice,  the  lords  of 
Euboea,  and  Guy  on  the  one  hand,  and  Villehar- 
douin on  the  other.  Defeated  in  Euboea,  the  Prince 
of  Achaia  marshalled  his  forces  at  Nikli,  near  the 
site  of  Tegea,  and  then  marched  against  Guy.  A 
battle  between  them  was  fought  at  the  pass  of 
Karidi,  on  the  road  from  Megara  to  Thebes;  the 
Athenian  troops  were  routed,  and  Villehardouin 
was  only  induced  by  the  prayers  of  the  Archbishop 
to  spare  the  Theban  residence  of  his  enemy.  The 
nobles  in  Villehardouin's  army  pleaded  for  peace 
between  old  comrades  in  arms;  Guy  submitted,  and 
promised  to  perform  any  penance  which  should 
be  imposed  upon  him  by  the  high  court  of  the 
barons  of  Achaia.  The  court  met  at  Nikli,  and  the 
penitent  Guy  was  arraigned  before  it.  But  its 
members,  when  the  moment  for  pronouncmg  sen- 
tence arrived,  decided  to  refer  the  question  to 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  the  most  chivalrous  and 
saintly  monarch  of  that  age.  Guy  set  out  {or 
Paris,  where  Louis  received  him  graciously  and 
the  matter  was  satisfactorily  settled.  Louis  con- 
sidered that  his  journey  was  more  than  sufficient 
punishment  for  any  breach  of  the  feudal  law 
which  Guy  might  have  committed,  and  asked  him 
what  favour  he  could  grant  him.  Guy  replied  that 
he  would  prize  above  all  else  the  title  of  'Duke  of 
Athens,'  which  was  accordingly  conferred  upon 
him  in  1260.  The  title  has  become  famous  in 
literature,  as  well  as  in  history,  from  its  bestowal, 
by  a  pardonable  anachronism,  upon  Theseus  by 
Dante,  Boccaccio,  Chaucer,  and  Shakespeare,  who 
transferred  to  the  legendary  founder  of  .Athens  the 
style  of  its  mediaeval  Dukes.  When  the  Duke  of 
Athens  returned  to  Greece,  he  found  his  late  con- 
queror a  captive  himself.  Villehardouin  had  re- 
cently  married  a  daughter  of  Michael  II  ,  despot 

6 


of  Epiros,  the  rival  of  Michael  VIII.,  Emperor  of 
Nice,  for  the  succession  to  the  tottering  throne  of 
Constantinople.  The  Prince  of  Achaia  had  be- 
come involved  in  the  dispute  through  this  matri- 
monial alliance,  and  had  assisted  his  father-in-law 
with  Peloponnesian  and  Athenian  troops  in  the 
war  which  had  broken  out  between  the  two 
Michaels.  On  the  Plain  of  Pelagonia,  in  Mace- 
donia, Villehardouin  and  his  ally  were  defeated, 
and  the  Prince  of  Achaia  was  subsequi>nllv  taken 
prisoner.  At  this  juncture  Guy  landed  in  the 
Morea,  and  was  invited  by  the  barons  of  Achaia 
to  assume  the  regency  of  the  principality  during 
the  captivity  of  their  sovereign.  Guy  at  once  ac- 
cepted the  honourable  task,  and  was  negotiating 
for  the  release  of  his  former  enemy,  when  sud- 
denly another  and  yet  more  startling  message  ar- 
rived, that  the  Latin  Empire  of  Romania  had 
fallen,  and  that  the  last  Latin  Emperor,  Baldwin 
II.,  was  a  fugitive.  For  the  second  time,  but  as  a 
suppliant,  not  as  a  ruler,  a  Latin  emperor  visited 
Thebes  and  Athens,  where  his  former  vassals 
gathered  round  him  on  the  old  Akropolis.  Few 
scenes  in  the  long  history  of  that  venerable  rock  are 
so  pathetic  as  this,  the  last  in  the  brief  drama  of 
the  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople.  Then  Bald- 
win left  Athens  for  the  West,  there  to  play'  the 
sorry  part  of  an  emperor  in  exile.  The  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Greeks  of  Nice  in  1261 
had  naturally  strengthened  the  hold  of  Michael 
VIII.  upon  his  captive.  After  a  long  struggle, 
Villehardouin  realised  that  he  had  no  option  but 
to  accept  the  Greek  Emperor's  terms — to  cede  to 
him  the  important  fortresses  of  Maina,  Misithra, 
Geraki,  and  Monemvasia,  and  to  pay  him  homage 
for  the  rest  of  the  Morea  which  he  was  allowed  to 
keep.  These  terms  had,  however,  to  be  submitted 
to  the  high  court  of  the  barons  of  Achaia  at  Nikli 
— the  same  spot  where,  a  few  years  before,  Guy, 
who  now  convened  the  court,  had  been  summoned 
to  appear  before  it.  The  composition  of  the  Par- 
liament had  changed  no  less  than  the  circumstances 
of  its  meeting.  Many  of  the  Achaian  barons  were 
dead  or  in  captivity,  and,  as  the  Salic  law  did  not 
obtain  in  the  Morea,  their  widows  or  wives  ap- 
peared in  their  place.  The  Duke  of  Athens  ad- 
dressed the  Court  in  a  dignified  and  generous  tone; 
but  while  he  offered  to  pledge  his  person  and 
Duchy  for  the  release  of  the  Prince,  he  strongly 
opposed  the  cession  of  the  fortresses  to  the  Greek 
Emperor.  'It  were  better,'  he  said  in  Scriptural 
language,  'that  one  man  should  die  for  the  people 
— better  that  the  Prince  should  perish  than  that 
we  should  admit  the  Greeks  into  the  Morea.'  Guy 
spoke  as  a  statesman,  but  he  had  to  yield  to  the 
feelings  of  the  feminine  assembly,  moved  by  senti- 
ment rather  than  by  policy.  Two  noble  dames 
were  sent  to  Constantinople  as  hostages,  Villehar- 
douin was  released  after  doing  homage  to  the 
Greek  Emperor,  and  the  Byzantine  troops  occupied 
in  1262  the  ceded  fortresses.  From  that  moment 
Misithra  became  the  centre  of  Greek  intrigues  in 
the  Morea,  and  the  decline  of  the  Frank  Principal- 
ity of  Achaia  began.  Guy  laid  down  the  regency, 
which  he  had  so  loyally  conducted,  and  soon  after- 
wards died,  in  1264,  leaving  his  son  John  to  reign 
over  his  .Athenian  Duchy.  We  have  little  informa- 
tion about  the  internal  state  of  Athens,  or  Setines, 
as  it  now  began  to  be  vulgarly  called,  at  this  peri- 
od, beyond  the  fact  that  the  neighbouring  mon- 
astery of  Daphne  was  then  a  flourishing  Catholic 
institution.  But  we  hear  much  about  the  vigorous 
foreign  policy  of  the  new  Duke,  who  did  not 
scruple  to  practise  piracy  in  the  classic  waters  of 
the  ^T.gean.  .  .  .  Not  long  afterwards  John  died. 
His  brother  William,  who  succeeded  him,  began 
his  reign  by  formally  admitting  the  claim  to  the 


19 


ATHENS,  1205-1308 


Guy  II 
Turks  in  Possession 


ATHENS,  1687-1688 


overlordship  of  the  Athenian  Duchy  which  Charles 
of  Anjou  had  advanced  in  virtue  of  the  Treaty  of 
Viterbo.    He  onlv  begged  to  be  excused  from  going 
in  person  to  Naples  to  render  homage,  and  he  was 
always    ready    to    assist    in    fightmg    agamst    the 
Greeks   in    the    Morea,    although    this   policy    ex- 
posed  his    own    territory    to   the   reprisals   of   the 
Byzantine    forces    under   the    traitor   Licario      bo 
friendly  were  his  relations  with  the  house  of  An- 
jou that,  on  the  death  of  Villehardouin,  he   was 
appointed  bv  the  suzerain  Regent  of  Achaia  dur- 
ing the  min'oritv   of  ViUehardouin's  daughter  Isa- 
bella     Both  there,  as  well  as  at  Athens,  his  gov- 
ernment was  successful,  and  his  premature  death 
was  deeply  regretted,  especially  as  his  son,  Ouy  11., 
was  a  minor  at  the  time.     During  Guy  s  infancy 
Athens  was  at  first  governed  by  his  mother,  Helena 
Angela,  the  daughter  of  the  Thessalian  Prmce    so 
that  the  ancient  Greek  city  was  once  more  under 
the  influence  of  a  Greek.    But  the  fair  widow  soon 
married   her   brother-in-law,   Hugh   de   Brienne,   a 
member    of    a    famous    family    from    Champagne, 
which  had  already  produced  a  King  of  Jerusalem 
and  Emperor  of  Romania.    Hugh,  who  was  Count 
of   Lecce,  in  Southern   Italy,   thus   became   regent 
for  his  stepson  until  the  latter  came  of  age.  .  .  . 
From  Thebes  Guv  hastened  to  seek  the  hand  ot 
Isabella  ViUehardouin's  five-year-old  daughter,  Ma- 
tilda   and  thus  bv  a  matrimonial  alliance  to  end 
the   vexed   question    of   the   feudal   dependence   of 
Athens  upon  Achaia,  which  had  lately  been  revived 
by  Charles  II.  of  Aniou.    Before  he  had  been  long 
on  the  throne  Guv  was  able  to  extend  his  influence 
in  another  direction.    Ever  since  the  days  of  Duke 
John   there  had   been   a   close   friendship   between 
the  Courts  of  Athens  and  Neopatras,  the  seat  ol 
the    Thessalian    princes.      Accordingly,    when    the 
Prince  died,  he  left  Guy  guardian   of,  and  regent 
for,    his    infant    son;    so    that    Thessaly,    already 
Latinised  through  the  marriage  connection  between 
its  reigning  dvnastv  and  that  of  Athens,  came  yet 
more   under   Prankish   control.     But   this  connec- 
tion   involved    Guy    in    war    with    the    ambitious 
widow   of   the   despot   of   Epiros,   who   seized   the 
opportunitv  to  attack  the  Thessalian  Principality. 
The  Duke 'of  Athens  at  once  levied  a  considerable 
army— which   shows   how   strong   he   was   at   that 
period— and  led  it  from  Domoko,  .  .  .  into  Epiros. 
The   warlike   zeal   of   his   opponent   at   once   sub- 
sided, and   Guy   accepted  a   favourable  peace      A 
few  years  later  he  was  appointed  Regent  oi  Achaia, 
where  he  already  possessed  the  Villehardoums   1am- 
ily   fief   of   Kalamata   bv   virtue    of   his   marriage. 
But  his  career  suddenlv  closed;   he  died  m   1308, 
and    was   buried    in    the    Cistercian    monastery    of 
Daphne    .  .  .  Under     his     rule     the     Duchy     had 
reached  a  high  degree   of  culture   and  prosperity 
Muntaner  remarked  that  at  the  Ducal  Court,  which 
was  usuallv  held  at  Thebes,  'just  as  good  French 
was  spoken   as  in   Paris   itself;   even  in  Thessa  y 
we  hear  of  French-speaking  nobles,  and,  owing  to 
the  difference  of  religion,  which  usually  interposed 
a  barrier  to  marriage  between  the  Franks  and  the 
Greeks,  the  barons  of  Athens  imported  their  wives 
from   France.     Guy    II.,   as   the   son    of   a   Greek 
princess  spoke  Greek  as  well,  and  doubtless  looked 
on  Greece  as  his  native  land.     But  everywhere  the 
Franks   had   introduced   their    own    mode    of   life. 
Thus  the  Duke  took  part  in  a  magnificent  tourna- 
ment on  the  classic  soil  of  the  Isthmus  at  which 
all  the  Prankish  aristocracy   of   Greece  was  pres- 
ent Under  the  house  of  la  Roche  the  Duchy 
had  acquired  a  renown  and  a  prosperity  such  as 
the   kingdom   of   Greece   under   its   first  sovereign 

might  have  envied The  Duke  of  Athens,  apart 

from  the  vexed  question   of  suzeramty,  to  which 
we   have   alluded,   was   far   more   of   an   absolute 


monarch  than  his  neighbour  in  the  Morea.  At  the 
time  of  the  conquest  there  had  been  no  promi- 
nent local  families  in  Attica,  nor  did  any  great 
French  houses  grow  up  to  dispute  the  supremacy 
of  the  Duke.  .  .  .  The  last  Duke  of  the  house  of 
la  Roche  died.  His  first-cousin  and  successor, 
Walter  of  Brienne,  Count  of  Lecce,  was  not  in 
Greece  at  the  time  of  Guy's  death;  but  he  met 
with  no  opposition  from  rival  competitors  to  the 
throne.  The  dangers  which  beset  him,  and  which 
were  destined  to  cut  short  his  career  and  that  of 
many  another  Frankish  noble,  arose  from  a  very 
different  quarter— that  of  the  dreaded  Catalans, 
who  now  assumed  a  decisive  part  in  the  history  of 
the  Duchy."— W.  Miller,  Athens  under  the  Franks 
(.Gentleman's  Magazine,  v.  2q6,  Jan.,  1904,  pp.  23- 

Also   in:    C.    C.    Felton,    Greece,   ancient    and 
modern;  ^th  course,  led.  g. 

1311-1456.— Under  the  Catalans  and  the  Flor- 
entines.    See  C\^M■.\s   Gr.axd  Comp.^xy. 

1456. — Turks   in   possession. — Athens  was   not 
occupied  bv  the  Turks  until  three  years  after  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople   (see  CoNST.«nNOPLE: 
1453).     In  the  meantime  the  reign  of  the  Floren- 
tine dukes  of  the  house  of  Acciajuoli  came  to  a 
tragical   close.     The   last    of    the    dukes,   Maurice 
.■\cciajuoli  died,  leaving  a  young  son  and  a  young 
widow,  the  latter  renowned  for  her  beauty  and  her 
talents.     The  duchess,  whom  the  will  of  her  hus- 
band had  made  regent,  married  a  comely  Venetian 
named  Palmerio,  who  was  said  to  have  poisoned 
his  wife  in  order  to  be  free  to  accept  her  hand. 
Thereupon    a    nephew    of    the    late    duke,    named 
Franco,    stirred    up    insurrections    at    .Athens    and 
fled  to  Constantinople  to  complain  to  the  sultan, 
Mohammed  II.     "The  sultan,  glad  of  all  pretexts 
that  coloured  his  armed  intervention  in  the  affairs 
of  these  principalities,  ordered  Omar,  son  of  Tour- 
akhan,  chief  of  the  permanent  army  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus,   to    take    possession    of    .Athens,    to    de- 
throne the  duchess  and  to  confine  her  son  in  his 
prison  of  the  citadel  of  Megara."     This  was  done; 
but  Palmerio,  the  duchess's  husband,  made  his  way 
to  the  sultan  and  interceded  in  her  behalf.     "Ma- 
homet,  bv    the    advice    of   his   viziers,   feigned   to 
listen  equallv  to  the  complaints  of  Palmerio,  and 
to  march  to'  reestablish  the  legitimate  sovereignty. 
But   already   Franco,   entering   Megara    under   the 
auspices  of  the  Ottomans,  had  strangled  both  ibe 
duchess  and  her  son.    Mahomet,  advancing  in  turn 
to  punish  him  for  his  vengeance,  expelled  Franco 
from  .Athens  on  entering  it.  and  gave  him,  in  com- 
pensation, the  inferior  and  dependent  principahty 
of  Thebes,  in  Bceotia.     The  sultan,  as  lettered  a; 
he  was  warlike,  evinced  no  less  pride  and  admira- 
tion than  SvUa  at  the  sight  of  the  monurnents  of 
Athens     'What  gratitude,'  exclaimed  he  before  the 
'Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Theseus,  'do  not  re- 
ligion and  the  Empire  owe  to  the  son  of  Toura- 
khan   who  has  made  them  a  present  of  these  spoils 
of    the    genius    of    the    Greeks.'"— .A.    Lamartine, 
History  oj  Turkey,  bk.  13,  sect.  io-:2. 

1466.— Capture  and  plundering  by  the  Vene- 
tians.    See  Greece:   1454-1470- 

1687-1688.— Siege,  bombardment  and  capture 
by  the  Venetians.— Destructive  explosion  in  the 
Parthenon.— "The  campaign  of  1687  [ol  the  Vene- 
tians against  the  Turks!  is  memorable  in  the  his- 
tory of  Europe  for  the  destruction  of  the  Parthe- 
non of  Athens,  the  most  wonderful  combination  of 
architecture  and  sculpture,  and  perhaps  the  most 
perfect  work  of  art,  which  has  yet  been  executed. 
Morosini  [Venetian  commander-in-chiet]  now 
"[iii' August]  proposed  to  attack  Negrepont,  as  it 
was  the  key  of  continental  Greece,  and  its  cap- 


620 


ATtfENS,  1687-1688 


Venetian  Campaign 
against  Turks 


ATHENS,  1687-1688 


ture  would  have  rendered  the  republic  master  of 
the  whole  country  south  of  Thermopylae.  His 
plan  was  opposed  by  the  generals  of  the  land 
forces,  who  all  agreed  in  thinkins;  that  the  season 
was  too  far  advanced  for  an  operation  of  such 
magnitude;  and  after  much  deliberation,  it  was 
determined  to  attack  Athens,  where  it  was  thought 
that  the  army  would  find  good  winter-quarters. 
...  On  the  2ist  of  September  the  Venetians  en- 
tered the  Piraeus,  and  Koenigsmark  [in  command 
of  the  land  forces]  encamped  the  same  evening  in 
the  olive-grove  near  the  sacred  way  to  Eleusis. 
The  army  consisted  of  nearly  ten  thousand  men, 
including  eight  hundred  and  seventy  cavalry.  The 
town  of  Athens  was  immediately  occupied,  and 
the  siege  of  the  Acropolis  commenced.  The  at- 
tack was  directed  against  the  Propylaca,  before 
which  the  Turks  had  constructed  strong  batteries. 
The  Parthenon,  and  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias, 
with  its  beautiful  porticoes,  were  then  nearly  per- 
fect, as  far  as  regarded  their  external  architecture. 
Even  the  sculpture  was  so  little  injured  by  time, 
that  it  displayed  much  of  its  inimitable  excellence. 
Two  batteries  were  erected,  one  at  the  foot  of  the 
Museum,  and  the  other  near  the  Pnyx.  Mortars 
were  planted  under  cover  of  the  Areopagus,  but 
their  fire  proving  uncertain,  two  more  were  placed 
under  cover  of  the  buildings  of  the  town,  near  the 
north-east  corner  of  (he  rock,  which  threw  their 
shells  at  a  high  angle,  with  a  low  charge,  into  the 
Acropolis.  In  the  mean  time  the  Othoman  troops 
descended  into  the  plain  from  Thebes  and  Negre- 
pont ;  and  Koenigsmark  as  had  been  the  case  at 
the  siege  of  Coron,  Navarin,  and  Nauplia,  was 
compelled  to  divide  his  army  to  meet  them.  On 
the  25th  of  September  a  Venetian  bomb  blew  up  a 
small  powder-magazine  in  the  Propylaea,  and  on 
the  following  evening  another  fell  in  the  Parthe- 
non, where  the  Turks  had  deposited  all  their 
most  valuable  effects,  with  a  considerable  quantity 
of  powder  and  inflammable  materials.  A  ter- 
rific explosion  took  place;  the  centre  columns  of 
the  peristyle,  the  walls  of  the  cella,  and  the  im- 
mense architraves  and  cornices  they  supported, 
were  scattered  around  the  remains  of  the  temple. 
Much  of  the  unrivalled  sculpture  was  defaced,  and 
a  part  utterly  destroyed.  The  materials  heaped 
up  in  the  building  also  took  fire,  and  the  flames, 
mounting  high  over  the  Acropolis,  announced  the 
calamity  to  the  besiegers,  and  scathed  many  of 
the  statues  which  still  remained  in  their  original 
positions.  Though  two  hundred  persons  perished 
by  this  explosion,  the  Turks  persisted  in  defend- 
ing the  place  until  they  saw  the  seraskier  defeated 
in  his  attempt  to  relieve  them  on  the  2Sth  of  Sep- 
tember. They  then  capitulated  on  being  allowed 
to  embark  with  their  families  for  Smyrna  in  ves- 
sels hired  at  their  own  expense.  On  the  4th  of 
October,  two  thousand  five  hundred  persons  of 
all  ages,  including  five  hundred  men  of  the  gar- 
rison, moved  down  to  embark  at  the  Piraeus.  .  .  . 
Count  Tomeo  Pompei  was  the  first  Venetian  com- 
mandant of  the  Acropolis.  Athens  was  now  a 
Venetian  possession.  The  German  troops  remained 
in  the  town.  One  of  the  mosques  near  the  ba- 
zaar was  converted  into  a  Lutheran  church,  and 
this  first  Protestant  place  of  worship  in  Greece 
was  opened  on  the  iqth  of  October,  1687,  by  the 
regimental  chaplain  Bcithman.  Another  mosque 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  town,  towards  the  temple 
of  Theseus,  was  given  to  the  Catholics,  who  pos- 
sessed also  a  monastery  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
town,  containing  the  choragic  m.onument  of  Lysic- 
rates.  ...  A  short  time  convinced  the  Venetian 
leaders  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  retain  pos- 
session of  Athens.  The  plague,  which  was  making 
great  ravages  in  the  Morea,  showed  itself  in  the 

62 


array.  The  seraskier  kept  two  thousand  cavalry 
at  Thebes,  and,  by  a  judicious  employment  of  his 
force,  retained  all  Attica,  with  the  exception  of  the 
plain  of  Athens,  under  his  orders.  The  Venetians 
found  it  necessary  to  fortify  the  road  to  the 
Piraeus  with  three  redoubts,  in  order  to  secure  the 
communications  of  the  garrison  in  Athens  with  the 
ships  in  the  port.  The  departure  of  the  Hanove- 
rians weakened  the  army,  and  in  a  council  of  war 
held  on  the  31st  of  December,  it  was  resolved  to 
evacuate  Athens  at  the  end  of  the  winter,  in  order 
to  concentrate  all  the  troops  for  an  attack  on 
Negrepont.  Lines  were  thrown  across  the  isthmus 
of  Munychia,  to  cover  the  evacuation  and  protect 
the  naval  camp,  which  could  be  distinctly  traced 
until  they  were  effaced  by  the  construction  of  the 
new  town  of  the  Piraeus.  It  was  also  debated 
whether  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis  were  to  be 
destroyed;  and  perhaps  their  preservation,  and 
that  of  the  antiquities  they  enclose,  is  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  circumstance  that  the  whole  atten- 
tion of  the  army  was  occupied  by  the  increased 
duties  imposed  upon  it  by  the  sanitary  measures 
requisite  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  plague,  and 
the  difficulties  created  by  the  emigration  of  the 
Greek  population  of  Athens.  Between  four  and 
five  thousand  Athenians  were  compelled  to  abandon 
their  native  city  and  seek  new  homes  in  the 
Morea.  Some  were  established  at  Vivares  and 
Port  Tolon,  on  the  coast  of  Argolis,  as  colonists; 
the  poorest  were  settled  at  Corinth,  and  others 
were  dispersed  in  Aegina,  Tinos,  and  Naupha. 
About  five  hundred  Albanians,  chiefiy  collected 
among  the  peasantry  of  Corinth  and  Attica,  were 
formed  into  a  corps  by  the  Venetians,  but  no 
Greeks  could  be  induced  to  enter  the  army.  The 
last  act  of  Morosini  at  Athens  was  to  carry  away 
some  monuments  of  ancient  sculpture  as  trophies 
of  his  victory.  An  attempt  was  made  to  remove 
the  statue  of  Neptune  and  the  Chariot  of  Victory, 
which  adorned  the  western  pediment  of  the  Parthe- 
non, but,  in  consequence  of  an  oversight  of  the 
workmen  employed,  and  perhaps  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  a  flaw  or  crack  in  the  marble,  caused 
by  the  recent  explosion,  which  destroyed  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  building,  the  whole  mass  of 
marble  was  precipitated  to  the  ground,  and  so 
shivered  to  pieces  by  the  fall  that  the  fragments 
were  not  deemed  worthy  of  transport.  This  mis- 
fortune to  art  occurred  on  the  iqth  of  March, 
1688.  Instead  of  these  magnificent  figures  from 
the  hand  of  Phidias,  Morosini  was  obliged  to  con- 
tent himself  with  four  lions,  which  still  adorn  the 
entrance  of  the  arsenal  at  Venice.  One  of  these, 
taken  from  the  Piraeus,  is  remarkable  for  its  co- 
lossal size,  its  severe  style,  and  two  long  in- 
scriptions, in  runic  characters,  winding  over  its 
shoulders.  The  complete  evacuation  of  Attica  was 
at  length  effected.  Six  hundred  and  sixty-two 
families  quitted  their  native  city,  and  on  the  gth 
of  .^pril  the  Venetians  sailed  to  Poros.  These 
records  of  the  ruin  of  so  much  that  interests  the 
whole  civilized  world,  awaken  our  curiosity  to 
know  something  of  the  character  and  feelings  of 
the  modern  Athenians,  Greeks  and  Albanians,  who 
then  dwelt  under  the  shadow  of  the  Acropolis. 
Neither  Morosini  nor  his  German  auxiliaries, 
though  they  joined  in  lamenting  the  destruction  of 
the  ancient  marbles,  seemed  to  think  the  modern 
Greeks  deserving  of  much  attention,  merely  be- 
cause they  pretended  to  represent  the  countrymen 
of  Pericles  and  still  spoke  Greek.  Venetian  states- 
men perceived  the  same  degeneracy  in  their  national 
character  as  German  philologians  discovered  in 
their  language.  The  Greek  population,  from  its 
unwarlike  disposition,  was  only  an  object  of  hu- 
manity; the  Albanian  peasantry,  though  a  hardier 


ATHENS,   1896 


ATLANTA 


and  more  courageous  race,  was  not  sufficiently 
numerous  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  to 
be  of  much  military  importance.  Yet,  to  a  Hes- 
sian officer,  Athens  appeared  a  large  and  populous 
town,  with  its  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  and  the 
Athenians  were  found  to  be  a  respectable  and 
well-disposed  people.  But  they  were  so  com- 
pletely destitute  of  moral  energy,  that  they  were 
unable  to  take  any  part  in  the  public  events  of 
which  their  city  was  the  theatre.  They  had  no 
voice  to  give  utterance  to  their  feelings,  though 
Europe  would  have  listened  with  attention  to 
their  words.  Perhaps  they  had  no  feelings  de- 
serving of  utterance.  Greece  was  thus  the  scene 
of  important  events,  in  which  every  nation  in 
Europe  acted  a  more  prominent  part  than  the 
Greeks." — G.  Finlay,  History  of  Greece,  v.  5,  pp. 
182-189. — See  also  Turkey:    1684-1696. 

1821-1829. — Greek  revolution  and  war  of  in- 
dependence.— Capture  by  the  Turks.  See  Greece: 
1821-1829. 

1835. — Modern  capital. — Athens  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  new  kingdom  and  from  that  date 
begins  the  history  of  the  modern  city. 

1896. — Revival  of  Olympic  games. — As  the  re- 
sult of  a  movement  instituted  in  France  by  the 
Baron  de  Coubertin,  an  interesting  attempt  to 
give  athletic  sports  the  spirit  and  semblance  of 
the  ancient  Olympic  games  was  made  at  Athens 
in  the  spring  of  1S96.  A  number  of  wealthy 
Greeks  in  different  parts  of  the  world  joined  gen- 
erously in  the  undertaking,  one  gentleman  es- 
pecially, M.  Averoff,  of  Alexandria,  bearing  the 
cost  of  a  restoration  in  marble  of  the  stadium  at 
Athens,  for  the  occasion.  The  games  were  held 
in  April,  from  the  6th  to  the  isth,  ,ind  were  wit- 
nessed by  a  great  number  of  people.  Besides 
Greek  competitors,  there  were  forty-two  from 
Germany,  twenty-three  from  England,  twenty-one 
from  America,  fifteen  from  France.  The  great 
event  of  the  occasion  was  the  long  foot-race  from 
Marathon  to  Athens,  which  was  won  by  a  young 
Greek.  The  United  States  consul  at  Athens,  writing 
of  the  reconstruction  of  the  ancient  stadium  for  the 
games,  described  the  work  as  follows: 

"The  stadium  may  be  described  as  an  immense 
open  air  amphitheater  constructed  in  a  natural 
ravine,  artificially  filled  in  at  the  end.  It  is  in  the 
shape  of  an  elongated  horseshoe.  The  spectators, 
seated  upon  the  sloping  sides  of  the  ravine,  look 
down  into  the  arena  below,  which  is  a  little  over 
600  feet  in  length  and  about  100  feet  wide  at  the 
widest  part.  .  .  .  The  stadium,  as  rebuilt  for  the 
games,  will  consist  of  (i)  the  arena,  bounded  by 
a  marble  curbing,  surmounted  by  an  iron  railing 
adorned  with  Athenian  owls;  (2)  a  walk  between 
this  curbing  and  the  first  row  of  seats;  (3)  a  low 
retaining  wall  of  marble  on  which  rests  the  first 
row  of  seals,  the  entire  row  bemg  of  marble;  {4) 
the  seats;  (5)  the  underground  tunnel.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  features  there  will  be  an  imposing 
entrance,  a  surrounding  wall  at  the  top  of  the 
hill,  and  two  supporting  walls  at  the  entrance. 
As  far  as  possible,  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
stadium,  the  old  portions  will  be  used,  where  these 
are  in  a  sufficient  state  of  preservation,  and  an 
effort  will  be  made  to  reproduce,  as  nearly  as 
practicable,  the  ancient  structure.  The  seats  at 
present  will  not  all  be  made  of  pentelic  marble, 
as  there  is  neither  time  nor  money  for  such  an 
undertaking.  At  the  closed  end  of  the  arena,  sev- 
enteen rows  will  be  made  of  pentelic  marble,  as 
well  as  the  first  row  all  the  way  around.  The 
remaining  rows  up  to  the  first  aisle  are  being  con- 
structed of  Piraeus  stone.  These  will  accommo- 
date 25,000  seated  spectators.  From  this  aisle  to 
the  top  will  be  placed  wooden  benches  for  30,000 


seated  spectators.  Add  to  these  standing  room 
for  5,000,  and  we  have  the  holding  capacity  of  the 
stadium  60,000  without  crowding." — United  States 
consular   reports,   March,    i8q6,   pp.  353-354. 

Later  history  of  Athens.  See  Greece:  1897  to 
1920;  also  City  planning:   Greece. 

ATHERTON  COMPANY.  See  Rhode  Island: 
1 660- 1 663. 

ATHERTON  GAG.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1836:  Ather- 
ton  gag. 

ATHIES,  a  village  northeast  of  Arras,  France, 
captured  by  the  British  in  1917.  See  World  War: 
1917:  II.  Western  front:   c,  5. 

ATHIR.     See  Arabia:   1919:   King  of  Hejaz. 

ATHLETICS:  Ancient  Greek  teaching.  See 
Education:  Ancient:  B.C.  7th-A.  D.  3rd  centuries: 
Greece. 

Ancient  Persian  training.  See  Education:  An- 
cient: B.  C.  7th-6th  centuries:  Persia. — See  also 
Recreation. 

ATHLONE,  Lord  (Godart  van  Ginkel)  (1630- 
1703),  Dutch  soldier  in  the  service  of  Marlborough. 
See  Netherlands:   i 702-1 704. 

ATHLONE,  Siege  of  (1691).  See  Ireland: 
1680  and   Historical  map. 

ATHOLL,  earls  and  dukes  of,  a  Scotch  title 
which  passed  to  the  Murray  line  in  1O29. 

Atholl,  John  Stewart,  4t'h  earl  of  (d.  1579).  \ 
staunch  Catholic,  he  opposed  the  Reformation  in 
1560,  and  was  a  supporter  of  Queen  Mary  in 
her  attempts  to  reinstate  Catholicism;  com- 
bined with  Argyll  to  gain  influence  at  King  James' 
court. 

Atholl,  John  Murray,  2nd  earl  and  1st  mar- 
quess of  (1631-1703).  Supported  Charles  II,  under 
whom  he  held  office  in  Scotland;  led  the  invasion 
of  Scotland  in   1684. 

Atholl,  John  Murray,  2nd  marquess  and  1st 
duke  of  (1660-1724).  Supported  the  Revolution  of 
1688;  opposed  the  Union  1705-1707. 

ATHOS,  steamship  torpedoed  on  February  17, 
191 7,  while  carrying  Chinese  coolies  and  Senegalese 
troops,  many  of  whom  met  death  with  exceptional 
bravery. 

ATHOS,  Mount.  See  Chalcidice;  Greece: 
B.  C.  492-491. 

ATHRAVAS.     See  Macians. 

ATIMIA. — The  penalty  of  Atimia,  under  ancient 
Athenian  law,  was  the  loss  of  civic  rights. — G.  F. 
Schomann,  .Antiquities  of  Greece:  The  State,  pt.  3, 
ch.  3. 

ATIMUCA  INDIANS.  See  Timiquanan  fam- 
ily: Tequestas. 

ATJEH.     See  Achin. 

ATKINSON,  Sir  Harry  Albert  (1831-1892), 
Premier  of  New  Zealand.  See  New  Zealand:  1876- 
1890. 

ATLANTA,  largest  city  and  capital  of  the  state 
of  Georgia.  A  center  of  munition  manufacture 
and  supply   depot   during   the   Civil  War. 

1864  (May-September). — Sherman's  advance 
to  the  city. — Its  siege  and  capture.  See  U.  S.  A.: 
1S64:  (May-September;  Georgia);  (September-Oc- 
tober:   Georgia). 

1864  (September-November). — Removal  of 
inhabitants. — Destruction  of  the  city.  See 
U.  S.  A.:  1864  {September-October:  Georgia)  ; 
(November-December:    Georgia) . 

1895. — Cotton  states  and  International  Expo- 
sition.— An  important  exposition,  named  as  above, 
was  held  with  great  success  at  .Atlanta,  Georgia, 
from  the  i8th  of  September  until  the  end  of  the 
year  1895.  The  exhibits  from  Mexico  and  many  of 
the  Central  and  South  .\merican  states  were  exten- 
sive and  interesting ;  but  the  main  interest  and 
value  of  the  exposition  were  in  its  showing  of  the 
industrial  resources  of  the  Southern  states  of  the 


622 


ATLANTIC 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


American  Union,  and  of  the  recent  progress  made 
in  developing  them. 
1921. — Organization    of    the    Ku    KIux    Klan. 

See  Ku  Klux  Klan:   192 i. 
ATLANTIC    AND    PACIFIC    RAILROAD. 

See  Arizona:   1864-1883. 

ATLANTIC  CABLE:  Laying  of.  See  Elec- 
trical discovery:  Telegraphy  and  telephony:  Mod- 
ern telegraphy. 

ATLANTIC  COAST  LINE  RAILWAY. 
Plan  for  consolidation.  See  R^vilroads:  1921: 
Twenty  rail  systems  proposed. 

ATLANTIC  FLEET,  U.  S.  N.,  in  World  War. 
See  World  War:  1918:  IX.  Naval  opera- 
tions: c. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN.— "Much  as  the  Old 
World  corresponds  to  the  Pacific,  so  the  two  Ameri- 
cas correspond  to  the  two  basins  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  Antarctic  Sea  to  the  Antarctic  land.  In 
the  coast  lines  of  the  continents  other  points  of 
correspondence  reveal  themselves.  .  .  .  The  At- 
lantic shores  .  .  .  are  low  and  shelving,  except 
where  they  pass  round  the  margins  of  high  pla- 
teaux, or  cut  across  mountain  chains,  of  which  the 
directions  are  rarely  parallel  to  the  shores.  The 
islands  are  few  and  irregularly  scattered  instead 
of  being  hung  in  festoons.  Moreover,  both  At- 
lantic shore  lines  follow  the  same  course,  as  if 
moulded  by  the  same  influences;  thus  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  occurs  opposite  the  projection  of  Brazil; 
the  Mediterranean  offset  on  the  east  corresponds 
to  the  Caribbean  on  the  west ;  the  eastward  reces- 
sion of  Europe  is  followed  by  the  eastward  ad- 
vance of  America." — H.  R.  Mill,  International 
geography. — The  Challenger  expedition  determined 
the  area  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  .be  24,536,000 
square  miles,  and  the  greatest  depthiti7,366  feet,  at 
a  point  north  of  Porto  Rico.  The  gt'eatest  breadth 
is  4,500  miles;  the  mean  depth  of  the  North  At- 
lantic is  2,047  fathoms,  and  that  of  the  South 
Atlantic  2,067  fathoms. 

Ancient  geography  of  the  Atlantic. — "The 
Greeks  as  a  whole  before  the  Hellenistic  age  knew 
little  of  the  Atlantic.  For  a  long  time  their 
knowledge  ceased  absolutely  at  Gibraltar  or,  as  the 
Greeks  named  it,  the  Pillars  of  Heracles.  The 
name  itself  suggests  that  the  early  Greeks  had  only 
seen  Gibraltar  from  the  East:  for  the  long  ridge 
of  the  Rock,  throwing  out  a  tongue,  or,  as  the 
Greeks  called  it  elsewhere,  a  Dog's  Tail,  into  the 
strait,  looks  anything  but  a  pillar  to  seamen  ap- 
proaching from  the  West.  Then  stray  traders  were 
blown  by  the  Levanter  through  the  funnel  of  the 
straits,  past  Trafalgar,  into  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  and 
discovered  the  'virgin  market'  of  Tarshish  on  the 
Guadalquivir.  But  beyond  Cape  St.  Vincent  they 
knew  nothing  at  all;  even  Heracles  got  no  further 
than  Geryon's  island  in  Cadiz  Bay ;  'man  cannot 
sail  into  the  darkness  West  of  Cadiz;  turn  back 
the  ship  to  the  land  of  Europe,'  says  Pindar,  as 
one  of  his  many  ways  of  breaking  off  a  long  tale. 
Herodotus  had  heard  stories  of  tin  being  brought 
from  the  Tin  Islands,  but  he  could  find  out  noth- 
ing definite.  Moreover  it  is  signilicant  that  he  tells 
us  of  two  different  pioneering  companies  who  found 
their  way  to  Tartessus — the  Phocaeans  and  the 
Samian  Coleaus.  This  is  probably  not  because, 
as  with  the  North  Pole,  there  was  a  competition 
for  the  honour  of  discovery,  but  because  the  route 
was  so  hazardous  that  communications  had  not 
been  properly  kept  up.  It  was,  however,  not  only 
the  difficulty  01*  the  Gibraltar  passage  but  the 
competition  of  Carthage  which  kept  Greeks  out  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  Carthaginians  traded  all  along 
the  nearer  coasts  of  the  Atlantic,  both  in  Spain 
and  Africa.  They  had  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  sailed  far  into  the  Northern  sea  for  the 


tin  of  Cornwall  and  the  Scillies.  A  Carthaginian 
account  of  the  West  African  route  is  extant  fn 
Greek — the  so-called  Itinerary  of  Hanno.  It  was 
of  course  to  the  interest  of  the  Carthaginians,  as 
of  all  pioneer  sea  powers,  to  keep  their  voyages 
secret  and  to  exaggerate  their  danger.  It  was  a 
long  time  before  their  next  rivals,  the  Romans, 
found  their  way  to  the  British  tin  mines.  The 
geographer  Strabo  has  an  interesting  passage  about 
this  British  trade  and  how  its  monopoly  was  safe- 
guarded:— "The  Tin  Islands,"  he  says,  'are  ten  in 
number.  .  .  .  One  of  them  is  desert,  but  the  others 
are  inhabited  by  men  in  black  cloaks,  clad  in 
tunics  reaching  to  the  feet,  girt  about  the  breast 
and  walking  with  sticks,  like  Furies  in  a  tragedy. 
They  subsist  by  their  cattle,  leading  for  the  most 
part  a  wandering  life.  Of  the  metals  they  have 
tin  and  lead,  which  with  skins  they  barter  with 
the  merchants  for  earthenware,  salt,  and  brazen 
vessels.  Formerly  the  Phoenicians  alone  carried 
on  this  traffic  from  Gades,  concealing  the  passage 
from  every  one;  and  when  the  Romans  followed  a 
certain  skipper  in  order  to  discover  the  market 
for  themselves,  the  skipper  purposely  ran  his  ves- 
sel on  to  a  shoal,  luring  the  Romans  to  the  same 
fate.  He  himself  escaped  on  a  piece  of  wreckage 
and  received  from  the  State  the  value  of  the  cargo 
he  had  lost.  Nevertheless  the  Romans  persevered 
until  they  discovered  the  passage.' " — Zimmern, 
Greek  commonwealth,  pp.  21-22. — "Nor  is  it  likely 
that  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  divided  into  two  seas 
of  narrow  isthmuses  so  placed  as  to  prevent  cir- 
cumnavigation ;  how  much  more  probable  that  it 
is  confluent  and  uninterrupted !  Those  who  have 
returned  from  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  the 
earth,  do  not  say  they  have  been  prevented  from 
continuing  their  voyage  by  an  opposing  continent, 
for  the  sea  remained  perfectly  open,  but  through 
want  of  resolution,  and  the  scarcity  of  provision." 
— Strabo. — "In  one  of  his  digressions  Herodotus 
has  communicated  to  us  his  conception  of  the  gen- 
eral features  of  the  world.  ...  He  considered  that 
the  ocean  extended  continuously  from  the  coast  of 
India  to  that  of  Spain ;  this  he  regarded  as  suf- 
ficiently proved  by  two  expeditions,  which  had 
accomplished  between  them  the  entire  circum- 
navigation of  the  intervening  continent.  One  of 
these  was  the  voyage  of  Seylax  of  Caryanda.  .  .  . 
The  other  was  the  expedition  which  was  des- 
patched by  Necho  from  Egypt  to  explore  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  had  succeeded  in  reaching  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  by  the  southern  route.  The 
first  part  of  this  sea  to  the  eastward  of  Africa, 
which  we  now  call  the  Indian  Ocean,  was  known 
to  him  as  the  Erythraean  Sea,  while  that  to  the 
west  he  names  the  Atlantic — an  appellation  which 
here  occurs  for  the  first  time,  though  he  implies 
that  it  was  already  in  familiar  use." — H.  F.  Tozer, 
History  of  ancient  geography,  p.  80. — See  also 
Commerce:   Era  of  geographic  expansion. 

Transatlantic  steamers,  cables,  airplanes. — 
The  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was  the 
Savannah,  which  made  the  trip  in  May  and  June 
of  i8iq.  The  first  successful  transatlantic  cable 
was  laid  in  August,  1857.  The  second  was  laid 
in  June,  1858.  but  proved  a  failure.  The  first  mes- 
sages passed  on  August  5,  1858,  between  President 
Buchanan  and  Queen  Victoria.  "On  May  17  [igig] 
the  United  States  flying-boats  N.  C.  i,  3,  and  4 
.  .  .  started  from  Trepassey,  Newfoundland,  for 
the  Azores.  .  .  .  Only  one,  the  N.  C.  4,  reached  the 
Azores,  at  Horta.  .  .  .  The  R.  34  (a  British  rigid 
airship  of  the  Zeppelin  type)  .  .  .  left  East  For- 
tune (Scotland)  on  July  2  [iqiq].  .  .  .  She  crossed 
the  Atlantic  .  .  .  and  landed  at  Mineola.  .  .  .  On 
July  10  she  started  for  home,  and  .  .  .  returned  to 
Pulham,  Norfolk." — New  Hazell's  Annual  and  Al- 


623 


ATLANTIS 


ATTELBURG 


manack,  ig2o,  p.  766. — See  also  AviAnoN:  Impor- 
tant flights  since  igoo:    ipio;   1919. 

ATLANTIS,  a  fabled  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  mentioned  in  the  "Timaeus"  of  Plato.  He 
describes  it  as  having  been  a  large  and  powerful 
kingdom  some  nine  thousand  years  before  the  birth 
of  Solon ;  the  entire  land  was  supposed  to  have 
since  been  overwhelmed  by  the  sea.  Plato  in  the 
Critias  gives  a  history  of  this  reputed  ideal  com- 
monwealth. From  ancient  until  modern  times 
many  similar  legends  have  been  current  in  West- 
ern Europe,  and  some  writers  have  believed  them 
to  have  a  basis  of  fact. 

ATLAS  MOUNTAINS.  See  Africa;  Geo- 
graphic  description. 

ATOKA  AGREEMENT.  See  Indians,  Amer- 
ican:   1893-1809. 

ATOMIC  THEORY.  See  Chejustrv:  Mod- 
ern: Lavoisier;  Science:  20th  century:  Physics. 

Disintegration  theory.  See  Chemistry:  Radio- 
activity: Thorium. 

ATRANI.     See    Amalfi. 

ATREBATES.— This  name  was  borne  by  a 
tribe  in  ancient  Belgic  Gaul,  which  occupied  mod- 
ern Artois  and  part  of  French  Flanders,  and,  also. 
by  a  tribe  or  group  of  tribes  in  Britain,  which 
dwelt  in  a  region  between  the  Thames  and  the 
Severn.  The  latter  was  probably  a  colony  from 
the  former.  See  Belg.e;  also  Britain:  Celtic 
tribes. 

ATRIA.     See  Adria. 

ATRIUM,  in  Roman  houses  an  entrance  court 
open  to  the  sky,  but  surrounded  by  a  covered 
ambulatory  or  walk.  In  early  Christian  architec- 
ture, a  similar  entrance  court  in  front  of  churches. 
Noted  examples  may  be  found  in  the  churches  of 
St.  Ambrogio  of  Milan,  St.  Peter's  and  St.  Sophia. 
— C.  H.  Caf&n,  How  to  study  architecture,  p. 
480. 

ATROCITIES:  In  World  War.  See  Belgium: 
1914-igiS;  World  War:  1916:  X.  German  rule 
in  northern  France  and  Belgium:  a;  miscellaneous 
auxiliary  services:  X.  Alleged  atrocities  and  viola- 
tions of  international  law;  also  e;  XI.  Devasta- 
tion: c. 

ATROPATENE,  MEDIA  ATROPATENE. 
— "Atropatene,  as  a  name  for  the  .Alpine  land  in 
the  northwest  of  Iran  (now  .-^derbeijan),  came 
into  use  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  Empire  [.•\lex- 
ander's] ;  at  any  rate  we  cannot  trace  it  earlier. 
'Athrapaiti'  means  'lord  of  fire;'  'Athrapata,'  'one 
protected  by  fire;'  in  the  remote  mountains  of 
this  district  the  old  fire-worship  was  preserved  with 
peculiar  zeal  under  the  Seleucids." — M.  Duncker, 
History  of  antiquity,  bk.  7,  ch.  4. — .\tropatene 
"comprises  the  entire  basin  of  Lake  Urumiyeh, 
together  with  the  country  intervening  between  that 
basin  and  the  high  mountain  chain  which  curves 
round  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  Caspian." — 
G.  Rawlinson,  Five  great  monarchies :  Media,  ch. 
I. — Atropatene  was  "named  in  honour  of  the 
satrap  Atropates,  who  had  declared  himself  king 
after  Alexander's  death." — J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Story  of 
Alexander's  empire,  ch.  13. 

ATSINA  INDIANS.     See  Blackfeet  or  Sik- 

SIEAS. 

AT-TABARI,  Arabic  historian.  See  History: 
21. 

ATTABEGS.      See    Atabegs. 

ATTACAPAN  FAMILY.— "DerivaUon:  From 
a  Choctaw  word  meaning  'man  cater.'  Little  is 
known  of  the  tribe,  the  language  of  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  present  family.  The  sole  knowl- 
edge possessed  by  Gallatin  was  derived  from  a 
vocabulary  and  some  scanty  information  furnished 
by  Dr.  John  Sibley,  who  collected  his  material  in 
the  year  1805.     Gallatin  states  that  the  tribe  was 


reduced    to   50   men Mr.    Gatschet   collected 

some  2,000  words  and  a  considerable  body  of  text. 
His  vocabulary  differs  considerably  from  the  one 
furnished  by  Dr.  Sibley  and  published  by  Galla- 
tin. .  .  .  The  above  material  seems  to  show  that 
the  .Attacapa  language  is  distinct  from  all  others, 
except  possibly  the  Chitimachan." — J.  W.  Powell, 
Seventh  annual  report,  Bureau  of  ethnology,  p.  57. 
— See  also  Indians,  .American:  Cultural  areas  in 
North  America:   Southeastern   area. 

ATTACOTTI.     See  Britain;   Celtic  tribes. 

ATTAINDER,  BILL  OF  ATTAINDER.— 
"An  attainder  ('attinctura')  is  a  degradation  or  pub- 
lic dishonouring,  which  draws  after  it  corruption  of 
blood.  It  is  the  consequence  of  any  condemna- 
tion to  death,  and  induces  the  disherison  of  the 
heirs  of  the  condemned  person,  which  can  only 
be  removed  by  means  of  parliament.  A  bill  of  at- 
tainder, or  of  pains  and  penalties,  inflicts  the  con- 
sequences of  a  penal  sentence  on  any  state  criminal. 
...  By  the  instrumentality  of  such  bill  the 
penalties  of  high  treason  are  generally  imposed. 
Penalties  may,  however,  be  imposed  at  pleasure, 
either  in  accordance  with,  or  in  contravention  of, 
the  common  law.  No  other  court  of  law  can 
protect  a  person  condemned  in  such  manner.  The 
first  bill  of  the  kind  occurred  under  Edward  IV., 
when  the  commons  had  to  confirm  the  statute  con- 
demning Clarence  to  death.  This  convenient  meth- 
od of  getting  rid  of  disagreeable  opponents  was  in 
high  favour  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
.  .  .  What  had  been  an  instrument  of  kingly  des- 
potism, under  Tudor  sway,  was  converted,  under 
the  Stuarts,  into  a  parliamentary  engine  against  the 
crown.  The  points  of  indictment  against  Straf- 
ford were  so.  weak  that  the  lords  were  for  ac- 
quitting hinj  ■  Thereupon,  Sir  Arthur  Haselrig 
introduced  a  bill  of  attainder  in  the  commons.  The 
staunch  friends  of  freedom,  such  as  Pym  and 
Hampden,  did  not  support  this  measure.  A  bill 
of  attainder  may  refer  simply  to  a  concrete  case, 
and  contrive  penalties  for  acts  which  are  not  spe- 
cially punishable  by  statute,  whereas  an  impeach- 
ment applies  to  some  violation  of  recognized  legal 
principles,  and  is  a  solemn  indictment  preferred  by 
the  commons  to  the  house  of  lords." — E.  Fischel, 
English  constitution,  bk.  7,  ch.  g. — "By  the  33  &. 
34  Vict.  c.  23,  forfeiture  and  attainder  for  treason 
or  felony  have  been  abolished." — T.  P.  Taswell- 
Langmead.  English  constitutional  history,  from  the 
Teutonic  conquest  to  the  present  time,  ch.  10,  id 
ed.,  p.  393,  foot-note. — By  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  both  Congress  and  the  states  are 
prohibited  from  passing  a  bill  of  attainder.  Con- 
gress is  given  power  to  punish  treason,  but  it  is 
provided  that  "no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work 
corruption  of  blood."  The  bill  of  attainder  is  ob- 
jectionable in  that  legislative  bodies  are  likely  to 
be  moved  by  popular  clamor,  whereas  in  regular 
court  procedure  a  decision  is  reached  on  the  basis 
of  evidence  submitted. 

ATTALUS,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  Per- 
gamum.     See  Pergamum. 

Attalus  I  (269-197  B.C.).  Made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Asia  Minor  west  of  Mt.  Taurus,  ally  of 
Philip  V  of  Macedon  against  Rome. 

Attalus  II  (220-138  B.C.).  Sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Rome  before  becoming  king ;  founded  Phila- 
delphia and  Attalia. 

Attalus  III  (171-133  B.C.),  a  patron  of  art 
and  literature;  his  will  made  the  Roman  people 
his  heirs. 

ATTAMAN,  or  Hetman.    See  Cossacks. 

ATTECOTTI.  See  Ottadint;  also,  Britain: 
Celtic  tribes. 

ATTELBURG,  early  Hungarian  city.  See 
Hungary- :  896. 


624 


ATTHIS 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL 


ATTHIS,  an  historical  work  by  Hellanicus  of 
Mytilene.    See  History:   16. 

ATTIAD.^,  the  first  dynasty  of  the  Icings  of 
Lydia,  claimed  to  be  sprung  from  Attis,  son  of 
the  god  Manes. — M.  Dunclcer,  History  oj  antiquity, 
bk.  4,  ch.  17. 

ATTIC  SALT.— Thyme  was  a  favorite  con- 
diment among  the  ancient  Greeks,  "which  throve 
nowhere  else  so  well  as  in  Attica.  Even  salt  was 
seasoned  with  thyme.  Attic  salt,  however,  is 
famed  rather  in  the  figurative  than  in  the  literal 
sense,  and  did  not  form  an  article  of  trade." — 
G.  F.  Schomann,  Antiquities  oj  Greece:  The  State, 
pt.  3,  ch.  3. 

ATTIC  TALENT.     See  Talent. 

ATTIC  TRIBES.  See  Phylae;  Phratriae; 
Gentes. 

ATTIC  WAR.  See  Ten  Years'  War;  also 
Athens:   B.  C.  421. 

ATTICA. — "It  forms  a  rocky  peninsula,  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  by  trackless  mountains, 
and  jutting  so  far  out  into  the  Eastern  Sea  that 
it  lay  out  of  the  path  of  the  tribes  moving  from 
north  to  south.  Hence  the  migratory  passages 
which  agitated  the  whole  of  Hellas  left  Attica  un- 
touched, and  for  this  reason  Attic  history  is  not 
divided  into  such  marked  epochs  as  that  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus; it  possesses  a  superior  unity,  and  pre- 
sents an  uninterrupted  development  of  conditions 
of  life  native  in  their  origin  to  the  land.  .  .  .  On 
the  other  hand  Attica  was  perfectly  adapted  by 
nature  for  receiving  immigrants  from  the  sea.  For 
the  whole  country,  as  its  name  indicates,  consists 
of  coast-land;  and  the  coast  abounds  in  harbours, 
and  on  account  of  the  depth  of  water  in  the  roads 
is  everywhere  accessible;  while  the  best  of  its 
plains  open  towards  the  coast.  .  .  .  Into  the  centre 
of  the  entire  p'lin  advances  from  the  direction  of 
Hymettus  a  group  of  rocky  heights,  among  them 
an  entirely  separate  and  mighty  block  which,  with 
the  exception  of  a  narrow  access  from  the  west, 
offers  on  all  sides  vertically  precipitous  walls,  sur- 
mounted by  a  broad  level  sufficiently  roomy  to 
afford  space  for  the  sanctuaries  of  the  national 
gods  and  the  habitations  of  the  national  rulers.  It 
seems  as  if  nature  had  designedly  placed  this  rock 
in  this  position  as  the  ruling  castle  and  the  centre 
of  the  national  history.  This  is  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens.  ...  So  far  from  being  sufficiently  luxuri- 
ant to  allow  even  the  idle  to  find  easy  means  of 
sustenance,  the  Attic  soil  was  stony,  devoid  of  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water,  and  for  the  most  part 
only  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  barley ;  every- 
where .  .  .  labour  and  a  regulated  industry  were 
needed.  But  this  labour  was  not  unremunerative. 
Whatever  orchard  and  garden  fruits  prospered  were 
peculiarly  delicate  and  agreeable  to  the  taste ;  the 
mountain-herbs  were  nowhere  more  odorous  than 
on  Hymettus;  and  the  sea  abounded  with  fish. 
The  mountains  not  only  by  the  beauty  of  their 
form  invest  the  whole  scenery  with  a  certain  no- 
bility, but  in  their  depths  lay  an  abundance  of 
the  most  excellent  building-stone  and  silver  ore; 
in  the  lowlands  was  to  be  found  the  best  kind  of 
clay  for  purposes  of  manufacture.  The  materials 
existed  for  all  arts  and  handicrafts;  and  finally 
Attica  rejoiced  in  what  the  ancients  were  wise 
enough  to  recognize  as  a  special  favour  of  Heaven, 
a  dry  and  transparent  atmosphere.  .  .  .  The  im- 
migrants who  domesticated  themselves  in  Attica 
were  .  .  .  chiefly  families  of  superior  eminence,  so 
that  Attica  gained  not  only  in  numbers  of  popula- 
tion, but  also  in  materials  of  culture  of  every  de- 
scription."— E.  Curtius,  History  oj  Greece,  bk.  2, 
ch.  2. — See  also  Athens:  B.C.  1000-700;  Greece: 
Map  of  ancient  Greece. 

Also  in:  J.  I.  Lockhart,  Attica  and  Athens. 


B.C.  429-427.  —  Peloponnesian  War.  See 
Greece:  B.C.  431-429;  429-427;  413. 

B.C.  427. — Invasion  by  Athens.  See  Athens: 
B.C.  428-427. 

1205-1308,— Rule  by  Otto  de  la  Roche.  See 
Athens:  1205-1308. 

1688. — Evacuated  by  Venetians.  See  Athens: 
1687-1688. 

ATTICO-ARGIVE  ALLIANCE.  See  Greece: 
B.C.  458-456. 

ATTILA  (d.  4S3),  king  of  the  Huns,  called  "the 
scourge  of  God."  Invaded  Gaul  in  451,  was 
stopped  by  the  Visigoths  under  Theodoric  at  the 
battle  of  Chalons;  in  the  next  year  invaded  Italy, 
driving  many  people  into  the  lagoons  of  the  Adri- 
atic, where  they  founded  Venice;  was  persuaded  to 
turn  back  by  Pope  Leo  I.— See  also  Balkan 
States:  Races  existing  r  Barbarian  invasions:  423- 
455;  Europe:  Ethnology:  Migrations:  Map  show- 
ing Barbaric  migrations ;  Huns:  433-453  to  453 ; 
Venice:  452. 

ATTIWANDARONKS.  See  Iroquois  con- 
federacy. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  chief  law  officer  of 
the  state. — "Of  all  the  great  offices  established  in 
17S9  [United  States],  that  of  the  Attorney-Gen- 
eral was  in  some  respects  the  least  satisfactory 
in  its  organization.  .  .  .  The  office  was  an  innova- 
tion in  connection  with  that  government.  But 
the  incumbent,  recognized  as  legal  adviser  to  the 
President  and  the  heads  of  departments,  was  in- 
evitably brought  within  the  range  of  executive 
control,  and  became,  like  the  Secretaries,  a  min- 
isterial officer.  When,  in  1790,  Edmund  Randolph, 
first  of  the  Attorneys-General,  wrote  of  himself 
as  'a  sort  of  mongrel  between  the  State  and  U.  S.; 
called  an  officer  of  some  rank  under  the  latter, 
and  yet  thrust  out  to  get  a  hvelihood  in  the  for- 
mer,' he  cast  no  doubtful  reflection  on  the  status 
and  relation  of  his  position.  He  knew  that  he 
was  head  of  no  department.  Moreover,  his  salary 
of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  was  so  small  that  prob- 
ably he  could  not  have  been  expected  to  support 
himself  by  it.  He  was  obliged  to  trust  to  legal 
practice  to  eke  out  a  living.  There  is  no  evidence 
to  indicate  that  he  was  even  expected  to  remain  at 
the  seat  of  government,  although  he  was  obliged 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  President,  at  least  by 
occasional  correspondence.  And,  should  the  fed- 
eral business  warrant  it,  the  President  might  sum- 
mon him  to  a  conference  with  the  Secretaries.  He 
was  certainly  reckoned  an  adviser  in  legal  mat- 
ters by  Washington  from  the  start.  The  place  and 
functions  of  the  Attorney-General  remained  for 
many  years  after  1789  subjects  of  reflection  on 
the  part  of  thoughtful  men.  Several  Presidents, 
beginning  with  James  Madison,  urged  reform  In 
the  office,  although  apparently  having  no  clear  no- 
tions at  first  as  to  what  measures  of  reform  were 
needed.  The  Attorneys-General  themselves  were 
helpful  in  the  solution  of  the  problem,  none  more 
so  than  William  Wirt  and  Caleb  Gushing.  The 
problem  became  clearer  under  the  stress  of  num- 
erous circumstances  in  the  growth  and  require- 
ments of  federal  administration.  By  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War  it  was  forced  into  the  foreground ; 
and  Congress,  acting  in  1870  after  long  delibera- 
tion, established  the  office  on  a  new  footing,  giving 
the  Attorney-General  a  place  as  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  justice.  The  act  of  1870,  it  should 
be  added,  made  no  change  in  law  as  to  the  duty 
of  the  Attorney-General  in  giving  official  opinions 
and  advice.  'The  Attorney-General,'  said  Monroe, 
'has  been  always,  since  the  adoption  of  our  Gov- 
ernment, a  member  of  the  executive  council,  or 
cabinet.  For  that  reason  as  well  as  for  a  better 
discharge  of  his  other  official  duties,  it  is  proper 


625 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL 


AUBAINE 


that  he  should  reside  at  the  seat  of  Government. 
.  .  .  His  duties  in  attending  the  cabinet  delibera- 
tions are  equal  to  those  of  any  other  member.  .  .  . 
Being  at  the  Seat  of  Government  throughout  the 
year,'  Monroe  continued,  'his  labors  are  increased 
by  giving  opinions  to  the  different  Departments 
and  public  officers.  .  .  .  Being  on  the  spot,  it  may 
be  supposed  that  he  will  often  be  resorted  to  ver- 
bally in  the  progress  of  current  business.  Such  is 
the  fact.'  Then  turning  to  another  aspect  of  the 
theme.  Monroe  declared:  'The  present  Attorney- 
General  (Richard  Rush)  has  not  embarked  in  the 
practice  of  the  local  courts  of  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington. The  practice  is,  in  itself,  of  little  moment ; 
to  engage  in  it  upon  a  scale  to  make  it,  in  any 
degree,  worth  his  attention,  would  be  incompatible 
with  the  calls  to  which  he  is  liable  from  the  Ex- 
ecutive, and  the  investigations  due  to  other  official 
engagements.'  Monroe  knew  that  the  office  had 
been  shabbily  treated  at  the  hands  of  Congress, 
for  after  calling  attention  to  the  facts  that  it  had 
no  apartment  for  business,  no  clerk,  and  not 
even  a  messenger,  he  added  that  it  had  had  neither 
stationery  nor  fuel.  'These  have  been  supplied,' 
he  concluded,  'by  the  officer  himself,  at  his  own 
e.xpense.'  Monroe's  letter  is  an  extraordinarily  in- 
teresting and  authoritative  commentary  on  the 
primitive  conditions  that  surrounded  an  officer  of 
some  rank  in  the  national  government  of  1817. 
It  came  from  the  most  experienced  and  tried  ad- 
ministrative official  serving  Madison,  for  Monroe 
had  held  both  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State  and 
that  of  Secretary  of  War,  sometimes  sustaining 
them  together  for  brief  periods  during  the  six 
years  preceding.  It  revealed  a  man  thoroughly 
prepared  to  appreciate  the  need  of  a  capable  oc- 
cupant of  the  office.  Although  it  took  Monroe 
some  time  to  select  his  Attorney-General,  he  had 
good  reason,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  to  feel  by 
the  close  of  his  administration  as  President  great 
satisfaction  over  his  choice.  William  Wirt  of  Vir- 
ginia accepted  the  post  of  Attorney-General  of- 
fered him  by  President  Monroe  late  in  October, 
1817,  with  a  clear  understanding  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  duties  of  his  office  to  prevent  him 
from  carrying  on  general  practice  in  Washington, 
where  he  took  up  his  residence,  or  from  attending 
occasional  calls  to  Baltimore,  Philadelphia  or  else- 
where, if  time  allowed.  He  knew,  however,  that 
his  first  obligation  was  to  Monroe  and  to  the 
regular  duties  of  his  new  position.  Wirt  began 
with  an  examination  of  the  Judiciary  Act  of  Sep- 
tember 24,  178Q.  There  tbe  duties  of  the  At- 
torney-General were  briefly  set  forth.  They  had 
not  been  more  clearly  elaborated  in  any  later 
enactment.  Wirt  next  sought  for  the  records  of 
opinions  as  given  by  his  predecessors  in  the  office 
— for  letter-books,  official  correspondence  and 
documentary  evidence,  but  could  not  find  a  trace 
of  these.  .■Vccordingly  he  concluded  that  there 
could  have  been  neither  consistency  in  the  opinions 
nor  uniformity  in  the  practices  of  the  Attorneys- 
General.  He  indicated  that  in  various  ways  he 
had  discovered  that  his  forerunners  had  been  called 
on  for  opinions  from  many  sources — committees 
of  Congress,  district  attorneys,  collectors  of  cus- 
toms and  of  public  taxes,  marshals,  and  even 
courts-martial.  Clearly  these  practices  went  far 
beyond  the  provisions  of  law.  Resting  on  cour- 
tesy merely,  they  impress  Wirt  as  dangerous.  It 
was  his  opinion  that  'from  the  connection  of  the 
Attorney-General  with  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government  ...  his  advice  and  opinions,  given 
as  Attorney-General,  will  have  an  official  influence, 
beyond,  and  independent  of,  whatever  intrinsic 
merit  they  may  possess;  and  whether  it  be  sound 
policy  to  permit  thb  officer  or  any  other  under  the 


government,  even  on  the  application  of  others,  to 
extend  the  influence  of  his  office  beyond  the  pale 
of  law,  and  to  cause  it  to  be  felt,  where  the  laws 
have  not  contemplated  that  it  should  be  felt,  is 
the  point  which  I  beg  leave  to  submit.'  The  con- 
clusions which  Wirt  drew  may  be  summarized. 
First,  and  above  all  things,  provision  should  be 
made  in  law  for  keeping  the  records  and  preserv- 
ing the  documents  of  the  office.  This  would  make 
for  consistency  of  opinions  and  uniformity  of  prac- 
tices. Second,  there  should  be  a  depository  in  the 
office  of  the  Attorney-General  for  the  statutes  of 
the  various  States,  statutes  which  might  be  needed 
at  short  notice  for  aid  in  solving  legal  problems. 
In  this  matter  Wirt  was  asking  simply  for  a  special 
library  to  facilitate  his  work.  Finally,  he  sug- 
gested that  legal  restrictions  be  placed  on  the 
duties  of  the  officer  for  the  obvious  reason  that  one 
man  could  not  find  time  to  perform  the  work  if 
he  were  obliged  to  attend  to  such  miscellaneous 
calls  as  had  been  made  upon  the  time  and  energy 
of  his  predecessors.  There  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  Caleb  Gushing  was  the  first  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States  who  held  himself 
strictly  to  the  residence  obligation — an  ideal,  as  we 
have  seen,  that  had  been  gaining  ground  since 
1814 — and  refrained  from  the  general  practice  of 
the  law  during  his  term  as  a  federal  officer.  At 
any  rate,  many  of  Cushing's  suggestions  for  a  bet- 
ter organization  of  the  work  of  the  Attorney- 
General  were  enacted  into  the  laws  between  March, 
1854 — 'he  date  of  his  'Opinion' — and  June,  1870. 
when  the  Attorney-General  was  named  in  the  law 
as  head  of  the  Department  of  Justice.  The  act  of 
1870  brought  the  solicitors  in  the  various  depart- 
ments under  the  ultimate  control  of  the  Attorney- 
General.  Whatever  official  opinions  these  solicitors 
might  be  called  upon  to  give,  must  henceforth  be 
recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Attorney-General 
There,  before  they  could  become  the  executive  law 
for  the  guidance  of  inferior  officials,  these  opinions 
were  stamped  with  the  .Attorney-General's  final 
approval.  'It  is,'  asserted  Representative  Jenckes, 
'for  the  purpose  of  having  a  unity  of  decision,  a 
unity  of  jurisprudence,  if  I  may  use  that  ex- 
pression, in  the  executive  law  of  the  United  States, 
that  this  bill  proposes  that  all  the  law  officers 
therein  provided  for  shall  be  subordinate  to  one 
head.'  The  act  made  provision  for  the  creation 
of  one  new  law  officer  of  large  importance — the  So- 
licitor-General of  the  United  States.  It  was  pro- 
posed to  have  in  this  new  position  'a  man  of  suf- 
ficient learning,  ability  and  experience  that  he  can 
be  sent  to  New  Orleans  or  to  New  York,  or  into 
any  court  wherever  the  Government  has  any  in- 
terest in  litigation,  and  there  present  the  case  of 
the  United  States  as  it  should  be  presented.'  The 
express  language  of  the  law  required  him  to  be 
'learned  in  the  law' — a  requirement  that  had  or- 
iginally, in  the  law  of  1789,  been  exacted  of  the 
Attorney-General,  but  for  some  unknown  reason 
was  omitted  in  the  law  of  1870,  so  far  as  the  latter 
officer  was  concerned.  By  an  act  approved  on 
January  iq,  1886,  the  Attorney-General  was  defi- 
nitely reckoned  as  fourth  in  the  line  of  possible 
succession  to  the  Presidency  in  case  of  the  re- 
moval, death,  resignation  or  disability  of  Presi- 
dent and  \'ice-Prcsident." — H.  B.  Learned,  PreH- 
drnt's  cabinet,  pp.  150-100. — The  salaries  of  the 
attorney-general  and  of  the  solicitor-general  are 
$12,000  and  $10,000  respectively. — See  also  Jus- 
tice, Department  of. — The  salary  of  the  attor- 
ney-general in  England  is  £7,000  ($35,000).  His 
office  is  one  of  great  authority  and  dignity,  and  as 
chief  law  officer  of  the  Crown  he  is  nominal  head 
of  the  bar. 
AUBAINE,     Right     of.— ".A     prerogative     by 


626 


AUBE 


AUDIENCIAS 


which  the  Kings  of  France  claimed  the  property  of 
foreigners  who  died  in  their  kingdom  without  being 
naturahzed."  It  was  suppressed  by  Colbert,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. — J.  A.  Blanqui,  History  of 
political  economy  in  Europe,  p.  285. 

AUBE,  Hyacinthe  Laurent  Th6ophile  (1826- 
1890),  French  admiral,  an  advocate  of  a  torpedo 
system.    See  Submarines:   1914-1918. 

AUBER,  Daniel  Franjois  Esprit  (1783-1871), 
French  operatic  composer.  In  1842  he  succeeded 
Cherubini  as  head  of  the  Conservatoire  and  in 
1857  was  imperial  choir  master  to  Napoleon  III. 
He  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  last  of  the  masters  of 
the  old  opera  comique.  See  Music;  Modern:  1730- 
i8i6. 

AUBERIVE,  a  village  on  the  Suippe  river, 
southeast  of  Rheims.  It  was  captured  by  the 
French  during  World  War.  See  World  War:  1915: 
II.  Western  front:  i,  8;  also  1917:  II.  Western 
front:   b,  1. 

AUBERS,  a  village  in  northern  France,  south- 
west of  Lille.  It  was  captured  by  the  Allies  1914. 
See  World  War:   1914:   I.  Western  front:  w,  2. 

AUBIGNE,  Theodore  Agrippa  d'  (1550-1630), 
French  Huguenot  poet.  See  French  literature: 
1552-1610. 

AUBIGNY,  Robert  Stuart  (d.  1544),  French 
general  under  Louis  XII.  See  Italy:  1499-1500; 
1501-1504. 

AUBIGNY,  a  village  of  northern  France,  north- 
west of  .\rras.  It  was  taken  by  the  Germans  in 
1918.  See  World  War:  1918:  II.  Western  front: 
c,  11. 

AUBRIOT,  Hughes  (d.  1382),  Provost  of  Pans. 
See  Bastille. 

AUBURN  PRISON,  New  York.  See  Prison 
reform:   Results  of  prison  reform  movement. 

A.  U.  C,  or  U.  C.  (Ab  urbe  condita),  from  the 
founding  of  the  city ;  or  "Anno  urbis  conditje,"  the 
year  from  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Rome,  753 
B.  C. — See  also  Chronolocy:  Era  of  the  foundation 
of  Rome. 

AUCH:  Origin  of  the  name.  Sse  Aquitaine: 
Ancient  tribes. 

AUCHMUTY,  Sir  Samuel  (1756-1822),  Brit- 
ish general ;  served  as  loyalist  in  the  War  of  the 
American  Revolution ;  served  in  India,  Egypt  and 
in  the  disastrous  Buenos  Aires  expedition  in  1806- 
1807;  in  command  at  Madras,  1810,  and  of  the 
Java  expedition  in  1811,  when  he  practically  con- 
quered the  island. 

AUCKLAND,  George  Eden,  earl  of  (1784- 
1849),  an  English  statesman;  took  his  seat  in 
House  of  Lords,  1814;  appointed  governor-gen- 
eral of  India,  1835,  and  in  1846  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  Auckland,  New  Zealand,  was  named 
after  him. — See   also  Afghanistan;   India:    1836- 

1845- 

Auckland,  city  and  former  capital  of  New 
Zealand  (until  1865)  ;  on  Waitemate  Inlet,  a  beau- 
tiful and  commodious  harbor;  settled  in  1840,  now 
chief  port  of  the  Dominion.  It  has  a  college,  form- 
ing part  of  the  University  of  New  Zealand,  and 
there  is  a  large  freight  and  passenger  traffic  with 
England,  Australia  and  the  United  States.  See 
.Australia:  Map;  Labor  strikes  and  boycotts: 
1906-1913;     New    Zealand:     Land;     and     1850- 

i85S- 

AUDENARDE.     See  Oudenarde. 

AUDIENCIAS.— "For  more  than  two  cen- 
turies and  a  half  the  whole  of  South  America,  ex- 
cept Brazil,  settled  down  under  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment of  Spain,  and  during  the  greater  part  of 
that  time  this  vast  territory  was  under  the  rule  of 
the  Viceroys  of  Peru  residing  at  Lima.  The  im- 
possibility of  conducting  an  efficient  administra- 
tion from  such  a  centre  ...  at  once  became  ap- 


parent. Courts  of  justice  called  Audiencias  were, 
therefore,  established  in  the  distant  provinces,  and 
their  presidents,  sometimes  with  the  title  of  cap- 
tains-general, had  charge  of  the  executive  under 
the  orders  of  the  Viceroys.  The  Audiencia  of 
Charcas  (the  modern  Bolivia)  was  established  in 
ISS9-  [See  Bolivia:  1533-1809.]  Chile  was  ruled 
by  captains-general,  and  an  Audiencia  was  estab- 
lished at  Santiago  in  1568.  [See  Chile:  1568.] 
In  New  Grenada  the  president  of  the  Audiencia, 
created  in  1564,  was  also  captain-general.  The 
Audiencia  of  Quito,  also  with  its  president  as  cap- 
tain-general, dated  from  1542;  and  Venezuela  was 
under  a  captain-general."— C.  R.  Markham,  Co- 
lonial history  of  South  America  (Narrative  and 
Critical  History  of  America,  v.  8,  p.  295). — "It  was 
during  the  great  Christian  conquests  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  that  a  definite  judiciary 
culminating  in  a  royal  audiencia  was  perfected. 
This  was  a  period  of  royal  consolidation  and 
centralization.  The  nobles  conceded  the  majority 
of  their  governmental  prerogatives  to  the  increas- 
ing royal  authority,  and  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion was  confined,  in  theory  at  least,  to  spiritual 
matters.  The  municipalities  developed  a  system 
by  which  they  regularly  elected  their  regidores 
(councillors)  and  their  alcaldes,  (q.v.),  with  ju- 
dicial, legislative,  and  executive  attributes,  sub- 
mitting at  the  same  time  to  the  inspection  of 
the  King's  visitor.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
the  royal  jurisdiction  was  recognized  during  this 
period,  with  the  king  at  the  head  of  the  judicial 
and  administrative  system.  This  tribunal  was 
called  an  audiencia  because  the  king  gave  audi- 
ence therein,  and  from  it  and  around  it  developed 
the  centralized  system  which  was  later  to  ad- 
minister justice  in  Spain  and  in  the  colonies.  It 
first  exercised  jurisdiction  in  Castile  and  Leon, 
and  later  in  Andalusia.  The  king  gave  three  days 
a  week  of  his  personal  attention  to  this  tribunal 
at  first.  It  was  the  royal  audiencia.  The  time 
soon  arrived,  however,  when  he  could  not  devote 
so  much  of  his  time  to  matters  of  individual  jus- 
tice, and  in  proportion  as  this  was  the  case 
did  the  powers  and  importance  of  the  judges 
who  composed  this  court  increase.  Ferdinand  VI. 
and  Alfonso  XI.  were  able  to  give  one  day  a 
week  to  the  audiencia,  in  1307  and  1329  re- 
spectively. The  creation  and  growth  of  judicial 
and  administrative  institutions  in  Catalonia  were 
parallel  with  those  of  Castile.  The  eleventh  cen- 
tury saw  audiencias,  municipalities,  and  above  all, 
a  powerful  nobility,  but  this  province  was  inde- 
pendent of  Castile  during  a  period  of  four  cen- 
turies. The  audiencias  of  Catalonia  were  com- 
posed of  ecclesiastical  and  secular  judges  appointed 
by  the  counts  of  Barcelona,  and  authorized  by 
them  to  render  sentence.  Without  going  into 
further  detail  with  regard  to  matters  of  provincial 
administration,  in  Spain,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
certain  institutions  of  justice  and  administration 
developed  in  common  throughout  the  Peninsula, 
and  that  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  po- 
litical and  judicial  administration  had  come  to  be 
controlled  by  a  central  authority  whether  in 
Castile  or  in  Catalonia.  In  the  Ordinance  of  Toro, 
in  1369,  we  find  mention  of  four  grades  or  in- 
stances for  the  administration  of  justice  in  Spain. 
The  lowest  category  was  occupied  by  the  alcaldes 
ordinarios  of  the  municipalities.  W'e  have  noted 
already  that  these  were  local  judges,  with  origi- 
nal jurisdiction,  and  dependent  on  the  municipal 
councils.  The  merinos  exercised  royal  and  origi- 
nal jurisdiction  in  certain  feudal  districts  and 
provinces  where  there  were  no  municipalities.  The 
adelantados  (q.v.)  heard  appeals  from  the  marines 
and  alcaldes  mayores..    These  officials,  it  must  be 


627 


AUDIENCIAS 


AUGURS 


remembered,  exercised  administrative  functions  as 
well  as  judicial  authority,  and  for  the  latter  work 
they  were  accompanied  by  asesores,  or  legal  assis- 
tants. The  next  step  in  the  hierarchy  of  justice 
and  administration  was  occupied  by  the  adelan- 
lados  mayores  who  stood  between  the  adelantados, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  king's  tribunal  on  the 
other.  The  king  and  royal  audieiicia  constituted 
the  final  court  of  appeal."— C.  H.  Cunningham,  In- 
stitutional background  of  Spanish-American  his- 
tory, pp.  28-31. 

"The  perfectly  normal  and  obvious  thing  to  do, 
when  it  is  desired  to  tie  the  hands  of  a  gov- 
ernor or  viceroy,  is  to  impose  upon  that  official 
a  body  of  responsible  colleagues,  which  English- 
speaking  people  call  a  council.  Such  a  body 
was  imposed  upon  the  viceroy  of  New  Spain 
(Mexico)  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  under 
the  name  of  an  audiencia,  and  in  order  to  guar- 
antee the  independence  of  this  body  it  was  al- 
lowed to  correspond  directly  with  the  home  gov- 
ernment without  the  viceroy  as  an  intermediary. 
As  a  further  means  of  holding  the  viceroy  to  his 
duty,  the  well-known  method  of  taking  official 
account  of  his  administration  was  accomplished 
through  the  institution  known  as  a  residencia. 
This  was  in  substance  a  trial  conducted  by  the 
crown  with  the  intent  of  bringing  to  light  any 
malpractices  of  which  the  retiring  viceroy  might 
have  been  guilty  during  his  official  term.  It  was 
not  only  a  means  of  setting  right  any  wrongdoing 
or  injustice  which  could  be  remedied  after  such 
a  lapse  of  time,  but  it  was  also  regarded  as  giv- 
ing a  significant  warning  to  possible  future 
violators  of  the  law.  This  combination  of  the 
audiencia  and  the  residencia  constituted  the  ap- 
proved method  of  keeping  the  viceroy  well  in 
hand;  but  it  had  broken  down  utterly  by  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  re- 
forms inaugurated  by  Galvez  brought  about  a  com- 
plete readjustment  of  the  relations  of  the  viceroy 
to  his  superiors  in  Madrid  and  to  his  colleagues 
and  subordinates  in  Mexico." — D.  E.  Smith, 
Viceroy  of  New  Spain,  v.  I,  pp.  108-109. — For 
re-establishment  in  Philippines,  see  Philippine 
Islands:  1581. — See  aiso  Adelantados;  Alcales; 
Peru:   1550-1816. 

AUDIFFRET-PASOUIER,  Edm6  Armand 
Gaston,  due  d'  (1823-1005),  French  statesman. 
In  1873  became  president  of  the  right  centei  in 
the  National  Assembly;  directed  negotiations 
among  the  royalists  to  re-establish  the  kingdom, 
but  failed;  president  of  the  Senate  1876-1879; 
tried  to  dissuade  MacMahon  from  following  ad- 
vice of  the  extreme  royalists. 

AUDION,  in  wireless  telegraphy.  See  Elec- 
trical discovery:  Telephony  and  telegraphy:  Dr. 
Pupin's   revolutionarv   improvement. 

AUDRAN,  Gerard,  or  Girard  (1640-1703),  the 
most  celebrated  French  engraver.  "Constantine's 
battle  with  Maxentius,"  the  "Triumph"  and  the 
"Stoning  of  Stephen"  are  among  his  most  noted 
works. 

AUDUBON,  John  James  (1785-1851;,  Ameri- 
can naturalist.  Studied  drawing  under  the  French 
painter,  David;  settled  in  Philadelphia  and  later 
in  Kentucky  and  Louisiana,  devoting  himself  to 
collecting  and  sketching  birds;  in  London,  in  1827, 
he  published  Birds  of  America,  a  very  beautiful 
set  of  colored  plates  in  eighty-seven  parts. 

AUERSTADT,  Battle  of.  See  Germany:  1806 
(October). 

AUFFENBERG,  Moritz  von  (1852-  ),  Aus- 
trian commander  of  the  armies  in  central  and  east- 
ern Galicia  at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War. 
After  his  defeat  at  Lemberg  (September  1-3,  1914) 
and  at  Rawa  Ruska  (September  10)  the  whole  Aus- 


tro-Hungarian  offensive  collapsed.  See  World  War: 
1914:  II.  Eastern  front:  b;  d,  1. 

AUGEREAU,  Pierre  Frangois  Charles  (1757- 
1S16),  duke  of  Castiglione,  marshal  of  the  Empire. 
One  of  Napoleon's  most  skillful  generals,  especially 
during  the  years  1797-1807.  See  France:  1797 
(September);  Germany:  1806  (October);  Spain: 
1809  (February-June);  and  Russia:  1812 
(June  -September) . 

AUGHRIM,  or  Aghrim,  Battle  of  (1691).  See 
Ireland:   1689-1691. 

AUGIER,  Emile  (1820-1889),  French  dramatist 
See  French  literature:   1850-1921. 

AUGSBURG,  Bavarian  town  situated  on  the 
junction  of  Wertach  and  Lech  riveis,  and  capital 
of  the  districts  of  Swabia  and  Neuberg.  It  was 
founded  in  14  B.  C.  and  reached  the  height  of 
its  power  at  the  close  of  the  14th  century.  Al 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  it  was  the  com- 
mercial center  between  north  and  south  Europe, 
but  the  change  in  the  trade  routes,  resulting  from 
the  discoveries  of  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries,  and 
the  devastations  of  the  Thirty  Years  war,  de- 
stroyed its  prosperity. — See  also  Augusta  Vindeli- 
corum;  Hansa  towns. 

955. — Great  defeat  of  the  Hungarians.  Sec 
Hungarians:   934-955- 

16th  century. — Art  center.  See  Painting:  Ger- 
man. 

1530. — Sitting  of  the  Diet. — Signing  and  read- 
ing of  the  Protestant  Confession  of  Faith. — 
See  Lutheran  Church;  Lutherans  in  America; 
and  Papacy,  1530-1531. 

1530. — Imperial  decree  condemning  the  Prot- 
estants.    See  Papacy:  1530-1532. 

1555. — Religious  peace  concluded.  See  Ger- 
many: 1552-1561. 

1646. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  Swedes  and 
French.    See  Germany:  1646-1648. 

1686-1697. — League  and  the  War  of  the 
League.  See  Germany:  1686;  and  France:  1689- 
1690  to  1695-1606. 
1703. — Taken  by  the  French.  See  Germany:  1703. 
1801-1803. — One  of  six  free  cities  which  sur- 
vived the  Peace  of  Luneville.  See  Cities,  Im- 
perial and  free,  of  Germany;  Germany:  1801- 
1803. 

1806. — Loss  of  municipal  freedom. — Absorp- 
tion in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria.  See  Germany. 
1805-1806. 

AUGSBURG  INTERIM.  See  Germany:  1546- 
1552. 

AUGURS,  PONTIFICES,  FETIALES.— 
"There  was  .  .  .  enough  of  priesthood  and  of 
priests  in  Rome.  Those,  however,  who  had  busi- 
ness with  a  god  resorted  to  the  god,  and  not  to 
the  priest.  Every  suppliant  and  inquirer  ad- 
dressed himself  directly  to  the  divinity  .  .  .  ;  no 
intervention  of  a  priest  was  allowed  to  conceal 
or  to  obscure  this  original  and  simple  relation. 
But  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  hold  converse  with 
a  god.  The  god  had  his  own  way  of  speaking, 
which  was  intelligible  only  to  those  acquainted 
with  it;  but  one  who  did  rightly  understand  it 
knew  not  only  how  to  ascertain,  but  also  how 
to  manage,  the  will  of  the  god,  and  even  in  case 
of  need  to  overreach  or  to  constrain  him.  It 
was  natural,  therefore,  that  the  worshipper  of 
the  god  should  regularly  consult  such  men  of 
skill  and  listen  to  their  advice;  and  thence  arose 
the  corporations  or  colleges  of  men  specially 
skilled  in  religious  lore,  a  thoroughly  national 
Italian  institution,  which  had  a  far  more,  im- 
portant influence  on  political  development  than 
the  individual  priests  or  priesthoods.  These  col- 
leges have  been  often,  but  erroneously,  confounded 
with  the  priesthoods.    The  priesthoods  were  charged 

628 


AUGUSTA 


AUGUSTUS 


with  the  worship  of  a  specific  divinity.  .  .  .  Un- 
der the  Roman  constitution  and  that  of  the  Latin 
communities  in  general  there  were  originally  but 
two  such  colleges:  that  of  the  augurs  and  that 
of  the  pontifices.  The  six  augurs  were  skilled 
in  interpreting  the  language  of  the  gods  from 
the  flight  of  birds;  an  art  which  was  prosecuted 
with  great  earnestness  and  reduced  to  a  quasi- 
scientific  system.  The  five  'bridge  builders' 
(pontifices)  derived  their  name  from  their  social 
function,  as  sacred  as  it  was  politically  impor- 
tant, of  conducting  the  building  and  demolition 
of  the  bridge  over  the  Tiber.  They  were  the 
Roman  engineers,  who  understood  the  mystery  of 
measures  and  numbers;  whence  there  developed 
upon  them  also  the  duties  of  managing  the  cal- 
endar of  the  state,  of  proclaiming  to  the  people 
the  time  of  new  and  full  moon  and  the  days  of 
festivals,  and  of  seeing  that  every  religious  and 
every  judicial  act  took  place  on  the  right  day. 
.  .  .  Thus  they  acquired  (although  not  probably 
to  the  full  extent  till  after  the  abolition  of  the 
monarchy)  the  general  oversight  of  Roman  wor- 
ship and  of  whatever  was  connected  with  it.  [The 
president  of  their  college  was  called  the  Pontifex 
Maximus.]  .  .  .  They  themselves  described  the 
sum  of  their  knowledge  as  'the  science  of  things 
divine  and  human.'  ...  By  the  side  of  these  two 
oldest  and  most  eminent  corporations  of  men 
versed  in  spiritual  lore  may  be  to  some  extent 
ranked  the  college  of  the  twenty  state-heralds 
(fetiales,  of  uncertain  derivation)  destined  as  a 
living  repository  to  preserve  traditionally  the  re- 
membrance of  the  treaties  concluded  with  neigh- 
boring communities,  to  pronounce  as  authoritative 
opinion  on  alleged  infractions  of  treaty  rights,  and 
in  case  of  need  to  demand  satisfaction  and  de- 
clare war." — T.  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  bk. 
I,  ch.  12. — See  also  Annals:  Roman  annals;  Aus- 
pices; Fetiales;  and  Haruspices. 

Also  in:  E.  Guhl  and  W.  Koner,  Life  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  sect.  103. 

AUGUSTA,  Roman.  See  London:  4th  century: 
Roman  Augusta  and  its  walls. 

AUGUSTA    SUESSIONUM.      See    Soissons. 

AUGUSTA  TREVIRORUM.  See  Treves, 
Origin  of. 

AUGUSTA  VEROMANDUORUM:  Modern 
St.  Quentin.     See  Belct,. 

AUGUSTA  VICTORIA  FREDERICA  FEO- 
DORA  JENNY  (i8s8-ig2i),  empress  of  Ger- 
many.— See  also  Germany:  1921:  Death  of  Em- 
press. 

AUGUSTA  VINDELICORUM.  — "Augusta 
Vindelicorum  is  the  modern  Augsburg,  founded,  it 
may  be  supposed,  about  the  year  740  [B.C.  14] 
after  the  conquest  of  Rhaetia  by  Drusus.  .  .  .  The 
Itineraries  represent  it  as  the  centre  of  the  roads 
from  Verona,  Sirmium,  and  Treviri." — C.  Merivale, 
Historv  of  the  Romans,  ch,  36,  note, 

AUGUSTAL:  Origin  of  the  word.  See  Monev 
AND  banking:  Medieval:  Coinage  and  banking  in 
Middle  Ages. 

AUGUSTIN  I,  Title  of  Iturbide  as  Em- 
peror of  Mexico.     See  Mexico:    1820-1826. 

AUGUSTINE,  Saint  (354-430),  the  greatest 
of  the  four  Church  fathers;  became  a  Christian 
in  387;  ordained  391;  in  395  became  bishop  of 
Hippo  in  Africa.  "Trained  in  the  best  culture 
of  the  day,  he  devoted  his  powerful  mind  to 
the  defence  and  upbuilding  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tianity. He  wrote  innumerable  books,  the  great- 
est of  which  was  'The  City  of  God.'  This  book 
was  inspired  by  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Alaric 
(410),  and  compared  the  splendid  city  of  the 
Empire,  now  fallen,  with  the  true  spiritual  capital 
of  mankind,  the  Christian  Church.     Its  eloquence 


and  its  logic,  its  splendid  survey  of  the  past,  and 

its  prophetic  insight  into  the  future  have  given 
this  work  a  place  among  the  classics  of  all  time." 
— G.  S.  Goodspeed,  History  of  the  ancient  world, 
p.  439. — "The  City  of  God"  is  the  first  contribu- 
tion to  the  philosophy  of  history.  See  Chris- 
tianity: 337-476;  also  Austin  canons;  History: 
18. 

AUGUSTINE  (d.c.  613),  first  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  Sent  to  England  from  Rome  by 
Pope  Gregory  I,  where  he  converted  the  king  and 
established  the  Christian  religion.  See  Chris- 
tianity: SS3-800;  507-Soo;  and  England:  597-685. 

AUGUSTODUNUM.— The  emperor  Augustus 
changed  the  name  of  Bibracte  in  Gaul  to  Augus- 
todunum,  which  time  has  corrupted,  since  to 
Autun. 

AUGUSTONEMETUM.  See  Gergovia  of 
the  Arverni. 

AUGUSTOWO,  a  town  and  forest  northwest 
of  Grodno,  on  the  borders  of  East  Prussia,  where, 
after  the  battle  of  Tannenberg,  General  Rennen- 
kampf  claimed  to  have  inflicted  losses  upon  Hin- 
denberg's  forces  amounting  to  over  60,000  men. 
See  World  War:  1914:  II.  Eastern  front:  d,  1; 
1915:  III.  Eastern  front:  h. 

AUGUSTUS,  the  name  by  which  the  Romans 
used  to  distinguish  the  most  venerated  in  the 
state,  was  conferred  upon  Gaius  Julius  Cssar 
Octavianus  (63  B.C.-A.D.  14)  by  the  Roman 
Senate,  27  B.C.  Upon  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar 
he  found  that  his  uncle  had  made  him  his  heir. 
He  adroitly  contrived  to  gain  popular  support, 
particularly  among  the  troops.  In  the  year  42 
B.C.  Octavianus  and  Antoninus  (Mark  Antony), 
with  whom  the  future  Augustus  aligned  himself 
to  overcome  his  enemies,  defeated  the  forces  of 
Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi.  Antony's  re- 
lations with  Cleopatra  of  whom  he  had  become 
enamored,  and  his  repudiation  of  his  wife,  Octav- 
ianus' sister,  brought  about  a  declaration  of  war, 
seemingly  against  Cleopatra  who  was  reputed  to 
have  an  ambition  to  form  a  Greco-Oriental  em- 
pire. Antony's  fleet  was  completely  'destroyed 
at  Actium  (31  B.C.)  and  the  following  year  saw 
the  capture  of  Alexander  by  Octavianus.  See 
Rome:  Republic:  B.C.  31. — "In  estimating  the 
position  finally  held  by  Augustus,  let  us  notice 
that  his  military  authority  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States;  his  civil 
authority  was  far  less.  All  the  old  republican 
magistrates  still  existed,  and  continued  to  exer- 
cise the  same  functions  as  before.  Constitutionally, 
Augustus  was  on  a  level  with  the  Consuls.  In 
honor  and  in  personal  influence,  however,  he  over- 
shadowed all  the  other  officials.  He  was  always 
consulted  on  the  suitability  of  candidates  for  the 
various  offices  and  on  every  other  matter;  and 
his  policy  was  usually  carried  out.  It  is  clear 
that  most  of  his  power  was  exercised,  not  as  a 
Magistrate  but  as  a  political  'boss'." — G.  W.  Bots- 
ford.  History  of  ancient  world,  p.  452. — Augustus 
spent  many  years  in  war  against  the  Germans, 
tribes  of  Pannonia  and  in  the  conquest  of  the 
Parthian  empire. — "Octavius  [See  Rome:  Republic: 
B.C.  31-14]  had  warily  declined  any  of  the  recog- 
nized designations  of  sovereign  rule.  Antonius  had 
abolished  the  dictatorship ;  his  successor  respected 
the  acclamations  with  which  the  people  had 
greeted  this  decree.  The  voices  which  had  saluted 
Caesar  with  the  title  of  king  were  peremptorily 
commanded  to  be  dumb.  Yet  Octavius  was  fully 
aware  of  the  influence  which  attached  to  distinc- 
tive titles  of  honour.  While  he  scrupulously  re- 
nounced the  names  upon  which  the  breath  of  hu- 
man jealousy  had  blown,  he  conceived  the  subtler 
policy  of  creating  another  for  himself,  which  bor- 


629 


AUGUSTUS 


AURUM  TOLOSANUM 


rowing  its  original  splendour  from  his  own  char- 
acter, should  reflect  upon  him  an  untarnished  lustre. 
.  .  .  The  epithet  Augustus  ,  .  .  had  never  been 
borne  by  any  man  before.  .  .  .  But  the  adjunct, 
though  never  given  to  a  man,  had  been  applied 
to  things  most  noble,  most  venerable  and  most 
divine  The  rites  of  the  gods  were  called  august, 
the  temples  were  august;  the  word  itself  was 
derived  from  the  holy  auguries  by  which  the 
divine  will  was  revealed ;  it  was  connected  with 
the  favour  and  authority  of  Jove  himself.  .  .  . 
The  illustrious  title  was  bestowed  upon  the  heir 
ol  the  Caesarian  Empire  in  the  middle  of  the 
month  of  January,  727  [B.C.  27],  and  thence- 
forth it  is  by  the  name  of  Augustus  that  he  is 
recognized  in  Roman  history." — C.  Merivale,  His- 
tory of  the  Romans,  ch.  30. — "When  Octavianus 
had  firmly  established  his  power  and  was  now 
left  without  a  rival,  the  Senate,  being  desirous 
of  distinguishing  him  by  some  peculiar  and  em- 
phatic title,  decreed,  in  B.C.  27,  that  he  should 
be  styled  .Augustus,  an  epithet  properly  applicable 
to  some  object  demanding  respect  and  venera- 
tion beyond  what  is  bestowed  upon  human  things. 
.  .  .  This  being  an  honorary  appellation  ...  it 
would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  have  been  trans- 
mitted by  inheritance  to  his  immediate  descend- 
ants. .  .  .  Claudius,  although  he  could  not  be  re- 
garded as  a  descendant  of  Octavianus,  assumed 
on  his  accession  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  his 
example    was    followed    by    all    succeeding    rulers 

.  .  who  communicated  the  title  of  Augusta  to 
their  consorts." — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of  Roman 
antiquities,  ch.  5. — See  also  Religion:  B.C.  750- 
A.  D.  30;  Rome:  Empire:  B.C.  31-A.  D.  14;  and 
Sevastos. 

Augustus  I  (1526-1586),  became  elector  of  Sax- 
ony at  the  death  of  his  brother  Maurice  (1553); 
encouraged  the  Flemish  people  to  immigrate  and 
settle  the  country ;  was  an  enlightened  although 
sometimes  cruel  ruler. 

Augustus  II  (1670-1733),  king  of  Poland,  and, 
under  the  .name  Frederick  .\ugu5tus  I,  elector  of 
Saxony.    See  Sweden:   1707-1718;  1710-1721. 

Augustus  III  (1696-1763),  king  of  Poland,  and, 
as  Frederick  August  II,  elector  of  Saxony.  See 
Pol.^nd:  1732-1733. 

AULA,  (i)  an  open  yard,  or  court;  (2)  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge  University,  founded  by  Bishop 
Bateman  in  1330,  referred  to  as  "aula,"  de- 
noting  the  building  inhabited  by  the  scholars. 

AULA  REGIA,  ancient  court  of  England.  See 
CuRi.\  Regis  of  the  Norman  kings;  Eovity  law: 
1330. 

AULARD,  Franjois  Victor  Alphonse 
(1840-  ),  French  historian.  He  is  regarded  as 
one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  the  history 
of  the  French  Revolution,  of  which  subject  he 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  His 
long  and  fruitful  researches  are  embodied  in  his 
"Political  history  of  the  French  Revolution."  See 
History:  32. 

AULDEARN,  Battle  of  (1645).  See  Scot- 
land:  1644-1645. 

AULERCI. — The  .\ulerci  were  an  extensive  na- 
tion in  ancient  Gaul  which  occupied  the  country 
from  the  lower  course  of  the  Seine  to  the  Ma- 
yenne.  It  was  subdivided  into  three  great  tribes 
— the  Aulerci  Cenomanni,  Aulerci  Diablintes  and 
Aulerci  Eburovices. — Napoleon  III,  History  of 
C(esar,  bk.  3,  ch.  2. — See  also  Veneti  of  western 
Gaul. 

AULETES,  or  Ptolemy  XIII  of  Egypt.  See 
EcvPt:  B.  C.  80-48 

AULIATA,  Turkestan,  Fall  of  (1864).  See 
Russia:  1859-1876. 

AULIC  COUNCIL,  a  judicial  and  to  a  slight 


extent  executive  body  of  the  Holy  Roman  empire 
from  1407  to  1806.  It  consisted  of  about  twenty 
members,  held  its  meetings  at  Vienna  and  was 
under  the  influence  of  the  emperor.  See  France: 
1700  (August-December)  ;  and  Germany:  1493- 
iSig. 

AULICE,  Commodore,  Hungarian  officer  who 
carried  on  negotiations  with  Japan.  See  Japan: 
1797-1854. 

AUMALE,  Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis 
d'Orleans,  duo  d'  (1822-1807),  French  prince  and 
statesman.  Distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign 
in  Algeria  1843;  governor  of  that  colony  1S47. 
After  the  Franco-Prussian  War  was  elected  dep- 
uty ;  presided  over  the  military  council  that  con- 
demned Marshal  Bazaine  for  the  surrender  of 
Metz. — See  also  Barbarv  States:   1830-1846. 

AUMALE,    Battle    of    (1S91).      See    France: 

i50i-i,S93- 

AUMETZ,  town  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Lorraine;  occupied  by  Americans  after  armistice 
See  World  War:  1918:  XI.  End  of  the  war:  c. 

AUMONT,  the  name  of  an  important  French 
family.  One  Jean,  sire  d'  .^umonl,  accompanied 
Louis  IX  on  a  crusade.  Fought  for  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  later  returning  to  the  support  of  the 
crown.  Jean  d'Aumont  (d.  1505),  marshal  of 
France,  fought  against  the  Huguenots,  but  rec- 
ognized Henry  IV  and  was  made  governor  of 
Champagne  and  Brittany.  Louis  Marie  Celeste 
d'  Aumont,  due  de  Piennes,  emigrated  during  the 
Revolution.  During  the  Hundred  Days  captured 
Baveux   and   Caen. 

AUNEAU,  Battle  of  (1387).  See  Fr.^nce:  1584- 
1589. 

AURANGZEB  (1618-1707),  one  of  the  greatest 
and  most  unscrupulous  of  the  Mogul  emperors;  im- 
prisoned his  father.  Shah  Jahan,  and  disposed 
of  his  brothers  by  means  of  assassination  in  order 
to  gain  the  throne,  which  he  ascended  in  1658. 
See  India:   1605-1658;  1662-1748. 

AURAY,  Battle  of  (1365).  See  Brittany: 
1341-1365. 

AURELIAN  (Lucius  Domitius  Aurelianus) 
(c.  212-275),  a  soldier  emperor  of  Rome.  Made 
vigorous  war  on  the  invading  barbarians  (see 
Alemanni:  270;  Chalons.  Battle  at  (271))  ;  began 
the  construction  of  the  fortified  walls  around 
Rome;  overcame  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra  (see 
Palmyra:  Rise  and  fall)  ;  instituted  strict  disci- 
pline and  reforms  in  Rome.  See  Rome:  Empire: 
IQ2-284. 

AURELIAN  ROAD,  one  of  the  great  Roman 
roads  of  antiquity,  which  ran  from  Rome  to 
Pisa  and  Luna. — T.  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome, 
bk.  4.  ch.   II. 

AURELIANUS.    See  Aurelian. 

AUREOLUS  (d.  268),  leader  of  the  Roman 
army  of  the  Upper  Danube  and  rival  claimant  for 
the  Imperial  throne;  sought  refuge  in  Milan  after 
revolt  against  Gallienus.     See  Milan:   268. 

AURELIUS,  Marcus.  See  Antonius,  Marcus 
Aureltus. 

AURELLE  de  Paladines,  Louis  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  d'  (1804-1877),  French  general.  Served  in 
.Algeria  and  in  the  Crimean  War;  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Loire  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War ;  member  of  the  National  .Assembly,  assisted 
in  the  peace  negotiations.  As  life  senator,  sup- 
ported the  monarchial  majority  of  1876.  See 
France:   1870-1871  ;   1871   (March-Mav). 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.  See  Confes- 
sion. 

AURIGNACIANS:  Ancient  tribe.— Industry 
and  art.  See  Europe:  Prehistoric  period:  Stone 
age;  and  Painting:  Pre-classical. 

AURUM  TOLOSANUM.    See  Toulouse. 


630 


AURUNCI 


AUSTRALASIA 


AURUNCI,  Auruncans  or  Ausones,  a  tribe  of 
the  ancient  Volscians,  who  dwelt  in  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Liris,  and  who  are  said  to  have 
been  exterminated  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  314. — 
W.  Ihne,  History  of  Rome,  bk.  3,  ch.  10. — See 
also  OscANS. 

AUS,  Southwest  Africa,  taken  by  British.  See 
World  War:   1915:  VIII.  Africa:  a,  1. 

AUSCI.     See  Aquitaine:  Ancient  tribes. 

AUSGLEICH  (agreement),  the  written  state- 
ment by  which  Austria  and  Hungary  united 
their  governments  and  formed  the  dual  monarchy 
in  1867.  (See  Austria:  1866-1867.)  The  Em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  assumed  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Austria  and  King  of  Hungaria,  although 
the  two  autonomous  divisions  were  to  manage 
all  their  local  affairs.  Questions  of  common  in- 
terest were  to  be  managed  by  a  joint  ministry, 
and  a  joint  parliament  made  up  of  an  Austrian 
legislature  and  an  Hungarian  legislature,  termed 
"Delegations"  which  were  to  meet  alternately  in 
Vienna  and  Budapest.  See  Austria-Hungary: 
1866;  Hungary:  1856-1868;  also  Austria-Hun- 
gary:  iQoo-igo3;  and  1907. 

AUSHAR,  ancient  name  of  Kileh-Sherghat. 
See  Assyria:  The  land. 

AUSPICES,  Taking  the.— "The  Romans,  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  their  history,  never  entered  upon 
any  important  business  whatsoever,  whether  pub- 
lic or  private,  without  endeavouring,  by  means 
of  divination,  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  gods 
in  reference  to  the  undertaking.  .  .  .  This  opera- 
tion was  termed  'sumere  auspicia;'  and  if  the 
omens  proved  unfavourable  the  business  was 
abandoned  or  deferred.  .  .  .  No  meeting  of  the 
Comitia  Curiata  nor  of  the  Comitia  Centuriata 
could  be  held  unless  the  auspices  had  been  pre- 
viously taken  ...  As  far  as  public  proceed- 
ings were  concerned,  no  private  individual,  even 
among  the  patricians,  had  the  right  of  taking 
auspices.  This  duty  devolved  upon  the  supreme 
magistrate  alone.  ...  In  an  army  this  power  be- 
longed exclusively  to  the  commander-in-chief ;  and 
hence  all  achievements  were  said  to  be  performed 
under  his  auspices,  even  although  he  were  not 
present.  .  .  .  The  objects  observed  in  taking  these 
auspices  were  birds,  the  class  of  animals  from 
which  the  word  is  derived  ('Auspicium  ab  ave 
spicienda') .  Of  these,  some  were  believed  to 
give  indications  by  their  flight  .  .  .  others  by  their 
notes  or  cries  .  .  .  while  a  third  class  consisted 
of  chickens  Cpulli')  kept  in  cages.  When  it  was 
desired  to  obtain  an  omen  from  these  last,  food 
was  placed  before  them,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  comported  themselves  was  closely 
watched.  .  .  .  The  manner  of  taking  the  auspices 
previous  to  the  Comitia  was  as  follows: — The  mag- 
istrate who  was  to  preside  at  the  assembly  arose 
immediately  after  midnight  on  the  day  for  which 
it  had  been  summoned,  and  called  upon  an  augur 
to  assist  him.  .  .  .  With  his  aid  a  region  of  the 
sky  and  a  space  of  ground,  within  which  the 
auspices  were  observed,  were  marked  out  by  the 
divining  staff  Clituus')  of  the  augur.  .  .  .  This 
operation  was  performed  with  the  greatest  care. 
...  In  making  the  necessary  observations,  the 
president  was  guided  entirely  by  the  augur,  who 
reported  to  him  the  result." — W.  Ramsay,  Manual 
of  Roman  antiquities,  ch.  4. — See  also  Augur. 

Atso  in:  W.  Ihne,  History  of  Rome,  bk.  6, 
ch.  13. 

AUSTEN,  Jane  (1775-1817),  English  novelist. 
Her  pictures,  in  an  ironic  vein,  of  provincial  so- 
ciety in  the  upper  middle  class  went  far  to 
establish     the     realistic     novel.      Her     best-known 


works  are  "Pride  and  Prejudice"  (1796,  pub- 
lished 1813),  "Sense  and  Sensibility"  (1797-1798), 
"Emma"  (i8i6),  and  "Northanger  Abbey"  (1818). 
— See   also   English   literature:    1660-1780. 

AUSTERLITZ,  a  town  in  Moravia  in  what 
was  formerly  Austrian  territory  but  now  forms 
part  of  Czecho-Slovakia;  situated  some  fifteen 
miles  east  of  Briinn;  the  scene  of  the  great  bat- 
tle of  Austerlitz  (Dec.  2,  1805),  where  Napoleon 
decisively  defeated  the  Austrian  and  Russian  forces. 
— See  also  Austria:   1798-1806;  and  France:  1805. 

AUSTIN,  Stephen  Fuller  (1703-1836),  Ameri- 
can pioneer.  Upon  a  grant  obtained  by  his 
father,  Moses  Austin,  he  colonized  Texas,  and  as- 
sisted in  establishing  the  republic  in  1835 ;  was 
defeated  in  its  lirst  presidential  election.  See 
Texas:    1819-1835;   1824-1835. 

AUSTIN  CANONS,  or  Canons  of  St.  Au- 
gustine.— ".\bout  the  middle  of  the  nth  cen- 
tury an  attempt  had  been  made  to  redress  the 
balance  between  the  regular  and  secular  clergy, 
and  restore  to  the  latter  the  influence  and  con- 
sideration in  spiritual  matters  which  they  had, 
partly  by  their  own  fault,  already  to  a  great 
extent  lost.  Some  earnest  and  thoughtful  spirits, 
distressed  at  once  by  the  abuse  of  monastic  priv- 
ileges and  by  the  general  decay  of  ecclesiastical 
order,  sought  to  effect  a  reform  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  stricter  and  better  organized  discipline 
in  those  cathedral  and  other  churches  which  were 
served  by  colleges  of  secular  priests.  .  .  .  To- 
wards the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  the 
attempts  at  canonical  reform  issued  in  the  form 
of  what  was  virtually  a  new  religious  order,  that 
of  the  Augustinians,  or  Canons  Regular  of  the 
order  of  S.  Augustine.  Like  the  monks  and  un- 
like the  secular  canons,  from  whom  they  were 
carefully  distinguished,  they  had  not  only  their 
table  and  dwelling  but  all  things  in  common, 
and  were  bound  by  vow  to  the  observance  of 
their  rule,  grounded  upon  a  passage  in  one  of  the 
letters  of  that  great  father  of  the  Latin  Church 
from  whom  they  took  their  name.  Their  scheme 
was  a  compromise  between  the  old-fashioned  sys- 
tem of  canons  and  that  of  the  monastic  confra- 
ternities; but  a  compromise  leaning  strongly  to- 
wards the  monastic  side.  .  .  .  The  Austin  canons, 
as  they  were  commonly  called,  made  their  way 
across  the  channel  in  Henry's  reign." — K.  Nor- 
gate,  England  under  the  Angevin  kings,  v.  i,  ch.  1. 
— See  also  Monasticism:  iith-i3th  centuries. 

Also  in:  E.  L.  Cutts,  Scenes  and  characters  of 
the  middle  ages,  ch.  3. 

AUSTIN  FRIARS.     See  Austin  canons. 

AUSTRAL  ISLANDS:  Annexation  to 
France. — The  Austral  or  Tubuai  islands  were  for- 
mally annexed  to  France  by  the  governor  of 
Tahiti,  on   August   21,   igoo. 

AUSTRALASIA,  a  term  applied  by  English 
geographers  to  all  Oceanic,  but  usually  taken  to 
include  only  .Australia,  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea, 
Tasmania  and  nearby  islands.  Some  restrict  the 
name   to   Australia,   Tasmania   and   New   Zealand. 

Baptists. — Growth  in  nineteenth  century.  See 
Baptists:  Development  in  Europe,  Canada  and 
Australasia. 

Charities,  History  of.  See  Charities:  Aus- 
tralasia. 

Exploration  of.    See  Antarctic  e.xploration. 

French  colonies.  See  France:  Colonial  em- 
pire. 

Masonic  societies.  See  Masonic  societies: 
Australasia. 

Missionary  work.  See  Missions,  Christian: 
Islands  of  the  Pacific. 


631 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRALIA 


Location  and  physical  features. — Population 
and  area. — .-Vustralia  is  the  island  continent  lying 
southeast  of  .\sia  and  the  East  Indies  and  is  the  only 
continent  entirely  south  of  the  equator.  Its  area 
is  approximately  2,946,691  square  miles;  its  coast 
line  is  about  8,850  miles,  giving  it  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  coast  line  than  that  of  any  other  con- 
tinent. The  estimated  population  in  1919  was 
5,247,019.  The  commonwealth  of  .Australia  includes 
the  original  states  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  Western  Australia 
and  Tasmania  (island)  (see  also  British  empire: 
Extent;  New  Ze.^l,\xd;  T.asm.^nia). 

"From  a  physical  point  of  view,  the  appear- 
ance of  Australia  is  disappointing  to  any  one 
familiar  with  the  variety  of  scenery  to  be  found 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Here  and  there, 
in  the  settled  parts  of  the  countrjs  are  moun- 
tainous districts,  covered  with  luxurious  vegeta- 
tion, and  watered  by  beautiful  streams.  But  the 
general  aspect  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent is  one  of  mild  undulation  or  absolute 
flatness,  covered  with  somewhat  monotonous  vege- 
tation, or  (in  the  summer  months)  bare  and 
parched;  while  there  is  neither  the  artificial  beauty 
of  high  cultivation  nor  the  natural  beauty  of 
primitive  wildness.  Except  in  the  tropical  north, 
there  are  practically  no  navigable  rivers  on  the 
mainland ;  even  the  Murray  and  the  Darling  are  apt 
to  become  impassable  in  the  summer.  The  scarcity 
of  water  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
natural  features  of  .•\us'tralia ;  and.  unless  artificial 
means  can  be  used  to  correct  it,  vast  tracts  of 
country  must  for  ever  remain  unsettled.  Tas- 
mania, however,  is  a  country  of  noble  rivers 
and  striking  scener>',  though  the  painful  monotony 
of  Australian  forest  or  'bush'  is  to  be  met  with 
there  also.  On  the  other  hand  the  climate,  in 
the  temperate  regions,  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world.  Except  in  the  mountainous 
districts  there  is  no  severe  cold,  frost  and  snow 
being  unknown;  and.  though  in  the  summer  the 
temperature  rises  very  high,  the  air  is,  as  a  rule, 
so  dry,  that  neither  lassitude  nor  other  ill  ef- 
fects follow,  and  cases  of  sunstroke  are  extremely 
rare.  A  man  may  be  prostrated  by  a  temperature 
of  80°  Fahr.  in  London,  and  yet  feel  quite  brisk 
in  experiencing  100°  in  Melbourne.  The  soil,  too, 
in  spite  of  the  scarcity  of  water,  is  in  many 
parts  exceedingly  fertile,  both  for  pasture  and 
agriculture;  and  these  conditions  of  climate  and 
soil  must  be  regarded  as  important  factors  in  the 
history  of  the  colonies.  It  is,  however,  in  its 
productive  aspect,  that  Australia  occupies  such  an 
unique  position.  Though  possessing  native  fauna 
and  flora  of  great  extent  and  variety,  it  is  almost 
barren  of  native  products  in  any  way  useful  for 
the  prime  necessities  of  life.  The  native  animals 
and  birds  are  curious  rather  than  valuable.  With 
few  exceptions,  they  can  be  used  neither  for  food 
nor  service.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the 
native  vegetable  life.  The  universal  gum  tree  is 
now  becoming  famous  for  its  sanitary  qualities; 
but  early  colonists  cannot  live  on  medicine,  and 
the  gum  forests  of  .\ustralia  furnished  but  little 
timber  for  building  houses  and  making  furniture, 
nor  did  her  uncultivated  plains  yield  edible  roots 
or  grain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  soil  of  .Aus- 
tralia has  shown  a  remarkable  capacity  for  fos- 
tering and  developing  imported  animal  and  plant 
life.  The  consequence  has  been  that  the  eco- 
nomic side  of  Australian  life  has  been  almost 
purely  European,  It  is  simply  a  reproduction  of 
British  economy,  slightly  modified  to  suit  new  con- 


ditions. This  feature  has  been  intensified  by 
the  absence  of  competition.  The  aborigines  of 
.Australia  (the  word  'native'  is  now  always  re- 
served for  those  of  European  descent)  have  had 
no  influence  on  .Australian  history.  Absolutely 
barbarous  and  unskilled  in  the  arts  of  life, 
dragging  out,  according  to  the  accounts  of  all 
travellers,  a  wretched  and  precarious  existence  even 
before  the  arrival  of  European  settlers,  they  could 
offer  no  resistance  to  the  invaders,  and  they 
have,  in  fact,  been  entirely  ignored  (e.xcept  as 
objects  of  charity  or  aversion)  in  the  settlement 
of  the  countrj'.  Probably  always  few  in  num- 
bers, they  are  now,  at  the  highest  estimate, 
considerably  less  than  one  hundred  thousand. 
In  Tasmania  they  have  entirely  disappeared; 
and  though  in  the  barren  interior  of  the  main- 
land they  may  prolong  their  existence  for  genera- 
tions, there  seems  to  be  no  hope  that  they  will 
improve  their  lot.  Most  of  the  colonies  have 
passed  laws  intended  to  protect  them  from  per- 
sonal cruelty  and  fraud ;  but  these  laws  serve 
only  still  more  to  separate  thtm  from  civilized 
life.  The  one  pursuit  in  which  they  have  hitherto 
been  regarded  as  useful  is  that  of  tracking  criminals 
or  missing  travellers;  but  white  settlers  in  the 
'bush'  are  rapidly  becoming  more  expert  than 
the  aborigines  in  such  matters,  and  the  'black 
trackers'  are  falling  into  discredit." — E.  M.  A. 
Jenks,  History  of  the  Australasian  colonies,  pp.  15- 
17- 

Agriculture. — Efiect  of  drought. — Main  crops. 
— Cultivated  area. — Artesian  water  supply. — 
Pastoral  industry. — "Though  much  has  been  said 
and  written  about  the  recurrence  and  the  evil  ef- 
fects of  droughts  in  .Australia  in  past  years,  when 
the  agriculturists  suffered  loss  chiefly  in  consequence 
of  their  having  been  too  speculative  and  not  suf- 
ficiently provident,  the  beneficial  influences  of  the 
droughts  have  been  to  a  large  extent  overlooked. 
In  nearly  all  countries  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
the  har\'esting  of  crops  for  fodder  has  to  be  under- 
taken every  year,  so  that  the  stock  may  be  fed 
during  the  winter  months,  when  the  soil  is  resting 
and  regaining  its  fertility  and  chemical  constituents. 
In  .Australia  the  droughts  will  probably  recur,  but, 
with  reasonable  care  and  the  proper  conservation 
of  water  and  fodder  by  the  experienced  agricultur- 
ist in  the  years  when  there  is  a  superabundance  of 
rain  and  herbage,  they  will  be  looked  upon  in  future 
as  by  no  means  an  unmixed  evil,  but  rather  as  one 
of  the  provisions  by  which  nature  enables  the  soil 
to  regain  those  properties  which  have  been  ex- 
hausted during  a  succession  of  bountiful  seasons. 
The  beneficial  effect  of  resting  the  soil  in  times  of 
drought  is  shewn  by  the  very  rapid  recovery,  by 
the  increased  fertility,  and  by  the  abundance  of  the 
harvests,  in  the  seasons  immediately  following  the 
droughts.  .  .  .  Wheat  is  the  main  crop  in  the  Com- 
monwealth, the  cereal  occupying  over  63  per  cent, 
of  the  total  cultivated  area  in  1913-14.  .  .  .  [In  1875 
the  acreage  under  wheat  was  1,422,614  with  a  pro- 
duction of  18,712,051  bushels,  while  in  1913-14  the 
acreage  had  increased  to  9,295,256  and  a  production 
of  103,517,725  bushels.]  Despite  the  checks  to 
progress  due  to  the  vagaries  of  the  season,  .  .  . 
[there  is]  evidence  of  solid  advancement.  .  .  .  Ac- 
cording to  the  returns  for  1913-14,  the  yield  was 
equivalent  to  over  21  bushels  per  head  of  popula- 
tion. The  estimated  value  of  the  Commonwealth 
wheat  crop  in  that  year  was  over  $92,464,716.  For 
some  years  [prior  to  1913-1914]  Australia  [was] 
in  a  position  to  export  a  fair  quantity  of 
wheat  and  flour  to  other  countries.  .  .  .  Other  ce- 


632 


AUSTRALIA 


Agriculture 
Early  Exploration 


AUSTRALIA 


real  crops  grown  to  fair  extent  in  Australia  are  oats, 
barley,  and  maize.  .  .  .  Oats  and  barley  are  grown 
througiiout  [tiie  Commonwealtii]  although  Queens- 
land grows  very  little  oats,  and  only  8826  and  7723 
acres  were  under  barley  in  the  States  of  Queens- 
land and  Tasmania  and  respectively  during  the 
latest  season  under  review." — Australian  Common- 
wealth, its  resources  and  production  {Common- 
wealth bureau  of  census  and  statistics,  Melbourne, 
191S,  pp.  23,  27-2S,  36).— In  iqiS-igig,  the  total 
area  under  cultivation  was  13,332,393  acres,  which 
produced  crops  of  a  total  value  of  £58,080,000. 
Wheat,  the  most  important  grain  crop  yielded  in 
1919-1920  45,753,298  bushels  from  a  total  acreage 
of  6,379,560.  Production  from  pastoral  activities, 
in  1918-1919  included  a  total  of  657,911,710  lbs.  of 
wool,  valued  at  £42,490,000.  181,802,675  lbs.  of 
butter,  of  which  41,114,800  lbs.,  valued  at  £3,193,086 
were  exported.  In  addition  exports  of  tallow  and 
sheepskins  brought  a  return  of  £4,117,699,  and 
frozen  meat,  a  growing  industry,  was  exported  to 
the  value  of  £4,471,942.  '-'Praiseworthy  efforts  to 
overcome  [the]  handicap  of  unsuitable  natural  con- 
ditions mark  the  economic  development  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  scanty  rainfall  has  been  supplemented 
by  a  certain  amount  of  water  conservation,  mainly 
tapping  the  vast  reservoir  of  artesian  water  which 
underlies  576,000  square  miles  of  the  arid  regions  of 
New  South  Wales,  Queensland  and  South  Australia, 
where  the  pastoral  industry  is  supreme.  .  .  .  Ad- 
verse conditions  have  called  for  improvement  in 
the  breed  of  sheep  so  as  to  fit  them  to  their  en- 
vironment. .  .  .  This  has  been  achieved.  Merino 
sheep  do  best  in  New  South  Wales  where  they  form 
83  per  cent  of  the  whole.  In  order  to  suit  other  cli- 
mates, to  obtain  a  hardier  sheep  which  would  be 
more  useful  for  mixed  farming,  the  merino  has 
been  crossed  wi.h  other  sheep,  without  loss  to  its 
wool-bearing  powers.  The  fleece  cut  from  each 
sheep  has  risen  [191S-1920]  to  an  average  of  eight 
pounds  at  the  present  day.  In  addition,  the  quality 
of  the  wool  has  improved,  and  the  weight  of  the 
original  sheep  nearly  doubled.  (3)  The  State  has 
pursued  a  railway  and  land  policy  which  has  led 
to  an  increase  of  productivity.  The  large  areas,  as 
a  result,  are  being  replaced  by  small  holdings.  Vet 
all  these  efforts  have  not  fully  succeeded  in  putting 
the  pastoral  industry  in  a  condition  of  continuous 
increase.  The  number  of  sheep  in  Australia  has 
declined  in  recent  years.  The  pastoral  industry  is 
limited,  through  climatic  conditions,  to  about  28 
per  cent  of  the  country,  though  an  area  embracing 
another  19J2  per  cent  would  be  available,  if  pro- 
vision could  be  made  for  the  transport  of  stock  to 
wetter  areas  in  dry  seasons.  ...  As  in  the  case  of 
the  pastoral  industry,  the  progress  of  agriculture 
has  involved  the  overcoming  of  great  difficulties. 
The  land  laws  favored  large  estates,  and  thus  re- 
stricted settlement.  A  scanty  rainfall  led  men  to 
consider  large  areas  of  land  in  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria  and  South  Australia  unsuitable  for  wheat 
growing.  Scarcity  of  labour  threatened  to  make 
the  cost  of  production  too  high  for  the  average 
yield  of  wheat  to  repay  the  farmer.  Most  of  these 
obstacles  are  being  overcome.  Legislation  has  di- 
minished the  number  of  large  holdings,  at  the  same 
time  increasing  the  number  of  settlers.  The  use  of 
scientific  methods  of  cultivation  has  tended  to  over- 
come the  other  difficulties.  .  .  .  Ploughing  is  done 
by  multiple  ploughs,  which  throw  six  to  eight  fur- 
rows at  one  time.  .  .  .  Harvesting  is  done  by  the 
combined  stripper  and  harvester,  an  Australian  in- 
vention. As  a  result  of  this  economy  so  low  an 
average  production  as  ten  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre 
is  profitable.  Again,  the  [farmer]  has  had  to  guard 
against  insufficient  rainfall,  and,  as  dry  farming 
in  its  real  sense  has  not  yet  been  attempted,  the 


precautions  taken  have  been  those  of  fallowing 
and  a  rotation  of  crops.  The  fallowing  is  so  con- 
ducted as  to  conserve  in  the  soil  two  winters'  rain- 
fall and  thus  to  obviate  the  evils  of  a  dry  harvest 
season." — C.  H.  Northcott,  Australian  social  de- 
velopment (Studies  in  history,  economics  and  pub- 
lic law,  Columbia  University,  v.  81,  No.  2,  1918, 
pp.  210-214). 

Mythology.    See  Mythology:  Oceania:  Austra- 
lian myths. 

1601-1800. — Discovery  and  early  exploration. 
— "Australia  has  had  no  Columbus.  It  is  even 
doubtful  if  the  first  navigators  who  reached  her 
shores  set  out  with  any  idea  of  discovering  a 
great  south  land.  At  all  events,  it  would  seem, 
their  achievements  were  so  little  esteemed  by 
themselves  and  their  countrymen  that  no  means 
were  taken  to  preserve  their  names  in  connexion 
with  their  discoveries.  Holland  long  had  the  credit 
of  bringing  to  light  the  existence  of  that  island 
continent,  which  until  recent  years  was  best  known 
by  her  name.  In  1861,  however,  Mr.  Major,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  more  recent  research 
upon  the  subject,  produced  evidence  which  ap- 
peared to  demonstrate  that  the  Portuguese  had 
reached  the  shores  of  Australia  in  1601,  five  years 
before  the  Dutch  yacht  Duyphen,  or  Dove, — the 
earliest  vessel  whose  name  has  been  handed 
down, — sighted,  about  March,  1606,  what  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  coast  near  Cape  York. 
Mr.  Major,  in  a  learned  paper  read  before  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1872,  indicated  the  prob- 
ability that  the  first  discovery  was  made  'in 
or  before  the  year  1531.'  The  dates  of  two  of  the 
six  maps  from  which  Mr.  Major  derives  his  in- 
formation are  1531  and  1542.  The  latter  clearly 
indicates  Australia,  which  is  called  Jave  la  Grande. 
New  Zealand  is  also  marked." — F.  P.  Labilliere, 
Early  history  of  the  colony  of  Victoria,  ch.  i. — 
In  1606,  De  Quiros,  a  Spanisii  navigator,  sailing 
from  Peru,  across  the  Pacific,  reached  a  shore 
which  stretched  so  far  that  he  took  it  to  be  a 
continent.  "He  called  the  place  'Tierra  Australis 
de  Espiritu  Santo,'  fhat  is  'Southern  Land  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.'  It  is  now  known  that  this  was 
not  really  a  continent,  but  merely  one  of  the  New 
Hebrides  Islands,  and  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
away  from  the  mainland  ...  In  after  years,  the 
name  he  had  invented  was  divided  into  two 
parts;  the  island  he  had  really  discovered  being 
called  Espiritu  Santo,  while  t'he  continent  he 
thought  he  had  discovered  was  called  Tierra  Aus- 
tralis. This  last  name  was  shortened  by  another 
discoverer- — Flinders — to  the  present  term  Aus- 
tralia."— A.  and  G.  Sutherland,  History  of  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand,  ch.  i. — "In  1611  Hendrik 
Brouwer,  a  commander  of  marked  ability  who  sub- 
sequently became  Governor-General  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  made  a  discovery.  He  found  that 
if,  after  leaving  the  Cape,  he  steered  due  east 
for  about  three  thousand  miles,  and  fhen  set 
a  course  north  for  J^va,  he  had  the  benefit 
of  favourable  winds,  which  enabled  him  to  finish 
the  voyage  in  much  less  time  than  the  old  route 
required.  Brouwer  wrote  to  the  directors  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  [see  Netherlands: 
1594-1620]  pointing  out  that  he  had  sailed  from 
Holland  to  Java  in  seven  months,  and  recom- 
mending that  ships'  captains  should  be  instructed 
to  take  the  same  course  in  future.  The  di- 
rectors followed  his  advice ;  and  from  the  year 
1613  all  Dutch  commanders  were  under  instruc- 
tions to  follow  Brouwer's  route.  The  bearing 
of  this  change  on  the  discovery  of  the  west  coast 
of  Australia  will  be  immediately  apparent  to 
any  one  who  glances  at  the  map  of  the  southern 
Indian   Ocean.     The   distance   from   the    Cape   of 


633 


AUSTRALIA,  1601-1800 


Early 
Exploration 


AUSTRALIA,  1601-1800 


Good  Hope  to  Cape  Leeuwin  is  about  4,300  miles. 
A  vessel  running  eastward  with  a  free  wind,  and 
anxious  to  make  the  most  of  it  before  changing 
her  course  northward,  would  be  very  likely  to 
sight  the  Australian  coast.  That  is  precisely  what 
occurred  to  the  ship  Eendragt  (i.e.,  Concord).  Her 
captain.  Dirk  Hartog,  ran  farther  eastward  than 
Brouwcr  had  advised,  reaching  Shark's  Bay  and 
landing  on  the  island  which  to  this  day  bears 
his  name.  He  erected  there  a  post,  and  nailed 
to  it  a  tin  plate  upon  which  was  engraved  the 
record  that  on  October  25,  1616,  the  ship  Een- 
dragt from  .\msterdam  had  arrived  there,  and  had 
sailed  for  Bantam  on  the  27th.  Dirk  Hartpg's 
plate  was  found  by  Captain  Vlaming,  of  the 
Dutch  ship  Geelvin'k,  eighty  years  later.  The 
post  had  decayed,  but  the  plate  itself  was  'un- 
affected by  rain,  air,  or  sun.'  Vlaming  sent 
it  to  .Amsterdam  as  an  interesting  memorial  of 
discovery,  and  erected  another  post  and  plate  in 
place  of  it;  and  Vlaming's  plate  in  turn  remained 
until  181 7.  when  Captain  Louis  de  Freycinet,  the 
commander  of  a  French  exploring  expedition, 
took  it  away  with  him  to  Paris.  Dirk  Hartog's 
discovery  was  recognized  by  the  seamen  of  his 
nation  as  one  which  conduced  to  safer  naviga- 
tion. Brouwer's  sailing  direction  had  left  it  in- 
definite at  what  point  the  turn  northward  should 
be  commenced.  But  now  there  was  a  landmark, 
and  amended  instructions  were  issued  to  Dutch 
mariners  that  they  should  sail  from  the  Cape 
between  the  latitudes  of  thirty  and  forty  degrees 
for  about  four  thousand  miles  until  the  'New 
Southland  of  the  Eendragt'  was  sighted.  'The 
land  of  the  Eendragt' — 'T'Llandt  van  de  'Een- 
dragt'— that  was  the  first  name  given  by  the 
Dutch  to  this  country ;  and  it  so  appears  upon 
several  early  maps  of  the  world  published  at 
Amsterdam.  In  this  way  the  western  coasts  of 
Australia  were  brought  within  sight  of  the  regular 
sailing  track  of  vessels  from  Europe ;  and  as 
soon  as  that  occurred  the  finding  of  other  por- 
tions of  the  coast  was  only  a  matter  of  time. 
Of  course  all  the  captains  did  not  reach  the 
coast  at  the  same  spot.  Violent  winds  would 
sometimes  blow  a  vessel  hundreds  of  miles  out  of 
her  planned  course.  Both  going  to  and  coming 
from  the  East  Indies  ships  would  discover  fresh 
pieces  of  coastline  in  quite  a  chance  manner. 
Thus,  De  Wit  sailing  homeward  from  Batavia  in 
1628  in  the  Vyanen  was  by  headwinds  driven 
aground  upon  the  north-west  coast,  and  had  to 
throw  overboard  a  quantity  of  pepper  and  cop- 
per, 'upon  which  through  God's  mercy  she  got  off 
again  without  further  damage.'  That  bit  of  coast 
was  named  'De  Wit's  Land.' " — E.  Scott,  Short 
history  of  Australia,  pp.  18-10. — .\fter  the  visit 
to  the  .Australian  coast  of  the  small  Dutch  ship, 
the  Dove,  it  was  touched,  during  the  next  twenty 
years,  by  a  number  of  vessels  of  the  same  na- 
tionality. "In  16:2  a  Dutch  ship,  the  Leeuwin, 
or  Lioness,  sailed  along  the  southern  coast,  and  its 
name  was  given  to  the  south-west  cape  of  .Aus- 
tralia. ...  In  1628  General  Carpenter  sailed  com- 
pletely round  the  large  Gulf  to  the  north,  which 
has  taken  its  name  from  this  circumstance.  Thus, 
by  degrees,  all  the  northern  and  western,  together 
with  part  of  the  southern  shores,  came  to  be 
roughly  explored,  and  the  Dutch  even  had  some 
idea  of  colonizing  this  continent.  .  .  .  During  the 
next  fourteen  years  we  hear  no  more  of  voyages 
to  Australia;  but  in  1642  Antony  Van  Diemen, 
the  Governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies,  sent  out  his  friend  .\bel  Jansen  Tas- 
man,  with  two  ships,  to  make  discoveries  in  the 
South  Seas."  Tasman  discovered  the  island  which 
he  called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  but  which  has  since 


been  named  in  his  own  honor — Tasmania.  "This 
he  did  not  know  to  be  an  island ;  he  drew  it  on 
his  maps  as  if  it  were  a  peninsula  belonging  to 
the  mainland  of  Australia."  In  1609,  the  famous 
buccaneer,  William  Dampier,  was  given  the  com- 
mand of  a  vessel  sent  out  to  the  southern  seas, 
and  he  explored  about  Qoo  miles  of  the  north- 
western coast  of  Australia ;  but  the  description 
which  he  gave  of  the  country  did  not  encourage 
the  adventurous  to  seek  fortune  in  it.  "We  hear 
of  no  further  explorations  in  this  part  of  the  world 
until  nearly  a  century  after;  and,  even  then,  no 
one  thought  of  sending  out  ships  specially  for  the 
purpose.  But  in  the  year  1770  a  series  of  im- 
portant discoveries  were  indirectly  brought  about. 
The  Royal  Society  of  London,  calculating  that 
the  planet  Venus  would  cross  the  disc  of  the  sun 
in  1769,  persuaded  the  English  Government  to 
send  out  an  expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  for 
the  purpose  of  making  observations  on  this  event 
which  would  enable  astronomers  to  calculate  the 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  A  small  ves- 
sel, the  Endeavour,  was  chosen ;  astronomers  with 
their  instruments  embarked,  and  the  whole  placed 
under  the  charge  of"  the  renowned  sailor,  Captain 
James  Cook.  The  astronomical  purposes  of  the 
expedition  were  satisfactorily  accomplished  at 
Otaheite,  and  Captain  Cook  then  proceeded  to  an 
exploration  of  the  shores  of  New  Zealand  and 
.Australia.  Having  entered  a  fine  bay  on  the 
south-eastern  coast  of  -Australia,  "he  examined 
the  country  for  a  few  miles  inland,  and  two  of 
his  scientific  friends — Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Dr. 
Solander — made  splendid  collections  of  botanic.il 
specimens.  From  this  circumstance  the  place  was 
called  Botany  Bay,  and  its  two  head-lands  re- 
ceived the  names  of  Cape  Banks  and  Cape  Solander. 
It  was  here  that  Captain  Cook  .  .  .  took  pos- 
session of  the  country  on  behalf  of  His  Britannic 
Majesty,  giving  it  the  name  'New  South  Wales,' 
on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its  coasts  to 
the  southern  shores  of  Wales.  [See  also  Australia: 
1773;  British  empire:  Expansion:  i8th  cen- 
tury! Shortly  after  they  had  set  sail  from 
Botany  Bay  they  observed  a  small  opening  in 
the  land,  but  Cook  did  not  stay  to  examine  it, 
merely  marking  it  on  his  charts  as  Port  Jackson, 
in  honour  of  his  friend  Sir  George  Jackson.  .  .  . 
The  reports  brought  home  by  Captain  Cook  com- 
pletely changed  the  beliefs  current  in  those  days 
with  regard  to  .Australia."  In  1792  Captain  Phillip, 
governor  of  the  Botany  bay  settlement,  broken 
in  health,  had  resigned,  and  in  1795  he  had  been 
succeeded  by  Governor  Hunter.  "When  Governor 
Hunter  arrived,  in  1795.  he  brought  with  him, 
on  board  his  ship,  the  Reliance,  a  young  surgeon, 
George  Bass,  and  a  midshipman  called  Matthew 
Flinders.  They  were  young  men  of  the  most 
admirable  character.  .  .  .  Within  a  month  after 
their  arrival  they  purchased  a  small  boat  about 
eight  feet  in  length,  which  they  christened  the 
Tom  Thumb.  Its  crew  consisted  of  themselves  and 
a  boy  to  assist."  In  this  small  craft  they  began 
a  survey  of  the  coast,  usefully  charting  many 
miles  of  it.  Soon  afterwards,  George  Bass,  in  an 
open  whale-boat,  pursued  his  explorations  south- 
wards, to  the  region  now  called  Victoria,  and 
through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  thus 
discovering  the  fact  that  Van  Diemen's  Land,  or 
Tasmania,  is  an  island,  not  a  peninsula.  In  1798, 
Bass  and  Flinders,  again  associated  and  furnished 
with  a  small  sloop,  sailed  round  and  surveyed  the 
entire  coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Bass  now 
went  to  South  .America  and  there  disappeared. 
Flinders  was  commissioned  by  the  British  govern- 
ment in  1800  to  make  an  extensive  survey  of  the 
Australian     coasts,    and     did    so.       Returning    to 


634 


AUSTRALIA,  1787-1840 


Penal 
Settlements 


AUSTRALIA,  1787-1840 


England  with  his  maps,  he  was  taken  prisoner  on 
the  way  by  the  French  and  held  in  captivity  for 
six  years,  while  the  fruits  of  his  labor  were 
stolen.  He  died  a  few  years  after  being  re- 
leased.— A.  and  G.  Sutherland,  History  of  Aus- 
tralia, ch.  1-3. — See  also  Antarctic  exploration: 
15x9-1819;  Pacific  Ocean:  1764-1850. 

Also  in:    G.  W.  Rusden,  History  of  Australia, 
V.  I,  ch.  1-3. 

1787-1840. — Penal  settlements. — Beginning  of 
the  prosperity  of  New  South  Wales. — Introduc- 
tion of  sheep-farming. — Founding  of  Victoria 
and  South  Australia. — "It  so  happened  that, 
shortly  after  Cook's  return,  the  English  nation 
had  to  deal  with  a  great  difficulty  in  regard  to 
its  criminal  population.  In  1776  the  United  States 
declared  their  independence,  and  the  English  then 
found  they  could  no  longer  send  their  convicts 
over  to  Virginia,  as  they  had  formerly  done.  In 
a  short  time  the  gaols  of  England  were  crowded 
with  felons.  It  became  necessary  to  select  a 
new  place  of  transportation;  and,  just  as  this 
difficulty  arose,  Captain  Cook's  voyages  called  at- 
tention to  a  land  in  every  way  suited  for  such 
a  purpose,  both  by  reason  of  its  fertility  and  of 
its  great  distance.  Viscount  Sydney,  therefore,  de- 
termined to  send  out  a  party  to  Botany  Bay,  in 
order  to  found  a  convict  settlement  there ;  and 
in  May,  1787,  a  fleet  was  ready  to  sail."  After 
a  voyage  of  eight  months  the  fleet  arrived  at 
Botany  Bay,  in  January,  1788.  The  waters  of  the 
bay  were  found  to  be  too  shallow  for  a  proper 
harbor,  and  Captain  Phillip,  the  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  settlement,  set  out,  with  three  boats, 
to  search  for  something  better.  "As  he  passed 
along  the  coast  he  turned  to  examine  the  open- 
ing which  Captain  Cook  had  called  Port  Jack- 
son, and  soon  found  himself  in  a  winding  chan- 
nel of  water,  with  great  cliffs  frowning  overhead. 
All  at  once  a  magnificent  prospect  opened  on 
his  eyes.  A  harbour,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
beautiful  and  perfect  in  the  world,  stretched  be- 
fore him  far  to  the  west,  till  it  was  lost  on  the 
distant  horizon.  It  seemed  a  vast  maze  of  wind- 
ing waters,  dotted  here  and  there  with  lovely 
islets.  .  .  .  Captain  Phillip  selected,  as  the  place 
most  suitable  to  the  settlement,  a  small  inlet, 
which,  in  honour  of  the  Minister  of  State,  he  called 
Sydney  Cove.  It  was  so  deep  as  to  allow  ves- 
sels to  approach  within  a  yard  or  two  of  the 
shore." — A.  and  G.  Sutherland,  History  of  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand,  ch.  1-3. — Great  diffi- 
culties and  sufferings  attended  the  founding  of 
the  penal  settlement,  and  many  died  of  actual 
starvation  as  well  as  of  disease;  but  in  twelve 
years  the  population  had  risen  to  between  6,000 
and  7,000  persons.  Meantime  a  branch  colony 
had  been  established  on  Norfolk  island.  "For 
twenty  years  and  more  no  one  at  home  gave  a 
thought  to  New  South  Wales,  or  'Botany  Bay,' 
as  it  was  still  erroneously  called,  unless  in  vague 
horror  and  compassion  for  the  poor  creatures 
who  lived  there  in  exile  and  starvation.  The  only 
civilizing  element  in  the  place  was  the  presence 
of  a  devoted  clergyman  named  Johnson,  who  had 
voluntarily  accompanied  the  first  batch  of  con- 
victs. .  .  .  Colonel  Lachlan  Macquarie  entered  on 
the  office  of  governor  in  1810,  and  ruled  the 
settlement  for  twelve  years.  His  administration 
was  the  first  turning  point  in  its  history.  .  .  . 
Macquarie  saw  that  the  best  and  cheapest  way 
of  ruling  the  convicts  was  to  make  them  free- 
men as  soon  as  possible.  Before  his  time,  the 
governors  had  looked  on  the  convicts  as  slaves, 
to  be  worked  for  the  profit  of  the  government 
and  of  the  free  settlers.  Macquarie  did  all  he 
could  to  elevate  the  class  of  emancipists,  and  to 


635 


encourage  the  convicts  to  persevere  in  sober  in- 
dustry in  the  hope  of  one  day  acquiring  a  re- 
spectable position.  He  began  to  discontinue  the 
government  farms,  and  to  employ  the  convicts 
in  road-making,  so  as  to  extend  the  colony  m  all 
directions.  When  he  came  to  Sydney,  the  country 
more  than  a  day's  ride  from  the  town  was  quite 
unknown.  The  growth  of  the  settlement  was 
stopped  on  the  west  by  a  range  called  the  Blue 
Mountains,  which  before  his  time  no  one  had 
succeeded  in  crossing.  But  in  1813,  there  came  a 
drought  upon  the  colony:  the  cattle,  on  which 
everything  depended,  were  unable  to  find  food. 
Macquarie  surmised  that  there  must  be  plenty 
of  pasture  on  the  plains  above  the  Bhie  Moun- 
tains: he  sent  an  exploring  party,  telling  them  that 
a  pass  must  be  discovered.  In  a  few  months,  not 
only  was  this  task  accomplished,  and  the  vast  and 
fertile  pastures  of  Bathurst  reached,  but  a  road 
130  miles  long  was  made,  connecting  them  with 
Sydney.  The  Lachlan  and  Macquarie  rivers  were 
traced  out  to  the  west  of  the  Blue  Mountains. 
Besides  this,  coal  was  found  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hunter  river,  and  the  settlement  at  Newcastle 
formed.  .  .  .  When  it  became  known  that  the 
penal  settlement  was  gradually  becoming  a  free 
colony,  and  that  Sydney  and  its  population  were 
rapidly  changing  their  character,  English  and 
Scotch  people  soon  bethought  them  of  emigrating 
to  the  new  country.  Macquarie  returned  home  in 
1822,  leaving  New  South  Wales  four  times  as 
populous,  and  twenty  times  as  large  as  when  he 
went  out,  and  many  years  in  advance  of  what  it 
might  have  been  under  a  less  able  and  energetic 
governor.  The  discovery  of  the  fine  pastures 
beyond  the  Blue  Mountains  settled  the  destiny  of 
the  colony.  The  settlers  came  up  thither  with 
their  flocks  long  before  Macquarie's  road  was 
finished ;  and  it  turned  out  that  the  downs  of 
Australia  were  the  best  sheep-walks  in  the  world. 
The  sheep  thrives  better  there,  and  produces 
finer  and  more  abundant  wool,  than  anywhere 
else.  John  Macarthur,  a  lieutenant  in  the  New 
South  Wales  corps,  had  spent  several  years  in 
studying  the  effect  of  the  Australian  climate  upon 
the  sheep;  and  he  rightly  surmised  that  the  staple 
of  the  colony  would  be  its  fine  wool.  In  1803, 
he  went  to  England  and  procured  some  pure 
Spanish  merino  sheep  from  the  flock  of  George 
III.  .  .  The  Privy  Council  listened  to  his  wool 
projects,  and  he  received  a  large  grant  of  land. 
Macarthur  had  found  out  the  true  way  to  Aus- 
tralian prosperity.  When  the  great  upland  pas- 
tures were  discovered,  the  merino  breed  was 
well  established  in  the  colony ;  and  the  sheep- 
owners,  without  waiting  for  grants,  spread  with 
th^ir  flocks  over  immense  tracts  of  country.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  what  is  called  squatting. 
The  squatters  afterwards  paid  a  quit-rent  to  the 
government  and  thus  got  their  runs,  as  they  call 
the  great  districts  where  they  pastured  their  flocks, 
to  a  certain  extent  secured  to  them.  .  .  .  Hun- 
dreds upon  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  the  great 
Australian  downs  were  now  explored  and  stocked 
with  sheep  for  the  English  wool-market.  ...  It 
was  in  the  time  of  Macquarie's  successor.  Sir 
Thomas  Brisbane,  that  the  prospects  of  New  South 
Wales  became  generally  known  in  England.  Free 
emigrants,  each  bringing  more  or  less  capital  with 
him,  now  poured  in;  and  the  demand  for  labour 
became  enormous.  At  first  the  penal  settlements 
were  renewed  as  depots  for  the  supply  of  labour, 
and  it  was  even  proposed  that  the  convicts  should 
be  sold  by  auction  on  their  arrival ;  but  in  the 
end  the  influx  of  free  labourers  entirely  altered 
the  question.  In  Brisbane's  time,  and  that  of  his 
successor,  Sir  Ralph  Darling,  wages  fell  and  work. 


AUSTRALIA,  1787-1840 


Scientific 
Colonization 


AUSTRALIA,  1810-1837 


became  scarce  in  England;   and  English  working 
men    now    turned    their    attention    to    Australia. 
Hitherto   the   people  had  been   either   convicts   or 
free  settlers  of  more  or  less  wealth,  and  between 
these   classes   there    was   great    bitterness   of    feel- 
ing,   each,    naturally    enough,    thinking    that    the 
colony    existed    for    their    own    exclusive    benefit. 
The   free   labourers    who   now   poured   in   greatly 
contributed  in  course  of  time  to  fusing  the  popula- 
tion  into  one.     In   Brisbane's  time,  trial  by  jury 
and  a  free  press  w^ere  introduced.     The  finest  pas- 
tures in  Australia,  the  Darling  Downs  near  More- 
ton    Bay,    were    discovered    and    settled    [1825]. 
The   rivers   which   pour   into   Moreton    Bay    were 
explored:    one  of   them  was  named  the  Brisbane, 
and  a  few  miles  from  its  mouth  the  town  of  the 
same    name   was   founded.     Brisbane   is   now    the 
capital   of   the   colony    of   Queensland:    and   other 
explorations  in  his  time  led  to  the  foundation  of 
a  second  independent  colony.    The  Macquarie  was 
traced  beyond  the  marshes,  in  which  it  was  sup- 
posed to  lose  itself,  and  named  the  Darling:   and 
the    Murray    river    was    discovered    [1820].      The 
tracing  out  of  the  Murray  river  by  the  adventur- 
ous traveller   Sturt,   led   to   a   colony   on   the   site 
which   he   named   South   Australia.     In    Darling's 
time,   the  Swan   River  Colony,  now  called   West- 
ern Australia,  was  commenced.     Darling  .  .  .  was 
the  first  to  sell  the   land   at   a  small  fixed  price, 
on  the  system  adopted  in  America.  .  .  .  Darling  re- 
turned to  England  in  1831;  and  the  six-years'  ad- 
ministration of  his  successor.  Sir  Richard  Bourke, 
marks  a  fresh  turning-point  in  Australian  history. 
In   his   time  the  colony  threw   off  two  great  off- 
shoots.    Port   Phillip,   on   which   now   stands   the 
great  city   of  Melbourne,  had  been  discovered  in 
1802,   and  in   the  next  year  the  government  sent 
hither    a   convict   colony.     This   did   not   prosper, 
and  this  fine  site   was  neglected  for  thirty  years. 
When  the  sudden  rise  of  New  South  Wales  began, 
the    squatters    began    to    settle    to    the    west    and 
north  of  Port  Phillip;  and  the  government  at  once 
sent  an  exploring  party,  who  reported  most  favour- 
ably  of  the  country  around.     In   1836,  Governor 
Bourke   founded    a   settlement   in    this   new    land, 
which    had    been    called,    from    its    rich    promise, 
Australia  Felix:    and  under  his  directions  the  site 
of  a  capital  was  laid  out,  to  be  called  Melbourne, 
in   honour   of   the   English   Prime   Minister.     This 
was  in  1S37,  so  that  the  beginning  of  the  colony 
corresponds  nearly   with   that   of  Queen  Victoria's 
reign ;    a    circumstance    which    afterwards    led    to 
its   being   named   Victoria.     Further   west   still,   a 
second  new  colony  arose  about  this  time  on  the 
site  discovered  by  Sturt  in  1S29.     This  was  called 
South    Australia,    and    the    first    governor    arrived 
there  at  the  end  of  the  year  1836.     The  intended 
capital    was    named    Adelaide,    in    honour    of    the 
Queen   of  William  IV."     Owing  to  the  institution 
of  a  system  of  scientific  colonization  into  the  two 
colonies,    a   sudden    boom    and    an    equally    swift 
business   and   real   estate   depression   visited   South 
Australia.      "The    depression    of    South    Australia, 
however,  was  but  temporary.     It  contains  the  best 
corn   land   in   the   whole   island:    and   hence   it   of 
course  soon  became  the  chief  source  of  the  food 
supply    of   the   neighbouring   colonies,   besides   ex- 
porting  large   quantities   of   corn   to   England.     It 
contains  rich  mines  of  copper,  and  produces  large 
quantities  of  wool." — E.  J.  Payne,  History  of  Eu- 
ropean colonies,  cit.  12.    See  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  South  Australia. 

Also  in:     G.  W.  Rusden,  History  of  Australia. 

1802. — Settlement  of  Tasmania.    See  Tasmanxx. 

1810-1837. — Attempts  at  scientific  colonization. 

— "In  pursuance   of   their  obiects  the  Colonization 

Society  had  in  1830  approached  the  Government, 


but  they  met  with  no  success  while  the  Duke  of 
Wellington    was    in    office.      Sir    George    Murray, 
then    Secretary    of    State    for    the    Colonies,    told 
them  that  the  Government  rather  wished  to  dis- 
courage emigration.     With   a   change   of   Ministry 
and    the    advent    of    Lord    Goderich    and    Lord 
Howick  to  the  Colonial  Office  at  the  end  of  1830, 
their  renewed  representations  had  a  more  favour- 
able  reception.     They   achieved   their   first   public 
success  when,  in   January,   1831,  the   Government 
determined  to  adopt  some  measure  of  the  Wake- 
field theory  by  making  a  great  change  in  the  dis- 
posal  of   waste   lands  in   New   South   Wales,  Van 
Diemen's   Land  and   Western  Australia.     In  New 
South  Wales  land  had  been  given   away   without 
regard  to  its  existing  or  future  value.  .  .  .  Up  to 
1810.   the   usual   method  had   been   to   grant  land 
to  emancipated  convicts   or  to   free  settlers,  sub- 
ject to  conditions  as  to  quit-rents.     These  grants 
were  made  at  the  absolute  discretion  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, and  during  this  period  were  large  in    [ex- 
tent]    though    not    in    number.  .  .  .  During    this 
period,   up   to    1810,   there    had   been   granted    in 
New    South    Wales    117,269    acres.      During    the 
next  stage,   1810-1S22,  while   Governor  Macquarie 
held  office,  the  Home  Government  seems  to  have 
determined  to' encourage  capitalists  to  come  to  Aus- 
tralia.    Anyone  arriving  there  received,  on  condi- 
tions as  to  quit-rents  and  cultivation,  a  free  grant 
of    land   in    proportion    to    the    capital    which   he 
could  persuade  the  Governor  that  he  possessed  and 
was  prepared  to  invest  in  the  colony.     Sometimes 
the   capital   was   fictitious   or   was   obligingly    lent 
to    the   applicant    by    any    accommodating    friend. 
This  system,  though  not  the  sole  method  of  grant- 
ing land,  lasted  until  1830.  .  .  .  By  1828  the  land 
alienated    in     New     South     Wales     amounted    to 
2.006,346  acres.     This  very  large  increase  was  due, 
not   only   to   the   necessity   of   meeting   the   claims 
of  an  increasing  population,  but  also  to  the  fact 
that,   in    1824,   a    large   grant    of    about    1,000,000 
acres  in  New  South  Wales  had  been  made  to  the 
Australian  Agricultural  Company,  on  the  usual  con- 
ditions as  to  quit-rents.     In  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
in    1825,   a   similar   grant   of   about   350,000   acres 
was  made   to   the  Van  Diemen's  Land  Company. 
By  the  end  of  1S30,  no  fewer  than  3,344,030  acres 
had  been  alienated  in  New  South  Wales.  .  .  .  The 
first  intimation  nf  a  change  in  183 1  was  a  despatch 
from  Lord  Goderich   to   Governor  Darling  on  the 
gth    January,    announcing    his    intention    to    in- 
troduce,   in    the    near    future,    a    uniform    system 
of    sale    in    New    South    Wales,    and    instructing 
Darling,   in   the  meantime,  to  discontinue  all  fur- 
ther  grants   except    by   way   of   sale.     His  inten- 
tion was  realized  in  a  despatch  of  the   14th  Feb- 
ruary,    1831,    containing     Royal     Instructions    to 
Darling   as   to    the    disposal    of    waste   lands,    and 
enclosing  the  printed  terms  of  the  new  regulations 
for   intending   settlers — afterwards  well   known   as 
the    Ripon    Regulations.     The    Governor   was   in- 
structed  that   all   lands  not   hitherto  granted,  and 
not    appropriated    for    public    purposes,    were    to 
be    disposed    of    in    no    other   way    than    by    sale 
at  auction   at  a  minimum   price  of  not  less  than 
five  shillings  per  acre.     A  deposit  of  10  per  cent 
was  required  from  the  purchaser,  and  the  remainder 
was    to   be    paid    within    a   month,    or   possession 
was  not  granted  and  the  sale  was  void.     Grants 
thus  obtained  were  to  be  subject  to  no  conditions 
whatever  except  a  nominal  quit -rent  of  a  pepper- 
corn.    The    land   was   to   be   put    up   for  sale   in 
lots  of  not  less  than  640  acres,  except  in  special 
circumstances   when,   on   application   to   the   Gov- 
ernor, the  quantity  might  be  reduced.     With   the 
Governor,  however,  rested  the  sole  power  of  de- 
ciding   what    lands    should    be    exposed    for   sale 


636 


AUSTRALIA,  1821-1845 


Wakefield 
System 


AUSTRALIA,  1821-1845 


and  what  lands  withheld.  Lands  which  were  re- 
quired for  grazing  purposes  were  to  be  let  on  lease 
from  year  to  year,  but,  if  applied  for  by  intend- 
ing purchasers,  were  to  be  sold  at  auction  in  the 
same  way  as  other  land.  At  the  same  time  an- 
other reform  was  instituted  by  this  despatch. 
Crown  reserves  for  Church  or  School  establish- 
ments were,  in  accordance  with  a  recommendation 
of  the  Commissioners  of  Inquiry  into  Colonial 
Expenditure  in  1830,  abolished  as  a  tax  upon 
the  industry  and  capital  of  the  colonists.  These 
changes  applied  both  to  New  South  Wales  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  similar  instructions  and 
regulations  were  sent  out  a  little  later  to  the 
Governor  of  Western  Australia.  .  .  .  The  Ripon 
Regulations,  then,  were  an  attempt  to  put  into 
practice  the  chief  principle  of  the  Wakefield 
theory.  It  was  the  first  attempt  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  proceed  systematically  in  dis- 
posing of  the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown  in  the 
colonies." — R.  C.  Mills,  Colonization  of  Australia, 
pp.  155-194. — See  also  New  South  Wales:  1821- 
1831. 

1821-1845.— Need  for  free  labor.— WakeEeld 
system  in  South  Australia. — "Not  less  important 
to  a  young  colony  than  a  good  system  of  dis- 
posing of  land,  is  immigration,  which  brings  to 
the  land  the  necessary  complement  of  labour  and 
capital.  During  the  years  1821  to  1S30  inclusive, 
emigration  from  Great  Britain  to  Australia  was  not 
a  steady  stream,  but  a  mere  trickle.  On  an  average 
only  880  free  settlers  arrived  each  year,  and  this 
included  those  who  went  to  form  the  new  settle- 
ment at  Swan  River.  Not  until  1828  did  the 
numbers  amount  to  over  one  thousand  in  any 
one  year.  During  the  corresponding  period  the 
average  annual  number  of  convict  emigrants  to 
the  penal  colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land  was  2,447.  But  by  1830  these 
colonies  had  come  to  be  something  more  than 
mere  overseas  prisons.  In  1828,  when  a  census 
was  taken  in  New  South  Wales,  the  free  set- 
tlers (including  emancipated  convicts)  numbered 
about  21,000,  while  the  convicts  numbered  about 
16,000.  The  time  had  gone  by  when  Governor 
Macquarie  could  preach  and  practise  the  doctrine 
that  a  penal  colony  existed  primarily  for  con- 
victs and  ex-convicts.  But,  at  the  rate  at  which 
convicts  were  pouring  in,  something  more  than  the 
trivial  stream  of  free  emigrants  was  required 
if  the  free  population  was  definitely  to  predomi- 
nate in  these  colonies.  The  Home  Government 
showed  no  sign  of  checking  the  supply  of  con- 
victs, much  less  of  abandoning  the  system  of 
transportation.  Indeed  from  1826  to  1830  the 
number  of  convict  emigrants  gradually  increased. 
.  .  .  Throughout  the  decade  beginning  with  1S30 
complaints  were  common  in  all  the  Australian 
colonies  of  the  scarcity  of  labour.  Indeed,  so 
great  was  the  demand  for  labour  that,  in  1837, 
the  Legislative  Council  of  New  South  Wales  en- 
tertained the  proposal  to  introduce  into  the  colony 
natives  of  India  bound  by  indenture  to  work 
for  a  given  period.  In  all  the  Australian  colonies 
the  system  of  indentured  labour  had  failed.  .  .  . 
Convict  labour  was  still  more  unsatisfactory.  .  .  . 
One  particular  drawback  under  which  these  colonies 
suffered,  and  which  concerned  both  immigration 
and  the  scarcity  of  labour,  was  the  extreme  dis- 
proportion between  the  sexes.  ...  A  supply  of 
immigrants,  then,  selected  on  a  system  adapted 
to  their  needs,  was  the  most  urgent  need  of  the 
penal  colonies  of  Australia  in  1830.  Bad,  in- 
deed, as  was  convict  labour,  the  colonists  clung 
to  it  as  their  only  support.  Labour  of  some 
description  they  needed,  and  free  labour  did  not 
exist  in  any  quantity.    The  reputation  of  the  penal 


colonies  was  so  unattractive  to  the  ordinary  emi- 
grant that,  as  the  returns  showed,  there  was  at 
that  time  no  voluntary  emigration  of  labouring 
people  to  Australia.  .  .  .  Canada,  and  particularly 
the  United  States,  made  an  equal  demand  for  la- 
bour and  were  much  easier  to  reach.  What  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies  needed  was  some  means  of  over- 
coming the  handicap  of  distance,  and  this  they 
found  in  Wakefield's  'golden  bridge'  of  an  emi- 
gration fund  produced  as  the  result  of  land  sales. 
The  Home  Government  was  not  at  first  disposed 
to  pay  the  whole  of  the  passages  of  emigrants. 
.  .  .  But  circumstances  compelled  the  Government 
to  abandon  this  position.  The  attempt  to  base  a 
system  of  emigration  upon  the  repayment  of  ad- 
vances by  the  emigrant  failed  conclusively.  .  .  . 
Step  by  step  then  the  Home  Government  was 
forced,  first  to  increase  the  amount  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  passage  money  which  was  a  gift  to  the 
emigrant,  and  finally  to  pay  the  whole  of  the  fare. 
Soon  after  a  commencement  had  been  made  with 
female  emigration,  of  a  fare  of  £17  the  share  paid 
by  the  Government  was  increased  to  ii2,  £6  of 
which  was  paid  on  departure  of  the  emigrant  and 
£6  on  her  arrival  in  the  colony.  In  1834,  a  change 
was  made  whereby  the  Government  paid  the  whole 
of  the  £17  and  required  the  emigrant  to  repay 
£6.  Finally,  in  1835,  the  whole  of  the  passage 
became  a  free  gift  to  the  emigrant.  Similarly  in 
regard  to  emigrant  mechanics  and  agricultural  la- 
bourers the  amount  advanced  to  them  was  con- 
siderably increased  in  1836,  and,  in  1837,  the  sys- 
tem became  one  of  free  passages  for  all  emi- 
grants selected  by  the  Government.  In  both 
cases,  too,  the  Home  Government,  despairing  of 
the  repayment  of  the  advances,  instructed  the 
Governors  of  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land  in  1835  to  remit  these  debts  and  to  treat 
the  loans  as  free  gifts.  In  the  selection  of  emi- 
grants to  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land  the  Home  Government  was  conspicuously 
unsuccessful.  ...  In  the  Australian  colonies  there 
was  inevitably  a  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction  with 
this  kind  of  emigration.  The  reputation  of  the 
better  class  of  emigrants  was  likely  to  be  gauged 
by  the  character  of  the  worst,  and  this  adversely 
affected  the  popularity  of  emigration.  ...  In  New 
South  Wales  in  1S35,  they  suggested  that  emigra- 
tion should  in  Britain  be  managed  by  those  who 
had  a  personal  interest  in  the  colony.  This  sug- 
gestion was  .  .  .  approved  by  the  Home  Gov- 
ernment. Accordingly  naval  surgeons,  who  had 
been  superintendents  of  convict  ships  and  there- 
fore were  famiUar  both  with  the  needs  of  the 
colonies  and  the  management  of  emigrants  during 
a  long  voyage,  were  appointed  by  the  colonial 
government  to  proceed  to  Great  Britain  to  manage 
emigration.  There  each  surgeon  was  to  select  and 
bring  out  under  his  personal  supervision  a  ship- 
load of  emigrants.  ...  At  the  end  of  1836,  .  .  . 
the  London  Emigration  Committee  expressed  a 
desire  to  relinquish  their  functions,  .  .  .  and  had 
recommended  that  emigration  should  be  managed 
by  a  central  Board  responsible  to  the  Government 
or  directly  to  Parliament.  The  resignation  of  the 
London  Emigration  Committee  was  accepted  and 
Lord  Glenelg,  early  in  1837,  took  the  opportunity 
of  .  .  .  appointing  as  Agent-General  for  Emigra- 
tion Mr.  T.  F.  Elliot,  who  had  been  secretary  to 
the  Emigration  Commission  of  1831-2.  His  duty 
was  to  exercise  a  general  superintendence  over 
emigration  to  aU  colonies,  and,  in  regard  to  Aus- 
tralia, to  help  in  carrying  on  the  system  of  Gov- 
ernment emigration  which  he  found  in  force.  Emi- 
gration .  .  .  became  at  length  a  department  of 
government  administered  by  an  officer  responsible 
to  the  Colonial  Office  and  therefore  indirectly  to 


^37 


AUSTRALIA,   1839-1855 


Progress 
Discovery  of  Gold 


AUSTRALIA,   1839-1855 


Parliament." — R.  C.  Mills,  Colonization  of  Aus- 
tralia, pp.  155-104. 

The  Wakefield  system  was  employed  to  secure 
immigrants  for  both  South  Australia  and  Vic- 
toria. In  the  former  of  the  two  colonies  the 
experiment  had  a  fairer  opportunity  to  show  its 
value  because  of  the  greater  independence  and 
lack  of  prejudice  of  the  Melbourne  government. 
Wakefield's  "notion  was  that  the  new  colonies 
ought  to  be  made  'fairly  to  represent  English  so- 
ciety.' His  plan  was  to  arrest  the  strong  demo- 
cratic tendencies  of  the  new  community,  and  to 
reproduce  in  Australia  the  strong  distinction  of 
classes  which  was  found  in  England.  He  wanted 
the  land  sold  as  dear  as  possible,  so  that  labourers 
might  not  become  land-owners;  and  the  produce 
of  the  land  was  to  be  applied  in  tempting  labourers 
to  emigrate  with  the  prospect  of  better  wages  than 
they  got  at  home.  A  Company  was  easily  formed 
to  carry  out  these  ideas  in  South  Australia.  .  .  . 
Like  the  settlement  of  Carolina  as  framed  by 
Locke  and  Somers,  it  was  really  a  plan  for  getting 
the  advantages  of  the  colony  into  the  hands  of 
the  non-labouring  classes:  and  by  the  natural  laws 
of  political  economy,  it  failed  everywhere.  Ade- 
laide became  the  scene  of  an  Australian  'bubble.' 
The  land-jobbers  and  money-lenders  made  for- 
tunes: but  the  people  who  emigrated,  mostly  be- 
longing to  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  found  the 
scheme  to  be  a  delusion.  Land  rapidly  rose  in 
value,  and  as  rapidly  sank ;  and  lots  for  which 
the  emigrants  had  paid  high  prices  became  almost 
worthless.  The  labourers  emigrated  elsewhere, 
and  so  did  those  of  the  capitalists  who  had  any- 
thing left." — E.  J.  Payne,  History  of  European 
colonies,  ch.  12. — See  also  South  Australia:  1834- 
1836. 

1839-1855.— Progress  of  the  Port  Phillip  dis- 
trict.— Its  separation  from  New  South  Wales 
and  erection  into  the  colony  of  Victoria. — Dis- 
covery of  gold. — Constitutional  organization  of 
the  colony. — "In  1839  the  population  of  Port 
Phillip  amounted  to  nearly  6,000,  and  was  being 
rapidly  augmented  from  without.  The  sheep  in 
the  district  exceeded  half  a  million,  and  of  cattle 
and  horses  the  numbers  were  in  proportion  equally 
large.  The  place  was  daily  growing  in  importance. 
The  Home  Government  therefore  decided  to  send 
an  officer,  with  the  title  of  Superintendent,  to  take 
charge  of  the  district,  but  to  act  under  the  Gov- 
ernor of  New  South  Wales.  Charles  Joseph  La 
Trobe,  Esq.,  was  appointed  to  this  office.  ...  He 
arrived  at  Melbourne  on  the  30th  September, 
1830.  Soon  after  this  all  classes  of  the  new  com- 
munity appear  to  have  become  affected  by  a 
mania  for  speculation.  ...  As  is  always  the  case 
when  speculation  takes  the  place  of  steady  indus- 
try, the  necessaries  of  life  became  fabulously  dear. 
Of  money  there  was  but  little,  in  consideration  of 
the  amount  of  business  done,  and  large  transac- 
tions were  effected  by  means  of  paper  and  credit. 
From  highest  to  lowest,  all  lived  extravagantly. 
.  .  .  Such  a  state  of  things  could  not  last  for- 
ever. In  1842,  by  which  time  the  population 
had  increased  to  24,000,  the  crash  came.  .  .  .  From 
this  depression  the  colony  slowly  recovered,  and 
a  sounder  business  system  took  the  place  of  the 
speculative  one.  ...  All  this  time,  however,  the 
colony  was  a  dependency  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
a  strong  feeling  had  gained  ground  that  it  suf- 
fered in  consequence.  ...  A  cry  was  raised  for 
separation.  The  demand  was,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  resisted  by  New  South  Wales,  but  as 
the  agitation  was  carried  on  with  increased  ac- 
tivity, it  was  at  last  yielded  to  by  the  Home 
authorities.  The  vessel  bearing  the  intelligence 
arrived  on  the   nth  November,   1850.     The  news 


soon  spread,  and  great  was  the  satisfaction  of 
the  colonists.  Raioicings  were  kept  up  in  Mel- 
bourne for  five  consecutive  days.  .  .  .  Before, 
however,  the  separation  could  be  legally  accom- 
plished, it  was  necessary  that  an  Act  should  be 
passed  in  New  South  Wales  to  settle  details.  .  .  . 
The  requisite  forms  were  at  length  given  effect  to, 
and,  on  the  ist  July,  1851,  a  day  which  has  ever 
since  been  scrupulously  obser\'ed  as  a  public  holi- 
day, it  was  proclaimed  that  the  Port  Phillip  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales  had  been  erected  into 
a  separate  colony  to  be  called  Victoria,  after 
the  name  of  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty.  At 
the  same  time  the  Superintendent,  Mr.  C.  J. 
La  Trobe,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  At  the  commencement  of  the  year  of 
separation  the  population  of  Port  Phillip  num- 
bered 76,000,  the  sheep  6,000,000,  the  cattle  380,- 
000.  ...  In  a  little  more  than  a  month  after  the 
establishment  of  Victoria  as  an  independent  colony, 
it  became  generally  known  that  rich  deposits  of 
gold  existed  within  its  borders.  .  .  .  The  discovery 
of  gold  ...  in  New  South  Wales,  by  Hargreaves, 
in  February,  1851,  caused  numbers  to  emigrate 
to  that  colony.  This  being  considered  detrimental 
to  the  interests  of  Victoria,  a  public  meeting  was 
held  in  Melbourne  on  the  qth  of  June,  at  which 
a  'gold-discovery  committee'  was  appointed,  which 
was  authorized  to  offer  rewards  to  any  that  should 
discover  gold  in  remunerative  quantities  within 
the  colony.  The  colonists  were  already  on  the 
alert.  At  the  time  this  meeting  was  held,  several 
parties  were  out  searching  for,  and  some  had 
already  found  gold.  The  precious  metal  was  first 
discovered  at  Clunes,  then  in  the  Yarra  ranges  at 
Anderson's  Creek,  soon  after  at  Buninyong  and 
Ballarat,  shortly  afterwards  at  Mount  Alexander, 
and  eventually  at  Bendigo.  The  deposits  were 
found  to  be  richer  and  to  extend  over  a  wider 
area  than  any  which  had  been  discovered  in  New 
South  Wales  Their  fame  soon  spread  to  the 
adjacent  colonies,  and  thousands  hastened  to  the 
spot  .  .  .  When  the  news  reached  home,  crowds 
of  emigrants  from  the  United  Kingdom  hurried 
to  our  shores.  Inhabitants  of  other  European 
countries  quickly  joined  in  the  rush.  Americans 
from  the  .Atlantic  States  were  not  long  in  follow- 
ing. Stalwart  Californians  left  their  own  gold- 
yielding  rocks  and  placers  to  try  their  fortunes 
at  the  Southern  Eldorado.  Last  of  all,  swarms 
of  Chinese  arrived,  eager  to  unite  in  the  general 
scramble  for  wealth.  .  .  .  The  important  position 
which  the  Australian  colonies  had  obtained  in 
consequence  of  the  discovery  of  gold,  and  the  influx 
of  population  consequent  thereon,  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  Imperial  Government  determining  in 
the  latter  end  of  1852  that  each  colony  should 
be  invited  to  frame  such  a  Constitution  for  its 
government  as  its  representatives  might  deem  best 
suited  to  its  own  peculiar  circumstances.  The 
Constitution  framed  in  Victoria,  and  afterwards 
approved  by  the  British  Parliament,  was  avowedly 
based  upon  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  two  Houses  of 
Legislature,  with  power  to  make  laws,  subject  to 
the  assent  of  the  Crown  as  represented  generally 
by  the  Governor  of  the  colony ;  the  Legislative 
Council,  or  Upper  House,  to  consist  of  30,  and 
the  Legislative  Assembly,  or  Lower  House,  to 
consist  of  60  members.  Members  of  both  Houses 
to  be  elective  and  to  possess  property  qualifica- 
tions. Electors  of  both  Houses  to  possess  either 
property  or  professional  qualifications  [the  prop- 
erty qualification  of  members  and  electors  of  the 
Lower  House  has  since  been  abolished].  .  .  .  The 
Upper  House  not  to  be  dissolved,  but  five  mem- 
bers to  retire  every  two  years,  and  to  be  eligible 


638 


AUSTRALIA,  1858 


Proposed 
Federation 


AUSTRALIA,  1890 


for  re-election.  The  Lower  House  to  be  dis- 
solved every  five  years  [since  reduced  to  three], 
or  oftener,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Governor.  Cer- 
tain officers  of  the  Government,  four  at  least  of 
whom  should  have  seats  in  Parliament,  to  be 
deemed  'Responsible  Ministers.'  .  .  .  This  Constitu- 
tion was  proclaimed  in  Victoria  on  the  23d  Novem- 
ber, 1855." — H.  H.  Hayter,  Notes  on  the  colony 
oj  Victoria,  cb.  1. — See  also  New  South  Wales: 
1831-1855. 

Also  in:  F.  p.  Labilliere,  Early  history  of  the 
colony  oj  Victoria,  v.  2. — W.  VVestgarlh,  First 
twenty  years  of  the  colony  of  Victoria. 

1858. — Torrens  system  of  land  registration. 
See  Land  titles:  1858-1022;  South  Australu: 
1840-1862. 

1859. — Separation  of  the  Moreton  bay  district 
from  New  South  Wales. — Its  erection  into  the 
colony  of  Queensland. — "Until  December,  1850, 
the  north-west  portion  of  the  Fifth  Continent 
was  known  as  the  Moreton  Bay  district,  and  be- 
longed to  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales;  but 
at  that  date  it  had  grown  so  large  that  it  was 
erected  into  a  separate  and  independent  colony, 
under  the  name  of  Queensland.  It  lies  between 
lat.  10°  43'  S.  and  20°  S.,  and  long.  138°  and 
153°  E.,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Torres  Straits; 
on  the  north-east  by  the  Coral  Sea;  on  the  east 
by  the  South  Pacific;  on  the  south  by  New  South 
Wales  and  South  Australia;  on  the  west  by  South 
Australia  and  the  Northern  Territory ;  and  on  the 
north-west  by  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  It  covers 
an  area  .  .  .  twenty  times  as  large  as  Ireland, 
twenty-three  times  as  large  as  Scotland,  and 
eleven  times  the  extent  of  England.  .  .  .  Numer- 
ous good  harb  jurs  are  found,  many  of  which  forn? 
the  outlets  of  navigable  rivers.  The  principal  of 
these  [is]  Moreton  Bay,  at  the  head  of  which 
stands  Brisbane,  the  capital  of  the  colony.  .  .  . 
The  mineral  wealth  of  Queensland  is  very  great, 
and  every  year  sees  it  more  fully  developed.  .  .  . 
Until  the  year  1867,  when  the  Gympie  field  was 
discovered,  gold  mining  as  an  industry  was  hardly 
known." — C.   H.   Eden,  Fifth   continent,  ch.    10. 

1866. — Tariff  legislation  of  Victoria  and  New 
South  Wales.    See  Tariff:  1862-1802. 

1885-1892. — Proposed  federation  of  the  colo- 
nies.— "It  has  been  a  common  saying  in  Australia 
that  our  fellow  countrymen  in  that  part  of  the 
world  did  not  recognise  the  term  'Australian;' 
each  recognised  only  his  own  colony  and  the 
empire.  But  the  advocates  of  combination  for 
certain  common  purposes  achieved  a  great  step, 
forward  in  the  formation  of  a  'Federal  Council' 
in  1885.  It  was  to  be  only  a  'Council,'  its  de- 
cisions having  no  force  over  any  colony  unless 
accepted  afterwards  by  the  colonial  Legislature. 
Victoria,  Queensland,  Tasmania  and  West  Aus- 
tralia joined.  New  South  Wales,  South  Aus- 
tralia, and  New  Zealand  standing  out,  and,  so 
constituted,  it  met  twice.  The  results  of  the  de- 
liberations were  not  unsatisfactory,  and  the  opin- 
ion that  the  move  was  in  the  right  direction  rapidly 
grew.  In  February  of  i8qo  a  Federation  Con- 
ference, not  private  but  representative  of  the 
different  Governments,  was  called  at  Melbourne. 
It  adopted  an  address  to  the  Queen  declaring  the 
opinion  of  the  conference  to  be  that  the  best 
interests  of  the  Australian  colonies  require  the 
early  formation  of  a  union  under  the  Crown  into 
one  Government,  both  legislative  and  executive. 
Events  proceed  quickly  in  Colonial  History.  In 
the  course  of  i8qo  the  hesitation  of  New  South 
Wales  was  finally  overcome:  powerful  factors 
being  the  weakening  of  the  Free  Trade  position 
at  the  election  of  i8qo,  the  report  of  General 
Edwards  on  the  Defences,  and  the  difficulties  about 


Chinese   immigration.     A  Convention   accordingly 
assembled  at  Sydney  in  March,  i8gi,  which  agreed 
upon   a   Constitution   to  be   recommended   to   the 
several  Colonies." — A.  Caldecott,  English  coloniza- 
tion  and   empire,   ch.    7,   sect.    2. — "On    Monday, 
March  2nd,  i8gi,  the  National  Australasian  Con- 
vention   met    at    the    Parliament    House,    Sydney, 
New   South    Wales,   and   was   attended   by   seven 
representatives    from    each    Colony,    except    New 
Zealand,  which  only  sent  three.   Sir  Henry  Parkes 
(New  South  Wales)   was  elected  President  of  the 
Convention,  and  Sir  Samuel  Griffith  (Queensland), 
\'ice-President.      A    series    of    resolutions,    moved 
by   Sir   Henry   Parkes,   occupied   the    attention   of 
the    Convention   for   several   days.     These   resolu- 
tions   set    forth    the    principles    upon    which    the 
Federal  Government  should  be  established,  which 
were  to  the  effect  that  the  powers  and  privileges 
of    existing    Colonies    should    be    kept    intact,    ex- 
cept in  cases  where  surrender  would  be  necessary 
in    order    to    form    a    Federal    Government;    that 
intercolonial  trade  and  intercourse  should  be  free; 
that  power  to  impose  Customs  duties  should  rest 
with    the    Federal    Government    and    Parliament ; 
and  that  the  naval  and  military  defence  of  Aus- 
tralia should  be  entrusted   to   the   Federal   Forces 
under  one  command.     The  resolutions  then   went 
on   to   approve   of   a   Federal   Constitutioh   which 
should   establish   a   Federal   Parliament   to   consist 
of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives;  that  a 
Judiciary,  to  consist  of  a  Federal  Supreme  Court, 
to    be    a    High    Court    of    Appeal    for    Australia, 
should    be    established;    and    that    a    Federal    Ex- 
ecutive,   consisting    of    a    Governor-General,    with 
responsible  advisers,  should  be  constituted.     These 
resolutions    were    discussed    at    great    length,    and 
eventually    were    adopted.      The    resolutions    were 
then    referred    to    three    Committees   chosen    from 
the  delegates,  one  to  consider  Constitutional  Ma- 
chinery and  the  distribution  of  powers  and  func- 
tions; one  to  deal  with  matters  relating  to  Finance, 
Taxation,   and  Trade  Regulations;   and   the   other 
to   consider   the   question   of   the  establishment   of 
a   Federal  Judiciary.     A   draft   Bill,   to   constitute 
the  'Commonwealth  of  Australia,'  was  brought  up 
by   the  first  mentioned  of  these   Committees,  and 
after  full  consideration  was  adopted  by  the  Con- 
vention,  and  it   was   agreed   that   the   Bill   should 
be    presented    to    each    of    the    Australian    Parlia- 
ments for  approval  and  adoption.     On  Thursday, 
.April  qth,   the   Convention   closed  its  proceedings. 
The    Bill   to    provide    for    the    Federation    of    the 
Australasian  colonies  entitled  W  Bill  to  constitute 
a  Commonwealth  of  Australia,'  which  was  drafted 
by  the  National  Australasian  Convention,  has  been 
introduced    into   the' Parliaments  of   most   of   the 
colonies  of  the  group,  and  is  still  (October,  1802), 
under  consideration.     In  Victoria  it  has  passed  the 
Lower    House    with    some    amendments." — States- 
man's year-book,  1803,  p.  308. 

1890.— New  South  Wales  and  Victoria. — Prog- 
ress in  these  separated  colonies. — New  South 
Wales  most  important  of  the  Australian  col- 
onies.— "New  South  Wales  bears  to  Victoria  a  cer- 
tain statistical  resemblance.  The  two  colonies  have 
[1800]  about  the  same  population,  and,  roughly 
speaking,  about  the  same  revenues,  expenditure,  debt 
and  trade.  In  each,  a  great  capital  collects  in  one 
neighbourhood  more  than  a  third  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. .  .  .  But  .  .  .  considerable  differences  lie  be- 
hind and  are  likely  to  develop  in  the  future.  New 
South  Wales,  in  the  opinion  of  her  enemies,  is 
less  enterprising  than  Victoria,  and  has  less  of 
the  go-ahead  spirit  which  distinguishes  the  Mel- 
bourne people.  On  the  other  hand  she  possesses 
a  larger  territory,  abundant  supplies  of  coal,  and 
will  have  probably,  in  consequence,  a  greater  fu- 


639 


AUSTRALIA,  1890 


New  South  Wales 
and  Victoria 


AUSTRALIA,  1894-1895 


ture.  Although  New  South  Wales  is  three  and 
a  half  times  as  large  as  Victoria,  and  has  the 
area  of  the  German  Empire  and  Italy  combined, 
she  is  of  course  much  smaller  than  the  three  other 
but  as  yet  less  important  colonies  of  the  Aus- 
tralian continent  [see  Queensland,  South  Aus- 
tralia and  Western  Australia.]  As  the  country 
was  in  a  large  degree  settled  by  assisted  emigrants, 
of  whom  something  like  half  altogether  have  been 
Irish,  while  the  English  section  was  largely  com- 
posed of  Chartists,  ...  the  legislation  of  New 
South  Wales  h.as  naturally  shown  signs  of  its 
origin.  Manhood  suffrage  was  carried  in  1858; 
the  abolition  of  primogeniture  in  1S62;  safe  and 
easy  transfer  of  land  through  the  machinery  of  the 
Torrens  Act  in  the  same  year;  and  also  the  aboli- 
tion of  state  aid  to  religion.  A  public  system 
of  education  was  introduced,  with  other  measures 
of  democratic  legislation.  .  .  .  Public  education, 
which  in  Victoria  is  free,  is  stUl  paid  for  by  fees 
in  New  South  Wales,  though  children  going  to 
or  returning  from  school  are  allowed  to  travel 
free  by  railway.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
New  South  Wales  legislation  in  recent  times  has 
not  been  so  bold  as  the  legislation  of  Victoria.  .  .  . 
The  land  of  New  South  Wales  has  to  a  large 
extent  come  into  the  hands  of  wealthy  per- 
sons who'  are  becoming  a  territorial  aristocracy. 
This  has  been  the  effect  firstly  of  grants  and  of 
squatting  legislation,  then  of  the  perversion  of 
the  Act  of  1861  [for  'Free  Selection  before  Sur- 
vey'] to  the  use  of  those  against  whom  it  had 
been  aimed,  and  finally  of  natural  causes — soil, 
climate  and  the  lack,  of  water.  .  .  .  The  traces  of 
the  convict  element  in  New  South  Wales  have 
become  very  slight  in  the  national  character. 
The  prevailing  cheerfulness,  running  into  fickle- 
ness and  frivolity,  with  a  great  deal  mote  vivacity 
than  exists  in  England,  does  not  suggest  in  the 
least  the  intermixture  of  convict  blood.  It  is  a 
natural  creation  of  the  climate,  and  of  the  full 
and  varied  life  led  by  colonists  in  a  young  coun- 
try. ...  A  population  of  an  excellent  type  has 
swallowed  up  not  only  the  convict  element,  but 
also  the  unstable  and  thriftless  element  shipped 
by  friends  in  Britain  to  Sydney  or  to  Melbourne. 
The  ne'-er-do-weeb  were  either  somewhat  above 
the  average  in  brains,  as  was  often  the  case  with 
those  who  recovered  themselves  and  started  life 
afresh,  or  people  who  drank  themselves  to  death 
and  left  no  descendants.  The  convicts  were  also 
of  various  classes;  some  of  them  were  men  in 
whom  crime  was  the  outcome  of  restless  energy, 
as,  for  instance,  in  many  of  those  transported  for 
treason  and  for  manslaughter;  while  some  were 
people  of  average  morality  ruined  through  com- 
panions, wives,  or  sudden  temptation,  and  some 
persons  of  an  essentially  depraved  and  criminal 
life.  The  better  classes  of  convicts,  in  a  new  coun- 
try, away  from  their  old  companions  and  old 
temptations,  turned  over  a  new  leaf,  and  their 
abilities  and  their  strong  vitality,  which  in  some 
cases  had  wrought  their  ruin  in  the  old  world, 
found  healthful  scope  in  subduing  to  man  a 
new  one.  Crime  m  their  cases  was  an  accident, 
and  would  not  be  transmitted  to  the  children  they 
left  behind  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  genuine 
criminals,  and  also  the  drunken  ne'er-do-weels, 
left  no  children.  Drink  and  vice  among  the 
'assigned  servants'  class  of  convicts,  and  an  ab- 
sence of  all  facilities  for  marriage,  worked  them 
off  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  those  who  had  not 
been  killed  before  the  gold  discovery  generally 
drank  themselves  to  death  upon  the  diggings." — 
Sir  C.  W.  Dilke,  Problems  of  greater  Britain,  pi. 
2,  ch.  2. 
1890-1891. — Great  strike. — Its  failure  and  aid 


to  the  Labor  party. — As  the  result  of  a  down- 
ward movement  in  prices,  numerous  employers 
attempted  to  reduce  wages.  This  intensified  a 
growing  labor  unrest  and  what  is  known  as  the 
great  strike  followed,  with  its  center  in  Sydney. 
Shearers,  miners  and  other  trades  stopped  work 
in  September  and  October,  1S90,  at  the  height 
of  the  wool  season,  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
maritime  and  pastoral  industries  of  practically  all 
of  Australia  were  injuriously  affected.  The  strike 
ended,  however,  in  November,  1800,  in  favor  of 
the  employers.  The  failure  of  the  great  strike 
gave  effective  impetus  to  the  growth  of  the  Labor 
party  in  New  South  Wales,  where  in  the  election 
of  iSqi  the  party  won  thirty-five  seats  out  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five. — See  also  Labor 
parties:   i8S6-iqo6;  New  South  W.ales:   i8gi. 

1891-1913. — Industrial  arbitration  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  See  Arbitration  and  con- 
ciliation, In'dustri.\l:  Australia:  1891-1912;  and 
New  Zealand:   1802-1Q13. 

1893. — Woman  suffrage  in  New  Zealand.  See 
Suffrage,  Woman:  New  Zealand. 

1893-1895. — Labor  settlements  in  South  Aus- 
tralia.    See  South  .\ustr.\lia:    1893-1895. 

1894-1895.— New  South  Wales.— Defeat  of  the 
protectionist  policy. — Adoption  of  a  liberal 
tariff. — .\t  the  general  elections  of  July,  1S94,  in 
New  South  Wales,  the  tariff  issue  was  sharply  de- 
fined. "  'Protection'  was  inscribed  on  the  banners 
of  the  ministerial  party,  led  by  the  then  Premier, 
Sir  George  Dibbs,  while  the  aggressive  opposition, 
led  by  Mr.  Reid,  .  .  .  fought  under  the  banner  of 
'free  trade.'  The  Free  Traders  won  the  battle  in 
that  election,  as  there  were  63  Free  Traders,  40 
Protectionists,  and  22  labor  members,  mostly  with 
free-trade  leanings,  returned.  On  the  reassembling 
of  Parliament,  Sir  George  Dibbs  was  confronted 
with  a  large  majority,  and  Mr,  George  H.  Reid  was 
called  to  form  a  government  on  the  lines  suggested 
by  the  issues  of  the  campaign.  The  Council  or 
'upper  house,'  consisting  of  Crown  nominees  for 
life,  rejected  the  measures  suggested  by  Mr.  Reid 
and  passed  by  the  .Assembly  by  an  overwhelming 
majority,  and  Mr.  Reid  dissolved  Parliament  on 
July  6,  1895,  and  appealed  to  the  country.  The 
election  was  held  on  July  24,  and  again  the  issues, 
as  set  forth  in  the  measures,  were  fought  out  vig- 
orously. The  great  leader  of  protection.  Sir  George 
Dibbs,  with  several  of  his  ablest  followers,  w'as 
defeated,  and  the  so-called  Free  Trade  party  came 
back,  much  stronger  than  before.  Thus,  it  was 
claimed  that  the  mandate  of  the  people,  declaring 
for  free  trade  and  direct  taxation,  had  been  re- 
affirmed, and  on  the  reassembling  of  Parliament,  on 
August  13,  the  same  measure,  as  passed  by  the 
.\ssembly  and  rejected  by  the  Council,  was  again 
presented  and  passed  by  the  .Assembly  by  a  ma- 
jority of  so  to  26,  and  again  went  to  the  upper 
house.  Again  it  was  met  with  great  hostility,  but 
the  Government  party  in  that  chamber,  having 
been  augmented  by  ten  new  appointments,  the 
temper  of  the  house  was  softened  and  the  bill  was 
passed  with  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  amend- 
ments. As  the  .Assembly  could  only  accept  some 
eighty  of  these  without  yielding  material  points 
...  a  conference  was  suggested,  which,  after  sev- 
eral days  of  discussion,  agreed  to  a  modified  mea- 
sure, embracing  the  principle  of  free  trade,  as  in- 
terpreted in  this  colony,  and  direct  taxation,  and 
the  new  law  goes  into  effect  as  above  stated,  on 
January  i,  1896. — It  may  be  well  here  to  remark 
that  there  are  a  few  articles,  notably  raw  sugar, 
glucose,  molasses,  and  treacle,  upon  which  the 
duty  will  be  removed  gradually,  so  as  not  to 
wantonly  disturb  vested  interests,  but,  with  these 
exceptions,  the  change  is  a  very  sweeping  one." — 


640 


AUSTRALIA,  1895 


Federation 
Accomplished 


AUSTRALIA,  1900 


United    States    considar    reports,    June,    1896,    p. 
299. 

1895. — Judicial  Committee  Amendment  Act 
amends  Privy  Council.  See  Briiish  empire:  Co- 
lonial federation:  Privy  council  as  supreme  court. 
1897. — Conference  of  colonial  premiers  with 
the  British  colonial  secretary.  See  British  em- 
pire: Colonial  and  imperial  conferences:  1897. 

1900. — Federation  of  the  Australian  colonies. 
— Steps  by  which  the  union  was  accomplished. 
— Passage  of  the  "Commonwealth  of  Australia 
Constitution  Act"  by  the   imperial  Parliament. 
— "The  first  indication  of  a  plan  for  united  action 
among  the  colonies  is  to  be  found  in  a  proposal 
of   Earl   Grey  in   1850.     The   main   object   of   the 
proposal  was  to  bring  about  uniformity  in  colonial 
tariffs;   but,  though  partially  adopted,  it  came  to 
nothing.    From  1850  to  i860  the  project  of  federa- 
tion  was  discussed   from   time  to   time   in   several 
of  the  colonial  legislatures,  and  committees  on  the 
subject  were  appointed.     But  there  seems  to  have 
been  little  general  interest  in  the  question,  and  up 
to   i860  all  efforts  in   the   direction   of  federation 
met   with   complete   failure.     Shortly   after,   how- 
ever, a  new  form  of  united  action,  less  ambitious 
but    more    likely    of    success,    was    suggested    and 
adopted.     From  1863  to  1S83  conferences  of  colo- 
nial ministers  were  held  at  various  times  to  discuss 
certain  specified  topics,  with  a  view  to  introducing 
identical   proposals  in   the   separate  colonial  legis- 
latures.   Si.x  of  these  conferences  were  held  at  Mel- 
bourne and   three   at  Sydney ;   and   one   also   was 
held  at  Hobart  in  1895,  though  the  period  of  the 
real  activity  of  the  conference  scheme  practically 
closed  in  1883.     The  scheme  proved  a  failure,  be- 
cause  it   was  found   impossible   to   carry   out   the 
measures  concerted  in   the  conferences.     But  ma- 
terial   events    were    doing    more    than    could    any 
public  agitation  to  draw  attention  to  the  advan- 
tages of  closer  union.     The  colonies  were  growing 
in  population  and  wealth,  railroads  were  building 
and  commerce  was  extending.     The  inconveniences 
of    border   customs   duties   suggested    attempts   at 
something    like    commercial    reciprocity    between 
two  or  more  colonies.    New  political  problems  also 
helped  to  arouse  public  interest.     Heretofore  there 
had  been  little  fear  of  foreign  aggression  and,  hence, 
no  feeling  of  the  need  of  united  action  for  com- 
mon defense ;  nor  had  there  been  any  thought  of 
the  extension  of  Australian  power  and  interests  be- 
yond   the   immediate   boundaries   of   the   different 
colonies.     But  the  period  from   1880  to  1890  wit- 
nessed  a   change   in   this   respect.     It   was   during 
this  period  that  much  feeling  was  aroused  against 
the  influx  of  French  criminals,  escaped   from  the 
penal   settlements   in   New   Caledonia.     The   diffi- 
culties in   regard  to   New   Guinea   belong   also   to 
this  decade.     Suspicion  of  the  designs  of  Germany 
upon  that  part  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea  near- 
est the  Dutch  boundary  led  to  the  annexation  of 
its  eastern  portion  by  the  Queensland  government. 
This  action  was  disavowed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment under  Gladstone,  and  the  fears  of  the  colo- 
nists were  ridiculed;  but  almost  immediately  after 
the   northern    half    of    New    Guinea    was   forcibly 
taken  possession  of  by  Germany.     The  indignation 
of  Australians  was  extreme,  and  the  opinion  was 
freely  expressed  that  the  colonies  would  have   to 
unite  to  protect  their  own  interests.     Finally,  this 
was  the  time  of  the  French  designs  on   the  New 
Hebrides  Islands  and  of  German  movements  with 
reference   to  Samoa.     These   conditions,  economic 
and  political,  affected  all  the  colonies  more  or  less 
intimately   and   resulted   in   the  first   real,   though 
loose,  form   of   federal  union.     At  the  instigation 
of  the  Honorable  James  Service,  premier  of  Vic- 
toria,   a   convention   met    at   Sydney,    November, 


1883,  composed  of  delegates  from  all  the  colonial 
governments.    This  convention  adopted  a  bUI  pro- 
viding for  the  establishment  of  a  Federal  Council, 
with  power  to  deal  with  certain  specified  subjects 
and  with  such  other  matters  as  might  be  referred 
to  it  by   two   or   more   colonies.  .  .  .  New  South 
Wales  and  New  Zealand  refused  to  agree  to  the 
bill,  but  it  was  adopted  by  the  other  colonies;  and 
the   Imperial   Parliament,   in    1885,   passed   an   act 
permitting   such   a   Council   to   be   called  into  ex- 
istence at  the  request  of  any  three  colonies,  to  be 
joined  by  other  colonies  as  they  saw  fit.     Meet- 
ings of  the  Council  took  place  in  1886,  1888,  1889 
and  1891,  but  very  little  was  accomplished.     That 
the   Federal    Council    was   a   very   weak   affair   is 
obvious.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  interest  in  a  more  ade- 
quate form  of  federation  was  growing.     In   1890 
Sir  Henry  Parkes  proposed  a  plan  for  federal  union 
of  a  real  and  vigorous  sort.     At  his  suggestion,  a 
conference  met  at  Melbourne,  February  6,  1890,  to 
decide  on  the  best  method  of  getting  the  question 
into  definite  shape  for  consideration.  .  .  .  Provision 
was  made  ...  for  the  calling  of  a  convention  to 
draw  up   a  constitution.  ...  In   accordance   with 
the  decision  of  the  conference,  delegates  from  the 
several    colonies    convened    at    Sydney,    March    2, 
1891 ;  and  with  the  work  of  this  convention  began 
the  third  and  final  stage  in  the  federation  move- 
ment.    The  Sydney  convention  formulated  a  bill, 
embodying  a  draft  of  a  federal  constitution,  and 
then  resolved  that  provision  should  be  made  by  the 
several  parliaments  to  submit  it  to  the  people  in 
much   manner  as  each  colony  should  see  fit.  .  .  . 
But  there  was  not  sufficient  external  pressure  to 
bring  about  an  immediate  discussion  and  an  early 
settlement.  .  .  .  The  result  was  that  nothing  was 
done.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  federation  leagues  had  been 
organized  in   different  colonies,  and  in   1893   dele- 
gates from  a  number  of  these  leagues  met  at  Ben- 
digo,  Victoria.  .  .  .  After  adopting  the  bill  of  1891 
as  a   basis  of   discussion,   the   Bendigo   conference 
resolved  to  urge  the  colonial  governments  to  pass 
uniform  enabling  acts  for   a  new  convention — its 
members  to  be  elected  by  popular  vote — to  frame 
a  constitution   which   should  be  submitted  to   the 
people  for  approval.    This  proposal  met  with  gen- 
eral favor  and  resulted  in  the  calling  of  a  meeting 
of  the  premiers  of  all  the  colonies  at  Hobart  in 
January,  1895.    There  an  enabling  bill  was  drafted 
which  five  premiers  agreed  to  lay  before  their  re- 
spective parliaments.  ...  It  took  two  years  to  get 
this   machinery    into    working    order.      At    length, 
however,   the   requisite   authority   was  granted  by 
five  colonies:     New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South 
Australia,      Western      Australia      and      Tasmania, 
Queensland  and  New  Zealand  declining  to  partici- 
pate.   On  March  22,  1897,  the  second  constitutional 
convention  assembled  at  Adelaide.    This  convention 
drew  up  a  new  federal  constitution,  based  upon  the 
draft  of  1801.     Between  May  5  and  September  2 
the  constitution  was  discussed  in  each  of  the  par- 
liaments.     When    the    convention    reassembled    at 
Sydney  on  March  2,  as  many  as  75  amendments 
were  reported  as  suggested  by  the  different  colo- 
nies.     Many    were    of    an    insignificant    character 
and  many  were  practically  identical.     The  consti- 
tution and  proposed  amendments  were  discussed  in 
two  sessions  of  the  convention,  which  finally  ad- 
journed March  16,  1898,  its  work  then  being  ready 
to  submit  to  the  people.     In  June  a  popular  vote 
resulted  in  the  acceptance  of  the  constitution  by 
Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  South  Australia;  but  the 
failure  of  the  parent  colony.  New  South  Wales,  to 
adopt  it  blocked  all  hope  of  federal  union  for  the 
moment.     [Later]  at  a  conference  of  colonial  pre- 
miers certain  amendments  demanded  by  New  South 
Wales  were  agreed  to  in  part,  and  upon  a  second 


641 


AUSTRALIA,  1900                  ConstUation  AUSTRALIA,  1900 
'                                         Act 

vote  the  constitution,  as  amended,  was  accepted  by  constitute    the    Commonwealth    of   Australia,"    as 

that   colony." — W.    G.    Beach,    Australian    federal  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  text.     See  Aus- 

constUution     (Political    Science     Quarterly,     Dec,  tralia;   Constitution   of;    also   British   empire: 

iSgq). — in  August,   iSqg,  the  draft  of  a  constitu-  Colonial  federation:   Authority  of  imperial  Parlia- 

tion  thus  agreed  upon  was  transmitted  to  England,  ment. 

with  addresses  from  the  provincial  legislatures,  1900. — Question  of  the  federal  capital. — By 
praying  that  it  be  passed  into  law  by  the  Imperial  the  constitution  of  the  commonwealth,  it  is  re- 
Parliament.  Early  in  the  following  year  delegates  quired  that  the  seat  of  government  "shall  be  de- 
from  the  several  colonies  were  sent  to  England  to  termined  by  the  Parliament,  and  shall  be  within 
discuss  with  the  colonial  office  certain  questions  territory  which  shall  have  been  granted  to  or  ac- 
that  had  arisen,  and  to  assist  in  procuring  the  pas-  quired  by  the  Commonwealth,  and  shall  be  vested 
sage  by  Parliament  of  the  necessary  act.  Looked  in  and  belong  to  the  Commonwealth,  and  shall  be 
at  from  the  ijnperial  standpoint,  a  number  of  ob-  in  the  State  of  New  South  Wales,  and  be  distant 
jections  to  the  draft  constitution  were  found,  but  not  less  than  one  hundred  miles  from  Sydney;" 
all  of  them  were  finally  waived  excepting  one.  and  "such  territory  shall  contain  an  area  of  not 
That  one  related  to  a  provision  touching  appeals  less  than  one  hundred  square  miles."  "New  South 
from  the  high  court  of  the  .Australian  common-  Wales,"  says  a  correspondent,  writing  from  Sydney, 
wealth  to  the  queen  in  council.  As  framed  arid  "is  naturally  anxious  to  get  the  question  decided  as 
adopted  in  Australia,  the  provision  in  question  was  quickly  as  possible ;  but  Victoria  will  equally  be 
as  follows:  "74.  No  appeal  shall  be  permitted  to  inclined  to  procrastinate,  and  the  new  Parliament 
the  Queen  in  Council  in  any  matter  involving  the  — which  cannot  be  more  comfortable  than  it  will 
interpretation  of  this  Constitution  or  of  the  Con-  be  at  Melbourne — will  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  shift, 
stitution  of  a  State,  unless  the  public  interests  of  The  necessity  for  a  new  and  artificial  capital  arises 
some  part  of  Her  Majesty's  Dominions,  other  than  entirely  out  of  our  provincial  jealousies,  and  it 
the  Commonwealth  or  a  State,  are  involved.  Ex-  would  have  been  a  great  saving  of  initial  expense 
cept  as  provided  in  this  section,  this  Constitution  and  a  great  diminution  of  inconvenience  if  we 
shall  not  impair  any  right  which  the  Queen  may  could  have  used  one  of  the  old  capitals  for  a 
be  pleased  to  exercise,  by  virtue  of  Her  Royal  quarter  of  a  century."  To  remove  preliminary 
Prerogative,  to  grant  special  leave  of  appeal  from  difficulties  and  ayoid  delay,  the  government  of 
the  High  Court  to  Her  Majesty  in  Council.  But  New  South  Wales  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
The  Parliament  may  make  laws  limiting  the  mat-  visit  and  report  on  the  most  likely  places.  The 
ters  in  which  such  leave  may  be  asked."  This  was  report  of  this  commissioner,  made  early  in  Octo- 
objected  to  on  several  grounds,  but  mainly  for  ber,  "reduces  the  possible  positions  to  three — one 
the  reasons  thus  stated  by  Mr.  Chamberlain:  near  Bombala  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
"Proposals  are  under  consideration  for  securing  a  colony  at  the  foot  of  the  .Australian  Alps,  one 
permanent  and  effective  representation  of  the  great  near  Yass  on  the  line  of  the  railway  between 
Colonies  on  the  Judicial  Committee,  and  for  amal-  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  and  one  near  Orange  on 
gamating  the  Judicial  Committee  with  the  House  our  western  line.  On  the  whole  he  gives  the  pref- 
of  Lords,  so  as  to  constitute  a  Court  of  Appeal  erence  to  the  first  named." 

from  the  whoje  British  Empire.    It  would  be  very  1900    (August). — Vote   of    West   Australia   to 

unfortunate   if  Australia   should   choose   this  mo-  join  the  commonwealth. — The  question   of  union 

ment  to  take  from  the  Imperial  Tribunal  the  cog-  with  the  other  colonies  in  the  commonwealth,  from 

nizance  of  the  class  of  cases  of  greatest  importance,  which   the   West   .Australians  had   previously    held 

and   often   of  greatest  difficulty.     Article   74  pro-  aloof,  was  submitted  to  them  in  August   (women 

poses  to  withdraw  from  the  Queen  in  Council  mat-  voting  for  the  first  time),  and  decided  affirmatively 

ters  involving  the  interpretation  of   the  Constitu-  by  44,704  against  iq,6gi    (see  also  Western  Aus- 

tion.    It  is  precisely  on  questions  of  this  kind  that  tralia:   1900).     .Adding  the  West  Australian  totals 

the  Queen  in  Council  has  been  able  to  render  most  to  the  aggregate  vote  at  the  decisive  referendum  in 

valuable  service  to  the  administration  of  law  in  the  each  of  the  other  federating  colonies,  the  following 

Colonies,  and  questions  of   this  kind,  which  may  is  the  reported  result: 
sometimes  involve  a  good  deal  of  local  feeling,  are 

the  last  that  should  be  withdrawn  from  a  Tribunal  For  federation   422,647 

of  appeal  with  regard  to  which  there  could  not  be  Against  federation    161,024 

even   a   suspicion    of   prepossession.     Questions   as  

to  the  constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  or  of  a  Majority   261 ,623 

State  may  be  such  as  to  raise  a  great  deal  of  public 

excitement  as  to  the  definition  of  the  boundaries  1900  (September — December). — Queen's  proc- 
between  the  powers  of  the  Commonwealth  Parlia-  lamation  of  the  Australian  commonwealth.^ 
ment  and  the  powers  of  the  State  Parliaments.  It  Contemplated  visit  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of 
can  hardly  be  satisfactory  to  the  people  of  Aus-  York  to  open  the  first  session  of  the  federal 
tralia  that  in  such  cases,  however  important  and  parliament. — Appointment  of  Lord  Hopetoun  to 
far-reaching  in  their  consequences,  the  decision  of  be  governor-general. — First  federal  cabinet. — 
the  High  Court  should  be  absolutely  final.  Before  On  September  17,  the  following  proclamation  of 
long  the  necessity  for  altering  the  Constitution  in  the  .Australian  commonwealth  was  issued  by  the 
this  respect  would  be  felt,  and  it  is  better  that  queen:  "Whereas  by  an  .Act  of  Parliament  passed 
the  Constitution  should  be  enacted  in  such  a  form  in  the  sixty-third  and  sixty-fourth  years  of  Our 
as  to  render  unnecessary  the  somewhat  elaborate  reign,  intituled  '.An  Act  to  constitute  the  Common- 
proceedings  which  would  be  required  to  amend  it."  wealth  of  Australia,'  it  is  enacted  that  it  shall  be 
— Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  publications  (Pa-  lawful  for  the  Queen,  with  the  advice  of  the  Privy 
pers  by  Command,  April  and  May,  1900,  Austra-  Council,  to  declare  by  Proclamation  that,  on  and 
lia — Cd.  124  and  158). — In  reply,  the  Australian  after  a  day  therein  appointed,  not  being  later  than 
delegates  maintained  that  they  had  no  authority  one  year  after  the  passing  of  this  Act,  the  people 
to  amend,  in  any  particular,  the  instrument  which  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia, 
the  people  of  the  several  colonies  had  ratified  by  Queensland,  and  Tasmania,  and  also,  if  Her  Ma- 
their  votes;  but  the  imperial  authorities  were  in-  jesty  is  satisfied  that  the  people  of  W^estern  Aus- 
flexible,  and  the  article  74  was  modified  in  the  tralia  have  agreed  thereto,  of  Western  .Australia, 
act  which  passed  Parliament,  on  July  7,  1900,  "to  shall  be  united  in  a  Federal  Commonwealth,  under 

642 


AUSTRALIA,  1900 


Proclamation  of 
Commonwealth 


AUSTRALIA,  1901 


the    name    of    the    Commonwealth    of    Australia. 
And  whereas  We  are  satisfied  that  the  people  of 
Western  Australia  have  agreed  thereto  accordingly. 
We    therefore,    by    and    with    the    advice    of    Our 
Privy  Council,  have  thought  fit  to  issue  this  Our 
Royal    Proclamation,    and    We    do    hereby    declare 
that  on  and  after  the   first  day   of  January,   one 
thousand    nine    hundred    and    one,    the    people    of 
New    South     Wales,     Victoria,     South     Australia, 
Queensland,  Tasmania,  and  Western  Australia  shall 
be  united  in  a  Federal  Commonwealth  under  the 
name      of      the      Commonwealth      of      Australia. 
Given  at  Our  Court  at  Balmoral,  this  seventeenth 
day  of  September,  in  the  year  of   our  Lord  one 
thousand   nine   hundred,   and   in    the   sixty-fourth 
year  of  Our  Reign.    God  save  the  Queen."    At  the 
same    time,    the    following    announcement,    which 
caused  extreme  delight  in  Australia,  was  published 
officially  from  the  colonial  office:  "Her  Majesty  the 
Queen   has  been   graciously   pleased   to  assent,   on 
the  recommendation  of  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury, 
to  the  visit  of  their  Royal  Highnesses  the  Duke  and 
Duchess  of  York  to  the  colonies  of  Australasia  in 
the  spring  of  next  year.     His  Royal  Highness  the 
Duke  of  York  will  be  commissioned  by  her  Maj- 
esty to  open  the  first  Session  of  the  Parliament  of 
the  .Australian   Commonwealth  in  her  name.     Al- 
though the  Queen  naturally  shrinks  from  parting 
with  her  grandson  for  so  long  a  period,  her  Maj- 
esty fully  recognizes  the  greatness  of  the  occasion 
which    will   bring    her   colonies    of   Australia   into 
federal    union,    and    desires    to    give    this    special 
proof  of  her  interest  in  all  that  concerns  the  wel- 
fare of  her  Australian  subjects.     Her  Majesty  at 
the  same  time  wishes  to  signify  her  sense  of  the 
loyalty    and   devotion    which    have    prompted   the 
spontaneous    aid   so    liberally    offered    by    all    the 
colonies   in   the   South    African    war,    and    of    the 
splendid    gallantry    of    her    colonial    troops.      Her 
Majesty's  assent   to  this  visit  is,  of  course,  given 
on  the  assumption  that  at  the  time  fixed  for  the 
Duke   of   York's   departure   the   circumstances  are 
as  generally  favourable  as  at  present  and  that  no 
national    interests   call    for    his    Royal    Highness's 
presence  in  this  country."    To  manifest  still  further 
the  interest  taken   by   the   British   government   in 
the   event,    it    was   made    known    in    October    that 
"when  the  Duke  of  York  opens  the  new  Common- 
wealth Parliament,  the  guard  of  honour,  it  is  di- 
rected, shall  be  so  made  up  as  to  be  representative 
of  every  arm  of  the   British  Army,  including  the 
Volunteers.      To    the    Victoria    and    St.    George's 
Rifles  has  fallen   the  honour   of  being  selected  to 
represent  the  entire  Volunteer  force  of  the  country. 
A  detachment  of  the  regiment,  between  50  and  60 
strong,    will    accordingly    leave    for    Australia    in 
about  a  month  and  will  be  absent  three  or  four 
months."     The   honor   of   the   appointment   to   be 
the   first    governor-general    of    the    new   common- 
wealth fell  to  a  Scottish  nobleman,  John  Adrian 
Louis  Hope,  seventh  early  of  Hopetoun,  vvfho  had 
been  governor  of  Victoria  from  iSSq  to  1805,  and 
had  held  high   offices  at  home,  including   that   of 
lord  chamberlain   in   the  household  of  the  queen. 
Lord   Hopetoun   landed   at   Sydney    on    December 
15  and  received  a  great  welcome.    On  the  30th,  his 
cabinet  was   formed,   and   announced,   as   follows: 
Mr.  Barton,  prime  minister  and  minister  for  ex- 
ternal  affairs;    Mr.    Deakin,   attorney-general;    Sir 
William    Lyne,    minister    for    home    affairs;     Sir 
George  Turner,  treasurer;   Mr.  Kingston,  minister 
of  trade  and  commerce;  Mr.  Dickson,  minister  of 
defence;  Sir  John   Forrest,  postmaster-general. 

1901. — Control    of    New    Guinea.      See    New 
Guinea  or  PiPU.4:  igoi ;  and  Pacific  ocean:  1800- 
1914. 
1901   (January). — Inauguration  of  the  federal 


643 


government. — The  government  of  the  common- 
wealth was  inaugurated  with  splendid  ceremonies 
on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year  and  the  new  cen- 
tury, when  the  governor-general  and  the  members 
of  the  federal  cabinet  were  sworn  and  assumed 
office.  Two  messages  from  the  British  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  were  read,  as  follows: 

"The  Queen  commands  me  to  express  through 
you  to  the  people  of  Australia  her  Majesty's  heart- 
felt interest  in  the  inauguration  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  her  earnest  wish  that,  under  divine 
Providence,  it  may  ensure  the  increased  pros- 
perity and  well-being  of  her  loyal  and  beloved 
subjects  in  Australia." 

"Her  Majesty's  Government  send  cordial  greet- 
ings to  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.  They 
welcome  her  to  her  place  among  the  nations  united 
under  her  Majesty's  sovereignty,  and  confidently 
anticipate  for  the  new  Federation  a  future  of 
ever-increasing  prosperity  and  influence.  They 
recognize  in  the  long-desired  consummation  of  the 
hopes  of  patriotic  Australians  a  further  step  in 
the  direction  of  the  permanent  unity  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  and  they  are  satisfied  that  the  wider 
powers  and  responsibilities  henceforth  secured  by 
Australia  will  give  fresh  opportunity  for  the  display 
of  that  generous  loyalty  and  devotion  to  the 
Throne  and  Empire  which  has  always  characterized 
the  action  in  the  past  of  its  several  States." — See 
also  Federal  government:   Australia. 

1901  (May). — Opening  of  the  first  parliament 
of  the  commonwealth  by  the  heir  to  the  British 
crown. — Program  of  the  federal  government. — 
The  duke  of  Cornwall  and  York,  heir  to  the  Brit- 
ish crown   (but  not  yet  created  Prince  of  Wales), 
sailed,  with  his  wife,  from  England  in  March,  to 
be  present  at  the  opening  of  the  first  Parliament 
of  the  federated  commonwealth  of  Australia,  which 
was   arranged   to   take   place   early   in   May.     He 
made   the    voyage   in    royal    state,    on    a    steamer 
specially  fitted  and  converted  for  the  occasion  into 
a  royal  yacht,  with  an  escort  of  two  cruisers.    Pre- 
liminary  to    the   election   and    meeting   of   Parlia- 
ment, the  new  federal  government  had  much  or- 
ganizing   work   to    do,   and   much   preparation    of 
measures  for  Parliament  to  discuss.     The  premier, 
Mr.  Barton,  in  a  speech  made  on  January  17,  an- 
nounced  that   the  customs  were  taken   over  from 
the  several  states  on  January   i,  and  the  defences 
and  post-offices  would  be  transferred   as  soon   as 
possible.      "Probably    the    railways    would   be   ac- 
quired  by   the   Commonwealth   at   an   early   date. 
Whether  the  debts  of  the  several  States  would  be 
taken  over  before  the  railways  was  a  matter  which 
had  to  be  decided,  and  was  now  engaging  the  at- 
tention of  the  Treasurer.    The  Ministry  would  not 
consider  the  appointment  of  a  Chief  Justice  of  the 
High  Court  until  Parliament  had  established  that 
tribunal."     In  the  same  speech,  the  main  features 
of  the  programme  and  policy  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment  were   indicated.     "The    Commonwealth," 
said  the  premier,  "would  have  the  exclusive  power 
of    imposing    Customs    and    excise    duties,    and    it 
would,    therefore,    be    necessary    to    preserve    the 
States'  power  of  direct  taxation.    There  must  be  no 
direct  taxation  by  the  Commonwealth  except  un- 
der   very    great    pressure.      Free    trade   under   the 
Constitution  was  practically  impossible;  there  must 
be  a  very  large  Customs  revenue.  .  .  .  The  policy 
of  the  Government  would  be  protective,  not  pro- 
hibitive,   because    it    must    be    revenue-producing. 
No   one  colony   could  lay   claim   to   the   adoption 
of  its  tariff,  whether  high  or  low.     The  first  tariff 
of  Australia  ought  to  be  considerate  of  existing  in- 
dustries.    The  policy  of  the  Government  could  be 
summed  up  in  a  dozen  words.     It  would  give  Aus- 
tralia a  tariff  that  would  be  Australian.     Regard- 


AUSTRALIA,   1901-1902 


Tariff 
"State  Rights" 


AUSTRALIA,  1902 


ing  a  preferential  duty  on  British  goods,  he  would 
be  glad  to  reciprocate  where  possible,  but  the  ques- 
tion would  have  to  receive  very  serious  consider- 
ation before  final  action  could  be  taken.  Among 
the  legislation  to  be  introduced  at  an  early  date, 
Mr.  Barton  continued,  were  a  Conciliation  and 
Arbitration  Bill  in  labour  disputes,  and  a  Bill  for 
a  transcontinental  railway,  which  would  be  of 
great  value  from  the  defence  point  of  view.  He 
was  in  favour  of  womanhood  suffrage.  Legisla- 
tion to  exclude  Asiatics  would  be  taken  in  hand 
as  a  matter  of  course." 

1901-1902. — Tariff  question  in  the  first  parlia- 
ment of  the  commonwealth. — Issue  between  the 
senate  and  the  representative  chamber. —  ■The 
tariff  originally  proposed  by  the  government  was 
framed  on  lines  of  extreme  protection,  with  special 
reference  to  the  languishing  industries  of  Victoria; 
it  was  inevitable  that  the  opposition,  mainly  rep- 
resenting New  South  Wales,  should  fight  tooth  and 
nail  to  prevent  its  becoming  law.  The  result  of 
the  struggle,  which  lasted  almost  without  a  serious 
interruption  for  nine  months,  has  been  a  com- 
promise which  leaves  the  tariff  of  the  common- 
wealth neither  one  thing  nor  the  other.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  in  debating  power  and  political 
generalship  the  victory  lay  generally  with  the  op- 
position ;  but  after  all  the  result,  so  far  as  it  was 
a  victory  for  the  party  of  free  trade,  was  due  to 
the  action  of  the  Senate.  To  many,  and  appar- 
ently not  least  to  the  cabinet,  the  prompt  and  ef- 
fective interference  of  the  Senate  in  a  question  of 
taxation,  which  was  generally  supposed  to  be  prac- 
tically placed  by  the  constitution  almost  as  much 
beyond  their  control  as  custom  has  placed  it  be- 
yond that  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  England,  was 
a  great  surprise,  and  as  the  first  test  of  the  re- 
spective powers  of  the  two  chambers  of  the  legis- 
lature it  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of  great  political 
importance.  It  was  provided  by  the  constitution 
not  only  that  all  bills  involving  the  taxation  of  the 
people,  directly  or  indirectly,  should,  as  in  this 
country,  originate  in  the  representative  chamber  of 
the  legislature,  but  further  that  such  bills  should 
not  be  altered  or  amended  in  their  passage  through 
the  Senate.  As  a  concession  to  the  less  populous 
states,  it  was  agreed  when  the  constitution  was 
framed  that  while  only  the  chamber,  elected  on 
a  strict  basis  of  population,  should  impose  or 
control  taxation,  the  Senate,  in  which  all  the 
states  enjoy,  as  in  America,  equal  representation, 
should  have  the  right  to  suggest,  for  the  considera- 
tion of  the  other  chamber,  any  amendments  it 
thought  desirable  in  any  money  bill  sent  on  for 
its  assent.  This  provision,  mild  and  inoffensive 
as  it  was  supposed  to  be,  has  now  been  used  in 
a  way  to  upset  the  policy  of  the  government,  and 
practically  to  compel  the  assent  of  the  representa- 
tive chamber  to  the  views  of  a  Senate  majority. 
The  tariff  bill  as  passed  by  the  government  ma- 
jority was  subjected  to  an  exhaustive  criticism  by 
the  Senate,  and  finally  fully  fifty  items  of  the 
schedule  imposing  duties  were  referred  back  to  the 
representative  chamber,  with  a  request  for  their 
reconsideration  and  reduction  or  excision.  The 
government  attempted  to  meet  the  difficulty  by 
agreeing  to  a  few  trifling  amendments  on  the  lines 
suggested,  and  got  the  chamber  peremptorily  to 
reject  all  the  others,  sending  the  bill  back  in  effect 
as  it  was.  To  this  the  Senate  replied  by  calmly 
adhering  to  the  views  it  had  already  expressed, 
and  sending  the  bill  back  again  for  further  con- 
sideration, allowing  it  to  be  pretty  plainly  under- 
stood that,  in  the  event  of  their  views  being  ig- 
nored, they  would  place  their  reasons  on  record 
and  reject  the  bill  altogether,  thus  preventing  any 
uniform  tariff  being  established  during  the  session. 


Face  to  face  with  so  grave  a  difficulty  the  cabinet 
gave  way,  and  agreed  to  a  compromise  which  they 
would  not  have  dreamed  of  doing  but  for  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Senate,  with  its  free-trade  majority  of 
two  votes.  The  immediate  result  of  the  long  strug- 
gle has  been  the  passing  of  a  tariff  act  which 
pleases  neither  party,  but  will  apparently  raise  the 
required  revenue  of  $40,000,000,  needed  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  federal  and  state  governments." — 
H.  H.  Lusk,  First  parliament  of  Australia  (Ameri- 
can Review  of  Reviews,  March  1903). 
1901-1911.— Child  labor  legislation.    See  Child 

WELF.ARE    LECISL.4TI0N;     lOOI-IQIl. 

1902. — "States  rights"  temper. — Question  of 
constitutional  relations  between  commonwealth 
and  states  in  external  affairs,  as  raised  by  South 
Australia. — Decision  of  the  imperial  govern- 
ment.— "State-rights"  questions  and  the  provin- 
cialistic  spirit  behind  them  made  a  prompt  ap- 
pearance in  the  Australian  commonwealth  after  its 
federation  was  accomplished.  One  of  the  first 
wrangles  to  occur  between  the  general  govern- 
ment and  that  of  a  state  was  appealed  necessarily 
to  the  imperial  government  at  London,  because  it 
arose  out  of  a  call  from  the  latter,  in  September, 
1902,  for  information  about  an  incident  which 
concerned  a  Dutch  ship.  The  request  for  informa- 
tion went  from  London  to  the  commonwealth  gov- 
ernment, and  from  the  latter  to  the  government 
of  South  Australia,  where  the  incident  in  ques- 
tion occurred,  involving  some  act  of  its  officials. 
The  South  .Australian  ministry  declined  to  pass  the 
desired  information  through  the  channel  of  the 
commonwealth  ministry,  but  would  give  it  to  the 
British  colonial  office,  direct.  A  long  triangular 
argumentative  correspondence  ensued,  in  the  eourse 
of  which  much  that  seems  like  a  repetition  of  the 
early  history  of  the  United  States  of  America  ap- 
pears. Such  as  this,  for  example,  in  one  of  the 
letters  of  the  acting  premier  of  South  Australia 
to  the  lieutenant-governor  of  that  state:  "The 
importance  to  the  States,  especially  to  the  smaller 
States,  of  strictly  maintaining  the  lines  of  demar- 
cation between  Commonwealth  and  State  power  is 
manifest.  Already  a  movement  has  begun  to  de- 
stroy the  Federal  element  in  the  Constitution,  A 
remarkable  indication  of  this  may  be  gathered  from 
a  speech  made  by  Sir  William  Lyne,  the  Com- 
monwealth Minister  for  Home  .\ffairs,  at  Kal- 
goorlie,  in  Western  .Australia,  on  the  2nd  day  of 
the  present  month.  Speaking  of  the  Constitution, 
Sir  William  Lyne  said;  'If  the  population  increased 
in  the  States  as  he  expected,  he  did  not  think  three 
of  the  larger  States  would  still  consent  to  be  gov- 
erned by  four  of  the  smaller  ones.  He  hoped  that 
when  the  time  came  there  would  not  be  bloodshed, 
but  that  tilings  would  settle  themselves  in  a  man- 
ner worthy  of  the  records  of  the  first  Parliament.' 
Believing,  as  Ministers  do,  that  the  peaceful  and 
successful  working  of  the  Constitution  depends 
upon  the  strict  maintenance  of  the  lines  of  de- 
marcation between  the  powers  of  the  Common- 
wealth and  those  of  the  States,  and  that  that  line 
is  drawn  clearly  in  the  Constitution,  they  cannot 
agree  to  the  opinions  of  the  Right  Honourable  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  which  in- 
crease, by  implication,  the  power  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  which  seem  to  Ministers  to  tend  to 
Unification,  and  to  a  sacrifice  of  the  Federal  to 
the  National  principle."  This  communication, 
transmitted  to  London,  drew  from  the  then  colo- 
nial secretary,  Mr.  Chamberlain,  a  reply  addressed 
to  the  lieutenant-governor  and  dated  April  15,  1903, 
in  part  as  follows:  "Your  Ministers  contend  'that 
the  grant  of  power  to  the  Commonwealth,  notwith- 
standing the  general  terms  of  Section  3  of  the  Acl, 
is  strictly  limited  to  the  Departments  transferred, 


644 


AUSTRALIA,  1902 


Naval  Act 
Federal  elections 


AUSTRALIA,  1903-1904 


and  to  matters  upon  which  the  Commonwealth 
Parliament  has  power  to  make  laws  and  has  made 
laws,'  and  that  'in  the  distribution  of  legislative 
and  consequently  of  executive  power,  made  by 
the  Constitution,  all  powers  not  specifically  ceded 
to  the  Commonwealth  remain  in  the_5tates.'  They 
are  unable  to  agree  'with  the  contention  that  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  anything  in  the  Constitu- 
tion to  justify  this  limitation,'  and  argue  that  the 
validity  of  any  claim  of  the  Commonwealth  to 
any  particular  power,  should  be  tested  by  enquir- 
ing:— Does  the  Constitution  specifically  confer  the 
power?  The  view  of  the  Act  which  I  take  is  that 
it  is  a  Constitution  Act,  and  creates  a  new  political 
community.  It  expressly  declares  that  'the  people 
of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia, 
Queensland,  and  Tasmania,  and  also,  if  Her  Majesty 
is  satisfied  that  the  people  of  Western  Australia 
have  agreed  thereto,  of  Western  Australia,  shall 
be  united  in  a  Federal  Commonwealth  under  the 
name  of  the  Coinmonwealth  of  Australia.'  The 
object  and  scope  of  the  Act  is  defined  and  declared 
by  the  preamble  to  be  to  give  effect  to  the  agree- 
ment of  the  people  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
South  Australia,  Queensland,  and  Tasmania  'to 
unite  in  one  indissoluble  Federal  Commonwealth 
under  the  Crown  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  under  the  Constitution 
hereby  established."  The  whole  Act  must  be  read 
in  the  light  of  this  declaration  and  the  provisions 
of  Section  3.  So  far  as  other  communities  in  the 
Empire  or  foreign  nations  are  concerned,  the  people 
of  Australia  form  one  political  community  for 
which  the  Government  of  the  Commonwealth 
alone  can  speak,  and  for  everything  affecting  ex- 
ternal states  or  communities,  which  takes  place 
within  its  boundaries,  that  Government  is  respon- 
sible. The  distribution  of  powers  between  the 
Federal  and  State  Authorities  is  a  matter  of  purely 
internal  concern  of  which  no  external  country  or 
community  can  take  any  cognizance.  It  is  to  the 
Commonwealth  and  the  Commonwealth  alone  that, 
through  the  Imperial  Government,  they  must  look, 
for  remedy  or  relief  for  any  action  affecting  them 
done  witfiin  the  bounds  of  the  Commonwealth, 
whether  it  is  the  act  of  a  private  individual,  of  a 
State  official,  or  of  a  State  government.  The  Com- 
monwealth is,  through  His  Majesty's  Government, 
just  as  responsible  for  any  action  of  South  Aus- 
tralia affecting  an  external  community  as  the 
United  States  of  America  are  for  the  action  of 
Louisiana  or  any  other  State  of  the  Union.  The 
Crown  undoubtedly  remains  part  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  State  of  South  Australia  and,  in  mat- 
ters affecting  it  in  that  capacity,  the  proper  channel 
of  communication  is  between  the  Secretary  of  State 
and  the  State  Governor.  But  in  matters  affecting 
the  Crown  in  its  capacity  as  the  central  authority 
of  the  Empire,  the  Secretary  of  State  can,  since 
the  people  of  Australia  have  become  one  political 
community,  look  only  to  the  Governor-General, 
as  the  representative  of  the  Crown  in  that  com- 
munity." The  published  correspondence  ends  with 
this,  and  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  South  Australia 
had  no  more  to  say. — Correspondriice  rcspertiiig 
the  constitutional  relations  of  the  Australian  com- 
monwealth and  states  in  regard  to  external  affairs 
(Parliamentary  papers,  Cd.   i.=;87). 

1902. — British  colonial  conference  at  London. 
See  British  empire:  Colonial  and  imperial  confer- 
ences:   1902. 

1902. — Governor-generalship. — Lord  Hopetoun 
resigned  as  governor-general  in  the  summer,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Lord  Tennyson. 

1902-1909. — Undertakings  of  irrigation  and 
forestry.  See  Conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources:  Australia. 


1903. — Governor-generalship. — In  August,  Lord 
Northcote,  previously  governor  of  the  presidency 
of  Bombay,  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
.\uslralia,  succeeding  Lord  Tennyson. 

1903-1913. — The  Naval  Agreement  Act. — The 
Naval  Agreement  Act  of  1903  provided  that  the 
naval  force  at  the  Australian  naval  headquarters  at 
Sydney  was  to  consist  of  not  less  than  one  first 
class  armoured  cruiser,  two  second  class  and  four 
third  class  cruisers,  four  sloops  and  a  Royal  Naval 
Reserve  of  700  seamen  and  stokers  and  twenty 
five  officers.  It  was  also  stipulated  that  the  base 
of  the  force  should  be  the  ports  of  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  and  the  field  of  operation  be  in  the 
waters  of  Australia,  China  and  the  East  Indian 
stations.  Another  provision  stated  that  one  ship 
be  held  in  reserve  and  that  three  others,  partly 
manned,  be  used  for  the  training  of  the  Royal 
Naval  Reserve.  Special  rates  were  paid  to  Aus- 
tralians and  new  Zealandcrs  who  manned  the 
training  ships,  which  were  under  the  command  of 
officers  of  the  Royal  Navy  and  Royal  Naval  Re- 
serve.   The  act  expired  in  1013. 

1903-1904. — Resignation  of  Premier  Barton. — 
Deakin  ministry. — Four  months  of  power  for 
the  Labor  party. — Its  influence  in  the  common- 
wealth.— Sir  Edmund  Barton,  who  had  been  the 
prime  minister  of  the  Australian  commonwealth 
since  its  union  in  1000,  resigned  in  1003  to  accept 
a  place  on  the  bench  of  the  high  federal  court,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Alfred  Deakin,  previously 
attorney-general  in  the  federal  cabinet.  The  most 
important  occurrence  of  the  year  in  the  common- 
wealth was  the  election  of  a  new  house  of  repre- 
sentatives in  the  federal  Parliament  and  of  one 
third  of  its  senate.  These  were  the  first  federal 
elections  occurring  since  those  of  1000  which  con- 
stituted the  original  Parliament,  opened  in  May, 
iqoi,  and  the  first  in  which  women  went  to  the 
polls.  The  main  issue  in  the  elections  was  between 
the  Labor  party  and  its  opponents,  and  the  rising 
power  of  the  former  was  shown  by  its  gain  of  six 
seats  in  each  house,  four  from  the  ministry  and 
two  from  the  opposition  in  the  senate,  and  all  six 
from  the  ministry  in  the  lower  house.  This  threw 
the  balance  of  power  into  its  hands  in  both 
branches  of  Parliament.  Naturally,  in  these  cir- 
cumstances, labor  questions  became  dominant  in 
Australian  politics,  with  Socialistic  tendencies  very 
strong.  The  Deakin  ministry  was  defeated  in 
April  1QO4,  on  an  industrial  arbitration  bill  which 
excluded  state  railway  employes  and  other  civil 
servants  from  its  provisions,  contrary  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  Labor  party.  The  adverse  ma- 
jority was  made  up  of  twenty-three  Labor  repre- 
sentatives, thirteen  opponents  of  the  protectionist 
policy  of  the  government,  and  four  from  the  ranks 
of  its  own  ordinary  supporters.  The  ministry  re- 
signed, and  the  leader  of  the  Labor  party,  Mr.  J.  C. 
Watson,  a  young  compositor  by  trade,  was  called 
to  form  a  government,  which  he  did,  drawing  all 
but  its  law  officer  from  the  Labor  party.  It  is 
creditable  to  the  capability  of  this  Labor  ministry 
that,  with  so  precarious  a  backing  in  the  house,  it 
should  have  held  the  management  of  government, 
with  apparently  good  satisfaction  to  the  public, 
for  about  four  months.  It  was  defeated  in  Au- 
gust on  another  labor  question,  and  gave  way  to  a 
coalition  ministry  of  Free  Traders  and  Moderate 
Protectionists,  formed  under  Mr.  George  Houston 
Reid.  An  account  of  the  Labor  ministry  and  its 
leader,  from  which  the  following  facts  are  taken, 
was  given  by  Review  of  Reviews  for  Australasia 
at  the  time  of  its  ascendancy:  The  average  age  of 
the  members  was  only  forty-three  years,  while  in 
England  sixty  is  the  average  age  at  which  cor- 
responding rank  is  attained.     The  nationalities  of 


645 


AUSTRALIA,  1903-1904 


Labor  Party 


AUSTRALIA,  1905-1906 


the  members  were  as  follows:  One,  the  prime 
minister,  was  a  New  Zealander,  two  were  Aus- 
tralian-born, two  were  Irish,  two  were  Scotch,  and 
one  was  Welsh.  There  was  not  one  who  had 
been  born  in  England.  Mr.  John  Christian  Wat- 
son, the  premier,  was  but  thirty-seven  years  of 
age.  He  was  born  in  Valparaiso,  where  his  par- 
ents were  on  a  visit,  but  was  only  a  few  months 
old  when  they  returned  to  New  Zealand.  At  an 
early  age  he  began  his  apprenticeship  as  a  com- 
positor, joining  the  typographical  union.  When 
nineteen,  he  came  to  Sydney  and  joined  the  com- 
posing staff  of  the  Star.  Then  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Sydney  Trades  and  Labor  Council,  and 
president  of  the  Political  Labor  League  of  New 
South  Wales.  In  1894,  he  was  returned  to  a  New 
South  Wales  Parliament,  and  took  the  leading  place 
among  the  Labor  members.  In  1901,-  he  was  re- 
turned to  the  first  federal  Parliament.  He  was 
selected  to  lead  the  Labor  party  in  the  federal 
house.  The  situation  developed  in  this  period  is 
described  by  an  Artierican  writer,  whose  sympa- 
thies were  with  the  Labor  party,  as  follows;  "Pro- 
tectionists and  Free  Traders  (so  called)  were  so 
divided  in  the  Australian  Parliament  that  neither 
could  gain  a  majority  without  the  Labor  Party. 
A  succession  of  governments  bowled  over  by  labor 
votes  drove  this  hard  fact  into  the  political  intel- 
ligence. The  Labor  Party  was  then  invited  to 
take  the  government.  For  five  months  men  that 
had  been  carpenters,  bricklayers,  and  painters  ad- 
ministered the  nation's  affairs.  No  convulsion  of 
nature  followed,  no  upheavals  and  no  disasters. 
It  is  even  admitted  that  the  government  of  these 
men  was  conspicuously  wise,  able,  and  successful. 
But  having  a  minority  party,  their  way  was  neces- 
sarily precarious,  and  on  the  chance  blow  of  an 
adverse  vote  they  resigned.  Some  scene  shifting 
followed,  but  in  the  end  the  present  arrangement 
was  reached,  by  which  the  government  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Protectionists  that  follow  Mr,  Deakin, 
and  the  ministry  is  supported  by  the  Labor  Party 
on  condition  that  the  Government  adopt  certain 
legislation.  .\nd  that  is  the  extent  of  the  'absolute 
rule  of  the  Labor  gang.'  The  Deakin  Government 
does  not  greatly  care  for  the  Labor  Party,  nor  for 
the  Labor  Party's  ideas,  but  it  rules  by  reason  of 
the  Labor  Party's  support,  and  in  return  therefor 
has  passed  certain  moderate  and  well-intentioned 
measures  of  reform.  Indeed  the  sura-total  of  the 
'revolutionary,  radical,  and  socialistic  laws'  passed 
by  the  Labor  Party,  directly  or  by  bargaining  with 
the  Deakin  or  other  ministries,  indicates  an  ex- 
ceedingly gentle  order  of  revolution.  It  has  done 
much  in  New  South  Wales  and  elsewhere  to  miti- 
gate the  great  estate  evil  by  enacting  graduated 
land  taxes;  it  has  passed  humane  and  reasonable 
laws  regulating  employers'  liability  for  accidents 
to  workmen  and  laws  greatly  bettering  the  hard 
conditions  of  labor  in  mines  and  factories.  It  has 
passed  a  law  to  exclude  trusts  from  Australian 
soil.  It  has  stood  for  equal  rights  for  men  and 
women.  In  New  South  Wales  it  has  enormously 
bettered  conditions  for  toilers  by  regulating  hours 
of  employment  even  in  department  and  other 
stores  and  by  instituting  a  weekly  half-holiday  the 
year  around  for  everybody.  It  has  tried  with  a 
defective  Arbitration  and  Conciliation  Act  to  abol- 
ish strikes.  To  guard  .Australia  against  the  sober- 
ing terrors  of  the  race  problem  that  confronts 
America,  it  has  succeeded  in  keeping  out  colored 
aliens.  It  has  agitated  for  a  Henry  George  land 
tax  and  for  the  national  ownership  of  public  ser- 
vices and  obvious  monopolies.  And  with  one  ex- 
ception this  is  the  full  catalogue  of  its  misdeeds." 
The  "one  exception"  was  the  abolition  of  coolie 
labor. — C.  E,  Russell,  Uprising  of  the  many,  ch.  24. 


1903-1908. — Anti-Indian  agitations.     See  R.ace 

problems:    igoj-iqoS. 

1905-1906, — Mr.  Deakin's  precarious  ministry, 
— Power  of  the  Labor  party  without  responsi- 
bility,— Its  principles  and  its  "Fighting  plat- 
form,"— Important  legislation  of  1905, — Federal 
capital  question, — General  election  of  1906, — 
Mr.  Reid,  the  Free  Trade  premier,  had  taken  office 
on  an  agreement  with  Mr.  Deakin,  the  Protection- 
ist leader,  that  the  tariff  question  should  not  be 
opened  during  the  terra  of  the  existing  Parliament. 
But  the  truce  became  broken  early  in  1905,  each 
party  attributing  the  breach  to  the  other,  and  the 
Reid  ministry,  beaten  on  an  amendment  to  the 
address  replying  to  the  governor-general's  speech, 
resigned.  The  Protectionists,  in  provisional  al- 
liance with  the  Labor  party,  then  came  back  to 
power,  with  Mr.  Deakin  at  their  head.  Of  the 
political  situation  in  1905  it  was  said  by  a  writer 
in  one  of  the  English  reviews;  "The  Labour  Party 
can  dictate  terms  to  the  Ministry,  and  ensure  that 
its  own  policy  is  carried  out  by  others.  It  is 
strongest  whilst  it  sits  on  the  cross  benches.  Dur- 
ing the  few  months  it  was  in  office  it  was  at  the 
mercy  of  Parliament;  it  left  most  of  the  planks 
of  its  platform  severely  alone,  and  it  had,  during 
that  time,  less  real  pow'er  than  it  has  had  either 
before  or  since.  It  is  not  likely  again  to  take 
office,  unless  it  can  command  an  absolute  majority 
of  its  own  members  to  give  effect  to  its  own  ideas, 
and,  indeed,  it  perhaps  would  be  better  for  Aus- 
tralia that  it  had  responsibility  as  well  as  power, 
rather  than  as  at  present  power  without  responsi- 
bility. However,  if  not  at  the  next  general  elec- 
tion, the  party  is  bound  ere  long  to  get  the  clear 
Parliamentary  majority  it  seeks.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, great  importance  attaches  to  its  aims 
and  organisation.  ...  To  quote  from  the  official 
report  of  the  decisions  of  the  last  Triennial  Con- 
ference of  the  Political  Labour  organisations  of 
the  Commonwealth,  which  sat  in  Melbourne  last 
July,  the  objective  of  the  Federal  Labour  party  is 
as  follows:  (a)  The  cultivation  of  an  .Australian 
sentiment,  based  upon  the  maintenance  of  racial 
purity,  and  the  development  in  .Australia  of  an 
enlightened  and  self-reliant  community,  (b)  The 
security  of  the  full  results  of  their  industry  to  all 
producers  by  the  collective  ownership  of  monop- 
olies, and  the  extension  of  the  industrial  and  eco- 
nomic functions  of  the  State  and  Municipality, 
The  Labour  party  seek  to  achieve  this  objective  by 
means  of  a  policy  that  they  invariably  refer  to 
as  their  platform.  The  planks  of  what  is  called 
the  'Fighting  Platform'  are  as  follows:  (i)  The 
maintenance  of  a  white  .Australia.  (2)  The  na- 
tionahsation  of  monopolies.  (3)  Old  age  pensions. 
{4)  A  tariff  referendum.  (5)  .\  progressive  tax 
on  unimproved  land  values.  (6)  The  restriction 
of  public  borrowing.  (7)  Navigation  laws.  (8) 
A  citizen  defence  force.  (9)  .Arbitration  amend- 
ment."— J.  U.  Kirwan,  Australian  labour  party 
(Xineteenth  Century,  Nov..  1Q05.) 

.A  strike  in  one  of  the  coal  mines  of  New  South 
Wales  during  1005  brought  the  arbitration  act 
of  that  province  to  an  unsatisfactory  test.  The 
dispute,  concerning  wages,  went  to  the  arbitra- 
tion court  and  was  decided  against  the  miners. 
They  refused  to  accept  the  decision,  abandoning 
work,  and  the  court,  when  appealed  to  by  the 
employers,  found  itself  powerless  to  enforce  the 
decision  it  had  made.  The  judge  resigned  in  con- 
sequence, and  there  was  difficulty  in  finding  another 
to  take  his  seat.  The  Labor  party  secured  the 
passage  of  an  act  which  gives  the  trades-union 
label  the  force  of  a  trade  mark.  Another  impor- 
tant act  of  1905  modified  the  immigration  re- 
striction act,  so  far  as  to  admit  Asiatic  and  other 


646 


AUSTRALIA,  1906 


Trans- Australian 
Railway 


AUSTRALIA,  1907-1920 


alien  students  and  merchants,  whose  stay  in  the 
countiy  was  not  likely  to  be  permanent,  and, 
furthermore,  permitted  the  introduction  of  white 
labor  under  the  contract,  subject  to  conditions  that 
were  expected  to  prevent  any .  lowering  of  stand- 
ard wages.  The  location  of  a  federal  capital 
became  a  subject  of  positive  quarrel  between  the 
government  of  the  commonwealth  and  that  of 
New  South  Wales.  By  agreements  which  pre- 
ceded the  federation,  the  commonwealth  capital 
was  to  be  in  New  South  Wales,  but  not  less  than 
a  hundred  miles  from  Sydney.  This  hundred-mile 
avoidance  of  Sydney  was  considerably  exceeded 
by  the  federal  government  when  it  chose  a  site, 
to  be  called  Dalgety,  about  equidistant  from 
Sydney  and  Melbourne.  New  South  Wales  ob- 
jected to  the  site  and  objected  to  the  extent  of 
territory  demanded  for  it.  Mr.  Deakin  proposed 
a  survey  of  go  square  miles  for  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict. New  South  Wales  saw  no  reason  for  fed- 
eral jurisdiction  over  more  than  loo  square  miles. 
Ultimately  Dalgety  was  rejected  and  a  site  named 
Yass-Canberra,  or  Canberra,  was  agreed  upon 
and  the  choice  confirmed  by  legislation.  It  is 
in  the  Murray  district,  about  200  miles  south- 
west of  Sydney.  A  general  election  in  the  com- 
monwealth, near  the  close  of  1906,  gave  the  pro- 
tectionists a  small  increase  of  strength  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  the  Labor  party  gained  one  seat,  raising 
its  representation  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-six. 
The  losers  were  the  so-called  Free  Traders,  or 
opponents  of  protective  tariff-making.  Their 
leader,  Mr.  Reid,  in  the  canvass,  dropped  the 
tariff  and  made  war  on  the  state  socialism  of 
the  Labor  party.  He  held  in  the  new  Parliament 
a  considerably  larger  following  than  the  Protec- 
tionist premier,  Mr.  Deakin,  could  muster,  but  it 
contained   more   Protectionists   than   Free  Traders. 

1906. — Developing  the  v/^ater  supply.  See  Con- 
servation OF  Natural  Resot-trces:   .iVustralia. 

1907. — "New  protection,"  under  the  Tariff  Ex- 
cise Act.  See  Labor  Remuneration:  "New  Pro- 
tection." 

1907. — Colonial  conference  at  London.  See 
British  empire:  Colonial  and  imperial  confer- 
ences:  1907. 

1907-1920. — Trans- Australian  railway. — Trans- 
fer of  Northern  territory  to  the  commonwealth. 
— "A  question  of  vital  interest  to  Western  Australia 
was  that  of  the  construction  of  a  railway  con- 
necting Perth  with  the  eastern  States.  Forrest  was 
wont  to  say  that  the  principal  reason  which  led 
the  western  State  to  join  the  Commonwealth  was 
that  assurances  were  given  to  him  that  the  railway 
would  be  built.  The  railway,  he  maintained,  was 
the  inducement  offered  to  \Vestern  .Australia,  just 
as  the  possession  of  the  federal  capital  within  her 
territory  was  the  inducement  to  New  South  Wales. 
But  the  Constitution  imposed  no  obligation  to 
construct  the  line,  and  nobody  had  any  authority 
to  pledge  the  Commonwealth  in  advance  to  do 
anything  which  the  Constitution  did  not  require  to 
be  done.  The  alleged  compact  may  not  have 
weighed  with  the  Federal  Parliament,  but  the  un- 
desirableness  of  having  a  whole  State  cut  off  by 
a  great  distance  from  the  rest  of  the  Common- 
wealth, without  railway  connexion,  certainly  did. 
If  only  for  military  reasons,  it  was  felt  that  the 
chain  of  steel  should  be  forged.  The  project  was 
promised  in  the  programme  of  the  Barton  Govern- 
ment in  iQoi,  and  had  been  part  of  the  policy 
of  every  successive  Ministry.  The  whole  of  the 
Western  Australian  members  were  continually  in- 
sistent about  it.  At  length,  in  1007,  an  Act  was 
passed  providing  money  for  the  survey  of  the  1,063 
miles  of  route  between  Port  Augusta,  at  the  head 
of  Spencer's  Gulf,  and  Kalgoorlie,  in  the  western 


State,  whence  a  railway  already  ran  to  Perth.  The 
surveyors  found,  as  was  expected,  that  the  coun- 
try to  be  traversed  by  the  line  is  largely  unfit  for 
human  habitation ;  but  they  also  found  plenty  of 
good  grass  land  which  in  favourable  seasons  will  be 
valuable.  Acting  on  the  surveyor's  report,  the 
Fisher  Government,  in  igii,  secured  the  passage  of 
a  measure  to  authorize  the  construction  of  the  line, 
which  was  estimated  to  cost  about  four  million 
pounds." — E.  Scott,  Short  history  of  Australia,  p. 
323. — How  to  attract  population  to  the  Northern 
Territory  has  been  a  problem  which  invited  many 
experiments  since  1S63,  when  it  was  annexed  by 
royal  letters  patent  to  South  Australia.  The  pros- 
pects for  the  development  of  that  region  were 
brighter  than  ever  at  the  end  of  1920,  chiefly  owing 
to  the  approaching  completion  of  the  Trans- 
Australian  railway  which  would  permit  of  exten- 
sive migration,  settlements  and  exploitation  of  the 
country's  natural  resources.  The  Northern  Terri- 
tory entered  the  commonwealth  as  a  part  of  the 
state  of  South  Australia  in  1901  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  the  federation.  In  accordance  with  a 
provision  in  the  commonwealth  constitution  act  of 
1900  and  a  contract  agreement  entered  into  in  1907, 
the  Northern  Territory  was  transferred  to'  the 
commonwealth.  This  was  formally  approved  in 
1911  when  the  necessary  legislation  was  passed  by 
the  two  parliaments  concerned.  At  the  same  time 
the  commonwealth  assumed  all  responsibility  for 
the  state  loans  contracted  by  South  Australia  in 
the  interest  of  the  territory.  It  also  purchased  the 
railway  from  Port  Augusta  to  Oodnadatta,  and 
began  the  arduous  undertaking  of  constructing  the 
Trans-.^ustralian  railway  system.  A  great  deal  of 
the  development  of  the  Northern  Territory,  which 
opened  up  large  areas  of  unoccupied  land  to 
graziers  and  settlers  from  the  southern  parts  of 
Australia,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  expert  management 
of  Dr.  Gilruth,  the  administrator  of  the  territory. 
As  a  result  of  his  energetic  work  profitable  settle- 
ments are  springing  up  along  the  nearly  completed 
lines.  The  whole  situation  is  an  improvement  over 
the  condition  of  the  territory  when  controlled  from 
Adelaide.  When  completed,  the  Trans-Australian 
railway  will  be  linked  with  the  Western  Australian 
system  387  miles  from  the  sea  and  with  the  South 
Australian  railway  system  at  about  260  miles  from 
Adelaide.  Considerable  work  still  remains  undone 
although  the  railway  was  officially  opened  in  No- 
vember, 1917.  Throughout  the  course  of  the  con- 
struction work  many  difficult  situations  presented 
themselves.  Frequent  failures  by  contractors  to 
meet  the  terms  of  the  contracts  delayed  the  im- 
mense undertaking.  A  lack  of  suitable  water  for 
locomotives,  causing  numerous  delays  and  heavy 
unforeseen  expenses,  was  another  handicap  of  no 
slight  importance.  The  sub-normal  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  on  by  the  Great  War  held  up  the 
construction  of  large  sections  of  the  road  for  fully 
a  year  and  often  longer.  Lack  of  water  ior  loco- 
motives is  still  a  very  serious  problem  which  must 
be  solved,  since  there  is  no  running  stream  through- 
out the  length  of  the  railway.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  possibilities  for  pastoral  and  mineral 
development  existed  in  the  section,  and  whether 
conditions  were  favorable  to  the  construction  of 
reservoirs,  explorations  were  made  in  1917-1918  ex- 
tending to  seventy  miles  north  of  the  line.  The 
road  runs  almost  entirely  through  unexplored  ter- 
ritory. It  opens  up  vast  spaces  in  western  and 
southern  .Australia.  It  is  expected  that  the  mining 
fields  along  this  line  will  be  developed  to  the  great 
advantage  of  this  region.  All  along  the  route  of 
the  railway  valuable  clays,  salt  and  barytes  have 
been  discovered.  Gold,  opal,  copper,  tin  and  gyp- 
sum mines  are  also  in  evidence.    According  to  the 


647 


AUSTRALIA,   1908 


Return  of  Deakin 


AUSTRALIA,   1909 


South  Australian  government  geologist,  "there  is 
ample  justification  for  any  opal  miner  going  to 
Stuart  Range  to  look  forward  to  the  discovery  of 
valuable  opal." — See  also  Railroads:   iqo8-iQi8. 

1908. — Population  of  the  commonwealth. — 
Change  of  ministry. — Governor-generalship. — 
According  to  a  letter  to  the  London  Times,  from 
Sydney,  "the  population  of  .Australia  on  December 
31,  1Q08,  was  estimated  at  4,275,304  (exclusive  of 
full-blooded  blacks),  showing  an  increase  of 
509,965,  or  of  13.5  per  cent,  in  the  eight  years  of 
federation.  That,"  said  the  writer,  "is  not  a  sat- 
isfactory e.-spansion,  and  we  should  have  fared 
better.  New  South  Wales  gained  231,367,  or  17 
per  cent,  and  Western  .\ustralia  87,143.  or  48.4 
per  cent,  but  all  the  other  States  fared  indiffer- 
ently. There  is  reason  to  hope  that  in  the  change 
of  fashion,  Australia  will  again  grow  into  some 
favour  with  the  emigrant  from  home."  Late  in 
the  vear,  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Deakin  lost  the  pro- 
visional support  of  the  Labor  party,  which  had 
kept  it  in  control  of  the  government  for  nearly 
four  years,  and  suffered  a  defeat  in  Parliament 
which  threw  it  out.  For  the  second  time  a  short- 
lived Labor  ministry  was  formed,  under  Mr. 
Andrew  Fisher.  After  five  years  of  service  as 
governor-general.  Lord  Northcote  returned  to 
England  in  the  fall  of  1908  and  was  succeeded  by 
Lord  Dudlev. 

1909.— Attitude  of  the  people  toward  immi- 
gration.—Land-locking  against  settlement. 
See  Immigration  axd  emigration:  Australia: 
1909-1921. 

1909. — A  Summary  of  sixty  years  of  growth 
and  progress.— Sir  John  Forrest,  treasurer  of  the 
commonwealth  of  Australia,  in  his  budget  speech 
to  the  federal  house  of  representatives,  in  .\ugust, 
1909,  surveyed  the  position  of  Australia  as  part  of 
the  British  nation, — a  continent,  he  observed,  con- 
taining two  billion  acres,  with  a  coast  line  of  12,000 
miles,  no  other  nation  having  right  or  title  to 
any  part  of  this  splendid  heritage  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  which  was  another  home  for  the 
British  race.  Sixty  years  ago,  said  Sir  John,  the 
population  of  Australia  was  400.000  and  there 
were  no  railways.  Now  the  inhabitants  numbered 
nearly  four-and-a-half  millions,  of  whom  96  per 
cent,  were  British.  They  had  £112,000,000  de- 
posited in  banks  and  deposits  in  savings  banks 
to  the  amount  of  over  £46.000.000,  the  depositors 
in  these  being  one-third  of  the  entire  population. 
They  had  produced  minerals  to  the  value  of 
£713,000,000.  Ten  million  acres  were  under  crop. 
During  1908  .Australia  had  produced  62,000.000 
bushels  of  wheat.  It  had  exported  butter  of  the 
value  of  £2,387,000  and  wool  of  the  value  of 
£23,000,000.  .Australia  had  90,000,000  sheep, 
10,000,000  cattle,  and  2,000,000  horses.  The  over- 
sea trade  in  1908  represented  £114,000,000. — See 
also  Democracy:  Progress  in  the  early  part  of  the 
20th  century. 

1909  (May-June). — Opening  of  the  session  of 
Parliament. — Program  of  business  proposed. — 
Political  situation.— Coalition  under  Mr.  Deakin 
against  the  ministry.— Its  success. — Resignation 
of  Premier  Fisher  and  cabinet. — Return  of  Mr. 
Deakin  to  power. — His  program. — The  federal 
Parliament  was  opened  at  Melbourne  on  May  26. 
In  the  speech  of  the  governor-general.  Lord  Dud- 
ley, as  reported  to  the  Enelish  press,  he  stated  that 
"notwithstanding  a  decrease  in  the  Customs  and 
postal  revenue,  arrangements  had  been  made  to 
pay  old-age  pensions  from  July  i.  Large  financial 
obligations  would  be  incurred  in  the  near  future 
and  would  demand  careful  attention.  Parliarnent 
would  be  invited  to  consider  the  financial  relations 
between  the  Commonwealth  and  the  States,  with 


a  view  to  an  equitable  adjustment  of  them.  Pro- 
posals would  be  submitted  for  the  establishment 
of  a  Commonwealth  silver  and  paper  currency. 
The  governor-general  went  on  to  refer  to  the 
coming  Imperial  Defence  Conference  and  the 
establishment  of  a  General  Staff  for  the  Empire. 
Engagements  had,  he  said,  been  entered  into  for  the 
building  of  three  destroyers,  and  Parliament  would 
be  asked  to  approve  a  policy  of  naval  construction 
including  the  building  of  similar  vessels  in  .Australia 
and  the  training  of  the  necessary  crews.  A  meas- 
ure providing  for  an  effective  citizens'  defence 
force  would  be  introduced  at  an  early  stage.  It 
being  recognized  that  the  effective  defence  of  .Aus- 
tralia required  a  vast  increase  in  the  population, 
it  was  proposed  to  introduce  a  measure  of  pro- 
gressive taxation  on  unimproved  land  values,  lead- 
ing to  a  subdivision  of  large  estates,  so  as  to  offer 
immigrants  the  inducement  necessary  to  attract 
them  in  large  numbers.  Proposals  would  be 
submitted  for  the  amendment  of  the  Constitution, 
so  as  to  enable  Parliament  to  protect  the  interests 
of  the  consumer  while  ensuring  a  fair  and  reason- 
able wage  to  every  worker,  to  extend  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Parliament  in  regard  to  trusts  and  combina- 
tions, and  to  provide  for  the  nationalization  of 
monopolies." 

In   an   editorial  article   on   the  situation   at   this 
juncture  in  .Australia,  which  was,  it  remarked,  "as 
interesting    as   it   is   obscure,"   the   London    Times 
rehearsed  the  main  facts  of  it  as  follows:     "It  will 
be  remembered  that  towards  the  close  of  last  year 
the  withdrawal  of  its  support  by  the  Labour  party 
led  somewhat  unexpectedly  to  the  defeat  and  resig- 
nation of  Mr.  Deakin's  Cabinet.     \  Labour  Min- 
istry  was  subsequently   formed,  and   was   enabled 
by  Mr.  Deakin's  refusal  to  combine  with  the  Oppo- 
sition  against  it  to  prorogue   Parliament   and  get 
into  recess.     It  has  since  elaborated  a  programme, 
announced  by  Mr.  Fisher,  the  Prime  Minister,  to 
his  constituents  at  Gympie,  a  few  weeks  ago,  and 
recapitulated  yesterday  in   the   Governor-General's 
speech,  which  strongly  resembles  in  most  particu- 
lars the  national  policy  advocated  by  Mr.  Deakin 
when  in  power,  and  includes  besides  one  or  two 
additional    proposals,   such   as   'the   nationalization 
of  monopolies,'  more   exclusively   the  property  of 
the   Labour  party   itself.     These  latter  aspirations 
are  probably   more  pious  than   practical,  and  are 
certainly  not  the  issues  on  which  the  Labour  Min- 
istry is  now  to  stand  or  fall.     It  will  stand  or  fall 
by    its    proposals    for    the    readjustment    of    the 
financial  relations  between  the  Commonwealth  and 
the   States,    the    establishment    of    a    local    flotilla 
designed    for   coastal    defence,    the    creation    of    a 
citizen  army  based  on  universal  training,  and  the 
imposition  of  a  progressive  land  tax  calculated  to 
bring  about  the  subdivision  of  large  estates.     This 
latter    proposal    is    the    only    one    in    which    the 
Labour  party  cannot  claim  to  be  carrying  out  the 
spirit,  if  not  the  letter,  of  Mr.  Deakin's  own  pro- 
gramme; but,  curiously  enough,  it  does  not  seem  to 
be   the  question   on  which   Mr.  Deakin   has  taken 
immediate   issue   with   them.     He   is   taking   issue, 
we  gather,  first  and  foremost  on  the  question  of 
defence.     The  Labour  Ministry  is  to  be  censured 
for   refusing   to   make  the   offer  of  the  .Australian 
Dreadnought  in  the  name  of  the  Commonwealth. 
In  taking  this  line  Mr.  Deakin  has  already  made 
it  clear  that  he  has  not  in  any  way  modified  his 
previous  views  on  the  necessity  of  providing  imme- 
diately  for  the  creation   of   an   .Australian   flotilla, 
but  he  considers  that  this  necessity  should  in  no 
way  prevent  .Australia  from  adding  in  emergency 
to  the  strength  of  the   British  fleet.     Speaking  at 
Sydney   last   month,   he   said:    'Our   defence   need? 
not  only  our  own  flotilla  but  a  fleet  on  the  high 


648 


AUSTRALIA,   190g 


Braddon  Section 
of  Constitution 


AUSTRALIA,  1910 


seas  as  well.  It  is  for  us  to  recognize  that  by 
joinirg  New  Zealand  and  making  our  offer  of  a 
Dreadnought  for  the  Imperial  Navy  ...  the  Com- 
monwealth must  do  its  share  to  prove  the  reality 
of  Australia's  federal  unity,  to  prove  the  unity  of 
the  Empire,  to  stand  beside  the  stock  from  which 
we  came.'  On  this  point  there  is  no  obscurity. 
It  presents  a  clear  difference  of  view  dividing  Mr. 
Deakin  and  the  two  sections  of  the  Opposition 
with  which  he  has  now  coalesced  from  the  policy 
of  the  Ministry  in  power.  But  while  it  provides 
a  rallying  ground  from  which  the  coalition  may 
defeat  the  Ministry,  it  provides  no  subsequent  line 
of  united  advance.  The  terms  on  which  the  coali- 
tion has  been  formed  seem  indeed  to  contemplate 
no  definite  policy  at  all." 

The  coalition  against-  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Fisher, 
referred  to  above,  accomplished  its  purpose  on 
the  day  after  the  opening  of  Parliament,  by  carry- 
ing a  vote  of  adjournment  which  the  ministry 
accepted  as  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence,  and  re- 
signed. The  former  premier,  Mr.  Deakin,  then 
resumed  the  reins  of  government,  with  a  following 
that  does  not  seem  to  have  been  expected  to  hold 
together  very  long.  On  the  reassembling  of  Parlia- 
ment, June  23,  the  prime  minister  made  a  state- 
ment of  the  business  to  be  submitted  to  the 
house,  including  along  with  other  measures  the 
following:  "A  Bill  would  be  introduced  establish- 
ing an  inter-State  commission  which,  in  addition 
to  the  powers  conferred  by  the  Constitution, 
would  undertake  many  of  the  functions  of  the 
British  Board  of  Trade.  It  would  also  undertake 
the  duties  of  a  Federal  Labour  Bureau,  which 
would  comprise  the  study  of  the  question  of  un- 
employment and  a  scheme  for  insurance  against 
unemployment.  The  commission  would  also  assist 
in  the  supervision  of  the  working  of  the  existing 
Customs  tariff An  active  policy  of  immigra- 
tion would  be  undertaken,  it  was  hoped  with  the 
co-operation  of  all  the  States.  .  .  .  The  appoint- 
ment of  a  High  Commissioner  in  London  with  a 
well-equipped  office  was  necessary  to  take  charge 
of  the  financial  interests  of  the  Commonwealth,  to 
supervise  immigration,  and  to  foster  trade  and 
commerce.  .  .  .  The  Old  Age  Pensions  Act  was  to 
be  amended  in  the  direction  of  simplifying  the 
conditions  for  obtaining  the  pensions.  .  .  .  The 
policy  of  the  Government  in  the  matter  of  land 
defence  would  be  founded  on  universal  training, 
commencing  in  youth  and  continuing  towards 
manhood.  A  military  college,  a  school  of  mus- 
ketry, and  probably  a  primary  naval  college  would 
be  established  to  train  officers.  The  counsel  of 
one  of  the  most  experienced  commanders  of  the 
British  Army  would  be  sought  for  with  regard 
to  the  general  development  and  disposition  of  Aus- 
tralia's adult  citizen  soldiers.  In  view  of  the 
approaching  termination  of  the  ten-year  period  of 
the  distribution  of  the  Customs  revenue  provided 
for  in  the  Constitution,  a  temporary  arrangement 
was  being  prepared,  pending  a  satisfactory  per- 
manent settlement. of  the  financial  relation  between 
the  State  and  the  Commonwealth." 

1909  (June). — Imperial  Press  Conference  at 
London.  See  British  empire:  Colonial  and  im- 
perial conferences:    iQoq   (June). 

1909  (June). — Federal  high  court  decision  on 
anti-trust  law.    See  Trusts:  Australia:  Tqo6-ioio. 

1909  (July-September).  —  Imperial  Defense 
Conference. — Defense  bill  in  Parliament. — Pro- 
posed compulsory  military  training.  See  War, 
Preparations  for:  iqoq:  British  Imperial  defense 
conference. 

1909  (September). — Coal  miners  strike  in  New 
South  Wales.  See  Labor  organization:  Aus- 
tralia, iQos-iqog;  Strikes  and  lockouts. 


1909  (September). — Meeting  at  Sydney  of  em- 
pire  congress  of  chambers   of  commerce.     See 

British  empire:    iqog   (September). 

1910. — Statistics  of  trade  unions.  See  Labor 
organization:  iqio-iqig. 

1910. — Last  year  of  a  troublesome  constitu- 
tional requirement. — .Article  87  of  the  constitution 
of  the  commonwealth  of  AustraUa,  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "During  a  period  of  ten  years  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  there- 
after until  the  ParUament  otherwise  provides,  of 
the  net  revenue  of  the  Commonwealth  from  duties 
of  custom  and  of  excise  not  more  than  one  fourth 
shall  be  applied  annually  by  the  Commenwealth 
towards  its  expenditure.  The  balance  shall,  in  ac- 
cordance with  this  Constitution,  be  paid  to  the 
several  States,  or  applied  toward  the  payment  of 
interest  on  debts  of  the  several  States  taken  over 
by  the  Commonwealth."  This,  which  has  been 
known  as  the  Braddon  section,  has  imposed  a  seri- 
ous handicap  on  the  federal  government.  As  its 
working  was  described  recently  by  an  English  press 
correspondent,  "it  made  the  Commonwealth  raise 
four  pounds  whenever  it  wanted  to  spend  one.  It 
made  the  States  begrudge  the  Commonwealth 
every  penny  it  spent,  even  out  of  its  own  quarter — 
for  every  penny  saved  out  of  that  quarter  was  an 
extra  penny  for  the  States.  And  it  prevented 
every  State  Treasurer  from  knowing,  until  the 
Federal  Treasurer  had  delivered  his  Budget  speech, 
how  much  money  he  was  likely  to  get  from  Federal 
sources  for  his  own  spending."  At  the  end  of 
the  year  iqio  the  requirement  of  the  article  ceased 
to  be  obligatory,  and  the  federal  Parliament  was 
free  to  make  a  different  appropriation  of  the  reve- 
nue from  customs  and  excise.  Meantime  the 
subject  was  under  discussion,  and  in  August,  igoq, 
it  was  announced  that  a  conference  of  the  state 
governments  had  come  to  an  agreement — subject 
to  ratification  by  the  federal  government — which 
provided  for  the  annual  per  capita  payment  of 
25s.  in  lieu  of  the  three-fourths  of  the  customs 
revenue  which  had  hitherto  been  returned  to  them. 
Western  Australia  was  to  receive  a  special  extra 
contribution  of  £250,000,  decreasing  by  iio,ooo 
annually  until  it  ceased.  Until  the  arrangement 
became  operative,  the  commonwealth  rftght  deduct 
from  the  statutory  payments  to  the  states  i6oo,ooo 
annually  towards  the  cost  of  old-age  pensions.  The 
readjustment  of  state  shares  in  the  customs  reve- 
nue was  said  to  involve  an  annual  loss  to  New 
South  Wales  of  £1,000,000.  According  to  a  Lon- 
don newspaper  correspondent,  "the  main  effects 
to  the  Commonwealth  are  the  abolition  of  the 
book-keeping  system  between  the  States,  the  power 
to  issue  Australian  stamps,  telegrams,  &c.,  and  the 
securing  of  about  £2,300,000  a  year,  or  more,  addi- 
tional revenue.  The  States  lose  revenue  to  a 
similar  amount,  but  there  is  a  transfer  of  old-age 
pensions  to  the  amount  of  nearly  £1,000,000,  of 
which  they  are  relieved.  In  three  of  the  States, 
all  of  which  suffer  little  by  the  change,  the  pen- 
sions are  new,  and  a  considerable  boon  to  the 
people.  But  more  than  half  the  money  sacrifice 
falls  upon  New  South  Wales,  and  it  goes  to  relieve 
her  less  prosperous  neighbours.  Well,  that  is  true 
Federation !  Naturally  the  Southern  States  would 
have  nothing  but  a  per  capita  distribution  from 
the  Commonwealth  and  in  New  South  Wales  Min- 
isters agreed  to  it  with  their  eyes  open.  At  present 
the  Commonwealth  Government  secures  the  further 
revenue  needed.  But  whether  this  agreement  will 
so  distinctly  suit  that  Government  as  the  State 
populations  grow  is  another  matter."  A  bill  for 
the  required  amendment  of  the  federal  constitu- 
tion was  introduced  in  the  house  of  representatives 
by  the  prime  minister,  Mr.  Deakin,  on  September 


.649 


AUSTRALIA,  1910-1915 


t'isher  Labor 
Government 


AUSTRALIA,  1911-1913 


8.  On  November  4,  in  opposition  to  the  govern- 
ment, an  amendment  to  the  bill,  limiting  the  dura- 
tion of  the  agreement,  instead  of  giving  it  force  in 
perpetuity,  was  carried  in  committee  of  the  whole 
by  the  casting  vote  of  the  chairman.  On  Decem- 
ber I  the  bill  had  its  third  reading  in  the  senate. 

1910-1915. — Labor  government  under  Fisher. 
— "At  the  general  election  held  in  April,  1910,  the 
electors  of  the  Commonwealth  .  .  .  showed  them- 
selves adverse  to  the  Ministry.  The  tide  ran  high 
and  full  for  the  Labour  Party,  and  swept  it  back 
to  Parliament  with  a  majority  in  both  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Representatives.  In  the  former 
House  it  captured  every  seat — that  is,  eighteen,  for 
only  half  the  members  of  the  Senate  retire  at  a 
general  election — and  counted  23  votes  in  a  House 
of  36.  In  the  House  of  Representatives  it  secured 
42  seats  for  its  own  members,  and  had  in  addition 
the  benevolent  neutrality  of  two  independents. 
Fisher  was  thus  for  the  second  time  Prime  Min- 
ister. His  Government  was  chosen  on  this  occasion 
by  a  method  that  was  quite  new  in  the  history  of 
constitutional  government.  The  usual  mode  in 
Australia,  as  in  England,  was  for  the  Governor- 
General — in  England  the  Sovereign — to  send  for 
the  political  leader  who  was  indicated  by  the  de- 
bates and  divisions  to  possess  the  confidence  of 
the  majority,  to  commission  him  to  form  a  Min- 
istry, and  for  the  Prime  Minister  so  chosen  to 
select  his  ministers.  But  the  Federal  Labour  Party 
was  differently  organized  from  other  political  par- 
ties. Its  members  were  pledged  to  a  political 
programme  drawn  up  by  an  annual  Labour  Con- 
ference. This  Conference  in  1905  had  registered 
the  decree  that  henceforth  Labour  Governments 
should  not  be  chosen  by  the  Prime  Minister,  but 
should  be  selected  by  the  full  body  of  the  federal 
Labour  members.  Fisher,  recognizing  that  his 
strength  depended  upon  the  widespread  and  very 
powerful  organizations  of  the  party  in  the  country, 
initiated  the  observance  of  this  rule.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Government  which  held  office  from 
April,  iQio,  till  the  next  general  election  in  May, 
1913,  were  therefore  chosen  by  ballot  by  the  party 
which  supported  them  in  Parliament.  The  election 
of  1913  witnessed  the  retirement  from  active  poli- 
tics of  DealSn,  whose  health  had  been  shaken  by 
the  strain  of  so  many  years  of  official  work  and 
bitter  conflict.  Cook  was  chosen  to  head  the 
Fusion  party,  and  fortune  turned  a  rather  wry 
smile  upon  him  at  the  polls.  So  wry  was  it  that  it 
was  hardly  a  smile.  The  Labour  Party  lost  some 
seats,  and  Cook  was  able  to  reenter  the  House  of 
Representatives  with  a  majority  of  one.  That 
meant  that  when  his  supporters  had  elected  a 
Speaker  they  had  no  majority  at  all.  Moreover, 
the  Labour  Party  still  had  an  overwhelming  pre- 
ponderance in  the  Senate.  So  that  the  new  Cook 
Government  could  not  carry  a  scrap  of  legislation 
without  the  grace  of  its  opponents,  who  very  soon 
showed  their  determination  to  exert  their  power  to 
the  full.  The  parliamentary  machine  was  clearly 
unworkable  under  these  conditions.  Cook  met  the 
situation  by  a  bold,  deliberate  challenge.  He  was 
pledged  to  two  items  of  policy  in  regard  to  which 
the  issue  between  his  party  and  Fisher's  was 
clearly  drawn.  These  were,  a  measure  to  restore 
voting  by  post,  which  the  Labour  Party  had 
abolished  because  of  allegations  of  improper  prac- 
tices in  the  use  of  it;  and  a  measure  to  destroy  the 
preferential  treatment  of  trade  unionists  by  the 
Arbitration  Court.  The  two  bills  were  forced 
through  the  House  of  Representatives  after  very 
tough  fighting,  and  were  promptly  rejected  by  the 
Senate.  Planning  then  to  bring  into  use  the 
machinery  of  the  Constitution  for  the  removal  of 
deadlocks,    the     Government     forced     their    bills 


thrcugh  the  House  of  Representatives  again,  ex- 
pressly to  provoke  the  Senate  to  reject  them  a 
second  time.  This  having  been  done,  the  Prime 
Minister  advised  the  Governor-General  to  dissolve 
both  Houses.  A  new  Governor-General,  Sir 
Ronald  Munro-Ferguson,  had  only  just  assumed 
oftice,  and  the  situation  was  a  very  perplexing  one 
for  him  to  handle.  The  Labour  Party  denied  that 
there  was  justification  for  dissolving  a  Parliament 
not  yet  one  year  old.  and  in  which  only  one  politi- 
cal leader  had  been  tried.  There  was  no  precedent 
for  such  a  stroke  in  the  history  of  constitutional 
Government.  But  there  was  no  precedent  for  the 
situation  which  existed.  Munro-Ferguson  was 
himself  a  very  experienced  parliamentarian.  He 
was  no  amateur  amid  the  whirl  and  clang  of  party, 
for  he  had  been  a  'whip'  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons ;  and  he  was  endowed  with  a  capacity  for 
cool  judgment  and  firm  decision.  Moreover,  he 
knew  what  his  own  powers  were  under  the  Con- 
stitution. His  reading  of  the  position  was  that 
no  satisfactory  results  could  be  expected  from  a 
Parliament  such  as  the  last  election  had  provided. 
He  therefore  dissolved  both  Houses.  Events  jus- 
tified the  discretion  which  he  exercised.  The 
Labour  Party  at  the  election  of  1914  was  returned 
with  an  ample  majority  in  both  Houses,  and  the 
third  Fisher  Government  took  office  less  than  three 
months  before  the  outbreak  of  the  great  European 
War.  The  difficulties  they  had  to  face  then  were 
not  parliamentary,  but  imperial  and  international. 
Fisher  resigned  at  the  end  of  1015  in  order  to  take 
up  the  duties  of  High  Commissioner  in  succession 
to  Reid.  The  Prime  Ministership  then  fell  to  his 
brilliant  and  energetic  Attorney-General,  William 
Morris  Hughes." — E.  Scott,  Short  history  of  Aus- 
tralia, pp.  317-310- 

1911. — Explorations.  See  Antarctic  Explora- 
tion-: 1Q11-1Q13. 

1911. — Imperial  conference  at  London. — Dis- 
cussion of  naturalization  laws,  inter-communica- 
tion and  social  insurance.  See  British  empire: 
Colonial  and  imperial  conferences:   1911. 

1911-1913. — Attempts  to  amend  the  constitu- 
tion.— "Very  much  of  the  energy,  and  a  large  ex- 
penditure of  the  passion,  of  political  parties  has 
been  devoted  to  efforts  to  amend  the  Constitution. 
That  instrument  itself  provides  the  machinery  for 
its  own  alteration.  A  proposed  law  having  amend- 
ment in  view  must  first  be  passed  by  an  absolute 
majority  of  each  house  of  Parliament ;  it  must 
then  he  voted  upon  by  the  people;  and  if  a  ma- 
jority of  the  electors  voting,  in  a  majority  of  the 
States,  signify  their  approval,  the  Constitution  is 
altered  accordingly.  The  Labour  Party,  after  ex- 
periencing some  failure  to  carry  out  its  designs  in 
reference  to  the  scope  of  the  Conciliation  and 
Arbitration  Act  and  the  control  of  commercial 
trusts  and  monopolies,  decided  to  ask  the  people 
to  amend  the  Constitution  in  two  aspects  mainly. 
First,  they  desired  to  remove  the  limitation  which 
confined  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Arbitration 
Court  to  industrial  disputes  extending  beyond  the 
limits  of  any  one  State.  They  wished  to  give 
power  to  the  Court  to  act  as  to  wages  and  con- 
ditions of  labour  and  employment  in  any  trade, 
industry,  or  calling,  including  disputes  which 
might  arise  among  the  employees  of  state  railways. 
Secondly,  they  wished  to  have  power  to  make  laws 
for  the  control  of  commercial  corporations,  for 
regulating  trade  and  commerce  within  any  State 
as  well  as  Inter-State,  and  for  'nationalizing'  any 
industry  which  Parliament  might  declare  to  be 
'the  subject  of  any  monopoly.'  These  propositions 
were  first  submitted  to  the  electors  in  191 1,  but 
were  rejected  by  five  States  out  of  the  six — 
W'estern  Australia  being  the  only  State  favourable 


6.50 


AUSTRALIA,  1912 


Legislation 
World   War 


AUSTRALIA,  1914-1915 


to  the  enlargement  of  federal  power.  Regardless 
of  this  defeat,  the  Labour  Party,  considering  that 
it  could  make  little  headway  with  its  policy  with- 
out the  propored  amendments  of  the  Constitution, 
submitted  them  to  a  second  referendum  in  1013. 
They  were  then  carried  by  three  States,  Western 
Australia,  South  Australia,  and  Queensland — but 
were  rejected  by  the  other  three.  Failing  a 
majority  in  a  majority  of  States,  the  attempt  failed 
again.  But  the  affirmative  votes  in  1913  showed  a 
marked  advance  on  those  recorded  in  iqii.  Then 
the  Labour  policy  was  rejected  by  majorities  of 
over  a  quarter  of  a  million.  In  IQ13,  however,  the 
difference  between  success  and  failure  was  very 
narrow — less  than  50,000.  Encouraged  by  the  ad- 
vance, the  party  nailed  its  flag  to  the  mast  and 
announced  that  it  would  try  again ;  and  there 
would  have  been  a  third  referendum  on  the  same 
questions  at  the  end  of  1915  but  that  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  War  induced  the  dropping  of 
schemes  of  constitutional  alteration." — E.  Scott, 
Short  history  of  Australia,  p.  324. 

1912. — Maternity  Allowances  Act. — Other  leg- 
islation for  mothers  and  children. — "First  among 
the  methods  of  helping  the  mothers  stands  what 
is  known  as  the  Commonwealth  Maternity  Bonus, 
provided  for  by  the  Maternity  Allowances  Act, 
passed  in  October,  igi2.  An  allowance  of  £5  is 
paid  to  the  mother  of  a  viable  child  •immediately 
on  satisfactory  proof  of  its  birth.  More  than  95 
per  cent, of  the  mothers  who  have  borne  children 
since  the  passing  of  the  act  have  applied  for  and 
received  the  allowance.  These  applications  are  in- 
variably made  promptly  within  a  fortnight  after 
the  birth  of  the  child,  and  the  bonus  is  used  in 
payment  for  better  medical  and  nursing  attendance 
than  could  have  been  obtained  otherwise.  The 
mothers  of  the  future  are  being  helped  towards 
the  fulfilment  of  their  function  by  lectures  given 
ttf  the  senior  girls  in  the  public  schools.  As 
yet,  the  subject  of  sex  instruction  has  not  been 
introduced,  but  it  is  probable  that  lectures  on  sex 
hygiene  will  soon  be  added  to  those  on  allied 
topics  already  given.  These  cover  the  questions 
of  the  care  of  babies  in  health  and  disease,  their 
feeding  and  clothing,  sick  nursing,  home  and  per- 
sonal hygiene.  The  course  is  most  highly  ap- 
preciated both  by  the  girls  and  the  parents. 
There  is  a  distinct  demand  for  the  most  com- 
plete nursing  facilities  in  the  interests  of  mother- 
hood. Provision  for  a  maternity  annex  to  every 
hospital,  for  the  free  services  of  a  thoroughly 
qualified  and  registered  midwife  where  desired, 
with  medical  attendance  under  government  con- 
tract, and  for  the  full  instructions  of  expectant 
mothers  by  clearly-written  pamphlet  literature,  has 
been  made  in  New  South  Wales  and  is  in  line 
with  the  Australian  purpose  of  'assisting  mother- 
hood in  her  hour  of  trial.'  .  .  .  Care  for  the  de- 
pendent child  commences  in  New  South  Wales 
before  its  birth  and  is  continued  thenceforth  in 
stages  proportionate  to  the  needs  and  develop- 
ment of  the  child.  A  Children's  Protection  Act 
(1002)  compels  the  registration  and  supervision 
of  all  nursing  homes  and  the  registration  of  the 
custodianship  of  infants  under  three  years  of  age. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  rear  every  child  born 
in  these  homes,  and  to  do  so  by  educating  the 
mother,  who  is  very  often  young  and  unmarried, 
in  the  responsibilities  and  possibilities  of  her  po- 
sition. In  infants'  homes,  provision  is  made  for 
the  girl-mothers  to  stay  with  their  children  for 
some  months,  while  foster-mothers,  who  under- 
take guardianship,  are  required  within  the  metro- 
politan area  to  take  their  infant  wards  to  a  chil- 
dren's hospital  for  consultation  and  advice  every 
fortnight.     By  the  Infants'  Protection  Act  (1904) 


provision  is  made  for  the  supervision  of  the 
maintenance,  education  and  care  of  children,  up 
to  seven  years  of  age,  who  have  been  placed  in 
private  homes  or  religious  establishments  apart 
from  their  parents.  No  private  house  may  take 
more  than  five  foster  children,  and  these  children 
are  often  those  taken  as  babies  under  the  Chil- 
dren's Protection  Act.  The  children  must  be  fed, 
clothed  and  educated  to  the  satisfaction  of  com- 
petent inspectors  who  show  themselves  the  friends 
and  advisers  of  the  dependent  child.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  intervention  of  the  State  as  the  over- 
parent  is  carried  farther  in  the  State  Children's 
Relief  Act  of  iqoi.  This  act  provides  for  the 
boarding  out  of  the  dependent  children  with  ap- 
proved guardians  or  with  their  own  mothers,  when 
the  latter  are  deserving  widows  or  deserted  wives 
with  children  under  twelve  years  for  whom  they 
cannot  provide.  By  a  later  regulation  the  pay- 
ments made  to  mothers  and  foster-mothers  are 
continued  till  the  child  is  fourteen.  In  the  year 
1915  there  were  12,391  of  these  wards  boarded 
out  amid  the  civilizing  influences  of  home  life. 
On  their  behalf  the  State  spent  a  total  sum  of 
£156,631-65.,  equivalent  to  an  actual  cost  to  the 
State,  after  deducting  parents'  contributions,  of 
£i7-os.-iid.  per  head  for  children  boarded  at 
home  with  the  mother.  Inspectors  and  honorary 
lady  visitors  keep  in  touch  with  the  home  and  see 
that    the    children    attend    school    regularly,    and 

that  their  moral  interests  are  being  cared  for." 

C.  H.  Northcott,  Australian  social  development,  pp. 
171-172,   195-196. 

1913.— Navigation  Act.  See  Race  Problems: 
1904-1913. 

1913. — Australia  assumes  the  responsibility  of 
building  her  own  ships. — In  1013  the  Naval  Agree- 
ment Act  of  1903  expired,  and  Australia  began  to 
build  up  a  navy  of  her  own.  In  1911  the  Aus- 
tralian Government  had  agreed  to  furnish  its  own 
navy  as  an  .Australian  unit  of  the  Eastern  fleet  with 
the  understanding  that  it  would  provide  one 
cruiser  of  the  Indefatigable  class,  three  unarmoured 
cruisers  of  the  Bristol  class,  six  destroyers  of  the 
improved  "River"  class,  and  two  submarines  of  the 
"E"  class.  This  unit  received  the  title  "Royal 
Australian  Navy"  from  King  George.  By  1921 
the  ships  of  this  navy  were  the  following:  the  bat- 
tle cruiser  Australia,  and  the  light  cruisers,  Adelaide, 
Melbourne,  Sidney,  Brisbane,  and  Encounter.  Be- 
sides these  Australia  possessed  a  flotilla  of  destroy- 
ers and  two  submarines.  In  time  of  peace  this 
navy  (working  in  close  cooperation  with  the  China 
and  East  Indies  Squadrons  of  the  Royal  Navy)  is 
controlled  by  the  Commonwealth  government,  but 
in  time  of  war  it  is  under  imperial  control. 

1914. — Taking  over  of  Norfolk  island. — ^Nor- 
folk island,  which  has  been  a  New  South  Wales 
dependency  since  1788,  was  taken  over  by  the 
commonwealth  in  1014. 

1914-1915.— Participation  in  the  World  War. 
— Destruction  of  German  cruiser,  Emden. — 
"Anzacs"  at  Gallipoli.— Although  geographically 
far  removed  from  the  battlefields  of  the  World 
War,  .Australia,  and  the  Dominion  of  New 
Zealand  as  well,  played  a  notable  part  in  the  ulti- 
mate defeat  of  the  Teuton  nations.  Both  coun- 
tries, or,  to  be  more  inclusive,  Australasia,  gave 
freely,  throughout  the  conflict,  of  their  men, 
munitions,  ships,  etc.  The  valiant  conduct  of 
.Australian  and  New  Zealand  regiments  on  the 
European  fronts  was  exemplary.  At  the  outset  of 
the  war  a  New  Zealand  military  force  under 
Colonel  Robert  Logan  descended  upon  German 
Samoa  and  captured  it  without  any  resistance. 
German  New  Guinea  fell  into  the  hands  of  an  Aus- 
tralian   naval    and    military    force    under    Colonel 


651 


AUSTRALIA,  1914 


Labor  Party 
Conscription 


AUSTRALIA,  1916-1917 


William  Holmes  shortly  after.  Acting  under  the 
British  admiralty,  the  AustraHan  navy,  within  the 
short  period  of  two  months,  completely  destroyed 
Germany's  wireless  chain  in  the  Pacific  ocean  and 
seized  its  Pacific  colonies.  [See  also  New  Guine.4, 
or  Papua:  IQ14.]  By  November  1014,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  successfully  dispatched  30,000 
soldiers,  including  infantry,  artillery  and  cavalry, 
to  the  Suez  Canal  without  a  mishap,  a  military 
feat  which  was  unequaled  throughout  the  war 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  transportation  was 
over  a  distance  of  6,750  sea  miles.  It  was 
on  this  voyage  that  the  .Australian  cruiser  Syd- 
ney, which  was  convoying  the  troopships,  defeated 
and  forced  the  German  raiding  cruiser  Emden,  un- 
der Captain  Miiller,  to  surrender.  The  Emden, 
up  to  the  time  of  its  defeat,  had  sunk  or  captured 
twenty-one  British  merchantmen  and  caused  other 
serious  damage  to  the  Allies,  amounting  to  a 
loss  of  $125,000,000.  The  Sydney,  which  was 
manned  chiefly  by  Australians,  was  commanded  by 
British  Captain  Glossop.  The  courage  and  morale 
displayed  by  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand 
soldiers  at  Gallipoli  was,  however,  the  achieve- 
ment which  has  given  to  the  -Australasian  troops 
a  high  position  in  the  history  of  the  World  War. 
Under  General  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  and  later  under 
General  Sir  William  Birdwood,  the  .Australian  and 
New  Zealand  .Army  Corps  fought  courageously  at 
"Anzac  Cove"  and  throughout  the  Gallipoli  cam- 
paign. All  through  the  unfortunate  campaign 
Ihe  .Anzacs  characterized  themselves  by  their  dash- 
ing courage,  tenacity  and  exceptional  confidence 
under  fire.  Following  the  ill-fated  campaign  at 
Gallipoli,  the  greater  part  of  .Australasia's  fighting 
men  were  merged  with  the  Allied  armies  on  the 
western  front.  Their  conduct  was  particularly  con- 
spicuous at  Monguet  Farm,  Bullecourt,  Messines 
and  Pozieres.  They  also  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions on  the  Sinai  Peninsula  and  in  Southern  Pal- 
estine.— See  also  Axzacs;  World  War:  1914:  VII. 
German  Pacific  Islands;  and  IQ15:  VI.  Turkey:  a; 
a,  4,  xx;  a,  4,  xxii. 

1914. — Percentage  of  railways  controlled  by 
government.    See  Railroads:  1Q17-101Q. 

1914-1918. — Coal  strikes. — Incendiary  fires  in 
Sydney. — Unlawful  Associations  Act.  See  In- 
DirsTRiAL  Workers  of  the  World:  Recent  ten- 
dencies. 

1914-1921. — Question  of  New  Zealand  federat- 
ing with  Australia.    See  New  Zealand:  1Q16-1021. 

1915. — Program  of  the  Labor  party. — "The 
present  Labour  Government  of  the  Common- 
wealth is  pledged  (i.e.  in  1015),  to  the  introduction 
of  the  'initiative  referendum'  on  the  lines  of  the 
Swiss  experiment.  It  might  be  thought  that  Lib- 
eralism is  to  support  such  reform  in  view  of  its 
dependence  on  the  maxim,  'Trust  the  People.'  A 
closer  examination  of  the  aims  of  Liberals  will 
reveal  that  Parliament  is  considered  something 
more  than  a  machine  for  registering  the  commands 
of  that  vague  and  occasionally  ambiguous  abstrac- 
tion 'the  voice  of  the  people.'  Apart  from  the 
absurdity  of  'asking  the  electors  to  send  along 
a  picture  postcard  and  tell  us  what  they  think 
about  the  Budget,'  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Parliament  is  to  be  considered  a  responsible  in- 
stitution and  not  a  mere  delegation.  The  move- 
ment for  the  'initiative  referendum'  is  not  a  very 
significant  or  powerful  agitation,  and  only  shows 
that  a  section  of  the  people  is  dissatisfied  with 
a  particular  party,  or  with  the  inadequacy  of  the 
party  system;  and  for  those  two  evils  there  are 
other  remedies.  By  far  the  most  important  ques- 
tion Liberalism  in  Australia  has  now  to  solve  is 
that  of  readjusting  the  powers  of  States  and 
Commonwealth.     In    the   absence   of   e.xternal    or 


strong  internal  pressure,  the  Constitution  naturally 
reserved  a  very  important  series  of  functions  to 
the  States,  and  we  find  that  the  Commonwealth 
Parliament  of  iqo6-:o,  practically  unanimous  in 
its  efforts  to  introduce  the  New  Protection  with 
Government  regulation  of  the  conditions  in  pro- 
tected industries,  was  thwarted  at  every  step  by 
the  limitations  which  had  been  placed  upon  Fed- 
eral powers.  The  rejection  of  the  Referendum 
of  iQii  proposing  the  granting  of  far  larger 
powders  was  not  tinal,  and  similar  proposals  were 
submitted  by  the  Federal  Labour  party  in  1913, 
and  failed  by  the  narrowest  of  majorities  to  pass. 
The  significance  of  the  latter  fact  has  altered  the 
attitude  of  many  Conservatives,  and,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  both  Federal  parties  are  now  (i.e 
in  1915),  pledged  to  extend  the  powers  of  the 
National  Parliament.  The  Labour  party  claims 
to  be  the  champion  of  the  sentiment  of  'Aus- 
tralia for  the  Australians,'  and  opposed  to  this 
is  the  intense  local  patriotism  of  the  State  Parlia- 
ments, supported  enthusiastically  by  the  great  por- 
tion of  the  press.  The  opposition  is  not  between 
Liberty  and  Nationalism,  but  between  two  forms 
of  nationalism ;  and  the  success  of  the  defence 
scheme,  with  its  appeals  to  a  patriotism  that 
transcends  the  State  boundaries,  combined  with 
other  factors,  has  immensely  strengthened  the  ideal 
of  .Australia  as  'one  and  indivisible.'  It  might  be 
thought  that  such  a  sentiment  is  opposed  to  that 
of  British  Imperialism,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
it  is,  and  has  been  encouraged  by  the  English 
Liberals  and  discouraged  by  the  English  Unionists. 
But  there  is  no  real  antagonism  between  the  con- 
ceptions of  Australian  unity  and  Empire  unity, 
and  recent  events  have  clearly  shown  this  to  be 
the  case.  It  seems  quite  certain  that  the  cry  of 
'State  rights'  will  not  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  Commonwealth  Parliament  receiving  additional 
powers  by  the  will  of  the  people." — H.  V.  Evatt, 
Liberalism  in  Australia,  pp.  70-71. 

1916-1917. — Conscription  twice  defeated. — ".At 
the  very  outset  of  the  war  .  .  .  there  was  con- 
siderable agitation  throughout  Australia  for  the 
enactment  of  a  conscription  law,  although  in  but  a 
short  time  more  than  320,000  men  had  volun- 
teered for  active  service.  But  the  Australian  Gov- 
ernment was  in  the  hands  of  the  Labor  Party, 
which  found  itself  in  an  almost  impossible  situa- 
tion. The  Labor  Party  was  quite  aware  that  its 
supporters  were  opposed  to  conscription,  but  the 
seriousness  of  the  situation,  which  demanded  that 
16,000  fresh  troops  be  sent  monthly  to  the  western 
front,  forced  them  to  hold  a  national  referendum 
on  the  question.  Every  man  and  woman  in 
Australia  and  every  Australian  soldier  serving 
abroad  were  asked  to  vote  for  or  against  con- 
scription" on  October  28,  1016. — Nation,  Nov.  q. 
IQ16,  p.  438. — "Returns  upon  the  referendum  elec- 
tion in  .Australia  to  determine  the  question  of  con- 
scription for  European  service  leave  [1917]  no 
doubt  of  Premier  Hughes's  defeat.  The  result 
was  close  and  mixed.  While  the  latest  figures 
show  in  the  populous  industrial  State  of  New 
South  Wales  264,000  for  and  378,000  against,  in 
\'ictoria  they  show  287,000  for  and  275,000  against; 
while  in  the  comparatively  rural  South  Australia 
they  show  65,000  for  and  qcooo  against,  in  West 
.Australia  they  show  50,000  for  and  25,000  against. 
But  it  is  indicated  that  out  of  a  vote  of  two 
millions  the  anti-conscriptionists  will  have  a  major- 
ity of  100,000  .  .  .  The  opposition  undoubtedly 
found  its  chief  strength  in  labor  men  whom  the 
Premier  could  not  drag  with  him,  and  in  the 
women — though  the  latter's  vote  was  thought 
doubtful  lo  the  end.  With  the  extreme  radicals 
Hughes  had  already  clashed  over  the  refusal  of  the 


652 


AUSTRALIA,  l-Jtb  1917 


Pari  in 
World   War 


AUSTRALIA,  1919 


Broken  Hill  miners  last  summer  to  accept  arbitra- 
tion. But  it  was  the  disaffected  moderates  in 
labor  ranks  who  proved  his  chief  opponents.  F.  G. 
Tudor,  Minister  of  Customs,  early  resigned  to 
come  out  against  him.  There  was  wide  fear  that 
the  country  was  bowing  to  militarism,  and  the 
men  who  have  won  in  Australasia  the  most  favor- 
able working  conditions  known  responded  to  the 
sentiment  that  human  life  should  not  be  at  the 
disposal  of  arbitrary  state  mandate.  Others  were 
fearful  that  military  conscription  might  pave  the 
way  to  industrial  conscription,  and  that  future 
Governments  might  use  this  power  to  coerce 
labor  when  it  was  at  odds  with  capital.  ...  It 
was  argued  that  conscription  would  defame  the 
patriotic  reputation  Australia  had  made  at  Gallip- 
nli  and  in  France;  that  Australia,  considering  the 
demands  for  men  at  home  in  a  new  country,  was 


WILLIAM  MORRIS  HUGHES 
Prime  Minister  of  Australia  since  1915 

doing  her  share;  and  that  the  difference  in  the 
numbers  brought  out  by  the  conscriptive  and 
voluntary  systems  would  be  far  too  small  to  jus- 
tify such  a  departure  from  democratic  principles. 
The  defeat  of  conscription  is  the  more  eloquent 
in  that  Australia  had  already  gone  far  on  the 
road  to  it.  It  was  Mr.  Hughes,  Senator  Pearcc, 
and  the  e.\-Premier,  Watson,  who  several  years  ago, 
aided  by  Roberts,  converted  a  pacifist  Labor  party 
to  the  present  system  of  universal  training  for 
home  defence.  Conscription  for  home  defence  was 
instituted  a  month  before  the  election  by  Gov- 
erment  action  without  a  referendum.  The  cam- 
paign just  waged  was  one  of  the  hottest  in  Aus- 
trahan  history.  .  .  .  With  sentiment  in  Canada  and 
South  Africa  what  it  is  the  Australian  election 
adds  to  the  general  assurance  that  the  great  self- 
governed  Dominions  will  not  act  as  Prussianism 
would  have  them  do.  Australia's  gravest  political 
crisis   in   many    years   happily   spent   itself   in    the 


general  election  and  referendum,  which,  if  bitterly 
fought  by  both  sides,  and  notwithstanding  the 
number  of  accompanying  riots,  was.  after  all,  a 
most  hopeful  indicator  of  the  feasibility  of  the 
democratic  principle  of  government  by  the  peo- 
ple. To  be  sure.  Englishmen  in  Australia  as  well 
as  abroad  were  bitterly  disappointed  to  see  the 
Dominion  refuse  to  conscript  its  citizens,  taking 
such  a  refusal  as  indicating  a  want  of  the  proper 
degree  of  patriotism." — Spectator,  May  17,  1Q17, 
p.  ,?.?6. — See  also  World  War:  1017:  XII,  Political 
conditions  in  the  belligerent  countries:   a. 

1917. — Imperial  war  conference.  See  British 
Empire:  Colonial  and  imperial  conferences:  1917: 
Imperial   war  conference. 

1917. — Coalition  ministry. — Formation  of  the 
"nationalist  party." — "This  Ministry  [Hughes's 
ministry]  had  been  formed  originally  in  February, 
1Q17,  by  a  coalition  of  that  minority  of  the  La- 
bour Party  which  supported  Mr.  Hughes'  war- 
policy  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Liberal  Party  on 
the  other  hand.  After  their  union  these  two  groups 
had  taken  the  name  of  the  'Nationalist  Party,'  and 
the  Coalition  Government  thus  formed  included 
such  well-known  politicians  as  Senator  G.  F. 
Pearce,  Sir  J.  Forrest,  and  Mr.  Cook.  .  .  .  And 
although  at  a  General  Election  held  in  1017  the 
Nationalists  had  been  confirmed  in  office,  they 
had  obtained  their  majority  partly  owing  to  a 
pledge  that  they  would  not  introduce  conscription 
for  Foreign  Service  without  taking  a  direct  poll 
of  the  people  upon  that  question." — Annual  Reg- 
ister, iqiq,  p.  202. 

Troops  in  World  War. — Actions  near  Gaza. 
See  WoRi.ii  War:  1Q17:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c,  1, 
ii;  c,  1,  iii;  c,  1,  iv. 

1917.— Battle  of  Arras.— Battle  of  Ypres.— At- 
tack along  Menin  road.  See  World  War:  igi?: 
II    Western  front:   c,  7;   d,  )5;   d,  20. 

1918. — Troops  in  Mesopotamian  campaign, — 
Battle  of  Bapaume. — Total  casualities  of  World 
War.  Sec  World  War:  iqi8:  VI.  Turkish  theater: 
c,  1;  II.  Western  front:  k,  1;  and  Miscellaneous 
auxiliary  srr\iips:   XIV.  Cost  of  war:  b,  3. 

1913. — Contributions  for  war  relief.  Sec 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  XIV. 
Cost  of  war:   b,  8,  ii. 

1918. — ^Imperia!  war  conference. — Decisions 
on  question  of  industry  and  raw  materials.  See 
British  kmi'irk:  Colonial  and  imperial  conferences: 
IQ18:  Imperial  war  conference. 

1918. — Discharged  Soldiers'  Settlement  Act. 
See  South  .Xustralia:   1018. 

1918.— Railway  development.  —  Transconti- 
nental road  constructed.  See  Railroads:  igo8- 
1918. 

1918-1921. — Demands  in  Pacific. — Control  of 
islands.   See  Pacific  ocean:  1014-1918;  iqi8-iQ2i. 

1919  (July). — Seamen's  strike. — The  harbors  of 
Melbourne  and  Sydney  were  virtually  tied-up  on 
July  1.5,  iQio,  when  the  seamen's  strike,  which 
originated  a  few  months  earlier  in  Queensland, 
extended  to  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales.  The 
Queensland  government  applied  for  permission  to 
charter  cargo  vessels  in  order  to  relieve  the  serious 
situation,  but  this  was  refused  by  Acting  Prime 
Minister  Watt.  No  other  attempt  was  ventured 
to  break  the  strike  because  it  was  evident  that 
the  central  government  of  Australia  was  sympa- 
thetic to  the  seamen. 

1919. — Premier  Hughes  at  the  Paris  Peace 
Conference. — Question  of  the  Pacific  colonies. 
— Policy  of  a  "White  Australia." — Ratification 
of  ihe  treaty  by  the  Australian  parliament. — 
"At  the  beginning  of  the  year  [iqiq],  Mr.  W.  M. 
Hughes  was  still  at  the  head  of  the  Common- 
wealth   Government.  .  .  ,  Throughout    the    earlier 


<J53 


AUSTRALIA,  1919 


Hughes  and  the 
Peace  Conference 


AUSTRALIA,  1919-1920 


part  of  the  year,  the  Prime  Minister  was  absent 
from  Australia  and  was  representing  his  country 
at  the  Paris  Peace  Conference.  At  the  Con- 
ference Mr.  Hughes  playeci  a  preminent  part;  and 
the  terms  of  the  League  of  Nations  covenant 
itself  were  not  uninfluenced  by  the  arguments 
brought  forward  by  the  AustraUan  statesman.  Mr. 
Hughes  found  himself  on  more  than  one  occasion 
in  conflict  with  the  Japanese  delegates.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  Pacific  colonies  of  Germany  was,  of 
course,  an  important  one  for  Australia;  and  the 
ultimate  decision  of  the  Conference  was  to  give  the 
mandate  for  the  islands  north  of  the  Equator  to 
Japan,  and  the  mandates  for  the  much  more  im- 
portant colonies  south  of  the  Equator  to  the  two 
Australasian  dominions.  New  Zealand  was  to 
have  the  mandate  for  German  Samoa,  whilst 
Australia  herself  was  authorised  to  take  over 
German  New  Guinea  and  the  neighbouring  islands. 
Even  this  arrangement  did  not  wholly  satisfy 
public  opinion  in  Australia,  as  the  southward  ad- 
vance of  the  Japanese  was  viewed  with  some 
anxiety.  The  debates  on  the  German  colonies  were 
not,  however,  the  only  occasion  on  which  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  arose  between  the  Japanese  and 
Australian  statesmen.  Another  question  of  even 
greater  importance  was  that  of  the  Japanese 
amendment  to  the  League  of  Nations  covenant 
asserting  the  so-called  principle  of  racial  equality. 
On  this  question  opinion,  both  in  Australia  and  in 
New  Zealand,  was  very  strong.  The  policy  of  a 
White  Australia  was  the  very  foundation  of  the 
political  creed  of  nearly  all  Australians,  without 
distinction  of  party,  and  therefore  any  principle 
of  so-called  racial  equality  which  might  restrict 
the  power  of  the  Commonwealth  Government  to 
exclude  coloured  immigrants  roused  the  deter- 
mined opposition  of  all  .'\ustralians.  Mr.  Hughes 
urged  this  point  with  great  force  during  the  de- 
bates in  Paris,  and  it  was  partly  owing  to  his 
advocacy  that  the  Japanese  amendment,  even  in 
the  milder  form  in  which  it  was  subsequently 
brought  forward,  was  excluded  entirely  from  the 
covenant.  The  stand  which  Mr.  Hughes  made  on 
this  point  increased  his  reputation  in  Australia, 
and,  as  already  stated,  on  this  question  he  had  the 
support  of  his  political  opponents.  .  .  .  Immedi- 
ately after  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with 
Germany  [iqiq],  Mr.  Hughes  and  Sir  Joseph 
Cook  (who  had  also  been  at  the  Peace  Con- 
ference) left  England  for  their  return  journey  to 
Australia.  Early  in  September  the  Commonwealth 
Parliament  met  to  consider  the  ratification  of  the 
Treaty  of  Peace,  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
was  crowded  on  September  lo  when  Mr.  Hughes 
moved  a  resolution  approving  of  the  Treaty  of 
Peace.  The  Prime  Minister,  who  had  landed  at 
Perth  three  weeks  earlier,  and  had  made  a  pub- 
lic progress  through  Western  'Australia,  South 
Australia,  and  Victoria,  made  a  long  and  mem- 
orable speech  in  describing  the  Treaty.  Mr. 
Hughes  described  at  length  the  course  of  the  ne- 
gotiations at  Versailles,  and  in  regard  to  the  new 
project  of  a  League  of  Nations.  .  .  ,  He  dealt  at 
length  with  the  general  question  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  the  natural  rights  therein  of  the  two 
Australasian  States.  He  said  that  the  Monroe 
doctrine,  to  which  America  still  held,  forbade  the 
interference  of  European  countries  in  the  affairs  of 
the  two  American  continents.  The  question  of 
the  Pacific  was,  said  Mr.  Hughes,  a  parallel  case; 
and  the  people  of  the  United  States  should  under- 
stand that  they  ought  not  to  interfere  there. 
Mr.  Hughes  went  on  to  describe  how  he,  with 
the  support  of  Sir  Joseph  Cook,  had  foucHt  in 
Paris  for  the  principle  of  a  White  Australia ; 
but   he   declared   that   it   was   his   hope    that    the 


Japanese  would  remain  on  friendly  terms  both 
with  Great  Britain  and  with  .Australia.  The  Treaty 
of  Peace  was  duly  ratified  by  the  Australian  Parlia- 
ment."— Annual  Register,  igig,  pp.  292-294. — See 
also  Versailles,  Conference  or;  1919:  Outline  of 
work;  Vers.ailles,  Tre.^tv  of:  Conditions  of  peace. 

1919. — Statistics  of  trade  unions.     See  Labor 
organization:    iqio-iqio. 

1919-1920. — Conflict  between  the  Nationalists 
and  the  Labor  party. — Confusion  of  political  is- 
sues.—General  election  (December,  1919). — 
New  Tariff. — Lord  Forster  becomes  governor- 
general. — ^'The  Federal  Parliament  was  dissolved 
before  its  full  three  years  had  expired,  because, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  Prime  Minister,  it  had  ex- 
hausted its  mandate  and  had  no  authority  to 
deal  with  post-war  problems.  The  Nationalist 
coalition  had  been  formed  to  enable  Australia  ef- 
fectively to  cooperate  with  the  Allies  during  the 
war,  and  there  was  no  necessary  agreement  among 
its  members  on  any  other  point.  Mr.  Watt, 
who,  during  Mr.  Hughes's  absence  at  the  Peace 
Conference,  had  carried  out  the  thankless  duties 
of  an  acting  Prime  Minister  with  full  respKjnsi- 
bility,  but  without  liberty  of  action,  had  ex- 
pressed a  somewhat  different  opinion.  In  view 
of  the  seamen's  strike,  the  leaders  of  which  had 
uttered  threats  of  revolutionary  action,  and  of 
many  other  expressions  of  contempt  for  the  au- 
thority of  Parliament  and  for  the  decree  of  the 
.Arbitration  Court,  he  had  urged  that  the  Coalition 
should  remain  in  existence  for  the  defence  of 
constitutional  government.  Mr.  Hughes,  however, 
on  his  return  declared  that  he  did  not  know  which 
partly  he  belonged  to,  and  was  himself  still  a 
Labour  man  and  a  Socialist.  He  had  left  Eu- 
rope at  a  time  of  great  industrial  disturbance, 
much  of  which  was  attributable  to  the  high  cost 
of  living  and  to  the  resentment  aroused  by  dis- 
closures of  extortionate  profits.  He  realised  that 
the  same  conditions  of  class  hatred,  uncertainty, 
and  general  apprehension  existed  in  .Australia,  and, 
before  leaving,  announced  his  policy  as  death  to 
profiteers  and  Bolsheviks.  Mr.  Hughes  appears 
to  have  sincerely  believed  that,  with  a  policy 
stated  in  these  general  terms  and  on  the  strength 
of  his  achievements  in  Europe,  he  would  be  given 
the  position  of  a  National  leader  with  full  au- 
thority to  cure  the  ills  of  the  Commonwealth; 
but  conferences  with  friends  and  colleagues  appear 
to  have  convinced  him  that  except  as  a  member 
of  the  National  Party  there  was  no  place  for  him 
in  Australian  politics,  and  he  found  the  Nationalist 
Party  by  no  means  united.  Some  of  its  mem- 
bers, including  members  of  the  Government,  were 
apprehensive  of  the  effect  on  trade  and  industry 
of  an  indiscriminate  campaign  against  the  profi- 
teer; others  resented  his  dictatorship  and  his 
tendency  to  ignore  Parliament,  and  even  his  war 
Cabinet,  in  important  transactions.  There  was 
no  attempt  to  supersede  Mr.  Hughes  in  the  leader- 
ship, but  his  followers,  while  admitting  his  strength 
of  personality,  were  by  no  means  confident  that 
they  would  be  able  to  accept  all  he  might  say  or 
do.  The  Labour  Party  in  Parliament  was  weak, 
both  in  numbers  and  in  ability.  ...  In  his  speeches 
delivered  before  the  opening  of  the  campaign  Mr. 
Hughes  appealed  for  support  on  three  main 
grounds.  He  claimed  to  have  represented  the  true 
spirit  of  Australia  during  the  war,  and  to  have 
defended  her  interests  successfully  at  the  Peace 
Conference.  He  appealed  to  the  returned  sol- 
diers as  the  protector  of  their  special  interests. 
He  prescribed  a  gospel  of  work  and  increased 
production,  and  he  promised  in  equally  vague 
terms  to  remove  the  legitimate  causes  of  in- 
dustrial  discontent.     In    order   to    fulfil   this   last 


654 


AUSTRALIA,   1919-1920 


Nationalists  vs. 
Labor  Party 


AUSTRALIA,  1919-1920 


promise   he   claimed   that   new   powers   should   be 
conferred   on    the    Commonwealth    Parliament,   so 
that    it    would    be    able    to    deal    with    trade    and 
commerce   within   as   well   as   between   the  States, 
and   in   particular   that   it   should   have   power   to 
regulate    prices    and    control    monopolies.      Price- 
fixing   during    the    war  had   been   sustained    by   a 
decision  of  the  High  Court,  which,  somewhat  un- 
pectedly,  had  treated  it  as  an  exercise  of  the  power 
of   defence.     But   it   was   claimed  that   unless  the 
Constitution   were   amended   the  control   of  intra- 
state trade  and  commerce,  including  the  right  of 
price-fixing,    would    revert    to    the    States.      Here, 
however,   Mr.    Hughes   had    an   experience   of   the 
difficulties  of  his  position  as  a  Nationalist  leader. 
The   party    was   agreed   that   the    time   had   come 
for   a   general    revision    of    the    Constitution,    and 
on  the  whole,  that  if  prices  or  wages  were  to  be 
regulated  by  law,  the  task  should  be  carried  out 
by  an  authority  having  jurisdiction  over  the  whole 
of  Australia.     But  it  was  as  a  whole  opposed  to 
so  extensive   and  indefinite   an   increase    of   Com- 
monwealth   power   as    had    formerly    been    cham- 
pioned by  Mr.  Hughes;  and  in  all  the  States  but 
Queensland  it  had  a  majority  in  the  State  Parlia- 
ment.    Mr.   Hughes   was  compelled,   therefore,   to 
propose    a    bargain    with    the    State    Premiers    in 
order  to  prevent  a  schism  within  the  party.   After 
negotiations    with    them    which    were    not   wholly 
successful,   he    proposed   that    the    Commonwealth 
should  be  entrusted  with   authority   to  deal   with 
what  he  described   as   the   aftermath   of   the   war, 
that  a  referendum  should  be  held  at  the  General 
Election  by  which  the  necessary  additional  powers 
should   be   secured    for   the    Commonwealth,    that 
these  powers  should   be  exercisable   for   a  limited 
period   only,   and  that   before   the  end   of    1920   a 
Convention   should   be  held  to   prepare   a  general 
scheme  of  constitutional  revision.    This  compromise 
was  supported  by  the  Nationalist  members  in  the 
Federal    Parliament,    and    was   accepted    by    some 
Labour    members    as    a    step    towards    unification 
which  could  not  be  retraced  without  considerable 
difficulty.     But  it  was  never  accepted  by  the  Na- 
tionalists in  the  country,  and  it  was  opposed  by 
the    farmers,    not    on    constitutional   grounds,   but 
because   it  foreshadowed   the   increase   of   govern- 
ment interference  with  trade  and  commerce.     The 
Labour  manifesto  furnishes  documentary  evidence 
of  the  decline  in  political  vision  and  in  sense   of 
responsibility    which    began    in    the    party    at    the 
time  of  the  first  conscription  referendum,  and  has 
not   since  been   arrested.     It  contains  a  series   of 
promises  without  suggestion   of   the   means  neces- 
sary   for   their   redemption.     Offers   are    made    to 
invalids,   old   age   pensioners  and  others  involving 
new  expenditure  to  the  amount  of  some  seventeen 
millions  per  annum.     The  Government  is  to  take 
control  of  banking  and  insurance  businesses  to  an 
unspecified    amount.     The   compulsory    system    of 
naval  and  military  training  is  to  be  abandoned  in 
favour    of   a   voluntary    army   on   a   more   demo- 
cratic basis.     This  proposal   is  followed  by  a  de- 
mand for  the  more  complete  self-determination  of 
Australia,  and  for  a  change  in  her  position  as  a 
member   of    the   British    family    of   nations.     The 
campaign   began    with   an   incident   which,   unfor- 
tunately, can  be  regarded  as  to  some  extent  char- 
acteristic   of   both    leaders.     Mr.   Hughes,    on   his 
return,   declared   himself   to   be   the  friend   of   the 
soldiers,   and  promised   to  do   for  them  whatever 
they   asked.     He   was  no   doubt   sincere,   but   the 
promise   was  stated   in   the   same   vague   terms  as 
his  other  proposals.     Shortly  afterwards  the  New 
Zealand  Government  made  a  promise  to  pay  the 
members   of   the   Expeditionary    Force   a   gratuity 
of   IS.  6d.  per   day.     Thereupon   the  soldiers  de- 


manded   that    Mr.    Hughes    should    translate    his 
promise  into  action  and  make  a  gift  to  them  at 
the    same    rate.  .  .  .  Mr.    Hughes  .  .  .  announced 
that  the  payment  must  be  made,  and  stated  that 
it  would  take  the  form  of  non-negotiable  bonds, 
which    would    be    taken    at    their    face    value    for 
repatriation     purposes.  .  .  .  Mr.     Ryan,    however, 
saw  his  chance,  and  announced  that   the  Labour 
Party   would  pay  the  same  amount  in   cash.  .  .  . 
Thereupon  began  a  competition  between   the  two 
leaders  in  which  the  last  thing  considered  was  the 
interest    of    the    community    as    a    whole.      Ulti- 
mately the  Government  made  an  arrangement  by 
which  bonds  were  to  be  taken  at  their  face  value 
by  certain   large   employers,  and   the   greater  part 
were  to  be  redeemed  out  of  the  first  instalment  of 
the  German  indemnity.  ...  It  is  due  to  the  sol- 
diers to   say   that   the   greater   number  refused  to 
take  any  part  in  what  looked  like  an  auction  sale 
of    their    interest    in    the    country    to    the    highest 
bidder.     This  incident  is  also  in  one  respect  typical 
of    the   spirit   in    which    the    campaign    was    con- 
ducted between  the  two  leaders.     It  became  very 
largely    a    personal    contest   between    Mr.    Hughes 
and  Mr.  Ryan.    Mr.  Hughes  insisted  on  his  services 
as   the    defender    of    the    White   Australian   poUcy 
at  the  Peace  Conference  and  on  Mr.  Ryan's  lack 
of    loyalty    or    patriotism.      Mr,    Ryan's    general 
answer  was  to  say  that  Mr.  Hughes  had  imposed 
unnecessary   sacrifices   on   Australia,   and   that   the 
Nationalist   Government  was  incapable  of   dealing 
with  profiteering  through  its  association  with  large 
commercial  businesses.     The  attention  of  the  elec- 
tors  was   never   seriously    directed    to    the   crying 
needs  of  the  country,  to  its  growing  taxation,  to 
its  heavy  burden  of  debt,  to  disclosures  of  extrava- 
gant  expenditure,   which   have   been   made   during 
the   war  by   one  commission  after  another,  or  to 
the  steady  decrease  in  production  which  has  been 
caused  mainly  by   the  drought  but  partly  by  the 
attraction   of   loan  expenditure  in   the   big  cities." 
— Round     Table,    March,     1920,    pp.     432-436. — 
"The    General    Election    [1919]    was   fought    very 
largely   on    the   Labour   proposal   for   the   unifica- 
tion   of    Australia.      In    the    spring    the    Labour 
Organisations   published   a   highly   interesting   pro- 
gramme on   this  important  problem.     It  was  ap- 
parently   the   intention    of    the    Labour   Party    to 
advocate  an  entire  change  of  the  Australian  Con- 
stitution,  with   the   setting    up    of   a   Constitution 
more  comparable  to   that  of  the  Union   of  South 
Africa." — Annual    Register,    1920,    p.   301. — "As    a 
result  of  elections  held  in  Australia  in  December 
[igig]   the  Nationalists  in   the   lower  House  con- 
trolled   39    seats,    the   Labor    party,    26,    and   the 
Country    party    (anti-labor),    10.      In    the   Senate 
the   Nationalists  had  35   seats   and   Labor   i.     In 
the  new  parliament,   which  met  on  February   26, 
Premier    Hughes    was    severely    criticised    for    his 
attempt  to  rid  the  country   of   strikes  by  use   of 
the  war  power  vested  in  him;  his  order  prohibit- 
ing  banks  'or   any   one   else'   from   giving   money 
or    goods    to    strikers    proved    abortive.      By    its 
new  tariff  Australia   provides  three  sets  of   rates: 
the  British  preferential,  to  be  applied  to  imports 
from    the    United    Kingdom;    intermediate,   to    be 
granted  upon  the  conclusion  of  reciprocity  treaties; 
and  general   rates,   to   be  applied   to   all  countries 
not  entitled  to  either  of  the  other  tariffs.     While 
the  new  tariff  will  undoubtedly  bind  Australia  more 
closely    to    the    empire,    its    object    as    stated    by 
the  Premier  is  'to  protect  industries  born   during 
the  war  and  to  encourage  others  that  are  desirable 
and   will    diversify    and   extend   existing   ones.' " — 
E.  D.  Grapcr  and  H.  J.  Carman,  Record  of  politi- 
cal events  (Political  Science  Quarterly,  Supplement, 
Sept.,  1920,  p.  105), — See  also  Tarut:  1919-1920; 


655 


AUSTRALIA,   1920 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


World  wide  tariff  tendency. — In  1920  the  term 
of  the  governor-general,  Sir  R.  Munro-Ferguson  ex- 
pired and  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Rt.  Hon.  Lord 
Forster.  A  list  of  the  governors-general  since  the 
proclamation  of  the  Commonwealth  is  as  follows: 
Marquess  Linlithgow,  1001-1903;  Lord  Tennyson, 
1903-1904;  Lord  Northcote,  1004-1008;  Earl  of 
Dudley,  1908-1911;  Lord  Denman,  igii-1914;  Sir 
R.  Munro-Ferguson,  1914-1920. 

1920.— New  Guinea  (German)  given  as  man- 
datory under  League  of  Nations.  See  British 
empire:  Treaties  promoting  expansion:  1920;  New 
Guinea  or  P.^pu.\:   1920. 

1920. — Press  Conference  at  Ottawa.  See  Brit- 
ish ejipire:  Colonial  and  imperial  conferences: 
1920  (August). 

1921. — Australia's  mandate  published. — Pre- 
mier Hughes  endorsed  as  representative  to  the 
coming  Imperial  Conference.— ".Australia's  man- 
date for  the  former  German  islands  in  the  Pacific 
south  of  the  equator  was  published  on  Feb.  9  [1921] 
by  the  League  of  Nations  Council.  It  also  pub- 
lished Japan's  waiver  of  the  clause  respecting  equal 
trading  opportunities,  which,  however,  the  declara- 
tion said,  should  not  be  considered  acquiescence  by 
Japan." — N.  Y.  Times  Current  History,  March, 
1921,  p.  502. — "Premier  Hughes  was  defeated  in 
the  Australian  Parliament  on  April  14  by  an  ad- 
verse majority  of  two,  which,  however,  was  purely 
accidental.  In  a  plea  to  the  members,  he  [Premier 
Hughes]  stated  that  the  vote  made  his  position 
impossible,  and  that  he  could  not  attend  the  com- 
ing British  imperial  conference  unless  there  was 
a  clear  indication  that  the  vote  did  not  mean 
censure  or  an  attempt  to  take  the  control  of 
business  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Government. 
He  received  an  emphatic  endorsement  on  April 
20,  when  resolutions  reiterating  confidence  in  the 
Government  and  declaring  in  favor  of  Premier 
Hughes  as  .Australia's  representative  at  the  im- 
perial conference  were  passed  by  a  vcic  of  4b  to 
23.  [Since  then]  debate  on  the  Empire's  foreign 
policy  has  occupied  the  attention  of  Parliament." 
— jV.  Y.  Times  Current  History,  June.  1021,  p.  510. 
1921. — Imperial  conference. — Question  of  Ang- 
lo-Japanese alliance. — Declaration  of  domin- 
ion rights. — Reparation  receipts  apportioned. 
See  British  empire:  Colonial  and  imperial  confer- 
ences:   1921  ;   and   1021:   Treaty   of  Versailles. 

1921. — Electoral  system.  See  Suffrage,  Man- 
hood:  British  Empire:   192 1. 

1921. — Unrest  over  Japanese  in  Pacific.     See 
Japan:     1918-1921:     As    third    of    great    World 
Powers. 
Charities.    See  Charities:.  Australasia. 
Child    welfare.     See   Child   welfare   legisla- 
tion:  Australia. 

Conservation,    irrigation    and    forestry.      See 
Conservation  of  natural  resour'ces:  Australia. 
French  colonies.    See  France:  Colonial  empire. 
Masonic    societies.      See    Masonic    societies: 
Australasia. 

Missions.  See  Missions,  Christian:  Islands  of 
the  Pacific. 

Mythology.  See  Mythology:  Indonesian  myth- 
ology:  .Australian  mythology. 

Race  problems. — Reasons  for  dread  of  Asi- 
atic immigration. — Demand  for  white  Australia. 
See  Race  problems:  1904-1913. 

Railroads,  Trans-Australian.  See  Railroads: 
1908-1918. 

Social  legislation.  See  Socul  insurance:  New 
Zealand. 

Sufirage.  See  Australian  ballot;  and  Suf- 
frage, Manhood:   British  Empire:    1921. 

Also  in:  A.  W.  Jose,  History  of  Australasia. — 
E.   Lewin,   Commonweailh   of  Australia. — Gordon 


and  Gotch,  .Australian  handbook  (annual). — W.  P. 
Reeves,  State  experiments  in  .Australia  and  New 
Zealand. — T.  A.  Coghlan,  Labour  and  industry  in 
Australia. — A.  T.  Clark,  Labour  movement  in  Aus- 
tralasia.— F.  Johns,  Australasia's  prominent  peo- 
ple. 

AUSTRALIA,  Constitution  of.— The  following 
is  the  "Act  to  constitute  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia,"  as  passed  by  the  Imperial  Parliament, 
July  9,  1900  (63  &  64  Vict.  ch.  12)  (see  .Australia: 
iqoo).  The  text  is  from  the  official  publication  of 
the  act: 

Whereas  the  people  of  New  South  Wales,  Vic- 
toria, South  Australia,  Queensland,  and  Tasmania, 
humbly  relying  on  the  blessing  of  Almighty 
God,  have  agreed  to  unite  in  one  indissoluble 
Federal  Commonwealth  under  the  Crown  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  under  the  Constitution  hereby  established: 
And  whereas  it  is  expedient  to  provide  for  the  ad- 
mission into  the  Commonwealth  of  other  Australa- 
sian Colonies  and  possessions  of  the  Queen:  Be  it 
therefore  enacted  by  the  Queen's  most  Excellent 
Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons, 
in  this  present  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  as  follows: — 

1.  This  .Act  may  be  cited  as  the  Commonwealth 
of   .Australia   Constitution   Act. 

2.  The  provisions  of  this  .Act  referring  to  the 
Queen  shall  extend  to  Her  Majesty's  heirs  and  suc- 
cessors in  the  sovereignty  of  the  LInited  King- 
dom. 

3.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Queen,  with  the 
advice  of  the  Privy  Council,  to  declare  by  proc- 
lamation that,  on  and  after  a  day  therein  ap- 
pointed, not  being  later  than  one  year  after  the 
passing  of  this  .Act.  the  people  of  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  South  .Australia.  Queensland,  and 
Tasmania,  and  also,  if  Her  Majesty  is  satisfied 
that  the  people  of  Western  .Australia  have  agreed 
thereto,  of  Western  .Australia,  shall  be  united  in 
a  Federal  Commonwealth  under  the  name  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  .Australia.  But  the  Queen  may, 
at  any  time  after  the  proclamation,  appoint  a 
Governor-General    for    the    Commonwealth. 

4.  The  Commonwealth  shall  be  established,  and 
the  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  take 
effect,  on  and  after  the  day  so  appointed.  But 
the  Parliaments  of  the  several  colonies  may  at 
any  time  after  the  passing  of  this  .Act  make  any 
such  laws,  to  come  into  operation  on  the  day  so 
appointed,  as  they  might  have  made  if  the  Con- 
stitution had  taken  effect  at  the  passing  of  thb 
Act. 

5.  This  .Act,  and  all  laws  made  by  the  ParHa- 
ment  of  the  Commonwealth  under  the  Constitution, 
shall  be  binding  on  the  courts,  judges,  and  people 
of  every  State  and  of  every  part  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, notwith-standing  anything  in  the  laws 
of  any  State;  and  the  laws  of  the  Commonwealth 
shall  be  in  force  on  all  British  ships,  the  Queen'i 
ships  of  war  excepted,  whose  first  port  of  clear- 
ance and  whose  port  of  destination  are  in  the 
Commonwealth. 

6.  "The  Commonwealth"  shall  mean  the  Com- 
monwealth of  .Australia  as  established  under  this 
Act.  "The  States"  shall  mean  such  of  the  col- 
onies of  New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  Queens- 
land, Tasmania,  Victoria,  Western  Australia,  and 
South  Australia,  including  the  northern  territory 
of  South  Australia,  as  for  the  time  being  are  parts 
of  the  Commonwealth,  and  such  colonies  or  terri- 
tories as  may  be  admitted  into  or  established  by 
the  Commonwealth  as  States;  and  each  of  such 
parts   of    the    Commonwealth   shall   be    called   "a 


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AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


Chapter 

I. 

Part 

I. 

Part 

II. 

Part 

III. 

Part 

IV. 

Part 

v.- 

Chapter 

II.- 

Chapter 

III- 

Chapter 

IV. 

Chapter 

V.- 

Chapter 

VI.- 

Chapter 

VII.- 

Chapter    VIII.- 

The  Schedule. 

state."  "Original  States"  shall  mean  such  States 
as  are  parts  of  the  Commonwealth  at  its  establish- 
ment. 

7.  The  Federal  Council  of  Australasia  Act,  1885, 
is  hereby  repealed,  but  so  as  not  to  affect  any 
laws  passed  by  the  Federal  Council  of  Australasia 
and  in  force  at  the  establishment  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. Any  such  law  may  be  repealed  as  to 
any  State  by  the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth, 
or  as  to  any  colony  not  being  a  State  by  the 
Parliament  thereof. 

8.  After  the  passing  of  this  Act  the  Colonial 
Boundaries  Act,  i8g5,  shall  not  apply  to  any  colony 
which  becomes  a  State  of  the  Commonwealth; 
but  the  Commonwealth  shall  be  taken  to  be  a 
self-governing  colony  for  the  purposes  of  that 
Act. 

0.  The  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  shall 
be  as  follows: — 

CONSTIIUTION 

Th;s  Constitution  is  divided  as  follows:  — 

— The  Parliament: 
— General: 
— The   Senate: 

— The  House  of  Representatives: 
— Both    Houses     of    the     Parlia- 
ment: 
— Powers   of   the   Parliament: 
—The    Executive    Government: 
—The  Judicature: 
— Finance  and  Trade: 
—The  States: 
—New  States: 
—Miscellaneous: 
—Alteration   of  the   Constitution. 


Chapter  I.    The  Parliament:    Part   I. — Gen- 
eral 

1.  The  legislative  power  of  the  Commonwealth 
shall  be  vested  in  a  Federal  Parliament,  which 
shall  consist  of  the  Queen,  a  Senate,  and  a  House 
of  Representatives,  and  which  is  herein-after  called 
"The  Parliament,"  or  "The  Parliament  of  the 
Commonwealth." 

2.  A  Governor-General  appointed  by  the  Queen 
shall  be  Her  Majesty's  representative  in  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  shall  have  and  may  exercise  in 
the  Commonwealth  during  the  Queen's  pleasure, 
but  subject  to  this  Constitution,  such  powers  and 
functions  of  the  Queen  as  Her  Majesty  may  be 
pleased  to  assign  to  him. 

3.  There  shall  be  payable  to  the  Queen  out  of 
the  Consolidated  Revenue  fund  of  the  Common- 
wealth, for  the  salary  of  the  Governor-General 
an  annual  sum  which,  until  the  Parliament  other- 
wise provides,  shall  be  ten  thousand  pounds.  The 
salary  of  a  Governor-General  shall  not  be  altered 

.  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

4.  The  provisions  of  this  Constitution  relating 
to  the  Governor-General  extend  and  apply  to  the 
Governor-General  for  the  time  being,  or  such  per- 
son as  the  Queen  may  appoint  to  administer  the 
Government  of  the  Commonwealth ;  but  no  such 
person  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  any  salary  from 
the  Commonwealth  in  respect  of  any  other  office 
during  his  administration  of  the  Government  of 
the  Commonwealth. 

5.  The  Governor-General  may  appoint  such 
times  for  holding  the  sessions  of  the  Parliament 
as  he  thinks  fit,  and  may  also  from  time  to  time, 
by  Proclamation  or  otherwise,  prorogue  the  Par- 
hament,  and  may  in  like  manner  dissolve  the 
House  of  Representatives.    After  any  general  elec- 


tion, the  ParHament  shall  be  summoned  to  meet 
not  later  than  thirty  days  after  the  day  appointed 
for  the  return  of  the  writs.  The  Parliament 
shall  be  summoned  to  meet  not  later  than  six 
months  after  the  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

6.  There  shall  be  a  session  of  the  Parliament  once 
at  least  in  every  year,  so  that  twelve  months  shall 
not  intervene  between  the  last  sitting  of  the  Parlia- 
ment in  one  session  and  its  first  sitting  in  the  next 
session. 

Part  II. — The  Senate 

7.  The  Senate  shall  be  composed  of  senators  for 
each  State,  directly  chosen  by  the  people  of  the 
State,  voting,  until  the  Parliament  otherwise  pro- 
vides, as  one  electorate.  But  until  the  Parliament 
of  the  Commonwealth  otherwise  provides,  the 
Parliament  of  the  State  of  Queensland,  if  that  State 
be  an  Original  State,  may  make  laws  dividing 
the  State  into  divisions  and  determining  the  num- 
ber of  senators  to  be  chosen  for  each  division,  and 
in  the  absence  of  such  provision  the  State  shall 
be  one  electorate.  Until  the  Parliament  other- 
wise provides  there  shall  be  six  senators  for  each 
Original  State.  The  Parliament  may  make  laws 
increasing  or  diminishing  the  number  of  senators 
for  each  State,  but  so  that  equal  representation 
of  the  several  Original  States  shall  be  maintained 
and  that  no  Original  State  shall  have  less  than 
six  senators.  The  senators  shall  be  chosen  for  a 
term  of  six  years,  and  the  names  of  the  senators 
chosen  for  each  State  shall  be  certified  by  the 
Governor  to  the  Governor-General. 

8.  The  quahfication  of  electors  of  senators  shall 
be  in  each  State  that  which  is  prescribed  by  this 
Constitution,  or  by  the  Parliament,  as  the  .quali- 
fication for  electors  of  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives;  but  in  the  choosing  of  senators 
each  elector  shall  vote  only  once. 

Q.  The  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth  may 
make  laws  prescribing  the  method  of  choosing  sen- 
ators, but  so  that  the  method  shall  be  uniform 
for  all  the  States.  Subject  to  any  such  law,  the 
Parliament  of  each  State  may  make  laws  prescrib- 
ing the  method  of  choosing  the  senators  for  that 
State.  The  Parliament  of  a  State  may  make  laws 
for  determining  the  times  and  places  of  elections 
of  senators  for  the  State. 

10.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides, 
but  subject  to  this  Constitution,  the  laws  in  force 
in  each  State,  for  the  time  being,  relating  to  elec- 
tions for  the  more  numerous  House  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  the  State  shall,  as  nearly  as  practicable, 
apply  to  elections  of  senators  for  the  State. 

11.  The  Senate  may  proceed  to  the  despatch  of 
business,  notwithstanding  the  failure  of  any  State 
to  provide  for  its  representation  in   the  Senate. 

12.  The  Governor  of  any  State  may  cause  writs 
to  be  issued  for  elections  of  senators  for  the  State. 
In  case  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Senate  the  writs 
shall  be  issued  within  ten  days  from  the  proclama- 
tion of  such  dissolution. 

13.  As  soon  as  may  be  after  the  Senate  first 
meets,  and  after  each  first  meeting  of  the  Senate 
following  a  dissolution  thereof,  the  Senate  shall 
divide  the  senators  chosen  for  each  State  into  two 
classes,  as  nearly  equal  in  number  as  practicable; 
and  the  places  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class 
shall  become  vacant  at  the  expiration  of  the  third 
year,  and  the  places  of  those  of  the  second  class 
at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  their  term  of  service;  and  afterwards 
the  places  of  senators  shall  become  vacant  at  the 
expiration  of  six  years  from  the  beginning  of 
their  term  of  service.     The  election  to  fill  vacant 


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AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


places  shall  be  made  in  the  year  at  the  expiration 
of  which  the  places  are  to  become  vacant.  For 
the  purposes  of  this  section  the  term  of  service 
of  a  senator  shall  be  taken  to  begin  on  the  first 
day  of  January  following  the  day  of  his  election, 
except  in  the  cases  of  the  first  election  ;ind  of  the 
election  next  after  any  dissolution  of  llie  Senate, 
when  it  shall  be  taken  to  begin  on  the  first  day 
of  January  preceding  the  day  of  his  election. 

14.  Whenever  the  number  of  senators  for  a 
State  is  increased  or  diminished,  the  Parliament 
of  the  Commonwealth  may  make  such  provision 
for  the  vacating  of  the  places  of  senators  for  the 
State  as  it  deems  necessary  to  maintain  regular- 
ity in  the  rotation. 

15.  If  the  place  of  a  senator  becomes  vacant 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  service,  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  of  the  State  for  which  he 
was  chosen  shall,  sitting  and  voting  together, 
choose  a  person  to  hold  the  place  until  the  ex- 
piration of  the  term,  or  until  the  election  of  a 
successor  as  hereinafter  provided,  whichever  first 
happens.  But  if  the  Houses  of  Parliament  of 
the  State  are  not  in  session  at  the  time  when  the 
vacancy  is  notified,  the  Governor  of  the  State, 
with  the  advice  of  the  Executive  Council  thereof, 
may  appoint  a  person  to  hold  the  place  until  the 
expiration  of  fourteen  days  after  the  beginning 
of  the  next  se.ssion  of  the  Parliament  of  the 
State,  or  until  the  election  of  a  successor,  which- 
ever first  happens.  At  the  next  general  election 
of  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  or 
at  the  next  election  of  senators  for  the  State, 
whichever  first  happens,  a  successor  shall,  if  the 
term  has  not  then  expired,  be  chosen  to  hold  the 
place  from  the  date  of  his  election  until  the  ex- 
piration of  the  term.  The  name  of  any  senator 
so  chosen  or  appointed  shall  be  certified  by  the 
Governor  of  the  State  to  the  Governor-General. 

16.  The  qualifications  of  a  senator  shall  be  the 
same  as  those  of  a  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. 

17.  The  Senate  shall,  before  proceeding  to  the 
despatch  of  any  other  business,  choose  a  senator 
to  be  the  President  of  the  Senate;  and  as  often  as 
the  office  of  President  becomes  vacant  the  Senate 
shall  again  choose  a  senator  to  be  the  President. 
The  President  shall  cease  to  hold  his  office  if  he 
ceases  to  be  a  senator.  He  may  be  removed  from 
office  by  a  vote  of  the  Senate,  or  he  may  resign 
his  office  or  his  seat  by  writing  addressed  to  the 
Governor-General. 

18.  Before  or  during  any  absence  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Senate  may  choose- a  senator  to  perform 
his  duties  in  his  absence. 

ig.  A  Senator  may,  by  writing  addressed  to 
the  President,  or  to  the  Governor-General  if  there 
is  no  President  or  if  the  President  is  absent  from 
the  Commonwealth,  resign  his  place,  which  there- 
upon shall  become  vacant. 

20.  The  place  of  a  senator  shall  become  vacant 
if  for  two  consecutive  months  of  any  session  of 
the  Parliament  he,  without  the  permission  of  the 
Senate,  fails  to  attend  the  Senate. 

21.  VV'henever  a  vacancy  happens  in  the  Sen- 
ate, the  President,  or  if  there  is  no  President  or 
if  the  President  is  absent  from  the  Commonwealth, 
the  Governor-General  shall  notify  the  same  to 
the  Governor  of  the  State  in  the  representation  of 
which  the  vacancy  has  happened. 

22.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
presence  of  at  least  one-third  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  the  senators  shall  be  necessary  to  constitute 
a  meeting  of  the  Senate  for  the  exercise  of  its 
powers. 

23.  Questions  arising  in  the  Senate  shall  be  de- 
termined by  a  majority  of  votes,  and  each  senator 


shall  have  one  vote.  The  President  shall  in  all 
cases  be  entitled  to  a  vote;  and  when  the  votes 
are  equal  the  question  shall  pass  in  the  negative. 

Part   III. — The   House   of   REPRESENTAnvES 

24.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  com- 
posed of  members  directly  chosen  by  the  people 
of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  number  of  such 
members  shall  be,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  twice 
the  number  of  the  senators.  The  number  of 
members  chosen  in  the  several  States  shall  be  in 
proportion  to  the  respective  numbers  of  their  peo- 
ple, and  shall,  until  the  Parliament  otherwise 
provides,  be  determined,  whenever  necessary,  in 
the  following  manner: — (i.)  A  quota  shall  be  as- 
certained by  dividing  the  number  of  the  people  of 
the  Commonwealth,  as  shown  by  the  latest  sta- 
tistics of  the  Commonwealth,  by  twice  the  num- 
ber of  the  senators,  (ii.)  The  number  of  members 
to  be  chosen  in  each  State  shall  be  determined  by 
dividing  the  number  of  the  people  of  the  State, 
as  shown  by  the  latest  statistics  of  the  Common- 
wealth, by  the  quota;  and  if  on  such  division 
there  is  a  remainder  greater  than  one-half  of  the 
quota,  one  more  member  shall  be  chosen  in  the 
State.  But  notwithstanding  anything  in  this  sec- 
tion, five  members  at  least  shall  be  chosen  in  each 
Original  State. 

25.  For  the  purposes  of  the  last  section,  if  by 
the  law  of  any  State  all  persons  of  any  race  are 
disqualified  from  voting  at  elections  for  the  more 
numerous  House  of  the  Parliament  of  the  State, 
then,  in  reckoning  the  number  of  the  people  of 
the  State  or  of  the  Commonwealth,  persons  of  that 
race  resident   in   that  State  shall   not  be  counted.' 

26.  Notwithstanding  anything  in  section  twenty- 
four,  the  number  of  members  to  be  chosen  in  each 
State  at  the  first  election  shall  be  as  follows: — 
New  South  Wales,  twenty-three;  Victoria,  twenty; 
Queensland,  eight;  South  Australia,  six;  Tasmania, 
five;  provided  that  if  Western  .\ustralia  is  an 
Original  State,  the  numbers  shall  be  as  follows: — 
New  South  Wales,  twenty-six;  Victoria,  twenty- 
three;  Queensland,  nine;  South  .Australia,  seven; 
Western  .Australia,  five;  Tasmania,  five. 

27.  Subject  to  this  Constitution,  the  Parliament 
may  make  laws  for  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
number  of  the  members  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 

28.  Every  House  of  Representatives  shall  con- 
tinue for  three  years  from  the  first  meeting  of  the 
House,  and  no  longer,  but  may  be  sooner  dissolved 
by  the  Governor-General. 

2q.  Until  the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth 
otherwise  provides,  the  Parliament  of  any  State 
may  make  laws  for  determining  the  divisions  in 
each  State  for  which  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  may  be  chosen,  and  the  number 
of  members  to  be  chosen  for  each  division.  A 
division  shall  not  be  formed  out  of  parts  of  dif- 
ferent States.  In  the  absence  of  other  provision, 
each  State  shall  be  one  electorate. 

30.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
qualification  of  electors  of  members  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  be  in  each  State  that 
which  is  prescribed  by  the  law  of  the  State  as 
the  qualification  of  electors  of  the  more  numerous 
House  of  Parliament  of  the  State;  but  in  the  choos- 
ing of  members  each  elector  shall  vote  only  once. 

31.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  but 
subject  to  this  Constitution,  the  laws  in  force 
in  each  State  for  the  time  being  relating  to  elec- 
tions for  the  more  numerous  House  of  the  Par- 
liament of  the  State  shall,  as  nearly  as  practi- 
cable, apply  to  elections  in  the  State  of  members 
of  the  House  of  Representatives. 


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32.  The  Governor-General  in  Council  may  cause 
writs  to  be  issued  for  general  elections  of  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Representatives.  After  the 
first  general  election,  the  writs  shall  be  issued 
within  ten  days  from  the  expiry  of  a  House  of 
Representatives  or  from  the  proclamation  of  a 
dissolution  thereof. 

33.  Whenever  a  vacancy  happens  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  the  Speaker  shall  issue  his 
writ  for  the  election  of  a  new  member,  or  if  there 
is  no  Speaker  or  if  he  is  absent  from  the  Common- 
wealth the  Governor-General  in  Council  may  issue 
the  writ. 

34.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
qualifications  of  a  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  be  as  follows:  —  (i.)  He  must  be 
of  the  full  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  must  be 
an  elector  entitled  to  vote  at  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Representatives,  or  a  person 
qualified  to  become  such  'elector,  and  must  have 
been  for  three  years  at  least  a  resident  within 
the  limits  of  the  Commonwealth  as  existing  at 
the  time  when  he  is  chosen:  (ii.)  He  must  be  a 
subject  of  the  Queen,  either  natural-born  or  for 
at  least  five  years  naturahzed  under  a  law  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  or  of  a  Colony  which  has  be- 
come or  becomes  a  State,  or  of  the  Commonwealth, 
or  of  a  State. 

35.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall,  before 
proceeding  to  the  despatch  of  any  other  business, 
choose  a  member  to  be  the  Speaker  of  the  House, 
and  as  often  as  the  office  of  Speaker  becomes 
vacant  the  House  shall  again  choose  a  member  to 
be  the  Speaker.  The  Speaker  shall  cease  to  hold 
his  office  if  he  ceases  to  be  a  member.  He  may 
be  removed  from  office  by  a  vote  of  the  House, 
or  he  may  resign  his  office  or  his  seat  by  writing 
addressed  to  the  Governor-Generai. 

36.  Before  or  during  any  absence  of  the  Speaker, 
the  House  of  Representatives  may  choose  a  mem- 
ber to  perform  his  duties  in   his  absence, 

37.  A  member  may  by  writing  addressed  to  the 
Speaker,  or  to  the  Governor-General  if  there  is 
no  Speaker  or  if  the  Speaker  is  absent  from  the 
Commonwealth,  resign  his  place,  which  thereupon 
shall  become  vacant. 

38.  The  place  of  a  member  shall  become  vacant 
if  for  two  consecutive  months  of  any  session  of 
the  Parliament  he,  without  the  permission  of  the 
House,  fails  to  attend  the  House. 

39.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
presence  of  at  least  one-third  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  be  necessary  to  constitute  a  meeting 
of  the  House  for  the  exercise  of  its  powers. 

40.  Questions  arising  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  be  determined  by  a  majority  of  votes 
other  than  that  of  the  Speaker.  The  Speaker 
shall  not  vote  unless  the  numbers  are  equal,  and 
then  he  shall  have  a  casting  vote. 

Part  IV. — Both  Houses  of  the  Parliament 

41.  No  adult  person  who  has  or  acquires  a 
right  to  vote  at  elections  for  the  more  numerous 
House  of  the  Parliament  of  a  State  shall,  while 
the  right  continues,  be  prevented  by  any  law  of 
the  Commonwealth  from  voting  at  elections  for 
either  House  of  the  Parliament  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

42.  Every  senator  and  every  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  before  taking  his 
seat  make  and  subscribe  before  the  Governor- 
General,  or  some  person  authorised  by  him,  an 
oath  or  affirmation  of  allegiance  in  the  form  set 
forth  in  the  schedule  to  this  Constitution. 

43.  A  member  of  either  House  of  the  Parliament 


shall  be  incapable   of   being   chosen   or   of  sitting 
as  a   member   of   the   other  House. 

44.  Any  person  who — (i.)  Is  under  any  acknowl- 
edgment of  allegiance,  obedience,  or  adherence  to 
a  foreign  power,  or  is  a  subject  or  a  citizen  or 
entitled  to  the  rights  or  privileges  of  a  subject  or 
a  citizen  of  a  foreign  power:  or  (ii.)  Is  attainted 
of  treason,  or  has  been  convicted  and  is  under 
sentence,  or  subject  to  be  sentenced,  for  any  of- 
fence punishable  under  the  law  of  the  Common- 
wealth or  of  a  State  by  imprisonment  for  one 
year  or  longer:  or  (iii.)  Is  an  undischarged  bank- 
rupt or  insolvent:  or  (iv.)  Holds  any  office  of 
profit  under  the  Crown,  or  any  pension  payable 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown  out  of  any  of 
the  revenues  of  the  Commonwealth:  or  (v.)  Has 
any  direct  or  indirect  pecuniary  interest  in  any 
agreement  with  the  Public  Service  of  the  Com- 
monwealth otherwise  than  as  a  member  and  in 
common  with  the  other  members  of  an  incorpo- 
rated company  consisting  of  more  than  twenty- 
five  persons:  shall  be  incapable  of  being  chosen 
or  of  sitting  as  a  senator  or  a  mdrnber  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  But  sub-section  iv.  does  not 
apply  to  the  office  of  any  of  the  Queen's  Minis- 
ters of  State  for  the  Commonwealth,  or  of  any  of 
the  Queen's  Ministers  for  a  State,  or  to  the  re- 
ceipt of  pay,  half  pay,  or  a  pension  by  any  per- 
son as  an  officer  or  member  of  the  Queen's  navy 
or  army,  or  to  the  receipt  of  pay  as  an  officer  or 
member  of  the  naval  or  military  forces  of  the 
Commonwealth  by  any  person  whose  services  are 
not  wholly  employed  by  the  Commonwealth. 

45.  If  a  senator  or  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives— -(i.)  Becomes  subject  to  any  of 
the  disabilities  mentioned  in  the  last  preceding 
section:  or  (ii.)  Takes  the  benefit,  whether  by 
assignment,  composition,  or  otherwise,  of  any  law 
relating  to  bankrupt  or  insolvent  debtors:  or 
(iii.)  Directly  or  indirectly  takes  or  agrees  to  take 
any  fee  or  honorarium  for  services  rendered  to  the 
Commonwealth,  or  for  services  rendered  in  the 
Parliament  to  any  person  or  State:  his  place  shall 
thereupon  become  vacant. 

46.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  any 
person  declared  by  this  Constitution  to  be  in- 
capable of  sitting  as  a  senator  or  as  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall,  for  every  day 
on  which  he  so  sits,  be  liable  to  pay  the  sum  of 
one  hundred  pounds  to  any  person  who  sues  for 
it  in  any  court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 

47.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  any 
question  respecting  the  qualification  of  a  senator 
or  of  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
or  respecting  a  vacancy  in  either  House  of  the 
Parliament,  and  any  question  of  a  disputed  elec- 
tion to  either  House,  shall  be  determined  by  the 
House  in  which  the  question  arises. 

48.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  each 
senator  and  each  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  receive  an  allowance  of  four 
hundred  pounds  a  year,  to  be  reckoned  from  the 
day  on  which  he  takes  his  seat. 

4g.  The  powers,  privileges,  and  immunities  of 
the  Senate  and  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  of  the  members  and  the  committees  of  each 
House,  shall  be  such  as  are  declared  by  the  Par- 
liament, and  until  declared  shall  be  those  of  the 
Commons  House  of  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  of  its  members  and  committees, 
at  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth. 

50.  Each  House  of  the  Parliament  may  make 
rules  and  orders  with  respect  to — (i.)  The  mode 
in  which  its  powers,  privileges,  and  imm.unities 
may  be  e.xercised  and  upheld:  (ii.)  The  order 
and  conduct  of  its  business  and  proceedings  either 
separately  or  jointly  with  the  other  House, 


659 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


Part  V. — Powers  of  the  Parliament 

51.  The  Parliament  shall,  subject  to   this   Con- 
stitution, have  power  to  make  laws  for  the  peace, 
order,    and    good    government    of    the    Common- 
wealth   with    respect    to:  — (i.)    Trade    and    com- 
merce with  other  countries,  and  among  the  Stales; 
(ii.)   Taxation;  but  so  as  not  to  discriminate  be- 
tween  States   or   parts   of   States;    (iii.)    Bounties 
on  the  production  or  export  of  goods,  but  so  that 
such    bounties    shall    be    uniform    throughout    the 
Commonwealth*    (iv.)    Borrowing    money    on    the 
public  credit  of  the   Commonwealth;    (v.)    Postal, 
telegraphic,    telephonic,    and    other    like    services: 
(vi.)  The  naval  and  militarj-  defence  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  of  the  several  States,  and  the  con- 
trol   of    the    forces    to   execute   and    maintain    the 
laws   of    the    Commonwealth;     (vii.)    Lighthouses, 
lightships,     beacons     and     buoys;      (viii.)     Astro- 
nomical   and    meteorological    observations;     (ix.) 
Quarantine:     (x.)    Fisheries    in    Australian    waters 
beyond  territorial  limits;    (xi.)   Census  and  statis- 
tics:   (xii.)    Currency,   coinage,   and    legal    tender; 
(xiii.)    Banking,    other   than -State    banking;    also 
State    banking    extending    beyond    the    limits    of 
the  State   concerned,   the   incorporation   of   banks, 
and  the  issue   of  paper  money;    (xiv.)    Insurance, 
other  than   State   insurance;    also   State   insurance 
extending    beyond    the    limits    of    the    State    con- 
cerned;     (xv')      Weights     and     measures;      (xyi.) 
Bills   of   exchange    and   promissory    notes:    (xvii.) 
Bankruptcy    and    insolvency;    (xviii.)    Copyrights, 
patents  of  inventions  and  designs,  and  trade  marks: 
(xix.)    Naturalization    and    aliens;     (xx.)     Foreign 
corporations,    and    trading    or    financial    corpora- 
tions formed   within   the   limits  of   the   Common- 
wealth: (xxi.)  Marriage:  (xxii.)  Divorce  and  matri- 
monial  causes;    and   in    relation    thereto,   parental 
rights,   and   the   custody   and   guardianship   of   in- 
fants: <xxiii.)  Invalid  and  old-age  pensions;  (xxiv.) 
The   service   and   execution   throughout   the   Com- 
monwealth of  the  civil   and  criminal  process   and 
the  judgments  of  the  courts  of  the  States;    (xxv.) 
The  recognition  throughout  the  Commonwealth  of 
the   laws,   the   public    Acts   and   records,    and    the 
judicial  proceeding  of  the  States:   (xxvi.)  The  peo- 
ple of  any  race,  other  than  the  aboriginal  race  in 
any   State,   for  whom   it   is   deemed   necessary   to 
make  special  laws:    (xxvii.)   Immigration  and  emi- 
gration:   (xxviii.)    The  influx  of  criminals;    (xxix.) 
External  affairs;   (xxx.)  The  relations  of  the  Com- 
monwealth with  the  islands  of  the  Pacific:   (xxxi.) 
The  acquisition  of  property  on  just  terms  from  any 
State    or   person    for    any    purpose    in    respect    of 
which   the   Parliament   has  power   to   make   laws; 
(xxxii.)    The  control   of   railways  with   respect  to 
transport  for  the  naval  and  military   purposes  of 
the  Commonwealth:   (xxxiii.)  The  acquisition,  with 
the  consent  of  a  State,  of  any  railways  of  the  State 
on    terms    arranged    between    the    Commonwealth 
and  the  State:    (xxxiv.)   Railway  construction  and 
extension   in   any  State   with   the   consent  of   that 
State:     (xxxv.)     Conciliation    and    arbitration    for 
the  prevention    and    settlement    of   industrial   dis- 
putes extending  beyond  the  limits  of  any  one  State: 
(xxxvi.)    Matters   in    respect   of   which   this   Con- 
stitution   makes    provision    until    the    Parliament 
otherwise  provides:    (xxxvii.)    Matters   referred   to 
the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth  by  the  Par- 
liament or  Parliaments  of  any  State  or  States,  but 
so  that   the   law   shall   extend   only    to   States   by 
whose  Parliaments  the  matter  is  referred,  or  which 
afterwards  adopt  the  law:    fxxxviii.)   The  exercise 
within  the  Commonwealth,  at  the  request  or  with 
the    concurrence    of    the    Parliaments    of    all    the 
States  directly  concerned,  of  any  power  which  can 
at   the  estabiishment   of   this  Constitution   be  ex- 


ercised only  by  the  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  or  by  the  Federal  Council  of  Australasia; 
(xxxix.)  Matters  incidental  to  the  execution  of  any 
power  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  Parlia- 
ment or  in  either  House  thereof,  or  in  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Commonwealth,  or  in  the  Federal 
Judicature,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  of 
the  Commonwealth. 

52.  The  Parliament  shall,  subject  to  this  Con- 
stitution, have  exclusive  power  to  make  laws  for 
the  peace,  order,  and  good  government  of  the 
Commonwealth  with  respect  to — (i.)  The  seat  of 
government  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  all  places 
acquired  by  the  Commonwealth  for  public  pur- 
poses: (ii.)  Matters  relating  to  any  department 
of  the  public  service  the  control  of  which  is  by 
this  Constitution  transferred  to  the  Executive 
Government  of  the  Commonwealth:  (iii.)  Other 
matters  declared  by  this  Constitution  to  be  within 
the  exclusive  power  of  the  Parliament. 

5.V  Proposed  laws  appropriating  revenue  or 
moneys,  or  imposing  taxation,  shall  not  originate 
in  the  Senate.  But  a  proposed  law  shall  not  be 
taken  to  appropriate  revenue  or  moneys,  or  to 
impose  taxation,  by  reason  only  of  its  containing 
provisions  for  the  imposition  or  appropriation  of 
fines  or  other  pecuniary  penalties,  or  for  the  de- 
mand or  payment  or  appropriation  of  fees  for 
licences,  or  fees  for  services  under  the  proposed 
law.  The  Senate  may  not  amend  proposed  laws 
imposing  taxation,  or  proposed  laws  appropri- 
ating revenue  or  moneys  for  the  ordinary  annual 
services  of  the  Government.  The  Senate  may 
not  amend  any  proposed  law  so  as  to  increase 
any  proposed  charge  or  burden  on  the  people. 
The  Senate  may  at  any  stage  return  to  the  House 
of  Representatives  any  proposed  law  which  the 
Senate  may  not  amend,  requesting,  by  message, 
the  omission  or  amendment  of  any  items  or 
provisions  therein.  And  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives may,  if  it  thinks  fit,  make  any  of  such 
omissions  or  amendments,  with  or  without  modi- 
fications. Except  as  provided  in  this  section,  the 
Senate  shall  have  equal  power  with  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  respect  of  all  proposed  laws. 

54.  The  proposed  law  which  appropriates  rev- 
enue or  moneys  for  the  ordinary  annual  services 
of  the  Government  shall  deal  only  with  such  ap- 
propriation. 

55.  Laws  imposing  taxation  shall  deal  only  with 
the  imposition  of  taxation,  and  any  provision 
therein  dealing  with  any  other  matter  shall  be  of 
no  effect.  Laws  imposing  taxation,  except  laws 
imposing  duties  of  customs  or  of  excise,  shall  deal 
with  one  subject  of  taxation  only;  but  laws  im- 
posing duties  of  customs  shall  deal  with  duties  of 
customs  only,  and  laws  imposing  duties  of  excise 
shall  deal  with  duties  of  excise  only. 

56.  A  vote,  resolution,  or  proposed  law  for  the 
appropriation  of  revenue  or  moneys  shall  not  be 
passed  unless  the  purpose  of  the  appropriation 
has  in  the  same  session  been  recommended  by  mes- 
sage of  the  Governor-General  to  the  House  in 
which  the  proposal  originated. 

57.  If  the  House  of  Representatives  passes  any 
proposed  law,  and  the  Senate  rejects  or  fails  to 
pass  it,  or  passes  it  with  amendments  to  which 
the  House  of  Representatives  will  not  agree,  and 
if  after  an  interval  of  three  months  the  House  of 
Representatives,  in  the  same  or  the  next  session, 
again  passes  the  proposed  law  with  or  without 
any  amendments  which  have  been  made,  suggested, 
or  agreed  to  by  the  Senate,  and  the  Senate  re- 
jects or  fails  to  pass  it,  or  passes  it  with  amend- 
ments to  which  the  House  of  Representatives  will 
not  agree,  the  Governor-General  may  dissolve  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives  simultane- 


660 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


ously.  But  such  dissolution  shall  not  take  place 
within  six  months  before  the  date  of  the  expiry 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  by  effluxion  of 
time.  If  after  such  dissolution  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives again  passes  the  proposed  law,  with 
or  without  any  amendments  which  have  been 
made,  suggested,  or  agreed  to  by  the  Senate,  and 
the  Senate  rejects  or  fails  to  pass  it,  or  passes  it 
with  amendments  to  which  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives will  not  agree,  the  Governor-General  may 
convene  a  joint  sitting  of  the  members  of  the 
Senate  and  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
members  present  at  the  joint  sitting  may  deliberate 
and  shall  vote  together  upon  the  propo.sed  law  as 
last  proposed  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
upon  amendments,  if  any,  which  have  been  made 
therein  by  one  House  and  not  agreed  to  by  the 
other,  and  any  such  amendments  which  are  af- 
firmed by  an  absolute  majority  of  the  total  number 
of  the  members  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  be  taken  to  have  been  carried,  and 
if  the  proposed  law,  with  the  amendments,  if  any, 
so  carried  is  affirmed  by  an  absolute  majority  of 
the  total  number  of  the  members  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  it  shall  be  taken 
to  have  been  duly  passed  by  both  Houses  of  the 
Parliament,  and  shall  be  presented  to  the  Gov- 
ernor-General for  the  Queen's  assent. 

58.  When  a  proposed  law  passed  by  both  Houses 
of  the  Parliament  is  presented  to  the  Governor- 
General  for  the  Queen's  assent,  he  shall  declare, 
according  to  his  discretion,  but  subject  to  this 
Constitution,  that  he  assents  in  the  Queen's  name, 
or  that  he  withholds  assent,  or  that  he  reserves 
the  law  for  the  Queen's,  pleasure.  The  Governor- 
General  may  return  to  the  house  in  which  it 
originated  any  proposed  law  so  presented  to  him, 
and  may  transmit  therewith  any  amendments 
which  he  may  recommend,  and  the  Houses  may 
deal  with  the  recommendation. 

SQ.  The  Queen  may  disallow  any  law  within  one 
year  from  the  Governor-General's  assent,  and  such 
disallowance  on  being  made  known  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-General by  speech  or  message  to  each  of 
the  Houses  of  the  Parliament,  or  by  Proclamation, 
shall  annul  the  law  from  the  day  when  the  dis- 
allowance is  so  made  known. 

60.  A  proposed  law  reserved  for  the  Queen's 
pleasure  shall  not  have  any  force  unless  and  until 
within  two  years  from  the  day  on  which  it  was 
presented  to  the  Governor-General  for  the  Queen's 
assent  the  Governor-General  makes  known,  by 
speech  or  message  to  each  of  the  Houses  of  Par- 
liament, or  by  Proclamation,  that  it  has  received 
the  Queen's  assent. 

Chapter  II.    The  Executive  Government 

61.  The  executive  power  of  the  Commonwealth 
is  vested  in  the  Queen  and  is  e.xercisable  by  the 
Governor-General  as  the  Queen's  representative, 
and  extends  to  the  execution  and  maintenance  of 
this  Constitution,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

62.  There  shall  be  a  Federal  Executive  Council 
to  advise  the  Governor-General  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  members  of 
the  Council  shall  be  chosen  and  summoned  by 
the  Governor-General  and  sworn  as  Executive 
Councillors,  and  shall  hold  office  during  his  plea- 
sure. 

63.  The  provisions  of  this  Constitution  referring 
to  the  Governor-General  in  Council  shall  be  con- 
strued as  referring  to  the  Governor-General  acting 
with  the  advice  of  the  Federal  Executive  Council. 

64.  The  Governor-General  may  appoint  officers 
to   administer  such   departments   of   State    of   the 

66 


Commonwealth  as  the  Governor-General  in  Coun- 
cil may  estabHsh.  Such  officers  shall  hold  office 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  Governor-General.  They 
shall  be  members  of  the  Federal  Executive  Council, 
and  shall  be  the  Queen's  Ministers  of  State  for 
the  Commonwealth.  After  the  first  general  election 
no  Minister  of  State  shall  hold  office  for  a  longer 
period  than  three  months  unless  he  is  or  becomes 
a  senator  or  a  member  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 

65.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
Ministers  of  State  shall  not  exceed  seven  in  num- 
ber, and  shall  hold  such  oflices  as  the  Parliament 
prescribes,  or,  in  the  absence  of  provision,  as  the 
Governor-General  directs. 

66.  There  shall  be  payable  to  the  Queen,  out 
of  the  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, for  the  salaries  of  the  Ministers  of 
State,  an  annual  sum  which,  until  the  Parliament 
otherwise  provides,  shall  not  exceed  twelve  thou- 
sand  pounds  a  year. 

67.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
appointment  and  removal  of  all  other  officers  of 
the  Executive  Government  of  the  Commonwealth 
shall  be  vested  in  the  Governor-General  in  Coun- 
cil, unless  the  appointment  is  delegated  by  the 
Governor-General  in  Council  or  by  a  law  of  the 
Commonwealth  to  some  other  authority. 

68.  The  command  in  chief  of  the  naval  and  mili- 
tary forces  of  the  Commonwealth  is  vested  in  the 
Governor-General  as  the  Queen's  representative. 

6q.  On  a  date  or  dates  to  be  proclaimed  by 
the  Governor-General  after  the  establishment  of 
the  Commonwealth  the  following  departments 
of  the  public  service  in  each  State  shall  become 
transferred  to  the  Commonwealth:  Posts,  tele- 
graphs, and  telephones:  Naval  and  military  de- 
fence: Lighthouses,  lightships,  beacons,  and  buoys: 
Quarantine.  But  the  departments  of  customs  and 
of  excise  in  each  State  shall  become  transferred 
to  the  Commonwealth  on  its  establishment. 

70.  In  respect  of  matters  which,  under  this  Con- 
stitution, pass  to  the  Executive  Government  of 
the  Commonwealth,  all  powers  and  functions  which 
at  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth  are 
vested  in  the  Governor  of  a  Colony,  or  in  the 
Governor  of  a  Colony  with  the  advice  of  his 
Executive  Council,  or  in  any  authority  of  a  Colony, 
shall  vest  in  the  Governor-General,  or  in  the  Gov- 
ernor-General in  Council,  or  in  the  authority  ex- 
ercising similar  powers  under  the  Commonwealth, 
as  the  case  requires. 

Chapter   III.    Judicature 

71.  The  judicial  power  of  the  Commonwealth 
shall  be  vested  in  a  Federal  Supreme  Court,  to 
be  called  the  High  Court  of  Australia,  and  in  such 
other  federal  courts  as  the  Parliament  creates, 
and  in  such  other  courts  as  it  invests  with  fed- 
eral jurisdiction.  The  High  Court  shall  consist 
of  a  Chief  Justice,  and  so  many  other  Jus- 
tices, not  less  than  two,  as  the  Parliament  pre- 
scribes. 

72.  The  Justices  of  the  High  Court  and  of  the 
other  courts  created  by  the  Parliament — (i.)  Shall 
be  appointed  by  the  Governor-General  in  Council: 
(ii.)  Shall  not  be  removed  except  by  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council,  on  an  address  from  both 
Houses  of  the  Parliament  in  the  same  session,  pray- 
ing for  such  removal  on  the  ground  of  proved 
misbehaviour  or  incapacity:  (iii.)  Shall  receive 
such  remuneration  as  the  Parliament  may  fix; 
but  the  remuneration  shall  not  be  diminished  dur- 
ing their  continuance  in   office. 

73.  The  High  Court  shall  have  jurisdiction,  with 
such   exceptions   and   subject    to    such    regulations 

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AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


as  the  Parliament  prescribes,  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine appeals  from  all  judgments,  decrees,  orders, 
and  sentences — (i.)  Of  any  Justice  or  Justices  ex- 
ercising the  original  jurisdiction  of  the  High  Court: 
(ii.)  Of  any  other  federal  court,  or  court  exercis- 
ing federal  jurisdiction;  or  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  any  State,  or  of  any  other  court  of  any  State 
from  which  at  the  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth an  appeal  lies  to  the  Queen  in  Council: 
(iii.)  Of  the  Inter-State  Commission,  but  as  to 
questions  of  law  only:  and  the  judgment  of  the 
High  Court  in  all  such  cases  shall  be  final  and 
conclusive.  But  no  exception  or  regulation  pre- 
scribed by  the  Parliament  shall  prevent  the  High 
Court  from  hearing  and  determining  any  appeal 
from  the  Supreme  Court  of  a  State  in  any  mat- 
ter in  which  at  the  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth an  appeal  lies  from  such  Supreme  Court 
to  the  Queen  in  Council.  Until  the  Parliament 
otherwise  provides,  the  conditions  of  and  re- 
strictions on  appeals  to  the  Queen  in  Council  from 
the  Supreme  Courts  of  the  several  States  shall 
be  applicable  to  appeals  from  them  to  the  High 
Court. 

74.  No  appeal  shall  be  permitted  to  the  Queen 
in  Council  from  a  decision  of  the  High  Court 
upon  any  question,  howsoever  arising,  as  to  the 
limits  inter  se  of  the  Constitutional  powers  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  those  of  any  State  or 
States,  or  as  to  the  limits  inter  se  of  the  Consti- 
tutional powers  of  any  two  or  more  States, 
unless  the  High  Court  shall  certify  that  the  ques- 
tion is  one  which  ought  to  be  determined  by 
Her  Majesty  in  Council.  The  High  Court  may 
so  certify  if  satisfied  that  for  any  special  reason 
the  certificate  should  be  granted,  and  thereupon 
an  appeal  shall  lie  to  Her  Majesty  in  Council  on 
the  question  without  further  leave.  Except  as  pro- 
vided in  this  section,  this  Constitution  shall  not 
impair  any  right  which  the  Queen  may  be  pleased 
to  exercise  by  virtue  of  Her  Royal  prerogative 
to  grant  special  leave  of  appeal  from  the  High 
Court  to  Her  Majesty  in  Council.  The  Parlia- 
ment may  make  laws  limiting  the  matters  in  which 
such  leave  may  be  asked,  but  proposed  laws  con- 
taining any  such  limitation  shall  be  reserved  by 
the  Governor-General  for  Her  Majesty's  pleasure. 

75.  In  all  matters — (i.)  Arising  under  any  treaty: 
(ii.)  Affecting  consuls  or  other  representatives  of 
other  countries:  (iii.)  In  which  the  Common- 
wealth, or  a  person  suing  or  being  sued  on  be- 
half of  the  Commonwealth,  is  a  party:  (iv.)  Be- 
tween States,  or  between  residents  of  different 
States,  or  between  a  State  and  a  resident  of  an- 
other State:  (v.)  In  wh:ch  a  writ  of  Mandamus 
or  prohibition  or  an  injunction  is  sought  against 
an  officer  of  the  Commonwealth:  the  High  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction. 

76.  The  Parliament  may  make  laws  conferring 
original  jurisdiction  on  the  High  Court  in  any 
matter — (i.)  Arising  under  this  Constitution,  or 
involving  its  interpretation:  (ii.)  Arising  under  any 
laws  made  by  the  Parliament:  (iii.)  Of  .Admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction:  (iv.)  Relating  to  the 
same  subject-matter  claimed  under  the  laws  of 
different  States. 

77.  With  respect  to  any  of  the  matters  men- 
tioned in  the  last  two  sections  the  Parliament 
may  make  laws — (i.)  Defining  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  federal  court  other  than  the  High  Court: 
(ii.)  Defining  the  extent  to  which  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  any  federal  court  shall  be  exclusive  of 
that  which  belongs  to  or  is  invested  in  the  courts 
of  the  States:  (iii.)  Investing  any  court  of  a 
State  with  federal  jurisdiction. 

78.  The  Parliament  may  make  laws  conferring 
rights   to   proceed   against   the    Commonwealth   or 


a  State  in  respect  of  matters  within  the  limits  of 
the  judicial  power. 

79.  The  federal  jurisdiction  of  any  court  may  be 
exercised  by  such  number  of  judges  as  the  Parlia- 
ment  prescribes. 

80.  The  trial  on  indictment  of  any  offence 
against  any  law  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  be 
by  jury,  and  every  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the 
State  where  the  offence  was  committed,  and  if 
the  offence  was  not  committed  within  any  State 
the  trial  shall  be  held  at  such  place  or  places  as 
the  Parliament  prescribes. 

Chaptek  IV.    Finance  and  Trade 

81.  All  revenues  or  moneys  raised  or  received 
by  the  Executive  Government  of  the  Common- 
wealth shall  form  one  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund, 
to  be  appropriated  lor  the  purposes  of  the  Com- 
monwealth in  the  manner  and  subject  to  the 
charges  and  liabilities  imposed  by  this  Constitution. 

82.  The  costs,  charges,  and  expenses  incident  to 
the  collection?  management,  and  receipt  of  the 
Consolidated  Revenue  Fund  shall  form  the  first 
charge  thereon;  and  the  revenue  of  the  Common- 
wealth shall  in  the  first  instance  be  applied  to  the 
payment  of  the  expenditure  of  the  Commonwealth. 

83.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  Commonwealth  except  under  appro- 
priation made  by  law.  But  until  the  expiration 
of  one  month  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Par- 
liament the  Governor-General  in  Council  may  draw 
from  the  Treasury  and  expend  such  moneys  as 
may  be  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  any 
department  transferred  to  the  Commonwealth  and 
for  the  holding  of  the  first  elections  lor  the  Par- 
liament. 

84.  When  any  department  of  the  public  service 
of  a  State  becomes  transferred  to  the  Common- 
wealth, all  officers  of  the  department  shall  be- 
come subject  to  the  control  of  the  Executive  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Commonwealth.  Any  such  officer 
who  is  not  detained  in  the  service  of  the  Com- 
monwealth shall,  unless  he  is  appointed  to  some 
other  office  of  equal  emolument  in  the  public 
service  of  the  State,  be  entitled  to  receive  irom 
the  State  any  pension,  gratuity,  or  other  com- 
pensation, payable  under  the  law  of  the  State  on 
the  abolition  of  his  office.  Any  such  ofiicer  who 
is  retained  in  the  service  of  the  Commonwealth 
shall  preserve  all  his  existing  and  accruing  rights, 
and  shall  be  entitled  to  retire  from  office  at  the 
time,  and  on  the  pension  or  retiring  allowance, 
which  would  be  permitted  by  the  law  of  the  State 
if  his  service  with  the  Commonwealth  were  a 
continuation  of  his  service  with  the  State.  Such 
pension  or  retiring  allowance  shall  be  paid  to 
him  by  the  Commonwealth;  but  the  State  shall 
pay  to  the  Commonwealth  a  part  thereof,  to  be 
calculated  on  the  proportion  which  his  term  of 
service  with  the  State  bears  to  his  whole  term 
of  service,  and  for  the  purpose  of  the  calculation 
his  salary  shall  be  taken  to  be  that  paid  to  him 
by  the  State  at  the  time  of  the  transfer.  Any 
officer  who  is,  at  the  establishment  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, in  the  public  service  of  a  State,  and 
who  is,  by  consent  of  the  Governor  of  the  State 
with  the  advice  of  the  Executive  Council  thereof, 
transferred  to  the  public  service  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, shall  have  the  same  rights  as  if  he 
had  been  an  officer  of  a  department  transferred  to 
the  Commonwealth  and  were  retained  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Commonwealth. 

85.  When  any  department  of  the  public  service 
of  a  State  is  transferred  to  the  Commonwealth^ 
(i.)  All  property  of  the  State  of  any  kind,  used 
exclusively  in  connexion  with  the  department,  shall 


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AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


become  vested  in  the  Commonwealth;  but,  in 
the  case  of  the  departments  controlling  customs 
and  excise  and  bounties,  for  such  time  only  as 
the  Governor-General  in  Council  may  declare  to 
be  necessary:  (ii.)  The  Commonwealth  may  ac- 
quire any  property  of  the  State,  of  any  kind 
used,  but  not  exclusively  used  in  connexion  with 
the  department:  the  value  thereof  shall,  if  no 
agreement  can  be  inade,  be  ascertained  in,  as 
nearly  as  may  be,  the  manner  in  which  the  value 
of  land,  or  of  an  interest  in  land,  taken  by  the 
State  for  public  purposes  is  ascertained  under  the 
law  of  the  State  in  force  at  the  establishment  of 
the  Commonwealth:  (ill.)  The  Commonwealth 
shall  compensate  the  State  for  the  value  of  any 
property  passing  to  the  Commonwealth  under  this 
section ;  if  no  agreement  can  be  made  as  to  the 
mode  of  compensation,  it  shall  be  determined  under 
laws  to  be  made  by  the  Parliament:  (iv.)  The 
Commonwealth  shall,  at  the  date  of  the  transfer, 
assume  the  current  obligations  of  the  State  in 
respect  of  the  department  transferred. 

86.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth, 
the  collection  and  control  of  duties  of  customs 
and  of  excise,  and  the  control  of  the  payment  of 
bounties,  shall  pass  to  the  Executive  Government 
of  the  Commonwealth. 

87.  During  a  period  of  ten  years  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Commonwealth  and  thereafter 
until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  of  the  net 
revenue  of  the  Commonwealth  from  duties  of  cus- 
toms and  of  excise  not  more  than  one-fourth 
shall  be  applied  annually  by  the  Commonwealth 
towards  its  expenditure.  The  balance  shall,  in 
accordance  with  this  Constitution,  be  paid  to  the 
several  States,  or  applied  towards  the  payment  of 
interest  on  debts  of  the  several  States  taken  over 
by  the  Commonwealth. 

88.  Uniform  duties  of  customs  shall  be  imposed 
within  two  years  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

8g.  Until  the  imposition  of  uniform  duties  of 
customs — (i.)  The  Commonwealth  shall  credit  to 
each  State  the  revenues  collected  therein  by  the 
Commonwealth,  (ii.)  The  Commonwealth  shall 
debit  to  each  State — (a)  The  expenditure  therein 
of  the  Commonwealth  incurred  solely  for  the  main- 
tenance or  continuance,  as  at  the  time  of  trans- 
fer, of  any  department  transferred  from  the  State 
to  the  Commonwealth;  (6)  The  proportion  of  the 
State,  according  to  the  number  of  its  people,  in 
the  other  expenditure  of  the  Commonwealth,  (iii.) 
The  Commonwealth  shall  pay  to  each  State  month 
by  month  the  balance  (if  any)  in  favour  of  the 
State. 

po.  On  the  imposition  of  uniform  duties  of  cus- 
toms the  power  of  the  ParHament  to  impose  duties 
of  customs  and  of  excise,  and  to  grant  bounties 
on  the  production  or  export  of  goods,  shall  be- 
come exclusive.  On  the  imposition  of  uniform 
duties  of  customs  all  laws  of  the  several  States 
imposing  duties  of  customs  or  of  excise,  or  offer- 
ing bounties  on  the  production  or  export  of  goods, 
shall  cease  to  have  effect,  but  any  grant  of  or 
agreement  for  any  such  bounty  lawfully  made  by 
or  under  the  authority  of  the  Government 
of  any  State  shall  be  taken  to  be  good  if 
made  before  the  thirtieth  day  of  June,  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  ninety-eight,  and  not  other- 
wise. 

91.  Nothing  in  this  Constitution  prohibits  a 
State  from  granting  any  aid  to  or  bounty  on 
mining  for  gold,  silver,  or  other  metals,  nor  from 
granting,  with  the  consent  of  both  Houses  of 
the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth  expressed 
by  resolution,  any  aid  to  or  bounty  on  the  pro- 
duction or  export  of  goods. 


g2.  On  the  imposition  of  uniform  duties  of  cus- 
toms, trade,  commerce,  and  intercourse  among 
the  States,  whether  by  means  of  internal  car- 
riage or  ocean  navigation,  shall  be  absolutely 
free.  But  notwithstanding  anything  in  this  Con- 
stitution, goods  imported  before  the  imposition  of 
uniform  duties  of  customs  into  any  State,  or  intp 
any  Colony  which,  whilst  the  goods  remain  therein, 
becomes  a  State,  shall,  on  thence  passing  into 
another  State  within  two  years  after  the  im- 
position of  such  duties,  be  liable  to  any  duty 
chargeable  on  the  importation  of  such  goods  into 
the  Commonwealth,  less  any  duty  paid  in  respect 
of  the  goods  on  their  importation. 

Q3.  During  the  first  five  years  after  the  imposi- 
tion of  uniform  duties  of  customs,  and  thereafter 
until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides — (i.)  The 
duties  of  customs  chargeable  on  goods  imported 
into  a  State  and  afterwards  passing  into  another 
State  for  consumption,  and  the  duties  of  excise 
paid  on  goods  produced  or  manufactured  in  a 
State  and  afterwards  passing  into  another  State  for 
consumption,  shall  be  taken  to  have  been  col- 
lected not  in  the  former  but  in  the  latter  State: 
(ii.)  Subject  to  the  last  subsection,  the  Com- 
monwealth shall  credit  revenue,  debit  expenditure, 
and  pay  balances  to  the  several  States  as  pre- 
scribed for  the  period  preceding  the  imposition 
of  uniform  duties  of  customs. 

94.  After  five  years  from  the  imposition  of  uni- 
form duties  of  customs,  the  Parliament  may  pro- 
vide, on  such  basis  as  it  deems  fair,  for  the  monthly 
payment  to  the  several  States  of  all  surplus  rev- 
enue of  the  Commonwealth. 

05.  Notwithstanding  anything  in  this  Constitu- 
tion, the  Parliament  of  the  State  of  Western 
Australia,  if  that  State  be  an  Original  State,  may, 
during  the  first  five  years  after  the  imposition 
of  uniform  duties  of  customs,  impose  duties  of 
customs  on  goods  passing  into  that  State  and 
not  originally  imported  from  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  Commonwealth;  and  such  duties  shall  be 
collected  by  the  Commonwealth.  But  any  duty 
so  imposed  on  any  goods  shall  not  exceed  during 
the  first  of  such  years  the  duty  chargeable  on 
the  goods  under  the  law  of  Western  Australia  in 
force  at  the  imposition  of  uniform  duties,  and 
shall  not  e-xcecd  during  the  second,  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  of  such  years  respectively,  four-fifths, 
three-fifths,  two-fifths,  and  one-fifth  of  such  latter 
duty,  and  all  duties  imposed  under  this  section 
shall  cease  at  the  expiration  of  the  fifth  year 
after  the  imposition  of  uniform  duties.  If  at  any 
time  during  the  five  years  the  duty  on  any  goods 
under  this  section  is  higher  than  the  duty  im- 
posed by  the  Commonwealth  on  the  importation 
of  the  like  goods,  then  such  higher  duty  shall  be 
collected  on  the  goods  when  imported  into  West- 
ern Australia  from  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. 

q6.  During  a  period  of  ten  years  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Commonwealth  and  thereafter 
until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the  Par- 
liament may  grant  financial  assistance  to  any  State 
on  such  terms  and  conditions  as  the  Parliament 
thinks  fit. 

97.  Until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the 
laws  in  force  in  any  Colony  which  has  become 
or  becomes  a  State  with  respect  to  the  receipt  of 
revenue  and  the  expenditure  of  money  on  ac- 
count of  the  Government  of  the  Colony,  and  the 
review  and  audit  of  such  receipt  and  expenditure, 
shall  apply  to  the  receipt  of  revenue  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  money  on  account  of  the  Common- 
wealth in  the  State  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the 
Commonwealth,  or  the  Government  or  an  officer 
of  the  Commonwealth,  were  mentioned  whenever 


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AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


the  Colony,  or  the  Government  or  an  officer  of 
the  Colony,  is  mentioned, 

qS.  The  power  of  the  Parliament  to  make  laws 
with  respect  to  trade  and  commerce  extends  to 
navigation  and  shipping,  and  to  railways  the 
property  of  any  State. 

QQ.  The  Commonwealth  shall  not,  by  any  law 
or  regulation  of  trade,  commerce,  or  revenue, 
give  preference  to  one  State  or  any  part  thereof 
over  another  State  or  any  part  thereof. 

loo.  The  Commonwealth  shall  not,  by  any  law 
or  regulation  of  trade  or  commerce,  abridge  the 
right  of  a  State  or  of  the  residents  therein  to  the 
reasonable  use  of  the  waters  of  rivers  for  conser- 
vation or  irrigation. 

loi.  There  shall  be  an  Inter-State  Commission, 
with  such  powers  of  adjudication  and  adminis- 
tration as  the  Parliament  deems  necessary  for  the 
execution  and  maintenance,  within  the  Common- 
wealth, of  the  provisions  of  this  Constitution  re- 
lating to  trade  and  commerce,  and  of  all  laws  made 
thereunder. 

102.  The  Parliament  may  by  any  law  with  re- 
spect to  trade  or  commerce  forbid,  as  to  railways, 
any  preference  or  discrimination  by  any  State, 
or  by  any  authority  constituted  under  a  State,  if 
such  preference  or  discrimination  is  undue  and 
unreasonable,  or  unjust  to  any  State ;  due  regard 
being  had  to  the  financial  responsibilities  incurred 
by  any  State  in  connexion  with  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  its  railways.  But  no 
preference  or  discrimination  shall,  within  the 
meaning  of  this  section,  be  taken  to  be  undue  and 
unreasonable,  or  unjust  to  any  State,  unless  so 
adjudged  by  the  Inter-State  Commission. 

103.  The  members  of  the  Inter-State  Commis- 
sion— (i.)  Shall  be  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council:  (ii.)  Shall  hold  office  for 
seven  years,  but  may  be  removed  within  that 
time  by  the  Governor-General  in  Council,  on  an 
address  from  both  Houses  of  the  Parliament  in 
the  same  session  praying  for  such  removal  on  the 
ground  of  proved  misbehaviour  or  incapacity: 
(iii.)  Shall  receive  such  remuneration  as  the  Par- 
liament may  fix ;  but  such  remuneration  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 

104.  Nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  render 
unlawful  any  rate  for  the  carriage  of  goods  upon 
a  railway,  the  property  of  a  State,  if  the  rate  is 
deemed  by  the  Inter-State  Commission  to  be  nec- 
essary for  the  development  of  the  territory  of 
the  State,  and  if  the  rate  applies  equally  to  goods 
within  the  State  and  to  goods  passing  into  the 
State  from  other  States. 

105.  The  Parliament  may  take  over  from  the 
States  their  public  debts  as  existing  at  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Commonwealth,  or  a  proportion 
thereof  according  to  the  respective  numbers  of 
their  peoples  as  shown  by  the  latest  statistics  of 
the  Commonwealth,  and  may  convert,  renew,  or 
consolidate  such  debts,  or  any  part  thereof;  and 
the  States  shall  indemnify  the  Commonwealth  in 
respect  of  the  debts  taken  over,  and  thereafter 
the  interest  payable  in  respect  of  the  debts  sh:dl 
be  deducted  and  retained  from  the  portions  of  the 
surplus  revenue  of  the  Commonwealth  payable 
to  the  several  States,  or  if  such  surplus  is  insuf- 
ficient, or  if  there  is  no  surplus,  then  the  de- 
ficiency or  the  whole  amount  shall  be  paid  by  the 
several   States. 

Chapter  V.    The  States 

106.  The  Constitution  of  each  State  of  the  Com- 
monwealth shall,  subject  to  this  Constitution,  con- 
tinue   as    at    the   establishment    of    the    Common- 


wealth, or  as  at  the  admission  or  establishment  of 
the  State,  as  the  case  may  be,  until  altered  in 
accordance   with  the   Constitution  of  the  State. 

107.  Every  power  of  the  Parliament  of  a  Col- 
ony which  has  become  or  becomes  a  State,  shall, 
unless  it  is  by  this  Constitution  exclusively  vested 
in  the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth  or  with- 
drawn from  the  Parliament  of  the  State,  continue 
as  at  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  or 
as  at  the  admission  or  establishment  of  the  State, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

108.  Every  law  in  force  in  a  Colony  which  has 
become  or  becomes  a  State,  and  relating  to  any 
matter  within  the  powers  of  the  Parliament  of 
the  Commonwealth,  shall,  subject  to  this  Consti 
tution,  continue  in  force  in  the  State;  and,  until 
provision  is  made  in  that  behalf  by  the  Parliament 
of  the  Commonwealth,  the  Parliament  of  the  State 
shall  have  such  powers  of  alteration  and  of  re- 
peal in  respect  of  any  such  law  as  the  Parliament 
of  the  Colony  had  until  the  Colony  became  a 
State. 

100.  When  a  law  of  a  State  is  inconsistent  with 
a  law  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  latter  shall  pre- 
vail, and  the  former  shall,  to  the  extent  of  the 
inconsistency,  be  invalid. 

no.  The  provisions  of  this  Constitution  relat- 
ing to  the  Governor  of  a  State  extend  and  apply 
to  the  Governor  for  the  time  being  of  the  State, 
or  other  chief  executive  officer  or  administrator 
of  the  government  of  the  State. 

111.  The  Parliament  of  a  State  may  surrender 
any  part  of  the  State  to  the  Commonwealth;  and 
upon  such  surrender,  and  the  acceptance  thereof 
by  the  Commonwealth,  such  part  of  the  State  shall 
become  subject  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

112.  After  uniform  duties  of  customs  have  been 
imposed,  a  State  may  levy  on  imports  or  exports, 
or  on  goods  passing  into  or  out  of  the  State,  such 
charges  as  may  be  necessary  for  executing  the  in- 
spection laws  of  the  State;  but  the  net  produce  of 
all  charges  so  levied  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the 
Commonwealth ;  and  any  such  inspection  laws  may 
be  annulled  by  the  Parliament  of  the  Common- 
wealth 

113.  All  fermented,  distilled,  or  other  intoxicat- 
ing liquids  passing  into  any  State  or  remaining 
therein  for  use,  consumption,  sale,  or  storage,  shall 
be  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  State  as  if  such  liquids 
had  been  produced  in  the  State. 

114.  A  State  shall  not,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth,  raise  or 
maintain  any  naval  or  military  force,  or  impose 
any  tax  on  property  of  any  kind  belonging  to 
the  Commonwealth,  nor  shall  the  Commonwealth 
impose  any  tax  on  property  of  any  kind  belong- 
ing to  a  State. 

115.  A  State  shall  not  coin  money,  nor  make 
anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  legal  tender  in 
payment  of  debts. 

116.  The  Commonwealth  shall  not  make  any 
law  for  establishing  any  religion,  or  for  imposing 
any  religious  observance,  or  for  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  of  any  religion,  and  no  religious  test 
shall  be  required  as  a  qualification  for  any  office 
or  public  trust  under  the  Commonwealth. 

117.  A  subject  of  the  Queen,  resident  in  any 
State,  shall  not  be  subject  in  any  other  State  to 
any  disability  or  discrimination  which  would  not 
be  equally  applicable  to  him  if  he  were  a  subject  of 
the  Queen  resident  in  such  other  State. 

118.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given,  through- 
out the  Commonwealth  to  the  laws,  the  public  Acts 
and  records,  and  the  judicial  proceedings  of  every 
State. 

iiQ.  The    Commonwealth    shall    protect    every 


664 


AUSTRALIA,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRALIAN   BALLOT 


State  against  invasion  and,  on  the  application  of 
the  Executive  Government  of  the  State,  against 
domestic  violence. 

120.  Every  State  shall  make  provision  for  the 
detention  in  its  prisons  of  persons  accused  or  con- 
victed of  offences  against  the  laws  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  for  the  punishment  of  persons 
convicted  of  such  offences,  and  the  Parliament  of 
the  Commonwealth  may  make  laws  to  give  effect 
to  this  provision. 

Chapter  VI.     New  States 

121.  The  Parliament  may  admit  to  the  Com- 
monwealth or  establish  new  States,  and  may  upon 
such  admission  or  e.'^tablishment  make  or  impose 
such  terms  and  conditions,  including  the  extent  of 
representation  in  either  House  of  the  Parliament, 
as  it  thinks  fit. 

122.  The  Parliament  may  make  laws  for  the 
government  of  any  territory  surrendered  by  any 
State  to  and  accepted  by  the  Commonwealth,  or 
of  any  territory  placed  by  the  Queen  under  the 
authority  of  and  accepted  by  the  Commonwealth, 
or  otherwise  acquired  by  the  Commonwealth,  and 
may  allow  the  representation  of  such  territory  in 
either  House  of  the  Parliament  to  the  extent  and 
on  the  terms  which  it  thinks  fit. 

123.  The  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth  may, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Parliament  of  a  State,  and 
the  approval  of  the  majority  of  the  electors  of 
the  State  voting  upon  the  question,  increase, 
diminish,  or  otherwise  alter  the  limits  of  the 
State,  upon  such  terms  and  conditions  as  may 
be  agreed  on,  and  may,  with  the  like  consent, 
make  provision  respecting  the  effect  and  operation 
of  any  increase  or  diminution  or  alteration  of 
territory  in  relation  to  any  State  affected. 

124.  A  new  State  may  be  formed  by  separa- 
tion of  territory  from  a  State,  but  only  with  the 
consent  of  the  Parliament  thereof,  and  a  new 
State  may  be  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
States  or  parts  of  States,  but  only  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Parliaments  of  the  States  affected. 

Chapter  VII.    Miscellaneous 

125.  The  seat  of  Government  of  the  Common- 
wealth shall  be  determined  by  the  Parliament,  and 
shall  be  within  territory  which  shall  have  been 
granted  to  or  acquired  by  the  Commonwealth, 
and  shall  be  vested  in  and  belong  to  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  sTiall  be  in  the  State  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  be  distant  not  less  than  one  hundred 
miles  from  Sydney.  Such  territory  shall  contain 
an  area  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  square  miles, 
and  such  portion  thereof  as  shall  consist  of  Crown 
lands  shall  be  granted  to  the  Commonwealth  with- 
out any  payment  therefor.  The  Parliament  shall 
sit  at  Melbourne  until  it  meet  at  the  seat  of 
Government. 

126.  The  Queen  may  authorise  the  Governor- 
General  to  appoint  any  person,  or  any  persons 
jointly  or  severally,  to  be  his  deputy  or  deputies 
within  any  part  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  in  that 
capacity  to  exercise  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
Governor-General  such  powers  and  functions  of 
the  Governor-General  as  he  thinks  fit  to  assign 
to  such  deputy  or  deputies,  subject  to  any  limita- 
tions expressed  or  directions  given  by  the  Queen ; 
but  the  appointment  of  such  deputy  or  deputies 
shall  not  affect  the  exercise  by  the  Governor- 
General  himself  of  any  power  or  function. 

127.  In  reckoning  the  numbers  of  the  people  of 
the  Commonwealth,  or  of  a  Slate  or  other  part  of 
the  Commonwealth,  aboriginal  natives  shall  not 
be  counted. 


Chapter  VIII.    Alteration  of  the  Constitution 

128.  This  Constitution  shall  not  be  altered  ex- 
cept in  the  following  manner: — The  proposed 
law  for  the  alteration  thereof  must  be  passed  by 
an  absolute  majority  of  each  House  of  the  Par- 
liament, and  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  six 
months  after  its  passage  through  both  Houses  the 
proposed  law  shall  be  submitted  in  each  State 
to  the  electors  qualified  to  vote  for  the  election 
of  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  But 
if  either  House  passes  any  such  proposed  law  by 
an  absolute  majority,  and  the  other  House  rejects 
or  fails  to  pass  it  or  passes  it  with  any  amend- 
ment to  which  the  first-mentioned  House  will 
not  agree,  and  if  after  an  interval  of  three  months 
the  first-mentioned  House  in  the  same  or  the  next 
session  again  passes  the  proposed  law  by  an  abso- 
lute majority  with  or  without  any  amendment 
which  has  been  made  or  agreed  to  by  the  other 
House,  and  such  other  House  rejects  or  fails  to 
pass  it  or  passes  it  with  any  amendment  to  which 
the  first-mentioned  House  will  not  agree,  the 
Governor-General  may  submit  the  proposed  law 
as  last  proposed  by  the  first-mentioned  House, 
and  either  with  or  without  any  amendments  sub- 
sequently agreed  to  by  both  Houses,  to  the  elect- 
ors in  each  State  qualified  to  vote  for  the  election 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.  When  a  pro- 
posed law  is  submitted  to  the  electors  the  vote 
shall  be  taken  in  such  manner  as  the  Parliament 
prescribes.  But  until  the  qualification  of  electors 
of  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  be- 
comes uniform  throughout  the  Commonwealth, 
only  one-half  the  electors  voting  for  and  against 
the  proposed  law  shall  be  counted  in  any  State  in 
which  adult  suffrage  prevails.  And  if  in  a  majority 
of  the  States  a  majority  of  the  electors  voting  ap- 
prove the  proposed  law,  and  if  a  majority  of  all  the 
electors  voting  also  approve  the  proposed  law,  it 
shall  be  presented  to  the  Governor-General  for  the 
Queen's  assent.  No  alteration  diminishing  the  pro- 
portionate representation  of  any  State  in  either 
House  of  the  Parliament,  or  the  minimum  number 
of  representatives  of  a  State  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, or  increasing,  diminishing,  or  other- 
wise altering  the  limits  of  the  State,  or  in  any 
manner  affecting  the  provisions  of  the  Constitu- 
tion in  relation  thereto,  shall  become  law  unless 
the  majority  of  the  electors  voting  in  that  State 
approve  the  proposed  law. — See  also  British  em- 
pire: Character  of  the  British  empire:  Character- 
istics of  self-governing  colonies. 

Also  in:  Sir  J.  Quick  and  R.  R.  Garran,  Anno- 
tated constitution  of  the  AiistraJian  Common- 
wealth.— A.  T.  Clark,  Australian  constitutional 
law. 

AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 
ARMY  CORPS.  See  Anzacs;  and  Australia: 
igi4-iqiS. 

AUSTRALIA  FELIX.  See  Australia:  1787- 
1840:    Penal  settlements. 

AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT:  Origin.— Adop- 
tion in  England. — Under  the  Australian  system 
the  ballots  are  printed  under  government  super- 
vision, at  public  expense,  and  contain  the  names  of 
all  candidates  duly  nominated.  The  ballots  can  be 
obtained  by  the  voters  only  within  the  polling 
places,  on  election  day,  and  are  marked  by  them  in 
entire  secrecy.  "As  its  name  implies,  this  system 
originated  in  Australia.  The  population  of  this 
land  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  in- 
cluded many  gold-seekers,  bent  upon  gain,  and  a 
large  class  of  criminals.  In  this  environment  the 
vices  of  the  viva  voce  method  flourished  even 
more  than  in  England.  Mr.  Francis  S.  Dutton  in 
his  testimony   before   the   Marquis   of   Hartington 


665 


AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


England 


AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


committee  in  1869  said:  'Before  the  ballot  was  in 
operation  our  elections  were  exceedinply  riotous. 
Of  course  our  community  had  the  rowdy  elements 
as  well  as  other  countries,  and  on  election  days 
these  troublesome  elements  came  to  the  surface; 
and  I  have  been  in  the  balcony  of  an  hotel  during 
one  of  the  city  elections,  when  the  raging  mobs 
down  in  the  street  were  so  violent  that  I  certainly 
would  not  have  risked  my  life  to  have  crossed  the 
street.'  Many  men  in  Australia  saw  the  dangers 
of  open  voting,  and  began  to  work  to  secure  a  rem- 
edy. The  secret  ballot  was  first  proposed  by 
Francis  S.  Dutton  in  the  Legislative  Council  of 
South  Australia  in  1851.  For  several  years  no 
action  was  taken,  but  in  1857  Mr.  Dutton  became 
a  member  of  the  government,  and  made  excellent 
use  of  his  opportunity  to  advance  his  measure.  A 
bill  embodying  this  plan  was  introduced,  and.  after 
some  modification  in  the  House,  became  a  law  in 
1857-58.  In  Victoria  the-  secret  ballot  was  cham- 
pioned by  Mr.  William  Nicholson,  who,  at  the 
head  of  the  government,  secured  the  enactment  of 
the  law  in  1856.  The  system  spread  very  rapidly. 
It  was  adopted  by  Tasmania  and  New  South  Wales 
in  1858;  New  Zealand  in  1870;  Queensland  in 
1874;  and  West  Australia  in  1877.  [See  also  Suf- 
frage, Manhood:  British  Empire:  1921.]  In  Eng- 
land, where  the  viva  voce  method  was  in  use  with 
all  its  attending  vices,  the  secret  ballot  had  been 
agitated  continually  since  1830.  In  that  year  it 
was  proposed  by  O'Connell  and  received  the  sup- 
port of  twenty-one  members.  The  ballot  formed 
a  part  of  the  reform  bill  as  reported  to  the  Cabinet 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  Sir  James  Graham,  and 
others,  but  it  was  not  included  in  the  act  as  pre- 
sented to  Parliament.  During  the  next  three  years 
many  petitions  for  the  measures  were  presented 
to  Parliament  and  debated.  On  April  23,  1833, 
George  Grote  brought  forward  a  resolution  af- 
firming the  expediency  of  its  adoption  and  until 
1840  this  was  yearly  presented  and  affirmed  by 
Mr.  Grote.  After  the  retirement  of  Grote,  Mr. 
Ward  and  later  Mr.  H.  Berkley  became  the  cham- 
pions of  the  measure.  It  was  supported  by  such 
statesmen  as  Macaulay,  Bright,  Cobbett,  Hume, 
and  O'Connell,  and  was  opposed  by  Lord  Derby, 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  Lord  Palmerston. 
Although  this  movement  was  retarded  by  the  revo- 
lution of  1848  and  the  opposition  of  John  Stuart 
Mill,  the  long  period  of  agitation  finally  bore  fruit. 
In  the  Queen's  speech  from  the  throne  in  1868-60, 
a  recommendation  was  made  that  the  present  mode 
of  conducting  elections  be  inquired  into  and  fur- 
ther guarantees  adopted  for  promoting  their  tran- 
quility, purity,  and  freedom.  A  committee  of 
tv,'enty-three,  with  the  Marquis  of  Hartington  as 
chairman,  was  appointed.  This  committee  not 
only  examined  the  English  situation,  but  ques- 
tioned witnesses  from  France,  Italy,  Greece,  the 
United  States,  and  Australia;  and  in  1870  it  recom- 
mended that  the  secret  ballot  be  adopted.  The  re- 
sult was  the  ballot  act  which  became  a  law  in 
1872.  With  the  prestige  gained  by  its  success  in 
England,  the  principles  of  the  Australian  ballot 
were  soon  adopted  in  Canada,  Belgium,  Luxem- 
burg, and  Italy." — E.  C.  Evans,  History  of  the 
Australian  ballot  system  in  the  United  States,  pp. 
17-20. 

1882-1916. — Australian  ballot  supersedes  early 
methods  of  voting  in  the  United  States. — Evils 
of  early  methods. — Types  of  Australian  ballots. 
— History  of  its  spread  in  the  United  States. — 
"Although  the  departure  from  the  English  viva 
voce  system  of  voting  was  begun  in  colonial  times, 
it  was  not  completed  until  late  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  Nine  of  the  ten  state  constitutions 
framed  between  1776  and  1780  required  the  secret 


ballot  for  the  election  of  certain  officials,  but  the 
majority  were  still  chosen  by  oral  vote.  'As  the 
voter  appeared,  his  name  was  called  out  in  a  loud 
voice.  The  judges  inquired,  "John  Smith,  for 
whom  do  you  vote?"  He  replied  by  proclaiming 
the  name  of  his  favorite.  Then  the  clerks  en- 
rolled the  vote,  and  the  judges  announced  it  as 
enrolled.  The  representative  of  the  candidate  for 
whom  he  voted  arose,  and  bowed,  and  thanked 
him  aloud;  and  his  partisans  often  applauded.'  In 
Kentucky,  the  last  state  to  give  up  the  system,  the 
election  for  iheriff  consisted  in  ranging  the  friends 
of  one  candidate  on  one  side  of  the  road,  the 
backers  of  the  other  on  the  opposite  side.  As  in 
an  old-fashioned  spelling  bee,  the  longest  line  won. 
The  classe  which  strongly  advocated  the  open  vote 
were  in  America,  as  elsewhere,  the  propertied 
classes.  The  system  naturally  continued  longest 
in  the  South.  The  conservatives  dreaded  the  effect 
of  secrecy  upon  the  honesty  of  elections.  John 
Randolph  of  Virginia  said  in  1839:  'I  scarcely 
believe  that  we  have  such  a  fool  in  all  Virginia  as 
even  to  mention  the  vote  by  ballot,  and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  the  adoption  of  the  ballot 
would  make  any  nation  a  nation  of  scoundrels,  if 
it  did  not  find  them  so.'  The  ballot  had  been  in- 
troduced in  all  the  seaboard  states  but  one  by 
iSoo.  In  that  year  it  was  adopted  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  has 
since  been  the  rule  in  states  organized  jn  the  West. 
But  Arkansas  preserved  the  ancient  viva  voce  sys- 
tem until  1S46,  Missouri  and  Virginia  until  the 
sixties,  and  Kentucky  abandoned  it  only  in  1890. 
By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
some  form  of  ballot  was  employed  in  most  of  the 
United  States.  The  .Generic  term  was  applied  to  a 
motley  variety  of  voting  papers,  both  written  and 
printed.  As  there  was  no  rule  for  the  size  and 
color  of  the  ballot,  each  party  sought  to  make  its 
ticket  recognizable  by  the  ignorant  voter  by  pe- 
culiar marks.  One  Republican  ballot  had  a  flam- 
ing pink  border,  with  rays  projecting  towards  the 
center,  and  letters  half  an  inch  high.  Ballots  of 
colored  tissue  paper  were  common  in  the  South. 
Such  pronounced  differences  made  it  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish a  Republican  from  a  Democratic  paper, 
as  far  as  it  could  be  seen.  The  use  of  the  ballot 
conformed  to  no  rules.  If  he  chose,  the  voter 
could  make  his  own  and  bring  it  with  him,  usually 
in  his  vest-pocket,  whence  the  name  of  'vest-pocket 
tickets.'  The  labor  involved  in  this  led  candidates 
generally  before  1S25  to  print  their  tickets  to  al- 
lure the  indolent.  When  the  party  took  over  the 
ballot,  usage  varied  widely  as  to  how  many  names 
should  be  put  on  one  paper;  some  states  required 
a  man  to  cast  nine,  ten,  or  more  papers  before  he 
had  voted  for  all  the  candidates.  The  ballot  was 
entirely  a  party  affair,  gotten  up,  printed,  and 
peddled  on  election  day,  by  party  workers,  who 
hawked  their  wares  so  diligently  as  to  be  an  un- 
mitigated nuisance.  LInregulatcd  political  heelers 
were  given  virtually  complete  control  of  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  electoral  system.  An  unsystematic 
institution  such  as  the  above  was  prey  to  a  multi- 
tude of  abuses.  Besides  involving  an  enormous 
expense  throush  the  duplication  of  effort,  the 
money  spent  did  not  insure  the  public  ...  a  cor- 
rect ballot.  The  voter  relied  upon  his  party  organi- 
zation, and  that  often  betrayed  him.  An  irrespon- 
sible ring  could  'unbunch'  the  party  slate,  remove 
a  good  candidate,  and  substitute  one  of  its  own, 
with  little  fear  of  penalty.  The  machines  of  two 
parties  sometimes  agreed  to  compromise  by  trad- 
ing certain  -places  on  each  other's  ballots,  unknown 
to  the  party  members,  who  took  what  the  peddlers 
gave  them  without  inspection.  If  the  politicians 
did  not  agree,  a  party  got  out  counterfeit  ballots 


666 


AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


United  Staies 


AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


of  the  opposition  with  its  own  candidates  on  them, 
so  skilfully  contrived  that  detection  was  difficult 
even  on  close  examination.  Grosser  frauds  were 
practiced  as  well,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  bal- 
lot was  really  hardly  secret  at  all.  This  had  two 
important  results:  bribery  and  intimidation.  When 
a  candidate  had  paid  for  a  vote,  he  was  naturally 
anxious  to  see  that  what  he  had  bought  was  de- 
livered. A  better  system  than  the  old-style  ballot 
for  stabilizing  this  traffic  in  votes  could  hardly  be 
conceived.  Watchers  stationed  at  the  polls  could 
tell,  even  at  a  distance,  what  ticket  a  man  voted. 
The  tissue-paper  ballot  even  made  it  possible  to 
deliver  double  or  triple  the  value  of  the  bribe,  by 
folding  smaller  ballots  inside  a  blanket  one,  and 
shaking  them  out  as  the  ballot  was  dropped  into 
the  urn.  Intimidation  was  probably  not  so  com- 
mon as  in  England,  but  it  was  carried  on  to  far 
too  large  an  extent.  Men  were  transported  to  the 
polls  in  their  employers'  carriages.  They  were 
then  given  ballots  and  told  to  keep  them  in  sight 
until  the  moment  when  they  dropped  them  into 
the  urn.  If  the  voters  stayed  away  from  the  polls 
or  did  not  obey  orders,  they  were  thrown  out  of 
work,  and,  in  mill-towns,  out  of  the  company's 
tenements  as  well.  .  .  .  [See  also  Corrupt  and 
ILLEGAL  PRACTICES  AT  ELECTIONS;  United  States.] 
The  essential  parts  of  the  Australian  system  as 
employed  in  the  United  States  are  the  printing  and 
distribution  of  the  ballot,  the  choosing  of  the 
names  which  shall  appear  upon  it,  and  the  regula- 
tion of  the  method  in  which  it  is  cast.  After  its 
introduction  the  Australian  ballot  became  the  only 
one  which  the  voter  might  cast.  It  is  prepared  by 
the  state  at  public  expense,  so  that  in  a  sense  the 
state  guarantees  the  authenticity  of  the  nomina- 
tions on  it.  As  it  is  necessary  to  restrict  the  size, 
the  law  provides  that  only  names  proposed  by 
parties  of  a  certain  numerical  strength,  or  by  peti- 
tion of  a  large  number  of  electors,  shall  appear. 
In  effect  this  is  state  recognition  of  parties,  or  of 
the  party  machine.  The  ballots  are  marked  in 
a  secret  booth,  from  the  neighborhood  of  which 
all  but  the  voter  are  excluded.  The  system  at- 
tempts to  shield  him  from  all  outside  influence 
from  the  moment  he  receives  the  ticket  until  he 
drops  it  into  the  ballot-box,  and  to  keep  his  vote 
entirely  from  the  knowledge  ot  any  one  but  him- 
self. The  Massachusetts  ballot  ...  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  [Australian  ballot]  system  in  its 
entirety.  Upon  this  the  names  of  the  candidates 
are  grouped  in  alphabetical  order  under  the  offices 
for  which  they  stand,  with  the  name  of  the  party 
following  that  of  the  nominee.  Such  is  the  general 
style  of  the  ballot  in  fourteen  states.  It  has  been 
urged  against  the  Massachusetts  ballot  that  the 
amount  of  marking  required  discourages  the  voter 
and  leads  to  neglect  of  all  but  the  leading  offices 
on  the  ticket.  On  the  other  hand,  it  diminishes 
laxness  in  the  shape  of  straight  ticket  voting  by 
demanding  separate  consideration  for  each  nominee. 
That  the  system  does  actually  favor  independent 
voting  was  shown  in  the  election  of  1004.  ...  It 
is  claimed,  however,  that  the  arrangement  of  names 
on  the  ballot  constitutes  a  literacy  test,  and  some 
twenty-five  states  use  the  party-column  type,  the 
other  main  style  of  the  Australian  ballot.  The 
entire  ticket  of  each  party  is  printed  in  a  single 
column  with  the  party  emblem  at  its  head  to  en- 
lighten ignorant  voters.  The  artistic  taste  of  the 
political  parties  is  most  diverse  and  catholic.  The 
Socialists  come  nearest  to  uniformity,  two  hands 
clasped  before  a  globe  being  their  insignia  in  seven 
states.  The  Prohibitionists  employ  a  hatchet  in 
Alabama,  a  house  and  yard  in  Delaware,  a  phcenix 
in  Kentucky,  an  armorial  device  in  Michigan,  an 
anchor   in    New    Hampshire,   a   fountain    in    New 


York,  a  rose  in  Ohio,  while  the  only  picture  on 
which  two  states  agree  is  the  sun  rising  over  the 
water,  used  in  Indiana  and  Kansas.  These  super- 
ficial differences  merely  reflect  deeper  variations 
on  more  important  points.  The  size  of  the  baUot 
varies  from  a  huge  blanket,  four  or  five  feet 
square,  to  a  narrow  strip  three  inches  wide  and 
thirty-one  inches  long,  in  Florida,  or  the  note-paper 
size  used  in  Oregon.  Of  more  importance  is  the 
relative  ease  with  which  a  man  can  vote  a  straight 
ticket  or  can  exercise  intelligence  in  picking  the 
best  candidate  of  several  parties.  A  simple  cross 
in  the  circle  beneath  the  party  emblem  casts  a 
straight  ballot.  In  many  states  the  independent 
voter  is  put  to  twenty  times  as  much  trouble  even 
though  he  would  vote  for  but  one  officer  outside 
of  his  own  party.  Here  is  a  serious  matter  for 
there  is  no  doubting  the  American  voter's  procliv- 
ity to  choose  the  easiest  way  in  marking  his  ballot. 
The  party  column  system  often  places  a  direct 
penalty  on  an  effort  to  smash  the  weak  spots  in  a 
party  slate.  To  be  sure  the  illiterate  voter  would 
be  at  sea  without  the  party  emblem;  but  it  is  a 
question  whether  haphazard  or  hidebound  voting 
is  the  lesser  evil.  It  would  seem  practicable  to 
add  the  party  symbol  to  the  party  name  on  the 
Massachusetts  ballot  and  thus  to  avoid  both  Scylla 
and  Charybdis.  At  any  rate  the  problem  deserves 
at  least  as  diligent  attention  as  our  great  corpora- 
tions give  to  the  efficiency  of  their  advertising. 
...  A  partial  remedy  for  the  evils  of  the  present 
ballot  has  been  secured  by  the  use  of  the  voting 
machines,  which  combine  relative  simplicity  with 
ease  in  splitting  a  party  ticket.  Absolute  accuracy 
in  counting  the  returns  is  assured.  Their  cost  is 
perhaps  the  main  obstacle  in  the  way  of  their  uni- 
versal adoption." — C.  Seymour  and  D.  P.  Frary, 
How  the  world  votes,  v.  i,  pp.  246-254, — The 
New  York  state  ballot  in  recent  years  has  com- 
bined the  party  emblem  and  the  Massachusetts  ar- 
rangement by  officers.  This  makes  it  as  easy  to 
vote  a  split  ticket  as  a  straight  one  and  at  the 
same  time  aids  the  illiterate  voter. — "At  first  this 
new  reform  in  Australia  and  England  does  not 
appear  to  have  created  much  of  an  impression  in 
this  country.  According  to  Mr.  John  S.  Wig- 
more,  it  was  first  advocated  by  a  member  of  the 
Philadelphia  Civil  Reform  Association  in  1882  in 
a  pamphlet  called  English  Elections.  The  follow- 
ing year  Henry  George  in  the  North  American- 
Review  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  English 
system  as  a  cure  for  the  vices  arising  from  use  of 
money  in  elections.  The  first  attempt  that  the 
writer  could  discover  to  secure  the  passage  of  the 
reform  was  made  in  Michigan  in  1885.  A  bill 
modeled  on  the  Australian  act  was  introduced  into 
the  lower  house  of  the  legislature  by  Mr.  George 
W.  Walthew,  but  it  failed  to  pass.  A  bill  similar 
to  that  of  Mr.  Walthew's,  advocated  by  Mr.  Jud- 
son  Grenell,  passed  the  House  in  1887,  but  was 
lost  in  the  Senate.  In  Wisconsin  a  compromise 
measure  applying  to  cities  of  fifty  thousand  or 
over  was  adopted  in  1887.  Under  this  law  the 
party  organizations  printed  the  ballots  and  the 
state  distributed  them.  But  the  honor  of  enacting 
the  first  .Australian-ballot  law  belongs  to  Kentucky. 
This  measure  was  introduced  by  Mr.  A.  M.  Wal- 
lace, of  Louisville,  and  was  enacted  February  24, 
18S8.  The  act  applied  only  to  the  city  of  Louis- 
ville, because  the  state  constitution  required  viva 
voce  voting  at  state  elections.  The  ballots  were 
printed  by  the  mayor  at  the  expense  of  the  city. 
Candidates  had  to  be  nominated  by  fifty  or  more 
voters  in  order  to  have  their  names  placed  upon  the 
ballot.  The  blanket  form  of  the  ballot  was  pro- 
vided, with  the  names  of  the  candidates  arranged 
in   alphabetical   order  according   to   surnames,  but 


667 


AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


AUSTRASIA  AND  NEUSTRIA 


without  party  designations  of  any  kind.  The  man- 
ner of  obtaining  and  marliing  the  ballots  was  the 
same  as  the  Massachusetts  act.  .  .  .  The  original 
centers  of  organized  agitation  for  the  reform  were 
New  York  and  Boston,  and  the  two  movements, 
while  simultaneous,  were  independent.  In  Boston 
the  earliest  discussion  and  demand  for  ballot  reform 
grew  out  of  the  discussions  of  public  questions  by 
the  members  of  a  club  called  the  'Dutch  Treat.' 
Later  the  Boston  City  Council  and  the  labor  or- 
ganizations began  to  demand  leforni.  One  of  the 
members  of  the  'Dutch  Treat,'  Mr.  H.  H.  Sprague, 
was  elected  to  the  state  Senate  and  was  made  chair- 
man of  a  committee  on  election  law.  Encouraged 
by  these  favorable  signs,  the  club  drafted  a  bill 
which  was  presented  by  Mr.  Sprague.  Another 
bill  was  presented  in  the  House  by  Mr.  E.  B 
Hayes,  of  Lynn,  [Mass.]  Mr.  Hayes  lent  his 
support  to  the  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Sprague,  a 
large  number  of  petitions  for  the  bill  were  re- 
ceived, and  on  May  20,  1888,  the  law  was  enacted. 
In  New  York  a  systematic  discussion  began  in 
1887  in  the  Commonwealth  Club.  After  a  thorough 
discussion  of  this  reform,  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed composed  of  some  of  the  leading  lawyers 
and  men  of  legislative  and  administrative  experi- 
ence, taken  equally  from  the  Republican  and 
Democratic  parties.  This  committee  was  subse- 
quently joined  by  a  like  committee  from  the  City 
Reform  Club;  and  after  some  months  of  study, 
it  drafted  an  act  which,  after  having  been  ap- 
proved by  the  Commonwealth  Club,  the  City  Re- 
form Club,  and  the  Single  Tax  party,  was  presented 
in  the  .^ssembly  of  1888  and  was  known  as  the 
'Yates  bill.'  The  bill  was  referred  to  the  Com- 
mittee on  Judiciary  and  was  amended  by  certain 
provisions  taken  from  similar  bills  introduced  by 
Mr.  Saxton  and  Mr.  Hamilton.  The  measure  was 
supported  by  the  Republicans  and  passed  both 
houses  of  the  legislature,  but  was  vetoed  by  Gov- 
ernor Hill.  Agitation  was  started  anew  by  its 
friends  and  a  ballot  league  was  formed.  In  the. 
session  of  the  legislature  of  i88g  the  Saxton  bill 
was  amended  and  again  introduced,  the  bill  as 
amended  having  received  the  indorsement  of  a 
committee  of  the  Young  Men's  Democratic  Club 
of  New  York.  The  legislature  again  passed  the 
Saxton  bill  and  it  was  vetoed  a  second  time  by 
Governor  Hill.  In  i8qo  the  Yates-Saxton  bill  with 
some  modifications  was  again  introduced,  and  a 
monster  petition  from  New  York  City  containing 
over  one  hundred  thousand  signatures  was  pre- 
sented to  the  legislature.  Governor  Hill  saw  that 
something  had  to  be  done,  so  he  expressed  a  will- 
ingness to  sign  a  bill  looking  to  the  improvement 
of  the  election  laws,  but  declared  that  under  no 
circumstance  would  he  approve  any  bill  following 
the  Massachusetts  or  the  Australian  system.  Cer- 
tain of  the  leaders,  despairing  of  the  adoption  of 
their  reform,  decided  to  accept  the  governor's  over- 
tures. The  result  was  the  unsatisfactor\-  com- 
promise law  of  i8qo  which  provided  for  the  so- 
called  'party  and  paster  ballot."  The  rapidity  of 
the  spread  of  the  .\ustralian  ballot  in  the  United 
States  during  the  next  few  years  was  most  gratify- 
ing to  its  friends,  but  its  triumph  was  not  secured 
without  a  hard  struggle.  The  opposition  came 
from  two  sources:  the  ultra-conservative  members 
of  the  community,  and  the  machine  politicians  who 
profited  by  the  vices  of  the  old  system.  The  New 
York  Herald,  in  an  editorial,  said:  'The  only  per- 
sons who  can  have  an  interest  in  elections  as  they 
are,  are  the  leaders  and  managers,  whose  power 
depends  upon  their  successes  in  manipulating  the 
ballot  so  that  the  suffrage  will  express,  not  the 
will  of  the  people,  but  the  success  of  their  schemes.' 
As  Mr.  Wigmore  shows  in  his  summary  of  party 


votes,  the  success  of  the  measure  in  the  country 
as  a  whole  cannot  be  claimed  by  either  of  the  two 
great  political  parties,  and  its  enemies  were  also 
bipartisan.  The  movement  for  reform,  which 
reaped  its  first  fruits  of  victory  in  Louisville  and 
Massachusetts,  received  great  impetus  by  the  un- 
precedented use  of  money  in  the  election  of  1888. 
The  effect  is  easily  seen  in  the  record  of  legisla- 
tion of  the  next  four  years.  In  i88q  seven  states 
enacted  reform  laws  based  on  the  Australian  bal- 
lot. In  the  legislative  sessions  of  the  following 
year  five  states  and  one  territory  placed  this  law 
on  their  statute  books.  Before  the  presidential 
election  in  i8q2  thirty-two  states  and  two  ter- 
ritories had  provided  for  the  .\ustralian  ballot ; 
and  by  i8q6  seven  other  states  were  added  to 
this  list.  In  i8q7  Missouri  abandoned  in  part 
the  .Australian  ballot,  and  adopted  separate  party 
ballots.  This  is  the  only  state  which  has  given 
up  the  blanket  form  of  the  ballot  after  once 
adopting  it.  By  IQ16  Georgia  and  South  Caro- 
lina remain  the  only  states  entirely  unreformed 
North  Carolina  has  [1Q16]  only  a  local  act 
applying  to  New  Hanover  County.  New  Mex- 
ico has  a  very  unsatisfactory  compromise  law 
under  which  separate  ballots  are  printed  by  the 
county  recorders  under  the  supervision  of  the 
chairmen  of  the  county  committees  of  each  party; 
and  the  ballots  are  distributed  by  the  parties  in 
advance  of  the  election.  Tennessee  has  applied  the 
Australian-ballot  law  only  to  counties  having  fifty 
thousand  population  or  over,  and  to  towns  having 
a  population  of  twenty-five  hundred  or  ■  more. 
Missouri  has  all  the  features  of  the  Australian 
ballot  except  that  it  has  separate  party  ballots. 
Delaware  has  taken  a  very  reactionary  step  by 
permitting  an  elector  to  obtain  a  ballot  in  ad- 
vance of  the  election  from  the  chairmen  of  the 
various  political  organizations,  and  she  has  also 
introduced  an  element  of  danger  by  the  use  of 
envelopes." — E.  C.  Evans,  History  of  the  Aus- 
tralian ballot  system  in  the  United  States,  pp. 
17-20. — See  also  Suffrage,  Manhood:  United 
States. 

Also  in:  C.  A.  Beard,  American  government  and 
polities,  pp.  675-685.— W.  H.  Glasson,  Australian 
voting  system  (South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  Apr., 
iqoo). 

1902. — Secret  ballot  in  Porto  Rico.  See  Porto 
Rico:   1001-1005. 

1913. — Secret  ballot  in  France. — "The  con- 
tinued efforts  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  get 
the  Senate  to  agree  to  a  completely  secret  ballot 
resulted  in  1Q13  in  a  law  providing  for  voting  under 
envelope,  as  in  the  elections  to  the  German  Reich- 
stag, and  for  secret  voting  booths.  All  ballots 
must  be  cast  in  a  uniform,  opaque  envelope,  pro- 
vided by  the  prefect,  and  bearing  an  official  stamp. 
The  voter  goes  into  the  isoloir.  or  booth,  and  in 
secrecy  folds  his  ballot  and  puts  it  into  the  en- 
velope. He  then  deposits  it  in  the  urn  himself, 
so  that  the  president  may  have  no  chance  to  mark 
it  surreptitiously.  This  reform  will  do  away  with 
intimidation,  ballot  stuffine,  marking  of  ballots, 
and  their  identification  by  outsiders.  It  came 
slowly,  and  in  the  face  of  great  opposition  in  the 
Senate  during  a  whole  decade." — C.  Seymour  and 
D.  P  Frarv.  Ho;c  the  world  votes,  v.  i,  pp.  379- 
380. 

AUSTRALIAN  MAN.  See  Europe:  Prehis- 
toric period:    Earliest  remains. 

AUSTRASIA  and  NEUSTRIA,  or  Neus- 
trasia. — "It  is  conjectured  by  Luden,  with  great 
probability,  that  the  Ripuarians  were  originally 
called  the  'Eastern'  people  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  Salian  Franks  who  lived  to  the  West. 
But  when  the  old  home  of  the  conquerors  on  the 


668 


AUSTRASIA  AND  NEUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


right  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  united  with  their  new 
settlements  in  Gaul,  the  latter,  as  it  would  seem, 
were  called  Neustria  or  Neustrasia  (New  Lands)  ; 
while  the  term  Austrasia  came  to  denote  the  origi- 
nal seats  of  the  Franks,  on  what  we  now  call  the 
German  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  most  important 
difference  between  them  (a  difference  so  great  as 
to  lead  to  their  permanent  separation  into  the 
kingdoms  of  France  and  Germany  by  the  treaty  of 
Verdun)  was  this:  that  in  Neustria  the  Prankish 
element  was  quickly  absorbed  by  the  mass  of  Gallo- 
Romanism  by  which  it  was  surrounded;  while  in 
Austrasia,  which  included  the  ancient  seats  of  the 
Frankish  conquerors,  the  German  element  was 
wholly  predominant.  The  import  of  the  word  Aus- 
trasia (Austria,  Austrifrancia)  is  very  fluctuating. 
In  its  widest  sense  it  was  used  to  denote  all  the 
countries  incorporated  into  the  Frankish  Empire, 
or  even  held  in  subjection  to  it,  in  which  the  Ger- 
man language  and  population  prevailed;  in  this 
acceptation  it  included  therefore  the  territory  of 
the  Alemanni,  Bavarians.  Thuringians,  and  even 
that  of  the  Saxons  and  Frises.  In  its  more  com- 
mon and  proper  sense  it  meant  that  part  of  the 
territory  of  the  Franks  themselves  which  was  not 
included  in  Neustria.  It  was  subdivided  into  Upper 
Austrasia  on  the  Moselle,  and  Lower  Austrasia  on 
the  Rhine  and  Meuse.  Neustria  (or,  in  the  fulness 
of  the  monkish  Latinity,  Neustrasia)  was  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the 
Loire,  and  on  the  southwest  [southeast?]  towards 
Burgundy  by  a  line  which,  beginning  below  Gien 
on   the   Loire,   ran   through   the   rivers   Loing   and 


Yonne,  not  far  from  their  sources,  and  passing 
north  of  Auxerre  and  south  of  Troyes,  joined  the 
river  Aube  above  Arcis." — W.  C.  Perry,  The 
Franks,  ch.  3. — "The  northeastern  part  of  Gaul, 
along  the  Rhine,  together  with  a  slice  of  ancient 
Germany,  was  already  distinguished,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  the  name  of  the  Eastern  Kingdom,  or 
Oster-rike,  Latinized  into  Austrasia.  It  embraced 
the  region  lirst  occupied  by  the  Ripuarian  Franks, 
and  where  they  still  lived  the  most  compactly  and 
in  the  greatest  number.  .  .  .  This  was,  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  Franks,  the  kingdom  by  eminence, 
while  the  rest  of  the  north  ul  (Jaul  was  simply 
not  it — 'ne-osterrike,'  or  Neustria.  A  line  drawn 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt  to  Cambrai,  and 
thence  across  the  Marne  at  Chateau-Thierry  to  the 
Aube  of  Bar-sur-Aube,  would  have  separated  the 
one  from  the  other,  Neustria  comprising  all  the 
northwest  of  Gaul,  between  the  Loire  and  the 
ocean,  with  the  exception  of  Brittany.  This  had 
been  the  first  possession  of  the  Salian  Franks  in 
Gaul.  ...  To  such  an  extent  had  they  been  ab- 
sorbed and  influenced  by  the  Roman  elements  of 
the  population,  that  the  Austrasians  scarcely  con- 
sidered them  Franks,  while  they,  in  their  turn, 
regarded  the  Austrasians  as  the  merest  untutored 
barbarians." — P.  Godwin,  Hiitory  of  France:  An- 
cient Gaul,  bk.  3,  ck.  13,  with  note. — See  also 
Franks  (Merovingian  empire):  511-752;  Ger- 
many: 687-800;  Scandinavian  states:  8th-Qth  cen- 
turies. 

Also  in:  E.  A.  Freeman,  Historical  geography  uj 
Europe,  ch.  5,  sect.  5. 


AUSTRIA 


Introduction. — Singularity  of  Austrian  his- 
tory.— A  Power  which  was  not  a  national 
power. — The  peculiarities  of  Austrian  and  .Lus- 
tre-Hungarian history  down  to  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War  are  set  forth  in  the  following 
quotations:  "The  very  first  fact  with  which 
any  student  of  .Austria-Hungary  is  confronted  is 
that  he  is  dealing  with  a  slate  and  not  with  a  na- 
tion. Nationalities  are  plentiful  within  the  limits 
of  the  empire — more  nationalities  and  more  lan- 
guages than  in  any  other  European  state  except 
Russia — but  there  is  no  .Austro-Hungarian  nation. 
When  the  emperor  wishes  to  address  a  manifesto 
to  his  subjects  it  is  not  'to  my  people'  that  he 
speaks,  but  'to  my  peoples.'  Nor  have  these 
nationalities  anything  in  common  except  their 
government.  Race,  religion,  all  that  tends  to  make 
nationalities  different  from  one  another  are  pres- 
ent. And  so  whether  we  apply  to  it  the  terms  of 
one  of  its  severe  critics,  'a  ramshackle  empire,'  or 
describe  it,  as  its  friends  do,  as  an  exceedingly 
hopeful  experiment  in  racial  federalization,  we  are 
necessarily  brought  back  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Austria  of  to-day  is  not  a  nation  but  a  gov- 
ernment functioning  over  a  group  of  struggling 
nationalities  each  differing  from  the  other  in  race, 
religion  and  methods  of  life.  Nor  does  the  Aus- 
trian difficulty  end  there.  In  their  struggle  with 
each  other  the  nationalities  look  not  merely  to 
their  own  strength  for  aid  but  also  to  their  brothers 
outside  the  borders  of  Austria-Hungan,'.  The  Ger- 
man looks  to  Germany,  the  Slav  to  Serbia  and 
Russia  for  assistance  in  their  hopes  of  strengthen- 
ing their-  position  within  the  Dual  Empire.  The 
result  is  that  this  question  has  been  too  often  re- 
garded by  the  Austrian  statesmen  as  a  question 
of  foreign  policy  to  be  settled  with  these  outside 
powers  rather  than  an  internal  question  to  be 
settled  within  the  empire.     Moreover,  the  Austro- 


Hungarian  Empire  has  been  constantly  endeavor- 
ing to  expand  either  its  territory  or  its  influence, 
at  first  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  more  lately  in 
the  Balkan  peninsula.  And  these  attempts  at  ex- 
pansion have  brought  it  into  acute  conflict:  in 
the  first  case  with  Italy,  France  and  Prussia:  in 
the  second  case  with  Russia.  So  the  Dual  Empire, 
whether  on  the  defensive  or  offensive,  has  always 
made  foreign  policy  its  chief  aim,  and  has  given 
far  too  little  attention  to  the  pressing  questions  at 
home.  There  are  some  nations  which  suffer  from 
too  little  attention  to  foreign  policy ;  Austria  seems 
to  have  suffered  from  giving  it  too  much.  Finally 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  shares  the  fate  of 
all  empires  on  the  borderland  between  two  civiliza- 
tions. 'Asia,'  says  a  Viennese  proverb,  'begins  on 
the  Ringstrasse,'  and  there  seems  to  be  an  element 
of  truth  in  the  saying.  The  traveller  who  goes 
from  the  Tyrol  to  Bosnia  or  to  northwestern 
Hungary  passes  into  a  different  world.  One  is 
European,  the  other  is  Oriental,  and  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  rulers  to  Europeanize  their  subjects 
and  to  mitigate  this  difference  have  only  partially 
succeeded.  And  this  difference  has  increased  still 
further  the  dissension  within  the  Dual  Empire 
and  prevented  the  formation  of  a  united  nation. 
"This  is  Austria,  a  state,  a  foreign  policy,  an 
army,  a  ruler,  but  never  a  nation.  How  did  such 
a  state  come  to  be  formed?  To  answer  this  ques- 
tion we  must  go  back  into  the  late  Middle  Ages, 
to  the  period  when  the  old  Holy  Roman  Empire 
of  the  Germans  was  struggling  with  the  non-C^er- 
man  races  on  its  borders,  Slavs  and  Magyars.  To 
provide  for  defence  against  these  races  was  formed 
the  so-called  East  March — the  kernel  of  modern 
Austria.  Originally  purely  German,  it  extended 
to  the  south  to  take  in  the  Slavs  along  the  northern 
Adriatic.  But  the  genesis  of  modern  Austria  be- 
gins with  a  certain  Ferdinand,  brother  of  Charles 


669 


AUSTRIA 


Introduction 


AUSTRIA 


V,  whom  Luther  faced  at  Worms  in  152 1.  By  a 
fortunate  marriage  and  by  equally  fortunate  deaths 
he  acquired  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  But  he  ac- 
quired something  in  addition  to  these  territories,  he 
acquired  a  Turkish  war  among  his  possessions  in 
Hungary.  And  for  the  next  two  centuries  Aus- 
tria waged  almost  unceasing  war  against  the  Turks. 
At  first  the  struggle  went  rather  against  them;  in 
i52g  and  again  in  1683,  the  Turks  nearly  captured 
Vienna  and  settled  the  problem  of  Austria  in  a 
Turkish  sense.  But  after  1683  the  war  went  sicaci- 
ily  in  Austria's  favor.  She  gradually  e.xtended 
down  the  Danube  and  into  the  Balkans,  taking 
under  her  dominion  large  numbers  of  Slavs  who 
welcomed  her  armies  as  deliverers  from  the  hatca 
oppression  of  the  Turk.  In  IQ14  they  were  sing- 
ing in  the  streets  of  X'ienna  a  song  commemorating 
the  exploits  of  the  great  .Austrian  general,  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  who  had  led  the  .Austrian  armies 
during  ope  of  the  most  successful  periods  of  these 
wars.  Formerly  many  a  Slav  has  joined  in  this 
song  because  he  realized  that  it  was  this  Prince 
Eugene  who  had  delivered  his  race  from  the  Turk. 
But  these  voices  have  long  been  still.  Because 
they  have  discovered  that  they  have  merely  ex- 
changed one  set  of  bonds  for  another,  the  cramp- 
ing rule  of  the  Ottoman  for  the  equally  cramping 
rule  of  the  German  and  the  Magyar,  they  have 
ceased  to  celebrate  these  .Austrian  victories  over 
the  Turk.  All  the  opportunity  that  .Austria  has 
enjoyed,  all  the  tragedy  of  her  failure  to  realize  it, 
lies  in  this  situation.  And  thus  was  formed  a  state 
which  never  was  the  expression  of  a  nation,  a 
mere  machine,  a  thmg  in  which  the  breadth  of 
national  life  has  never  really  stirred.  It  was  given 
the  great  opportunity  to  reconcile  Slav  and  Mag- 
yar and  German,  East  and  West,  and,  on  the 
whole,  it  has  failed.  Opportunities  countless  it 
has  had;  some  it  has  utilized — enough  to  tantalize 
yet  not  to  satisfy;  but  the  great  majority  it  has 
left  unutilized.  It  has,  at  best,  but  partially  ful- 
filled its  destiny  and  now  it  comes  for  its  ac- 
counting before  the  judgm.ent-bar  of  the  nations." 
— W.  S.  Davis,  Roots  of  the  war,  pp.  280-291. 

It  is  not  easy  "to  tell  the  story  of  the  various 
lands  which  have  at  different  times  come  under  the 
dominion  of  .Austrian  princes,  the  story  of  each 
land  by  itself,  and  the  story  of  them  all  in  rela- 
tion to  the  common  power.  A  continuous  narra- 
tive is  impossible.  .  .  .  Much  mischief  has  been 
done  by  one  small  fashion  of  modern  speech.  It 
has  within  my  memory  become  usual  to  personify 
nations  and  powers  on  the  smallest  occasions  in  a 
way  which  was  formerly  done  only  in  language 
more  or  less  solemn,  rhetorical  or  poetical.  We 
now  talk  every  moment  of  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Italy,  as  if  they  were  persons.  And 
as  long  as  it  is  only  England,  France,  Germany, 
Russia,  or  Italy  of  which  we  talk  in  this  way,  no 
practical  harm  is  done;  the  thing  is  a  mere  ques- 
tion of  style.  For  those  are  all  national  powers. 
.  .  .  But  when  we  go  on  to  talk  in  this  way  of 
'Austria,'  or  'Turkey,'  direct  harm  is  done;  thought 
is  confused,  and  facts  are  misrepresented.  ...  I 
have  seen  the  words  '.Austrian  national  honour;' 
I  have  come  across  people  who  believed  that  'Aus- 
tria' was  one  land  inhabited  by  'Austrians,'  and 
that  'Austrians'  spoke  the  '.Austrian'  language.  All 
such  phrases  are  misapplied.  It  is  to  be  presumed 
that  in  all  of  them  '.Austria'  means  something  more 
than  the  true  .Austria,  the  archduchy ;  what  is  com- 
monly meant  by  them  is  the  whole  dominions  of 
the  sovereign  of  Austria.  People  fancy  that  the 
inhabitants  of  those  dominions  have  a  common 
being,  a  common  interest,  like  that  of  the  people 
of  England,  France,  or  Italy.  .  .  .  There  is  no 
Austrian   language,  no  Austrian  nation;   therefore 


there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  'Austrian  national 
honour.'  Nor  can  there  be  an  'Austrian  policy'  in 
the  same  sense  in  which  there  is  an  English  or  a 
French  policy,  that  is,  a  policy  in  which  the 
English  or  French  government  carries  out  the  will 
of  the  English  or  French  nation.  .  .  .  Such  phrasei 
as  'Austrian  interests,'  '.Austrian  policy,'  and  the 
like,  do  not  mean  the  interests  or  the  policy  of  any 
land  or  nation  at  all.  They  s  mply  mean  the  in- 
terests and  policy  of  a  particular  ruling  family, 
which  may  often  be  the  same  as  the  interests  and 
wishes  of  particular  parts  of  their  dominions,  but 
which  can  never  represent  any  common  interest 
or  common  w-sh  on  ihe  part  of  the  whole.  .  .  . 
We  muL=t  ever  remember  that  the  dominions  of 
the  House  of  .Austria  are  simply  a  collection  of 
kingdoms,  duchies,  etc.,  brought  together  by  va- 
rious accidental  causes,  but  which  have  nothing 
really  in  common,  no  common  speech,  no  common 
feeling,  no  comm.on  interest.  In  one  case  only, 
that  of  the  Magyars  in  Hungary,  does  the 
House  of  Austria  rule  over  a  whole  nation ; 
the  other  kingdoms,  duchies,  etc..  are  only 
parts  of  nations,  having  no  tic  to  one 
another,  but  having  the  closest  ties  to  other  parts 
of  their  several  nations  which  lie  close  to  them 
but  which  are  under  other  governments.  The  only 
bond  among  them  all  is  that  a  series  of  marriages, 
wars,  treaties,  and  so  forth,  have  given  them  a 
common  sovereign.  The  same  person  is  king  of 
Hungary,  .Archduke  of  .Austria,  Count  of  Tyrol. 
Lord  of  Trieste,  and  a  hundred  other  things.  That 
is  all.  .  .  .  The  growth  and  the  abiding  dominion 
of  the  House  of  Austria  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable phenomena  in  European  history.  Pow- 
ers of  the  same  kind  have  arisen  twice  before; 
but  in  both  cases  they  were  very  short-lived,  while 
the  power  of  the  House  of  Austria  has  lasted  for 
several  centuries.  The  power  of  the  House  of 
.Anjou  in  the  twelfth  century,  the  power  of  the 
House  of  Burgundy  in  the  fifteenth  century,  were 
powers  of  exactly  the  same  kind.  They  too  were 
collections  of  scraps,  with  no  natural  connexion, 
brought  together  by  the  accidents  of  warfare,  mar- 
riage, or  diplomacy.  Now  why  is  it  that  both 
these  powers  broke  in  pieces  almost  at  once,  after 
the  reigns  of  two  princes  in  each  case,  while  the 
power  of  the  House  of  .Austria  has  lasted  so  long? 
Two  causes  suggest  themselves.  One  is  the  long 
connexion  between  the  House  of  .Austria  and  the 
Roman  Empire  and  kingdom  of  Germany.  So 
many  Austrian  princes  were  elected  Emperors  as 
to  make  the  .Austrian  House  seem  something  great 
and  imperial  in  itself.  I  believe  that  this  cause 
has  done  a  good  deal  towards  the  result;  but  I 
believe  that  another  cause  has  done  yet  more.  This 
is  that,  though  the  Austrian  power  is  not  a  national 
power,  there  is,  as  has  been  already  noticed,  a 
nation  within  it.  While  it  contains  only  scraps 
of  other  nations,  it  contains  the  whole  of  the 
Magyar  nation.  It  thus  gets  something  of  the 
strength  of  a  national  power.  .  .  .  The  kingdom 
of  Hungary  is  an  ancient  kingdom,  with  known 
boundaries  which  have  changed  singularly  little 
for  several  centuries;  and  its  connexion  with  the 
archduchy  of  Austria  and  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia 
is  now  of  long  standing.  Anything  beyond  this  is 
modern  and  shifting.  The  so-called  'empire  of 
.Austria'  dates  only  from  the  year  1804.  This  is 
one  of  the  simplest  matters  in  the  world,  but  one 
which  is  constantly  forgotten.  ...  A  smaller  point 
on  which  confusion  also  prevails  is  this.  All  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Austria  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  archdukes  and  archduchesses.  I  feel 
sure  that  many  people,  if  asked  the  meaning  of 
the  word  archduke,  would  say  that  it  was  the 
title  of  the  children  of  the  'Emperor  of  Austria,' 


670 


AUSTRIA 


Geography 


AUSTRIA 


as  grandduke  is  used  in  Russia,  and  prince  in  most 
countries.  In  trutli,  arclidulce  is  ths  title  of  tiie 
sovereign  of  Austria.  He  lias  not  given  it  up;  for 
he  calls  himself  Archduke  of  Austria  still,  though 
he  calls  himself  'Emperor  of  Austria'  as  well.  But 
by  German  custom,  the  children  of  a  duke  or 
count  are  all  called  dukes  and  counts  for  ever  and 
ever.  In  this  way  the  Prince  of  Wales  is  called 
'Duke  of  Saxony,'  and  in  the  same  way  all  the 
children  of  an  Archduke  of  Austria  are  archdukes 
and  archduchesses.  Formally  and  historically  then, 
the  taking  of  an  hereditary  imperial  title  by  the 
Archduke  of  Austria  in  1804,  and  the  keeping  of  it 
after  the  prince  who  took  it  had  ceased  in  1806 
to  be  King  of  Germany  and  Roman  Emperor-elect, 
was  a  sheer  and  shameless  imposture.  But  it  is  an 
imposture  which  has  thoroughly  well  served  its 
ends." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Preface  to  Leger's  History 
of  Aiistro-Hnugary. — "Medieval  History  is  a  his- 
tory of  rights  and  wrongs;  modern  History  as 
contrasted  with  medieval  divides  itself  into  two 
portions;  the  first  a  history  of  powers,  forces,  and 
dynasties ;  the  second,  a  history  in  which  ideas 
take  the  place  of  both  rights  and  forces.  .  .  .  Aus- 
tria may  be  regarded  as  representing  the  more 
ancient  form  of  right.  .  .  .  The  middle  ages  proper, 
the  centuries  from  the  year  1000  to  the  year  1500, 
from  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  to  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian, were  ages  of  legal  growth,  ages  in  which 
the  idea  of  right,  as  embodied  in  law,  was  the 
leading  idea  of  statesmen,  and  the  idea  of  rights 
justified  or  justifiable  by  the  letter  of  law,  was  a 
profound  influence  with  politicians.  .  .  .  The  house 
of  Austria  .  .  .  lays  thus  the  foundation  of  that 
empire  which  is  to  be  one  of  the  great  forces  of 
the  next  age;  not  by  fraud,  not  by  violence,  but 
here  by  a  politic  marriage,  here  by  a  well  advocated 
inheritance,  here  by  a  claim  on  an  imperial  fief 
forfeited  or  escheated:  honestly  where  the  letter 
of  the  law  is  in  her  favour,  by  chicanery  it  may  be 
here  and  there,  but  that  a  chicanery  tliat  wears  a 
specious  garb  of  right.  The  imperial  idea  was  but 
a  small  influence  compared  with  the  superstructure 
of  right,  inheritance,  and  suzerainty,  that  legal 
instincts  and  a  general  acquiescence  in  legal  forms 
had  raised  upon  it."- — W.  Stubbs,  Seventeen  lec- 
tures on  the  study  of  medieval  and  modern  history, 
pp.  209-215. 

Geography. — Danube  valley. — "The  Danube 
plaj's  a  most  important  part  in  European  history, 
greater  even  than  the  Rhine.  .  .  .  Heterogeneous 
as  it  is  in  the  races  and  languages  it  includes  [in 
1907],  and  still  more  in  constitutional  machinery, 
the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  is  by  no  means 
an  anomaly  on  the  map.  It  comprises  all  the 
Danube  region  except  the  immediate  upper  basin 
of  the  great  river  itself,  which  after  all  is  more 
clearly  divided  from  the  Inn  than  from  the  Main, 
down  to  where  the  Danube  turns  eastwards  parallel 
to  the  Balkans.  It  includes  Bohemia,  which  is 
as  it  were  the  converse  of  Bavaria,  historically 
but  not  technically  belonging  to  the  Danube  re- 
gion. In  two  places  only,  if  we  ignore  details, 
does  it  pass  beyond  its  natural  boundaries:  it  pos- 
sesses the  strip  of  Adriatic  coast  beyond  the  moun- 
tains— an  acquisition  vital  to  Austria  and  not  ten- 
able by  any  other  power — and  Galicia  beyond  the 
Carpathians,  which  is  a  real  anomaly  and  source 
of  weakness.  That  there  are  various  and  mutually 
jealous  races  within  the  monarchy  is  a  misfor- 
tune: that  some  of  them  have  kindred  outside  the 
frontiers  may  prove  a  worse  evil  eventually. 
Meanwhile,  Austria  affords  one  more  illustration  of  - 
the  readiness  with  which  peoples  may  overpass  ra- 
tional dividing  features  that  are  not  barriers. 

"The  military  history  of  the  Danube  region  cor- 
responds, as  is  natural,  with  the  geographical  con- 


ditions. The  great  river  flows  through  it  from 
west  and  east,. and  most  of  the  aggressive  move- 
ments, both  migrations  of  peoples  and  organized 
invasions,  are  from  the  eastwards,  or  are  driven 
back  in  the  opposite  direction.  Moreover,  the 
Danube  down  to  Presburg  runs  near  to  the  north- 
ern boundary,  leaving  a  comparatively  wide  space 
on  the  south,  traversed  by  a  series  of  tributaries, 
being  in  this  respect  the  exact  converse  of  the  Po. 
Accordingly,  the  great  battle  which  checked  the 
onward  progress  of  the  Hungarians  was  fought  on 
the  Lech:  the  less  conspicuous  but  equally  signifi- 
cant encounter  which  terminated  the  Mongol  in- 
road of  the  thirteenth  century  took  place  near  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Austria  proper.  After  the  Hun- 
garians have  become  Christian,  they  are  inevitably 
the  foremost  defence  of  Christendom  against  the 
Ottoman  Turks.  On  the  Hungarian  plain,  usually 
within  no  great  distance  of  the  Danube,  were 
fought  the  battles  which  brought  Ottoman  con- 
quests up  to  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and  drove  them 
ultimately  back  to  the  Balkan  peninsula.  When 
the  conditions  have  changed  entirely,  and  aggres- 
sion in  central  Europe  comes  habitually  from 
France,  the  first  conflict  is  naturally  for  access  to 
the  head  of  the  Danube  valley.  .  .  .  Accordingly, 
campaigns  which  concerned  the  Danube  region 
began  by  the  French  forcing  their  way  through  the 
Black  Forest  hills." — H.  B.  George,  Relations  of 
geography  and'  history,  pp.  251,  257-259. 

Name. — "The  name  of  Austria,  Oesterreich — Os- 
trich as  our  forefathers  wrote  it — is,  naturally 
enough,  a  common  name  for  the  eastern  part  of 
any  kingdom.  The  Frankish  kingdom  of  the  Mer- 
wings  had  its  Austria ;  the  Italian  kingdom  of  the 
Lombards  had  its  Austria  also.  We  are  half  in- 
clined to  wonder  that  the  name  was  never  given 
in  our  own  island  either  to  Essex  or  to  East-Anglia. 
But,  while  the  other  Austrias  have  passed  away, 
the  Oesterreich,  the  Austria,  the  Eastern  mark,  of 
the  German  kingdom,  its  defence  against  the  Mag- 
yar invader,  has  lived  on  to  our  own  times.  It 
has  not  only  lived  on,  but  it  has  become  one  of 
the  chief  European  powers.  And  it  has  become 
so  by  a  process  to  which  it  would  be  hard  to  find 
a  parallel." — E.  A.  Freeman,  Historical  geography 
of  Europe,  v.  i,  ch.  8,  p.  305. 

Birthplace. — "On  the  disputed  frontier,  in  the 
zone  of  perpetual  conflict,  were  formed  and  de- 
veloped the  two  states  which,  in  turn,  were  to 
dominate  over  Germany,  namely,  Austria  and 
Prussia.  Both  were  born  in  the  midst  of  the 
enemy.  The  cradle  of  Austria  was  the  Eastern 
marcfi,  established  by  Charlemagne  on  the  Danube, 
beyond  Bavaria,  at  the  very  gate  through  which 
have  passed  so  many  invaders  from  the  Orient. 
.  .  .  The  cradle  of  Prussia  was  the  march  of 
Brandenburg,  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  in 
the  region  of  the  exterminated  Slavs." — E.  Lavisse, 
General  view  of  the  political  history  of  Europe, 
ch.  3,  sect.  13. 

Races  of  Austria. — "The  Austrian  problem,  then, 
is,  at  bottom,  a  problem  of  nationalities.  .  .  . 
Roughly  speaking,  they  are  comprised  in  five  grand 
divisions,  the  German,  the  Magyar,  the  Slav,  the 
Roumanian  and  the  Italian.  Of  Slavs  there  are 
numerous  subdivisions,  Czechs,  Poles,  Ruthenians,  ' 
Slovaks,  Slovenes,  Croats  and  Serbs.  But  the  fun- 
damental characteristics  of  them  all  are  the  same, 
and  for  introductory  purposes  we  may  group  them 
together.  .  .  .  They  settled  mainly  in  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Danube  along  the  north  and  west 
borders  of  Bohemia.  There  is  also  a  little  island 
of  Teutondom  in  western  Hungary  formed  from 
the  descendants  of  sturdy  German  settlers  sent 
during  the  Middle  Ages  to  hold  this  region  against 
the  Slav,  but  today  lost  in  the  surrounding  sea  of 


671 


AUSTRIA,  805-1246 


Babenberg 
Dynasty 


AUSTRIA,  805-1246 


Hungarians  and  Roumanians.  ...  If  you  travel 
by  the  Danube  steamer  from  Vienna  to  Budapest 
you  pass,  about  half  way,  the  citadel  of  Press- 
burg.  This  old  frontier  fortress  of  the  Hungarian 
kingdom  may  be  taken  as  the  boundary  where  one 
passes  from  the  land  of  the  Germans  into  that  of 
the  Magyars.  From  that  point  on  this  race  in- 
habits the  great  Hungarian  plain,  until,  in  its  west- 
ern part,  it  gives  way  to  the  Roumanian.  .  .  . 
From  the  two  ruling  nationalities,  German  and 
Magyar,  we  pass  to  the  ruled  nationalities,  the 
Slav,  the  Roumanian  and  the  Italian.  To  link 
together  the  Slavs  as  one  nationality  involves  a 
certain  stretching  of  the  term,  for,  even  yet,  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  Czechs  of  Bohemia  feel  their  kin- 
ship with  the  Croats  or  Serbs  in  Hungary,  and  in 
at  least  one  case,  that  of  the  Poles  and  Ruthenians, 
the  feeling  is  still  decidedly  antagonistic.  .  .  .  His- 
tory tells  us  but  little,  for  they  pushed  into  Europe 
unheralded  and  unsung  in  the  centuries  immediately 
following  the  fall  of  Rome.  They  were  evidently 
of  a  low  grade  of  civilization,  hunters  and  fisher- 
men, wanderers  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  with  few 
if  any  political  bonds  to  confine  them,  individualists 
by  choice.  They  always  seem  to  have  lacked,  to 
some  extent,  the  ability  to  organize,  although  it 
may  be  said  that  this  defect  has  been  somewhat 
exaggerated  by  those  who  write  concerning  this 
race.  .  .  .  Geographically  the  Slavs  form  a  fringe 
along  the  northern  and  southern  borders  of  the 
empire,  although  they  have  pushed  many  outposts 
into  the  central  position  as  well.  Numerically  they 
are  the  leading  race  in  the  empire,  having  a  larger 
population  than  the  two  ruling  races,  German  and 
Magyar,  taken  together.  The  majority  are  Roman 
Catholics.  The  eastern  part  of  Hungary  is  oc- 
cupied, in  the  main,  by  Roumanians.  They  seeped 
in  across  the  Carpathians  some  time  during  the 
later  Middle  .^ges,  and  ever  since  the  thirteenth 
century  seem  to  have  made  up  the  peasant  class 
in  this  district,  'first  as  serfs,  later  as  political 
helots' — to  quote  the  characterization  of  Mr.  Seton 
Watson.  They  claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the 
Latin  colonists  left  by  Trajan  in  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Dacia;  actually  they  are  probably  a  mixed 
race  from  many  origins  and  their  Roman  antece- 
dents are  much  more  certain  as  to  their  language 
than  their  blood.  .  .  .  Last  among  the  nationali- 
ties come  the  Italians,  who  are  almost  entirely 
found  in  the  coast  cities  along  the  northern  and 
eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  Originally  they 
came  as  colonists,  sometimes  under  the  control  of 
Venice,  sometimes  independent,  in  order  to  trade 
with  the  people  of  the  back  country,  and  they 
brought  with  them  an  Italian  culture  that  has 
never  died  out,  even  though  the  Italians  today 
are  a  minority  among  the  population.  Traders 
and  culture-bearers  they  are  still,  these  lost  chil- 
dren of  Italy,  living,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
cities  which  are  little  Italian  fortresses  in  the  sur- 
rounding hosts  of  Slavdom." — W.  S.  Davis,  Roots 
of  the  war,  pp.  201-295. 

805-1246. — Rise  of  the  margraviate,  and  the 
creation  of  the  duchy,  under  the  Babenbergs. — 
Changing  relations  to  Bavaria. — End  of  the 
Babenberg  dynasty. — ".\ustria,  as  is  well  known, 
is  but  the  Latin  form  of  the  German  Oesterreich, 
the  kingdom  of  the  east  [see  .\ustrasia1.  This 
celebrated  historical  name  appears  for  the  first  time 
in  qq6,  in  a  document  signed  by  the  emperor  Otto 
111.  ('in  regione  vulgari  nomine  Osterrichi') .  The 
land  to  which  it  is  there  applied  was  created  a 
march  after  the  destruction  of  the  Avar  empire 
1 805].  and  was  governed  like  all  the  other  Ger- 
man marches.  Politically  it  was  divided  into  two 
margraviates;  that  of  Friuli,  including  Friuli  prop- 
erly so  called,  Lower  Pannonia  to  the  south  of  the 


Drave,  Carinthia,  Istria,  and  the  interior  of  Dal- 
matia — the  sea-coast  having  been  ceded  to  the  East- 
ern emperor ; — the  eastern  margraviate  comprising 
Lower  Pannonia  to  the  north  of  the  Drave,  Upper 
Pannonia,    and    the    Ostmark    properly    so    called. 
The  Ostmark  included   the   Traungau   to   the   east 
of  the  Enns,  which  was  completely   German,  and 
the  Grunzvittigau.  .  .  .  The  early  history  of  these 
countries   lacks    the    unity    of    interest    which    the 
fate  of  a  dynasty  or  a  nation  gives  to  those  of  the 
Magyar  and  the  Chekh  [Czech-Bohemian].     They 
form  but  a  portion  of  the  German  kingdom,  and 
have  no  strongly  marked  life  of  their  own.     The 
march,  with  its  varying  frontier,  had  not  even  a 
geographical  unity.     In  S76,  it  was  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  Bavaria;  in  Sqo,  it  lost  Pannonia.  which 
was  given   to   Bracislav,   the   Croat   prince,   in   re- 
turn   for    his   help    against    the    Magyars,   and   in 
937,  it  was  destroyed  and  absorbed  by  the  Mag- 
yars, who  extended  their  frontier  to  the  river  Enns. 
After  the   battle   of   Lechfeld  or  .Augsburg    (955), 
Germany   and   Italy    being   no   longer   exposed    to 
Hungarian  invasions,  the  march  was  re-constituted 
and  granted  to  the  margrave  Burkhard,  the  brother- 
in-law  of  Henry  of  Bavaria.     Leopold  of  Baben- 
berg  succeeded   him    (073),   and   with   him   begins 
the  dynasty  of  Babenberg,  which  ruled  the  country 
during  the  time   of  the  Premyslides   [in   Bohemia] 
and  the  house  of  .\rpad  [in  Hungary].     The  Ba- 
benbergs  derived   their    name    from   the   castle   of 
Babenberg.  built  by  Henry,  margrave  of  Nordgau, 
in   honor   of  his   wife.   Baba.  sister   of   Henry   the 
Fowler.     It  reappears  in  the  name  of  the  town  of 
Bamberg,   which   now    [1879]    forms   part   of   the 
kingdom  of  Bavaria.  .  .  .  Though  not  of  right  an 
hereditary  office,  the  margraviate  soon  became  so, 
and   remained   in    the   family    of   the    Babenbergs; 
the  march  was  so  important  a  part  of  the  empire 
that  no  doubt  the  emperor  was  glad  to  make  the 
defence  of  this  exposed  district  the  especial  inter- 
est of  one  family.  .  .  .  The  marriages  of  the  Ba- 
benbergs  were   fortunate;   in   1138   the  brother  of 
Leopold  [Fourth  of  that  name  in  the  Margraviate] 
Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen,  Duke  of  Franconia,  was 
made  emperor.     It  was  now  that  the  struggle  be- 
gan between   the  house  of  Hohenstaufen   and  the 
great  house  of  Welf   [or   Guelf:   See   Guelfs  and 
Ghibellixes]  whose  representative  was  Henry  the 
Proud,  Duke  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria.     Henry  was 
defeated    in    the    unequal   strife,    and    was   placed 
under  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  while  the  duchy  of 
Saxony  was  awarded  to  .Albert  the  Bear  of  Bran- 
denburg, and  the  duchy  of  Bavaria  fell  to  the  share 
of  Leopold  IV.  (1 138).     Henry  the  Proud  died  in 
the  following  year,  leaving  behind  him  a  son  under 
age,  who  was  known  later  on  as  Henry  the  Lion. 
His  uncle  Welf  would  not  submit  to  the  forfeiture 
by  his  house  of  their  old  dominions,  and  marched 
against  Leopold  to  reconquer  Bavaria,  but  he  was 
defeated   by    Conrad   at    the   battle    of   VVeinsberg 
(1140).     Leopold   died   shortly   after   this  victory, 
and  was  succeeded  both  in  the  duchy  of  Bavaria 
and  in  the  margraviate  of  .Austria  by  his  brother, 
Henry    II."     Henry    II   endeavored   to   strengthen 
himself    in    Bavaria    by    marrying    the    widow    of 
Henry  the  Proud,  and  by  extorting  from  her  son, 
Henry    the    Lion,    a    renunciation    of    the    latter's 
rights.     But  Henry  the  Lion  afterwards  repudiated 
his  renunciation,  and  in  1150  the  German  diet  de- 
cided   that    Bavaria    should    be    restored    to    him. 
Henry   of   .Austria   was   wisely   persuaded   to   yield 
to  the  decision,  and  Bavaria  was  given  up.      "He 
.  lost  nothing  by  this  unwilling  act  of  disinterested- 
ness, for  he  secured  from  the  emperor  considerable 
compensation.     From   this  time   forward,   .Austria, 
which  had  been  largely  increased  by  the  addition 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  lying  between  the 


672 


Copyright.  C.  A.  NiCHOLa  Publishins  Company 


• 


Maps  prepared  specially  for  the  NEW  LARNED 
under  direction  of  the  editors  and  publishers. 


c 


AUSTRIA,  805-1246 


Rudolf 
of  Hapsburg 


AUSTRIA,  1246-1282 


Enns  and  the  Inn,  was  removed  from  its  almost 
nominal  subjection  to  Bavaria  and  became  a  sep- 
arate duchy  [Henry  II  being  the  first  hereditary 
duke  of  Austria],  [See  also  Germany:  1125- 
1272]  An  imperial  edict,  dated  the  21st  of  Sep- 
tember, 1156,  declares  the  new  duchy  hereditary 
even  in  the  female  line,  and  authorizes  the  dukes 
to  absent  themselves  from  all  diets  except  those 
which  were  held  in  Bavarian  territory.  It  also 
permits  them,  in  case  of  a  threatened  extinction 
of  their  dynasty,  to  propose  a  successor.  .  .  . 
Henry  II.  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Vienna.  He 
constructed  a  fortress  there,  and,  in  order  to  civi- 
lize the  surrounding  country,  sent  for  some  Scotch 
monks,  of  whom  there  were  many  at  this  time  in 
Germany."  In  11 77  Henry  11  w,as  succeeded  by 
Leopold  V,  called  the  Virtuous.  "In  his  reign  the 
duchy  of  Austria  gained  Styria  [Steiermark],  an 
important  addition  to  its  territory.  This  province 
was  inhabited  by  Slovenes  and  Germans,  and  took 
its  name  from  the  castle  of  Steyer,  built  in  q8o  by 
Otokar  III.,  count  of  the  Trungau.  In  1056,  it 
was  created  a  margraviate,  and  in  11 50  it  was  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  the  counties  of  Maribor 
(Marburg)  and  Cilly.  In  1180,  Otokar  VI.  of 
Styria  (1164-1102)  obtained  the  hereditary  title 
of  duke  from  the  Emperor  in  return  for  his  help 
against  Henry  the  Lion."  Dying  without  children, 
Otokar  made  Leopold  of  Austria  his  heir.  "Styria 
was  annexed  to  Austria  in  iiq2,  and  has  remained 
so  ever  since.  .  .  .  Leopold  V.  is  the  first  of  the 
Austrian  princes  whose  name  is  known  in  Western 
Europe.  He  joined  the  third  crusade,"  and  quar- 
relled with  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  at  the  siege  of 
St.  Jean  d'.'Kcre.  Afterwards,  when  Richard,  re- 
turning home  by  the  Adriatic,  attempted  to  pass 
through  Austrian  territory  incognito,  Leopold  re- 
venged himself  by  seizing  and  imprisoning  the  Eng- 
lish king,  finally  selling  his  royal  captive  to  a  still 
meaner  emperor  for  20,000  marks.  Leopold  VI, 
who  succeeded  to  the  .Austrian  duchy  in  iiq8,  did 
much  for  the  commerce  of  his  country.  "He  made 
Vienna  the  staple  town,  and  lent  a  sum  of  30,000 
marks  of  silver  to  the  city  to  enable  it  to  increase 
its  trade.  He  adorned  it  with  many  new  buildings, 
among  them  the  Neue  Burg."  His  son,  called 
Frederick  the  Fighter  (1230-1246)  was  the  last  of 
the  Babenberg  dynasty.  His  hand  was  against  all 
his  neighbors,  including  the  Emperor  Frederick  II, 
and  their  hands  were  against  him.  He  perished  in 
June,  1246,  on  the  banks  of  the  Leitha,  while  at 
war  with  the  Hungarians. — L.  Leger,  History  of 
Austro -Hungary,  ck.  q. 

Also  in:  E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  historical  docu- 
ments of  the  Middle  Ages,  bk.  2,  no.  7. 

1246-1282.— Rudolf,  or  Rodolph,  of  Hapsburg 
and  the  acquisition  of  the  duchy  for  his  family. 
— "The  House  of  Austria  owes  its  origin  and  power 
to  Rhodolph  of  Hapsburgh,  son  of  Albert  IV. 
count  of  Hapsburgh  The  Austrian  genealogists, 
who  have  taken  indefatigable  but  ineffectual  pains 
to  trace  his  illustrious  descent  from  the  Romans, 
carry  it  with  great  probability  to  Ethico,  duke  of 
Alsace,  in  the  seventh  century,  and  unquestionably 
to  Guntram  the  Rich,  count  of  Alsace  and  Bris- 
gau,  who  flourished  in  the  tenth."  A  grandson  of 
Guntram,  Werner  by  name,  "became  bishop  of 
Strasburgh,  and  on  an  eminence  above  Windisch, 
built  the  castle  of  Hapsburgh  ['Habichtsburg'  'the 
castle  of  hawks'],  which  became  the  residence  of 
the  future  counts,  and  gave  a  new  title  to  the  de- 
scendants of  Guntram  .  .  .  The  successors  of  Wer- 
ner increased  their  family  inheritance  by  mar- 
riages, donations  from  the  Emperors,  and  by  be- 
coming prefects,  advocates,  or  administrators  of 
the  neighbouring  abbeys,  towns,  or  districts,  and 
his  great  grandson,  Albert  III.,  was  possessor  of 


no  inconsiderable  territories  in  Suabia,  Alsace,  and 
that  part  of  Switzerland  which  is  now  called  the 
Argau,  and  held  the  landgraviate  of  Upper  Alsace. 
His  son,  Rhodolph,  received  from  the  Emperor,  in 
addition  to  his  paternal  inheritance,  the  town  and 
district  of  Lauffenburgh,  an  imperial  city  on  the 
Rhine.  He  acquired  also  a  considerable  accession 
of  territory  by  obtaining  the  advocacy  of  Uri, 
Schweitz,  and  Underwalden,  whose  natives  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy,  by 
their  union  against  the  oppressions  of  feudal  tyr- 
anny."— W,  Coxe,  History  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, ch.  I. — "On  the  death  of  Rodolph  in  1232  his 
estates  were  divided  between  his  sons  Albert  IV. 
and  Rodolph  II.;  the  former  receiving  the  land- 
graviate of  Upper  Alsace,  and  the  county  of  Haps- 
burg, together  with  the  patrimonial  castle;  the 
latter,  the  counties  Rheinfelden  and  Lauffenburg, 
and  some  other  territories.  Albert  espoused  Hed- 
wige,  daughter  of  Ulric,  count  of  Kyburg;  and 
from  this  union  sprang  the  great  Rodolph  who  was 


RUDOLF  I  (12:8-1291) 
Founder  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg 

born  on  the  ist  of  May  1218,  and  was  presented 
at  the  baptismal  font  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  II. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  Albert  in  1240,  Rodolph 
succeeded  to  his  estates;  but  the  greater  portion  of 
these  were  in  the  hands  of  his  paternal  uncle, 
Rodolph  of  Lauffenburg;  and  all  he  could  call  his 
own  lay  within  sight  of  the  great  hall  of  his  castle, 
.  .  .  His  disposition  was  wayward  and  restless,  and 
drew  him  into  repeated  contests  with  his  neigh- 
bours and  relations  .  .  In  a  quarrel  with  the 
Bishop  of  Basle.  Rodolph  led  his  troops  against 
that  city,  and  burnt  a  convent  in  the  suburbs,  for 
which  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent 
IV.  He  then  entered  the  service  of  Ottocar  II. 
King  of  Bohemia,  under  whom  he  served,  in 
company  with  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in  his  wars 
against  the  Prussian  pagans;  and  afterwards  against 
Bela  IV  King  of  Hungary."  The  surprising  elec- 
tion, in  1272,  of  this  little  known  count  of  Haps- 
burg, to  be  king  of  the  Romans,  with  the  substance 
if  not  the  title  of  the  imperial  dignity  which  that 
election  carried  with  it,  was  due  to  a  singular 
friendship  which  he  had  acquired  some  fourteen 


^7?, 


AUSTRIA,  1246-1282 


Rudolf 
of  Hapsburg 


AUSTRIA,  1291-1349 


years  before.  When  Archbishop  Werner,  elector  of 
Mentz,  was  on  his  way  to  Rome  in  1259,  to  receive 
the  pallium,  he  "was  escorted  across  the  Alps  by 
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  under  his  protection 
secured  from  the  robbers  who  beset  the  passes. 
Charmed  with  the  affability  and  frankness  of  his 
protector,  the  Archbishop  conceived  a  strong  regard 
for  Rodolph;"  and  when,  in  1272,  after  the  great 
interregnum  [see  Germ.\xy:  1250-1272],  the  Ger- 
manic electors  found  difficulty  in  choosing  an  em- 
peror, the  elector  of  Mentz  recommended  nis  friend 
of  Hapsburg  as  a  candidate.  "The  Electors  are 
described  by  a  contemporary  as  desiring  an  Em- 
peror but  detesting  his  power.  The  comparative 
lowliness  of  the  Count  of  Hapsburg  recommended 
him  as  one  from  whom  their  authority  stood  in 
little  jeopardy;  but  the  claims  of  the  King  of  Bo- 
hemia were  vigorously  urged;  and  it  was  at  length 
agreed  to  decide  the  election  by  the  voice  of  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria.  Lewis  without  hesitation  nomi- 
nated Rodolph.  .  .  .  The  early  days  of  Rodolph's 
reign  were  disturbed  by  the  contumacy  of  Ottocar, 
King  of  Bohemia.  That  Prince  .  .  .  persisted  in 
refusing  to  acknowledge  the  Count  of  Hapsburg 
as  his  sovereign.  Possessed  of  the  duchies  of 
Austria,  Styria,  Carniola  and  Carinthia,  he  might 
rely  upon  his  own  resources;  and  he  was  fortified 
in  his  resistance  by  the  alliance  of  Henry,  Duke 
of  Lower  Bavaria.  But  the  very  possession  of 
these  four  great  fiefs  was  sufficient  to  draw  down 
the  envy  and  distrust  of  the  other  German  Princes. 
To  all  these  territories,  indeed,  the  title  of  Ottocar 
was  sufficiently  disputable.  On  the  death  of  Fred- 
eric II.  fifth  duke  of  Austria  [and  last  of  the  Ba- 
benberg  dynasty]  in  1246,  that  duchy,  together 
with  Styria  and  Carniola,  was  claimed  by  his  niece 
Gertrude  and  his  sister  Margaret.  By  a  marriage 
with  the  latter,  and  a  victory  over  Bela  IV.  King 
of  Hungar>',  whose  uncle  married  Gertrude,  Ottocar 
obtained  possession  of  Austria  and  Styria;  and  in 
virtue  of  a  purchase  from  Ulric,  Duke  of  Carinthia 
and  Carniola,  he  possessed  himself  of  those  dutchies 
on  Ulric's  death  in  126Q,  in  defiance  of  the  claims 
of  Philip,  brother  of  the  late  Duke.  Against  so 
powerful  a  rival  the  Princes  assembled  at  Augs- 
burg readily  voted  succour  io  Rodolph;  and  Otto- 
car having  refused  to  surrender  the  .Austrian  do- 
minions, and  even  hanged  the  heralds  who  were 
sent  to  pronounce  the  consequent  sentence  of  pro- 
scription, Rodolph  with  his  accustomed  prompti- 
tude took  the  field  [1276],  and  confounded  his 
enemy  by  a  rapid  march  upon  Austria.  On  his 
way  he  surprised  and  vanquished  the  rebel  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  whom  he  compelled  to  join  his  forces; 
he  besieged  and  reduced  to  the  last  extremity  the 
city  of  Vienna ;  and  had  already  prepared  a  bridge 
of  boats  to  cross  the  Danube  and  invade  Bohemia, 
when  Ottocar  arrested  his  progress  by  a  message 
of  submission.  The  terms  agreed'  upon  were  se- 
verely humiliating  to  the  proud  soul  of  Ottocar," 
and  he  was  soon  in  revolt  again,  with  the  support 
of  the  duke  of  Bavaria  Rodolph  marched  against 
him,  and  a  desperate  battle  was  fought  at  Marsch- 
feld,  August  26,  1278,  in  which  Ottocar,  deserted 
at  a  critical  moment  by  the  Moravian  troops,  was 
defeated  and  slain.  "The  total  loss  of  the  Bo- 
hemians on  that  fatal  day  amounted  to  more  than 
14,000  men  In  the  first  moments  of  his  triumph, 
Rodolph  designed  to  appropriate  the  dominions 
of  his  deceased  enemy.  But  his  avidity  was  re- 
strained by  the  Princes  of  the  Empire,  who  inter- 
posed on  behalf  of  the  son  of  Ottocar;  and  Wen- 
ceslaus  was  permitted  to  retain  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  The  projected  union  of  the  two  families 
was  now  renewed:  Judith  of  Hapsburg  was  affi- 
anced to  the  young  King  of  Bohemia ;  whose  sister 
Agnes  was  married  to  Rodolph,  youngest  son   of 


the  King  of  the  Romans."  In  1282,  Rudolf, 
"after  satisfying  the  several  claimants  to  those  ter- 
ritories by  various  cessions  of  lands  .  .  .  obtained 
the  consent  of  a  Diet  held  at  Augsburg  to  the 
settlement  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carniola,  upon 
his  two  surviving  sons;  who  were  accordingly 
jointly  invested  with  those  dutchies  with  great 
pomp  and  solemnity;  and  they  are  at  this  hour  en- 
joyed by  the  descendants  of  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg." 
— Sir  R.  Comyn,  History  of  the  western  empire, 
ch.  14. 

Also  in:  J.  Him  and  J.  E.  Wackernagel,  eds., 
Quellen  ui:d  Forschungen  zur  Geschichte,  Literatur 
und  Sprache  Oesterreichs  und  seiner  Kroiildnder. 
— W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  house  of  Austria. — J. 
Planta,  History  'of  the  Helvetic  confederacy,  v.  1, 
bk.  I,  ch.  5. 

1282-1315. — Relations  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg to  the  Swiss  forest  cantons. — Wilhelm  Tell 
legend. — Battle  of  Morgarten.  See  Switzer- 
land: Three  forest  cantons. 

1290. — Beginning  of  Hapsburg  designs  upon 
the  crown  of  Hungary.  See  Huxg.\rv:  1116-1301; 
1301-1442. 

1291-1349.— Loss  and  recovery  of  the  imperial 
crown. — Liberation  of  Switzerland. — Conflict  be- 
tween Frederick  and  Lewis  of  Bavaria. — Impe- 
rial crown  lost  once  more. — Rudolf  of  Hapsburg 
desired  the  title  of  King  of  the  Romans  for  his  son. 
"But  the  electors  already  found  that  the  new  house 
of  Austria  was  becoming  too  powerful,  and  they 
refused.  On  his  death,  in  fact,  in  1291,  a  prince 
from  another  family,  poor  and  obscure,  Adolf  of 
Nassau,  was  elected  after  an  interregnum  of  ten 
months.  His  reign  of  six  years  is  marked  by  two 
events;  he  sold  himself  to  Edward  I.  in  1294, 
against  Philip  the  Fair,  for  loo.coo  pounds  sterl- 
ing, and  used  the  money  in  an  attempt  to  obtain 
in  Thuringia  a  principality  for  his  family  as  Ru- 
dolf had  done  in  .\ustria.  The  electors  were  dis- 
pleased and  chose  .Albert  of  .Austria  to  succeed  him, 
who  conquered  and  killed  his  adversar>'  at  Gbll- 
heim,  near  Worms  (1298).  The  ten  years'  reign  of 
the  new  king  of  the  Romans  showed  that  he  was 
very  ambitious  for  his  family,  which  he  wished 
to  establish  on  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  where  the 
Slavonic  dynasty  had  lately  died  out,  and  also  in 
Thuringia  and  Meissen,  where  he  lost  a  battle. 
He  was  also  bent  upon  extending  his  rights,  even 
unjustly — in  Alsace  and  Switzerland — and  it  proved 
an  unfortunate  venture  for  him.  For,  on  the  one 
hand,  he  roused  the  three  Swiss  cantons  of  Uri, 
Schweitz,  and  Unterwalden  to  revolt;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  roused  the  wrath  of  his  nephew  John  of 
Swabia,  whom  he  defrauded  of  his  inheritance 
(domains  in  Switzerland,  Swabia,  and  Alsace).  As 
he  was  crossing  the  Reuss,  John  thrust  him  through 
with  his  sword  (130S).  The  assassin  escaped.  One 
of  Albert's  daughters,  Agnes,  dowager  queen  of 
Hungary,  had  more  than  a  thousand  innocent 
people  killed  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  father. 
The  greater  part  of  the  present  Switzerland  had 
been  originally  included  in  the  Kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  was  ceded  to  the  empire,  together 
with  that  kingdom,  in  1033.  A  feudal  nobility,  lay 
and  ecclesiastic,  had  gained  a  firm  footing  there. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  12  th  century  the  cities  had 
risen  to  some  importance.  Zurich,  Basel,  Bern,  and 
Freiburg  had  an  extensive  commerce  and  obtained 
municipal  privileges.  Three  little  cantons,  far  in 
the  heart  of  the  Swiss  mountains,  preserved  more 
than  all  the  others  their  indomitable  spirit  of  in- 
dependence. When  Albert  of  Austria  became  Em- 
peror [King?]  he  arrogantly  tried  to  encroach 
upon  their  independence.  Three  heroic  mountain- 
eers, Werner  Stauffacher,  Arnold  of  Melchthal,  and 
Walter  Furst,  each   with   ten  chosen  friends,  con- 


674 


AUSTRIA,  1291-1349 


Conflict  between 
Frederick  and  Lewis 


AUSTRIA,  1330-1364 


spired  together  at  Riitli,  to  throw  off  the  yoke. 
The  tyranny  of  the  Austrian  bailiff  Gessler,  and 
William  Tell's  well-aimed  arrow,  if  tradition  is  to 
be  believed,  gave  the  signal  for  the  insurrection 
[see  Switzerland:  three  forest  cantons].  Al- 
bert's violent  death  left  to  Leopold,  his  successor 
in  the  duchy  of  Austria,  the  care  of  repressing  the 
rebellion.  He  failed  and  was  completely  defeated 
at  Morgarten  (1315)-  That  was  Switzerland's  field 
of  IMarathon.  .  .  .  When  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  was 
chosen  by  the  electors,  it  was  because  of  his  poverty 
and  weakness.  At  his  death  accordingly  they  did 
not  give  their  votes  for  his  son  Albert.  .  .  .  Albert, 
however,  succeeded  in  overthrowing  his  rival  But 
on  his  death  they  were  firm  in  their  decision  not  to- 
give  the  crown  for  a  third  time  to  the  new  and 
ambitious  house  of  Hapsburg.  They  likewise  re- 
fused, for  similar  reasons,  to  accept  Charles  of 
Valois,  brother  of  Philip  the  Fair,  whom  the  latter 
tried  to  place  on  the  imperial  throne,  in  order  that 
he  might  indirectly  rule  over  Germajiy.  They 
supported  the  Count  of  Luxemburg,  who  became 
Henry  VII,  By  choosing  emperors  [kings?]  who 
were  poor,  the  electors  placed  them  under  the 
t'  .iiptation  of  enriching  themselves  at  the  expense 
of  the  empire.  Adolf  failed,  it  is  true,  in  Thuringia, 
but  Rudolf  gained  Austria  by  victory;  Henry  suc- 
ceeded in  Bohemia  by  means  of  marriage,  and 
Bohemia  was  worth  more  than  Austria  at  that  time 
because,  besides  Moravia,  it  was  made  to  cover 
Silesia  and  a  part  of  Lusatia  (Oberlausitz).  Henry's 
son,  John  of  Luxemburg,  married  the  heiress  to 
that  royal  crown.  As  for  Henry  himself  he  re- 
mained as  poor  as  before.  He  had  a  vigorous, 
restless  spirit,  and  went  to  try  his  fortunes  on  his 
own  account  beyond  the  Alps.  ...  He  was  seri- 
ously threatening  Naples,  when  he  died  either  from 
some  sickness  or  from  being  poisoned  by  a  Domin- 
ican in  partaking  of  the  host  (1313).  A  year's 
interregnum  followed;  then  two  emperors  [kings?] 
at  once:  Lewis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  the  Fair, 
son  of  the  Emperor  Albert.  After  eight  years  of 
war,  Lewis  gained  his  point  by  the  victory  of 
Miihldorf  (1322),  which  delivered  Frederick  into 
his  hands.  He  kept  him  in  captivity  for  three 
years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  became  recon- 
ciled with  him,  and  they  were  on  such  good  terms 
that  both  bore  the  title  of  King  and  governed  in 
common.  The  fear  inspired  in  Lewis  by  France 
and  the  Holy  See  dictated  this  singular  agreement. 
Henry  VII.  had  revived  the  policy  of  interference 
by  the  German  emperors  in  the  affairs  of  Italy,  and 
had  kindled  again  the  quarrel  with  the  Papacy 
which  had  long  appeared  extinguished.  Lewis  IV. 
did  the  same.  .  .  .  While  Boniface  VIII.  was  mak- 
ing war  on  Philip  the  Fair,  .Mbert  allied  himself 
with  him;  when,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Papacy 
was  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  servile  auxiliary  to 
France,  the  Emperor  returned  to  his  former  hos- 
tility. When  ex-communicated  by  Pope  John 
XXII, ,  who  wished  to  give  the  empire  to  the  king 
of  France,  Charles  IV.,  Lewis  IV.  made  use  of  the 
same  weapons.  .  .  .  Tired  of  a  crown  loaded  with 
anxieties,  Lewis  of  Bavaria  was  finally  about  to 
submit  to  the  Pope  and  abdicate,  when  the  electors 
perceived  the  necessity  of  supporting  their  Em- 
peror and  of  formally  releasing  the  supreme  power 
from  foreign  dependency  which  brought  the  whole 
nation  to  shame.  That  was  the  object  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction  of  Frankfort,  pronounced  in  1338 
by  the  Diet,  on  the  report  of  the  electors.  .  .  .  The 
king  of  France  and  Pope  Clement  VI.,  whose  claims 
were  directly  affected  by  this  declaration,  set  up 
against  Lewis  IV.,  Charles  of  Luxemburg,  son  of 
John  the  Blind,  who  became  king  of  Bohemia  in 
1346,  when  his  father  had  been  killed  fighting  on 
the  French  side  at  the  battle  of  Cr&y.    Lewis  died 


the  following  year.  He  had  gained  possession  of 
Brandenburg  and  the  Tyrol  for  his  house,  but  it 
was  unable  to  retain  possession  of  them.  The  lat- 
ter county  reverted  to  the  house  of  Austria  in 
1363.  The  electors  most  hostile  to  the  French 
party  tried  to  put  up,  as  a  rival  candidate  to 
Charles  of  Luxemburg,  Edward  III.,  king  of  Eng- 
land, who  refused  the  empire;  then  they  offered 
it  to  a  brave  knight,  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg,  who 
died,  perhaps  poisoned,  after  a  few  months  (1349). 
The  king  of  Bohemia  then  became  Emperor  as 
Charles  IV.  by  a  second  election." — V.  Duruy, 
History  oj  the  Middle  Ages,  bk.  g,  ch.  30.— See 
also  Germany:   1314-1347. 

1330-1364. — Forged  charters  of  Duke  Rudolf. 
— Privilegium  majus. — His  assumption  of  the 
archducal  title. — Acquisition  of  Tyrol. — Treaties 
of  inheritance  with  Bohemia  and  Hungary. — 
King  John,  of  Bohemia,  had  married  his  second 
son,  John  Henry,  at  the  age  of  eight,  to  the  after- 
wards notable  Margaret  Maultasche  (Pouch- 
mouth),  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Tyrol  and  Car- 
inthia,  who  was  then  twelve  years  old.  He  hoped 
by  this  means  to  reunite  those  provinces  to  Bo- 
hemia. To  thwart  this  scheme,  the  emperor,  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  and  the  two  Austrian  princes,  Albert 
the  Wise  and  Otto  the  Gay,  came  to  an  under- 
standing. "By  the  treaty  of  Hagenau  (1330),  it 
was  arranged  that  on  the  death  of  duke  Henry, 
who  had  no  male  heirs,  Carinthia  should  become 
the  property  of  Austria,  Tyrol  that  of  the  em- 
peror. Henry  died  in  1335,  whereupon  the  em- 
peror, Louis  of  Bavaria,  declared  that  Margaret 
Maultasche  had  forfeited  all  rights  of  inheritance, 
and  proceeded  to  assign  the  two  provinces  to  the 
Austrian  princes,  with  the  exception  of  some  por- 
tion of  the  Tyrol  which  devolved  on  the  house  of 
Wittelsbach.  Carinthia  alone,  however,  obeyed  the 
Emperor ;  the  Tyrolese  nobles  declared  for  Mar- 
garet, and,  with  the  help  of  John  of  Bohemia, 
this  princess  was  able  to  keep  possession  of  this 
part  of  her  inheritance.  .  .  .  Carinthia  also  did 
not  long  remain  in  the  undisputed  possession  of 
Austria.  Margaret  was  soon  divorced  from  her 
very  youthful  husband  (1342),  and  shortly  after 
married  the  son  of  the  emperor,  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
who  hoped  to  be  able  to  invest  his  son,  not  only 
with  Tyrol,  but  also  with  Carinthia,  and  once 
more  we  find  the  houses  of  Hapsburg  and  Lux- 
emburg united  by  a  common  interest.  .  .  .  When 
.  .  .  Charles  IV.  of  Bohemia  was  chosen  em- 
peror, he  consented  to  leave  Carinthia  in  the 
possession  of  Austria.  Albert  did  homage  for  it. 
.  .  .  According  to  the  wish  of  their  father,  the 
four  sons  of  Albert  reigned  after  him;  but  the 
eldest,  Rudolf  IV.,  exercised  executive  authority 
in  the  name  of  the  others  [1358-1365].  ...  He 
was  only  ip  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  but  he 
had  already  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.  Notwithstanding  this  fam- 
ily alliance,  Charles  had  not  given  Austria  such 
a  place  in  the  Golden  Bull  [see  Germany:  1347- 
1403]  as  seemed  likely  to  secure  either  her  ter- 
ritorial importance  or  a  proper  position  for  her 
princes.  They  had  not  been  admitted  into  the 
electoral  college  of  the  Empire,  and  yet  their 
scattered  possessions  stretched  from  the  banks  of 
the  Leitha  to  the  Rhine.  .  .  .  These  grievances  were 
enhanced  by  their  feeling  of  envy  towards  Bo- 
hemia, which  had  attained  great  prosperity  under 
Charles  IV.  It  was  at  this  time  that,  in  order 
to  increase  the  importance  of  his  house,  Rudolf, 
or  his  officers  of  state,  had  recourse  to  a  measure 
which  was  often  employed  in  that  age  by  princes, 
religious  bodies,  and  even  by  the  Holy  See.  It  was 
pretended  that  there  were  in  existence  s  whole  se- 
ries of   charters  which  had   been  granted  to  the 


675 


AUSTRIA,   1330-1364 


Hungarian 

Crown 


AUSTRIA,  1438-1493 


bouse  of  Austria  by  various  kings  and  emperors,  and 
which  secured  to  their  princes  a  position  entirely 
independent  of  both  empire  and  Emperor.  Ac- 
cording to  these  documents,  and  more  especially 
the  one  called  the  'privilegium  majus,'  the  duke 
of  Austria  owed  no  kind  of  service  to  the  empire, 
which  was,  however,  bound  to  protect  him;  .  . 
he  wa^  to  appear  at  the  diets  with  the  title  of 
archdirtie,  and  was  to  have  the  first  place  among 
the  electors.  .  .  .  Rudolf  pretended  that  these  docu- 
ments had  just  come  to  light,  and  demanded  their 
confirmation  from  Charles  IV.,  who  refused  it. 
Nevertheless  on  the  strength  of  these  lying  char- 
ters, he  took  the  title  of  palatine  archduke,  with- 
out waiting  to  ask  the  leave  of  Charles,  and  used 
th:  roval  insignia.  Charles  IV.,  who  could  not 
fail  to  be  irritated  by  these  pretensions,  in  his  turn 
revived  the  claims  which  he  had  inherited  from 
Premysl  Otokar  II.  to  the  lands  of  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  These  claims,  however, 
were  simply  theoretical,  and  no  attempt  was  made 
to  enforce  them,  and  the  mediation  of  Louis  the 
Great,  King  of  Hungary,  finally  led  to  a  treaty 
between  the  two  princes,  which  satisfied  the  am- 
bition of  the  Habsburgs  (1364).  By  this  treaty, 
the  houses  of  Habsburg  in  Austria  and  of  Lux- 
emburg in  Bohemia  each  guaranteed  the  inheri- 
tance of  their  lands  to  the  other,  in  case  of  the 
extinction  of  either  of  the  two  families,  and  the 
estates  of  Bohemia  and  Austria  ratified  this  agree- 
ment. A  similar  compact  was  concluded  between 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and  thus  the  boundaries 
of  the  future  Austrian  state  were  for  the  first 
time  marked  out.  Rudolf  himself  gained  little 
by  these  long  and  intricate  negotiations,  Tyrol 
being  all  he  added  to  his  territory.  Margaret 
Maultasche  had  married  her  son  Meinhard  to  the 
daughter  of  Albert  the  Wise,  at  the  same  time  de- 
claring that,  in  default  of  heirs  male  to  her  son, 
Tyrol  should  once  more  become  the  possession  of 
Austria,  and  it  did  so  in  1363.  Rudolf  immedi- 
ately set  out  for  Botzen,  and  there  received  the 
homage  of  the  Tyrolese  nobles.  .  .  .  The  acquisi- 
tion of  Tyrol  was  most  important  to  Austria.  It 
united  Austria  Proper  with  the  old  possessions 
of  the  Habsburgs  in  Western  Germany,  and  opened 
the  way  to  Italy.  Margaret  Maultasche  died  at 
Vienna  in  1360.  The  memory  of  this  restless  and 
dissolute  princess  still  survives  among  the  Tyrolese." 
— L.  Leger,  History  of  Austro-Huiigury,  pp.  143- 
148. — See  also  Hungary:  1301-1442. 

1386-1388. — Defeats  by  the  Swiss  at  Sempach 
and  Naefels.     See  Switzerl.\nd:   1386-13S8. 

15th  century. — Sale  of  Alsace.  See  Alsace- 
Lorraine:    842-1477. 

1419-1434. — Battles  with  Hussites.  See  Bohe- 
mia: 1410-1434. 

1437-1516. — Contests  for  Hungary  and  Bohe- 
mia.— Right  of  succession  to  the  Hungarian 
crown  secured. — "Europe  would  have  had  nothing 
to  fear  from  the  Barbarians,  if  Hungary  had  been 
permanently  united  to  Bohemia,  and  had  held  them 
in  check.  But  Hungary  interfered  both  with 
the  independence  an  1  the  religion  of  Bohemia. 
In  th's  way  they  weakened  each  other,  and  in 
the  isth  centurv'  wavered  between  the  two  Slavonic 
and  German  powers  on  their  borders  (Poland  and 
Austria)  [see  Hungary:  1301-1442,  and  144-- 
1458].  United  under  a  German  prince  from 
1455  to  1458,  separated  for  a  time  under  national 
sovereigns  (Bohemia  until  1471,  Hungary  until 
14Q0),  they  were  once  more  united  under  Polish 
princes  until  1526,  at  which  period  they  passed 
definitely  into  the  hands  of  .Austria.  After  the 
reign  of  Ladislas  of  Austria,  who  won  so  much 
glory  by  the  exploits  of  John  Hunniades,  George 
Podiebrad   obtained   the   crown   of    Bohemia,   and 


Matthias  Corvinus,  the  son  of  Hunniades,  was 
elected  King  of  Hungary  (1458).  These  two 
princes  opposed  successfully  the  chimerical  pre- 
tensions of  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  Podiebrad 
protected  the  Hussites  and  incurred  the  enmity  of 
the  Popes.  Matthias  victoriously  encountered  the 
Turks  and  obtained  the  favour  of  Paul  II  ,  who 
offered  him  the  crown  of  Podiebrad,  his  father-in- 
law.  The  latter  opposed  to  the  hostility  of  Mat- 
thias the  alliance  of  the  King  of  Poland,  whose 
eldest  son,  Ladislas,  he  designated  as  his  successor. 
At  the  same  time,  Casimir,  the  brother  of  Ladislas, 
endeavoured  to  take  from  Matthias  the  crown  of 
Hungary.  Matthias,  thus  pressed  on  all  sides, 
was  obliged  to  renounce  the  conquest  of  Bohemia, 
and  content  himself  with  the  provinces  of  Mora- 
via, Silesia,  and  Lusatia,  which  were  to  return 
to  Ladislas  if  Matthias  died  first  (1475-1478). 
The  King  of  Hungary  compensated  himself  at  the 
expense  of  Austria.  On  the  pretext  that  Frederick 
III.  had  refused  to  give  him  his  daughter,  he 
twice  invaded  his  states  and  retained  them  in  his 
possession  [see  Hungary:  1471-T4S7].  With  this 
great  prince  Christendom  lost  its  chief  defender, 
Hungary  her  conquests  and  her  political  pre- 
ponderance (1400),  The  civilization  which  he  had 
tried  to  introduce  into  his  kingdom  was  deferred 
for  many  centuries.  .  .  .  Ladislas  (of  Poland), 
King  of  Bohemia,  having  been  elected  King  of 
Hungary,  was  attacked  by  his  brother  John  Albert, 
and  by  Maximilian  of  .Austria,  who  both  pre- 
tended to  that  crown.  He  appeased  his  brother 
by  the  cession  of  Silesia  (1401),  and  Maximilian 
by  vesting  in  the  House  of  .Austria  the  right  of 
succession  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  in  case  he 
himself  should  die  without  male  issue.  Under 
Ladislas,  and  under  his  son  Louis  II.,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  while  still  a  child,  in  1516  Hungary 
was  ravaged  with  impunity  by  the  Turks." — J. 
Michelet,  Summary  of  modern  history,  ch.  4. — See 
also  Bohemia:  1458-1471. 

1438-1493. — Imperial  crown  lastingly  regained. 
— Short  reign  of  Albert  II  and  the  long  reign 
of  Frederick  III. — ".After  the  death  of  Sigismund, 
the  princes,  in  1438,  elected  an  emperor  [king?] 
from  the  house  of  .Austria,  which,  with  scarcely 
any  intermission,  has  ever  since  occupied  the  an- 
cient throne  of  Germany.  .Albert  II.  of  Austria, 
who,  as  son-in-law  of  the  late  Emi^eror  Sigismund, 
had  become  at  the  same  time  King  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  was  a  well-meaning,  distinguished  prince, 
and  would,  without  doubt,  have  proved  of  great 
benefit  to  the  empire;  but  he  died  ...  in  the 
second  year  of  his  reign,  after  his  return  from 
an  expedition  against  the  Turks.  ...  In  the  year 
1431,  during  the  reign  of  Sigismund,  a  new  coun- 
cil was  assembled  at  Bfsle,  in  order  to  carry  on 
the  work  of  reforming  the  church  as  already  com- 
menced at  Constance.  But  this  council  soon  be- 
came engaged  in  many  perplexing  controversies 
with  Pope  Eugene  IV.  .  .  .  The  Germans,  for  a 
time,  took  no  part  in  the  dispute;  at  length,  how- 
ever, under  the  Emperor  [King?!  .Albert  II.,  they 
formally  adopted  the  chief  decrees  of  the  council 
of  Basie,  at  a  diet  held  at  Mentz  in  the  year 
143Q.  .  .  .  .Amongst  the  resolutions  then  adopted 
were  such  as  materially  circumscribed  the  exist- 
ing privileges  of  the  pope.  ,  .  .  These  and  other 
decisions,  calculated  to  give  important  privileges 
and  considerable  independence  to  the  German 
church,  were,  in  a  great  measure,  annulled  by 
Albert's  cousin  and  successor,  Duke  Frederick  of 
.Austria,  who  was  elected  by  the  princes  after  him 
in  the  year  1440,  as  Frederick  HI.  .  .  .  Frederick, 
the  emperor,  was  a  prince  who  meant  well  but, 
at  the  same  time,  was  of  too  quiet  and  easy  a 
nature;  his  long  reign  presents  but  Uttle  that  was 


676 


AUSTRIA,  1438-1493 


Frederick  III 
Hungarian  Invasion 


AUSTRIA,  1471-1491 


calculated  to  distinguish  Germany  or  add  to  its 
renown.  From  the  east  the  empire  was  endangered 
by  the  approach  of  an  enemy — the  Turks,  against 
whom  no  precautionary  measures  were  adopted. 
They,  on  the  3oth  of  May,  1453,  conquered  Con- 
stantinople. .  .  .  They  then  made  their  way  to- 
wards the  Danube,  and  very  nearly  succeeded 
also  in  taking  Hungary  [see  Hungary:  1442-1458]. 
.  .  .  The  Hungarians,  on  the  death  of  the  son 
of  the  Emperor  Albert  II.,  Wladislas  Posthumus, 
in  the  year  1457,  without  leaving  an  heir  to 
the  throne,  chose  Matthias,  the  son  of  John  Cor- 
vinus,  as  king,  being  resolved  not  to  elect  one  from 
amongst  the  Austrian  princes.  The  Bohemians 
likewise  selected  a  private  nobleman  for  their 
king,  George  Padriabrad  [or  Podiebrad],  and  thus 
the  Austrian  house  found  itself  for  a  time  rejected 
from  holding  possession  of  either  of  these  coun- 
tries. ...  In  Germany,  meantime,  there  existed 
numberless  contests  and  feuds;  each  party  con- 
sidered only  his  own  personal  quarrels.  .  .  .  The 
emperor  could  not  give  any  weight  to  public 
measures;  scarcely  could  he  maintain  his  dignity 
amongst  his  own  subjects.  The  Austrian  nobility 
were  even  bold  enough  to  send  challenges  to  their 
sovereign ;  whilst  the  city  of  Vienna  revolted,  and 
his  brother  Albert,  taking  pleasure  in  this  dis- 
order, was  not  backward  in  adding  to  it.  Things 
even  went  to  such  an  extremity,  that,  in  1462,  the 
Emperor  Frederick,  together  with  his  consort  and 
son,  Maximilian,  then  four  years  of  age,  was  be- 
sieged by  his  subjects  in  his  own  castle  of  Vienna. 
A  plebeian  burgher,  named  Holzer,  had  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  and  was 
made  burgomaster,  whilst  Duke  Albert  came  to 
Vienna  personally  to  superintend  the  siege  of  the 
castle,  which  was  intrenched  and  bombarded.  .  .  . 
The  German  princes,  however,  could  not  wit- 
ness with  indifference  such  disgraceful  treatment  of 
their  emperor,  and  they  assembled  to  liberate 
him.  George  Padriabrad,  King  of  Bohemia,  was 
the  first  who  hastened  to  the  spot  with  assistance, 
set  the  emperor  at  liberty,  and  effected  a  recon- 
ciliation between  him  and  his  brother.  The  em- 
peror, however,  was  obliged  to  resign  to  him,  for 
eight  years.  Lower  Austria  and  Vienna.  Albert 
died  in  the  following  year.  ...  In  the  Germanic 
empire,  the  voice  of  the  emperor  was  as  little 
heeded  as  in  his  hereditary  lands.  .  .  .  The  feudal 
system  raged  under  Frederick's  reign  to  such  an 
extent,  that  it  was  pursued  even  by  the  lower 
classes.  Thus,  in  1471,  the  shoeblacks  in  Leipsic 
sent  a  challenge  to  the  university  of  that  place; 
and  the  bakers  of  the  Count  Palatine  Lewis,  and 
those  of  the  Margrave  of  Baden  defied  several 
imperial  cities  in  Swabia.  The  most  important 
transaction  in  the  reign  of  Frederick,  was  the  union 
which  he  formed  with  the  house  of  Burgundy, 
and  which  laid  the  foundation  for  the  greatness 
of  Austria.  ...  In  the  year  1486,  the  whole  of 
the  assembled  princes,  influenced  especially  by  the 
representations  of  the  faithful  and  now  venerable 
Albert,  called  the  Achilles  of  Brandenburg,  elected 
Maximilian,  the  emperor's  son,  King  of  Rome. 
Indeed,  about  this  period  a  changed  and  im- 
proved spirit  began  to  show  itself  in  a  remarkable 
degree  in  the  minds  of  many  throughout  the 
empire,  so  that  the  profound  contemplator  of  com- 
ing events  might  easily  see  the  dawn  of  a  new 
era.  .  .  .  These  last  years  'vere  the  best  in  the 
1  hole  life  of  the  emperor,  and  yielded  to  hira  in 
return  for  his  many  sufferings  that  tranquillity 
which  was  so  well  merited  by  his  faithful,  gener- 
ous disposition.  He  died  on  the  19th  of  August, 
1403,  after  a  reign  of  S4  years.  The  emperor 
lived  long  enough  to  obtain,  in  the  year  14QO, 
the   restoration   of   his   hereditary   estates  by   the 


death  of  King  Matthias,  by  means  of  a  compact 
made  with  Wladislas,  his  successor." — F.  Kohl- 
rausch,  History  of  Germany,  ch.  14.— See  also 
Germany:   1347-1493. 

1468. — Invasion  by  George  Podiebrad  of  Bo- 
hemia.— Crusade  against  him.  See  Bohemia: 
1458-1471. 

1471-1491. — Hungarian  invasion  and  capture 
of  Vienna. — Treaty  of  Pressburg. — Succession  to 
the  throne  of  Hungary  secured. — "George,  King 
of  Bohemia,  expired  in  1471 ;  and  the  claims  of 
the  Emperor  and  King  of  Hungary  being  equally 
disregarded,  the  crown  was  conferred  on  Wladislaus, 
son  of  Casimir  IV.  King  of  Poland,  and  grand- 
son of  Albert  II.  To  this  election  Frederic  long 
persisted  in  withholding  his  assent;  but  at  length 
he  determined  to  crush  the  claim  of  Matthias 
by  formally  investing  Wladislaus  with  the  king- 
dom and  electorate  of  Bohemia,  and  the  office 
of  imperial  cup-bearer.  In  revenge  for  this  af- 
front, Matthias  marched  into  Austria:  took  pos- 
session   of    the    fortresses    of    the    Danube;    and 


MAXIMILIAN   I   (I4S9-15I9) 
Ruler  of  the  Austrian  dominioDs  and  Holy   Roman 

Empire 

compelled  the  Emperor  to  purchase  a  cessation 
of  hostilities  by  undertaking  to  pay  an  hundred 
thousand  golden  florins,  one-half  of  which  was 
disbursed  by  the  Austrian  states  at  the  appointed 
time.  But  as  the  King  of  Hungary  still  delayed 
to  yield  up  the  captured  fortresses,  Frederic  re- 
fused all  further  payment;  and  the  war  was  again 
renewed.  Matthias  invaded  and  ravaged  Aus- 
tria ;  and  though  he  experienced  formidable  re- 
sistance from  several  towns,  his  arms  were  crowned 
with  success,  and  he  became  master  of  Vienna 
and  Neustadt.  Driven  from  his  capital  the  ter- 
rified Emperor  was  reduced  to  the  utmost  dis- 
tress, and  wandered  from  town  to  town  and  from 
convent  to  convent,  endeavouring  to  arouse  the 
German  States  against  the  Hungarians.  Yet  even 
in  this  exigency  his  good  fortune  did  not  wholly 
forsake  him ;  and  he  availed  himself  of  a  Diet 
at  Frankfort  to  procure  the  election  of  his  son 
Maximilian  as  King  of  the  Romans.  To  this 
Diet,  however,  the  King  of  Bohemia  received  no 
summons,  and  therefore  protested  against  the 
validity  of  the  election.  A  full  apology  and  ad- 
mission  of    his   right   easily   satisfied   Wladislaus, 


677 


AUSTRIA,  1477-1495 


Burgundian 
Marriage 


AUSTRIA,  1477-1493 


and  he  consented  to  remit  the  fine  which  the 
Golden  Bull  had  fixed  as  the  penalty  of  the  omis- 
sion. The  death  of  Matthias  Corvinus  in  1490, 
left  the  throne  of  Hungary  vacant,  and  the  Hun- 
garians, influenced  by  their  widowed  queen,  con- 
ferred the  crown  upon  the  King  of  Bohemia,  with- 
out Ustening  to  the  pretensions  of  Maximilian. 
That  valorous  prince,  however,  sword  in  hand,  re- 
covered his  Austrian  dominions;  and  the  rival 
kings  concluded  a  severe  contest  by  the  treaty  of 
Pressburg,  by  which  Hungary  was  for  the  present 
secured  to  Wladislaus;  but  on  his  death  without 
heirs  was  to  vest  in  the  descendants  of  the  Em- 
peror."— Sir  R.  Comyn,  History  of  the  -western 
empire,  v.  2,  ch.  28.^ee  also  Hungary:  1471- 
1487,  and   1487-1526. 

1477-1495. — Marriage  of  Maximilian  with 
Mary  of  Burgundy. — His  splendid  dominion. — 
His  joyous  character. — His  vigorous  powers. — 
His  ambitions  and  aims. — "Maximilian,  who  was 
as  active  and  enterprising  as  his  father  was  indolent 
and  timid,  married  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  the 
only  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy [see  Netherl.^nds:  1477].  She  brought 
him  Flanders,  Franche-Comte,  and  all  the  Low 
Countries.  Louis  XL,  who  disputed  some  of  these 
territories,  and  who.  on  the  death  of  the  duke, 
had  seized  Burgundy,  Picardy,  Ponthieu,  and 
Artois,  as  fiefs  of  France,  which  could  not  be 
possessed  by  a  woman,  was  defeated  by  Maxi- 
milian at  Guinegatte;  and  Charles  VHL,  who  re- 
newed the  same  claims,  was  obliged  to  conclude 
a  disadvantageous  peace,"  Maximilian  succeeded 
to  the  imperial  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1403, — W.  Russell,  History  oj  modern  Europe,  v.  i, 
letter  49. — "Between  the  Alps  and  the  Bohemian 
frontier,  the  mark  Austria  was  first  founded  round 
and  about  the  castles  of  Krems  and  Melk.  Since 
then,  beginning  first  in  the  valley  towards  Ba- 
varia and  Hungary,  and  coming  to  the  House  of 
Habsburg,  it  had  extended  across  the  whole  of 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps  until  where  the 
Slavish,  ItaUan,  and  German  tongues  part,  and 
over  to  Alsace ;  thus  becoming  an  archduchy 
from  a  mark.  On  all  sides  the  Archdukes  had 
claims;  on  the  German  side  to  Switzerland,  on 
the  Italian  to  the  Venetian  possessions,  and  on 
the  Slavish  to  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  To  such 
a  pitch  of  greatness  had  Maximilian  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Maria  of  Burgundy  brought  the  herit- 
age received  from  Charles  the  Bold.  True  to 
the  Netherlanders'  greeting,  in  the  inscription  over 
their  gates,  'Thou  art  our  Duke,  fight  our  battle 
for  us,'  war  was  from  the  first  his  handicraft. 
He  adopted  Charles  the  Hold's  hostile  attitude 
towards  France;  he  saved  the  greater  part  of  his 
inheritance  from  the  schemes  of  Louis  XI.  Day 
and  night  it  was  his  whole  thought,  to  conquer 
it  entirely.  But  after  Maria  of  .Burgundy's  pre- 
mature death,  revolution  followed  revolution,  and 
his  father  Frederick  being  too  old  to  protect  him- 
self, it  came  about  that  in  the  year  148S  he  was 
ousted  from  Austria  by  the  Hungarians,  whilst 
his  son  was  kept  a  prisoner  in  Bruges  by  the 
citizens,  and  they  had  even  to  fear  the  estrange- 
ment of  the  Tyrol.  Yet  they  did  not  lose  courage. 
At  this  very  time  the  father  denoted  with  the 
vowels,  A.  E.  I.  O.  U.  ('AUes  Erdreich  ist  Oester- 
reich  unterthan' — All  the  earth  is  subject  to  Aus- 
tria), the  extent  of  his  hopes.  In  the  same  year, 
his  son  negotiated  for  a  Spanish  alliance.  Their 
real  strength  lay  in  the  imperial  dignity  of 
Maximilian,  which  they  had  from  the  German 
Empire.  As  soon  as  it  began  to  bestir  itself, 
Maximilian  was  set  at  liberty ;  as  soon  as  it  sup- 
ported him  in  the  persons  of  only  a  few  princes 
of  the  Empire,  he  became  lord  in  his  Netherlands. 


.  .  .  Since  then  his  plans  were  directed  against 
Hungary  and  Burgundy.  In  Hungary  he  could 
gain  nothing  except  securing  the  succession  to  his 
house.  But  never,  frequently  as  he  concluded 
peace,  did  he  give  up  his  intentions  upon  Bur- 
gundy. .  .  .  Now  that  he  had  allied  himself  with 
a  Sforza,  and  had  joined  the  Liga,  noW  that 
his  father  was  dead,  and  the  Empire  was  pledged 
to  follow  him  across  the  mountains,  and  now,  too, 
that  the  Italian  complications  were  threatening 
Charles,  he  took  fresh  hope,  and  in  this  hope  he 
summoned  a  Diet  at  Worms.  Ma.ximilian  was  a 
prince  of  whom,  although  many  portraits  have 
been  drawn,  yet  there  is  scarcely  one  that  re- 
sembles another,  so  easily  and  entirely  did  he 
suit  himself  to  circumstances.  .  .  .  His  soul  is  full 
of  motion,  of  joy  in  things,  and  of  plans.  There 
is  scarcely  anything  that  he  is  not  capable  of 
doing.  In  his  mines  he  is  a  good  screener,  in  his 
armoury  the  best  plater,  capable  of  instructing 
others  in  new  inventions.  With  musket  in  hand, 
he  defeats  his  best  marksman,  George  Purkhard; 
with  heavy  cannon,  which  he  has  shown  how  to 
cast,  and  has  placed  on  wheels,  he  comes  as  a  rule 
nearest  the  mark.  He  commands  seven  captains  in 
their  seven  several  tongues;  he  himself  chooses 
and  mixes  his  food  and  medicines.  In  the  open 
country,  he  feels  himself  happiest.  .  .  .  What  really 
distinguishes  his  public  life  is  that  presentiment 
of  the  future  greatness  of  his  dynasty  which 
he  has  inherited  of  his  father,  and  the  restless 
striving  to  attain  all  that  devolved  upon  him  from 
the  House  of  Burgundy.  All  his  policy  and  all 
his  schemes  were  concentrated,  not  upon  his  Em- 
pire, for  the  real  needs  of  w'hich  he  evinced  little 
real  care,  and  not  immediately  upon  the  wel- 
fare of  his  hereditary  lands,  but  upon  the  realiza- 
tion of  that  sole  idea.  Of  it  all  his  letters  and 
speeches  are  full.  ...  In  March,  149S,  Maximilian 
came  to  the  Diet  at  Worms.  ...  At  this  Reichstag 
the  King  gained  two  momentous  prospects.  In 
Wurtemberg  there  had  sprung  of  two  lines  two 
counts  of  quite  opposite  characters.  .  .  .  With 
the  elder,  Maximilian  now  entered  into  a  compact. 
Wurtemberg  was  to  be  raised  to  a  dukedom — an 
elevation  which  excluded  the  female  line  from  the 
succession — and,  in  the  event  of  the  stock  failing, 
was  to  be  a  'widow's  portion'  of  the  realm  to 
the  use  of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Now  as  the 
sole  hopes  of  this  family  centred  in  a  weakling 
of  a  boy,  this  arrangement  held  out  to  Maximilian 
and  his  successors  the  prospect  of  acquiring  a 
splendid  country.  Yet  this  was  the  smaller  of 
his  two  successes.  The  greater  was  the  espousal 
of  his  children,  Philip  and  Margaret,  with  the 
two  children  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  Juana 
and  Juan,  which  was  here  settled.  This  opened 
to  his  house  still  greater  expectations, — it  brought 
him  at  once  into  the  most  intimate  alliance  with 
the  Kings  of  Spain.  These  matters  might  pos- 
sibly, however,  have  been  arranged  elsewhere. 
What  Maximilian  really  wanted  in  the  Reichstag 
at  Worms  was  the  assistance  of  the  Empire 
against  the  French  with  its  world-renowned  and 
much-envied  soldiery.  For  at  this  time  in  all 
the  wars  of  Europe,  German  auxiliaries  were  de- 
cisive. ...  If  Ma.ximilian  had  united  the  whole 
of  this  power  in  his  hand,  neither  Europe  nor 
Asia  would  have  been  able  to  withstand  him. 
But  God  disposed  that  it  should  rather  be  em- 
ployed in  the  cause  of  freedom  than  oppression. 
What  an  Empire  was  that  which  in  spite  of  its 
vast  strength  allowed  its  Emperor  to  be  expelled 
from  his  heritage,  and  did  not  for  a  long  time 
take  steps  to  bring  him  back  again?  If  we  ex- 
amine the  constitution  of  the  Empire,  not  as  we 
should  picture  it  to  ourselves  in  Henry  III.'s  time, 


678 


AUSTRIA,  1477-1495 


Maximilian 
Charles  V 


AUSTRIA,  1519-1555 


but  as  it  had  at  length  become — the  legal  inde- 
pendence of  the  several  estates,  the  emptiness  of 
the  imperial  dignity,  the  electiveness  of  a  head,  that 
afterwards  exercised  certain  rights  over  the  electors, 
— we  are  led  to  inquire  not  so  much  into  the 
causes  of  its  disintegration,  for  this  concerns 
us  little,  as  into  the  way  in  which  it  was  held  to- 
gether. What  welded  it  together,  and  preserved  it, 
would  (leaving  tradition  and  the  Pope  out  of  the 
question)  appear,  before  all  else,  to  have  been  the 
rights  of  individuals,  the  unions  of  neighbours,  and 
the  social  regulations  which  universally  obtained. 
Such  were  those  rights  and  privileges  that  not 
only  protected  the  citizen,  his  guild,  and  his  quarter 
of  the  town  against  his  neighbours  and  more 
powerful  men  than  himself,  but  which  also  en- 
dowed him  with  an  inner  independence.  .  .  .  Next, 
the  unions  of  neighbours.  These  were  not  only 
leagues  of  cities  and  peasantries,  expanded  from 
ancient  fraternities — for  who  can  tell  the  origin 
of  the  Hansa,  or  the  earliest  treaty  between  Uri 
and  Schwyz? — into  large  associations,  or  of  knights, 
who  strengthened  a  really  insignificant  power  by 
confederations  of  neighbours,  but  also  of  the 
princes,  who  were  bound  together  by  joint  in- 
heritances, mutual  expectancies,  and  the  ties  of 
blood,  which  in  some  cases  were  very  close. 
This  ramification,  dependent  upon  a  supreme  power 
and  confirmed  by  it,  bound  neighbour  to  neigh- 
bour; and,  whilst  securing  to  each  his  privilege 
and  his  liberty,  blended  together  all  countries 
of  Germany  in  legal  bonds  of  union.  But  it  is  only 
in  the  social  regulations  that  the  unity  was  really 
perceivable.  Only  as  long  as  the  Empire  was  an 
actual  reality,  could  the  supreme  power  of  the 
Electors,  each  with  his  own  special  rights,  be 
maintained;  only  so  long  could  dukes  and  princes, 
bishops  and  abbots  hold  their  neighbours  in  due 
respect,  and  through  court  offices  or  hereditary 
services,  through  fiefs  and  the  dignity  of  their 
independent  position  give  their  vassals  a  peculiar 
position  to  the  whole.  Only  so  long  could  the 
cities  enjoying  immediateness  under  the  Empire, 
carefully  divided  into  free  and  imperial  cities,  be 
not  merely  protected,  but  also  assured  of  a  partici- 
pation in  the  government  of  the  whole.  Under 
this  sanctified  and  traditional  system  of  suzerainty 
and  vassalage  all  were  happy  and  contented,  and 
bore  a  love  to  it  such  as  is  cherished  towards  a 
native  town  or  a  father's  house.  For  some  time 
past,  the  House  of  Austria  had  enjoyed  the  fore- 
most position.  It  also  had  a  union,  and,  more- 
over, a  great  faction  on  its  side.  The  union  was 
the  Suabian  League.  Old  Suabia  was  divided  into 
three  leagues — the  league  of  the  peasantry  (the 
origin  of  Switzerland)  ;  the  league  of  the  knights 
in  the  Black  Forest,  on  the  Kocher,  the  Neckar, 
and  the  Danube;  and  the  league  of  the  cities. 
The  peasantry  were  from  the  first  hostile  to  Aus- 
tria. The  Emperor  Frederick  brought  it  to  pass 
that  the  cities  and  knights,  that  had  from  time  out 
of  mind  lived  in  feud,  bound  themselves  together 
with  several  princes,  and  formed,  under  his  pro- 
tection, the  league  of  the  land  of  Suabia.  But 
the  party  was  scattered  throughout  the  whole  Em- 
pire."— L.  von  Ranke,  History  of  the  Latin  and 
Teutonic  nations,  bk.  i,  ch.  3. 

1493-1519. — Imperial  reign  of  Maximilian. — 
Formation  of  the  circle  of  Austria. — Aulic  coun- 
cil.   See  Germany:  i4Q3-r5ig. 

1496-1499. — Swabian  War  with  the  Swiss  Con- 
federacy and  the  Graubunden,  or  Grey  Leagues 
(Grisons). — Practical  independence  of  both  ac- 
quired.   See  Switzerland:  I396-I4gg. 

1496-1526. — Extraordinary  aggrandizement  of 
the  house  of  Austria  by  its  marriages. — Herit- 
age of  Charles  V. — His  cession  of  the  German 


679 


inheritance  to  Ferdinand. — Division  of  the  house 
into  Spanish  and  German  branches. — Acquisi- 
tion of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. — In  1496,  Philip 
the  Fair,  son  of  Maximilian,  archduke  and  emperor, 
by  his  marriage  with  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
"espoused  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  [of  Aragon]  and  Isabella  of  Castile. 
They  had  two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  the 
former  of  whom,  known  in  history  by  the  name 
of  Charles  V.,  inherited  the  Low  Countries  in 
right  of  his  father,  Philip  (1506).  On  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  his  maternal  grandfather  (1516),  he 
became  heir  to  the  whole  Spanish  succession,  which 
comprehended  the  kingdoms  of  Spain,  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  together  with  Spanish  Amer- 
ica. To  these  vast  possessions  were  added  his 
patrimonial  dominions  in  Austria,  which  were 
transmitted  to  him  by  his  paternal  grandfather, 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  [See  also  Nether- 
lands: I494-I5r9.]  About  the  same  time  (1519), 
the  Imperial  dignity  was  conferred  on  this  prince 
by  the  electors  [see  GERiiANy;  1519]  ;  so  that  Eu- 
rope had  not  seen,  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
a  monarchy  so  powerful  as  that  of  Charles  V. 
This  Emperor  concluded  a  treaty  with  his  brother 
Ferdinand;  by  which  he  ceded  to  him  all  his 
hereditary  possessions  in  Germany.  The  two 
brothers  thus  became  the  founders  of  the  two 
principal  branches  of  the  House  of  Austria,  viz., 
that  of  Spain,  which  began  with  Charles  V.  (called 
Charles  I.  of  Spain),  and  ended  with  Charles  II. 
(1700)  ;  and  that  of  Germany,  of  which  Ferdinand 
I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  which  became  extinct 
in  the  male  line  in  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (1740), 
These  two  branches,  closely  allied  to  each  other, 
acted  in  concert  for  the  advancement  of  their 
reciprocal  interests;  moreover  they  gained  each 
their  own  separate  advantages  by  the  marriage 
connexions  which  they  formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of  the 
German  line  married  Anne  (1521),  sister  of  Louis, 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  who  having  been 
slain  by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Mohacs  (1526), 
these  two  kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdinand  of  the 
House  of  Austria.  Finally,  the  marriage  which 
Charles  V.  contracted  with  the  Infanta  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  pro- 
cured PhiHp  11.  of  Spain,  the  son  of  that  mar- 
riage, the  whole  Portuguese  monarchy,  to  which 
he  succeeded  on  the  death  of  Henry,  called  the 
Cardinal  (1580).  So  vast  an  aggrandisement  of 
power  alarmed  the  Sovereigns  of  Europe." — C.  W. 
Koch,  Revolutions  of  Europe,  period  6. 

Also  in:  W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of 
Austria,  ch.  25  and  27. — W.  Robertson,  History  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  bk.  1. — See  also  Spain: 
1496-1517. 

1497. — Founding  of  Imperial  library  at  Vi- 
enna. See  Libraries:  Modern:  Austria:  Imperial 
library. 

1501-1506. — Treaties  with  France  over  Italian 
possessions.    See  Italy:  1501-1504;  1504-1506. 

1519. — Death  of  Maximilian. — Election  of 
Charles  V,  "Emperor  of  the  Romans."  See 
Germany:   iSiq. 

1519-1555. — Imperial  reign  of  Charles  V. — 
Objects  of  his  policy. — His  conflict  with  the 
Reformation  and  with  France. — "Charles  V.  did 
not  receive  from  nature  all  the  gifts  nor  all  the 
charms  she  can  bestow,  nor  did  experience  give 
him  every  talent ;  but  he  was  equal  to  the  part 
he  had  to  play  in  the  world.  He  was  sufficiently 
great  to  keep  his  many-jewelled  diadem.  .  .  .  His 
ambition  was  cold  and  wise.  The  scope  of  his 
ideas,  which  are  not  quite  easy  to  divine,  was 
vast  enough  to  control  a  state  composed  of  divers 
and  distant  portions,  so  as  to  make  it  always  very 
difiicult  to  amalgamate  his  armies,  and  to  supply 


AUSTRIA,  1519-1555 


Charles  V 


AUSTRIA,  1525-1527 


them  with  food,  or  to  procure  money.  Indeed  its 
very  existence  would  have  been  exposed  to  perma- 
nent danger  from  powerful  coalitions,  had  Francis 
I.  known  how  to  place  its  most  vulnerable  points 
under  a  united  pressure  from  the  armies  of  France, 
of  England,  of  Venice,  and  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. Charles  V.  attained  his  first  object  when 
he  prevented  the  French  monarch  from  taking 
possession  of  the  inheritance  of  the  house  of 
Anjou,  at  Naples,  and  of  that  of  the  Viscontis  at 
Milan.  He  was  more  successful  in  stopping  the 
march  of  Solyman  into  Austria  than  in  checking 
the  spread  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany.  .  .  . 
Charles  V.  had  four  objects  very  much  at  heart: 
he  wished  to  be  the  master  in  Italy,  to  check 
the  progress  of  the  Ottoman  power  in  the  west 
of  Europe,   to  conquer  the   King   of  France,  and 


CHARLES  V  ( 1 500-1 558) 

Ruler    of    the    Austrian    dominions    and    Holy    Roman 

Empire,   King  of   Spain  and   the   Netherlands 


to  govern  the  Germanic  body  by  dividing  it,  and 
by  making  the  Reformation  a  religious  pretext 
for  oppressing  the  political  defenders  of  that  be- 
lief. In  three  out  of  four  of  these  objects  he  suc- 
ceeded. Germany  alone  was  not  conquered;  if 
she  was  beaten  in  battle,  neither  any  political 
triumph  nor  any  religious  results  ensued.  In  Ger- 
many, Charles  V.  began  his  work  too  late,  and 
acted  too  slowly ;  he  undertook  to  subdue  it  at  a 
time  when  the  abettors  of  the  Reformation  had 
grown  strong,  when  he  himself  was  growing 
weaker.  .  .  .  Like  many  other  brilliant  careers, 
the  career  of  Charles  V.  was  more  successful  and 
more  striking  at  the  commencement  and  the  mid- 
dle than  at  the  end,  of  its  course.  At  Madrid, 
at  Cambrai.  at  Nice,  he  made  his  rival  bow 
down  his  head.  At  Crepy  he  again  forced  him 
to  obey  his  will,  but  as  he  had  completely  made 
up  his  mind  to  have  peace,  Charles  dictated  it, 
in  some  manner,  to  his  own  detriment.  At  Passau 
he  had  to  yield  to  the  terms  of  his  enemy — of 
an  enemy  whom  Charles  V  encountered  in  his 
old  age,  and  when  his  powers  had  decayed.     .Al- 


though it  may  be  said  that  the  extent  and  the 
power  of  the  sovereignty  which  Charles  V.  left 
to  his  successor  at  his  death  were  not  diminished, 
still  his  armies  were  weakened,  his  finances  were 
exhausted,  and  the  country  was  weary  of  the 
tyranny  of  the  imperial  lieutenants.  The  su- 
premacy of  the  empire  in  Germany,  for  which  he 
had  struggled  so  much,  was  as  little  established 
at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign;  re- 
ligious unity  was  solemnly  destroyed  by  the  'Recess' 
of  Augsburg.  But  that  which  marks  the  position 
of  Charles  V.  as  the  representative  man  of  his 
epoch,  and  as  the  founder  of  the  policy  of  mod- 
em times,  is  that,  wherever  he  was  victorious, 
the  effect  of  his  success  was  to  crush  the  last 
efforts  of  the  spirit  of  the  middle  ages,  and  of 
the  independence  of  nations.  In  Italy,  in  Spain, 
in  Germany,  and  in  the  Low  Countries,  his  tri- 
umphs were  so  much  gain  to  the  cause  of  abso- 
lute monarchy  and  so  much  loss  to  the  liberty 
derived  from  the  old  state  of  society.  Whatever 
was  the  character  of  liberty  in  the  middle  ages 
— whether  it  were  contested  or  incomplete,  or  a 
mockery — it  played  a  greater  part  than  in  the 
four  succeeding  centuries.  Charles  V.  was  assuredly 
one  of  those  who  contributed  the  most  to  found 
and  consolidate  the  political  system  of  modern 
governments.  His  history  has  an  aspect  of 
grandeur.  Had  Francis  I.  been  as  sagacious  In 
the  closet  as  he  was  bold  in  the  field,  by  a  vigor- 
ous alliance  with  England,  with  Protestant  Ger- 
many, and  with  some  of  the  republics  of  Italy, 
he  might  perhaps  have  balanced  and  controlled  th" 
power  of  Charles  V.  But  the  French  monarch 
did  not  possess  the  foresight  and  the  solid  under- 
standing necessary  to  pursue  such  a  policy  with 
success.  His  rival,  therefore,  occupies  the  first 
place  in  the  historical  picture  of  the  epoch. 
Charles  V.  had  the  sentiment  of  his  position  and  of 
the  part  he  had  to  play." — J.  Van  Praet,  Essays  on 
the  political  liistory  of  the  15//;.  ibth  and  I'ith 
centuries,  pp.  100-104. — See  also  Germany:  1510 
to    1552-1561,   and    Fra.\ce:    1520-1523,    to    1547- 

issg. 

1525-1527. — Successful  contest  for  the  Hun- 
garian and  Bohemian  crowns. — In  Hungary,  "un- 
der King  Matthias  the  house  of  Zapolya,  so  called 
from  a  Slavonic  village  near  Poschega,  whence  it 
originated,  rose  to  peculiar  eminence.  To  this 
house,  in  particular,  King  VVladislas  had  owed 
his  accession  to  the  throne;  whence,  however, 
it  thought  itself  entitled  to  claim  a  share  in 
the  sovereign  power,  and  even  a  sort  of  prospec- 
tive right  to  the  throne.  Its  members  were  the 
wealthiest  of  all  the  magnates;  they  possessed 
seventy-two  castles.  ...  It  is  said  that  a  prophecy 
early  promised  the  crown  to  the  young  John 
Zapolya.  Possessed  of  all  the  power  conferred 
by  his  rich  inheritance.  Count  of  Zips,  and 
Voivode  of  Transylvania,  he  soon  collected  a 
strong  party  around  him.  It  was  he  who  mainly 
persuaded  the  Hungarians,  in  the  year  1505,  to 
exclude  all  foreigners  from  the  throne  by  a  formal 
decree;  which,  though  they  were  not  always  able 
to  maintain  in  force,  they  could  never  be  induced 
absolutely  to  revoke  In  the  year  1514  the  Voivode 
succeeded  in  putting  down  an  exceedingly  formid- 
able insurrection  of  the  peasants  with  his 
own  forces;  a  service  which  the  lesser  nobility 
prized  the  more  highly,  because  it  enabled  them 
to  reduce  the  peasantry  to  a  still  harder  state  of 
servitude.  His  wish  was.  on  the  death  of  Wladislas, 
to  become  Gubernator  of  the  kingdom,  to  marry 
the  deceased  king's  daughter  .Anne,  and  then  to 
await  the  course  of  events  But  he  was  here  en- 
countered by  the  policy  of  Maximilian.  .Anne 
was  married  to  the  Archduke  Ferdinand ;  Zapolya 


680 


AUSTRIA,  1525-1527 


Hungary  and 
Bohemia 


AUSTRIA,  1525-1527 


was  excluded  from  the  administration  of  the  king- 
dom; even  the  vacant  Palatinate  was  refused  him 
and  given  to  his  old  rival  Stephen  Bathory.  He 
was  highly  incensed.  .  .  .  But  it  was  not  till  the 
year  1525  that  Zapolya  got  the  upper  hand  at 
the  Rakos.  .  .  ,  No  one  entertained  a  doubt  that 
he  aimed  at  the  throne.  .  .  .  But  before  anything 
was  accomplished — on  the  contrary,  just  as  these 
party  conflicts  had  thrown  the  country  into  tht 
utmost  confusion,  the  mighty  enemy,  Soliman, 
appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Hungary,  determined 
to  put  an  end  to  the  anarchy.  ...  In  his  prison 
at  Madrid,  Francis  I.  had  found  means  to  en- 
treat the  assistance  of  Soliman ;  urging  that  it  well 
beseemed  a  great  emperor  to  succour  the  op- 
pressed. Plans  were  laid  at  Constantinople,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  two  sovereigns  were  to  attack 
Spain  with  a  combined  fleet,  and  to  send  armies 
to  invade  Hungary  and  the  north  of  Italy.  Soli- 
man, without  any  formal  treaty,  was  by  his  posi- 
tion an  ally  of  the  Ligue,  as  the  king  of  Hungary 
was,  of  the  emperor.  On  the  23d  of  April,  1520, 
Soliman,  after  visiting  the  graves  of  his  fore- 
fathers and  of  the  old  Moslem  martyrs,  marched 
out  of  Constantinople  with  a  mighty  host,  con- 
sisting of  about  a  hundred  thousand  men,  and 
incessantly  strengthened  by  fresh  recruits  on  its 
road.  .  .  .  What  power  had  Hungary,  in  the  con- 
dition we  have  just  described,  of  resisting  such 
an  attack?  .  .  .  The  young  king  took  the  field 
with  a  following  of  not  more  than  three  thou- 
sand men.  .  .  .  He  proceeded  to  the  fatal  plain 
of  Mohacs,  fully  resolved  with  his  small  band 
to  await  in  the  open  field  the  overwhelming  force 
of  the  enemy.  .  .  .  Personal  valour  could  avail 
nothing.  The  Hungarians  were  immediately 
thrown  into  disorder,  their  best  men  fell,  the 
others  took  to  flight.  The  young  king  was  com- 
pelled to  flee.  It  was  not  even  granted  him  to 
die  in  the  field  of  battle;  a  far  more  miserable 
end  awaited  him.  Mounted  behind  a  Silesian 
soldier,  who  served  him  as  a  guide,  he  had  al- 
ready been  carried  across  the  dark  waters  that 
divide  the  plain ;  his  horse  was  already  climbing 
the  bank,  when  he  slipped,  fell  back,  and  buried 
himself  and  his  rider  in  the  morass.  This  ren- 
dered the  defeat  decisive.  .  .  .  Soliman  had  gained 
one  of  those  victories  which  decide  the  fate  of 
nations  during  long  epochs.  .  .  .  That  two  thrones, 
the  succession  to  which  was  not  entirely  free 
from  doubt,  had  thus  been  left  vacant,  was  an 
event  that  necessarily  caused  a  great  agitation 
throughout  Christendom.  It  was  still  a  question 
whether  such  an  European  power  as  Austria  would 
continue  to  exist ; — a  question  which  it  is  only 
necessary  to  state,  in  order  to  be  aware  of  its 
vast  importance  to  the  fate  of  mankind  at  large, 
and  of  Germany  in  particular.  .  .  .  The  claims  of 
Ferdinand  to  both  crowns,  unquestionable  as  they 
might  be  in  reference  to  the  treaties  with  the 
reigning  houses,  were  opposed  in  the  nations  them- 
selves, by  the  right  of  election  and  the  authority 
of  considerable  rivals.  In  Hungary,  as  soon  as 
the  Turks  had  retired,  John  Zapolya  appeared  with 
the  fine  army  which  he  had  kept  back  from  the 
conflict ;  the  fall  of  the  king  was  at  the  same  time 
the  fall  of  his  adversaries.  .  .  .  Even  in  Tokay, 
however,  John  Zapolya  was  saluted  as  king. 
Meanwhile,  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  conceived  the 
design  of  getting  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Bohemia.  .  .  .  Nor  was  it  in  the  two  kingdoms 
alone  that  these  pretenders  had  a  considerable 
party.  The  state  of  politics  in  Europe  was  such 
as  to  insure  them  powerful  supporters  abroad. 
In  the  first  place,  Francis  I.  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  Zapolya;  in  a  short  time  a  delegate 
from  the  pope  was  at  his  side,  and  the  Germans 

68 


in  Rome  maintained  that  Clement  assisted  the 
faction  of  the  Voivode  with  money.  Zapolya 
sent  an  agent  to  Venice  with  a  direct  request  to 
be  admitted  a  member  of  the  Ligue  of  Cognac. 
In  Bohemia,  too,  the  French  had  long  had  de- 
voted partisans.  .  .  .  The  consequences  that  must 
have  resulted,  had  this  scheme  succeeded,  are  so 
incalculable,  that  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  they 
would  have  completely  changed  the  poHtical  his- 
tory of  Europe.  The  power  of  Bavaria  would  have 
outweighed  that  of  Austria  in  both  German  and 
Slavonian  countries,  and  Zapolya,  thus  supported, 
would  have  been  able  to  maintain  his  station; 
the  Ligue,  and  with  it  high  ultra-montane  opin- 
ions would  have  held  the  ascendency  in  eastern 
Europe.  Never  was  there  a  project  more  pregnant 
with  danger  to  the  growing  power  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  Ferdinand  behaved  with  all  the  pru- 
dence and  energy  which  that  house  has  so  often 
displayed  in  difficult  emergencies.  For  the  pres- 
ent, the  all-important  object  was  the  crown  of 
Bohemia.  ...  All  his  measures  were  taken  with 
such  skill  and  prudence,  that  on  the  day  of  elec- 
tion, though  the  Bavarian  agent  had,  up  to  the 
last  moment,  not  the  slightest  doubt  of  the  suc- 
cess of  his  negotiations,  an  overwhelming  ma- 
jority in  the  three  estates  elected  Ferdinand  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia.  This  took  place  on  the  23d 
October,  1526.  ...  On  his  brother's  birth-day, 
the  24th  of  February,  1527,  Ferdinand  was  crowned 
at  Prague.  .  .  .  The  affairs  of  Hungary  were  not 
so  easily  or  so  peacefully  settled.  ...  At  first, 
when  Zapolya  came  forward,  full  armed  and 
powerful  out  of  the  general  desolation,  he  had  the 
uncontested  superiority.  The  capital  of  the  king- 
dom sought  his  protection,  after  which  he  marched 
to  Stuhlweissenburg,  where  his  partisans  bore 
down  all  attempts  at  opposition:  he  was  elected 
and  crowned  (nth  of  November,  1526)  ;  in  Croatia, 
too,  he  was  acknowledged  king  at  a  diet;  he 
filled  all  the  numerous  places,  temporal  and 
spiritual,  left  vacant  by  the  disaster  of  Mohacs. 
with  his  friends.  .  .  .  [But]  the  Germans  ad- 
vanced without  interruption ;  and  as  soon  as  it 
appeared  possible  that  Ferdinand  might  be  suc- 
cessful, Zapolya's  followers  began  to  desert  him. 
.  .  ,  Never  did  the  German  troops  display  more 
bravery  and  constancy.  They  had  often  neither 
meat  nor  bread,  and  were  obliged  to  live  on 
such  fruits  as  they  found  in  the  gardens:  the 
inhabitants  were  wavering  and  uncertain — they 
submitted,  and  then  revolted  again  to  the  enemy; 
Zapolya's  troops,  aided  by  their  knowledge  of 
the  ground,  made  several  very  formidable  attacks 
by  night;  but  the  Germans  evinced,  in  the  mo- 
ment of  danger,  the  skill  and  determination  of  a 
Roman  legion ;  they  showed,  too,  a  noble  con- 
stancy under  difficulties  and  privations.  At  Tokay 
they  defeated  Zapolya  and  compelled  him  to  quit 
Hungary.  ...  On  the  3d  November,  1527, 
Ferdinand  was  crowned  in  Stuhlweissenburg:  only 
five  of  the  magnates  of  the  kingdom  adhered  to 
Zapolya.  The  victory  appeared  complete.  Ferdi- 
nand, however,  distinctly  felt  that  this  appearance 
was  delusive.  ...  In  Bohemia,  too,  his  power 
was  far  from  secure.  His  Bavarian  neighbours 
had  not  relinquished  the  hope  of  driving  him  from 
the  throne  at  file  first  general  turn  of  affairs. 
The  Ottomans,  meanwhile,  acting  upon  the  persua- 
sion that  every  land  In  which  the  head  of  their 
chief  had  rested  belonged  of  right  to  them,  were 
preparing  to  return  to  Hungary ;  either  to  take 
possession  of  it  themselves,  or  at  first,  as  was 
their  custom,  to  bestow  it  on  a  native  ruler — 
Zapolya,  who  now  eagerly  sought  an  alliance  with 
them — as  their  vassal." — L.  von  Ranke,  History 
of  the  reformation  in  Germany,  v.  2,  bk.  4,  ck. 

I 


AUSTRIA,  1564-1618 


Maximilian  II 
Thirty  Years'   War 


AUSTRIA,  1618-1648 


4. — See  also  Bohemia:  1516-1576;  Hungary:  1526- 

1567- 

1564-1618. — Tolerance  of  Maximilian  II. — 
Bigotry  and  tyranny  of  Rodolph  and  Ferdinand 
II.— Prelude  to  the  Thirty  Years'  War.— "There 
is  no  period  connected  with  these  religious  wars 
that  deserves  more  to  be  studied  than  these  reigns 
of  Ferdinand  I.,  Maximilian  [the  Second],  and 
those  of  his  successors  who  preceded  the  thirty 
years'  war.  We  have  no  sovereign  who  exhibited 
that  exercise  of  moderation  and  good  sense  which 
a  philosopher  would  require,  but  Maximilian ; 
and  he  was  immediately  followed  by  princes  of 
a  different  complexion.  .  .  .  Nothing  could  be 
more  complete  than  the  difficulty  of  toleration 
at  the  time  when  Maximilian  reigned ;  and  if  a 
mild  policy  could  be  attended  with  favourable 
effects  in  his  age  and  nation,  there  can  be  little 
fear  of  the  experiment  at  any  other  period.  No 
party  or  person  in  the  state  was  then  disposed 
to  tolerate  his  neighbour  from  any  sense  of  the 
justice  of  such  forbearance,  but  from  motives  of 
temporal  poHcy  alone.  The  Lutherans,  it  will  be 
seen,  could  not  bear  that  the  Calvinists  should 
have  the  same  religious  privileges  with  them- 
selves. The  Calvinists  were  equally  opinionated 
and  unjust;  and  Maximilian  himself  was  probably 
tolerant  and  wise,  chiefly  because  he  was  in  his 
real  opinions  a  Lutheran,  and  in  outward  pro- 
fession, as  the  head  of  the  empire,  a  Roman 
Catholic.  For  twelve  years,  the  whole  of  his 
reign,  he  preserved  the  religious  peace  of  the  com- 
munity, without  destroying  the  religious  freedom 
of  the  human  mind.  He  supported  the  Roman 
Catholics,  as  the  predominant  party,  in  all  their 
rights,  possessions,  and  privileges;  but  he  pro- 
tected the  Protestants  in  every  exercise  of  their 
religion  which  was  then  practicable.  In  other 
words,  he  was  as  tolerant  and  just  as  the  temper 
of  society  then  admitted,  and  more  so  than  the 
state  of  things  would  have  suggested.  .  .  .  The 
merit  of  Maximilian  was  but  too  apparent  the 
moment  that  his  son  Rodolph  was  called  upon 
to  supply  his  place.  ...  He  had  always  left  the 
education  of  his  son  and  successor  too  much  to  the 
diseretion  of  his  bigoted  consort.  Rodolph,  his 
son,  was  therefore  as  ignorant  and  furious  on 
his  part  as  were  the  Protestants  on  theirs;  he 
had  immediate  recourse  to  the  usual  expedients 
— force,  and  the  execution  of  the  laws  to  the 
very  letter.  .  .  .  After  Rodolph  comes  Matthias, 
and,  unhappily  for  all  Europe,  Bohemia  and  the 
empire  fell  afterwards  under  the  management  of 
Ferdinand  II.  Of  the  different  .Austrian  princes, 
it  is  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  II.  that  is  more 
particularly  to  be  considered.  Such  was  the  arbi- 
trarv'  nature  of  his  government  over  his  subjects 
in  Bohemia,  that  they  revolted.  They  elected  for 
their  king  the  young  Elector  Palatine,  hoping 
thus  to  extricate  themselves  from  the  bigotry  and 
tyranny  of  Ferdinand.  This  crown  so  offered 
was  accepted;  and,  in  the  event,  the  cause  of 
the  Bohemians  became  the  cause  of  the  Ref- 
ormation in  Germany,  and  the  Elector  Palatine 
the  hero  of  that  cause.  It  is  this  which  gives 
the  great  interest  to  this  reign  of  Ferdinand  II., 
to  these  concerns  of  his  subjects  in  Bohemia, 
and  to  the  character  of  this  Elector  Palatine.  For 
all  these  events  and  circumstances  led  to  the  thirty 
years'  war." — W.  Smyth,  Lectures  on  modern  his- 
tory, V.  I,  lect.  13.  See  Bohemia:  1611-1618;  and 
Germany:  1618-1620. 

1567-1660 — Struggles  of  the  Hapsburg  house 
in  Hungary  and  Transylvania  to  establish  rights 
of  sovereignty. — Wars  with  the  Turks.  See 
Hungary:  1595-1606;  1606-1660;  and  Turkey: 
1572-1573- 


1586. — Desire  for  crown  of  Poland.  See  Po- 
land: 1574-1590. 

1618-1648.— Thirty  Years'  War.— Peace  of 
Westphalia. — "The  thirty  years'  war  made  Ger- 
many the  centre-point  of  European  poUtics.  .  .  . 
No  one  at  its  commencement  could  have  foreseen 
the  duration  and  extent.  But  the  train  of  war 
was  everywhere  laid,  and  required  only  the  match 
to  set  it  going;  more  than  one  war  was  joined  to 
it,  and  swallowed  up  in  it ;  and  the  melancholy 
truth,  that  war  feeds  itself,  was  never  more 
clearly  displayed.  .  .  .  Though  the  war,  which  first 
broke  out  in  Bohemia,  concerned  only  the  house 
of  Austria,  yet  by  its  originating  in  religious 
disputes,  by  its  peculiar  character  as  a  religious 
war,  and  by  the  measures  adopted  both  by  the 
insurgents  and  the  emperor,  it  acquired  such  an 
extent,  that  even  the  quelling  of  the  insurrection 
was  insufficient  to  put  a  stop  to  it.  .  .  .  Though 
the  Bohemian  war  was  apparently  terminated,  yet 
the  flame  had  communicated  to  Germany  and 
Hungary,  and  new  fuel  was  added  by  the  act 
of  proscription  promulgated  against  the  elector 
Frederic  and  his  adherents.  From  this  the  war 
derived  that  revolutionary  character,  which  was 
henceforward  peculiar  to  it;  it  was  a  step  that 
could  not  but  lead  to  further  results,  for  the 
question  of  the  relations  between  the  emperor 
and  his  states,  was  in  a  fair  way  of  being  prac- 
tically considered.  New  and  bolder  projects  were 
also  formed  in  Vienna  and  Madrid,  where  it 
was  resolved  to  renew  the  war  with  the  Nether- 
lands. Under  the  present  circumstances,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Protestant  religion  and  the  over- 
throw of  German  and  Dutch  liberty  appeared 
inseparable;  while  the  success  of  the  imperial  arms, 
supported  as  they  were  by  the  league  and  the 
co-operation  of  the  Spaniards,  gave  just  grounds 
for  hope.  .  .  .  By  the  carrying  of  the  war  into 
Lower  Saxony,  the  principal  seat  of  the  Protes- 
tant religion  in  Germany  (the  states  of  which 
had  appointed  Christian  iV.  of  Denmark,  as  duke 
of  Holstein,  head  of  their  confederacy),  the  north- 
ern states  had  already,  though  without  any  bene- 
ficial result,  been  involved  in  the  strife,  and  the 
Danish  war  had  broken  out.  But  the  elevation  of 
Albert  of  VVallenstein  to  the  dignity  of  duke  of 
Friedland  and  imperial  general  over  the  army 
raised  by  himself,  was  of  considerably  more  im- 
portance, as  it  affected  the  whole  course  and  char- 
acter of  the  war.  From  this  time  the  war  was 
completely  and  truly  revolutionary.  The  peculiar 
situation  of  the  general,  the  manner  of  the  forma- 
tion as  well  as  the  maintenance  of  his  army,  could 
not  fail  to  make  it  such.  .  .  .  The  distinguished 
success  of  the  imperial  arms  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
many unveiled  the  daring  schemes  of  VVallenstein. 
He  did  not  come  forward  as  conqueror  alone, 
but,  by  the  investiture  of  Mecklenburg  as  a  state 
of  the  empire,  as  a  ruling  prince.  .  .  .  But  the 
elevation  and  conduct  of  this  novus  homo,  e:!as- 
perated  and  annoyed  the  Catholic  no  less  than  the 
Protestant  states,  especially  the  league  and  its  chief; 
all  implored  peace,  and  VVallenstcin's  discharge. 
Thus,  at  the  diet  of  the  electors  at  .Augsburg,  the 
emperor  was  reduced  to  the  alternative  of  resigning 
him  or  his  allies.  He  chose  the  former.  Wallen- 
stein  was  dismissed,  the  majority  of  his  army  dis- 
banded, and  Tilly  nominated  commander-in-chief 
of  the  forces  of  the  emperor  and  the  league.  .  .  . 
On  the  side  of  the  emperor  sufficient  care  was  taken 
to  prolong  the  war.  The  refusal  to  restore  the 
unfortunate  Frederic,  and  even  the  sale  of  his 
upper  Palatine  to  Bavaria,  must  with  justice  have 
excited  the  apprehensions  of  the  other  princes. 
But  when  the  Jesuits  finally  succeeded,  not  only 
in  extorting   the  edict  of  restitution,  but  also  in 


682 


AUSTRIA,  1618-1648  Thirty  Years'  War 


AUSTRIA,  1568-1683 


causing  it  to  be  enforced  in  the  most  odious  man- 
ner, the  Catholic  states   themselves  saw   with   re- 
gret   that   peace    could   no    longer   exist.  .  .  .  The 
greater  the  success  that  attended  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, the  more  actively  foreign  policy  laboured  to 
counteract  it.     England  had  taken  an  interest  in 
the  fate  of  Frederic  V.  from  the  first,  though  this 
interest  was  evinced  by  little  beyond  fruitless  ne- 
gotiations.    Denmark  became  engaged  in  the  quar- 
rel  mostly    through    the   influence    of    this    power 
and   Holland.     Richelieu,   from    the    time   he    be- 
came prime  minister  of  France,  had  exerted  himself 
in  opposing  Austria  and  Spain.    He  found  employ- 
ment  for   Spain   in   the  contests  respecting  Velte- 
lin,   and   for   Austria   soon   after,   by   the   war   of 
Mantua.     Willingly   would  he  have   detached   the 
German  league  from  the  interest  of  the  emperor; 
and  though  he  failed  in  this,  he  procured  the  fall 
of  Wallenstein.  .  .  .  Much  more  important,  how- 
ever, was  Richelieu's  influence  on  the  war,  by  the 
essential  share  he  had  in  gaining  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus'    active    participation    in    it.  .  .  .  The    nine- 
teen   years    of    his     (Gustavus    Adolphus']     reign 
which  had  already  elapsed,  together  with  the  Polish 
war,   which   lasted   nearly   that   time,   had   taught 
the   world    but    little   of    the    real    worth    of    this 
great    and    talented    hero.      The    decisive    superi- 
ority   of    Protestantism    in    Germany,    under    his 
gufdance,  soon  created  a  more  just  knowledge,  and 
at   the   same   time   showed   the   advantages   which 
must    result    to    a    victorious    supporter    of    that 
cause.  .     .  The  battle  at  Leipzig  was  decisive  for 
Gustavus    Adolphus    and    his    party,    almost    be- 
yond  expectation.     The   league   fell  asunder;    and 
in   a  short   time  he   was  master   of   the   countries 
from  the  Baltic  to   Bavaria,  and  from  the  Rhine 
to   Bohemia.  .  .  .  But   the   misfortunes  and  death 
of  Tilly   brought   Wallenstein   again   on   the   stage 
as  absolute  commander-in-chief,  bent  on  plans  not 
a   whit   less  extensive   than   those    he   had   before 
formed.     No  period  of  the  war  gave  promise   of 
Such  great  and  rapid  successes  or  reverses  as  the 
present,  for  both  leaders  were  determined  to  effect 
them;   but    the    victory    of   Liitzen,   while   it   cost 
Gustavus   his   life,   prepared   the   fall   of   Wallen- 
stein. .  .  .  Though  the  fall  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
frustrated  his  own  private  views,  it  did  not  those 
of   his   party.  .  .  .  The    school    of   Gustavus    pro- 
duced a  number  of  men,  great  in  the  cabinet  and 
in  the  field;  yet  it  was  hard,  even  for  an  Oxen- 
stiern,  to  preserve  the  importance  of  Sweden  un- 
impaired;  and   it   was  but  partially  done  by   the 
alliance  of  Heilbronn.  ...  If  the  forces  of  Sweden 
overrun    almost   every    part    of    Germany    in    the 
following  months,  under  the  guidance  of  the  pupils 
of   the   king,   Bernard   of   Weimar   and    Gustavus 
Horn,  we  must  apparently  attribute  it  to  Wallen- 
stein's  intentional  inactivity  in  Bohemia.    The  dis- 
trust of  him  increased  in  Vienna  the  more,  as  he 
took  but  little  trouble  to  diminish  it;  and  though 
his  fall  was  not  sufficient  to  atone  for  treachery, 
if  proved,  it  was  for  his  equivocal  character  and 
imprudence      His  death  probably  saved  Germany 
from  a  catastrophe.  ...  A  great  change  took  place 
upon  the  death  of  Wallenstein;  as  a  prince  of  the 
blood,  Ferdinand,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
obtained  the  command.     Thus  an  end  was  put  to 
plans   of   revolutions   from   this   quarter.     But    in 
the  same  year  the  battle   of  Nbrdlingen   gave  to 
the  imperial  arms  a  sudden  preponderance,  such  as 
it  had  never  before  acquired.     The  separate  peace 
of  Saxony  with  the  emperor  at  Prague,  and  soon 
after  an   alliance,   were   its  consequences;   Sweden 
driven  back  to  Pomerania,  seemed  unable  of  her- 
self, during  the  two  following  years,  to  maintain 
her  ground  in  Germany:  the  victory  of  Wittstock 
turned  the  scale  in  her  favour.  .  .  .  The  war  was 


683 


prolonged    and    greatly    extended    by    the    active 
share  taken  in  it  by  France:    first  against  Spain, 
and  soon  against  Austria.  .  .  .  The  German   war, 
after   the   treaty   with   Bernhard   of  Weimar,  was 
mainly   carried   on   by   France,  by   the   arming   of 
Germans    against    Germans.      But    the    pupil    of 
Gustavus   Adolphus    preferred    to   fight    for    him- 
self  rather  than   others,  and  his  early   death  was 
almost  as  much  coveted  by  France  as  by  Austria. 
The  success   of   the   Swedish   arms  revived   under 
Baner.  ...  At    the    general    diet,    which    was    at 
last   convened,   the   emperor  yielded   to   a  general 
amnesty,    or    at    least    what    was    so    designated. 
But  when  at  the  meeting   of  the  ambassadors  of 
the  leading  powers  at  Hamburg,  the  preliminaries 
were  signed,  and  the  time  and  place  of  the  con- 
gress of  peace  fixed,  it  was  deferred  after  Riche- 
lieu's death  (who  was  succeeded  by  Mazarin),  by 
the  war,  which  both  parties  contmued,  in  the  hope 
of  securing  better  conditions  by  victory.     A  new 
war  broke  out  in  the  north  between  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  and  when  at  last  the  congress  of  peace 
was  opened  at  Munster  and   Osnabriick,   the  ne- 
gotiations   dragged    on    for    three    years.  .  .  .  The 
German    peace    was    negotiated    at    Miinster    be- 
tween the  emperor  and  France,  and  at  Osnabriick 
between    the    emperor    and    Sweden;    but    both 
treaties,   according  to  express  agreement,  Oct.   24, 
1648,  were  to  be  considered  as  one,  under  the  title 
of  the  Westphalian." — A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  Manual  of 
the  history  of  the  political  system  of  Europe  and 
its  colonies,  pp.  gi-gg. — "The  Peace  of  Westphalia 
has  met   manifold   hostile  comments,  not  only   in 
earlier,  but  also  in  later,  times.     German  patriots 
complained   that   by   it   the   unity   of   the   Empire 
was    rent;     and    indeed    the    connection    of    the 
States,  which  even  before  was  loose,  was  relaxed 
to  the  extreme.    This  was,  however,  an  evil  which 
could  not  be  avoided,  and  it  had  to  be  accepted 
in  order  to  prevent  the  French  and  Swedes  from 
using   their   opportunity   for   the   further   enslave- 
ment  of  the   land.  .  .  .  The   religious  parties  also 
made  objections  to  the  peace.    The  strict  Catholics 
condemned  it  as  a  work  of  inexcusable  and  arbi- 
trary    injustice.  .  .  .  The     dissatisfaction     of     the 
Protestants  was  chiefly  with  the  recognition  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Reservation.     They  complained   also 
that  their  brethren  in  the  faith  were  not  allowed 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in  Austria.    Their 
hostility    was    limited    to    theoretical    discussions, 
which  soon  ceased  when  Louis  XIV.  took  advan- 
tage of  the  preponderance  which  he  had  won  to 
make  outrageous  assaults  upon  Germany,  and  even 
the    Protestants   were    compelled    to    acknowledge 
the  Emperor  as  the  real  defender  of  German  in- 
dependence."—A.   Gindely,   History   of  the   Thirty 
Years'  War,  v.  2,  ch.  10,  sect.  4. — See  also  Ger- 
many:   1618-1620,   to   1648;    France:    1624-1626; 
Germany:  Map:  At  peace  of  Westphalia;  Italy: 
1627-1631;  Poland:   1500-1648. 

1621. — Formal  establishment  of  the  right  of 
primogeniture  in  the  archducal  family.  See 
Germany:  1636-1637. 

1624-1626. — Hostile  comhinations  of  Richelieu. 
— The  Valtelline  war  in  northern  Italy.  See 
France:  1624-1626. 

1627-1631. — War  with  France  over  the  succes- 
sion to  the  duchy  of  Mantua.  See  Italy:  1637- 
1631. 

1648-1715. — Relations  with  Germany  and 
France.    See  Germany:  1648-1715. 

1660-1664.— Renewed  war  with  the  Turks.  See 
Hungary:  1660-1664. 

1668-1683.— Increased  oppression  and  religious 
persecution  in  Hungary.— Revolt  of  Prince  Te- 
keli.— Turks  again  called  in.— Mustapha's  great 
invasion  and  siege  of  Vienna.— Deliverance  of 


AUSTRIA,   1672-1714 


Wars  with 
Louis  XIV 


AUSTRIA,  1672-1714 


the  city  by  John  Sobieski.    See  Hungary:   1668- 
1083. 

1672-1714.— Wars  with  Louis  XIV  of  France: 
War  of  the  Grand  Alliance.— Peace  of  Ryswick. 
—"The  leading  principle  of  the  reign  [in  France] 
of  Louis  XrV.  ...  is  the  principle  of  war  with 
the  dynasty  of  Charles  V— the  elder  branch  of 
which  reigned  in  Spain,  while  the  descendants  of 
the  younger  branch  occupied  the  imperial  throne 
of  Germany.  .  .  .  .^t  the  death  of  Mazarin,  or  to 
speak  more  correctly,  immediately  after  the  death 
of  Philip  I\'.,  .  .  the  early  ambition  of  Louis 
XIV.  sought  to  prevent  the  junior  branch  of  the 
.-Austrian  dynasty  from  succeeding  to  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  elder  branch.  He  had  no  desire  to  see 
reconstituted  under  the  imperial  sceptre  of  Ger- 
many the  monarchy  which  Charles  V.  had  at  one 
time  wished  to  transmit  entire  to  his  son,  but 
which,  worn  out  and  weakened,  he  subsequently 
allowed  without  regret  to  be  divided  between  his 
son  and  his  brother.  Before  making  war  upon 
Austria,  Louis  XIV.  cast  his  eyes  upon  a  por- 
tion of  the  territory  belonging  to  Spain,  and 
the  expedition  against  Holland,  begun  in  1672 
Isee  Netherl.^nds  (Holland):  1672-1674,  and 
1674-1678],  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the 
Spanish  provinces  by  overwhelming  them,  opened 
the  series  of  his  vast  enterprises.  His  first  great 
war  was,  historically  speaking,  his  first  great  fault. 
He  failed  in  his  object:  for  at  the  end  of  six 
campaigns,  during  which  the  French  armies  ob- 
tained great  and  deserved  success,  Holland  re- 
mained unconquered.  Thus  was  Europe  warned 
that  the  lust  of  conquest  of  a  young  monarch, 
who  did  not  himself  possess  military  genius,  but 
who  found  in  his  generals  the  resources  and  ability 
in  which  he  was  himself  deficient,  would  soon 
threaten  her  independence.  Conde  and  Turenne. 
after  having  been  rebellious  subjects  under  the 
Regency,  were  about  to  become  the  first  and  the 
most  illustrious  lieutenants  of  Louis  XIV.  Europe, 
however,  though  warned,  was  not  immediately 
ready  to  defend  herself.  It  was  from  Austria, 
more  directly  exposed  to  the  dangers  of  the  great 
war  now  commencing,  that  the  first  systematic 
resistance  ought  to  have  come.  But  .\ustria 
was  not  prepared  to  play  such  a  part ;  and  the 
Emperor  Leopold  possessed  neither  the  genius  nor 
the  wish  for  it.  He  was,  in  fact,  nothing  more 
than  the  nominal  head  of  Germany.  .  .  .  Such  was 
the  state  of  affairs  in  Europe  when  William  of 
Orange  first  made  his  appearance  on  the  stage. 
.  .  .  The  old  question  of  supremacy,  which  Louis 
XrV.  wished  to  fight  out  as  a  duel  with  the  House 
of  Austria,  was  now  about  to  change  its  aspect, 
and,  owing  to  the  presence  of  an  unexpected 
genius,  to  bring  into  the  quarrel  other  powers 
besides  the  two  original  competitors.  The  foe  of 
Louis  XIV  ought  by  rights  to  have  been  born 
on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  not  on  the 
shores  of  the  North  Sea.  In  fact,  it  was  Austria 
that  at  that  moment  most  needed  a  man  of  genius, 
either  on  the  throne  or  at  the  head  of  affairs.  The 
events  of  the  century  would,  in  this  case,  doubt- 
less  have  followed  a  different  course:  the  war 
would  have  been  less  general,  and  the  maritime 
nations  would  not  have  been  involved  in  it  to 
the  same  degree.  .  .  .  The  treaties  of  peace  would 
have  been  signed  in  some  small  place  in  France 
or  Germany,  and  not  in  two  towns  and  a  village 
in  Holland,  such  as  Nimeguen,  Ryswick,  and 
Utrecht.  .  ,  .  William  of  Orange  found  himself  in 
a  position  soon  to  form  the  Triple  Alliance  which 
the  very  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  suggested  For 
France  to  attack  Holland,  when  her  object  was 
eventually  to  reach  Austria,  and  keep  her  out  of 
the  Spanish   succession,   was   to   make   enemies  at 


one  and  the  same  time  of  Spain,  of  Austria,  and 
of  Holland  But  if  it  afterwards  required  con- 
siderable efforts  on  the  part  of  William  of  Orange 
to  maintain  this  alliance,  it  demanded  still  more 
energy  to  extend  it.  It  formed  part  of  the  Stadt- 
holder's  ulterior  plans  to  combine  the  union  be- 
tween himself  and  the  two  branches  of  the  .\ustrian 
family,  with  the  old  .Anglo-Swedish  Triple  .Al- 
liance, which  had  just  been  dissolved  under  the 
strong  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  it  by  Louis 
XrV.  .  .  .  Louis  XIV.,  whose  finances  were  ex- 
hausted, was  very  soon  anxious  to  make  peace, 
even  on  the  morrow  of  his  most  brilliant  vic- 
tories; whilst  William  of  Orange,  beaten  and  re- 
treating, ardently  desired  the  continuance  of  the 
war.  .  .  .  The  Peace  of  Nimeguen  was  at  last 
signed,  and  by  it  were  secured  to  Louis  XIV. 
Franche-Comtc,  and  some  important  places  in  the 
Spanish  Low  Countries  on  his  northern  frontier 
[see  NiMEGUEX,  Peace  of].  This  was  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Al- 
though the  coalition  had  prevented  him  from  at- 
taining the  full  object  of  his  designs  against 
the  House  of  Austria,  which  had  been  to  absorb 
by  conquest  so  much  of  the  territory  belonging 
to  Spain  as  would  secure  him  against  the  effect  of 
a  will  preserving  the  whole  inheritance  intact  in 
the  family,  yet  fiis  armies  had  been  constantly  suc- 
cessful, and  many  of  his  opponents  were  evidently 
tired  of  the  struggle.  .  .  .  Some  years  passed  thus, 
with  the  appearance  of  calm.  Europe  was  con- 
quered; and  when  peace  was  broken,  because,  as 
was  said,  the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  was  not  duly 
executed,  the  events  of  the  war  were  for  some  time 
neither  brilliant  nor  important,  for  several  cam- 
paigns began  and  ended  without  any  considerable 
result.  ...  At  length  Louis  XIV.  entered  on  the 
second  half  of  his  reign,  which  differed  widely 
from  the  first.  .  .  During  this  second  period  of 
more  than  thirty  years,  which  begins  after  the 
Treaty  of  Nimeguen  and  lasts  till  the  Peace  of 
LTtrecht,  events  succeed  each  other  in  complete 
logical  sequence,  so  that  the  reign  presents  itself 
as  one  continuous  whole,  with  a  regular  move- 
ment of  ascension  and  decline.  .  .  .  The  leading 
principle  of  the  reign  remained  the  same;  it  was 
always  the  desire  to  weaken  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria, or  to  secure  an  advantageous  partition  of 
the  Spanish  succession.  But  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many was  protected  by  the  coalition,  and  the  King 
of  Spain,  whose  death  was  considered  imminent, 
would  not  make  up  his  mind  to  die.  .  .  .  Dur- 
ing the  first  League,  when  the  Prince  of  Orange 
was  contending  against  Louis  XIV.  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  of  the 
King  of  Spain,  and  of  the  Electors  on  the  Rhine, 
the  religious  element  played  only  a  secondary 
part  in  the  war.  But  we  shall  see  this  element 
make  its  presence  more  manifest.  .  .  .  Thus  the 
influence  of  Protestant  England  made  itself  more 
and  more  felt  in  the  affairs  of  Europe,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  government  of  the  Stuarts,  from 
its  volence,  its  unpopularity,  and  from  the  op- 
position offered  to  it,  was  approaching  its  end.  .  .  . 
The  second  coalition  was  neither  more  united 
nor  more  firm  than  the  first  had  been:  but,  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Stuarts,  the  germs  of  dissolu- 
tion no  longer  threatened  the  same  dangers.  .  .  . 
The  British  nation  now  made  itself  felt  in  the 
balance  of  Europe,  and  William  of  Orange  was 
for  the  first  time  in  his  life  successful  in  war  at 
the  head  of  his  English  troops.  .  This  was  the 
most  brilliant  epoch  of  the  life  of  William  III.  .  ,  . 
He  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  glory,  after  a 
period  of  twenty  years  from  his  start  in  life, 
and  his  destiny  was  accomplished ;  so  that  until 
the   Treaty    of    Ryswick,    which    in    i6q8    put    an 


684 


AUSTRIA,   1672-1714 


Peace  of  Ryswick 


AUSTRIA,  1718-1738 


end  to  his  hostilities  with  France,  and  brought 
about  his  recognition  as  King  of  England  by  Louis 
XIV.,  not  much  more  was  left  for  him  to  gain ; 
and  he  had  the  skill  to  lose  nothing.  .  .  .  The 
negotiations  for  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  were  con- 
ducted with  less  ability  and  boldness,  and  concluded 
on  less  advantageous  terms,  than  the  Truce  of 
Ratisbon  or  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen.  Nevertheless, 
this  treaty,  which  secured  to  Louis  the  possession 
of  Strasbourg,  might,  particularly  as  age  was  now 
creeping  on  him,  have  closed  his  military  career 
without  disgrace,  if  the  eternal  question,  for  the 
solution  of  which  he  had  made  so  many  sacri- 
fices, and  which  had  always  held  the  foremost 
place  in  his  thoughts,  had  not  remained  as  un- 
settled and  as  full  of  difficulty  as  on  the  day 
when  he  had  mounted  the  throne.  Charles  II. 
of  Spain  was  not  dead,  and  the  question  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  which  had  so  actively  em- 
ployed the  armies  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  ta.xed  his 
diplomacy,  was  as  undecided  as  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign.  Louis  XIV.  saw  two  alternatives 
before  him:  a  partition  of  the  succession  between 
the  Emperor  and  himself  (a  solution  proposed 
Ihirty  years  before  as  a  means  to  avoid  war), 
or  else  a  will  in  favour  of  France,  followed  of 
course  by  a  recommencement  of  general  hostilities. 
.  .  .  Louis  XIV.  proposed  in  succession  two 
schemes,  not,  as  thirty  years  before,  to  the  Em- 
peror, but  to  the  King  of  England,  whose  power 
and  whose  genius  rendered  him  the  arbiter  of  all 
the  great  affairs  of  Europe.  ...  In  the  first  of 
the  treaties  of  partition,  Spain  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries were  to  be  given  to  the  Prince  of  Bavaria ; 
in  the  second,  to  the  Archduke  Charles.  In  both, 
France  obtained  Naples  and  Sicily  for  the  Dauphin. 
.  .  .  Both  these  arrangements  .  .  .  suited  both 
France  and  England  as  a  pacific  solution  of  the 
question.  .  .  .  But  events,  as  we  know,  deranged 
all  these  calculations,  and  Charles  II.,  who,  by 
continuing  to  live,  had  disappointed  so  much  im- 
patient expectation,  by  his  last  will  provoked 
a  general  war,  to  be  carried  on  against  France  by 
the  union  of  England  with  the  Empire  and  with 
Holland — a  union  which  was  much  strengthened 
under  the  new  dynasty,  and  which  afterwards 
embraced  the  northern  states  of  Germany.  .  .  . 
William  III.  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-two,  on  the 
oth  of  March,  1702,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
War  of  Succession.  After  him,  the  part  he  was 
to  have  played  was  divided.  Prince  Eugene, 
Marlborough,  and  Heinsius  (the  Grand  Pension- 
ary) had  the  conduct  of  political  and  especially 
of  military  affairs,  and  acted  in  concert.  The  dis- 
astrous consequences  to  France  of  that  war,  in 
which  William  had  no  part,  are  notorious.  The 
battles  of  Blenheim,  of  Ramifies,  and  of  Oude- 
narde  brought  the  allied  armies  on  the  soil  of 
France,  and  placed  Louis  XIV.  on  the  verge  of 
ruin." — J.  Van  Praet,  Essays  on  the  poHlical  his- 
tory of  the  15th,  ibth,  and  lyth  centuries,  pp. 
390-414  ai7d  441-455.  See  also  Germany:  r686; 
and  France:   i68q-iboo  to  1607. 

Also  in:  H.  Martin,  History  of  France:  Age 
of  Louis  XIV.,  V.  2.  ch.  2  and  4-6. — T.  H.  Dyer, 
History  of  modern  Europe,  bk.  5,  v.  3,  ch.  5-6. — 

1683-1687. — Merciless  suppression  of  the  Hun- 
garian revolt. — Crown  of  Hungary  made  hered- 
itary in  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  See  Hungary; 
1683-1687. 

1683-1699. — Expulsion  of  the  Turks  from  Hun- 
gary.— Peace  of  Carlowitz.  See  Hungary:  1683- 
1699. 

1699-1711. — Suppression  of  the  revolt  under 
Rakoczy  in  Hungary.  See  Hungary:  1699- 
1718. 

1700. — Interest  of  the  imperial  house   in  the 


question  of  the  Spanish  succession.    See  Spain: 

1&98-1700. 

1701-1713. — War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
See  German\~  1702,  to  1700-1711;  Italy:  1701- 
17 13;  Spain:  1702,  to  1707- 17 10,  and  Nether- 
lands:  1702-1704,  to  1713-1715. 

1709. — Barrier  Treaty  with  England  and  Neth- 
erlands against  France.    See  Barrier  fortresses. 

1703. — First  bank  established.  See  Money  and 
banking:   Modern:    1703-1915. 

1711. — War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. — Its 
circumstances  changed. — "The  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Joseph  I.,  who  expired  April  17,  1711,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-two,  changed  the  whole  char- 
acter of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  As 
Joseph  left  no  male  heirs,  the  hereditary  dominion., 
of  the  House  of  Austria  devolved  to  his  brother, 
the  Archduke  Charles;  and  though  that  prince 
had  not  been  elected  King  of  the  Romans,  and 
had  therefore  to  become  a  candidate  for  the  im- 
perial crown,  yet  there  could  be  little  doubt  that 
he  would  attain  that  dignity.  Hence,  if  Charles 
should  also  become  sovereign  of  Spain  and  the 
Indies,  the  vast  empire  of  Charles  V.  would  be 
again  united  in  one  person ;  and  that  very  evil 
of  an  almost  universal  monarchy  would  be  estab-  ■ 
lished,  the  prevention  of  which  had  been  the  chief 
cause  for  taking  up  arms  against  Philip  V.  .  .  . 
After  an  interregnum  of  half  a  year,  during  which 
the  affairs  of  the  Empire  had  been  conducted  by 
the  Elector  Palatine  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
as  imperial  vicars  for  South  and  North  Germany, 
the  Archduke  Charles  w?s  unanimously  named 
Emperor  by  the  Electoral  College  (Oct.  12th). 
.  .  .  Charles  .  .  .  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
Frankfort,  Dec.  22d,  with  the  title  of  Charles  VI." 
— T.  H.  Dver,  History  of  modern  Europe,  bk.  5,  v. 
3.  ch.  6. 

1713-1714.— Ending  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession. — Peace  of  Utrecht  and  the  Treaty  of 
Rastadt. — Acquisition  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, Naples  and  Milan.  See  Utrecht:  1712- 
1714. 

1713-1719. — Continued  differences  with  Spain. 
— Triple  Alliance. — Quadruple  Alliance.  See 
Spain:  1713-1725. 

1714. — Desertion  of  the  Catalans.  See  Spain: 
1713-1714. 

1714-1718. — Recovery  of  Belgrade  and  final  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Turks  from  Hungary.  See  Hun- 
gary: 1699-1718;  and  Turkey:  1714-1718. 

1718. — Control  of  Croatia.  See  Croatia:  1526- 
1718. 

1718-1738. — Question  of  the  succession. — 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  VI,  and  its 
guarantee  by  the  powers.— "On  the  death  [1711] 
of  Joseph,  the  hopes  of  the  house  of  Austria  and 
the  future  destiny  of  Germany  rested  on  Charles 
[then,  as  titular  king  of  Spain,  Charles  III.,  in- 
effectually contesting  the  Spanish  throne  with  the 
Bourbon  heir,  Philip  V.;  afterwards,  as  Emperor, 
Charles  VI.]  who  was  the  only  surviving  male  of 
his  illustrious  family.  By  that  event  the  houses 
of  Austria,  Germany  and  Europe  were  placed  in 
a  new  and  critical  situation.  From  a  principle 
of  mistaken  policy  the  succession  to  the  hereditary 
dominions  had  never  been  established  according 
to  an  invariable  rule;  for  it  was  not  clearly  ascer- 
tained whether  males  of  the  collateral  branches 
should  be  preferred  to  females  in  lineal  descent,  an 
uncertainty  which  had  frequently  occasioned  many 
vehement  disputes.  To  obviate  this  evil,  as  well 
as  to  prevent  future  disputes,  Leopold  [father 
of  Joseph  and  Charles]  had  arranged  the  order 
of  succession:  to  Joseph  he  assigned  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  and  the  other  hereditary  dominions;  and 
to  Charles  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  all  the  terri- 


685 


AUSTRIA,  1718-1738 


Pragmatic 
Sanction 


AUSTRIA,  1740 


tories  which  belonged  to  the  Spanish  inheritance. 
Should  Joseph  die  without  issue  male,  the  whole 
succession  was  to  descend  to  Charles,  and  in  case 
of  his  death,  under  similar  circumstances,  the  Aus- 
trian dominions  were  to  devolve  on  the  daughters 
of  Joseph  in  preference  to  those  of  Charles.  This 
family  compact  was  signed  by  the  two  brothers  in 
the  presence  of  Leopold.  Joseph  died  without 
male  issue;  but  left  two  daughters."  He  was 
succeeded  by  Charles  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
pact. "On  the  2nd  of  August,  1718,  soon  after 
the  signature  of  the  Quadruple  AUiance,  Charles 
promulgated  a  new  law  of  succession  for  the  in- 
heritance of  the  house  of  Austria,  under  the  name 
of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  According  to  the  fam- 
ily compact  formed  by  Leopold,  and  confirmed  by 
Joseph  and  Charles,  the  succession  was  entailed 
on  the  daughters  of  Joseph  in  preference  to  the 
daughters  of  Charles,  should  theyjjoth  die  with- 
out issue  male.  Charles,  however,  had  scarcely 
ascended  the  throne,  though  at  that  time  without 
children,  than  he  reversed  this  compact,  and  settled 
the  right  of  succession,  in  default  of  his  male  issue, 
first  on  his  daughters,  then  on  the  daughters  of 
Joseph,  and  afterwards  on  the  queen  of  Portugal 
and  the  other  daughters  of  Leopold.  Since  the 
promulgation  of  that  decree,  the  Empress  had 
borne  a  son  who  died  in  his  infancy,  and  three 
daughters,  Maria  Theresa,  Maria  Anne  and  Maria 
Amelia.  With  a  view  to  insure  the  succession  of 
these  daughters,  and  to  obviate  the  dangers  which 
might  arise  from  the  claims  of  the  Josephine 
archduchesses,  he  published  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion, and  compelled  his  nieces  to  renounce  their 
pretensions  on  their  marriages  with  the  electors  of 
Saxony  and  Bavaria.  Aware,  however,  that  the 
strongest  renunciations  are  disregarded,  he  ob- 
tained from  the  different  states  of  his  extensive 
dominions  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  and  made  it  the  great  object  of  his 
reign,  to  which  he  sacrificed  every  other  considera- 
tion, to  procure  the  guaranty  of  the  European 
powers."  This  guaranty  was  obtained  in  treaties 
with  the  several  powers,  as  follows:  Spain  in 
1725;  Russia,  1726,  renewed  in  1733;  Prussia,  1728; 
England  and  Holland,  1731;  France,  1738;  the 
Empire,  1732.  The  inheritance  which  Charles 
thus  endeavored  to  secure  to  his  daughter  was 
vast  and  imposing.  "He  was  by  election  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  by  hereditary  right  sovereign 
of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Bohemia,  Austria, 
Styria,  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  the  Tyrol,  and  the 
Brisgau  [Breisgau]  and  he  had  recently  obtained 
Naples  and  Sicily,  the  Milanese  and  the  Nether- 
lands."— W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
V.  3,  ch.  80,  pp.  84-85. — "The  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
though  framed  to  legalize  the  accession  of  Maria 
Theresa,  excludes  the  present  Emperor's  daughters 
and  his  grandchild  by  postponing  the  succession  of 
females  to  that  of  males  in  the  family  of  Charles 
VI." — J.  D.  Bourchier,  Heritage  of  tlie  Hapsburgs 
(Fortnightly  Revitw,  Mar.,  1889). 

Also  i.n:  H.  Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia,  1740- 
174S,  ch.  2. — S.  A.  Dunham,  History  of  the  Ger- 
manic empire,  v.  3,  bk.  3,  ch.  3. 

1719. — Sardinia  ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy  in 
exchange  for  Sicily.  See  Spain:  1713-1725;  and 
Italy:    1715-1735- 

1731. — Second  Treaty  of  Vienna  with  England 
and  Holland.    See  Spain:  1726-1731. 

1732-1733. — Interference  in  the  election  of  the 
king  of  Poland.    See  Poland:  1732-1733. 

1733-1735. — War  of  the  Polish  Succession. — 
Cession  of  Naples  and  Sicily  to  Spain,  and  Lor- 
raine and  bar  to  France.  See  France:  1733-173S1 
and  Italy:  1715-173,';. 

1737-1739.— Unfortunate  war  with  the  Turks, 

686 


in  alliance  with  Russia. — Humiliating  peace  of 
Belgrade. — Surrender  of  Belgrade,  with  Servia, 
and  part  of  Bosnia.    See  Russia:  1734-1740. 

1740-1756.— Relations  with  Germany  during 
War  of  the  Succession.  See  Germany:  1740- 
1756. 

1740  (October). — Treachery  among  the  guar- 
antors of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. — Inheritance 
of  Maria  Theresa  disputed. — "The  Emperor 
Charles  V.  .  .  .  died  on  the  20th  of  October,  1740. 
His  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  the  heiress  of  his 
dominions  with  the  title  of  Queen  of  Hungary, 
was  but  twenty-three  years  of  age,  without  ex- 
perience or  knowledge  of  business;  and  her  hus- 
band Francis,  the  titular  Duke  of  Lorraine  and 
reigning  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  deserved  the 
praise  of  amiable  qualities  rather  than  of  com- 
manding talents.  Her  Ministers  were  timorous, 
irresolute,  and  useless:  'I  saw  them  in  despair,' 
writes  Mr.  Robinson,  the  British  envoy,  'but  that 
very   despair  was  not  capable  of  rendering  them 


MARIA  THERESA  (1717-1780) 

Empress  of  Austria 


bravely  desperate.'  The  treasury  was  exhausted, 
the  army  dispersed,  and  no  general  risen  to  re- 
place Eugene.  The  succession  of  Maria  Theresa 
was,  indeed,  cheerfully  acknowledged  by  her  sub- 
jects, and  seemed  to  be  secured  amongst  foreign 
powers  by  their  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion ;  but  it  soon  appeared  that  such  guarantees 
are  mere  worthless  parchments  where  there  is  strong 
temptation  to  break  and  only  a  feeble  army  to 
support  them.  The  principal  claimant  to  the  suc- 
cession was  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  maintained 
that  the  will  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  the  First 
devised  the  .Austrian  states  to  his  daughter,  from 
whom  the  Elector  descended,  on  failure  of  male 
lineage.  It  appeared  that  the  original  will  in  the 
archives  at  Vienna  referred  to  the  failure,  not  of 
the  male  but  of  the  legitimate  issue  of  his  sons; 
but  this  document,  though  ostentatiously  dis- 
played to  all  the  Ministers  of  state  and  foreign 
ambassadors,  was  very  far  from  inducing  the 
Elector  to  desist  from  his  pretensions.  As  to  the 
Great  Powers — the  Court  of  France,  the  old  ally 


AUSTRIA,  1740 


War  of  the 
Succession 


AUSTRIA,  1740-1741 


of  the  Bavarian  family,  and  mindful  of  its  injuries 
from  the  House  of  Austria,  was  eager  to  exalt 
the  first  by  the  depression  of  the  latter.  The 
Bourbons  in  Spain  followed  the  direction  of  the 
Bourbons  in  France.  The  King  of  Poland  and 
the  Empress  of  Russia  were  more  friendly  in  their 
expressions  than  in  their  designs.  An  opposite 
spirit  pervaded  England  and  Holland,  where  mo- 
tives of  honour  and  of  policy  combined  to  sup- 
port the  rights  of  Maria  Theresa.  In  Germany 
itself  the  Elector  of  Cologne,  the  Bavarian's 
brother,  warmly  espoused  his  cause;  and  'the  re- 
maining Electors,'  says  Chesterfield,  'like  electors 
with  us,  thought  it  a  proper  opportunity  of  mak- 
ing the  most  of  their  votes, — and  all  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  helpless  and  abandoned  House  of 
Austria!'  The  first  blow,  however,  came  from 
Prussia,  where  the  King  Frederick  William  had 
died  a  few  months  before,  and  been  succeeded  by 
his  son  Frederick  the  Second,  a  Prince  surnamed 
the  Great  by  poets." — Lord  Mahon  (Earl  Stan- 
hope), History  of  England,  1713-1783,  v.  3,  ch. 
23. — "The  elector  of  Bavaria  acted  in  a  prompt, 
honest,  and  consistent  manner.  He  at  once  lodged 
a  protest  against  any  disposition  of  the  hereditary 
estates  to  the  prejudice  of  his  own  rights;  insisted 
on  the  will  of  Ferdinand  I.;  and  demanded  the 
production  of  the  original  text.  It  was  promptly 
produced.  But  it  was  found  to  convey  the  suc- 
cession to  the  heirs  of  his  daughter,  the  ancestress 
of  the  elector,  not,  as  he  contended,  on  the  failure 
of  male  heirs,  but  in  the  absence  of  mor;  direct 
heirs  born  in  wedlock.  Maria  Theresa  could,  how- 
ever, trace  her  descent  through  nearer  male  heirs, 
and  had,  therefore,  a  superior  title.  Charles  Albert 
was  in  any  event  only  one  of  several  claimants. 
The  King  of  Spain,  a  Bourbon,  presented  him- 
self as  the  heir  of  the  Hapsburg  emperor  Charles 
V.  The  King  of  Sardinia  alleged  an  ancient  mar- 
riage contract,  from  which  he  derived  a  right  to 
the  duchy  of  Milan.  Even  August  of  Saxony 
claimed  territory  by  virtue  of  an  antiquated  title, 
which,  it  was  pretended,  the  renunciation  of  his 
wife  could  not  affect.  AH  these  were,  however, 
mere  vultures  compared  to  the  eagle  [Frederick 
of  Prussia]  which  was  soon  to  descend  upon  its 
prey." — H.  Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia,  1740-1745, 
ch.   2. 

1740  (October-November). — War  of  the  suc- 
cession— Conduct  of  Frederick  the  Great  as  ex- 
plained by  himself. — -"This  Pragmatic  Sanction 
had  been  guaranteed  by  France,  England,  Holland, 
Sardinia,  Saxony,  and  the  Roman  empire;  nay 
by  the  late  King  Frederic  William  [of  Prussia] 
also,  on  condition  that  the  court  of  Vienna  would 
secure  to  him  the  succession  of  Julich  and  Berg. 
The  emperor  promised  him  the  eventual  succession, 
and  did  not  fulfil  his  engagements;  by  which  the 
King  of  Prussia,  his  successor,  was  freed  from  this 
guarantee,  to  which  his  father,  the  late  king,  had 
pledged  himself,  conditionally.  .  .  .  Frederic  I., 
when  he  erected  Prussia  into  a  kingdom,  had,  by 
that  vain  grandeur,  planted  the  seed  of-  ambition 
in  the  bosom  of  his  posterity;  which,  soon  or  late, 
must  fructify.  The  monarchy  he  had  left  to  his 
descendants  was,  if  I  may  be  permitted  the  ex- 
pression, a  kind  of  hermaphrodite,  which  was 
rather  more  an  electorate  than  a  kingdom.  Fame 
was  to  be  acquired  by  determining  the  nature  of 
this  being:  and  this  sensation  certainly  was  one 
of  those  which  strengthened  so  many  motives, 
conspiring  to  engage  the  king  in  grand  enterprises. 
If  the  acquisition  of  the  duchy  of  Berg  had  not 
even  met  with  almost  insurmountable  impedi- 
ments, it  was  in  itself  so  small  that  the  possession 
would  add  little  grandeur  to  the  house  of  Bran- 
denburg.    These    reflections    occasioned    the   king 


to  turn  his  views  toward  the  house  of  Austria, 
the  succession  of  which  would  become  matter  of 
litigation,  at  the  death  of  the  emperor,  when  the 
throne  of  the  Ceesars  should  be  vacant.  That 
event  must  be  favourable  to  the  distinguished 
part  which  the  king  had  to  act  in  Germany,  by 
the  various  claims  of  the  houses  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria  to  these  states;  by  the  number  of  candi- 
dates which  might  canvass  for  the  Imperial  crown; 
and  by  the  projects  of  the  court  of  Versailles, 
which,  on  such  an  occasion  must  naturally  profit 
by  the  troubles  that  the  death  of  Charles  VI 
could  not  fail  to  excite.  This  accident  did  not 
long  keep  the  world  in  expectation.  The  em- 
peror ended  his  days  at  the  palace  La  Favorite, 
on  the  26th  [20th]  day  of  October,  1740.  The 
news  arrived  at  Rheinsberg  when  the  king  was  ill 
of  a  fever.  ...  He  immediately  resolved  to  reclaim 
the  principalities  of  Silesia ;  the  rights  of  his  house 
to  which  [long  dormant,  the  claim  dating  back 
to  a  certain  covenant  of  heritage-brotherhood 
with  the  duke  of  Liegnitz,  in  1537,  which  the 
emperor  of  that  day  caused  to  be  annulled  by  the 
states  of  Bohemia]  were  incontestable:  and  he 
prepared,  at  the  same  time,  to  support  these  pre- 
tensions, if  necessary,  by  arms.  This  project  ac- 
complished all  his  political  views;  it  afforded  the 
means  of  acquiring  reputation,  of  augmenting  the 
power  of  the  state,  and  of  terminating  what  re- 
lated to  the  litigious  succession  of  the  duchy  of 
Berg.  .  .  .  The  state  of  the  court  of  Vienna,  after 
the  death  of  the  emperor,  was  deplorable.  The 
finances  were  in  disorder;  the  army  was  ruined 
and  discouraged  by  ill  success  in  its  wars  with  the 
Turks ;  the  ministry  disunited,  and  a  youthful  un- 
experienced princess  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, who  was  to  defend  the  succession  from  all 
claimants.  The  result  was  that  the  government 
could  not  appear  formidable.  It  was  besides  im- 
possible that  the  king  [Frederick  of  Prussia] 
should  be  destitute  of  allies.  .  .  .  The  war  which 
he  might  undertake  in  Silesia  was  the  only  of- 
fensive war  that  could  be  favoured  by  the  situa- 
tion of  his  states,  for  it  would  be  carried  on  upon 
his  frontiers,  and  the  Oder  would  always  furnish 
him  with  a  sure  communication.  .  .  .  Add  to  these 
reasons,  an  army  fit  to  march,  a  treasury  ready 
prepared,  and,  perhaps,  the  ambition  of  acquir- 
ing renown.  Such  were  the  causes  of  the  war 
which  the  king  declared  against  Maria  Theresa 
of  Austria,  queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia." — 
Frederick  II.  (Frederick  the  Great),  History  of 
my  oivn  times:  posthumous  works  (translated  by 
Holcroft),  V.  I,  ch.  1-2. 

1740-1741. — War  of  the  Succession. — Fathless- 
ness  of  the  king  of  Prussia. — Macaulay  verdict. 
— "From  no  quarter  did  the  young  queen  of  Hun- 
gary receive  stronger  assurances  of  friendship  and 
support  than  from  the  King  of  Prussia.  Yet  the 
King  of  Prussia,  the  'Anti-Machiavel,'  had  al- 
ready fully  determined  to  commit  the  great  crime 
of  violating  his  plighted  faith,  of  robbing  the  ally 
whom  he  was  bound  to  defend,  and  of  plunging  all 
Europe  into  a  long,  bloody,  and  desolating  war, 
and  all  this  for  no  end  whatever  except  that  he 
might  extend  his  dominions  and  see  his  name  in 
the  gazettes.  He  determined  to  assemble  a  great 
array  with  speed  and  secrecy,  to  invade  Silesia 
before  Maria  Theresa  should  be  apprized  of  his 
design,  and  to  add  that  rich  province  to  his  king- 
dom. .  .  .  Without  any  declaration  of  war,  with- 
out any  demand  for  reparation,  in  the  very  act  of 
pouring  forth  compliments  and  assurances  of  good 
will,  Frederic  commenced  hostilities.  Many  thou- 
sands of  his  troops  were  actually  in  Silesia  before 
the  Queen  of  Hungary  knew  that  he  had  set  up 
any   claim    to   any    part    of   her    territories.     At 


687 


AUSTRIA,  1740-1741 


War  of  the 
Succession 


AUSTRIA,  1741 


length  he  sent  her  a  message  which  could  be  re- 
garded only  as  an  insult.  If  she  would  but  let 
him  have  Silesia,  he  would,  be  said,  stand  by  her 
against  any  power  which  should  try  to  deprive 
her  of  her  other  dominions:  as  if  he  was  not  al- 
ready bound  to  stand  by  her,  or  as  if  his  new 
promise  could  be  of  more  value  than  the  old  one. 
It  was  the  depth  of  winter.  The  cold  was  severe, 
and  the  roads  deep  in  mire.  But  the  Prussians 
pressed  on.  Resistance  was  impossible.  The  Aus- 
trian army  was  then  neither  numerous  nor  efficient. 
The  small  portion  of  that  army  which  lay  in  Si- 
lesia was  unprepared  for  hostilities.  Glogau  was 
blockaded;  Breslau  opened  its  gates;  Ohlau  was 
evacuated.  A  few  scattered  garrisons  still  held 
out;  but  the  whole  open  country  was  subjugated: 
no  enemy  ventured  to  encounter  the  king  in  the 
field;  and,  before  the  end  of  January,  1741,  he  re- 
turned to  receive  the  congratulations  of  his  sub- 
jects at  Berlin.  Had  the  Silesian  question  been 
merely  a  question  between  Frederic  and  Maria 
Theresa  it  w^ould  be  impossible  to  acquit  the  Prus- 
sian king  of  gross  perfidy.  But  when  we  consider 
the  effects  which  his  policy  produced,  and  could 
not  fail  to  produce,  on  the  whole  community  of 
civilized  nations,  we  are  compelled  to  pronounce  a 
condemnation  still  more  severe.  .  .  .  The  selfish 
rapacity  of  the  king  of  Prussia  gave  the  signal  to 
his  neighbours.  .  .  .  The  evils  produced  by  this 
wickedness  were  felt  in  lands  where  the  name  of 
Prussia  was  unknown ;  and,  in  order  that  he  might 
rob  a  neighbour  whom  he  had  promised  to  defend, 
black  men  fought  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  and 
red  men  scalped  each  other  by  the  great  lakes  of 
North  America.  Silesia  had  been  occupied  with- 
out a  battle ;  but  the  Austrian  troops  were  ad- 
vancing to  the  relief  of  the  fortresses  which  still 
held  out.  In  the  spring  Frederic  rejoined  his  array. 
He  had  seen  little  of  w-ar,  and  had  never  com- 
manded any  great  body  of  men  in  the  field.  .  .  . 
Frederic's  first  battle  was  fought  at  Mollwitz  [April 
10,  1741],  and  never  did  the  career  of  a  great  com- 
mander open  in  a  more  inauspicious  manner.  His 
army  was  victorious.  Not  only,  however,  did  he 
not  establish  his  title  to  the  character  of  an  able 
general,  but  he  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  make  It 
doubtful  whether  he  possessed  the  vulgar  courage 
of  a  soldier.  The  cavalry,  which  he  commanded 
in  person,  was  put  to  flight.  Unaccustomed  to  the 
tumult  and  carnage  of  a  field  of  battle,  he  lost  his 
self-possession,  and  listened  too  readily  to  those 
who  urged  hira  to  save  himself.  His  English  gray 
carried  him  many  miles  from  the  field,  while 
Schwerin,  though  wounded  in  two  places,  manfully 
upheld  the  day.  The  skill  of  the  old  Field-Marshal 
and  the  steadiness  of  the  Prussian  battalions  pre- 
vailed, and  the  Austrian  army  was  driven  from  the 
field  with  the  loss  of  8,000  men.  The  news  was 
carried  late  at  night  to  a  mill  in'  which  the  king 
had  taken  shelter.  It  gave  him  a  bitter  pang.  He 
was  successful;  but  he  owed  his  success  to  dis- 
positions which  others  had  made,  and  to  the  valour 
of  men  who  had  fought  while  he  was  flying.  So 
unpromising  was  the  first  appearance  of  the  great- 
est warrior  of  that  age." — Lord  Macaulay,  Frederic 
the  Great   (Essays,  i'.  4), 

1741  (April-May). — War  of  the  succession. — 
French  responsibility. — Carlyle  verdict. — "The 
battle  of  Mollwitz  went  off  like  a  signal  shot 
among  the  Nations;  intimating  that  they  were 
one  and  all,  to  go  battling.  Which  they  did,  with 
a  vengeance ;  making  a  terrible  thing  of  it,  over  all 
the  world,  for  above  seven  years  to  come.  .  .  .  Not 
that  Mollwitz  kindled  Europe ;  Europe  was  already 
kindled  for  some  two  years  past; — especially  since 
the  late  Kaiser  died,  and  his  PrScmatic  Sanction 
was  superadded  to  the  other  troubles  afoot.     But 


ever  since  that  image  of  Jenkins's  Ear  had  at  last 
blazed-up  in  the  slow  English  brain,  like  a  fiery 
constellation  or  Sign  in  the  Heavens,  symbolic  of 
such  injustices  and  unendurabilities,  and  had  lighted 
the  Spanish-English  War  [see  England:  1739- 
1741],  Europe  was  slowly  but  pretty  surely  taking 
fire.  France  'could  not  see  Spain  humbled,'  she 
said:  England  (in  its  own  dim  feeling,  and  also 
in  the  fact  of  things),  could  not  do  at  all  without 
considerably  humbling  Spain.  France,  endlessly  in- 
terested in  that  Spanish-English  matter,  was  al- 
ready sending  out  fleets,  firing  shots, — almost,  or 
altogether,  putting  her  hand  in  it.  'In  which  case, 
will  not,  must  not,  Austria  help  us?'  thought  Eng- 
land,— and  was  asking,  daily,  at  Vienna  .  .  .  when 
the  late  Kaiser  died.  .  .  .  But  if  not  as  cause,  then 
as  signal,  or  as  signal  and  cause  together  (which 
it  properly  was),  the  Battle  of  Mollwitz  gave  the 
finishing  stroke  and  set  all  in  motion.  .  .  .  For 
directly  on  the  back  of  Mollwitz,  there  ensued, 
first,  an  explosion  of  Diplomatic  activity,  such  as 
was  never  seen  before ;  Excellencies  from  the  four 
winds  taking  wing  towards  Friedrich ;  and  talking 
and  insinuating,  and  fencing  and  fugling,  after  their 
sort,  in  that  Silesian  camp  of  his.  the  centre  being 
there.  A  universal  rookery  of  Diplomatists,  whose 
loud  cackle  is  now  as  if  gone  mad  to  us;  their 
work  wholly  fallen  putrescent  and  avoidable,  dead 
to  all  creatures.  And  secondly,  in  the  train  of 
that,  there  ensued  a  universal  European  War,  the 
French  and  the  English  being  chief  parties  in  it; 
which  abounds  in  battles  and  feats  of  arms,  spirited 
but  delirious,  and  cannot  be  got  stilled  for  seven 
or  eight  years  to  come ;  and  in  which  Friedrich 
and  his  War  swim  only  as  an  intermittent  Episode 
henceforth.  .  .  .  The  first  point  to  be  noted  is. 
Where  did  it  originate  ?  To  which  the  answer 
mainly  is  .  .  .  with  Monseigneur.  the  Marechal  de 
Belle-Isle  principally;  with  the  ambitious  cupidi- 
ties and  baseless  vanities  of  the  French  Court  and 
Nation,  as  represented  by  Belle-Isle.  .  .  .  The 
English-Spanish  War  had  a  basis  to  stand  on  in 
this  Universe.  The  Uke  had  the  Prussian-. \us- 
trian  one;  so  all  men  now  admit.  If  Friedrich 
had  not  business  there,  what  man  ever  had  in  an 
enterprise  he  ventured  on?  Friedrich,  after  such 
trial  and  proof  as  has  seldom  been,  got  his  claims 
on  Schlesien  [Silesia]  allowed  by  the  Destinies. 
.  .  Friedrich  had  business  in  this  War;  and  Maria 
Theresa  versus  Friedrich  had  likewise  cause  to  ap- 
pear in  Court,  and  do  her  utmost  pleading  against 
him.  But  if  we  ask,  What  Belle-Isle  or  France  and 
Louis  XV.  had  to  do  there?  the  answer  is  rigor- 
ously Nothing.  Their  own  windy  vanities,  am- 
bitions, sanctioned  not  by  fact  and  the  .Mmighty 
Powers,  but  by  Phantasm  and  the  babble  of  Ver- 
sailles; transcendent  self-conceit,  intrinsically  in- 
sane ;  pretensions  over  their  fellow-creatures  which 
were  without  basis  anywhere  in  Nature,  except  in 
the  French  brain ;  it  was  this  that  brought  Belle- 
Isle  and  France  into  a  German  War.  And  Belle- 
Isle  and  France  having  gone  into  an  Anti-Prag- 
matic W.ar,  the  unlucky  George  and  his  England 
were  dragged  into  a  Pragmatic  one, — quitting  their 
own  business,  on  the  Spanish  Main,  and  hurrying 
to  Germany. — in  terror  as  at  Doomsday,  and  zeal 
to  save  the  Keystone  of  Nature  there.  That  is 
the  notable  point  in  regard  to  this  War:  That 
France  is  to  be  called  the  author  of  it,  who.  alone 
of  all  the  parties,  had  no  business  there  whatever." 
— T.  Carlyle,  History  of  Friedrich  II.,  bk.  12,  ch.  11 
(v.  4). — See  also  France:   1733. 

1741  (May-June). — Mission  of  Belle-Isle. — 
Thickening  of  the  plot.— "The  defeat  of  Maria 
Theresa's  only  army  [at  Mollwitz!  swept  away 
all  the  doubts  and  scruples  of  France.  The  fiery 
Belle-Isle  had  alreadv  set  out  upon  his  mission  to 

688 


AUSTRIA,  1741 


Maria  Theresa 
in  Hungary 


AUSTRIA,  1741 


the  various  German  courts,  armed  with  powers 
which  were  reluctantly  granted  by  the  cardinal 
[Fleury,  the  French  minister],  and  were  promptly 
enlarged  by  the  ambassador  to  suit  his  own  more 
ambitious  views  of  the  situation.  He  travelled  in 
oriental  state.  .  .  .  The  almost  royal  pomp  with 
which  he  strode  into  the  presence  of  princes  of  the 
blood,  the  copious  eloquence  with  which  he  pleaded 
his  cause,  .  .  .  were  only  the  outward  decorations 
of  one  of  the  most  iniquitous  schemes  ever  devised 
by  an  unscrupulous  diplomacy.  The  scheme,  when 
stripped  of  all  its  details,  did  not  indeed  at  first 
appear  absolutely  revolting.  It  proposed  simply 
to  secure  the  election  of  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria 
as  emperor,  an  honor  to  which  he  had  a  perfect 
right  to  aspire.  But  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  the 
votes  of  certain  electors  without  offering  them  the 
prospect  of  territorial  gains,  and  impossible  for 
Charles  Albert  to  support  the  imperial  dignity 
without  greater  revenues  than  those  of  Bavaria. 
It  was  proposed,  therefore,  that  provinces  should 
be  taken  from  Maria  Theresa  herself,  first  to  pur- 
chase votes  against  her  own  husband,  and  then  to 
swell  the  income  of  the  successful  rival  candidate. 
The  three  episcopal  electors  were  first  visited,  and 
subjected  to  various  forms  of  persuasion, — bribes, 
flattery,  threats, — until  the  effects  of  the  treatment 
began  to  appear;  the  count  palatine  was  devoted 
to  France;  and  these  four  with  Bavaria  made  a 
majority  of  one.  But  that  was  too  small  a  mar- 
gin for  Belle-Isle's  aspirations,  or  even  for  the 
safety  of  his  project.  The  four  remaining  votes 
belonged  to  the  most  powerful  of  the  German 
states,  Prussia,  Hanover,  .Saxony  and  Bohemia.  .  .  . 
Bohemia,  if  it  voted  at  all,  would  of  course  vote 
for  the  grand-duke  Francis  [husband  of  Maria 
Theresa].  Saxony  and  Hanover  were  already  ne- 
gotiating with  Maria  Theresa ;  and  it  was  well  un- 
derstood that  Austria  could  have  Frederick's  sup- 
port by  paying  his  price."  Austria  refused  to  pay 
the  price,  and  Frederick  signed  a  treaty  with  the 
king  of  France  at  Brcslau  on  June  4,  1741.  "The 
essence  of  it  was  contained  in  four  secret  articles. 
In  these  the  king  of  Prussia  renounced  his  claim 
to  Jiilich-Berg  in  behalf  of  the  house  of  Sulzbach, 
and  agreed  to  give  his  vote  to  the  elector  of 
Bavaria  for  emperor.  The  king  of  France  engaged 
to  guarantee  Prussia  in  the  possession  of  Lower 
Silesia,  to  send  within  two  months  an  army  to 
the  support  of  Bavaria,  and  to  provoke  an  imme- 
diate rupture  between  Sweden  and  Russia." — H. 
Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia,   1740-1745,  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, V.  3,  ch.  qg. 

1741  (June-September). — Maria  Theresa  and 
the  Hungarians. — "During  these  anxious  summer 
months  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Austrian  court  had 
resided  mainly  at  Pressburg,  in  Hungary.  Here  she 
had  been  occupied  in  the  solution  of  domestic  as 
well  as  international  problems.  The  Magyars,  as 
a  manly  and  chivalrous  race,  had  been  touched  by 
the  perilous  situation  of  the  young  queen;  but, 
while  ardently  protesting  their  loyalty,  insisted 
not  the  less  on  the  recognition  of  their  own  in- 
alienable rights.  The.i^e  had  been  inadequately  ob- 
served in  recent  years,  and  in  consequence  no  little 
disaffection  prevailed  in  Hungary.  The  magnates 
resolved,  therefore,  as  they  had  resolved  at  the 
beginning  of  previous  reigns,  to  demand  the  res- 
toration of  all  their  rights  and  privileges.  But  it 
does  not  appear  that  they  wished  to  take  any 
ungenerous  advantage  of  the  sex  or  the  necessities 
of  Maria  Theresa.  They  were  argumentative  and 
stubborn,  yet  not  in  a  bargaining,  mercenary  spirit. 
They  accepted  in  June  a  qualified  compliance  with 
their  demands;  and  when  on  the  25th  of  that 
month  the  queen  appeared  before  the  diet  to  receive 


the  crown  of  St.  Stephen,  and,  according  to  cus- 
tom, waved  the  great  sword  of  the  kingdom  toward 
the  four  points  of  the  compass,  toward  the  north 
and  the  south,  the  east  antl  the  west,  challenging 
all  enemies  to  dispute  her  right,  the  assembly  was 
carried  away  by  enthusiasm,  and  it  seemed  as  if 
an  end  had  forever  been  put  to  constitutional 
technicalities.  Such  was,  however,  not  the  case. 
After  the  excitement  caused  by  the  dramatic  coro- 
nation had  in  a  measure  subsided,  the  old  conten- 
tions revived,  as  bitter  and  vexatious  as  before. 
These  concerned  especially  the  manner  in  which 
the  administration  of  Hungary  should  be  adjusted 
to  meet  the  new  state  of  things.  Should  the  chief 
political  offices  be  filled  by  native  Hungarians,  as 
the  diet  demanded?  Could  the  co-regency  of  the 
grand-duke,  which  was  ardently  desired  by  the 
queen,  be  accepted  by  the  Magyars?  For  two 
months  the  dispute  over  these  problems  raged  at 
Pressburg,  until  finally  Maria  Theresa  herself  found 
a  bold,  ingenious,  and  patriotic  solution.  The  news 
of  the  Franco-Bavarian  alliance  and  the  fall  of 
Passau  determined  her  to  throw  herself  completely 
upon  the  gallantry  and  devotion  of  the  Magyars. 
It  had  long  been  the  policy  of  the  court  of  Vienna 
not  to  entrust  the  Hungarians  with  arms.  .  .  .  But 
Maria  Theresa  had  not  been  robbed,  in  spite  of 
her  experience  with  France  and  Prussia,  of  all  her 
faith  in  human  nature.  She  took  the  responsibility 
of  her  decision,  and  the  result  proved  that  her 
insight  was  correct.  On  the  nth  of  September  she 
summoned  tiie  members  of  fhe  diet  before  her, 
and,  seated  on  the  throne,  explained  to  them  the 
perilous  situation  of  her  dominions.  The  danger, 
she  said,  threatened  herself,  and  all  that  was  dear 
to  her.  Abandoned  by  all  her  allies,  she  took 
refuge  in  fhe  fidelity  and  the  ancient  valor  of  the 
Hungarians,  to  whom  she  entrusted  herself,  her 
children,  and  her  empire.  Here  she  broke  into 
tears,  and  covered  her  face  with  her  handkerchief. 
The  diet  responded  to  this  appeal  by  proclaim- 
ing the  'insurrection'  or  the  equipment  of  a  large 
popular  force  for  the  defence  of  the  queen.  So 
great  was  the  cnthusiasnf  that  it  nearly  swept  away 
even  the  original  aversion  of  the  Hungarians  to 
the  grand-duke  Francis,  who,  to  the  queen's  de- 
light, was  finally,  though  not  without  some  mur- 
murs, accepted  as  co-regent.  .  .  .  This  uprising 
was  organized  not  an  hour  too  early,  for  dan- 
gers were  pressing  upon  the  queen  from  every 
side." — H.  "Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia,  1 740-1 74S, 
ch.  4. 

Also  in;  Due  de  Broglie,  Frederick  the  Great 
and  Maria  TIteresa,  v.  2,  ch.  4. 

1741  (August-November). — French-Bavarian 
onset. — "France  now  began  to  act  with  energy. 
In  the  month  of  August  [1741]  two  French  armies 
crossed  the  Rhine,  each  about  40,000  strong.  The 
first  marched  into  Westphalia,  and  frightened 
George  II.  into  concluding  a  treaty  of  neutrality 
for  Hanover,  and  promising  his  vote  to  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria.  The  second  advanced  through  South 
Germany  on  Passau,  the  frontier  city  of  Bavaria 
and  .Austria.  As  soon  as  it  arrived  on  German 
soil,  the  French  officers  assumed  the  blue  and  white 
cockade  of  Bavaria,  for  it  was  the  cue  of  France 
to  appear  only  as  an  auxiliary,  and  the  nominal 
command  of  her  army  was  vested  in  the  Elector. 
From  Passau  the  French  and  Bavarians  passed  into 
Upper  Austria,  and  on  Sept.  11  entered  its  capital, 
Linz,  where  the  Elector  assumed  the  title  of  Arch- 
duke. Five  days  later  Saxony  joined  the  allies. 
Sweden  had  already  declared  war  on  Russia.  Spain 
trumped  up  an  old  claim  and  attacked  the  Aus- 
trian dominions  in  Italy.  It  seemed  as  if  Belle- 
Isle's  schemes  were  about  to  be  crowned  with  com- 
plete   success.      Had    the    allies    pushed    forward, 


689 


AUSTRIA,  1741 


Frederick 
Battle  of  Chotusitz 


AUSTRIA,  1742 


Vienna  must  have  fallen  into  their  hands.  But 
the  French  did  not  wish  to  be  too  victorious,  lest 
they  should  make  the  Elector  too  powerful,  and 
so  independent  of  them.  Therefore,  after  six 
weeks'  delay,  they  turned  aside  to  the  conquest  of 
Bohemia." — F.  VV.  Longman,  Frederick  the  Great 
and  the  Seven  Years'  War,  ch.  4,  sect.  4. — "While 
...  a  portion  of  the  French  troops,  under  the 
command  of  the  Count  de  Scgiir,  was  left  in  Upper 
Austria,  the  remainder  of  the  allied  army  turned 
towards  Bohemia;  where  they  were  joined  by  a 
body  of  Saxons,  under  the  command  of  Count 
Rutowsky.  They  took  Prague  by  assault,  on  the 
night  of  the  25th  of  November,  while  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  the  husband  of  JVIaria  Theresa, 
was  marching  to  its  relief.  In  Prague,  3,000  pris- 
oners were  taken.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  hastened 
there,  upon  hearing  of  the  success  of  his  arms, 
was  crowned  King  of  Bohemia,  during  the  month 
of  December,  and  received  the  oath  of  fidelity  from 
the  constituted  authorities.  But  while  he  was 
thus  employed,  the  Austrian  general,  Khevenhiiller, 
had  driven  the  Count  de  Secur  out  of  Austria,  and 
had  himself  entered  Bavaria;  which  obliged  the 
Bavarian  army  to  abandon  Bohemia  and  hasten  to 
the  defence  of  their  own  country." — ^Lord  Dover, 
Life  of  Frederick  II.,  hk.  2,  v.  i,  ch.  2. 

Also  ix:  Frederick  II.,  History  of  my  own  times 
(.Posthumous  works,  i'.  i,  ch.  5). 

1741  (October). — Secret  treaty  with  Frederick. 
— Lower  Silesia  conceded  to  him. — Austrian 
success. — "By  October,  1741.  the  fortunes  of  Ma- 
ria Theresa  had  sunk  to  the  lowest  ebb,  but  a  great 
revulsion  speedily  set  in.  The  martial  enthusiasm 
of  the  Hungarians,  the  subsidy  from  England,  and 
the  brilliant  militarj'  talents  of  General  Kheven- 
hiiller, restored  her  armies.  Vienna  was  put  in  a 
state  of  defence,  and  at  the  same  time  jealousies 
and  suspicions  made  their  w'ay  among  the  con- 
federates. The  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony 
were  already  in  some  degree  divided ;  and  the  Ger- 
mans, and  especially  Frederick,  were  alarmed  by 
the  growing  ascendency,  and  irritated  by  the 
haughty  demeanour  of  the  French.  In  the  moment 
of  her  extreme  depression,  the  Queen  consented  to  a 
concession  which  England  had  vainly  urged  upon 
her  before,  and  which  laid  the  foundation  of  her  fu- 
ture success.  In  October,  1741,  she  entered  into  a 
secret  convention  with  Frederick  [called  the  con- 
vention of  Ober-Schnellendorf],  by  w'hich  that  as- 
tute sovereign  agreed  to  desert  his  allies,  and  de- 
sist from  hostilities,  on  condition  of  ultimately 
obtaining  Lower  Silesia,  with  Breslau  and  Neisse. 
Every  precaution  was  taken  to  ensure  secrecy.  It 
was  arranged  that  Frederick  should  continue  to 
besiege  Neisse,  that  the  town  should  ultimately 
be  surrendered  to  him,  and  that  his  troops  should 
then  retire  into  winter  quarters,  and  take  no 
further  part  in  the  war.  .\s  the  sacrifice  of  a  few 
more  lives  was  perfectly  indifferent  to  the  con- 
tracting parties,  and  in  order  that  no  one  should 
suspect  the  treachery  that  was  contemplated, 
Neisse,  after  the  arrangement  had  been  made  for 
its  surrender,  was  subjected  for  four  days  and 
four  nights  to  the  horrors  of  bombardment.  Fred- 
erick, at  the  same  time,  talked,  with  his  usual 
cynical  frankness,  to  the  English  ambassador  about 
the  best  way  of  attacking  his  allies  the  French ; 
and  observed,  that  if  the  Queen  of  Hungar\'  pros- 
pered, he  would  perhaps  support  her,  if  not — 
everyone  must  look  out  for  himself.  He  only  as- 
sented verbally  to  this  convention,  and,  no  doubt, 
resolved  to  await  the  course  of  events,  in  order  to 
decide  which  Power  it  was  his  interest  finally  to 
betray;  but  in  the  meantime  the  .^ustrians  obtained 
a  respite,  which  enabled  them  to  throw  their  whole 
forces   upon   their   other   enemies.     Two   brilliant 


campaigns  followed.  The  greater  part  of  Bohemia 
was  recovered  by  an  army  under  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  and  the  French  were  hemmed  in  at 
Prague;  while  another  army,  under  General  Khev- 
enhiiller. invaded  Upper  .Austria,  drove  10,000 
French  soldiers  within  the  walls  of  Linz,  block- 
aded them,  defeated  a  body  of  Bohemians  who 
were  sent  to  the  rescue,  compelled  the  whole 
French  army  to  surrender,  and  then,  crossing  the 
frontier,  poured  in  a  resistless  torrent  over  Bavaria. 
The  fairest  plains  of  that  beautiful  land  were  deso- 
lated by  hosts  of  irregular  troops  from  Hungary, 
Croatia,  and  the  Tyrol;  and  on  the  12th  of  Feb- 
ruary the  Austrians  marched  in  triumph  into 
Munich.  On  that  very  day  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia was  crowned  Emperor  of  Germany,  at 
Frankfort,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII.,  and  the 
imperial  crown  was  thus,  for  the  first  time,  for 
many  generations,  separated  from  the  House  of 
Austria." — W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of  England, 
i&tit  century,  v.  i,  ch.  3. 

Also  i.v:  F.  von  Raumer,  Contributions  to 
modern  history:  Fred'k  II.  and  his  times,  ch.  13- 
14. 

1741-1743. — Successes    in    Italy.      See    Italy; 

1741-1743- 

1742  (January-May). — Frederick  breaks  faith 
again. — Battle  of  Chotusitz. — "The  Queen  of 
Hungary  had  assembled  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  two  considerable  armies  in  Moravia  and  Bo- 
hemia, the  one  under  Prince  Lobkowitz,  to  defend 
the  former  province,  and  the  other  commanded 
by  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  her  brother-in-law. 
This  young  Prince  possessed  as  much  bravery  and 
activity  as  Frederick,  and  had  equally  with  him 
the  talent  of  inspiring  attachment  and  confidence. 
.  .  .  Frederick,  alarmed  at  these  preparations  and 
the  progress  of  the  Austrians  in  Bavaria,  abruptly 
broke  off  the  convention  of  Ober-Schnellendorf, 
and  recommenced  hostilities.  .  .  .  The  King  of 
Prussia  became  apprehensive  that  the  Queen  of 
Hungary  would  again  turn  her  arms  to  recover 
Silesia.  He  therefore  dispatched  Marshal  Schwerin 
to  seize  Oimiitz  and  lay  siege  to  Glatz,  which  sur- 
rendered after  a  desperate  resistance  on  the  9th 
of  January.  Soon  after  this  event,  the  King  re- 
joined his  army,  and  endeavoured  to  drive  the 
Austrians  from  their  advantageous  position  in  the 
southern  parts  of  Bohemia,  which  would  have  de- 
livered the  French  troops  in  the  neighbourhood  and 
checked  the  progress  of  Khevenhiiller  in  Bavaria. 
The  king  advanced  to  Iglau,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Bohemia,  and,  occupying  the  banks  of  the  Thaya, 
made  irruptions  into  L'pper  Austria,  his  hussars 
spreading  terror  even  to  the  gates  of  Vienna.  The 
.\ustrians  drew  from  Bavaria  a  corps  of  10,000 
men  to  cover  the  capital,  while  Prince  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  at  the  head  of  50.000  men.  threatened  the 
Prussian  magazines  in  L'pper  Silesia,  and  by  this 
movement  compelled  Frederick  to  detach  a  con- 
siderable force  for  their  protection,  and  to  evacu- 
ate Moravia,  which  he  had  invaded.  Broglie,  who 
commanded  the  French  forces  in  that  country, 
must  now  have  fallen  a  sacrifice,  had  not  the 
ever-active  King  of  Prussia  brought  up  30,000 
men,  which,  under  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Dessau. 
entering  Bohemia,  came  up  with  Prince  Charles  at 
Czaslau,  about  thirty-five  miles  from  Prague,  be- 
fore he  could  form  a  junction  with  Prince  Lob- 
kowitz. Upon  this  ensued  fMay  17,  1742]  what 
is  known  in  history  as  the  battle  of  Czaslau  [also, 
and  more  commonly,  called  the  battle  of  Chotu- 
sitz]. .  .  .  The  numbers  in  the  two  armies  were 
nearly  equal,  and  the  action  was  warmly  contested 
on  both  sides.  .  .  .  The  Prussians  remained  mas- 
ters of  the  field,  with  18  cannon,  two  pairs  of  col- 
ours  and    1,200   prisoners;    but  they   indeed  paid 


690 


AUSTRIA,  1742 


Expulsion  of  French 
from  Bohemia 


AUSTRIA,  1743 


dearly  for  the  honour,  for  it  was  computed  that 
their  loss  was  equal  to  that  of  their  enemy,  which 
amounted  to  7,000  men  on  either  side;  while  the 
Prussian  cavalry  .  .  .  was  nearly  ruined.  .  .  .  Al- 
though in  this  battle  the  victory  was,  without 
doubt,  on  the  side  of  the  Prussians,  yet  the  im- 
mediate consequences  were  highly  favourable  to 
the  Queen  of  Hungary.  The  King  was  disappointed 
of  his  expected  advantages,  and  conceived  a  dis- 
gust to  the  war.  He  now  lowered  his  demands 
and  made  overtures  of  accommodation,  which,  on 
the  nth  of  June,  resulted  in  a  treaty  of  peace 
between  the  two  crowns,  which  was  signed  at 
Breslau  under  the  mediation  of  the  British  Am- 
bassador."— Sir  E.  Cust,  Annals  of  the  wars  of  the 
i8th  century,  v.  2,  p.  19. 

Also  in:  T.  Carlyle,  History  of  Friedrich  II.  of 
Prussia,  bk.  13,  v.  5,  ch.  13. 

1742  (June). — Treaty  of  Breslau  with  the  king 
of  Prussia. — "The  following  arc  the  preliminary 
articles  which  were  signed  at  Breslau:  i.  The 
queen  of  Hungary  ceded  to  the  king  of  Prussia, 
Upper  and  Lower  Silesia,  with  the  principality  of 
Glatz;  except  the  towns  of  Troppau,  Jaegerndorf 
and  the  high  mountains  situated  beyond  the  Oppa. 
2.  The  Prussians  undertook  to  repay  the  English 
1,700,000  crowns;  which  sum  was  a  mortgage  loan 
on  Silesia.  The  remaining  articles  related  to  a 
suspension  of  arms,  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  and 
the  freedom  of  religion  and  trade.  Thus  was  Si- 
lesia united  to  the  Prussian  States.  Two  years 
were  sufficient  for  the  conquest  of  that  important 
province.  The  treasures  which  the  late  king  had 
left  were  almost  expended;  but  provinces  that  do 
not  cost  more  than  seven  or  eight  millions  are 
cheaply  purchased." — Frederick  II.,  History  of  my 
own  limes  (Posthumous  works,  v.  i,  ch.  6). 

1742  (June-December). — Expulsion  of  the 
French  from  Bohemia. — Belle-Isle's  retreat 
from  Prague. — "The  Austrian  arms  began  now  to 
be  successful  in  all  quarters.  Just  before  the  sig- 
nature of  the  preliminaries.  Prince  Lobkowitz,  who 
was  stationed  at  Budweiss  with  10,000  men,  made 
an  attack  on  Frauenberg ;  Broglie  and  Belle-Isle 
advanced  from  Piseck  to  relieve  the  town,  and  a 
combat  took  place  at  Sahay,  in  which  the  Aus- 
trians  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  500  men. 
This  trifling  affair  was  magnified  into  a  decisive 
victory.  .  .  .  Marshal  Broglie,  elated  with  this 
advantage,  and  relying  on  the  immediate  junction 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  remained  at  Frauenberg  in 
perfect  security.  But  his  expectations  were  dis- 
appointed; Frederic  had  already  commenced  his 
secret  negotiations,  and  Prince  Charles  was  en- 
abled to  turn  his  forces  against  the  French.  Being 
joined  by  Prince  Lobkowitz,  they  attacked  Broglie, 
and  compelled  him  to  quit  Frauenberg  with  such 
precipitation  that  his  baggage  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  light  troops,  and  the  French  retreated 
towards  Braunau,  harassed  by  the  Croats  and  other 
irregulars.  .  .  .  The  Austrians,  pursuing  their  suc- 
cess against  the  French,  drove  Broglie  from  Brau- 
nau, and  followed  him  to  the  walls  of  Prague, 
where  he  found  Belle-Isle.  .  .  .  After  several  con- 
sultations, the  two  generals  called  in  their  posts, 
and  secured  their  army  partly  within  the  walls 
and  partly  within  a  peninsula  of  the  Moldau.  .  .  . 
Soon  afterwards  the  duke  of  Lorraine  joined  the 
army  [of  Prince  Charles],  which  now  amounted 
to  70,000  men,  and  the  arrival  of  the  heavy  ar- 
tillery enabled  the  Austrians  to  commence  the 
siege." — W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
V.  3,  ch.  102. — "To  relieve  the  French  at  Prague, 
Marshal  Maillebois  was  directed  to  advance  with 
his  army  from  Westphalia.  At  these  tidings  Prince 
Charles  changed  the  siege  of  Prague  to  a  block- 
ade,   and    marching    against   his   new    opponents, 


checked  their  progress  on  the  Bohemian  frontier; 
the  French,  however,  still  occupying  the  town  of 
Eger.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  Belle- 
Isle  made  his  masterly  and  renowned  retreat  from 
Prague.  In  the  night  of  the  i6th  of  December, 
he  secretly  left  the  city  at  the  head  of  11,000 
foot  and  3,000  horse,  having  deceived  the  Austrians' 
vigilance  by  the  feint  of  a  general  forage  in  the 
opposite  quarter;  and  pushed  for  Eger  through  a 
hostile  country,  destitute  of  resources  and  sur- 
rounded by  superior  enemies.  His  soldiers,  with 
no  other  food  than  frozen  bread,  and  compelled 
to  sleep  without  covering  on  the  snow  and  ice, 
perished  in  great  numbers;  but  the  gallant  spirit  of 
Belle-Isle  triumphed  over  every  obstacle;  he  struck 
through  morasses  almost  untrodden  before,  offered 
battle  to  Prince  Lobkowitz,  who,  however,  de- 
clined engaging,  and  at  length  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  other  French  army  with  the  flower  of  his  own. 
The  remnant  left  at  Prague,  and  amounting  only 
to  6,000  men,  seemed  an  easy  prey;  yet  their  threat 
of  firing  the  city,  and  perishing  beneath  its  ruins, 
and  the  recent  proof  of  what  despair  can  do,  ob- 
tained for  them  honourable  terms,  and  the  permis- 
sion of  rejoining  their  comrades  at  Eger.  But  in 
spite  of  all  this  skill  and  courage  in  the  French 
invaders,  the  final  result  to  them  was  failure;  nor 
had  they  attained  a  single  permanent  advantage 
beyond  their  own  safety  in  retreat.  Maillebois  and 
De  Broglie  took  up  winter  quarters  in  Bavaria, 
while  Belle-Isle  led  back  his  division  across  the 
Rhine;  and  it  was  computed  that,  of  the  35,000 
men  whom  he  had  first  conducted  into  Germany, 
not  more  than  8,000  returned  beneath  his  banner." 
— Lord  Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  History  of  Eng- 
land, 1713-1783,  V.  3,  ch.  24. — "Thus,  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  campaign,  all  Bohemia  was  regained, 
except  Eger;  and  on  the  12th  of  May,  1743,  Maria 
Theresa  was  soon  afterwards  crowned  at  Prague, 
to  the  recovery  of  which,  says  her  great  rival,  her 
firmness  had'  more  contributed  than  the  force  of 
her  arms.  The  only  reverse  which  the  Austrians 
experienced  in  the  midst  of  their  successes  was  the 
temporary  loss  of  Bavaria,  which,  on  the  retreat 
of  Kevenhiiller,  was  occupied  by  Marshal  Secken- 
dorf;  and  the  [German]  Emperor  [Charles  VII.] 
made  his  entry  into  Munich  on  the  2d  of  October." 
— W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria,  v.  3, 
ch.  103. 

1743. — England  drawn  into  the  conflict. — 
Pragmatic  army. — Battle  of  Dettingen. — "The 
cause  of  Maria  Theresa  had  begun  to  excite  a  re- 
markable enthusiasm  in  England.  .  .  .  The  con- 
vention of  neutrality  entered  into  by  George  II. 
in  September  1741,  and  the  extortion  of  his  vote 
for  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  properly  concerned 
that  prince  only  as  Elector  of  Hanover;  yet,  as 
he  was  also  King  of  England,  they  were  felt  as  a 
disgrace  by  the  English  people.  The  elections  of 
that  year  went  against  Walpole,  and  in  February 
1742  he  found  himself  compelled  to  resign.  He 
was  succeeded  in  the  administration  by  Pulteney, 
Earl  of  Bath,  though  Lord  Carteret  was  virtually 
prime  minister.  Carteret  was  an  ardent  supporter 
of  the  cause  of  Maria  Theresa.  His  accession  to 
office  was  immediately  followed  by  a  large  increase 
of  the  army  and  navy;  five  millions  were  voted  for 
carrying  on  the  war,  and  a  subsidy  of  £500,000 
for  the  Queen  of  Hungary.  The  Earl  of  Stair,  with 
an  army  of  16,000  men,  afterwards  reinforced  by 
a  large  body  of  Hanoverians  and  Hessians  in 
British  pay,  was  despatched  into  the  Netherlands 
to  cooperate  with  the  Dutch.  But  though  the 
States-General,  at  the  instance  of  the  British  Cabi- 
net, voted  Maria  Theresa  a  subsidy,  they  were 
not  yet  prepared  to  take  an  active  part  in  a  war 
which  might  ultimately  involve  them  in  hostilities 


691 


AUSTRIA,  1743 


Deitingen 
Prague 


AUSTRIA,    1743-17'14 


with  France.     The  exertions  of  the  English  min- 
istry   in    favour    of    the    Queen    of    Hungary    had 
therefore   been   confined   during   the   year    1742    to 
diplomacy,   and   they   had   helped   to   bring   about 
the  Peace  of  Breslau.    In  1743  they  were  able 
to  do  more."    In  April,  1743.  'be  Emperor,  Charles 
VII  ,  regained  possession  of  Bavaria  and  returned 
to  Munich,  but  onlv  to  be  driven  out  again  by  the 
Aunrians    in    June.      The    Bavarians    were    badly 
beaten    at   Simbach    (May    o),    and    Munich    was 
taken     (June     12)     after    a    short    bombardment^ 
"Charles  VII.  was  now  again   obliged  to  fly,  and 
look  refuge  at  Augsburg.     At  his  command,  Seck- 
cndorf   [his  general]   made  a  convention  with  the 
Austrians    at    the    village    of    Niederschonfeld,    by 
which  he  agreed  to  abandon  to  them  Bavaria,  on 
condition  that  Charles's  troops  should  be  allowed 
to  occupy  unmolested  quarters  between  Franconia 
and  Suabia.     Maria  Theresa  seemed  at  first  indis- 
posed to  ratify  even   terms  so  humiliating  to  the 
Emperor.     She   had   become   perhaps   a   little   too 
much  exalted  bv  the  rapid  turn  of  fortune.     She 
had  caused  herself  to  be  crowned  in  Prague.     She 
had    received    the   homage    of    the   Austrians,   and 
entered   Vienna   in   a   sort   of   triumph      She   now 
dreamt   of  nothing   less   than  conquering  Lorraine 
for    herself,    .\l5ace    for    the    Empire;    of    hurling 
Charles  VII.  from  the  Imperial  throne,  and  placing 
on  it  her  own  consort."    She  was  persuaded,  how- 
ever,  to   consent    at   length   to    the   terms   of    the 
Niederschonfeld   convention.     "Meanwhile   the    al- 
lied army  of  English  and  Germans,  under  the  Earl 
of    Stair,    nearly    40,000    strong,    which,    from    its 
destined    object',    had    assumed    the    name    of    the 
'Pragmatic  Army.'  had  crossed  the  Meuse  and  the 
Rhine  in  March  and  .\pril,  with  a  view  to  cut  off 
the  army  of  Bavaria  from  France.    George  II.  had 
not  concealed  his  intention  of  breaking  the  Treaty 
of  Hanover  of  1741.  alleging  as  a  ground  that  the 
duration  of  the  neutrality  stipulated  in  it  had  not 
been  determined;  and  on  June  lothhe  had  joined 
the  army  in  person.    He  found  it  in  a  most  critical 
position'     Lord  Stair,  who  had  never  distinguished 
himself   as   a   general,   and   was   now    falling    into 
dntage,    had    led    it    into    a    narrow    valley    near 
.\schaffenburg.   bet\veen    Mount   Spessart   and   the 
river  Main;  while  Marshal  Xoailles   [commanding 
the  French],  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine  towards 
the  end  of  .April,  by  seizing  the  principal  fords  of 
the  Main,  both  above  and  below  the  British  posi- 
tion, had  cut  him  off  both  from  his  magazines  at 
Hanau.   and  from   the  supplies  which  he  had  ex- 
pected to  procure  in  Franconia.    Nothing  remained 
but  for  him  to  fight  his  way  back  to  Hanau."     In 
the  battle  of  Dettingen  which  followed  (June  27). 
all  the  advantaees  of  the  French  in  position  were 
thrown  away  by  the  ignorant  impetuosity  of  the 
king's  nephew,  the  duke  of  Grammont,  who  com- 
manded  one   division,  and   they  ■  suffered   a   severe 
defeat.     "The  French   are  said  to  have  lost  6,000 
men  and  the  British  half  that  number.     It  is  the 
last  action  in  which  a  king  of  England  had  fought 
in  person.     But   George  II..  or  rather  Lord  Stair, 
did  nnt  know  hinv  to  profit  by  his  victory.     M 
thouch  thr  Pracmatic  .Army  was  joined  after  the 
battle  of  Dettincen  by  15,000  Dutch  troops,  under 
Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau,  nothing  of  importance 
was  done  during  the  remainder  of  the  campaign." 

T.  H.  Dyer,  History  of  modern  Europe,  bk.  6, 

V.  3.  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  W.  Coxe,  History  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, V.  3,  ch.  104. — Sir  E.  Cust.  Annals  of  the 
wars  of  the  i8(/i  century,  v.  2,  pp.  30-36.— Lord 
Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  History  of  England,  1713- 
1783,  V.  3.  eh.  25. 

1743. — Treaty  of  Worms  with  Sardinia  and 
England.    See  Italy:  1743. 


1743  (October). — Second  Bourbon  family  com- 
pact.    See  France:   1743   (October). 

1743-1744. — Prussian  king  strikes  in  again. — 
Union    of    Frankfort. — Siege    and    capture    of 
Prague. — "Everywhere  .Austria  was  successful,  and 
Frederick  had  reason  to  fear  for  himself  unless  the 
tide  of  conquest  could  be  stayed.     He  explains  in 
the  'Histoire  de  Mon  Temps'  that  he  feared  lest 
France  should  abandon  the  cause  of  the  Emperor, 
which  would  mean   that   the  Austrians,  who  now 
boldly  spoke  of  compensation  for  the  war,  would 
turn   their   arms  against   himself.  .  .  .  France  was 
trembling,  not  for  her  conquests,  but  for  her  own 
territory^     After  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  the  vic- 
torious Anglo-Hanoverian   force   was  to  cross  the 
Rhine  above  Maycnce  and  march  into  .Alsace,  while 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  with  a  strong  .Austrian 
army,  was  to  pass  near  Basle  and  occupy  Lorraine, 
taking   up   his   winter   quarters   in    Burgundy   and 
Champagne.      The    English    crossed    without    any 
check  and  moved  on  to  Worms,  but  the  .Austrians 
failed  in  their  attempt      Worms  became   a  centre 
of    intrigue,    which     Frederick    afterwards    called 
•Cette  abyme  [abime]  de  mauvaise  foi.'   The  Dutch 
were  persuaded  by  Lord  Carteret  to  join  the  Eng- 
lish,  and  they  did  at  last  send   14,000   men,  who 
were   never  of   the   least  use.     Lord  Carteret  also 
detached  Charles  Emanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  from 
his  French   leanings,  and  persuaded   him  to  enter 
into  the  .Austro-English  alliance  [by  the  treaty  of 
Worms,   September    13,    1743,   which   conceded   to 
the  king  of  Sardinia  Finale,  the  city  of  Placentia, 
with  some  other  small  districts  and  gave  him  com- 
mand of  the  allied  forces  in  Italy].     It  was  clear 
that  action  could  not  be  long  postponed,  and  Fred- 
erick began   to   recognize   the   necessity   of   a   new   ■ 
war.    His  first  anxiety  was  to  guard  himself  against 
interference  from  his  northern  and  eastern  neigh- 
bours.    He  secured,  as  he  hoped,  the  neutrality  of 
Russia  by  marrying  the  young  princess  of  .Anhalt- 
Zerbst,  afterwards  the  notorious  Empress  Cather- 
ine, with  the  Grand-Duke  Peter  of  Russia,  nephew 
and   heir   to   the   reigniiig   Empress   Elizabeth.  .  .  . 
Thus  strengthened,   as  he  hoped,  in   his   rear  and 
flank,  and   having  made  the  commencement   of  a 
German  league  called  the  Union  of  Frankfurt,  by 
which    Hesse    and    the    Palatinate    agreed    to    join 
Frederick   and    the    Kaiser,    he    concluded    on    the 
5th  of  June,  1744,  a  treaty  which  brought  France 
also  into  this  alliance      It  was  secretly  agreed  that 
Frederick  was  to  invade  Bohemia,  conquer  it  for 
the  Kaiser,  and  have  the  districts  of   Koniggratz, 
Bunzlau,    and    Leitmeritz    to    repay    him    for    his 
trouble  and  costs;  while  France,  which  was  all  this 
time    at    war   with    .Aust'ria    and    England,   should 
send  an  army  against  Prince  Charles  and  the  Eng- 
lish. .  .  .  The  first  stroke  of  the  coming  war  was 
delivered  by  France.    Louis  XV.  sent  a  large  army 
into    the    Netherlands    under    two    good    leaders, 
Noailles  and  Maurice  de  Saxe,     Urged  by  his  mis- 
tress, the  Duchesse  de  Chateau-roux,  he  joined  it 
himself  early,  and  took  the  nominal  command  early 
in    June.  .  .  .  The    towns     [Menin,    Vpres,    Fort 
Knoque,  Fumes]  rapidly  fell  before  him,  and  Mar- 
shal    Wade,     with     the     .Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian 
army,  sat  still   and  looked   at   the   success  of   the 
French.     But  on  the  night  of  the  30th  June — ist 
July,  Prince  Charles  crossed  the  Rhine  by  an  op- 
eration which  is  worth  the  study  of  military  stu- 
dents, and  invaded  .Alsace,  the  French  army  of  ob- 
servation   falling    back    before    him.      Louis    XV. 
hurried   back   to   interpose  between   the   Austrians 
and  Paris.  .  .  .  Maurice   de  Saxe   was  left   in   the 
Netherlands  with   45.000   men.     Thus  the   French 
army  was  paralysed,  and  the  Austrian  army  in  its 
turn  was  actually  invading  France.     At  this  time 
Frederick  struck  in.     He  sent  word  to   the  King 


692 


AUSTRIA,  1744-1745 


House  of 
Hapsburg- Lorraine 


AUSTRIA,  1744-1745 


that,  though  all  the  terms  of  their  arrangement  had 
not  yet  been  fulfilled,  he  would  at  once  invade 
Bohemia,  and  deliver  a  stroke  against  Prague 
which  would  certainly  cause  the  retreat  of  Prince 
Charles  with  his  70,000  men.  If  the  French  army 
would  follow  Prince  Charles  in  his  retreat,  Fred- 
erick would  attack  him,  and  between  France  and 
Prussia  the  Austrian  army  would  certainly  be 
crushed,  ^nd  Vienna  be  at  their  mercy.  This  was 
no  doubt  an  excellent  plan  of  campaign,  but,  like 
the  previous  operations  concerted  with  Broglie,  it 
depended  for  success  upon  the  good  faith  of  the 
French,  and  this  turned  out  to  be  a  broken  reed. 
On  the  7th  of  August  the  Prussian  ambassador  at 
Vienna  gave  notice  of  the  Union  of  Frankfurt  and 
withdrew  from  the  court  of  Austria;  and  on  the 
15th  the  Prussian  army  was  put  in  march  upon 
Prague  [opening  what  is  called  the  Second  Silesian 
War].  Frederick's  forces  moved  in  three  columns, 
the  total  strength  being  over  8o,ooo.'  .  .  .  Maria 
Theresa  was  now  again  in  great  danger,  but  as 
usual  retained  her  high  courage,  and  once  more 
called  forth  the  enthusiasm  of  her  Hungarian  sub- 
jects, who  sent  swarms  of  wild  troops,  horse  and 
foot,  to  the  seat  of  war.  ...  On  the  ist  of  Sep- 
tember the  three  columns  met  before  Prague,  which 
had  better  defences  than  in  the  last  campaign,  and 
a  garrison  of  some  16,000  men.  .  .  .  During  the 
night  of  the  gth  the  bombardment  commenced  .  .  . 
and  en  the  i6th  the  garrison  surrendered.  Thus, 
one  month  after  the  commencement  of  the  march 
Prague  was  captured,  and  the  campaign  opened 
with  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms." — Col.  C.  B.  Brack- 
enbury,  Frederick  the  Great,  ch.  7. 

Also  iU:  W.  Russell,  History  0]  modern  Europe, 
pt.  2,  letter  28. — F.  von  Raumer,  Contributions  to 
modern  history:  Fredk.  II.  and  his  times,  ch. 
17-19. 

1744-1745. — Frederick's  retreat  and  fresh 
triumph. — Austria  recovers  the  imperial  crown. 
— Saxony  subdued. — Peace  of  Dresden. — After 
the  reduction  of  Prague,  Frederick,  "in  deference 
to  the  opinion  of  Marshal  Belle-Isle,  but  against 
his  own  judgment,  advanced  into  the  south  of  Bo- 
hemia with  the  view  of  threatening  Vienna.  He 
thus  exposed  himself  to  the  risk  of  being  cut  off 
from  Prague.  Yet  even  so  he  would  probably 
have  been  able  to  maintain  himself  if  the  French 
had  fulfilled  their  engagements.  But  while  he  was 
conquering  the  districts  of  the  Upper  Moldau,  the 
Austrian  army  returned  unimpaired  from  Alsace. 
The  French  had  allowed  it  to  cross  the  Rhine  un- 
mohsted,  and  had  not  made  the  slightest  attempt 
to  harass  its  retreat  [but  applied  themselves  to  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Freiburg].  They  were  only 
too  glad  to  get  rid  of  it  themselves.  In  the  en- 
suing operations  Frederick  was  completely  out- 
manoeuvred. Traun  [the  Austrian  general],  with- 
out risking  a  battle,  forced  him  back  towards  the 
Silesian  frontier.  He  had  to  choose  between  aban- 
doning Prague  and  abandoning  his  communications 
with  Silesia,  and  as  the  Saxons  had  cut  off  his 
retreat  through  the  Electorate,  there  was  really  no 
choice  in  the  matter.  So  he  fell  back  on  Silesia, 
abandoning  Prague  and  his  heavy  artillery.  The 
retreat  was  attended  with  considerable  loss.  Fred- 
erick was  much  struck  with  the  skill  displayed  by 
Traun,  and  says,  in  his  'Histoire  de  mon  Temps,' 
that  he  regarded  this  campaign  as  his  school  in  the 
art  of  war  and  M.  de  Traun  as  his  teacher.  The 
campaign  may  have  been  an  excellent  lesson  in 
the  art  of  war,  but  in  other  respects  it  was  very 
disastrous  to  Frederick.  He  had  drawn  upon  him- 
self the  whole  power  of  Austria,  and  had  learnt 
how  little  the  French  were  to  be  depended  upon. 
His  prestige  was  dimmed  by  failure,  and  even  in 
his    own    army    doubts    were    entertained    of    his 


capacity.  But,  bad  as  his  position  already  was,  it 
became  far  worse  when  the  unhappy  Emperor  died 
[Jan.  20,  1745],  worn  out  with  disease  and  calam- 
ity. This  event  put  an  end  to  the  Union  of  Frank- 
fort. Frederick  could  no  longer  claim  to  be  acting 
in  defence  of  his  oppressed  sovereign ;  the  ground 
was  cut  from  under  his  feet.  Nor  was  there  any 
longer  much  hope  of  preventing  the  Imperial 
Crown  from  reverting  to  Austria.  The  new  Elector 
of  Bavaria  was  a  mere  boy.  In  this  altered  state 
of  affairs  he  sought  to  make  peace.  But  Maria 
Theresa  would  not  let  him  off  so  easily.  In  order 
that  she  might  use  all  her  forces  against  him,  she 
granted  peace  to  Bavaria,  and  gave  back  to  the 
young  elector  his  hereditary  dominions,  011  condi- 
tion of  his  resigning  all  claim  to  hers  and  prom- 
ising to  vote  for  her  husband  as  Emperor.  While 
Frederick  thus  lost  a  friend  in  Bavaria,  Saxony 
threw  herself  completely  into  the  arms  of  his 
enemy,  and  united  with  Austria  in  a  treaty  [May 
18]  which  had  for  its  object,  not  the  reconquest 
of  Silesia  merely,  but  the  partition  of  Prussia  and 
the  reduction  of  the  king  to  his  ancient  limits  as 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg.  Saxony  was  then  much 
larger  than  it  is  now,  but  it  was  not  only  the 
number  of  troops  it  could  send  into  the  field  that 
made  its  hostility  dangerous.  It  was  partly  the 
geographical  position  of  the  country,  which  made 
it  an  excellent  base  for  operations  against  Prussia, 
but  still  more  the  alliance  that  was  known  to 
subsist  between  the  Elector  (King  Augustus  III. 
of  Poland)  and  the  Russian  Court.  It  was  prob- 
able that  a  Prussian  invasion  of  Saxony  would  be 
followed  by  a  Russian  invasion  of  Prussia. 
Towards  the  end  of  May,  the  Austrian  and  Saxon 
army,  75,000  strong,  crossed  the  Giant  Moun- 
tains and  descended  upon  Silesia.  The  Austrians 
were  again  commanded  by  Prince  Charles,  but  the 
wise  head  of  Traun  was  no  longer  there  to  guide 
him.  .  .  .  The  encounter  took  place  at  Hohenfried- 
berg  [June  5],  and  resulted  in  a  complete  victory 
for  Prussia.  The  Austrians  and  Saxons  lost  9,000 
killed  and  wounded,  and  7,000  prisoners,  besides 
66  cannons  and  73  flags  and  standards.  Four  days 
after  the  battle  they  were  back  again  in  Bohemia. 
Frederick  followed,  not  with  the  intention  of  at- 
tacking them  again,  but  in  order  to  eat  the  country 
bare,  so  that  it  might  afford  no  sustenance  to  the 
enemy  during  the  winter.  For  his  own  part  he 
was  really  anxious  for  peace.  His  resources  were 
all  but  exhausted,  while  Austria  was  fed  by  a 
constant  stream  of  English  subsidies.  As  in  the 
former  war,  England  interposed  with  her  good 
offices,  but  without  effect ;  Maria  Theresa  was  by 
no  means  disheartened  by  her  defeat,  and  refused 
to  hear  of  peace  till  she  had  tried  the  chances  of 
battle  once  more.  On  Sept.  13  her  husband  was 
elected  Emperor  by  seven  votes  out  of  nine,  the 
dissentients  being  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the 
Elector  Palatine.  This  event  raised  the  spirits  of 
the  Empress-Queen,  as  Maria  Theresa  was  hence- 
forward called,  and  opened  a  wider  field  for  her 
ambition.  She  sent  peremptory  orders  to  Prince 
Charles  to  attack  Frederick  before  he  retired  from 
Bohemili.  A  battle  was  accordingly  fought  at 
Sohr  [Sept.  30],  and  again  victory  rested  with  the 
Prussians.  The  season  was  now  far  advanced,  and 
Frederick  returned  home  expecting  that  there 
would  be  no  more  fighting  till  after  the  winter. 
Such,  however,  was  far  from  being  the  intention 
of  his  enemies."  A  plan  for  the  invasion  of  Bran- 
denburg by  three  Austrian  and  Saxon  armies,  si- 
multaneously, was  secretly  concerted ;  but  Fred- 
erick had  timely  warning  of  it  and  it  was  frustrated 
by  his  activity  and  energy.  On  the  23d  of  Novem- 
ber he  surprised  and  defeated  Prince  Charles  at 
Hennersdorf.    "Some  three  weeks  afterwards  [Dec. 


693 


AUSTRIA,  1744 


foseph  II 


AUSTRIA,  1777-1779 


is]  the  Prince  of  Dessau  defeated  a  second  Saxon 
and  Austrian  army  at  Kesselsdorf ,  a  few  miles  from 
Dresden,  This  victory  completed  the  subjugation 
of  Saxony  and  put  an  end  to  the  war.  Three  days 
after  Kesselsdorf,  Frederick  entered  Dresden,  and 
astonished  every  one  by  the  graciousness  of  his 
behaviour  and  by  the  moderation  of  his  terras. 
From  Saxony  he  exacted  no  cession  of  territory, 
but  merely  a  contribution  of  1,000,000  thalers 
(£150,000)  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war.  From 
Austria  he  demanded  a  guarantee  of  the  treaty  of 
Breslau,  in  return  for  which  he  agreed  to  recognize 
Francis  as  Emperor.  Peace  was  signed  [at  Dres- 
den] on  Christmas  Day." — F.  \V.  Longman, 
Frederick  the  Great  and  the  Seven  Years  War, 
ch.  s. 

Also  in:  T.  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  11.,  bk. 
15,  V.  4,  ck.  3-15. — Lord  Dover,  Lije  of  Frederick 
II.,  bk.  2,  V.  I,  ch.  3-S. 

1744. — War  with  Sardinia  in  Italy.    See  Italy: 

1744- 

1745. — Overwhelming  disasters  in  Italy.  See 
Italy:   1745. 

1745  (May). — Reverses  in  the  Netherlands. — 
Battle  of  Fontenoy.    See  Belgium:  1745. 

1745  (September-October). — Consort  of  Maria 
Theresa  elected  and  crowned  emperor. — Rise  of 
the  new  House  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine. — Francis 
of  Lorraine,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and  husband 
of  Maria  Theresa,  was  elected  emperor,  at  Frank- 
fort, Sept.  13,  174s,  and  crowned  Oct.  i,  with  the 
title  of  Francis  I.  "Thus  the  Empire  returned  to 
the  New  House  of  Austria,  that  of  Hapsburg- 
Lorraine,  and  France  had  missed  the  principal  ob- 
ject for  which  she  had  gone  to  w'ar."  By  the 
treaties  signed  at  Dresden,  Dec.  25,  between  Prus- 
sia, ."Xustria  and  Saxony,  Frederick,  as  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  assented  to  and  recognized  the  elec- 
tion of  Francis,  against  which  he  and  the  elector 
palatine  had  previously  protested. — T.  H.  Dyer, 
History  of  modern  Europe,  bk.  6,  v.  3,  ch.  4. 

1746-1747. — Further  French  conquests  in  the 
Netherlands.  —  Lombardy  recovered.  —  Genoa 
won  and  lost.  See  Belgium:  1746-1747;  and 
Italy:   1746-1747. 

1748  (October). — Termination  and  results  of 
the  War  of  the  Succession.  See  Aix-la-Cha- 
PELLE,  The  Congress  of. 

1755-1763.— Seven  Years'  War.  See  Germany: 
1755-1756.  to  1763;  also  Seven  Years'  War. 

1765-1790. — Joseph  II,  the  enlightened  despot. 
— "The  prince  who  best  sums  up  the  spirit  of  the 
centur>'  is  not  Frederic  [the  Great,  of  Prussia],  it 
is  Joseph  II.  [the  emperor].  Frederic  was  born  a 
master,  Joseph  II.  a  disciple,  and  it  is  by  disciples 
that  we  judge  schools.  The  king  of  Prussia 
dammed  up  the  waters,  directed  their  flow,  made 
use  of  the  current;  the  emperor  cast  himself  upon 
them  and  permitted  himself  to  be  carried.  With 
Frederic  the  statesman  always  dominates,  it  is  he 
who  proposes  and  finally  decides;  the  philosopher 
is  subordinate.  .  .  .  With  Joseph  II.  rational  con- 
ception precedes  political  calculation  and  governs 
it.  He  had  breadth  of  mind,  but  his  mind  was 
superficial;  ideas  slipped  from  it.  He  had  a  taste 
for  generosity,  a  passion  for  grandeur;  but  there 
was  nothing  profound  in  him  but  ambition,  and 
it  was  all  counter-stroke  and  reflection.  He  wished 
to  surpass  Frederic ;  his  entire  conduct  was  but  an 
awkward,  imprudent  and  ill-advised  imitation  of 
this  prince  whom  he  had  made  his  hero,  whom  his- 
tory made  his  rival  and  whom  he  copied  while 
detesting  him.  The  political  genius  of  Frederic 
was  born  of  pood  sense  and  moderation:  there  was 
nothing  in  Joseph  II.  but  the  immoderate.  He 
was  a  man  of  systems:  he  had  only  great  velleities. 
His  education  w'as  mediocre,  and,  as  to  methods, 


entirely  Jesuitical.  Into  this  contracted  mould  he 
cast  confusedly  notions  hastily  borrowed  from  the 
philosophers  of  France,  from  the  economists  es- 
pecially. He  thus  formed  a  very  vague  ideal  of 
political  aspirations  and  an  exaggerated  sense  of 
the  power  at  his  disposition  to  realize  them.  'Since 
I  ascended  the  throne  and  have  worn  the  first 
crown  of  the  world,'  wrote  he  in  1781,  'I  have 
made  Philosophy  the  lawmaker  of  my  empite.  Her 
logical  applications  are  going  to  transform  Austria.' 
He  undertakes  reforms  in  ever>'  direction  at  once. 
History  is  null  for  him,  traditions  do  not  count, 
nor  do  facts  acquired.  There  is  no  race,  nor 
period,  nor  surrounding  circumstances:  there  is 
the  State  which  is  everything  and  can  do  every- 
thing. He  writes  in  17S3,  to  the  bishop  of  Stras- 
bourg: 'In  a  kingdom  governed  conformably  to 
ray  principles,  prejudice,  fanaticism,  bondage  of 
mind  must  disappear,  and  each  of  my  subjects  must 
be  reinstated  in  the  possession  of  his  natural 
rights.'  He  must  have  unity,  and,  as  a  first  con- 
dition, the  rejection  of  all  previous  ideas.  Chance 
makes  him  operate  on  a  soil  the  most  heteroge- 
neous, the  most  incoherent,  the  most  cut  up,  par- 
celed out  and  traversed  by  barriers,  that  there  b 
in  Europe.  Nothing  in  common  among  his  sub- 
jects, neither  language,  nor  traditions,  nor  interests. 
It  is  from  this,  according  to  him,  that  the  defect 
of  monarchy  arises.  'The  German  language  is  the 
universal  language  of  my  empire.  I  am  the  em- 
peror of  Germany,  the  states  which  I  possess  are 
provinces  which  form  but  one  body  with  the 
State  of  which  I  am  the  head.  If  the  kingdom  of 
Hungary  were  the  most  important  of  my  posses- 
sions, I  should  not  hesitate  to  impose  its  tongue  on 
the  other  countries.'  So  he  imposes  the  German 
language  on  the  Hungarians,  the  Croats,  the 
Tcheques  tCzechs],  the  Poles,  on  all  the  Slavs. 
He  suppresses  the  ancient  territorial  divisions; 
they  recall  the  successive  agglomerations,  the  ir- 
regular alluvions  which  had  formed  the  monarchy ; 
he  establishes  thirteen  governments  and  divides 
them  into  circles.  The  diets  disappear ;  the  gov- 
ernment passes  into  the  hands  of  intendants  ac- 
cording to  the  French  formula.  In  the  cities  the 
burgomaster  appointed  by  the  government  becomes 
a  functionary.  The  nobles  lose  the  part,  already 
much  curtailed,  that  they  still  had,  here  and  there, 
in  the  government  He  taxes  them,  he  taxes  the 
ecclesiastics;  he  meditates  establishing  a  tax  pro- 
portional to  incomes  and  reaching  all  classes.  He 
protects  the  peasants,  alleviates  serfdom,  dimin- 
ishes the  corvees,  builds  hospitals,  schools  above 
all,  in  which  the  state  will  form  pupils  to  obey 
her.  His  ideal  would  be  the  equality  of  his  sub- 
jects under  the  uniform  sway  of  his  government. 
He  unifies  the  laws;  he  institutes  courts  of  appeal 
with  a  supreme  court  for  the  entire  empire.  He 
makes  regulations  for  manufactures,  binds  com- 
merce to  the  most  rigorous  protective  system.  Fi- 
nally he  puts  a  high  hand  on  the  church  and  de- 
crees tolerance.  .  .  .  This  immense  revolution  was 
accomplished  by  means  of  decrees,  in  less  than  five 
years.  If  we  compare  the  state  of  cohesion  which 
the  Bourbon  government  had  brought  about  in 
France  in  1780,  with  the  incoherence  of  the  Aus- 
trian monarchy  on  the  death  of  Maria  Theresa  in 
1780,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  revolution  which 
caused  the  Constituent  Assembly  was  a  small  mat- 
ter compared  with  that  which  Joseph  II.  intended 
to  effect."- — A.  Sorel,  L'Europe  et  la  revolution 
franfaise  (trans,  from  the  French),  pt.  1,  pp.  iig- 
122. 

1772-1773.— First  partition  of  Poland.  See  Po- 
land: 1763-1700. 

1777-1779. — Question  of  the  Bavarian  succes- 
sion.   See  Bav.\rla:  i 777-1 779. 


694 


AUSTRIA,  1780 


Wars 
with  France 


AUSTRIA,  1798-1806 


1780. — Armed  Neutrality  League.  See  Armed 
Neutrality.  • 

1780-1794. — Contention  for  control  of  Luxem- 
burg.   See  Luxemburg:   17S0-1914.. 

1782-1790.— Conflict  with  Pope.  See  Rome: 
Modern  City:  1782-1790. 

1782-1811.— Abolition  of  serfdom.  See  Slav- 
ery: 1000-1862. 

1783. — Removal  of  barriers  with  Netherlands. 
See  Netherlands:   1747-1795. 

1787-1791.— War  with  the  Turks.— Treaty  of 
Sistova. — Slight  acquisitions  of  territory.  See 
Turkey:    17  76- 1792. 

1790-1797.— Death  of  Joseph  II  and  Leopold 
II. — Accession  of  Francis  II. — Coalition  against 
and  war  with  revolutionary  France,  to  the 
peace  of  Campo  Formio. — "It  is  a  mistake  to 
imagine  that  the  European  Powers  attacked  the 
Revolution  in  France.  It  was  the  Revolution 
which  attacked  them.  The  diplomatists  of  the 
i8th  century  viewed  at  first  with  cynical  indiffer- 
ence the  meeting  of  the  States-General  at  Ver- 
sailles. .  .  .  The  two  points  which  occupied  the 
attention  of  Europe  in  1789  were  the  condition  of 
Poland  and  the  troubles  in  the  East,  The  ambi- 
tious designs  of  Catherine  and  the  assistance  lent 
to  them  by  Joseph  threatened  the  existence  of  the 
Turkish  Empire,  irritated  the  Prussian  Court,  and 
awakened  English  apprehensions,  always  sensitive 
about  the  safety  of  Stamboul.  Poland,  the  battle- 
field of  cynical  diplomacy,  torn  by  long  dissensions 
and  ruined  by  a  miserable  constitution,  was  vainly 
endeavouring,  under  the  jealous  eyes  of  her  great 
neighbours,  to  avert  the  doom  impending,  and  to 
reassert  her  ancient  claim  to  a  place  among  the 
nations  of  the  world.  But  Russia  had  long  since 
determined  that  Poland  must  be  a  vassal  State  to 
her  or  cease  to  be  a  State  at  all,  while  Prussia, 
driven  to  face  a  hard  necessity,  realised  that  a 
strong  Poland  and  a  strong  Prussia  could  not  exist 
together,  and  that  if  Poland  ever  rose  again  to 
power,  Prussia  must  bid  good-bye  to  unity  and 
greatness.  These  two  questions  to  the  States  in- 
volved seemed  to  be  of  far  more  moment  than 
any  political  reform  in  France,  and  engrossed  the 
diplomatists  of  Europe  until  the  summer  of  1791. 
In  February,  1790,  a  new  influence  was  introduced 
into  European  politics  by  the  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Joseph  and  the  accession  of  his  brother, 
Leopold  II,  Leopold  was  a  man  of  remarkable 
ability,  no  enthusiast  and  no  dreamer,  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  selfish  traditions  of  Austrian  policy 
and  in  some  of  the  subtleties  of  Italian  statecraft, 
discerning,  temperate,  resolute  and  clear-headed, 
quietly  determined  to  have  his  own  way,  and  gen- 
erally skilful  enough  to  secure  it.  Leopold  found 
his  new  dominions  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  con- 
fusion, with  war  and  rebellion  threatening  him  on 
every  side.  He  speedily  set  about  restoring  order. 
He  repealed  the  unpopular  decrees  of  Joseph.  He 
conciliated  or  repressed  his  discontented  subjects. 
He  gradually  re-established  the  authority  of  the 
Crown.  .  .  .  Accordingly,  the  first  eighteen  months 
of  Leopold's  reign  were  occupied  with  his  own  im- 
mediate interests,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  his 
success  was  marked.  Catherine's  vast  schemes  in 
Turkey  had  been  checked.  War  had  been  averted. 
Poland  had  been  strengthened  by  internal  changes. 
Prussia  had  been  conciliated  and  outmanoeuvred, 
and  her  influence  had  been  impaired.  At  last,  at 
the  end  of  August,  1791,  the  Emperor  was  free  to 
face  the  French  problem,  and  he  set  out  for  the 
Castle  of  Pillnitz  to  meet  the  King  of  Prussia  and 
the  Emigrant  leaders  at  the  Saxon  Elector's  Court. 
For  some  time  past  the  restlessness  of  the  French 
Emigrants  had  been  causing  great  perplexity  in 
Europe.    Received  with  open  arms  by  the  ecclesi- 


695 


astical  princes  of  the  Rhine,   by  the  Electors  of 

Mayence  and  Treves,  they  proceeded  to  agitate 
busily  for  their  own  restoration.  .  .  .  The  object 
of  the  Emigrants  was  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  at 
the  European  Courts,  with  the  view  of  inducing 
the  Powers  to  intervene  actively  in  their  behalf. 
.  .  .  After  his  escape  from  France  in  June,  1790, 
the  Comte  de  Provence  established  his  Court  at 
Coblentz,  where  he  was  joined  by  his  brother  the 
Comte  d'Artois,  and  where,  on  the  plea  that  Louis 
was  a  prisoner,  he  claimed  the  title  of  Regent,  and 
assumed  the  authority  of  King.  The  Court  of  the 
two  French  princes  at  Coblentz  represented  faith- 
fully the  faults  and  follies  of  the  Emigrant  party. 
But  a  more  satisfactory  spectacle  was  offered  by 
the  camp  at  Worms,  where  Conde  was  bravely 
trying  to  organise  an  army  to  fight  against  the 
Revolution  in  France.  To  Conde's  standard  flocked 
the  more  patriotic  Emigrants.  .  .  ,  But  the  German 
Princes  in  the  neighbourhood  looked  with  dis- 
favour on  the  Emigrant  army.  [See  also  Germany: 
1791-1792.]  It  caused  confusion  in  their  dominions, 
and  it  drew  down  on  them  the  hostility  of  the 
French  Government.  The  Emperor  joined  them 
in  protesting  against  it.  In  February,  1792, 
Conde's  army  was  compelled  to  abandon  its  camp 
at  Worms,  and  to  retire  further  into  Germany. 
The  Emperor  was  well  aware  of  the  reckless  self- 
ishness of  the  Emigrant  princes.  He  had  as  little 
sympathy  with  them  as  his  sister.  He  did  not 
intend  to  listen  to  their  demands.  If  he  interfered 
in  France  at  all,  it  would  only  be  in  a  cautious 
and  tentative  manner,  and  in  order  to  save  Marie 
Antoinette  and  her  husband.  Certainly  he  would 
not  undertake  a  war  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Ancien  Regime.  .  .  .  AccordinElv.  the  interviews 
at  Pillnitz  came  to  nothing.  [See  also  Pillnitz, 
Declaration  of.]  ...  Early  in  March,  1792,  Leo- 
pold suddenly  died.  His  heir  Francis,  unrestrained 
by  his  father's  tact  and  moderation,  assumed  a 
different  tone  and  showed  less  patience.  The 
chances  of  any  efl'cctive  pressure  from  the  Powers 
declined,  as  the  prospect  of  war  rose  on  the  hori- 
zon. Francis'  language  was  sufficiently  sharp  to 
give  the  Assembly  the  pretext  which  it  longed  for, 
and  on  the  20th  April,  Louis,  amid  general  en- 
thusiasm, came  down  to  the  Assembly  and  de- 
clared war  against  Austria.^  J'he  effects  of  that 
momentous  step  no  comment  can  exaggerate.  It 
ruined  the  best  hopes  of  the  Revolution,  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  military  despotism  in  the 
future." — C.  E.  Mallet,  French  Revolution,  ch.  7. 
See  France:  1790-1791;  1791  (July-December); 
1791-1792;  1792  (April-July),  and  (September- 
December);  1792-1793  (December-February); 
1793  (February-.A.pril),  (March-September),  and 
(July-December);  1794  (March-July);  1794-1795 
(October-May);  1795  (June-December);  1796 
(April-October);  and  1796-1797  (October-April); 
1797    (.^pril-May). 

1791. — Emperor  Leopold's  manifesto  of  Pad- 
ua.    See  Padua,  Declaration  of. 

1794-1796.— Third  partition  of  Poland.— 
Austrian  share  of  the  spoils.  See  Poland:  1793- 
1796. 

1795. — Galicia  becomes  a  crown  land  of  Aus- 
tria.   See  Galicia. 

1797  (October).— Treaty  of  Campo-Formio 
with  France.— Cession  of  the  Netherlands  and 
Lombard  provinces. — Acquisition  of  Venice  and 
Venetian  territories.  See  France:  1797  (May- 
October). 

1798-1806.— Congress  of  Rastadt.— Second  co- 
alition against  France.— Peace  of  Lun^ville.— 
Third  coalition.— Ulm  and  Austerlitz.— Peace  of 
Pressburg.- Extinction  of  the  Holy  Roman  em- 
pire.—Birth  of  the  empire  of  Austria.— "When 


AUSTRIA,  1798-1806 


Wars 
with  Napoleon 


AUSTRIA,  1798-1806 


Bonaparte  sailed  for  Egypt  he  had  left  a  congress 
at   Rastadt  discussing  means  for  the  execution  of 
certain   articles   in   the   treaty   of   Campo    Formio 
which  were  to  establish  peace  between  France  and 
the    Empire.  .  .  .  Though    openiy    undertaking    to 
invite  the  Germans  to  a  congress  in  order  to  settle 
a  general  peace   on  the   basis   oi   the   integrity    '^f 
the  Empire,  the  Emperor  agreed  in  secret  articles 
to   use  his  influence   to   procure   for   the   Republic 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  with  the  exception  of 
the  Prussian  provinces,  to  join  with  France  in  ob- 
taining   compensation    in    Germany    for    those   in- 
jured by  this  change,  and  to  contribute  no  more 
than  his'  necessary  contingent  if  the  war  were  pro- 
longed.    The  ratification  of  these  secret  provisions 
had  been  extorted   from  the   Congress   by   threats 
before    Bonaparte   had   left;    but    the    question   of 
indemnification  had  progressed  no  farther  than  a 
decisioi)   to   secularise    the   ecclesiastical   states   for 
the  purpose,  when  extravagant  demands  from  the 
French    deputies   brought   negotiation   to   a   dead- 
lock.    Meanwhile,  another  coalition  war  had  been 
brewing.     Paul    I.   of    Russia   had   regarded    with 
little  pleasure  the  doings  of  the   Revolution,  ancl 
when    his    proteges,   the    knights    of    St.    John    of 
Jerusalem,  had  been  deprived  of  Malta  by  Bona- 
parte on  his  way  to  Egypt,  when  the  Directory  es- 
tablished by  force  of  arms  a  Helvetic  republic  in 
Switzerland',  when  it  found  occasion  to  carry  off 
the  Pope  into  exile  and  erect  a  Roman  republic, 
he  abandoned  the  cautious  and  self-seeking  policy 
of    Catherine,    and    cordially    responded    to    Pitt's 
advances  for  an  alliance.     At  the  same  time  Tur- 
key was  compelled  by  the  invitation  of  Egypt  to 
ally  itself  for  once  with  Russia.    Austria,  convinced 
that  the  French  did  not  intend  to  pay  a  fair  price 
for  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  also  determined 
to  renew   hostilities;    and   Naples,   exasperated   by 
the  sacrilege  of  a  republic  at  Rome,  and  alarmed 
by    French    aggressiveness,    enrolled    itself    in    the 
league.     The  Neapolitan  king,  indeed,  opened  the 
war   with    some   success,   before   he   could    receive 
support   from    his   allies;    but   he    was   soon    van- 
quished  by   the   French,   and   his   dominions   were 
converted  into  a  Parthenopean  republic.     Austria, 
on  the  contrary,  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  Rus- 
sian forces ;  and  the  general  campaign  began  early 
in  1709.     The  French,  fighting  against  such  gener- 
als as  the  Archduke  Charles  and  the  Russian  Su- 
varoff,  without  the  supervision   of   Carnot   or   the 
strategy  and  enterprise  of  Bonaparte,  suffered  se- 
vere reverses  and  great  privations.     Towards  the 
end  the  Russian  army  endured  much  hardship  on 
account  of  the  selfishness  of  the  Austrian  cabinet ; 
and    this   caused   the   Tsar,   who   thought   he   had 
other  reasons  for  discontent,  to  withdraw  his  troops 
from  the  field.     When  Bonaparte  was  made  First 
Consul  the  military  position  of  France  was,  never- 
theless,    very     precarious.  .  .  .  The     Roman     and 
Cisalpine  republics  had  fallen.     The  very  congress 
at  Rastadt  had  been  dispersed  by  the  approach  of 
the  Austrians;  and  the  French  emissaries  had  been 
sabred    by    Austrian    troopers,    though    how    their 
insolence    came    to    be    thus    foully    punished    has 
never  been  clearly  explained,     .^t  this  crisis  France 
was   rescued  from   foreign   foes  and  domestic  dis- 
orders by  its  most  successful  general.  ...  In  the 
campaign   which  followed,   France  obtained  signal 
satisfaction    for  its   chagrin.     Leaving   Moreau   to 
carry  the  war  into  Germany,  Bonapaite  suddenly 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  on  the 
plain    of   Marengo.     The   Austrians,   though   com- 
pletely cowed,  refrained  from  concluding  a  definite 
peace   out   of   respect   for   their   engagements   with 
England;    and    armistices,   expiring    into    desultory 
warfare,    prolonged    the   contest    till    Moreau    laid 
the  way  open  to  Vienna,  by   winning  a  splendid 


triumph  at  Hohenlinden..  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
finally    concluded   at    Luneville,   when   Francis   II. 
pledged  the  Empire  to  its  provisions  on  the  ground 
of  the  consents  already  given  at  Rastadt.     In  con- 
formity with  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  Austria 
retained  the  boundary  of  the  Adige  in  Italy ;  France 
kept  Belgium  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine;  and 
the    princes,    dispossessed    by    the    cessions,    were 
promised   compensation    in   Germany ;    while   Tus- 
cany was  given  to  France  to  sell  to  Spain  at  the 
price  of   Parma,   Louisiana,  six   ships  of  the   Hne, 
and  a  sum   of  money.     Shortly  afterwards  peace 
was  extended  to  Naples  on  easy  terms.  .  .  .  The 
time  was  now  come  for  the  Revolution  to  complete 
the   ruin  of  the   Holy   Roman   Empire.     Pursuant 
to  the  treaty   of  Luneville,  the  German  Diet  met 
at  Ragensburg  to  discuss  a  scheme  of  compensation 
for  the  dispossessed  rulers.     Virtually  the  meeting 
was  a  renewal  of  the  congress  of  Rastadt.  ...  At 
Rastadt  the  incoherence  and  disintegration  of  the 
vensrable  Empire  had  become  painfully  apparent. 
.  .  .  When  it  was  known  that  the  head  of  the  na- 
tion, who  had  guaranteed  the  integrity  of  the  Em- 
pire jn  the   preliminaries  of  Leoben,  and  had  re- 
newed  the   assurance   when   he   convoked  the   as- 
sembly,   had    in    truth    betrayed    to    the    stranger 
nearly  all  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine — the  German 
rulers   greedily   hastened   to   secure   every   possible 
trifle  in  the  scramble  of  redistribution.     The  slow 
and  wearisome  debates  were  supplemented  by  in- 
trigues  of   the   most   degraded   nature.     Conscious 
that  the  French  Consul  could  give  a  casting  vote 
on   any   disputed   question,   the   princes   found   no 
indignity  too  shameful,  no  trick  too  base,  to  ob- 
tain his  favour.  .  .  .  The  First  Consul,  on  his  side, 
prosecuted  with  a  duplicity  and  address,  heretofore 
unequalled,  the  traditional  policy  of  France  in  Ger- 
man affairs.  .  .  .  Feigning  to  take  into  his  coun- 
sels the  young  Tsar,  whose  convenient  friendship 
was  thus  easily  obtained  on  account  of  his  family 
connections  with  the  German  courts,  he  drew  up 
a  scheme   of   indemnification   and   presented   it  to 
the  Diet  for  endorsement.     In  due  time  a  servile 
assent  was  given  to  even,'  point  which  concerned 
the  two  autocrats.    By  this  settlement,  .Austria  and 
Prussia   were   more   equally    balanced   against   one 
another,  the  former  being  deprived  of  influence  In 
Western  Germany,  and  the  latter  finding  in  more 
convenient  situations  a  rich  recompense  for  its  ces- 
sions on  the  Rhine ;   while  the  middle  states,  Ba- 
varia, Baden,  and  Wiirtemberg,  received  very  con- 
siderable accessions  of  territory.     But  if  Bonaparte 
dislocated    yet    further    the    political    structure    of 
Germany,  lie  was  at  least  instrumental  in  remov- 
ing the  worst  of  the  anachronisms  which  stifled  the 
development    of    improved    institutions    among    a 
large   division   of   its   people.     The   same   measure 
which    brought    German    separatism    to   a   climax, 
also  extinguished  the  ecclesiastical  sovereignties  and 
nearly  all  the  free  cities.     That   these  strongholds 
of    priestly    obscurantism    and    bourgeois    apathy 
would  some  day  be  invaded  by  their  more  ambi- 
tious and  active  neighbours,  had  long  been  appar- 
ent.     .  .  .\nd  war  was  declared  when  thousands  of 
British  subjects  visiting   France  had  already   been 
ensnared  and  imprisoned    .  .  .  Pitt  had  taken  the 
conduct  of  the  war  out  of  the  hands  of  .^dding- 
ton's  feeble  ministry.     Possessing  the  confidence  of 
the  powers,  he  rapidly  concluded  offensive  alliances 
with   Russia,  Sweden,   and   .Austria,   though  Prus- 
sia obstinately  remained  neutral.     Thus,  by   1805, 
Napoleon   had   put   to   hazard   all   his   lately   won 
power  in  a  conflict  with  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
The  battle  of  Cape  Trafalgar   [1805]   crushed  for 
good   his  maritime   power,  and   rendered   England 
safe   from  direct  attack.     The  campaign   on  land, 
however,    made    him    master    of    central    Europe. 


696 


AUSTRIA,  1800-1819 


Wars 
with  Napoleon 


AUSTRIA,  1809-1814 


Bringing  the  Austrian  army  in  Germany  to  an 
inglorious  capitulation  at  Ulm,  he  marched  through 
Vienna,  and,  with  inferior  forces  won  in  his  best 
style  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  against  the  troops  of 
Francis  and  Alexander.  The  action  was  decisive. 
The  allies  thought  not  of  renewing  the  war  with 
the  relays  of  troops  which  were  hurrying  up  from 
North  and  South.  Russian  and  Austrian  alike 
wished  to  be  rid  of  their  ill-fated  connection.  The 
Emperior  Alexander  silently  returned  home,  pur- 
sued only  by  Napoleon's  flattering  tokens  of  es- 
teem; the  Emperor  Francis  accepted  the  peace  of 
Pressburg,  which  deprived  his  house  of  the  ill- 
gotten  Venetian  States,  Tyrol,  and  its  more  dis- 
tant possessions  in  Western  Germany ;  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  had  been  on  the  point  of  joining  the 
coalition  with  a  large  army  if  his  mediation  were 
unsuccessful,  was  committed  to  an  alliance  with 
the  conqueror  by  his  terrified  negotiator.  And 
well  did  Napoleon  appear  to  make  the  fruits  of 
victory  compensate  France  for  its  exertions.  The 
empire  was  not  made  more  unwieldy  in  bulk,  but 
its  dependents.  Bavaria,  VVUrtemberg.  and  Baden, 
received  considerable  accessions  of  territory,  and 
the  two  first  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  kingdoms; 
while  the  Emperor's  Italian  principality,  which  he 
had  already  turned  into  a  kingdom  of  Italy  to  the 
great  disgust  of  Austria,  was  increased  by  the  ad- 
ditioi.  of  the  ceded  Venetian  lands.  But  the  full 
depth  of  Europe's  humiliation  was  not  experienced 
till  the  two  following  years.  In  i8o6  an  Act  of 
Federation  was  signed  by  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wiirtemberg,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  and  thirteen 
minor  princes,  which  united  them  into  a  league 
under  the  protection  of  the  French  Emperor.  The 
objects  of  this  confederacy,  known  as  the  Rhein- 
bund  were  defence  against  foreign  aggression  and 
the  exercise  of  complete  autonomy  at  home.  .  .  . 
Already  the  consequences  of  the  Peace  of  Luneville 
had  induced  the  ruling  Hapsburg  to  assure  his 
equality  with  the  sovereigns  of  France  and  Russia 
by  taking  the  imperial  title  in  his  own  right ;  and 
before  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  made 
public  he  formally  renounced  his  office  of  elective 
Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  released 
from  allegiance  to  him  all  the  states  and  princes  of 
the  Reich.  The  triumph  of  the  German  policy  of 
the  Consulate  was  complete." — A.  Weir,  Historical 
basis  of  modern  Europe,  ch.  4. — See  also  France: 
i798-i7qQ,  to  1805;  and  Germany:  1801-1803,  to 
1805-1806. 

1800-1819. — Development  of  suffrage. — Badeni 
law.    See  Suffrage,  Manhood:  Austria. 

1809-1814. — Second  struggle  with  Napoleon 
and  the  second  defeat. — Marriage  alliance. — 
Germanic  War  of  Liberation. — Final  alliance 
and  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon. — "On  the  i2tb 
of  July,  1806,  fourteen  princes  of  the  south  and 
west  of  Germany  united  themselves  into  the  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  and  recognised  Napoleon 
as  their  protector.  On  the  ist  of  August,  they 
signified  to  the  diet  of  Ratisbon  their  separation 
from  the  Germanic  body.  The  Empire  of  Germany 
ceased  to  exist,  and  Francis  11.  abdicated  the  title 
by  proclamation.  By  a  convention  signed  at 
Vienna,  on  the  isth  of  December,  Prussia  ex- 
changed the  territories  of  Anspach,  Cleves  and 
Neufchatel  for  the  electorate  of  Hanover.  Napo- 
leon had  all  the  west  under  his  power.  Absolute 
master  of  France  and  Italy,  as  emperor  and  king, 
he  was  also  master  of  Spain,  by  the  dependence 
of  that  court;  of  Naples  and  Holland,  by  his  two 
brothers;  of  Switzerland,  by  the  act  of  mediation; 
and  in  Germany  he  had  at  his  disposal  the  kings 
of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg,  and  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  against  Austria  and  Prussia.  .  .  . 
This  encroaching  progress  gave  rise  to  the  fourth 


coalition.  Prussia,  neutral  since  the  peace  of  Bale, 
had,  in  the  last  campaign,  been  on  the  point  of 
joining  the  Austro-Russian  coalition.  The  rapid- 
ity of  the  emperor's  victories  had  alone  restrained 
her;  but  now,  alarmed  at  the  aggrandizement  of 
the  empire,  and  encouraged  by  the  line  condi- 
tion of  her  troops,  she  leagued  with  Russia  to 
drive  the  French  from  Germany.  .  .  .  The  cam- 
paign opened  early  in  October.  Napoleon,  as 
usual,  overwhelmed  the  coalition  by  the  prompti- 
tude of  his  marches  and  the  vigour  of  his  meas- 
ures. On  the  14th  of  October,  he  destroyed  at 
Jena  the  military  monarchy  of  Prussia  by  a  de- 
cisive victory.  .  .  .  The  campaign  in  Poland  was 
less  rapid,  but  as  briUiant  as  that  of  Prussia. 
Russia,  for  the  third  time,  measured  its  strength 
with  France.  Conquered  at  Zurich  and  Auster- 
litz, it  was  also  defeated  at  Eylau  and  Friedland. 
After  these  memorable  battles,  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander entered  into  a  negotiation,  and  concluded 
at  Tilsit,  on  the  21st  of  June,  1807,  an  armistice 
which  was  followed  by  a  definitive  treaty  on  the 
7th  of  July.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  extended  the 
French  domination  on  the  continent.  Prussia  was 
reduced  to  half  its  extent.  In  the  south  of  Ger- 
many, Napoleon  had  instituted  the  two  kingdoms 
of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  against  Austria;  fur- 
ther to  the  north,  he  created  the  two  feudatory 
kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Westphalia  against  Prus- 
sia. ...  In  order  to  obtain  universal  and  uncon- 
tested supremacy,  he  made  use  of  arms  against 
the  continent,  and  the  cessation  of  commerce 
against  England.  But  in  forbidding  to  the  con- 
tinental states  all  communication  with  England, 
he  was  preparing  new  difficulties  for  himself,  and 
soon  added  to  the  animosity  of  opinion  excited 
by  his  despotism,  and  the  hatred  of  states  pro- 
duced by  his  conquering  domination,  the  ex- 
asperation of  private  interests  and  commercial  suf- 
fering occasioned  by  the  blockade.  .  .  .  The  ex- 
pedition of  Portugal  in  1807,  and  the  invasion 
of  Spain  in  1808,  began  for  him  and  for  Europe 
a  new  order  of  events.  .  .  .  The  reaction  mani- 
fested itself  in  three  countries,  hitherto  allies 
of  France,  and  it  brought  on  the  fifth  coalition. 
The  court  of  Rome  was  dissatisfied;  the  peninsula 
was  wounded  in  its  national  pride  by  having 
imposed  upon  it  a  foreign  king;  in  its  usages,  by 
the  suppression  of  convents,  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  of  the  grandees;  Holland  suffered  in  its  com- 
merce from  the  blockade,  and  Austria  supported 
impatiently  its  losses  and  subordinate  condition. 
England,  watching  for  an  opportunity  to  revive 
the  struggle  on  the  continent,  excited  the  re- 
sistance of  Rome,  the  peninsula,  and  the  cabinet 
of  Vienna.  .  .  .  Austria  .  .  .  made  a  powerful  ef- 
fort, and  raised  550,000  men,  comprising  the  Land- 
wehr,  and  took  the  field  in  the  spring  of  i8og. 
The  Tyrol  rose,  and  King  Jerome  was  driven 
from  his  capital  by  the  Westphalians;  Italy 
wavered ;  and  Prussia  only  waited  till  Napoleon 
met  with  a  reverse,  to  take  arms;  but  the  em- 
peror was  still  at  the  height  of  his  power  and 
prosperity.  He  hastened  from  Madrid  in  the 
beginning  of  February,  and  directed  the  members 
of  the  confederation  to  keep  their  contingents  in 
readiness.  On  the  12  th  of  April  he  left  Paris, 
passed  the  Rhine,  plunged  into  Germany,  gained 
the  victories  of  Eckmiihl  and  Essling,  occupied 
Vienna  a  second  time  on  the  15th  of  May,  and 
overthrew  this  new  coalition  by  the  battle  of  Wag- 
ram,  after  a  campaign  of  four  months.  .  .  .  The 
peace  of  Vienna,  of  the  nth  of  October,  1809,  de- 
prived the  house  of  Austria  of  several  more 
provinces,  and  compelled  it  again  to  adopt  the 
continental  system.  .  .  .  Napoleon,  who  seemed  to 
follow  a  rash  but  inflexible  policy,  deviated  from 


697 


AUSTRIA,  1809-1814 


Overthrow 
of  Napoleon 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1835 


his  course  about  this  time  by  a  second  marriage. 
He  divorced  Josephine  that  he  might  give  an 
heir  to  the  empire,  and  married,  on  the  ist  of 
April,  iSio,  Marie-Louise,  arch-duchess  of  Aus- 
tria. This  was  a  decided  error.  He  quitted  his 
position  and  his  post  as  a  parvenu  and  revolution- 
ary monarch,  opposing  in  France  the  ancient  courts 
as  the  republic  had  opposed  the  ancient  govern- 
ments. He  placed  himself  in  a  false  situation 
with  respect  to  Austria,  which  he  ought  either 
to  have  crushed  after  the  victory  of  Wagram,  or 
to  have  reinstated  in  its  possessions  after  his  mar- 
riage with  the  arch-duchess.  .  .  .  The  birth,  on 
the  2oth  of  March,  1811,  of  a  son,  who  re- 
ceived the  title  of  king  of  Rome,  seemed  to  con- 
solidate the  power  of  Napoleon,  by  securing  to 
him  a  successor.  The  war  in  Spain  was  prose- 
cuted with  vigour  during  the  years  1810  and 
181 1.  .  .  .  While  the  war  was  proceeding  in  the 
peninsula  with  advantage,  but  without  any  de- 
cided success,  a  new  campaign  was  preparing  in 
the  north.  Russia  perceived  the  empire  of  Na- 
poleon approaching  its  territories.  .  .  .  About  the 
close  of  1810,  it  increased  its  armies,  renewed  its 
commercial  relations  with  Great  Britain,  and  did 
not  seem  indisposed  to  a  rupture.  The  year  1811 
was  spent  in  negotiations  which  led  to  nothing, 
and  preparations  for  war  were  made  on  both 
sides.  ...  On  the  gth  of  March,  Napoleon  left 
Paris.  .  .  .  During  several  months  he  fixed  his 
court'  at  Dresden,  where  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
the  king  of  Prussia,  and  all  the  sovereigns  of 
Germany,  came  to  bow  before  his  high  fortune. 
On  the  22nd  of  June,  war  was  declared  against 
Russia.  .  .  .  Napoleon,  who,  according  to  his  cus- 
tom, wished  to  finish  all  in  one  campaign,  ad- 
vanced at  once  into  the  heart  of  Russia,  instead 
of  prudently  organizing  the  Polish  barrier  against 
it.  His  army  amounted  to  about  500,000  men. 
He  passed  the  Niemen  on  the  24th  of  June;  took 
Wilna,  and  VVitepsk,  defeated  the  Russians  at 
Astrowno,  Polotsk,  Mohilow  Smolensko,  at  the 
Moskowa,  and  on  the  14th  of  September,  made 
his  entry  into  Moscow.  .  .  .  Moscow  was  burned 
by  its  governor.  .  .  .  The  emperor  ought  to  have 
seen  that  this  war  would  not  terminate  as  the 
others  had  done;  yet,  conqueror  of  the  foe,  and 
master  of  his  capital,  he  conceived  hopes  of  peace 
which  the  Russians  skilfully  encouraged.  Winter 
was  approaching,  and  Napoleon  prolonged  his  stay 
at  Moscow  for  six  weeks.  He  delayed  his  move- 
ments on  account  of  the  deceptive  negotiations 
of  the  Russians;  and  did  not  decide  on  a  re- 
treat till  the  I  gth  of  October.  This  retreat  was 
disastrous,  and  began  the  downfall  of  the  empire. 
.  .  .  The  cabinet  of  Berlin  began  the  defections. 
On  the  ist  of  March,  1S13,  it  joined  Russia  and 
England,  W'hich  were  forming  the  si.xth  coalition. 
Sweden  acceded  to  it  soon  after ;  .yet  the  emperor, 
whom  the  confederate  power  thought  prostrated  by 
the  last  disaster,  opened  the  campaign  with  new 
victories.  The  battle  of  Lutzen,  won  by  con- 
scripts, on  the  2nd  of  May,  the  occupation  of 
Dresden ;  the  victory  of  Bautzen,  and  the  war 
carried  to  the  Elbe,  astonished  the  coalition.  Aus- 
tria, which,  since  1810,  had  been  on  a  footing  of 
peace,  was  resuming  arms,  and  already  meditating 
a  change  of  alliance.  She  now  propored  herself 
as  a  mediatri.x  between  the  emperor  and  the  con- 
federates. Her  mediation  was  accepted;  an  armis- 
tice was  concluded  at  Pleswitz,  on  the  4th  of 
June,  and  a  congress  assembled  at  Prague  to 
negotiate  peace.  It  was  impossible  to  come  to 
terms.  .  .  .  Austria  joined  the  coalition,  and  war, 
the  only  means  of  settling  this  great  contest,  was 
resumed.  The  emperor  had  only  280,000  men 
agamst  520,000.  .  .  .  Victory  seemed,  at  first,  to 


second  him.  At  Dresden  he  defeated  the  com- 
bined forces;  but  the  defeats  of  his  lieutenants 
deranged  his  plans.  .  .  .  The  princes  of  the  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  chose  this  moment  to 
desert  the  cause  of  the  empire.  .^  vast  engagement 
having  taken  place  at  Leipsic  between  the  two 
armies,  the  Saxons  and  Wiirterabergers  passed  over 
to  the  enemy  on  the  field  of  battle.  This  de- 
fection to  the  strength  of  the  coalesced  povjers, 
who  had  learned  a  more  compact  and  skilful  mode 
of  warfare,  obliged  Napoleon  to  retreat,  after  a 
struggle  of  three  days.  .  .  .  The  empire  was  in- 
vaded in  all  directions.  The  Austrians  entered 
Italy;  the  English,  having  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  peninsula  during  the  last  two  years, 
had  passed  the  Bidassoa,  under  General  Welling- 
ton, and  appeared  on  the  Pyrenees.  Three  armies 
pressed  on  France  to  the  east  and  north.  .  .  . 
Napoleon  was  .  .  .  obliged  to  submit  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  allied  powers;  their  pretensions  in- 
creased w'th  their  power.  ...  On  the  nth  of 
April,  1S14,  he  renounced  for  himself  and  children 
the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy,  and  received  in 
exchange  for  his  vast  sovereignty,  the  limits  of 
which  had  extended  from  Cadiz  to  the  Baltic 
Sea,  the  little  island  of  Elba." — F.  .A..  Mignet,  His- 
tory of  the  French  revolution,  ch.  15.  See  Ger- 
many: i8oq  (January-June),  to  1813;  Russia: 
1812;  and  Fr.^nxe;   1810-1812  to  1S14. 

1812. — Extent  of  empire  in  Europe. — Region  of 
Napoleon's  campaign.  See  Europe:  Modern: 
Map  of  Central  Europe  in   1812. 

1814. — Restored  rule  in  northern  Italy.  See 
Italy:    1814;   1814-1815. 

1814-1815. — Occupation  of  Lyons.  See  Lyons: 
19th    century. 

1814-1815. — Treaties  of  Paris  and  Congress  of 
Vienna. — Readjustment  of  French  boundaries. — 
Recovery  of  the  Tyrol  from  Bavaria  and  Lom- 
bardy  in  Italy. — Acquisition  of  the  Venetian 
states.  See  Fr.\nce;  1S14  (April-June),  and  1815 
(June-August)  ;    also   Viex.va,  Tue   Congress  of. 

1814-1820. — Formation  of  the  Germanic  con- 
federation. See  Germany:  1814-1820;  Vienna, 
Congress  of. 

1815. — Holy  Alliance.    See  Holy  Allunce. 

1815. — Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba. — Quad- 
ruple Alliance. — Waterloo  campaign  and  its  re- 
sults.—War  against  Murat  in  Naples.  See  Aix- 
la-Chapelle:  Conference  of  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  and 
France:  1804-1815;  1815  (June);  It.\ly:  (South- 
ern):   1815. 

1815  (January  3).— Secret  treaty  with  France 
and  England  in  defense  of  Paris.    See  Vienna, 

Co.VGRESS  OF. 

1815-1835. — Emperor  Francis,  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  and  "the  system." — "After  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  in  1809,  and  still  more  conspicuously  after 
the  pacification  of  Europe,  the  political  wisdom 
of  the  rulers  of  Austria  inclined  them  ever  more 
and  more  to  the  maintenance  of  that  state  of 
things  which  was  known  to  friends  and  foes  as 
the  Systern.  But  what  was  the  System?  It  was 
the  organisation  of  do-nothing.  It  cannot  even 
be  said  to  have  been  reactionary:  it  was  simply 
inactionary.  .  .  .  'Mark  time  in  place'  was  the 
word  of  command  in  ever>'  government  office.  The 
bureaucracy  was  engaged  from  morning  to  night 
in  making  work,  but  nothing  ever  came  of  it. 
Not  even  were  the  liberal  innovations  which  had 
lasted  through  the  reign  of  Leopold  got  rid  of. 
Everything  went  on  in  the  confused,  unfinished, 
and  ineffective  state  in  which  the  great  war  had 
found  it.  Such  was  the  famous  System  which 
was  venerated  by  the  ultra-Tories  of  every  land, 
and  most  venerated  where  it  was  least  understood. 
Two  men  dominate  the  history  of  Austria  during 


698 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1835 


"System" 
of  Metternich 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1846 


this  unhappy  time — men  who,  though  utterly  un- 
like in  character  and  intellect,  were  nevertheless 
admirably  fitted  to  work  together,  and  whose 
names  will  be  long  united  in  an  unenviable 
notoriety.  These  were  the  Emperor  Francis  and 
Prince  Metternich.  The  first  was  the  evil  genius 
of  internal  politics;  the  second  exercised  a  hardly 
less  baneful  influence  over  foreign  affairs.  .  .  .  For 
the  external  policy  of  Prince  Metternich,  the  first 
and  most  necessary  condition  was,  that  Austria 
should  give  to  Europe  the  impression  of  fixed 
adherence  to  the  most  extreme  Conservative  views. 
So  for  many  years  they  worked  together,  Prince 
Metternich  always  declaring  that  he  was  a  mere 
tool  in  the  hands  of  his  master,  but  in  reality 
far  more  absolute  in  the  direction  of  his  own 
department  than  the  emperor  was  in  his.  .  .  . 
Prince  Metternich  had  the  power  of  making  the 
meet  of  all  he  knew,  and  'constantly  left  upon 
persons  of  real  merit  the  impression  that  he  was 
a  man  of  lofty  aspirations  and  liberal  views,  who 
forced  himself  to  repress  such  tendencies  in  others 
because  he  thought  that  their  repression  was  a 
sine  qua  non  for  Austria.  The  men  of  ability,  who 
knew  him  intimately,  thought  less  well  of  him. 
To  them  he  appeared  vain  and  superficial,  with 
much  that  recalled  the  French  noblesse  of  the 
old  regime  in  his  way  of  looking  at  things,  and 
emphatically  wanting  in  every  element  of  great- 
ness. With  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  insurrec- 
tion in  1S21,  began  a  period  of  difficulty  and  com- 
plications for  the  statesmen  of  Austria.  There 
were  two  things  of  which  they  were  mortally 
afraid — Russia  and  the  revolution.  Now,  if  they 
assisted  the  Greeks,  they  would  be  playing  into 
the  hands  of  the  second;  and  if  they  opposed 
the  Greeks,  they  would  be  likely  to  embroil  them- 
selves with  the  first.  The  whole  art  of  Prince 
Metternich  was  therefore  exerted  to  keep  things 
quiet  in  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  and  to  postpone 
the  intolerable  'question  d'  Orient.'  Many  were 
the  shifts  he  tried,  and  sometimes,  as  just  after 
the  accession  of  Nicholas,  his  hopes  rose  very 
high.  All  was,  however,  in  vain.  England  and 
Russia  settled  matters  behind  his  back ;  and  al- 
though the  tone  which  the  publicists  in  his  pay 
adopted  towards  the  Greeks  became  more  favour- 
able in  1826-7,  the  battle  of  Navarino  was  a  sad 
surprise  and  mortification  to  the  wily  chancellor. 
Not  less  annoying  was  the  commencement  of  hos- 
tilities on  the  Danube  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte.  The  reverses  with  which  the  great  neigh- 
bour met  in  his  first  campaign  cannot  have  been 
otherwise  than  pleasing  at  Vienna.  But  the  unfor- 
tunate success  which  attended  his  arms  in  the 
second  campaign  soon  turned  ill-dissembled  joy 
into  ill-concealed  sorrow,  and  the  treaty  of  Adrian- 
ople  at  once  lowered  Austria's  prestige  in  the 
East,  and  deposed  Metternich  from  the  command- 
ing position  which  he  had  occupied  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Holy  Allies.  It  became,  indeed,  ever 
more  and  more  evident  in  the  next  few  years  that 
the  age  of  Congress  politics,  during  which  he 
had  been  the  observed  of  all  observers,  was  past 
and  gone,  that  the  diplomatic  period  had  van- 
ished away,  and  that  the  miUtary  period  had  be- 
gun. The  very  form  in  which  the  highest  inter- 
national questions  were  debated  was  utterly 
changed.  At  Vienna,  in  1814,  the  diplomatists 
had  been  really  the  primary,  the  sovereigns  only 
secondary  personages;  while  at  the  interview  of 
Mijnchengriitz,  between  Nicholas  and  the  Em- 
peror Francis,  in  1833,  the  great  autocrat  ap- 
peared to  look  upon  Prince  Metternich  as  hardly 
more  than  a  confidential  clerk.  The  dull  monotony 
of  servitude  which  oppressed  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  empire   was  varied  by   the   agitations  of   one 


of  its  component  parts.  When  the  Hungarian 
Diet  was  dissolved  in  1812,  the  emperor  had 
solemnly  promised  that  it  should  be  called  together 
again  within  three  years.  Up  to  1815,  accordingly, 
the  nation  went  on  giving  extraordinary  levies  and 
supplies  without  much  opposition.  When,  how- 
ever, the  appointed  time  was  fulfilled,  it  began 
to  murmur.  .  .  .  Year  by  year  the  agitation  went 
on  increasing,  till  at  last  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Greek  revolution,  and  the  threatening  appearance 
of  Eastern  politics,  induced  Prince  Metternich  to 
join  his  entreaties  to  those  of  many  other  coun- 
sellors, who  could  not  be  suspected  of  the  slightest 
leaning  to  constitutional  views.  At  length  the 
emperor  yielded,  and  in  1825  Pressburg  was  once 
more  filled  with  the  best  blood  and  most  active 
spirits  of  the  land,  assembled  in  parliament.  Long 
and  stormy  were  the  debates  which  ensued.  Bitter 
was,  from  time  to  time,  the  vexation  of  the  em- 
peror, and  great  was  the  excitement  throughout 
Hungary.  In  the  end,  however,  the  court  of 
Vienna  triumphed.  Hardly  any  grievances  were 
redressed,  while  its  demands  were  fully  conceded. 
The  Diet  of  1825  was,  however,  not  without 
fruit.  The  discussion  which  took  place  advanced 
the  political  education  of  the  people,  who  were 
brought  back  to  the  point  where  they  stood  at 
the  death  of  Joseph  II. — that  is,  before  the  long 
wars  with  France  had  come  to  distract  their  at- 
tention from  their  own  affairs.  .  .  .  The  slumbers 
of  Austria  were  not  yet  over.  The  System  ■ 
dragged  its  slow  length  along.  Little  or  nothing 
was  done  for  the  improvement  of  the  country. 
Klebelsberg  administered  the  finances  in  an  easy  and 
careless  manner.  Conspiracies  and  risings  in  Italy 
were  easily  checked,  and  batches  of  prisoners  sent 
off  from  time  to  time  to  Mantua  or  Spielberg. 
Austrian  influence  rose  ever  higher  and  higher 
in  all  the  petty  courts  of  the  Peninsula.  ...  In 
other  regions  Russia  or  England  might  be  will- 
ing to  thwart  him,  but  in  Italy  Prince  Metter- 
nich might  proudly  reflect  that  Austria  was  in- 
deed a  'great  power.'  The  French  Revolution  of 
1S30  was  at  first  alarming;  but  when  it  resulted 
in  the  enthronement  of  a  dynasty  which  called 
to  its  aid  a  'cabinet  of  repression,'  all  fears  were 
stilled.  The  Emperor  Francis  continued  to  say, 
when  any  change  was  proposed,  'We  must  sleep 
upon  it,'  and  died  in  1835  in  'the  abundance  of 
peace.'"- — M.  E.  Grant  Duff,  Studies  in  European 
politics,  pp.  140-149. — See  also  Germany:  1819- 
1847. 

1815-1846. — Gains  of  the  Hapsburg  monarchy. 
— Its  aggressive  absolutism. — Death  of  Fran- 
cis I. — Accession  of  Ferdinand  I. — Suppression 
of  revolt  in  Galicia. — Extinction  and  annexation 
of  the  republic  of  Cracow. — -"In  the  new  partition 
of  Europe,  arranged  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
[see  Vienna,  The  Congress  of],  Austria  received 
Lombardy  and  Venice  under  the  title  of  a  Lom- 
bardo-Venetian  kingdom,  the  lUyrian  provinces 
also  as  a  kingdom,  Venetian  Dalmatia,  the  Tirol, 
Vorarlberg,  Salzburg,  the  Innviertel  and  Hausrucks- 
viertel,  and  the  part  of  Galicia  ceded  by  her  at 
an  earlier  period.  Thus,  after  three  and  twenty 
years  of  war,  the  monarchy  had  gained  a 
considerable  accession  of  strength,  having  ob- 
tained, in  lieu  of  its  remote  and  unprofitable  pos- 
sessions in  the  Netherlands,  territories  which  con- 
solidated its  power  in  Italy,  and  made  it  as  great 
in  extent  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Charles 
VI.,  and  far  more  compact  and  defensible.  The 
grand  duchies  of  Modena,  Parma,  and  Placentia, 
were  moreover  restored  to  the  collateral  branches 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  .  .  .  After  the  last 
fall  of  Napoleon  .  .  .  the  great  powers  of  the  con- 
tinent .  .  .  constituted    themselves   the    champions 


699 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1846 


Absolutism 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1849 


of    the    principle    of    absolute    monarchy.      The 
maintenance   of   that   principle   ultimately    became 
the    chief    object    of    the    so-called    Holy    Alliance 
established   in    1816   between   Russia.   Austria    and 
Prussia,  and  was  pursued  with  remarkable  stead- 
fastness   by    the    Emperor    Francis    and    his    min- 
ister. Prince  Metternich  [see  Holv  Alliance].  .  .  . 
Thenceforth  it  became  the  avowed  policy  of   the 
chief    sovereigns    of     Germany    to    maintain    the 
rights  of   dynasties  in   an   adverse   sense   to   those 
of  their  subjects.    The  people,  on  the  other  hand, 
deeply  resented  the  breach  of  those  promises  which 
had  been  so  lavishly  made  to  them   on   the  gen- 
eral summons  to  the  war  of  liberation.     Disaffec- 
tion   took   the   place    of   that   enthusiastic   loyalty 
with  which  they  had  bled  and  suffered   for  their 
native    princes;    the   secret   societies,   formed   with 
the   concurrence    of   their   rulers,   for   the   purpose 
of    throwing    off    the   yoke    of    the    foreigner,    be- 
came   ready    instruments   of    sedition.  ...  In    the 
winter  of   iSiq,  a  German  federative  congress  as- 
sembled at  Vienna.     In  May  of  the  following  year 
it   published    an    act    containing    closer    definitions 
of   the   Federative   Act.   having  for   their  essential 
objects    the    exclusion    of    the    various    provincial 
Diets  from  all  positive  interference  in  the  general 
affairs  of  Germany,  and  an  increase  of  the  power 
of   the   princes   over   their   respective   Diets,   by   a 
guarantee  of  aid  on  the  part  of  the  confederates" 
(see  Germany:  1814-1820).    During  the  next  three 
'  years,    the    powers    of    the    Holy    .Mliance,    under 
the  lead   of  Austria,   and   acting   under   a   concert 
established   at   the   successive   congresses   of   Trop- 
pau,  Laibach  and  X'erona   (see  Verona,  Congress 
of),  interfered  to  put  down  popular  risings  against 
the   tyranny   of   government   in    Italy    and   Spain, 
while   they   discouraged   the   revolt   of   the   Greeks 
(see    Italy:     1820-1821;    and   Spain:     1814-1827). 
"The  commotions  that  pervaded  Europe  after  the 
French   Revolution   of    1830   affected   ,\ustria   only 
in  her  Italian  dominions,  and  there  but  indirectly, 
for  the  imperial  authority  remained  undisputed  in 
the   Lombardo-\'enetian   kingdom.     But   the   duke 
of    Modena    and    the    archduke    of    Parma    were 
obliged  to  quit  those  states,  and  a  formidable  in- 
surrection broke  out  in  the  territory  of  the  Church 
An  .Austrian  army  of  18.000  men  quickly  put  down 
the  insurgents,  who  rose  again,  however,  as  soon 
as   it    was   withdrawn.     The    pope    again    invoked 
the  aid  of  .Austria,  whose  troops  entered  Bologna 
in  January,  1832.  and  established  themselves  there 
in   garrison.     Upon   this,   the   French   immediately 
sent  a  force  to  occupy  Ancona,  and  for  a  while  a 
renewal  of  the  oft-repeated  conflict  between  .Aus- 
tria   and    France    on    Italian    ground    seemed    in- 
evitable;   but   it   soon   appeared   that   France   was 
not   prepared  to   support   the   revolutionary   party 
in   the  pope's  dominions,  and   that   danger  passed 
away.     The   French   remained   for   some   years   in 
Ancona,  and  the  .Austrians  in   Bologna   and   other 
towns  of  Romagna.     This  was  the  last  important 
incident  in  the  foreign  affairs  of  .Austria  previous 
to  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  on  the  2nd 
of  March.  183S,  after  a  reign  of  43  years.  .      .  The 
Emperor     Francis     was    succeeded     by     his     son. 
Ferdinand  I.,  whose  accession  occasioned  no  change 
in    the   political    or   administrative   system    of   the 
empire.      Incapacitated,    by    physical    and    mental 
infirmity,  from  labouring  as  his  father  had  done 
in  the  business  of  the  state,  the  new  monarch  left 
to    Prince    Metternich    a   much    more    unrestricted 
power  than  that  minister  had  wielded  in  the  pre- 
ceding  reign.  .  .  .  The  province   of   Galicia   began 
early   in  the   new  reign   to   occasion   uneasiness  to 
the  government.    The  Congress  of  Vienna  had  con- 
stituted   the   city    of    Cracow   an    independent    re- 
public— a   futile   representative  of  that  Polish   na- 


tionality which  had  once  extended  from  the  Baltic 
to  the  Black  Sea.     After  the  failure  of  the  Polish 
insurrection   of    1831    against   Russia,   Cracow   be- 
came the  focus  of  fresh  conspiracies,  to  put  an  end 
to  which  the  city  was  occupied  by  a  mixed  force 
of    Russians,    Prussians,    and    .Austrians ;    the    two 
former   were  soon   withdrawn,  but    the   latter   re- 
mained  until   1840.     When   they   also  had   retired, 
the  Polish  propaganda  was  renewed  with  consid- 
erable effect.    .An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Galicia 
in  1846.  when  the  scantiness  of  the  .Austrian  mill 
tary   JForce   in   the   province   seemed   to   promise   it 
success.      It    failed,    however,   as    all    previous    el- 
forts  of  the  Polish  patriots  had  failed,  because  it 
rested    on    no    basis    of    popular    sympathy.      The 
nationality    for    which    they    contended    had    ever 
been  of  an  oligarchical  pattern,  hostile  to  the  free 
dom   of  the  middle  and   lower  classes.     The   Ga 
lician  peasants  had  no  mind  to  exchange  the  yoke 
of  .Austria,  which   pressed  lightly   upon   them,  for 
the  feudal  oppression  of  the  Polish  nobles.     They 
turned    upon    the    insurgents    and    slew    or    took 
them    prisoners,    the    police    inciting    them    to   the 
work  by  publicly  offering  a  reward  of  five  florins 
for  every  suspected  person  delivered  up  by  them, 
alive  or  dead.     Thus  the  agents  of  a  civilized  gov- 
ernment   became    the    avowed    instigators    of    an 
inhuman    'jacquerie  '     The    houses    of    the    landed 
proprietors  were  sacked  by  the  peasants,  their  in- 
mates were  tortured  and  murdered,  and  bloody  an. 
archy  raged  throughout  the  land  in  the  prostituted 
name  of  loyalty.     The  .Austrian  troops  at  last  re- 
stored order;  but  Szela.  the  leader  of  the  sanguinar\' 
marauders,    was     thanked    and    highly     rewarded 
in   the  name  of  his  sovereign.     In  the  same  year 
the  three  protecting  powers,   .Austria.  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  took  possession  of  Cracow,  and,  ignoring 
the    right    of   the    other   parties   to   the    treaty    of 
X'ienna   to   concern    themselves   about    the   fate   of 
the  republic,  they  announced  that  its  independence 
was  annulled,  and  that   the  city  and  territory   of 
Cracow  were  annexed  to.  and  forever  incorporated 
with,    the    .Austrian    monarchy.      From    this    time 
forth  the  political   atmosphere   of   Europe   became 
more   and   more   loaded   with   the   presages  of  the 
storm  that  burst  in  1848." — W   K.  Kelly.  Continua- 
lion  of  Core's  history  of  the  House  of  Austria,  cli 
5-6.     See  Germany:   Map;   .After  the  Congress  of 
Vienna. 

1815-1849. — Arrangements  in  Italy  of  the  Con- 
gress   of    Vienna. — Heaviness    of   the    Austrian 
yoke. — Italian  risings. — "By  the  treaty  of  Xienna 
(1815).  the  .  .  .  entire  kingdom  of  \'enetian-Lom- 
bardy    was    handed    over    to    the    .Austrians;    the 
duchies  of  Modena,  Reggio.  with  Massa  and  Car- 
rara, given   to  .Austrian  princes;   Parma.  Piacenza. 
and   Guastalla   to  Napoleon's  queen.  Marie  Luisa. 
because  she  was  an  .Austrian  princess;   the  grand- 
duchy   of  Tuscany   to  Ferdinand   III    of  Austria; 
the  duchy  of  Lucca  to  a  Bourbon.     Rome  and  the 
Roman    states    were    restored    to    the    new    Pope. 
Pius  \'II.;  Sicily  was  united  to  Naples  under  the 
Bourbons,  and  later  deprived   of  her  constitution, 
despite   the   promised   protection   of   England;    the 
Canton    Ticino.    though    strictly    Italian,    anne.ited 
to  the  Swiss  Confederation;   the  little  republic  of 
San    Marino   left   intact,   even   as   the   principality 
of  Monaco.     England  retained  Malta ;  (Corsica  was 
left  to  France.     Italy,  so  Metternich  and  Europe 
fondly  hoped,  was  reduced   to  a  geographical  ex- 
pression.    Unjust,  brutal,  and   treacherous  as  was 
that    partition,    at    least    it    taught    the    Italians 
that  'who  would  be  free  himself   must  strike  the 
blow.'     It   united   them  into   one  common   hatred 
of    Austria   and   .Austrian   satellites.     By   .substitut- 
ing   papal.   .Austrian,   and   Bourbon   despotism   for 
the    free   institutions,   codes,   and    constitutions   of 


/ 


00 


AUSTRIA,   1816 


Revolt  of 
Frankfort  Assembly 


AUSTRIA,  1848-1849 


the  Napoleonic  era,  it  taught  them  the  difference 
between  rule  and  misrule.  Hence  the  demand 
of  the  Neapolitans  during  their  first  revolution 
(1820)  was  for  a  constitution;  that  of  the  Pied- 
montese  and  Lombards  (1821)  for  a  constitution 
and  war  against  Austria.  The  Bourbon  swore 
and  foreswore,  and  the  Austrians  'restored  order' 
in  Naples,  The  Piedmontese,  who  had  not  con- 
certed their  movement  until  Naples  was  crushed 
— after  the  abdication  of  Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  the 
granting  of  the  constitution  by  the  regent  Charles 
.Albert,  and  its  abrogation  by  the  new  king  Charles 
Fcli.x — saw  the  .Austrians  enter  Piedmont,  while 
I  he  leaders  of  the  revolution  went  out  into  exile 
I  see  Italy:  1820-1821].  But  those  revolutions  and 
those  failures  were  the  beginning  of  the  end.  The 
will  to  be  independent  of  all  foreigners,  the  thirst 
for  freedom,  was  universal;  the  very  name  of 
empire  or  of  emperor,  was  rendered  ridiculous,  re- 
duced to  a  parody — in  the  person  of  Ferdinand  of 
Austria.  But  one  illusion  remained — in  the  liberat- 
ing virtues  of  France  and  the  French ;  this  had  to 
be  dispelled  by  bitter  experience,  and  for  it  sub- 
stituted the  new  idea  of  one  Italy  for  the  Italians, 
a  nation  united,  independent,  free,  governed  by 
a  president  or  by  a  king  chosen  by  the  sovereign 
people.  The  apostle  of  this  idea,  to  which  for 
fifty  years  victims  and  martyrs  were  sacrificed 
by  thousands,  was  Joseph  Mazzini;  its  champion, 
Joseph  Garibaldi.  By  the  genius  of  the  former, 
the  prowess  of  the  latter,  the  abnegation,  the  con- 
stancy, the  tenacity,  the  iron  will  of  both,  all  the 
populations  of  Italy  were  subjugated  by  that  idea: 
philosophers  demonstrated  it,  poets  sung  it,  pious 
Christian  priests  proclaimed  it,  statesmen  found  it 
confronting  their  negotiations,  baffling  their  half- 
measures." — J.  W.  V.  Mario,  Introduction  to  auto- 
biography of  Garibaldi.  See  Italy:  1830-1832, 
and  1848-1849;  World  War:  Causes;  Indirect: 
b,  1. 

1816. — National  bank  established.  See  Money 
AND  Banking:    i7th-ioth  centuries. 

1821. — Troops  moved  into  Naples  and  Sicily. 
— Restoration  of  Ferdinand.  See  Verona,  Con- 
gress OE. 

1835. — Accession  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 

1839-1840. — Turko-Egyptian  question  and  its 
settlement. — Quadruple  Alliance.  See  Turkey: 
183 1 -1840. 

1848. — Germanic  revolutionary  rising. — Na- 
tional Assembly  at  Frankfort. — Archduke  John 
elected  administrator  of  Germany. — "When  the 
third  French  Revolution  broke  out,  its  influence 
was  immediately  felt  in  Germany.  The  popular 
movement  this  time  was  very  different  from  any 
the  Governments  had  hitherto  had  to  contend 
with.  The  people  were  evidently  in  earnest,  and 
resolved  to  obtain,  at  whatever  cost,  their  chief 
demands.  ,  .  .  The  Revolution  was  most  serious  in 
the  two  great  German  States,  Prussia  and  Aus- 
tria. ...  It  was  generally  hoped  that  union  as 
well  as  freedom  was  now  to  be  achieved  by  Ger- 
many; but,  as  Prussia  and  Austria  were  in  too 
much  disorder  to  do  anything,  about  500  Germans 
from  the  various  States  met  at  Frankfurt,  and  on 
March  21  constituted  themselves  a  provisional  Par- 
liament. An  extreme  party  wished  the  assembly 
to  declare  itself  permanent ;  but  to  this  the  ma- 
jority would  not  agree.  It  was  decided  that  a 
National  Assembly  should  be  elected  forthwith 
by  the  German  people.  The  Confederate  Diet, 
knowing  that  the  provisional  Parliament  was  ap- 
proved by  the  nation,  recognized  its  authority. 
Through  the  Diet  the  various  Governments  were 
communicated  with,  and  all  of  them  agreed  to 
make  arrangements  for  the  elections.  .  .  .  The  Na- 
tional Assembly  was  opened  in  Frankfurt  on  May 


18,  1848.  It  elected  the  Archduke  John  of  Austria 
as  the  head  of  a  new  provisional  central  Gov- 
ernment, The  choice  was  a  happy  one.  The 
Archduke  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  the  dif- 
ferent governments,  and  on  July  12  the  President 
of  the  Confederate  Diet  formally  made  over  to 
him  the  authority  which  had  hitherto  belonged  to 
the  Diet.  The  Diet  then  ceased  to  exist.  The 
.Archduke  chose  from  the  Assembly  seven  mem- 
bers, who  formed  a  responsible  ministry.  The 
.Assembly  was  divided  into  two  parties,  the  Right 
and  the  Left.  These  again  were  broken  up  into 
various  sections.  Much  time  was  lost  in  useless 
discussions,  and  it  was  soon  suspected  that  the 
Assembly  would  not  in  the  end  prove  equal  to 
the  great  task  it  had  undertaken." — J.  Sime,  His- 
tory of  Germany,  cit.  10,  sects.  8-11.  See  Ger- 
many:  1848  (March-September). 

1848  (December). — Accession  of  the  emperor 
Francis  Joseph  I. 

1848-1849. — Revolutionary  risings. — Bombard- 
ment of  Prague  and  Vienna. — Abdication  of  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand. — Accession  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph.— The  Hungarian  struggle  for  indepen- 
dence.— "The  rise  of  national  feeling  among  the 
Hungarian,  Slavonic,  and  Italian  subjects  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg  was  not  the  only  difficulty  of 
the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  Vienna  was  then  the 
gayest  and  the  dearest  centre  of  fashion  and  luxury 
in  Europe,  but  side  by  side  with  wealth  there 
seethed  a  mass  of  wretched  poverty ;  and  the  pro- 
tective trade  system  of  Austria  so  increased  the 
price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  that  bread-riots 
were  frequent.  .  .  .  The  university  students  were 
foremost  in  the  demand  for  a  constitution  and  for 
the  removal  of  the  rigid  censorship  of  the  press 
and  of  all  books.  So,  when  the  news  came  of  the 
flight  of  Louis  Philippe  from  Paris  [see  France: 
1841-1848,  and  1848]  the  students  as  well  as  the 
artisans  of  Vienna  rose  in  revolt  (March  13,  1848), 
the  latter  breaking  machinery  and  attacking  the 
houses  of  unpopular  employers.  A  deputation 
of  citizens  clamoured  for  the  resignation  of  the 
hated  Metternich;  his  house  was  burnt  down,  and 
he  fled  to  England.  .A  second  outbreak  of  the 
excited  populace  (May  15,  1848),  sent  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  in  helpless  flight  to  Innsbruck  in  Tyrol; 
but  he  returned  when  they  avowed  their  loyalty 
to  his  person,  though  they  detested  the  old  bureau- 
cratic system.  Far  more  complicated,  however, 
were  the  race  jealousies  of  the  Empire.  The  Slavj 
of  Bohemia  .  .  .  had  demanded  of  Ferdinand  the 
union  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Austrian  Silesia 
in  Estates  for  those  provinces,  and  that  the  Slavs 
should  enjoy  equal  privileges  with  the  Germans. 
After  an  unsatisfactory  answer  had  been  received, 
they  convoked  a  Slavonic  Congress  at  Prague.  .  .  . 
But  while  this  Babel  of  tongues  was  seeking  for 
a  means  of  fusion.  Prince  Windischgratz  was  as- 
sembling Austrian  troops  around  the  Bohemian 
capital.  Fights  in  the  streets  led  to  a  bombard- 
ment of  the  city,  which  Windischgratz  soon  en- 
tered in  triumph.  This  has  left  a  bitterness  be- 
tween the  Tsechs  or  Bohemians  and  the  Germans 
which  still  divides  Bohemia  socially  and  politically. 
.  .  .  The  exciting  news  of  the  spring  of  1848  had 
made  the  hot  Asiatic  blood  of  the  Magyars  boil; 
yet  even  Kossuth  and  the  democrats  at  first  only 
demanded  the  abolition  of  Metternich's  system  in 
favour  of  a  representative  government.  .  .  .  Un- 
fortunately Kossuth  claimed  that  the  Magyar  laws 
and  language  must  now  be  supreme,  not  only  in 
Hungary  proper,  but  also  in  the  Hungarian  'crown 
lands'  of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  and  the 
enthusiastic  Magyars  wished  also  to  absorb  the 
ancient  principality  of  Transylvania ;  but  this  again 
was  stoutly  resisted  by  the  Roumanians,  Slavs,  and 


701 


AUSTRIA,  1848-1849 


Hungarian  Struggle 
for  Independence 


AUSTRIA,  1848-1850 


Saxons  of  that  little  known  corner  of  Europe, 
and  their  discontent  was  fanned  by  the  court  of 
\'ienna.  Jellachich,  the  Ban  or  Governor  of 
Croatia,  headed  this  movement,  which  aimed  at 
making  Agram  the  capital  of  the  southern  Slavs. 
Their  revolt  against  the  Hungarian  ministry  of 
Batthyany  was  at  first  disavowed  in  June,  1848, 
but  in  October  was  encouraged,  by  the  perfidious 
government  of  Vienna.  A  conference  between 
Batthyany  and  Jellachich  ended  with  words  of 
defiance:  'Then  we  must  meet  on  the  Drave,' 
said  the  Hungarian.  'No,  on  the  Danube,'  re- 
torted the  champion  of  the  Slavs.  The  vacil- 
lating Ferdinand  annulled  his  acceptance  of  the 
new  Hungarian  constitution  and  declared  Jellachich 
dictator  of  Hungary.  His  tool  was  unfortunate. 
After  crossing  the  Drave,  the  Slavs  were  defeated 
by  the  brave  Hungarian  'honveds'  (defenders)  ; 
and  as  many  as  q.ooo  were  made  prisoners.  Un- 
able to  subdue  Hungary,  Jellachich  turned  aside 
towards  V'ienna  to  crush  the  popular  party  there. 
For  the  democrats,  exasperated  by  the  perfidious 
policy  of  the  government,  had,  on  October  6,  184S, 
risen  a  third  time:  the  war-minister,  Latour,  had 
been  hanged  on  a  lamp-post,  and  the  emperor 
again  fled  from  his  turbulent  capital  to  the  ever- 
faithful  Tyrolese.  But  now  Jellachich  and 
Windischgratz  bombarded  the  rebellious  capital. 
It  was  on  the  point  of  surrendering  when  the 
Hungarians  appeared  to  aid  the  city ;  but  the  levies 
raised  by  the  exertions  of  Kossuth  were  this 
time  outmanoeuvred  [and  defeated]  by  the  im- 
perialists at  Schwechat  (October  30,  1848),  and 
on  the  next  day  Vienna  surrendered.  Blum,  a 
delegate  from  Saxony  [to  the  German  Parliament 
of  Frankfort,  who  had  come  on  a  mission  of 
mediation  to  Vienna,  but  who  had  taken  a  part 
in  the  fighting],  and  some  other  democrats,  were 
shot.  By  this  clever  but  unscrupulous  use  of  race 
jealousy  the  Viennese  Government  seemed  to  have 
overcome  Bohemians,  Italians,  Hungarians,  and  the 
citizens  of  its  own  capital  in  turn ;  while  it  had 
diverted  the  southern  Slavonians  from  hostility 
to  actual  service  on  its  side.  .  .  .  The  weak  health 
and  vacillating  spirit  of  Ferdinand  did  not  satisfy 
the  knot  of  courtiers  of  Vienna,  who  now,  flushed 
by  success,  sought  to  concentrate  all  power  in  the 
Viennese  Cabinet.  Worn  out  by  the  excitements 
of  the  year  and  by  the  demands  of  these  men, 
Ferdinand,  on  December  2,  1848,  yielded  up  the 
crown,  not  to  hi.s  rightful  successor,  his  brother, 
but  to  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph.  He,  a  youth 
of  eighteen,  ascended  the  throne  so  rudely  shaken, 
and  ...  in  spite  of  almost  uniform  disaster  in 
war,  [ruled  till  1916]  over  an  empire  larger  and 
more  powerful  than  he  found  it  in  1848.  The 
Hungarians  refused  to  recognise  the  young  sovereign 
thus  forced  upon  them;  and  the  fact  that  he  was 
not  crowned  at  Pressburg  with'  the  sacred  iron 
crown  of  St.  Stephen  showed  that  he  did  not 
intend  to  recognise  the  Hungarian  constitution. 
Austrian  troops  under  Windischgratz  entered  Buda- 
Pesth,  but  the  Hungarian  patriots  withdrew  from 
their  capital  to  organise  a  national  resistance; 
and  when  the  Austrian  Government  proclaimed  the 
Hungarian  constitution  abolished  and  the  complete 
absorption  of  Hungary  in  the  Austrian  Empire, 
Kossuth  and  his  colleagues  retorted  by  a  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  (.\pril  24,  1840).  The  House 
of  Hapsburg  was  declared  banished  from  Hungary, 
which  was  to  be  a  republic.  Kossuth,  the  first 
governor  of  the  new  republic,  and  Gorgei,  its 
general,  raised  armies  which  soon  showed  their 
prowess."  The  first  important  battle  of  the  war 
had  been  fou.ght  at  Kapolna,  on  the  .right  bank 
of  the  Theiss,  on  February  26,  1840,  Gorgei  and 
Dembinski     commanding     the     Hungarians     and 


Windischgratz  leading  the  Austrians.  The  latter 
won  the  victory,  and  the  Hungarians  retreated  to- 
ward the  Theiss.  About  the  middle  of  March, 
Gorgei  resumed  the  offensive,  advancing  toward 
Pesth,  and  encountered  the  Austrians  at  Isaszeg, 
where  he  defeated  them  in  a  hard-fought  battle, 
— or  rather  in  two  battles  which  are  sometimes 
called  by  dift'erent  names:  viz.,  that  of  .  .  .  Bieske 
.  .  .  and  that  of  Godbllo  [in  April].  It  was 
now  the  turn  of  the  .Austrians  to  fall  back,  and 
they  concentrated  behind  the  Rakos,  to  cover 
Pesth.  The  Hungarian  general  passed  round  their 
left,  carried  Waitzen  by  storm,  forced  them  to 
evacute  Pesth  and  to  retreat- to  Pressburg,  abandon- 
ing the  whole  of  Hungary  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  fortresses,  which  they  held.  The  most 
important  of  these  fortresses,  that  of  Buda,  the 
"twin-city,"  opposite  Pesth  on  the  Danube,  was 
besieged  by  the  Hungarians  and  carried  by  storm 
on  May  21.  "In  Transylvania,  too,  the  Hun- 
garians, under  the  talented  Polish  general  Bern, 
overcame  the  Austrians,  Slavonians,  and  Roumani- 
ans in  many  brilliant  encounters.  But  the  proc- 
lamation of  a  republic  had  alienated  those  Hun- 
garians who  had  only  striven  for  their  old 
constitutional  rights,  so  quarrels  arose  between 
Gorgei  and  the  ardent  democrat,  Kossuth.  Worse 
still,  the  Czar  Nicholas,  dreading  the  formation 
of  a  republic  near  his  Polish  provinces  sent  the 
military  aid  which  Francis  Joseph  in  May  1849 
implored.  Soon  80,000  Russians  under  Paskie- 
witch  poured  over  the  northern  Carpathians  to 
help  the  beaten  Austrians,  while  others  overpowered 
the  gallant  Bem  in  Transylvania.  Jellachich  with 
his  Croats  again  invaded  South  Hungary,  and 
Haynau,  the  scourge  of  Lombardy,  marched  on 
the  strongest  Hungarian  fortress,  Komorn,  on  the 
Danube."  The  Hungarians,  overpowered  by  the 
combination  of  Austrians  and  Russians  against 
them,  were  defeated  at  Pered,  June  21;  at  Acs, 
July  3;  at  Komorn,  July  11;  at  Waitzen,  July 
16;  at  Samobor,  July  20;  at  Segesvar,  July  31; 
at  Debreczin,  August  2;  at  Szegedin,  August  4;  at 
Temesvar,  August  10.  "In  despair  Kossuth  handed 
over  his  dictatorship  to  his  rival  Gorgei,  who 
soon  surrendered  at  Vilagos  with  all  his  forces 
to  the  Russians  (.August  13,  1S40).  About  5,000 
men  with  Kossuth,  Bem,  and  other  leaders,  escaped 
to  Turkey.  Even  there  Russia  and  Austria  sought 
to  drive  them  forth ;  but  the  Porte,  upheld  by 
the  Western  Powers,  maintained  its  right  to  give 
sanctuary  according  to  the  Koran.  Kossuth  and 
many  of  his  fellow-exiles  finally  sailed  to  Eng- 
land [and  afterw'ards  to  America],  where  his 
majestic  eloquence  aroused  deep  sympathy  for 
the  afflicted  country.  Many  Hungarian  patriots 
suffered  death.  .All  rebels  had  their  property  con- 
fiscated, and  the  country  was  for  years  ruled 
by  armed  force,  and  its  old  rights  were  abolished." 
— J.  H.  Rose,  Century  of  continental  history,  ch. 
31. — See  also  Hung.«y:  1847-1840. 

Also  in:  Sir  A.  Alison,  History  of  Europe, 
181S-1852,  ck.  SS-— A.  Gorgei,  My  life  and  acts  in 
Hungary. — General  Klapka,  Memoirs  of  the  War 
of  Independence  in  Hungary. — Count  Hartig, 
Genesis  of  the  revolution  in  Austria. — W.  H.  Stiles, 
Austria   in    1S4S-40. 

1848-1849. — Revolt  in  Lombardy  and  Venetia. 
— War  with  Sardinia. — Victories  of  Radetzky. — 
Italy  vanquished  again.  See  It.alv:  1848-1849; 
World  W.\r:   Causes:   Indirect:  b;  b,  3. 

1848-1850.— Failure  of  the  movement  for  Ger- 
manic national  unity. — End  of  the  Frankfort 
assembly. — "Frankfort  had  become  the  centre  of 
the  movement.  The  helpless  Diet  had  acknowl- 
edged the  necessity  of  a  German  parliament,  and 
had  summoned  twelve  men  of  confidence  charged 


702 


AUSTRIA,  1849-1859 


Bureaucracy 
Triumphant 


AUSTRIA,  1856-1859 


with  drawing  up  a  new  imperial  constitution.  But 
it  was  unable  to  supply  what  was  most  wanted — 
a  strong  executive.  .  .  .  Instead  of  establishing 
before  all  a  strong  executive  able  to  control  and 
to  realise  its  resolutions,  the  Assembly  lost  months 
in  discussing  the  fundamental  rights  of  the  Ger- 
man people,  and  thus  was  overhauled  by  the 
events.  In  June,  Prince  Windischgratz  crushed 
the  insurrection  at  Prague;  and  in  November  the 
anarchy  which  had  prevailed  during  the  whole 
summer  at  Berlin  was  put  down,  when  Count 
Brandenburg  became  first  minister.  .  .  .  Schwar- 
zenberg  [at  Vienna]  declared  as  soon  as  he  had 
taken  the  reins,  that  his  programme  was  to  main- 
tain the  unity  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  de- 
manded that  the  whole  of  it  should  enter  into 
the  Germanic  confederation.  This  was  incompati- 
ble with  the  federal  state  as  contemplated  by  the 
National  Assembly,  and  therefore  Gagern,  who  had 
become  president  of  the  imperial  ministry  [at 
Frankfort],  answered  Schwarzenberg's  programme 
by  declaring  that  the  entering  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy  with  a  majority  of  non-German  na- 
tionalities into  the  German  federal  state  was  an 
impossibility.  Thus  nothing  was  left  but  to  place 
the  king  of  Prussia  at  the  head  of  the  German 
state.  But  in  order  to  win  a  majority  for  this 
plan  Gagern  found  it  necessary  to  make  large 
concessions  to  the  democratic  party,  amongst  others 
universal  suffrage.  This  was  not  calculated  to 
make  the  offer  of  the  imperial  crown  acceptable 
to  Frederic  William  IV.,  but  his  principal  reason 
for  declining  it  was,  that  he  would  not  exercise 
any  pressure  on  the  other  German  sovereigns,  and 
that,  notwithstanding  Schwarzenberg's  haughty 
demeanour,  he  could  not  make  up  his  mind  to 
exclude  Austria  from  Germany.  After  the  re- 
fusal of  the  crown  by  the  king,  the  National 
Assembly  was  doomed;  it  had  certainly  committed 
great  faults,  but  the  decisive  reason  of  its  failure 
was  the  lack  of  a  clear  and  resolute  will  in  Prus- 
sia. History,  however,  teaches  that  great  enter- 
prises, such  as  it  was  to  unify  an  empire  dis- 
membered for  centuries,  rarely  succeed  at  the  first 
attempt.  The  capital  importance  of  the  events  of 
1848  was  that  they  had  made  the  German  unionist 
movement  an  historical  fact;  it  could  never  be 
effaced  from  the  annals,  that  all  the  German 
governments  had  publicly  acknowledged  that 
tendency  as  legitimate,  the  direction  for  the  future 
was  given,  and  even  at  the  time  of  failure  it  was 
certain,  as  Stockmar  said,  that  the  necessity  of 
circumstances  would  bring  forward  the  man  who, 
profiting  by  the  experiences  of  1S48,  would  fulfd 
the  national  aspirations." — F.  H.  Geffcken,  Unity 
of  Germany  (English  Historical  Review,  Apr., 
iSqi).    See  Germ.^ny:    1848-1S50. 

1849-1859. — Return  to  pure  absolutism. — 
Bureaucracy  triumphant. — "The  two  great  gains 
which  the  moral  earthquake  of  1848  iDrought  to 
Austria  were,  that  through  wide  provinces  of  the 
Empire,  and  more  especially  in  Hungary,  it  swept 
away  the  sort  of  semi-vassalage  in  which  the 
peasantry  had  been  left  by  the  Urbarium  of  Maria 
Theresa  [an  edict  which  gave  to  the  peasants 
the  right  of  moving  from  place  to  place,  and  the 
right  of  bringing  up  their  children  as  they  wished, 
while  it  established  in  certain  courts  the  trial  of 
all  suits  to  which  they  were  parties],  and  other 
reforms  akin  to  or  founded  upon  it,  and  intro- 
duced modern  in  the  place  of  middle-age  relations 
between  the  two  extremes  of  society.  Secondly, 
it  overthrew  the  policy  of  do-nothing — a  surer 
guarantee  for  the  continuance  of  abuses  than  even 
the  determination,  which  soon  manifested  itself 
at  headquarters,  to  make  the  head  of  the  state 
more    absolute    than    ever.      After    the    taking    of 


Vienna  by  Windischgratz,  the  National  Assembly 
had,  on  the  15th  of  November  1848,  been  removed 
from  the  capital  to  the  small  town  of  Kremsier, 
in  Moravia.  Here  it  prolonged  an  ineffective  ex- 
istence till  March  1849,  when  the  court  camarilla 
felt  itself  strong  enough  to  put  an  end  to  an 
inconvenient  censor,  and  in  March  1849  it  ceased 
to  exist.  A  constitution  was  at  the  same  time 
promulgated  which  contained  many  good  pro- 
visions, but  which  was  never  heartily  approved 
by  the  ruling  powers,  or  vigorously  carried  into 
effect — the  proclamation  of  a  state  of  siege  in 
many  cities,  and  other  expedients  of  authority  in 
a  revolutionary  period,  easily  enabling  it  to  be 
set  at  naught.  The  successes  of  the  reaction  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  and,  above  all,  the  coup 
d'etat  in  Paris,  emboldened  Schwartzenberg  to 
throw  off  the  mask;  and  on  the  last  day  of  1851 
Austria  became  once  more  a  pure  despotism.  The 
young  emperor  had  taken  'Viribus  unitis'  for  his 
motto ;  and  his  advisers  interpreted  those  words 
to  moan  that  Austria  was  henceforth  to  be  a 
state  as  highly  centralised  as  France — a  state  in 
which  the  minister  at  Vienna  was  absolutely  to 
govern  everything  from  Salzburg  to  the  Iron  Gate. 
The  hand  of  authority  had  been  severely  felt 
in  the  prerevolutionary  period,  but  now  advantage 
was  to  be  taken  of  the  revolution  to  make  it  felt 
far  more  than  ever.  In  Hungary,  for  example,  .  .  . 
it  was  fondly  imagined  that  there  would  be  no 
more  trouble.  The  old  political  division  into 
counties  was  swept  away;  the  whole  land  was 
divided  into  five  provinces;  and  the  courtiers  might 
imagine  that  from  henceforth  the  Magyars  would 
be  as  easily  led  as  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Aus- 
tria. These  delusions  soon  became  general,  but 
they  owed  their  origin  partly  to  the  enthusiastic 
ignorance  of  those  who  were  at  the  head  of  the 
army,  and  partly  to  two  men" — Prince  Schwart- 
zenberg and  Alexander  Bach.  Of  the  latter,  the 
"two  leading  ideas  were  to  cover  the  whole  em- 
pire with  a  German  bureaucracy,  and  to  draw 
closer  the  ties  which  connected  the  court  of  Vienna 
with  that  of  Rome.  ...  If  absolutism  in  Austria 
had  a  fair  trial  from  the  31st  of  December  1851 
to  the  Italian  war,  it  is  to  Bach  that  it  was 
owing;  and  if  it  utterly  and  ludicrously  failed, 
it  is  he  more  than  any  other  man  who  must  bear 
the  blame.  Already,  in  1840,  the  bureaucracy  had 
been  reorganised,  but  in  1852  new  and  stricter 
regulations  were  introduced.  Everything  was  de- 
termined by  precise  rules — even  the  exact  amount 
of  hair  which  the  employe  was  permitted  to  wear 
upon  his  face.  Hardly  any  question  was  thought 
sufficiently  insignificant  to  be  decided  upon  the 
spot.  The  smallest  matters  had  to  be  referred  to 
Vienna.  .  .  .  We  can  hardly  be  surprised  that  the 
great  ruin  of  the  Italian  war  brought  down  with  a 
crash  the  whole  edifice  of  the  reaction." — M.  E.  G. 
Duff,  Studies  in  European  politics,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:  L.  Leger,  History  of  Austria-Hungary, 
ch.  ii. 

1850-1860. — Transfer  of  Galicia  to  Polish  no- 
bles.— Sufferings  of  Ukrainians.  See  Ukraine: 
1795-1860. 

1853. — Commercial  Treaty  with  the  German 
ZoUverein.    See  Tariff:  1853-1870. 

1853-1856.— Attitude  in  the  Crimean  War.  See 
Russia:  1853-1854,  to  1854-1856. 

1856. — Relations  to  European  Commission  for 
navigation  of  Danube.     See  Danube:    1850-1916. 

1856-1859. — War  in  Italy  with  Sardinia  and 
France. — Reverses  at  Magenta  and  Solferino. — 
Peace  of  Villafranca. — Surrender  of  Lombardy. 
— "From  the  wars  of  1848-9  the  King  of  Sardinia 
was  looked  upon  by  the  moderate  party  as  the 
champion  of  Italian  freedom.     Charles  Albert  had 


703 


AUSTRIA,  1856-1859 


War  with  Italy 
Seven  Weeks'   War 


AUSTRIA,  1862-1866 


failed:    yet  his  son  would  not,  and   indeed  could 
not,   go   back,  though,  when   he   began   his  reign, 
there   were   many   things  against   him.     Great  ef- 
forts were  made  to  win  him  over  to  the  Austrian 
party,   but   the    King   was   neither   cast   down   by 
defeat  and  distrust  nor  won  over  by  soft  words. 
He  soon  showed  that,  though  he  had  been  forced 
to  make  a  treaty  with  Austria,  yet  he  would  not 
cast  in  his  lot  with  the  oppression  of   Italy.     He 
made  Massimo   d'Azeglio   his   chief    Minister,   and 
Camillo   Benso   di   Cavour   his   Minister   of   Com- 
merce.    With  the  help  of  these  two  men  he  hon- 
estly   carried    out    the    reforms    which    had    been 
granted  bv  his  father,  and  set  new   ones  on  foot. 
.  The  '  quick    progress    of     reform     frightened 
Count  Massimo  d'Azeglio.     He  retired  from  office 
in  185^,  and  his  place  was  taken  by  Count  Cavour, 
who  made  a  coalition  with  the  democratic  party 
in    Piedmont   headed    by    Urbano    Rattazzi.     The 
new  chief  Minister  began  to  work  not  only  for  the 
good   of   Piedmont   but    for   Italy    at    large.     The 
Milanese  still  listened  to  the  hopes  which  Mazzini 
held   out,  and  could   not   quietly   bear   their   sub- 
jection.    Count   Cavour   indignantly   remonstrated 
with  Radetzky  for  his  harsh  government.  .  .  .  The 
division   and  slavery    of    Italy   had   shut   her    oiit 
from    European    politics.      Cavour    held    that,    if 
.she  was  once  looked  upon  as  an  useful  ally,  then 
her  deliverance  might  be  hastened  by  foreign  in- 
terference.   The  Sardinian  army  had  been  brought 
into  good  order  by  Alfonso  della   Marmora;   and 
was  ready  for  action.     In  1855,  Sardinia  made  al- 
liance   with    England    and    France,    who    were    at 
war  with  Russia:  for  Cavour  looked  on  that  power 
as  the  great  support  of  the  system   of  despotism 
on  the  Continent,  and  held  that  it  was  necessary 
for  Italian  freedom  that  Russia  should  be  humbled. 
The    Sardinian    army    was    therefore    sent    to    the 
Crimea,   under   La   Marmora,   where   it    did   good 
service  in  the  battle  of  Tchernaya.  .  .  .  The  next 
year   the   Congress   of   Paris  was  held   to   arrange 
terms  of  peace  between  the  allies  and  Russia,  and 
Cavour  took  the  opportunity  of  laying  before  the 
representatives   of   the   European    powers   thu   un- 
happy   state   of   his   countrymen.  ...  In    Decern- 
ber,   185 1,  Louis  Napoleon   Buonaparte,  the  Presi- 
dent  of   the   French   Republic,  seized   the   govern- 
ment, and  the  next  year  took  the  title  of  Emperor 
of   the   French.     He   was   anxious   to   weaken   the 
power  of   ."Xustria,   and   at   the   beginning   of    1850 
it  became  evident  that  war  would  soon  break  out. 
.As  a   sign   of   the   friendly   feeling   of   the   French 
Emperor    towards    the    Italian    cause,    his    cousin. 
Napoleon   Joseph,   married   Clotilda,  the   daughter 
of  \'ictor  Emmanuel.     Count  Cavour  now  declared 
that  Sardinia  would  make  war  on  Austria,  unless 
a  separate   and  national  government   was  granted 
to    Lombardy    and    V'enetia,    and    unless    Austria 
promised    to    meddle    no    more    with    the    rest    of 
Italy.     On  the  other  hand,  Austria  demanded  the 
disarmament   of   Sardinia.     The   King   would   not 
listen   to   this   demand,   and   France    and   Sardinia 
declared  war  against  Austria.     The  Emperor  Na- 
poleon   declared    that    he    would    free    Italy    from 
the  .Alps  to  the  .Adriatic.  .  .  .  The  .Austrian  army 
crossed  the  Ticino,  but  was  defeated  by  the  King 
and    General    Cialdini.      The    French    victory    of 
Magenta,  on  June  4lh  forced  the  .Austrians  to  re- 
treat from  Lombardy.  ...  On  June  24th  the  Aus- 
trians,   who    had    crossed    the    Mincio,    were    de- 
feated at  Solferino  by  the  allied  armies  of  France 
and   Sardinia.      It   seemed   as   though   the   French 
Emperor    would    keep   his   word.      But    he    found 
that   if   he   went   further,   Prussia   would   take   up 
the   cause    of    .Austria,    and    that    he    would    have 
to   fight   on   the   Rhine   as  well  as  on   the   .Adige. 
When,    therefore,   the    French    army    came    before 


Verona,  a  meeting  was  arranged  between  the  two 
Emperors.  This  took  place  at  Villafranca,  and 
there  Buonaparte,  without  consulting  his  ally, 
agreed  with  Francis  Joseph  to  favour  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  Italian  Confederation.  .  .  .  Austria 
gave  up  to  the  King  of  Sardinia  Lombardy  to 
the  west  of  Mincio.  But  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany and  the  Duke  of  Modena  were  to  return  10 
their  States.  The  proposed  Confederation  was 
never  made,  for  the  people  of  Tuscany,  Modena, 
Parma,  and  Romagna  sent  to  the  King  to  pray  that 
they  might  be  made  part  of  his  Kingdom,  and 
Victor  Emmanuel  refused  to  enter  on  the  scheme 
of  the  French  Emperor.  In  return  for  allowing 
the  Italians  of  Central  Italy  to  shake  off  the 
yoke.  Buonaparte  asked  for  Savoy  and  Nizza,  .  .  . 
The  King  .  .  .  consented  to  give  up  the  'glorious 
cradle  of  his  Monarchy'  in  exchange  for  Central 
Italy."— W.  .A.  Hunt,  History  of  Italy,  ch.  11. 

Also  in:  J.  W.  Probyn,  Italy  from  1815  to 
1800,  ck.  Q-io. — C.  de  Mazade,  Life  of  Count 
Cai'oiir,  ch.  2-7. — See  also  Italy:  1856-185Q,  and 
1850-1S61. 

1860. — Constitutional  development, — "The  di- 
ploma of  October  20,  i860,  the  price  paid  by 
the  government  for  the  disasters  of  the  Ital'an 
war,  was  a  turning  point  in  .Austrian  constitu- 
tional history.  By  it  the  number  of  provincial 
representatives  in  the  Reichsrat  was  increased  to 
one  hundred,  and  that  body  was  given  a  share 
in  imperial  legislation.  The  Patent  of  February 
26,  1 86 1,  completed  the  development  of  the  Reichs- 
rat into  a  full-fledged,  national  Parliament,  with 
an  appointive  House  of  Lords,  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  343  members,  elected  by  the  provincial 
Landtags.  The  government  of  .Austria-Hungary 
was  no  longer  a  feudal  despotism,  but  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  at  least  in  the  Tory  sense." — C. 
Sevmour  and  D.  P.  Frary,  How  the  world  votes, 
P-  56. 

1862-1866.  —  Schleswig-Holstein  question.  — 
Quarrel     with      Prussia. — Humiliating      Seven 
Weeks'  War. — Conflict  with  Prussia  grew  out  of 
the    complicated    Schleswig-Holstein    question,    re- 
opened   in    1802    and    provisionally    settled    by    a 
delusive  arrangement  between  Prussia  and  .Austria, 
into  which  the  latter  was  artfully  drawn  by  Prince 
Bismarck.     (See   Denmark:    1S4S-1862;   and  Ger- 
many:  1S61-1866).     No  sooner  was  the  war  with 
Denmark  over,  than  "Prussia  showed  that  it  was 
her  intention  to  annex  the  newly  acquired  duchies 
to   herself.     This   .Austria   could   not   endure,   and 
accordingly,  in   1866,  war  broke  out  between  Aus- 
tria   and    Prussia.      Prussia    sought    alliance    with 
Italy,  which  she   stirred   up   to   attack   .Austria   in 
her   Italian    possessions.     The   .Austrian   army   de- 
feated  the    Italian   at  .  .  .  [Custozza    (see    Italy: 
1862-1866)];  but  the  fortunes  of  war  were  against 
them  in  Germany.     .Allied  with  the  .Austrians  were 
the    Saxons,    the    Bavarians,    the    WUrtembergers, 
Baden  and  Hesse,  and  Hanover     The  Prussians  ad- 
vanced  with  their  chief  army   into   Bohemia  with 
the    utmost    rapidity,    dreading    lest    the   Southern 
allies   should    march    north    to    Hanover,    and   cut 
the  kingdom  in  half,  and  push  on  to  Berlin.     The 
Prus-sians   had  three   armies,   which   were   to  enter 
Bohemia   and   effect   a   junction.     The   Elbe   army 
under  the  King,  the  first  army  under  Prince  Fred- 
erick   Charles,    and    the    second    army    under    the 
Crown    Prince.     The   Elbe   army   advanced   across 
Saxony  by  Dresden.    The  first  army  was  in  Lusatia, 
at    Reichenberg,   and    the   second    army    in   Silesia 
at    Heisse.     They    were   all    to    meet   at    Gitschin. 
The  .Austrian  army  under  General  Benedek  was  at 
Kbniggriitz.    in    Eastern    Bohemia.  ...  .As    in   the 
wars  with  Napoleon,  so  was  it  now;  the  .Austrian 
generals  .  .  .  never  did  the  right  thing  at  the  right 


704 


AUSTRIA,  1866 


Ausiro-Hungarian 
Empire 


AUSTRIA,  1866-1867 


moment.  Benedek  did  indeed  march  against  the 
first  army,  but  too  late,  and  when  he  found  it 
was  already  through  the  mountain  door,  he  re- 
treated, and  so  gave  time  for  the  three  armies  to 
concentrate  upon  him.-  The  Elbe  army  and  the 
first  met  at  Miinchengratz,  and  defeated  an  Aus- 
trian army  there,  pushed  on,  and  drove  them  back 
out  of  Gitschin  on  Koniggratz.  .  .  .  The  Prussians 
pushed  on,  and  now  the  Elbe  army  went  to  Smidar, 
and  the  first  army  to  Horzitz,  whilst  the  second 
army,  under  the  Crown  Prince,  was  pushing  on, 
and  had  got  to  Gradlitz.  The  little  river  Bistritz 
is  crossed  by  the  righ  road  bo  Koniggratz.  It 
runs  through  swamp  ground,  and  forms  little 
marshy  pools  or  lakes.  To  the  north  of  Konig- 
gratz a  little  stream  of  much  the  same  character 
dribbles  through  bogs  into  the  Elbe.  .  .  .  But 
about  Chlum,  Nedelist  and  Lippa  is  terraced  high 
ground,  and  there  Benedek  planted  his  cannon. 
The  Prussians  advanced  from  Smidar  against  the 
left  wing  of  the  Austrians,  from  Horzitz  against 
the  centre,  and  the  Crown  Prince  was  to  attack 
the  right  wing.  The  battle  began  on  the  3d  of 
July,  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning,  by  the  simul- 
taneous advance  of  the  Elbe  and  the  first  army 
upon  the  Bisitritz.  At  Sadowa  is  a  wood,  and 
there  the  batble  raged  most  fiercely.  .  .  .  Two 
things  were  against  the  Austrians;  first,  the  in- 
competence of  their  general,  and,  secondly,  the  in- 
feriority of  their  guns.  The  Prussians  had  what 
are  called  needle-guns,  breach-loaders,  which  are 
fired  by  the  prick  of  a  needle,  and  for  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  can  be  fired  far  surpassed  the 
old-fashioned  muzzle-loaders  used  by  the  Austrians. 
After  this  great  battle,  which  is  called  by  the 
French  and  English  the  battle  of  Sadowa  (Sadowa, 
not  Sadowa,  as  it  is  erroneously  pronounced),  but 
which  the  Germans  call  the  battle  of  Koniggratz, 
the  Prussians  marched  on  Vienna,  and  reached  the 
Marchfeld  before  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph 
would  come  to  terms.  At  last,  on  the  23d  of 
August,  a  peace  which  gave  a  crushing  preponder- 
ance in  Germany  to  Prussia,  was  concluded  at 
Prague." — S.  Baring-Gould,  Sto-ry  of  Germany, 
pp.  390-304.     See  Germany:  1866. 

1866. — War  in  Italy. — Loss  of  Venetia.  See 
Italy:   1862-1S66. 

1866-1867. — Concession  of  nationality  to  Hun- 
gary.— Formation  of  the  dual  Austro-Hungarian 
empire. — "For  twelve  years  the  name  of  Hungary, 
as  a  State,  was  erased  from  the  map  of 
Europe.  Bureaucratic  Absolutism  ruled  supreme  in 
Austria,  and  did  its  best  to  obliterate  all  Hungar- 
ian institutions.  Germanisation  was  the  order  of 
the  day,  the  German  tongue  being  declared  the 
exclusive  language  of  official  hfe  as  well  as  of  the 
higher  schools.  Government  was  carried  on  by 
means  of  foreign,  German,  and  Czech  officials.  No 
vestige  was  left,  not  only  of  the  national  inde- 
pendence, but  either  of  Home  Rule  or  of  self- 
government  of  any  sort ;  the  country  was  divided 
into  provinces  without  regard  for  historical  tra- 
ditions; in  short,  an  attempt  was  made  to  wipe 
out  every  trace  denoting  the  existence  of  a  sepa- 
rate Hungary.  All  ranks  and  classes  opposed  a 
sullen  passive  resistance  to  these  attacks  against 
the  existence  of  the  nation;  even  the  sections  of 
the  nationalities  which  had  rebelled  against  the 
enactments  of  1848,  at  the  instigation  of  the  re- 
actionary Camarilla,  were  equally  disaffected  in 
consequence  of  the  short-sighted  policy  of  des- 
potical  centralisation.  .  .  .  Finally,  after  the  col- 
lapse of  the  system  of  Absolutism  in  consequence 
of  financial  disasters  and  of  the  misfortunes  of  the 
Italian  War  of  1859,  the  Hungarian  Parliament 
was  again  convoked;  and  after  protracted  nego- 
tiations, broken   off  and  resumed  again,  the  im- 


practicability of  a  system  of  provincial  Federal- 
ism having  been  proved  in  the  meantime,  and  the 
defeat  incurred  in  the  Prussian  War  of  1866  hav- 
ing demonstrated  the  futility  of  any  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  Empire  of  Austria  in  which  the  na- 
tional aspirations  of  Hungary  were  not  taken  into 
due  consideration — an  arrangement  was  concluded 
under  the  auspices  of  Francis  Deak,  Count  An- 
drassy,  and  Count  Beust,  on  the  basis  of  the  full 
acknowledgment  of  the  separate  national  existence 
of  Hungary,  and  of  the  continuity  of  its  legal 
rights.  The  idea  of  a  centralised  Austrian  Em- 
pire had  to  give  way  to  the  dual  Austro-Hunga- 
rian monarchy.  .  .  ,  [a]  federation  of  two  equal 
States,  under  the  common  rule  of  a  single  sov- 
ereign, the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King  of  Hun- 
gary, each  of  the  States  having  a  constitution,  gov- 
ernment, and  parliament  of  its  own,  Hungary  es- 
pecially retaining,  with  slight  modifications,  its 
ancient  institutions  remodelled  in  1848.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  foreign  policy,  the  management 
of  the  army,  and  the  disbursement  of  the  expendi- 
ture necessary  for  these  purposes,  were  settled  upon 
as  common  affairs  of  the  entire  monarchy,  for  the 
management  of  which  common  ministers  were  in- 
stituted, responsible  to  the  two  delegations,  co- 
equal committees  of  the  parliaments  of  Hungary 
and  of  the  Cisleithanian  (Austrian)  provinces. 
Elaborate  provisions  were  framed  for  the  smooth 
working  of  these  common  institutions,  for  giving 
weight  to  the  constitutional  influence,  even  in  mat- 
ters of  common  policy,  of  the  separate  Cisleithan- 
ian and  Hungarian  ministries,  and  for  rendering 
their  responsibility  to  the  respective  Parliaments 
an  earnest  and  solid  reality.  The  financial  ques- 
tions pending  in  the  two  independent  and  equal 
States  were  settled  by  a  compromise ;  measures  were 
taken  for  the  equitable  arrangement  of  all  mat- 
ters which  might  arise  in  relation  to  interests 
touching  both  States,  such  as  duties,  commerce, 
and  indirect  taxation,  all  legislation  on  these  sub- 
jects taking  place  by  means  of  identical  laws  sep- 
arately enacted  by  the  Parliament  of  each  State. 
.  .  .  Simultaneously  with  these  arrangements  the 
political  differences  between  Hungary  and  Croatia 
were  compromised  by  granting  provincial  Home 
Rule  to  the  latter.  .  .  .  Thus  the  organisation  of 
the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  on  the  basis  of 
dualism,  and  the  compromise  entered  into  be- 
tween the  two  halves  composing  it,  whilst  uniting 
for  the  purposes  of  defence  the  forces  of  two 
States  of  a  moderate  size  and  extent  into  those  of 
a  great  empire,  able  to  cope  with  the  exigencies  of 
an  adequate  position  amongst  the  first-class  Powers 
of  Europe,  restored  also  to  Hungary  its  indepen- 
dence and  its  unfettered  sovereignty  in  all  internal 
matters." — A.  Pulszky,  Hungary  (National  Life 
and  Thought,  lecture  3). — "The  Ausgleich  (q.v.) 
or  agreement  with  Hungary,  was  arranged  by  a 
committee  of  67  members  of  the  Hungarian  diet, 
at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  Franklin  of  Hungary, 
Francis  Deak,  the  true  patriot  and  inexorable  le- 
gist, who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  revolutions  but 
who  had  never  given  up  one  of  the  smallest  of 
the  rights  of  his  country.  ...  On  the  8th  of  June 
[1867],  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  was  crowned 
with  great  pomp  at  Pesth.  On  the  28th  of  the 
following  June,  he  approved  the  decisions  of  the 
diet,  which  settled  the  position  of  Hungary  with 
regard  to  the  other  countries  belonging  to  his 
majesty,  and  modified  some  portions  of  the  laws 
of  1848.  .  .  .  Since  the  Ausgleich  the  empire  has 
consisted  of  two  parts.  .  .  .  For  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, political  language  has  been  increased  by  the 
invention  of  two  new  terms,  Cisleithania  and 
Transleithania,  to  describe  the  two  groups,  sep- 
arated a  little  below  Vienna  by  a  small  affluent  of 


705 


AUSTRIA,  1866-1877 


Badeni's 
Language  Decrees 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


the  Danube,  called  the  Leitha— a  stream  which 
never  expected  to  become  so  celebrated."— L.  Leger, 
History  of  Aitstro-Hungary,  ch.  35 —See  also  Hun- 
gary:'1856-1868. 

Also  in:  Francis  Deak,  A  Memon,  ch  26-31 — 
Count  von  Beust,  Memoirs,  v.  2.  ch:  38— L.  Felber- 
mann,  Hungarv  and  its  people,  ch.  5.       _ 

1866-1877.— interest  in  Rumanian  indepen- 
dence.   See  RuM.^Nn:   1866-IQ14. 

1868.— Rule  of  Galicia.— Autonomy  and  lan- 
guage question.     See  Poland;   1867-1910. 

1869-1883.— Parochial  poor  relief  abolished. 
See  Charities:  .\ustria  and  Hungary:  i783-i9oq_ 

1873. — Government  control  of  telegraphs.  See 
Telegraphs  and  telephones:  1873:  Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

1878.— Occupation  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina.— 
Treaty  of  Berlin.  See  Bosnia-Herzegovina:  1878; 
and  Turkey:    1878, 

1881  —Attitude  at  international  conference  on 
bimetallism  standard.  See  Money  and  banking: 
Modern:  1867-18Q3.  . 

1883.— Establishment  of  Postal  Savings  Bank. 
See  Postal  savings  banks. 

1884-1907.— Social  legislation.  See  Social 
betterment:  Austria;  Charities;  Austria. 

1889  (January  30).— Tragedy  of  Myerling.— 
Death  of  the  Archduke  Rudolph,  only  son  of 
the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph.— Various  conflicting 
reports  have  appeared  during  the  past  thirty  years 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  heir-apparent  to 
the  Austro-Hungarian  thrones  met  his  death  m 
the  hunting  lodge  at  Meyerling,  near  Vienna.  The 
official  and  generally  accepted  theory  points  to 
suicide;  other  accounts  declare  that  the  archduke 
and  the  young  Baroness  Vecsera  (or  Vetsera)  were 
slain.  Perhaps  the  most  recent  version  is  that 
published  by  H.  Vivian,  "Francis  Joseph  and  his 
court"  (iQi7)- 

1893-1900. — Race    jealousies    and    conflicts.— 
Curtailment   of  the  power   of  the   Germans  in 
Austria.— Ministry  of  Badeni.— Enlarged   fran- 
chise.—Count    Badeni's    language    decrees    for 
Bohemia.— Its  effect  on  Austrian  constitutional 
history.— "While  the  Monarch   thus  showed  him- 
self  alive   to   the    importance   of    maintaining   dy- 
nastic rights  in  Hungary,  he  succeeded  in  .\ustria 
in  reducing  the   Germans  to  a  position   compara- 
tively commensurate  with  their  numerical  strength. 
The    process    of    reduction    naturally    caused    race 
friction,    since    almost    every    advantage    obtained 
by  the  non-Germans  implied  some  loss  to  vested 
German  interests  and  to  German  predominance  in 
the    Bureaucracy.      Taaffe,    the    Emperor's    chief 
agent  in  the  execution  of  this  policy,  fell  in   1893 
in  an  attempt  to  fulfil  the  Imperial  wish  that,  as 
3  means  of  curtailing  the  power  of  German  cliques 
and   corporations,   a   certain   section    of    the    Aus- 
trian Chamber  should  be  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage.    Three  years  later  Badeni,  a  Pole,  who  suc- 
ceeded Taaffe,' actually  introduced  a  universal  suf- 
frage  section,   or   Curia,   of   seventy-two   deputies 
into  the  Austrian  system  of  franchise— a  proceed- 
ing which  shows  how  tenaciously  the  Emperor,  as 
head  of  the  dynasty,  clung  to  the  idea  of  enfran- 
chising   and    using    the    masses   for   dynastic    pur- 
poses.   But  Badeni,  in  his  eagerness  to  strengthen 
the   Slav   position,   imprudently    issued   ministerial 
ordinances  to  establish  the  administrative  equality 
of  the  Czech  language  with  German  throughout  Bo- 
hemia.     [See  also  Bohemia:    1848-1897.]     There- 
upon the  Germans  revolted  and  obstructed  all  par- 
liamentary  business  until  the  language  ordinances 
were  withdrawn.     The   Emperor,  yielding   to   the 
pressure   of   a   popular   agitation   in   Vienna,   hur- 
riedly   dismissed    Badeni,    and,   after   German    in- 


dignation had  found  vent  in  a  pseudo-Protestant, 
anti-Hapsburg    movement,    known    by    its    catch- 
word,  'Los   von    Rom!'   ultimately   sanctioned  the 
withdrawal  of  the  ordinances.     The  rapidity  with 
which  the  Los  von  Rom!-  movement  subsided  as 
soon  as  its  Pan-German,  anti-Hapsburg  character 
became  apparent,  and  the  growth  of  a  loyal  Ger- 
man 'Christian  Social'  party  under  Lueger,  speed- 
ily  demonstrated  the  power  of  the  dynasty  even 
over  iLs  German  subjects;  but  a  not  less  important 
feature  of  the  crisis  was  the  gradual  establishment 
of  'constitutional  absolutism'  by  the  abuse  or  elas- 
tic  use   of   the   Clause    14,   the   'Emergency   Para- 
graph'   of    the    1867    Constitution.      Unspeakably 
tiresome   as   were    the   vicissitudes   of   the   conflict 
arising  out  of  Badeni's  Language  Ordinances,  they 
marked  a  turning-point  in  Austrian  Constitutional 
historv.     Under  the  influence  of  parliamentary  ob- 
struction, carried  on  by  the  Germans  until  the  or- 
dinances  were   withdrawn    and,   after   their    with- 
drawal, bv  the  Slavs  of  Bohemia,  the  Government 
emploved    with    increasing    frequency    the    'Emer- 
gency Paragraph'  for  the  despatch  of  public  busi- 
ness.     Austrian    Parliamentarism     was    gradually 
turned   into    a   svstcm    under   which,   on    the    one 
hand,  the  divergent  interests  of  races,  groups  and 
parties   were   exploited    by    the    Government,   and 
the   necessities   of   the    Government    were,   on   the 
other  hand,  exploited  by  races,  groups  and  parties 
at   the   expense    of    taxpayers;    and   the    fact    was 
clearly   revealed    that   no    Austrian    race    or   party 
would  hesitate  to  sell  the  Constitution  at  a  price. 
Each  partv  in  turn  obstructed  parliamentary  busi- 
ness in  order  to  extort  concessions  from  a  govern- 
ment composed  mainly  of  officials.    Had  the  .Aus- 
trian  Constitution  been  imposed  upon  the  Crown 
by  popular  will,  the  position   of  parliament  might 
have   been   stronger,   and   the   respect    of    political 
parties  for  the  integrity  of  the  Constitution  might 
have  been  greater.     Watchfulness  would  have  been 
the  more  necessary  in  that  the  .Austrian  Constitu- 
tion of   1867  is  so  framed  as  to  facilitate   an   oc- 
casional   return    to    absolutism.      The    'Emergency 
Paragraph,'  the  widest  of  the  doors  through  which 
the    return   could   be   made,   runs:— 'Should,   at    a 
time    when    the    Rcichsrath   is   not   sitting,    urgent 
necessity  arise  for  enactments  to  which  the  assent 
of    the'  Reichsrath    is    constitutionally     requisite, 
these  enactments  can  be  promulgated  by  Imperial 
ordinance  on  the  responsibility  of  the  whole  Cabi- 
net provided  such   ordinances  aim  at  effecting  no 
change    of    the    Constitutional    Statute    itself,    at 
placing  no  permanent  burden  upon  the  Treasury, 
and  concern  no  sale  of  State  property.     Such  or- 
dinances   possess    provisionallv    the    force    of    law 
when    thev    are   signed   by   all    the   Ministers   and 
are    prom'ulgated    with    express    reference    to    this 
Clause   of   the   Constitution.     Their   legal   validity 
lapses  if  the  government  fails  to  submit  them  for 
approval  to  the  next  Reichsrath,  and,  in  the  first 
place,   to   the   Chamber   of   Deputies   within   three 
weeks  of  its  meeting;  or  if  the  ordinances  fail  to 
receive  the  assent  of  either  of  the  two  Houses  of 
the   Reichsrath.     The   Cabinet   as   a   whole   is   re- 
sponsible   for    the    immediate    abrogation    of    such 
ordinances  when   thev   have  lost   their  provisional 
validity.' "— H.  W.  Steed,  Hapsburg  monarchy,  pp. 

1897     (October-December). — Scenes     in     the 
Austrian  Reichsrath  described  by  Mark  Twain. 

"Here  in   Vienna   in   these  closing   days  of   1897 

one's  blood  gets  no  chance  to  stagnate.  The  at- 
mosphere is  brimful  of  political  electricity.  All 
conversation  is  political ;  every  man  is  a  battery, 
with  brushes  overworn,  and  gives  out  blue  sparks 
when  you  set  him  going  on  the  common  topic. 
Things   have    happened    here    recently    which 


706 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


Scene  in 
the  Reichsrath 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


would  set  any  country  but  Austria  on  fire  from 
end  to  end,  and  upset  the  government  to  a  cer- 
tainty; but  no  one  feels  confident  that  such  re- 
sults will  follow  here.  Here,  apparently,  one 
must  wait  and  see  what  will  happen,  then  he  will 
kno-.v,  and  not  before;  guessing  is  idle;  guessing 
cannot  help  the  matter.  This  is  what  the  wise 
tell  you ;  they  all  say  it ;  they  say  it  every  day, 
and  it  is  the  sole  detail  upon  which  they  all  agree. 
There  is  some  approach  to  agreement  upon  an- 
other point:  that  there  will  be  no  revolution,  .  .  . 
Nearly  every  day  some  one  explains  to  me  that  a 
revolution  would  not  succeed  here.  'It  couldn't, 
you  know.  Broadly  speaking,  all  the  nations  in 
the  empire  hate  the  government — but  they  all  hate 
each  other  too,  and  with  devoted  and  enthusiastic 
bitterness;  no  two  of  them  can  combine;  the  na- 
tion that  rises  must  rise  alone ;  then  the  others 
would  joyfully  join  the  government  against  her, 
and  she  would  have  just  a  fly's  chance  against  a 
combination  of  spiders.  This  government  is  en- 
tirely independent.  It  can  go  its  own  road,  and 
do  as  it  pleases;  it  has  nothing  to  fear.  In  coun- 
tries like  England  and  America,  where  there  is  one 
tongue  and  the  public  interests  are  common,  the 
government  must  take  account  of  public  opinion; 
but  in  Austria-Hungary  there  are  nineteen  public 
opinions — one  for  each  state.  No — two  or  three 
for  each  state,  since  there  are  two  or  three  nation- 
alities in  each.  \  government  cannot  satisfy  all 
these  public  opinion? ;  it  can  only  go  through  the 
motions  of  trying.  This  government  does  that. 
It  goes  through  the  motions,  and  they  do  not  suc- 
ceed; but  that  does  not  worry  the  government 
much.'  .  .  . 

"The  recent  troubles  have  grown  out  of  Count 
Badeni's  necessities.  He  could  not  carry  on  his 
government  without  a  majority  vote  in  the  House 
at  his  back,  and  in  order  to  secure  it  he  had  to 
make  a  trade  of  some  sort.  He  made  it  with  the 
Czechs — the  Bohemians.  The  terms  were  not  easy 
for  him:  he  must  pass  a  bill  making  the  Czech 
tongue  the  official  language  in  Bohemia  in  place 
of  the  German.  This  created  a  storm.  All  the 
Germans  in  Austria  were  incensed.  In  numbers 
they  form  but  a  fourth  part  of  the  empire's  popu- 
lation, but  they  urge  that  the  country's  public 
business  should  be  conducted  in  one  common 
tongue,  and  that  tongue  a  world  language — which 
German  is.  However,  Badeni  secured  his  ma- 
jority. The  German  element  was  apparently  be- 
come helpless.  The  Czech  deputies  were  exultant. 
Then  the  music  began.  Badeni's  voyage,  instead 
of  being  smooth,  was  disappointingly  rough  from 
the  start.  The  government  must  get  the  Ausgleich 
through.  It  must  not  fail.  Badeni's  majority 
was  ready  to  carry  it  through;  but  the  minority 
was  determined  to  obstruct  it  and  delay  it  until 
the  obnoxious  Czech-language  measure  should  be 
shelved. 

"The  Ausgleich  is  an  Adjustment,  Arrangement, 
Settlement,  which  holds  Austria  and  Hungary  to- 
gether [see  Austria:  X866-1867I.  It  dates  from 
1867,  and  has  to  be  renewed  every  ten  years.  It 
establishes  the  share  which  Hungary  must  pay 
toward  the  expenses  of  the  imperial  government. 
Hungary  is  a  kingdom  (the  Emperor  of  Austria  is 
its  King),  and  has  its  own  parliament  and  gov- 
ernmental machinery.  But  it  has  no  foreign  of- 
fice, and  it  has  no  army — at  least  its  army  is  a 
part  of  the  imperial  army,  is  paid  out  of  the  im- 
perial treasury,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
imperial  war  office.  The  ten-year  rearrangement 
was  due  a  year  ago,  but  failed  to  connect.  At 
least  completely,  A  year's  compromise  was  ar- 
ranged. A  new  arrangement  must  be  effected  be- 
fore the  last  day  of  this  year     Otherwise  the  two 


countries  become  separate  entities.  The  Emperor 
would  still  be  King  of  Hungary — that  is.  King  of 
an  independent  foreign  country.  There  would  be 
Hungarian  custom-houses  on  the  Austrian  frontier 
and  there  would  be  a  Hungarian  army  and  a  Hun- 
garian foreign  office.  Both  countries  would  be 
weakened  by  this,  both  would  suffer  damage.  The 
Opposition  in  the  House,  although  in  the  minority, 
had  a  good  weapon  to  fight  with  in  the  pending 
Ausgleich.  If  it  could  delay  the  Ausgleich  a  few 
weeks,  the  government  would  doubtless  have  to 
withdraw  the  hated  language  bill  or  lo.^e  Hungary. 

"The  Opposition  began  its  fight.  Its  arms  were 
the  Rules  of  the  House,  It  was  soon  manifest 
that  by  applying  these  Rules  ingeniously,  it  could 
make  the  majority  helpless,  and  keep  it  so  as  long 
as  it  pleased.  It  could  shut  off  business  every 
now  and  then  with  a  motion  to  adjourn.  It  could 
require  the  ayes  and  noes  on  the  motion,  and  use 
up  thirty  minutes  on  that  detail.  It  could  call 
for  the  reading  and  verification  of  the  minutes  of 
the  pieceding  meeting,  and  use  up  half  a  day  in 
that  way.  It  could  require  that  several  of  its 
members  be  entered  upon  the  list  of  permitted 
sfjeakers  previously  to  the  opening  of  a  sitting; 
and  as  there  is  no  time  limit,  further  delays  could 
thus  be  accomplished.  These  were  all  lawful 
weapons,  and  the  men  of  the  Opposition  (tech- 
nically called  the  Left)  were  within  their  rights 
in  using  them.  They  used  them  to  such  dire  pur- 
pose that  all  parliamentary  business  was  para-  . 
lyzed.  The  Right  (the  government  side)  could 
accomplish  nothing.  Then  it  had  a  saving  idea. 
This  idea  was  a  curious  one.  It  was  to  have  the 
President  and  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  parlia- 
ment trample  the  Rules  under  foot  upon  occa- 
sion !  ,  ,  , 

"And  now  took  place  that  memorable  sitting  of 
the  House  which  broke  two  records.  It  lasted  the 
best  part  of  two  days  and  a  night,  surpassing  by 
half  an  hour  the  longest  sitting  known  to  the 
world's  previous  parliamentary  history,  and  break- 
ing the  long-speech  record  with  Dr.  Lecher's 
twelve-hour  effort,  the  longest  flow  of  unbroken 
talk  that  ever  came  out  of  one  mouth  since  the 
world  began.  At  8.45,  on  the  evening  of  the 
28th  of  October,  when  the  House  had  been  sitting 
a  few  minutes  short  of  ten  hours.  Dr.  Lecher  was 
granted  the  floor.  .  .  .  Then  burst  out  such  an- 
other wild  and  frantic  and  deafening  clamor  as 
has  not  been  heard  on  this  planet  since  the  last 
time  the  Comanches  surprised  a  white  settlement 
at  midnight.  Yells  from  the  Left,  counter-yells 
from  the  Right,  explosions  of  yells  from  all  sides 
at  once,  and  all  the  air  sawed  and  pawed  and 
clawed  and  cloven  by  a  writhing  confusion  of 
gesturing  arms  and  hands.  Out  of  the  midst  of 
the  thunder  and  turmoil  and  tempest  rose  Dr. 
Lecher,  serene  and  collected,  and  the  providential 
lengtl  of  him  enabled  his  head  to  show  out  above 
it.  He  began  his  twelve-hour  speech.  At  any 
rate,  his  lips  could  be  seen  to  move,  and  that  was 
evidence.  O.i  high  sat  the  President  imploring 
order,  with  his  long  hands  put  together  as  in 
prayer,  and  his  lips  visibly  but  not  bearably 
speaking.  At  intervals  he  grasped  his  bell  and 
swung  it  up  and  down  with  vigor,  adding  its  keen 
clamor  to  the  storm  weltering  there  below.  Dr, 
Lecher  went  on  with  his  pantomime  speech,  con- 
tented, untroubled.  ,  ,  ,  One  of  the  interrupters 
who  made  himself  heard  was  a  young  fellow  of 
slight  build  and  neat  dress,  who  stood  a  little 
apart  from  the  solid  crowd  and  leaned  negligently, 
with  folded  arms  and  feet  crossed,  against  a  desk. 
Trim  and  handsome;  strong  face  and  thin  features; 
black  hair  roughed  up;  parsimonious  mustache; 
resonant  great  voice,  of  good  tone  and  pitch      It 


707 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


Scene  in 
the  Reichsraih 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


is  Wolf,  capable  and  hospitable  with  sword  and 
pistol.  .  .  .  Out  of  him  came  early  this  thunder- 
ing peal,  audible  above  the  storm: 

"  'I  demand  the  floor.  I  wish  to  offer  a  mo- 
tion.' 

"In  the  sudden  lull  which  followed,  the  President 
answered,  'Dr.  Lecher  has  the  floor.' 

"Wolf.     'I  move  the  close  of  the  sitting !' 

"P.  "Representative  Lecher  has  the  floor.' 
[Stormy  outburst  from  the  Left — that  is,  the  Op- 
position.] 

"Wolj.  'I  demand  the  floor  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  formal  motion.  [Pause. 1  Mr.  President, 
are  you  going  to  grant  it,  or  not?  [Crash  of  ap- 
proval from  the  Left.]  I  will  keep  on  demanding 
the  floor  till  I  get  it.' 

"P.  'I  call  Representative  Wolf  to  order.  Dr. 
Lecher  has  the  floor.'  .  .  . 

"Which  was  true;  and  he  was  speaking,  too, 
calmly,  earnestly,  and  argumentatively ;  and  the 
official  stenographers  had  left  their  places  and 
were  at  his  elbows  taking  down  his  words,  he 
leaning  and  orating  into  their  ears — a  most  curi- 
ous and  interesting  scene.  ...  At  this  point  a  new 
and  most  effective  noisemaker  was  pressed  into 
service.  Each  desk  has  an  extension,  consisting  of 
a  removable  board  eighteen  inches  long,  six  wide, 
and  a  half-inch  thick,  A  member  pulled  one  of 
these  out  and  began  to  belabor  the  top  of  his 
desk  with  it.  Instantly  other  members  followed 
suit,  and  perhaps  you  can  imagine  the  result.  Of 
all  conceivable  rackets  it  is  the  most  ear-splitting, 
intolerable,  and  altogether  fiendish.  .  ,  .  Wolf 
went  on  with  his  noise  and  with  his  demands  that 
he  be  granted  the  floor,  resting  his  board  at  in- 
tervals to  discharge  criticisms  and  epithets  at  the 
Chair.  .  .  .  By-and-by  he  struck  the  idea  of  beat- 
ing out  a  tune  v\ith  his  board.  Later  he  decided 
to  stop  asking  for  the  floor,  and  to  confer  it  upon 
himself.  And  so  he  and  Dr.  Lecher  now  spoke  at 
the  same  time,  and  mingled  their  speeches  with 
the  other  noises,  and  nobody  heard  either  of  them. 
Wolf  rested  himself  now  and  then  from  speech- 
making  by  reading,  in  his  clarion  voice,  from  a 
pamphlet. 

"I  will  explain  that  Dr.  Lecher  was  not  making 
a  twelve-hour  speech  for  pastime,  but  for  an  im- 
portant purpose.  It  was  the  government's  inten- 
tion to  push  the  Ausgleich  through  its  preliminary 
stages  in  this  one  sitting  (for  which  it  was  the 
Order  of  the  Day),  and  then  by  vote  refer  it  to 
a  select  committee.  It  was  the  Majority's  scheme 
— as  charged  by  the  Opposition — to  drown  debate 
upon  the  bill  by  pure  noise — drown  it  out  and 
stop  it.  The  debate  being  thus  ended,  the  vote 
upon  the  reference  would  follow — with  victory  for 
the  government.  But  into  the  government's  cal- 
culations had  not  entered  the  possibility  of  a 
single-barrelled  speech  which  shoyld  occupy  the 
entire  time-limit  of  the  sitting,  and  also  get  itself 
delivered  in  spite  of  all  the  noise.  ...  In  the 
English  House  an  obstructionist  has  held  the  floor 
with  Bible-readings  and  other  outside  matters;  but 
Dr.  Lecher  could  not  have  that  restful  and  re- 
cuperative privilege — he  must  confine  himself 
strictly  to  the  subject  before  the  House.  More 
than  once,  when  the  President  could  not  hear  him 
because  of  the  general  tumult,  he  sent  persons  to 
listen  and  report  as  to  whether  the  orator  was 
speaking  to  the  subject  or  not. 

"The  subject  was  a  peculiarly  difficult  one,  and 
it  would  have  troubled  any  other  deputy  to  stick 
to  it  three  hours  without  exhausting  his  ammuni- 
tion, because  it  required  a  vast  and  intimate 
knowledge — detailed  and  particularized  knowledge 
— of  the  commercial,  railroading,  financial,  and  in- 
ternational banking  relations  existing  between  two 


great  sovereignties,  Hungary  and  the  Empire.  But 
Dr.  Lecher  is  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  of 
Jiis  city  of  Briinn,  and  was  master  of  the  situation. 
...  He  went  steadily  on  with  his  speech ;  and 
always  it  was  strong,  virile,  felicitous,  and  to  the 
point.  He  was  earning  applause,  and  this  enabled 
his  party  to  turn  that  fact  to  account.  Now  and 
then  they  applauded  him  a  couple  of  minutes  on 
a  stretch,  and  during  that  time  he  could  stop 
speaking  and  rest  his  voice  without  having  the 
floor  taken  from  him.  .  .  . 

"The  Minority  staid  loyally  by  their  champion. 
Some  distinguished  deputies  of  the  Majority  staid 
by  him  too,  compelled  thereto  by  admiration  of 
his  great  performance.  When  a  man  has  been 
speaking  eight  hours,  is  it  conceivable  that  he  can 
still  be  interesting,  still  fascinating?  When  Dr. 
Lecher  had  been  speaking  eight  hours  he  was  still 
compactly  surrounded  by  friends  who  would  not 
leave  him  and  by  foes  (of  all  parties)  who  could 
not ;  and  all  hung  enchanted  and  wondering  upon 
his  words,  and  all  testified  their  admiration  with 
constant  and  cordial  outbursts  of  applause.  Surely 
this  was  a  triumph  without  precedent  in  his- 
tory. .  .  . 

"In  consequence  of  Dr.  Lecher's  twe've-hour 
speech  and  the  other  obstructions  furnished  by 
the  Minority,  the  famous  thirty-three-hour  sitting 
of  the  House  accomphshed  nothing.  .  .  .  Parlia- 
ment was  adjourned  for  a  week — to  let  the  mem- 
bers cool  off,  perhaps — a  sacrifice  of  precious  time, 
for  but  two  months  remained  in  which  to  carry 
the  all-important  Ausgleich  to  a  consumma- 
tion. .  .  . 

"During  the  whole  of  November  things  went 
from  bad  to  worse.  The  all-important  Ausgleich 
remained  hard  aground,  and  could  not  be  sparred 
off.  Badeni's  government  could  not  withdraw  the 
Language  Ordinance  and  keep  its  majority,  and 
the  Opposition  could  not  be  placated  on  easier 
terms.  One  night,  while  the  customary  pande- 
monium was  crashing  and  thundering  along  at 
its  best,  a  fight  broke  out.  ...  On  Thanksgiving 
day  the  sitting  was  a  history-making  one.  On 
that  day  the  harried,  bedeviled  and  despairing  gov- 
ernment went  insane.  In  order  to  free  itself  from 
the  thraldom  of  the  Opposition  it  committed  this 
curiously  juvenile  crime:  it  moved  an  important 
change  of  the  Rules  of  the  House,  forbade  debate 
upon  the  motion,  put  it  to  a  stand-up  vote  instead 
of  ayes  and  noes,  and  then  gravely  claimed  that 
it  had  been  adopted.  .  .  .  The  House  was  already 
standing  up;  had  been  standing  for  an  hour;  and 
before  a  third  of  it  had  found  out  what  the  Presi- 
dent had  been  saying,  he  had  proclaimed  the 
adoption  of  the  motion !  And  only  a  few  heard 
that.  In  fact,  when  that  House  is  legislating  you 
can't  tell  it  from  artillery-practice.  You  will 
realize  what  a  happy  idea  it  was  to  sidetrack  the 
lawful  ayes  and  noes  and  substitute  a  stand-up 
vote  by  this  fact:  that  a  little  later,  when  a  depu- 
tation of  deputies  waited  upon  the  President  and 
asked  him  if  he  w\is  actually  willing  to  claim 
that  that  meacure  had  been  passed,  he  answered. 
'Yes — and    unanimously.'  .  .  . 

"The  Lex  Falkeithayn,  thus  strangely  born,  gave 
the  President  power  to  suspend  for  three  days  any 
deputy  who  should  continue  to  be  disorderly  after 
being  called  to  order  twice,  and  it  also  placed  at 
his  disposal  such  force  as  might  be  necessary  to 
make  the  suspension  effective.  So  the  House  had 
a  sergeant-at-arms  at  last,  and  a  more  formidable 
one,  as  to  power,"  than  any  other  legislature  in 
Christendom  had  ever  possessed.  The  Lex  Fal- 
kenhayn  also  gave  the  House  itself  authority  to 
suspend  members  for  thirty  days.  On  these  terms 
the  Ausgleich  could  be  put  through  in  an  hour— 


708 


AUSTRIA,  1897 


Constitutional  Government 
Paralyzed 


AUSTRIA,  1898 


apparently.  The  Opposition  would  have  to  sit 
meek  and  quiet,  and  stop  obstructing,  or  be  turned 
into  the  street,  deputy  after  deputy,  leaving  the 
Majority  an  unvexed  field  for  its  work. 

"Certainly  the  thing  looked  well.  .  .  .  [But  next 
day,  when  the  President  attempted  to  open  the 
session,  a  band  of  the  Socialist  members  made  a 
sudden  charge  upon  him,  drove  him  and  the  Vice 
President  from  the  House,  took  possession  of  the 
tribune,  and  brought  even  the  semblance  of  legis- 
lative proceedings  to  an  end.  Then  a  body  of  sixty 
policemen  was  brought  in  to  clear  the  House.] 
Some  of  the  results  of  this  wild  freak  followed  in- 
stantly. The  Badeni  government  came  down  with 
a  crash;  there  was  a  popular  outbreak  or  two  in 
Vienna;  there  were  three  or  four  days  of  furious 
rioting  in  Prague,  followed  by  the  establishing 
there  of  martial  law;  the  Jews  and  Germans  were 
harried  and  plundered,  and  their  houses  destroyed; 
in  other  Bohemian  towns  there  was  rioting — in 
some  cases  the  Germans  being  the  rioters,  in  others 
the  Czechs — and  in  all  cases  the  Jew  had  to  roast, 
no  matter  which  side  he  was  on.  We  are  well 
along  in  December  now ;  the  new  Minister-Presi- 
dent has  not  been  able  to  patch  up  a  peace  among 
the  warring  factions  of  the  parliament,  therefore 
there  is  no  use  in  calling  it  together  again  for  the 
present ;  public  opinion  believes  that  parliamentary 
government  and  the  Constitution  are  actually 
threatened  with  extinction,  and  that  the  perma- 
nency of  the  monarchy  itself  is  a  not  absolutely 
certain  thing ! 

"Yes,  the  Lex  Falkenhayn  was  a  great  inven- 
tion, and  did  what  was  claimed  for  it — it  got  the 
government  out  of  the  frying-pan." — S.  L.  Clem- 
ens (Mark  Twain),  Stirring  times  in  Austria 
(Harper's  Magazine,  Mar.,  1898). 

1397  (December). — Imperial  action. — On  the 
last  day  of  the  year  the  emperor  closed  the  sit- 
tings of  the  Austrian  Reichsrath  by  proclamation 
anci  issued  a  rescript  continuing  the  Ausgleich  pro- 
visionally for  six  months. 

1898. — Prolongation  of  factious  disorders. — 
Paralysis  of  constitutional  government. — Though 
scenes  in  the  Austrian  Chamber  were  not  quite  so 
violent,  perhaps,  as  they  had  become  near  the 
close  of  iSq7,  the  state  of  factious  disorder  con- 
tinued much  the  same  throughout  the  year,  and 
legislation  was  completely  stopped.  The  work  of 
government  could  be  carried  on  only  by  imperial 
decrees.  The  ministry  of  Baron  von  Gautsch, 
which  had  succeeded  that  of  Count  Badeni,  at- 
tempted a  compromise  on  the  language  question  in 
Bohemia  by  dividing  the  country  into  three  dis- 
tricts, according  to  the  distrbution  of  the  several 
races,  in  one  of  which  German  was  to  be  the 
official  tongue,  in  another  Czech,  while  both  lan- 
guages were  to  be  used  in  the  third.  [See  also 
Bohemia:  1848-1897.]  But  the  Germans  of  the 
empire  would  accept  no  such  compromise.  In 
March,  Baron  von  Gautsch  retired,  and  Count 
Thun  Hohenstein  formed  a  ministry  made  up  to 
represent  the  principal  factions  in  the  Reichsrath ; 
but  the  scheme  brought  no  peace.  Nor  did  ap- 
peals by  Count  Thun,  "in  the  name  of  Austria," 
to  the  patriotism  and  the  reason  of  all  parties,  to 
suspend  their  warfare  long  enough  for  a  little  of 
the  necessary  work  of  the  state  to  be  done,  have 
any  effect.  The  turbulence  in  the  legislature  in- 
fected the  whole  community,  and  especially,  it 
would  seem,  the  students  in  the  schools,  whose 
disorder  caused  many  lectures  to  be  stopped.  In 
Hungary,  too,  there  was  an  increase  of  violence  in 
political  agitation.  A  party,  led  by  the  son  of 
Louis  Kossuth,  struggled  to  improve  what  seemed 
to  be  an  opportunity  for  breaking  the  political 
union  of  Hungary  with  Austria,  and  realizing  the 


old  ambition  for  an  independent  Hungarian  state. 
The  ministry  of  Baron  Banffy  had  this  party 
against  him,  as  well  as  that  of  the  clericals,  who 
resented  the  civil  marriage  laws,  and  legislation 
came  to  a  deadlock  nearly  as  complete  in  the  Hun- 
garian as  in  the  Austrian  Parliament.  There,  as 
well  as  in  Austria,  the  extension  of  the  Ausgleich, 
provisionally  for  another  year,  had  to  be  im- 
posed by  imperial  decree. 

"At  the  same  time,  the  party  regarded  it  as  their 
obvious  duty  to  emancipate  themselves  from  Rome 
in  a  political  but  not  religious  sense — that  is  to 
say,  to  free  themselves  from  the  influence  of  the 
Roman  Curia  in  affairs  of  state.  This  boycotted 
party  and  program  now  threatened  to  win  the 
voluntary  or  enforced  adherence  of  the  advanced 
section  of  the  other  German  groups  which  had 
hitherto  declined  to  commit  themselves  to  such  an 
extreme  policy.  The  most  moderate  of  all  the 
German  parties,  that  of  the  constitutional  landed 
proprietors,  felt  called  upon  to  enter  an  energetic 
and  indignant  protest  against  the  foregoing  Pan- 
Germanic  program.  While  they  were  convinced 
supporters  of  the  Austro-German  alliance,  they 
unconditionally  rejected  aspirations  which  they 
held  to  be  totally  inconsistent  with  the  tried  and 
reliable  basis  of  that  agreement,  and  which  would 
constitute  an  undignified  sacrifice  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  monarchy.  They  further  declined  to 
make  their  manifestations  of  loyalty  to  the  sov- 
ereign dependent  upon  any  condition ;  and  they 
strongly  condemned  the  emancipation  from  Rome 
movement  as  a  culpable  confusion  of  the  spheres 
of  religion  and  politics,  and  an  infringement  of 
the  liberty  of  conscience  which  was  calculated  to 
sow  dissension  among  the  German  element  in  Aus- 
tria. The  opening  session  of  the  newly  elected 
Reichsrath  was  held  January  31,  and.  the  disor- 
derly temper  in  it  was  manifested  upon  a  refer- 
ence by  the  president  to  the  death  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria, which  called  out  cries  of  hostility  to  Eng- 
land from  both  Germans  and  Czechs.  ...  In  the 
course  of  the  proceedings  some  of  the  members  of 
the  extreme  Czech  faction  warned  the  prime  min- 
ister in  threatening  terms  against  introducing  a 
single  word  hostile  to  the  Czech  nation  in  the 
coming  speech  from  the  throne.  They  also  an- 
nounced their  intention  of  squaring  accounts  with 
him  as  soon  as  the  speech  from  the  throne  should 
be  delivered.  The  whole  sitting  did  not  last  an 
hour,  but  what  happened  sufficed  tO'  show  that 
not  only  the  Pan-CJermanic  Union,  but  also  the 
extreme  section  of  the  German  People's  party  and 
a  couple  of  radical  Czechs,  were  ready  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice  to  transform  the  Reichsrath  into  a 
bear  garden.  On  February  4  the  two  houses  of 
the  Reichsrath  were  assembled  at  the  palace  and 
addressed  by  the  emperor,  in  a  speech  from  the 
throne  of  which  the  following  is  a  partial  report: 
"His  Majesty  referred  to  various  features  of  leg- 
islation, including  the  budget,  the  revision  of  the 
customs  tariff,  the  promotion  of  trade,  industry, 
and  navigation,  the  protection  of  the  working 
classes  and  the  regulation  of  the  hours  of  labour, 
the  government  railway  projects  and  the  Bosnian 
lines,  and  bills  for  the  regulation  of  emigration, 
the  construction  of  dwellmgs  for  the  lower  classes, 
the  repression  of  drunkenness,  the  development  of 
the  university  system  and  other  educational  re- 
forms, and  a  revision  of  the  press  laws — in  fact  a 
whole  inventory  of  the  important  legislative  ar- 
rears consequent  upon  the  breakdown  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  following  passage  occurs  in  the  further 
course  of  the  speech:  'The  constitution  which  I 
bestowed  upon  my  dominions  in  the  exercise  of 
my  free  will  ought  to  be  an  adequate  guarantee 
for  the  development  of  my  people.     The  finances 


709 


AUSTRIA,  1898 


Clerical  Conflicts 


AUSTRIA,  1100 


of  the  state  have  been  put  in  order  in  exemplary 
fashion  and  its  credit  has  been  raised  to  a  high 
level  The  freedom  of  the  subject  reposes  upon 
a  firm  foundation,  and  thanks  to  the  scholastic 
organization  and  the  extraordinary  increase  of 
educational  establishments  general  culture  has 
reached  a  gratifying  standard,  which  has  more  es- 
pecially contributed  to  the  efficiency  and  intelli- 
gence of  my  army.  The  provincial  diets  have 
been  able  to  do  much  within  the  limits  of  their 
jurisdiction.  The  beneficial  influence  of  the  con- 
stitutional system  has  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
communal  administrations.  I  am  thus  justified  in 
saying  that  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  state  are 
a  precious  possession  of  my  loyal  people.  Not- 
withstanding the  autonomy  enjoyed  by  certain 
kingdoms  and  provinces,  they  constitute  for  for- 
eigners the  symbol  of  the  strength  and  unity  of 
the  state.  I  was,  therefore,  all  the  more  grieved 
that  the  last  sessions  of  the  legislature  should 
have  had  no  result,  even  if  I  am  prepared  to  ac- 
knowledge that  such  business  as  affected  the  posi- 
tion of  the  monarchy  was  satisfactorily  transacted 
by  all  parties.' 

"The  emperor  then  expressed  his  regret  that 
other  matters  of  equal  importance  affecting  the 
interests  of  Austria  had  not  been  disposed  of. 
His  majesty  made  an  appeal  to  the  representatives 
of  the  Reichsrath  to  devote  their  efforts  to  the 
necessary  and  urgent  work  awaiting  them,  and 
assured  them  that  they  might  count  upon  the  gov- 
ernment. All  attempts  at  the  moral  and  material 
development  of  the  empire  were,  he  said,  stultified 
by  the  nationality  strife.  Experience  had  shown 
that  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  bring  about 
a  settlement  of  the  principal  C|uestions  involved 
therein  had  led  to  no  result  and  that  it  was  pref- 
erable to  deal  with  the  matter  in  the  legislature. 
The  government  regarded  a  generally  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  pending  language  question  as  being 
both  an  act  of  justice  and  a  necessity  of  state. 
Trusting  in  the  good  will  manifested  by  all  parties, 
the  ministr>'  would  do  its  utmost  to  promote  a 
settlement  which  would  relieve  the  countp,-  of  its 
greatest  evil.  At  the  same  time,  the  cabinet  was 
under  the  obligation  of  maintaining  intact  the 
unity  of  language  in  certain  departments  of  the  ad- 
ministration, in  which  it  constituted  an  old  and 
well-tested  institution.  Success  must  never  again 
be  sought  through  paralysing  the  popular  represen- 
tation. The  hindrance  of  parliamentary  work 
could  only  postpone  or  render  quite  impossible 
the  realization  of  such  aspirations  as  most  deeply 
affected  the  public  mind.  The  sovereign  then  re- 
ferred to  the  damage  done  to  the  interests  of  the 
empire  by  the  obstacles  placed  in  the  way  of  the 
regular  working  of  the  constitution,  and  pointed 
to  the  indispensable  necessity  of  the  vigorous  co- 
operation of  Parliament  in  the  a[)proaching  settle- 
ment of  the  commercial  relations  between  the  two 
halves  of  the  monarchy.  The  speech  concluded 
with  a  warmly-worded  appeal  to  the  representa- 
tives to  establish  a  peace  which  would  correspond 
to  the  requirements  of  the  time  and  to  defend  as 
their  fathers  had  defended  'this  venerable  state 
which  accords  equal  protection  to  all  its  peoples.'  " 
For  troubles  with  Hungary  over  budget,  sec  Hun- 
gary:   1807-1007. 

1898. — Assassination  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth. 
See  Austria-Hungary:   i.Sq.S  (September). 

1899-1901. — Change  in  ministries. — Continued 
obstruction  by  German  parties  in  Austria. — Se- 
cession of  German  Roman  Catholics  from  their 
church. — Clerical  parties. — Decline  in  the 
Reichsrath. — In  September.  tSqo,  the  .Austrian 
ministry  of  Count  Thun  ro-igned.  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  one  formed  under  Count  Clary-Aldrin- 


gen.  The  new  premier  withdrew  the  language  de- 
crees, which  quieted  the  German  obstructionists, 
but  provoked  the  Czechs  to  take  up  the  same 
role.  Count  Clary-Aldringen  resigned  in  Decem- 
ber, and  a  provisional  ministry  was  formed  under 
Dr.  Wittek,  which  lasted  only  until  January  19, 
1 000,  when  a  new  cabinet  was  formed  by  Dr.  von 
Korber.  In  Hungary,  Baron  Banffy  was  driven 
from  power  in  Februar,-,  iSog,  by  a  state  of  things 
m  the  Hungarian  Parliament  much  like  that  in 
the  Austrian.  M.  Koloman  Szell,  who  succeeded 
him,  effected  a  compromise  with  the  opposition 
which  enabled  him  to  carry  a  measure  extending 
the  Ausgleich  to  1007.  This  brought  one  serious 
difficulty  of  the  situation  to  an  end.  During  most 
of  the  year  i8oq  the  German  parties  in  the  Aus- 
trian Reichsrath  continued  to  make  legislation 
impossible  by  disorderly  obstruction,  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  compelling  the  government  to 
withdraw  the  language  decrees  in  Bohemia.  A 
still  more  significant  demonstration  of  German 
feeling  and  policy  appeared,  in  a  wide-spread  and 
organized  movement  to  detach  German  Roman 
Catholics  from  their  church,  partly,  it  would  seem, 
as  a  proceeding  of  hostility  to  the  Clerical  party, 
and  partly  as  a  means  of  recommending  the  Ger- 
mans of  the  Austrian  states  to  the  sympathy  of 
the  German  empire,  and  smoothing  the  approach 
to  an  ultimate  union  of  some  of  those  states  with 
the  Germanic  federation.  The  agitation  against 
the  Catholic  church  is  called  "Los  von  Rom." — 
"The  Church  in  Austria  is  less  a  State  Church 
than  an  ecclesiastical  department  of  the  State, 
working  lika  the  army,  the  bureaucracy,  and  the 
police  in  the  interests  of  'government.'  The  'Los 
von  Rom,'  or  rather  'Los  von  Habsburg'  move- 
ment ...  led  to  the  formation  of  clerical  so- 
cieties, notably  the  Societies  of  St.  Boniface  and 
St.  Raphael,  to  combat  anti-Catholic  and  anti- 
Hapsburg  tendencies  and  to  support  a  German 
race-movement  on  Catholic  lines.  The  Heir-Ap- 
parent, Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  accepted  the 
protectorship  of  a  Catholic  Schulverein  or  Schools 
Association;  Dr.  Lueger  and  his  Christian  Social 
followers  attacked  the  preponderance  of  anti- 
Clerical  and  Jewish  influence  in  the  Universities; 
and  subsequently  the  Piusverein  was  founded  to 
support  the  Catholic  anti-Jewish  press,  several  of 
whose  organs  gradually  acquired  considerable  cir- 
culation and  influence.  .  .  .  The  'Los  von  Rom' 
peril  having  been  warded  off,  the  Clerical  organiza- 
tions engaged  in  a  violent  and  sometimes  thor- 
oughly unscrupulous  campaign  against  Social  De- 
mocracy, whose  progress  had  inspired  uneasiness 
in  the  highest  quarters." — H.  W.  Steed,  Hapsbiwg 
monarrliy.  pp.  106-107,  116-117. — From  the  par- 
liamentary elections  held  in  January  the  Clerical 
and  anti-Semitic  parties  came  back  to  the  Reichs- 
rath shorn  of  about  one-third  of  their  strength. 
while  the  various  radical  factions,  especially  those 
among  the  Germans,  appear  to  have  made  con- 
siderable gains.  Even  in  the  Tyrol,  one  of  the 
strongest  of  the  Clerical  leaders,  Baron  Di  Pauli, 
was  defeated,  and  in  Vienna  the  anti-Semitic  ma- 
jority was  cut  to  less  than  one-fourth  of  what  it 
had  been  three  years  before. 

1900  (February). — Attempted  pacification  of 
German  and  Czech  parties  by  a  conciliation 
board. — "On  Monday  last  [February  5]  the  Ger- 
man and  Czech  Conciliation  Board  met  for  the 
first  time  in  Vienna,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Austrian  Premier,  Dr.  von  Korber,  and  conferred 
for  two  hours.  .  .  .  Dr.  von  Korber  is  at  the  head 
of  what  may  be  called  a  'business'  Ministry,  com- 
posed largely  of  those  who  had  filled  subordinate 
offices  in  previous  Ministries.  It  was  hoped,  per- 
haps,  that,    since    the    leading    politicians   with    a 


710 


AUSTRIA,  1900 


Struggle 
for  Suffrage 


AUSTRIA,  1906-1909 


political  'past'  could  apparently  do  nothing  to 
bring  about  a  settlement,  men  with  no  past,  but 
with  a  capacity  for  business,  and  in  no  way  com- 
mitted on  the  racial  question,  might  do  better  in 
effecting  a  working  arrangement.  The  appoint- 
ment of  this  Conciliation  Board  seemed  a  prom- 
ising way  of  attempting  such  a  settlement.  Dr. 
von  Korber  opened  Monday's  proceedings  with  a 
strong  appeal  to  both  sides,  saying;  'Gentlemen, 
the  Empire  looks  to  you  to  restore  its  happiness 
and  tranquillity.'  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  Em- 
pire is  likely  to  find  its  wishes  fulfilled,  for  when 
the  Board  came  down  to  hard  business,  the  old 
troubles  instantly  revealed  themselves.  The  Pre- 
mier recommended  a  committee  for  Bohemia  of 
twenty-two  members,  and  one  for  Moravia  of 
fifteen  members,  the  two  sitting  in  joint  session 
in  certain  cases.  Dr.  Engel  then  set  forth  the 
historical  claims  of  the  Czechs,  which  immedi- 
ately called  forth  a  demand  from  Dr.  Funke,  of 
the  German  party,  that  German  should  be  de- 
clared the  official  language  throughout  Austria. 
Each  speaker  seems  to  have  been  supported  by 
his  own  party,  and  so  no  progress  was  made, 
and  matters  remain  in  'statu  quo  ante.'  The  sin- 
gularly deticicnt  constitution  of  this  Board  makes 
against  success,  for  it  seems  that  the  German 
Nationalists  and  Anti-Semites  have  only  one  dele- 
gate apiece,  the  Social  Democrats  were  not  invited 
at  all,  while  the  extreme  Germans  and  extreme 
Czechs,  apparently  regarding  the  Board  as  a  farce, 
declined  to  nominate  delegates  to  its  sittings.  .  .  . 
There  is  unhappily  Kttle  reason  for  believing  that 
the  Board  of  Conciliation  will  effect  what  the 
Emperor  himself  has  failed  tn  accomplish." — 
Spectator   (London),  Feb.  lo,    iqoo. 

1900  (July  1). — Marriage  of  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand. — Morganatic  marriage  of  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand  (heir  to  the  throne)  and  the 
Countess  Sophie  Chotek  took  place  in  1900. — See 
also  Austria-Hungary:   igoo. 

1900  (September-December). — Economic  de- 
cline. See  Austria-Hungary:  igoo  (September- 
December)  . 

1900-1904. — Cessation  of  obstruction  during 
the  Koerber  ministry. — Administration  of  public 
finance. — "The  -Austrian  Chamber  has  never  re- 
vised or  rejected  an  Imperial  ordinance  is- 
sued under  the  Emergency  Paragraph  It  has 
never  seriously  called  a  blameworthy  ministry  to 
account  for  abuse  of  its  powers;  and  when,  under 
the  Koerber  Ministry  of  1900-1004,  obstruction 
ceased  for  a  time  and  supply  was  normally  voted, 
this  result  was  obtained  not  by  a  revival  of  Con- 
stitutional feeling  on  the  part  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  but  by  the  announcement  of  an  enor- 
mous programme  of  railway  and  canal  construc- 
tion, estimated  to  cost  some  £40,000,000  and  cost- 
ing in  reality  as  much  again.  All  the  chief  parties 
then  sank  their  differences  for  a  time  in  order  to 
feed  at  the  Government  manger.  Not  even  the 
provision  that  the  Emergency  Paragraph  may  not 
be  used  'to  place  any  permanent  burden  on  the 
Treasury'  has  been  respected  in  practice.  .  .  .  Tez- 
ner  rightly  deplores  the  dangers  to  which  the  ad- 
ministration of  public  finance  in  .Austria  is  thus 
exposed,  and  points  out  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find,  even  in  the  absolutist  epochs  of  Austrian 
history,  a  parallel  for  the  Imperial  Ordinance  of 
July  16,  igo4,  by  which  suits  pending  before  the 
Imperial  Tribunal  against  the  Treasury,  were 
simply  quashed  because  previous  decisions  of  the 
Tribunal  in  si:nilar  cases  had  rendered  a  condem- 
nation of  the  Treasury  probable.  Though  this 
denial  of  justice  was  committed  by  Imperial  Or- 
dinance, the  absolutist  spirit  from  which  it  pro- 
ceeded  was  rather   that   of   the  bureaucracy   than 


that  of  the  Monarch.  Between  these  two  abso- 
lutisms the  difference  is  considerable,  and,  of  the 
two.  Imperial  absolutism  is  the  less  insidious." — 
H.  W.  Steed,  Hapsburg  monarchy,  pp.  38,  39. 

1901. — Dissatisfaction  with  the  commercial 
Ausgleich.     See  .Austria-Hungary:   1QOO-1903. 

1902-1908. — Strikes  of  Ukrainians  in  Galicia. — 
Assassination  of  Count  Potocki  by  Ukrainian 
student.     See   Ukraine;    1840-1914. 

1905-1906. — Attitude  toward  assimilation  with 
Hungary.     See  .\ustria-Hungary:    igos-igoo. 

1905-1911. — Suppression  of  Socialist  agitations 
for  universal  suffrage. — Press  muzzled. — "In  the 
autumn  of  1905  a  Socialist  manifestation  in  fa- 
vour of  universal  suffrage  was  violently  sup- 
pressed; blood  was  shed  and  arrests  were  made. 
But  within  a  week  the  wind  in  the  higher  regions 
had  changed,  and  the  Government  had  veered 
round  in  favour  of  universal  suffrage.  A  huge 
Socalist  demonstration  was  organized  in  agreement 
with  the  police  which  was  instructed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  evacuate  the  main  thoroughfare  of 
Vienna,  the  Ringsrasse,  and  to  leave  it  for  sev- 
eral hours  entirely  to  the  Socialists.  The  police 
guarded  only  the  Hofburg  or  Imperial  Palace.  In 
the  autumn  of  igii,  a  Socialist  agitation  of  which 
the  Government  did  not  approve  was  directed 
against  the  Agrarians  and  the  rise  in  the  prices  of 
food  for  which  the  Agrarians  were  held  respon- 
sible. The  police  and  the  military  suppressed  it 
with  vigour,  a  number  of  lives  being  lost.  On 
this  occasion  the  Courts  inflicted  severe  sentences 
upon  boys  not  out  of  their  teens,  and  punished 
with  long  terms  of  imprisonment  any  culprit  who 
confessed  that  he  had  thrown  a  stone.  .  .  .  The 
Austro-Hungarian  press  is  almost  entirely  under 
official  control  when  dealing  with  questions  of 
foreign  policy  and  that  the  public  rarely  gets  an 
inkling  of  the  merits  of  a  situation  that  may  in- 
volve the  country  in  war.  During  the  Morocco 
crisis  of  1005-1906,  .Austro-Hungarian  ignorance  of 
the  position  of  affairs  in  Europe  was  complete. 
Not  until  after  the  Conference  of  Algeciras  in 
.April  1906,  did  any  Austrian  journal  lay  before 
its  readers  an  intelligible  account  of  the  origin  and 
course  of  the  crisis.  The  German  Press  Bureau 
conducted  its  campaign  against  France  and  Eng- 
land even  more  in  Austro-Hungarian  than  in  Ger- 
man journals.  Even  when,  after  the  diplomatic 
defeat  of  Germany  at  Algeciras,  the  Xeue  Freie. 
Presse  allowed  M.  Georges  Clemenceau  to  state 
in  its  columns  the  bare  facts  concerning  the  re- 
cent past — facts  that  gave  the  lie  to  the  inventions 
which  the  Neue  Freie  Presse  and  its  contempora- 
ries had  previously  foisted  upon  the  public — it 
continued  tranquilly  its  campaign  of  conscious 
untruthfulness  and  left  its  readers  bewildered. 
Similarly,  before  and  during  the  annexation  crisis 
of  igo8-igoo,  Austrian  journals,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Count  Aehrenthal's  Press  Bureau,  rig- 
orously excluded  from  their  columns  all  informa- 
tion contrary  to  the  official  thesis,  and  waged  war, 
not  only  against  Russia  and  Servia,  but  against 
the  best  interests  of  the  Monarchy  itself.  Nemesis 
overtook  the  Press  Bureau  and  its  organs  during 
the  recent  Balkan  war.  Events  belied  official  and 
semi-official  doctrine  so  rapidly  and  unmistakably 
that  the  public  actually  awoke  to  the  situation 
and  understood  for  a  moment  the  deleterious  ef- 
fects, moral  and  material,  of  Government  control 
of  the  press  and  of  the  constant  inoculation  of  the 
public  mind  with  mendacious  statement  and  mis- 
leading suggestion" — H.  W.  Steed,  Hapsburg  mon- 
arcliv,  pp.  06,  110-200. 

1906-1909. — Reformed  electoral  law  of  Austria. 
— "December  1006  saw  the  passing  of  the  law 
which   granted   the   franchise   to  every   male  Aus- 


711 


AUSTRIA,  1906-1909 


Reformed 
Electoral  Law 


AUSTRIA,  1906-1909 


trian  citizen  over  twenty-four  years  of  age  and 
resident  for  at  least  a  year  in  tlie  place  of  the 
election ;  each  elector  had  only  one  vote.  The 
number  of  deputies  was  now  increased  from  425 
to  516.  It  was  a  vast  unprepared  revolution,  a 
new  and  unlooked-for  freedom,  described  by  some 
one  as  a  leap  in  the  dark.  Conjectures  as  to  its 
results  seemed  impossible,  because  with  the  aban- 
donment of  the  old  electoral  system  of  the  curia 
a  new  army  of  millions  of  electors  entered  the 
field,  and  because,  too,  by  the  new  arrangement 
established  in  the  constituencies  new  conditions 
were  created  for  the  elections.  The  constituencies, 
which  under  the  new  system  are  divided  into  town 
and  fountry  districts,  have  not  all — as  in  Ger- 
many— the  same  number  of  voters,  but  a  varying 
quantity,  ranging  from  12,000  to  80,000;  thus 
relatively  the  towns  elect  more  deputies  than  the 
rural  districts.  The  new  Parliament  had  two 
great  tasks  before  it:  the  final  suppression  of  the 
nationalist  wars  and  the  introduction  of  an  ac- 
tive and  productiv,e  popular  social  policy — in 
short,  the  complete  cure  of  the  two  maladies 
which  had  destroyed  and  killed  the  old  Chamber 
of  Privileges.  Every  one  hoped  that  it  would  ac- 
complish them.  The  General  Election  was  an- 
nounced for  May  1907.  An  obscure,  interminable 
crowd  rose  up  from  the  depths.  In  the  last  elec- 
tions of  i8g7,  under  the  old  system  1,217,993  elect- 
ors recorded  their  votes;  in  1907,  4,615,020  voters 
went  to  the  poll.  The  people  were  animated  by  a 
new  and  lively  spirit.  Under  the  former  regime 
the  political  life  of  the  country  and  its  Parliament 
had  left  the  masses  cold  and  indifferent;  the  av- 
erage percentage  of  voters  in  the  fifth  curia,  which, 
as  we  have  said,  practically  gave  the  franchise  to 
every  Austrian  citizen,  did  not  exceed  34  per  cent. 
In  1907  the  number  of  those  voting  was  82  per 
cent. ;  in  certain  provinces  it  increased  enormously 
— in  Dalmatia  from  4  to  48  per  cent. ;  in  Galicia 
from  33  to  8s  per  cent.;  in  the  Bukowina  from 
13  to  69  per  cent.  Under  this  formidable  popular 
pressure  the  old  political  world  broke  up  com- 
pletely. In  the  former  system  of  the  privileged 
classes  there  were  only  individuals — there  was  no 
definite  party  idea:  a  small  group  supported  each 
individual  who  then  represented  its  interests. 
With  universal  suffrage  the  modern  principle  of 
party  politics  became  a  necessity.  The  general 
party  idea,  expressed  in  a  programme  intelligible 
to  every  one,  was  the  only  thing  which  appealed 
to  the  bulk  of  the  electors,  who  had  no  personal 
knowledge  of  the  candidate  for  whom  they  voted. 
Again:  in  the  open  competition  of  universal  suf- 
frage the  real  organizations  would  naturally  tri- 
umph over  the  fluctuating  electoral  circles  of  the 
former  parties.  This  explains  the  marvellous  and 
unexpected  triumph  of  the  two  new  elements, 
really  the  only  ones  which  formed  a  solid  party: 
the  Christian  Socialists  and  the  Socialists.  Both 
of  them  commanded  vast  economic  organizations, 
which  now  became  powerful  political  forces.  The 
representatives  of  the  former  in  the  Chamber  rose 
from  27  to  66,  those  of  the  latter  from  11  to  86. 
In  1907  no  Parliament  in  Europe  had  a  Socialist 
party  so  strong  as  the  Austrian  one.  ...  On  the 
other  hand,  the  old  political  ranks  were  decimated. 
Notwithstanding  the  addition  of  nearly  a  hundred 
seats  in  Parliament,  only  a  third  of  the  former 
members  were  returned.  The  three  dominant 
groups  of  the  old  Chamber  fell  to  pieces:  of  the 
45  Young  Czechs  of  former  days  only  4  were  re- 
elected at  the  first  count,  of  the  100  and  more 
German  Liberals  only  60  survived,  while  the 
proud  Polish  nobility  disappeared  altogether. 
Even  the  very  Ministers  of  the  old  Parliament, 
who  had  prepared  the  suffrage  reform,  fell  before 


the  rising  tide  of  the  new  people.  The  Parliament 
of  Universal  Suffrage  was  divided  into  two  great 
parties:  the  'Red'  or  Socialist  and  the  'Black'  or 
Christian  Socialist  (or  Clerical).  The  'Blue'  rep- 
resented by  the  Agrarian  nobility  had  disappeared. 
It  was  called  the  'Small  Man's  Parliament,'  and, 
in  truth,  rested  entirely  on  the  lower  strata.  The 
great  majority  of  its  electors  belonged  to  the  low- 
est categories  as  regards  incomes,  those  ranging 
from  a  mere  daily  wage  to  an  annual  return  of 
3,000  crowns  (£125).  Politically,  this  was  cer- 
tainly its  weak  point,  but  at  the  same  time  it 
might  have  become  its  strength  socially.  In  all 
important  European  Parliaments,  even  those  elected 
by  a  democratic  suffrage,  there  is  always  a  select 
minority,  representing  the  rich  and  cultured  classes, 
which  directs  the  general  policy  and  legislation. 
In  the  German  Reichstag,  side  by  side  with  the 
Socialists  and  the  Clericals,  there  is  still  [1915] 
a  Conservative  party  of  Protestant  Agrarians  and 
a  National  Liberal  party  representing  the  interests 
of  industry,  trade,  and  circulating  capital.  In  the 
new  Austrian  Parliament,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
'Blacks'  and  the  'Reds'  were  not  longer  opposed 
by  another  real  cohesive  group,  but  by  little  ghosts 
of  parties.  Above  all,  that  intermediate  element 
known  as  Liberal  was  lacking.  Capital,  industry, 
trade,  and  culture,  represented  principally  by  the 
old  German  Liberal  middle  classes,  had  been  turned 
out.  The  host  of  small  people,  risen  at  one  bound, 
was  entirely  new  to  politics  and  below  the  average 
level  of  education.  Twenty-five  of  the  deputies 
were  professors  in  a  university  or  in  higher-grade 
schools,  106  were  professional  men,  more  than  40 
were  priests;  the  remainder  were  recruited  from 
school-masters,  artisans,  and  workingmen,  many 
of  whom,  being  editors  of  small  technical  news- 
papers, posed  as  journalists.  Any  valuable  ele- 
ments that  still  remained  were  almost  all  a  legacy 
from  the  old  regime.  Socially,  the  Austrian  Par- 
liament of  1907  should  have  possessed  a  formi- 
dable new  power;  it  was  united  and  homogeneous 
on  the  economic  and  social  side  as  it  had!  never 
been  before.  The  two  victorious  parties,  the 
Christian  Socialists  and  the  Socialists,  at  the  op- 
posite poles  in  their  political  opinions,  in  their 
social  spirit,  on  the  other  hand,  seemed  to  meet 
and  be  at  one.  Both  of  them,  springing  from  the 
working  classes,  the  peasants,  and  the  small  trades- 
people, represented  the  poor.  They  stood  for  an 
economic  Radicalism,  surmounting  racial  antag- 
onisms, and  they  professed  a  political  Radicalism 
in  their  programme.  Had  the  policy  of  the  new 
Parliament  been  directed  on  the  basis  of  statis- 
tical data,  on  the  relative  strength  of  the  differ- 
ent parties,  it  would  have  meant  a  complete  change 
and  renewal.  In  its  composition  the  Chamber  of 
Universal  Suffrage  seemed  to  possess  all  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  great  popular  social  re- 
forms that  were  expected  from  it.  The  speech 
from  the  Throne  solemnly  announced  them;  the 
people's  hopes  were  raised.  It  was  the  dawn  of 
freedom  and  progress,  a  thrilling  historic  moment 
for  the  new  Austria.  Time  went  by,  however,  and 
disillusionment  commenced.  The  stuff  the  new 
Chamber  was  made  of  was  quickly  seen.  The 
appointment  of  the  first  President,  Weisskirchner 
— a  man  without  individuality,  drawn  from  that 
Christian  Socialist  party  which  has  its  stronghold 
in  the  Municipal  Council  of  Vienna,  and  nomi- 
nated for  the  position  by  the  Burgomaster  Lueger, 
whose  creature  he  was — denoted  the  complete  sub- 
jection of  the  .Austrian  Empire  to  the  Municipal 
Council  of  the  capital.  The  years  passed,  still  the 
Parliament  lived  and  discussed,  the  newspapers 
dedicated  long  reports  to  it,  but  the  hoped-for 
reforms  still  tarried.     At  the  end   of   four  years 


712 


AUSTRIA,  1907 


Renewed 
Language  Quarrel 


AUSTRIA,  1909 


the  net  result  of  its  labours  could  be  summed  up 
in  one  word:  Nothing.  Beyond  the  compromise 
with  Hungary,  the  Austrian  Chamber  had  preved 
itself  absolutely  incapable  of  accomplishing  any- 
thing new.  A  general  and  radical  reform  of  the 
State  and  provincial  finances  was  promised;  they 
did  not  even  attempt  to  discuss  it;  there  was  not 
even,  one  may  say,  a  real  general  debate  on  the 
Budget.  When  money  was  needed  recourse  was 
had  to  small  makeshift  remedies  to  safeguard  ftie 
fiscal  interests  alone,  while  new  taxes  and  new 
debts  were  sanctioned.  A  promise  had  been  given 
of  a  revision  of  administration  and  Justice,  a  re- 
modelling of  the  bureaucracy,  of  the  civil  and 
penal  laws,  survivals  from  other  times,  and  of 
outworn  laws  relating  to  the  Press  and  to  Friendly 
Societies;  but  nothing  got  beyond  commissions 
and  subcommissions,  if  even  so  far  as  that.  A 
new  active  social  policy  had  been  promised,  a 
magnificent  scheme  of  insurance  for  the  working 
classes,  for  old  age,  and  for  sickness  was  proposed, 
and  it  was  not  passed  nor  even  pushed  forward 
for  decision.  The  task  of  the  Parliament  of  Uni- 
versal Suffrage  reduced  itself  merely  to  dispatching 
day  by  day  the  immediately  necessary  business, 
with  provisional  legislation  renewable  at  short 
notice.  Meanwhile  the  old  national  struggles  had 
begun  afresh;  the  policy  of  obstruction  was  regu- 
larly practised  by  the  Czechs,  who  once  (Decem- 
ber iS-iQ,  iQog)  by  their  continuous  lengthy 
speeches  contrived  that  a  session  should  last  un- 
interruptedly for  eighty-six  hours.  The  old  spirit 
remained  unchanged.  The  Socialist  party  was  un- 
able to  defend  the  liberty  of  education,  to  break 
the  all-powerful  Clerical  monopoly  of  the  schools, 
or  to  save  the  mass  of  the  town-dwellers  from 
the  tragic  rise  in  the  cost  of  living  caused  by  the 
unbridled  egoism  of  the  Agrarian  party.  No  Lib- 
eral party  knew  how  to  profit  by  the  critical  and 
decisive  moments — when  there  was  urgent  need 
of  money  or  of  a  reform  of  the  army  at  enormous 
cost — to  strengthen  its  constitutional  rights  against 
the  superior  powers.  Even  the  popular  impetus 
which  should  have  flooded  and  inspired  the  whole 
of  the  new  policy  was  lacking.  Thirty  years  ago 
the  Parliament  of  the  Curias  fiercely  opposed  the 
occupation  of  Bosnia,  several  times  even  provok- 
ing the  intervention  of  the  Crown;  the  new 
Peoples'  Parliament  meekly  ratified  the  annexa- 
tion, costing  some  500,000,000  crowns  (about  £20,- 
800,000)." — V.  Gayda,  Modern  Austria:  Its  racial 
and  social  problems,  pp.  52-57. — See  also  Austria- 
Huncivry:   igo5-igo6. 

1907. — Effects  of  universal  and  equalized  suf- 
frage in  Austria. — Elections  were  held  in  Austria 
a  few  months  after  the  passage  of  the  law  which 
introduced  equal  and  universal  male  suffrage,  and 
the  character  and  disposition  of  the  elected  Reichs- 
rath,  which  met  in  June,  1907,  afforded  indications 
of  some  remarkable  effects  from  the  extension  and 
equalizing  of  the  franchise.  It  was  expected,  of 
course,  to  popularize  the  Reichsrath,  and  break 
the  domination  of  the  upper  classes  in  that  body; 
but,  according  to  reports,  it  has  done  much  more. 
Prior  to  iSq6,  the  members  of  the  ahgeordneten 
or  lower  house  of  the  Reichsrath,  then  number- 
ing 353,  were  all  divided  into  four  sections,  elected 
by  four  classes  of  people.  The  new  law  swept 
away  the  whole  system  of  a  classified  representa- 
tion, and  the  representative  house  was  leveled  to 
one  footing,  as  a  body  of  deputies  from  the  people 
at  large.  The  most  conspicuous  effect  of  this  in 
the  elections  appears  to  have  been  a  sudden  break 
of  the  power  which  the  German  element  in  the 
much-mixed  population  of  the  Austrian  dominion 
had  been  able  to  exercise  hitherto.  Hence,  it  must 
be  the  fact  that  the  Germans  held  far  more  than 


their  proportion  of  the  property  which  the  old 
system  represented,  and  derived  from  that,  for- 
merly, a  weight  in  the  Reichsrath  which  their 
numbers  cannot  give  them  on  the  equalized  vote. 
Altogether,  in  the  various  Cisleithan  states — the 
two  Austrias  proper,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Galicia, 
Silesia,  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Car- 
niola,  Istria,  Dalmatia — they  formed  a  little  more 
than  one  third  of  the  total  population,  the  other 
two  thirds  being  mainly  Slavonic,  in  many  di- 
visions, principally  Czech,  Polish,  and  Slovene. — 
See  also  Suffrage,  Manhood:   Austria. 

1907. — Final  negotiations  of  a  new  financial 
Ausgleich.    See  Austria-Hungary:  1907. 

1908-1909. — "Greater  Serbia  conspiracy." — 
Agram  trials. — Friedjung  trial.  See  Austria- 
Hungary:   igoS-igog. 

1909. — Language  quarrel  in  Austria. — "Amid 
deafening  uproar  from  the  Czech  Radicals,  the 
Austrian  premier  has  submitted  to  the  Chamber 
[February  3,  1909]  two  bills  for  the  regulation  of 
the  Bohemian  language  question.  The  bills,  which 
in  present  circumstances  appear  to  have  little 
chance  of  becoming  law,  divicie  Bohemia  into  239 
judicial  and  20  administrative  districts.  Of  the 
former,  95  are  German,  138  Czech,  and  the  re- 
mainder mixed,  while  of  the  administrative  dis- 
tricts five  are  German,  10  Czech,  and  five  mixed. 
In  the  German  districts  German  is  to  be  the  pre- 
dominant language,  and  in  the  Czech  districts 
Czech,  while  in  the  mixed  districts,  which  include 
Prague,  the  two  languages  are  placed  on  an  equal 
footing.  Provision  is,  however,  made  for  the  use 
of  either  language  if  necessary  throughout  the 
whole  province." — A^.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

A  telegram  to  the  same  journal  from  Vienna, 
March  10,  reported:  "The  Lower  House  of  the 
Austrian  Parliament,  which  closed  on  February 
5,  after  a  scene  of  extraordinary  turbulence  aris- 
ing from  old  racial  ill-feeling  between  the  Ger- 
mans and  the  Czechs,  reopened  to-day  with  every 
promise  of  a  continuance  of  the  disorders.  The 
galleries  of  the  House  were  crowded  with  partisans 
of  the  two  factions,  and  as  soon  as  the  ministers 
appeared  hostile  shouts  came  from  the  Czech  and 
radical  benches,  drowning  the  cheers  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Left  party  and  the  Poles. 

"Premier  von  Bienerth,  amid  an  incessant  tu- 
mult, declared  the  nineteenth  session  opened,  say- 
ing he  hoped  the  work  would  be  crowned  with 
success  and  the  proceedings  not  disturbed.  His 
statement  sounded  ironical  in  face  of  the  un- 
broken uproar." 

The  following  is  a  later  press  despatch,  No- 
vember 2,  from  Vienna:  "The  Emperor  has  ac- 
cepted the  resignations  of  the  two  Czech  Min- 
isters in  the  Austrian  Cabinet,  and  has  sanctioned 
the  laws  adopted  by  the  Diets  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria,  Salzburg  and  Vorarlberg,  to  es- 
tablish the  unilingual  German  character  of  those 
provinces.  In  the  name  of  the  Czech  people  the 
Czech  National  Council  addressed  yesterday  a 
telegram  to  the  Emperor  begging  that  the  laws 
might  not  be  sanctioned,  since,  runs  the  telegram, 
they  affect  the  honour  of  the  Czech  people  and 
must  cause  constant  racial  strife  both  in  the  prov- 
inces and  in  Vienna,  'which  is  not  only  the  capital 
of  Lower  Austria,  but  is  also  the  capital  of  the 
whole  empire  and  of  all  its  races.  These  laws  are 
a  dangerous  beginning  of  constitutional  changes 
in  your  Majesty's  glorious  empire.'  A  copy  of  the 
telegram  was  sent  to  the  Polish  leader,  Dr.  Glom- 
binski,  with  an  'expression  of  the  deepest  regret 
that  members  of  the  Polish  party  should  have 
supported  as  Ministers  these  anti-Slav  laws.' " 

A  revival  of  turbulent  obstruction  to  legislative 
proceedings  in   the   lower   house   of   the   Austrian 


713 


AUSTRIA,  1910 


World    War 
Republic  Created 


AUSTRIA,  1919 


Reichsrath  led,  at  last,  in  December,  to  the  enact- 
ment of  rules  which  so  enlarged  the  powers  of 
the  speaker  as  to  enable  him  to  suppress  factious 
obstruction  ?nd  to  suspend  deputies  whc  cutiage 
the  decencies  of  behavior  in  the  Chamber.  The 
measure  was  limited  in  its  operation  to  a  year, 
but  was  expected  to  be  prolonged. 

1910. — Statistics   of  trade  unions.     See   Labor 

ORO.^N'IZ.'iTION:     IQIO-IQig. 

1913-1918. — Strife  for  territory  in  Galicia. 
See  Galici.a:    iqi3-iQiS. 

1914. — Attitude  of  peoples  in  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy towards  the  World  War.  See  .\ustria- 
Hu.N'GARv:   1014-1915. 

1914. — Economic  and  political  situation.  See 
World  War:    Diplomatic   background:    12. 

1914-1915.— Pan-German  plan.  See  Pan-Ger- 
hu.nism:  Pan-German  League  and  its  branches. 

1914-1917. — Attitude  of  Poland  in  war  against 
Russia.     See  Poland:   1914-1017. 

1914-1918. — Shipping,  effect  of  World  War. 
See  Commerce:   Commercial  age:   1914-1921. 

1915. — Adriatic  question.  See  .\driatic  ques- 
tion: Treaty  of  London. 

1916  (November  21). — Death  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph.  See  .\ustria-Hungarv:  1916 
(November  21). 

1916-1917. — Accession  of  Charles  I. — Great  in- 
terest was  centered  on  the  appearance  of  Charles  I 
(emperor  of  .Austria  and  king  of  Hungary),  before 
the  Reichsrath  in  the  spring  of  191 7.  The  youth- 
ful monarch  (twenty-nine  years  old  at  the  corona- 
tion) succeeded  his  great-uncle,  Francis  Joseph  I 
(whose  reign  up  to  his  death  lasted  for  sixty-eight 
years),  on  November  21,  1916.  With  war  raging 
for  over  two  years  on  all  the  fronts  of  the  em- 
pire, Emperor  Charles'  address  vaguely  held  forth 
promises  of  giving  recognition  to  the  aspirations 
of  the  people  in  Galicia  and  the  kingdom  of  Bo- 
hemia. He  alluded  to  the  new  phase  the  Russian 
situation  had  taken  and  declared  that  .Austria- 
Hungary  was  always  ready  to  extend  a  helping 
hand  to  its  neighbor  on  the  East,  at  the  same 
time  inferring  that  with  another  such  loss  to  the 
.•\llies  the  "good  end  of  the  war  will  be  achieved." 
— He  also  declared,  "I  shall  always  be  a  just,  af- 
fectionate, and  conscientious  ruler  of  my  dear 
peoples  in  the  sense  of  the  constitutional  idea 
which  we  have  taken  over  as  a  heritage  from  our 
forefathers,  and  in  the  spirit  of  that  true  democ- 
racy which  during  the  storms  of  the  world  war 
has  wonderfully  stood  the  ordeal  of  fire  in  the 
achievements  of  the  entire  people  at  home  and  at 
the  front." — See  also  .\ustria-Hungarv:  1916- 
1917. 

1917-1918. — Economic  dependence  on  Hun- 
gary.   See  Hvng.^rv:  1917-1918. 

1917-1918. — Disintegration  of  subject  nation- 
alities.    See  .\ustrl\-Hvngarv:    r9i7-i9i8. 

1918. — Armistice  with  the  Allies,  November  3. 
See  .■\rsTRn-HuNGARv;  1918:  Military  debacle;  and 
Italy:   iqiS. 

1918-1919.— New  political  factions.— Abdica- 
tion of  Charles  I. — Karl  Seitz  elected  president. 
— The  signing  of  the  armistice  on  November 
II,  1918,  brought  out  four  political  groups  striv- 
ing for  ascendancy  in  German  .\ustria.  One  of 
these  was  the  German  National  Committee,  of 
which  a  number  of  Socialists  like  Herr  Seitz  were 
members.  .Another  was  the  Viennese  Democrats 
who  were  opposed  to  any  union  with  Germany. 
The  third  group  was  chiefly  made  up  of  workmen 
who  held  extreme  views,  and  lastly,  a  party  headed 
by  Cardinal  Piffl,  which  was  aiming,  through  un- 
derground methods,  at  the  restoration  nl  the 
monarchy.  This  plot  was  soon  discovered  and 
Cardinal    Piffl    was   placed   under   guard.     .At    the 


very  outset  German  Austria  voiced  its  desire  to 
be  annexed  by  Germany.  Under  Secretary  of 
State  Bauer  at  V'ienna,  in  a  telegram  to  Commis- 
sioner Haase  of  Berlin,  declared  on  November  15, 
1918,  "German  .Austria  has  given  expression  to 
its  will  to  be  united  again  with  the  other  parts  of 
the  German  Nation  from  which  it  was  forcibly 
separated  fifty-two  years  ago."  The  telegram 
also  urged  that  negotiations  for  such  a  union  be 
entered  into  without  delay.  ".Austrian  general 
elections  were  held  on  February  15,  1919,  with 
four  million  men  and  women  participating.  The 
National  Constituent  .Assembly,  thus  chosen,  con- 
vened on  March  4,  its  membership  comprising  70 
Social  Democrats,  04  Christian  Socialists  (Cleric- 
als), and  91  adherents  of  minor  groups.  Karl 
Seitz,  leader  of  the  Social  Democrats,  was  elected 
president ;  a  coalition  ministry  of  Social  Democrat.^ 
and  Christian  Socialists  was  formed  under  Karl 
Renner  as  chancellor;  and  a  republican  constitu- 
tion for  German  .Austria  was  drafted  and  subse- 
quently adopted.  [See  below  1920  (October-De- 
cember)]. Ex-Emperor  Charles  [who  had  abdi- 
cated November  12]  sought  refuge  in  Switzerland 
in  March,  1919  ' — C.  J.  H.  Hayes,  Brief  history  of 
the  great  -war,  p.  35b. — See  also  .Austria-Hungary: 
iQiS:   German  Austria  becomes  a  republic. 

1919  (June). — Boundaries  with  Germany  fixed 
at  Peace  Conference. — Independence  recognized 
by  Germany.  See  Versailles,  Treaty  of:  Part 
II;   Part  III:   Section  VI. 

1919. — Austrian  settlement. — Treaty  of  St. 
Germain  (Sept.  10,  1919). — "The  preliminary 
draft  of  the  .Austrian  Treaty  had  been  presented 
to  the  enemy  delegates  on  June  2.  The  terms  were 
regarded  in  Vienna  as  a  'death  sentence,'  and  the 
government  strove  desperately  to  secure  some  ame- 
lioration. The  remnant  of  the  .Austrian  Empire, 
however,  which  constituted  the  republic  with 
which  the  .Allies  were  dealing  was  bankrupt. 
starving,  and  threatened  w'ith  revolution,  and  it 
was  in  no  position  to  resist.  [For  reduced  domin- 
ions, see  Europe:  Modern  Period:  New  map  ol 
Europe.]  The  attitude  of  the  .Austrian  negotiators 
was  more  conciliatory  than  that  of  the  Germans 
had  been,  and  as  a  result  of  the  exchange  of 
notes  during  July  and  August  some  concessions 
were  made  by  the  Allies.  France,  however,  re- 
mained firm  in  refusing  to  permit  a  union  with 
Germany.  The  .Allies  pointed  out  to  the  .Aus- 
trian Germans  their  responsibility  in  forcing  the 
war,  and  insisted  that  the  plight  in  which  they 
now  found  themselves  was  the  natural  and  in- 
evitable outcome  of  their  prolonged  'policy  of 
ascendancy'  within  the  old  empire.  With  bitter- 
ness of  spirit  the  .Austrian  Assembly  bowed  to  the 
inevitable,  and  voted  to  accept  the  Treaty,  though 
they  protested  particularly  at  the  detachment  of 
the  Germans  of  Bohemia  and  the  Tyrol,  and  at 
the  prohibition  of  union  with  Germany,  which 
they  asserted  violated  the  terms  of  the  armistice. 
They  also  declared  that  the  reparation  clauses 
were  impossible  of  fulfilment.  On  September  10 
the  Treaty  was  signed  at  St.  Germain.  By  join- 
ing in  this  act,  China  became  a  member  of  the 
League  of  Nations.  Rumania  refused  at  the  time 
to  sign  the  Treaty,  because  of  its  references  to  fu- 
ture agreements  guaranteeing  the  rights  of  minori- 
ties. On  December  q,  after  considerable  discus- 
sion, Rumania  agreed  to  the  wishes  of  the  .Allies 
and  the  next  day  signed  the  Treaties  with  Austria 
and  Bulgaria,  and  the  special  treaty  dealing  with 
minorities  within  Rumania.  [See  Rumania:  1919: 
Rumania's  treatment  at  Paris. 1  The  Jugo-Slavs 
also  withheld  their  signature  from  the  Treaty  with 
.Austria" — .A.  P.  Scott,  Introduction  to  the  peace 
treaties,    pp.    211,     223. — See     al'^ci    Si      Gkrmain, 


714 


AUSTRIA,  1919 


Economic  Dixlress 
Party  Conflicts 


AUSTRIA,  1920 


Treaty  of. — The  treaty  was  signed  on  Sept.  lo, 
1919;  it  delimited  the  boundaries  of  German- 
speaking  Austria  to  comprise  the  states  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Salzburg, 
Northern   Tyrol  and   Vorarlberg. 

1919. — Attitude  on  question  of  Fiume. — Dis- 
putes with  Italy.  See  Fiume:  1919:  Orlando's 
withdrawal  from  the  Peace  Conference. 

1919  (September). — Protest  against  the  treaty. 
— Economic  distress. — "Confined  within  the  nar- 
row boundaries  of  a  few  provinces,  with  a  starv- 
ing, unemployed  population  dependent  for  food 
and  coal  upon  none  too  friendly  neighboring 
countries  and  subject  to  the  ravages  of  disease, 
with  trade  completely  paralyzed  and  a  govern- 
ment drifting  helplessly  toward  bankruptcy,  the 
remnant  of  the  former  Austrian  Empire  has  had 
a  desperate  struggle  for  e.xistence  during  the  year 
under  review.  On  September  6  the  National  As- 
sembly by  a  vote  of  97  to  23  accepted  under  pro- 
test the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  .  .  .  which  was 
later  ratified,  the  German  party  being  a  unit  in  op- 
position. Following  the  disposition  of  the  treaty 
the  cabinet  was  reorganized;  Dr.  Karl  Renner,  the 
Chancellor,  became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs; 
Herr  Jodok  ^ink,  Vice-Chancellor;  Herr  Eldersch, 
Interior;  Dr.  Rudolph  Ramek,  Justice;  Dr.  Julius 
Deutsch,  Military  Affairs;  Dr.  Richard  Reisch, 
Finance;  Herr  Stockier,  Agriculture;  Herr  Zerdik, 
Commerce;  Herr  Paul,  Transportation;  Herr 
Hanusch,  Social  Administration ;  Dr.  Johann 
Lowenfeld,  Food  Supplies;  Professor  Michael 
Mayr,  Constitutional  and  Administrative  Reforms. 
Despite  this  reorganization,  conditions  did  not 
improve.  During  November  it  was  reported  that 
in  Vienna  alone  100,000  men  were  unemployed, 
6,000  families  homeless,  2,500,000  persons  on  the 
verge  of  starvation,  and  80  per  cent  of  the  chil- 
dren suffering  from  rickets.  ...  A  long-anticipated 
political  upheaval  came  on  June  n,  when  the 
cabinet  tendered  its  resignation.  For  some  weeks 
before,  the  Left  had  felt  that  the  Christian  Social- 
ist or  government  party  has  steadily  blocked  legis- 
lation to  which  the  former  were  pledged,  but  the 
crisis  was  hastened  when  at  Epatz  gendarmes  fired 
into  a  crowd  which  was  demonstrating  against 
profiteering  in  food  and  many  were  killed.  The 
government  was  accused  of  blocking  an  investi- 
gation and  punishment  of  the  soldiers.  Reports 
of  a  strong  movement  in  Tyrol,  Salzburg  and  por- 
tions of  Upper  Austria  to  join  Bavaria  and  create 
a  Catholic  kingdom  under  Prince  Rupprecht  con- 
tributed to  the  fall  of  the  government.  Anti- 
Semitic  demonstrations  as  well  as  threatened  mon- 
archist uprisings  frequently  occurred  during  the 
last  months  of  the  year." — E.  D.  Graper  and  H.  J. 
Carman,  Record  of  political  events  (Political 
Science  Quarterly,  Sept.,   1020). 

1919  (October). — Relief  by  Quakers.  See  In- 
ternational Relief:   American  friends. 

1919. — Statistics  of  trade  unions.  See  Labor 
organization:    loio-iqip. 

1919-1920. — Post-war  tariff  changes.  See 
Tariff:  1919-1920:  Germany. 

1919-1921. — Unemployment  insurance.  See 
Social  Insurance:  Recent  developments:  1Q19- 
iQ2i:  Later  unemployment  insurance  legislation. 

1920. — Resignation  of  Chancellor  Renner. — 
Mediation  of  President  Seitz. — The  long  drawn 
out  struggle  within  the  coalition  between  the  So- 
cial Democrats  and  the  Christian  Socialists  came 
to  a  climax  when  Chancellor  Renner  and  his  So- 
cial Democratic  colleagues  resigned  from  the  cabi- 
net on  June  11.  The  resignation  was  a  direct  re- 
sult of  the  attack  made  on  the  minister  of  war, 
Herr  Deutsch,  in  the  National  Assembly,  because 
of  the  latter's  new   Armv   decree,   which   was  ve- 


hemently denounced,  both  by  the  Christian  So- 
cialists and  the  Pan-Germans,  who  were  bitterly 
opposed  to  the  provision  making  the  soldiers'  coun- 
cils of  the  new  army  immune  from  all  super- 
vision of  officers.  The  Pan-Germans  and  the 
Christian  Socialists  charged  that  the  purpose  of 
the  provision  was  evidently  to  destroy  discipline 
and  to  bolshevize  the  army.  Rather  than  give  in 
to  the  Social  Democrats  the  Christian  Socialists 
threatened  to  resign  from  the  cabinet.  This  step 
was,  however,  anticipated  by  the  Social  Democrats 
who  themselves  withdrew  from  the  cabinet.  In 
order  to  understand  the  underlying  causes  of  the 
break  in  the  coalition  government,  the  fundamental 
differences  in  the  program  of  the  two  important 
groups  of  the  coalition  must  be  remembered.  The 
Social  Democrats  are  primarily  advocates  of  a  con- 
stitutional settlement  of  the  federalization  of  the 
important  industries  along  centralistic  lines.  The 
Christian  Socialists  also  avowed  a  policy  for  fed- 
eralization, but  demanded  on  the  other  hand,  that 
provinces  be  given  autonomy  in  the  matter.  Then, 
too,  while  the  Social  Democrats  looked  toward  a 
union  with  Germany  the  Christian  Socialists  strict- 
ly opposed  that  scheme.  A  faction  of  the  latter 
group  openly  demanded  that  a  new  Austro-Ba- 
varian  monarchy  be  formed,  with  a  Hapsburg 
on  the  throne.  Dr.  Heim,  leader  of  the  Bavarian 
Catholic  Peasant  party  and  acting  as  dictator  of 
Bavaria,  supported  this  plan,  it  being  favored 
particularly  by  the  agricultural  people  of  Tyrol 
and  Salzburg.  The  Social  Democrats,  charged  that 
the  Christian  Socialists  were  deliberately  obstruct- 
ing the  work  of  the  National  Assembly  and  that 
they  are  also  scheming  jointly  with  the  reaction- 
aries of  Hungary  and  Bavaria.  The  split  which 
brought  about  Chancellor  Renner's  withdrawal 
from  the  cabinet  was  hastened  also  by  the  boycott 
declared  against  Hungary  by  international  labor. 
While  the  Social  Democrats  supported  the  block- 
ade in  every  possible  way,  the  Christian  Socialists 
bitterly  opposed  it.  In  order  to  solve  the  crisis 
a  proposal  was  made  to  the  effect  that  a  bourgeois 
block  be  formed  in  which  the  Christian  Socialists, 
the  Pan-Germans  and  other  less  important  anti- 
Socialist  factions  should  form  their  own  cabinet. 
Another  suggestion  called  for  the  dissolution  of 
the  assembly  and  a  new  general  election.  Both 
proposals  were  welcomed  by  the  Social  Demo- 
crats, particularly  the  first  one,  since  they  argued 
that  the  bourgeois  coalition  would  soon  find  itself 
helpless  and  thus  leave  the  field  open  for  a  clear 
working  class  government.  In  the  interim,  how- 
ever, the  president  of  the  republic,  Herr  Seitz, 
took  matters  in  hand  by  acting  as  mediator  in 
negotiations  between  the  two  opposing  factions. 
The  negotiations,  which  closed  on  July  4  with  a 
compromise,  provided  for  a  so-called  "concen- 
trated cabinet."  This  new  cabinet  was  to  be  made 
up  of  representatives  of  all  parties  and  propor- 
tionally to  each  party's  strength  in  the  assembly. 
Thereupon  Chancellor  Renner  was  urged  to  're- 
tain his  former  post,  and,  in  addition,  the  port- 
folio of  foreign  affairs.  Renner  consented  to  re- 
sume his  work  and  the  crisis  was  averted. 

1920. — Intentions  in  Albania. — Admitted  to 
League  of  Nations.  See  Italy:  iq20  (June) ;  and 
League  of  Nations:  First  meeting  of  the  as- 
sembly. 

1926. — New  ministry. — Census  statistics. — 
Treaty  with  Rumania. — The  second  cabinet  of 
the  Austrian  republic  was  formed  under  the  lead- 
ership of  the  Christian  Socialist.  Dr.  Mayr.  An 
innovation  was  introduced  in  the  process  of  se- 
lecting the  candidates,  who  were  elected  by  their 
respective  parties  on  the  basis  of  proportional 
representation    in    the    Assembly,    instead    of,    as 


7I.S 


AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


heretofore,  being  appointed  by  the  president.  This 
departure  was  the  outcome  of  the  compromise  ef- 
fected by  President  Seitz  between  the  Christian  So- 
cialists and  the  Social  Democrats.  The  head  of 
the  cabinet  holds  the  portfolio  of  constitutional 
reform  and  does  not  bear  the  title  of  chancellor. 
A  census  of  the  republic  taken  on  Jan.  31,  iq.;o, 
revealed  a  population  of  6,067430 — a  decrease  in 
the  same  territorial  limits  of  227,209  since  the 
previous  (igio)  census.  The  population  of  Vien- 
na, the  capital,  was  1,842,000,  against  2,149,800 
just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1914. 

A  commercial  treaty  with  Rumania,  to  hold  for 
one  year,  was  concluded.  Among  the  provisions 
for  commercial  exchange  Rumania  agreed  to  fur- 
nish Austria  with  oil,  cereals,  and  raw  material, 
receiving  railroad  supplies,  manufactured  products 
and  agricultural  machinen,-  in  return. 

1920  (October-December).  —  Constitution 
adopted. — President  Hainisch  elected. — On  Oct. 
I,  1920,  a  constitution  was  adopted  for  the  Aus- 
trian republic  which  provided  for  a  president  chosen 
by  the  two  houses  (Natioiialrat  and  Bundesrat) 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  In  accordance  with  this 
provision  President  Michael  Hainisch  was  elected 
to  office  on  Dec.  9,  1920.  Dr.  Michael  Mayr  was 
appointed  State  Chancellor  and  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs. 

1921  (August  23). — Treaty  of  Peace  with 
United  States.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1921  (July-August): 
Peace  with  Germany  and  Austria. 

1921. — Incorporation  of  provinces  in  Jugo- 
slavia.   See  B.ALK.Ax  states:  1921:  Jugo-Slavia. 

AUSTRIA,  Constitution  of.— Principal  pro- 
visions.— The  new  constitution  of  the  Austrian  re- 
public was  framed  in  a  series  of  legal  enactments 
during  1919  and  1920.  Austria  was  declared  a  fedr 
eral   democratic   republic  comprising   eight   states, 


namely,  seven  provinces  and  the  city  of  Vienna. 
The  basic  law  established  the  federal  legislature  to 
consist  of  two  chambers,  the  National  Council  or 
Diet  (Nationalrat),  to  be  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage on  the  basis  of  proportional  representation, 
and  the  Federal  Council  (liundesrat),  to  be  chosen 
by  the  Landtags  of  the  states.  The  National  Coun- 
cil serves  four  years  and  its  enactments  are  sub- 
ject to  a  strictly  hmited  veto  power  of  the  Federal 
Council,  which  consists  of  forty-six  delegates,  ap- 
portioned as  follows:  Lower  Austria  (Niederoester- 
reich),  twenty-two — city  of  Vienna  twelve  and  the 
province  ten;  Upper  Austria  and  Styria  (Oberoes- 
terreich  und  Steiermark),  six  each;  Carinthia 
(Karnthen),  Salzburg,  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  three 
each.  The  German  portion  of  Western  Hungary, 
named  Burgenland,  awarded  to  .'Vustria  by  the 
Treaty  of  Saint-Germain  (q.  v.)  was  still  unrepre- 
senteci  in  the  National  Council  at  the  close  of  192 1. 
The  two  councils  in  joint  assembly  constitute  the 
Federal  Assembly,  whose  sole  functions  are  to  elect 
the  president  and  to  declare  war.  The  president's 
term  is  four  years,  and  he  may  be  re-elected  only 
once.  The  cabinet  is  chosen  by  the  National  Coun- 
cil, to  which  it  is  responsible.  Each  province  has 
a  Provincial  Assembly  (Landesversammlung)  con- 
sisting of  a  single  chamber  also  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.  Local  government — education,  agriculture, 
charities,  ecclesiastical  affairs,  pubUc  works,  etc.,  fall 
within  the  scope  of  the  Provincial  .Assemblies,  each 
of  which  is  headed  by  a  committee  or  Landesaus- 
schuss.  Each  commune  is  represented  by  a  council 
to  manage  its  affairs  and  to  select  the  BUrgermeister 
(mayor)  from  its  members. 

Also  in:  H.  Kelsen,  Verfassungsgesetze  der  Re- 
public Oesterrekh. — A.  Merkl,  Verjassung  der  Re- 
public Oeslerreich. 

AUSTRIA,  House  of.    See  Hapsburg  dynasty. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


Introduction. — The  defeat  of  Austria  by  Prussia 
in  1866  awoke  the  Empire  to  the  necessity  of  recon- 
structing its  political  organization  so  as  to  grant 
Hungary  national  existence,  which  had  been  denied 
that  country  for  twelve  years.  Consequently  an 
arrangement  was  concluded  by  Francis  Deak,  Count 
Andrassy  and  Count  Beust  which  transformed  the 
centralized  Austrian  Empire  into  the  dual  Austro- 
Hungarian  Monarchy. 

1866. — Austro-Hungarian  monarchy. — Its  new 
national  life. — Its  difficulties  and  promises. — 
Its  ambitions  and  aims  in  southeastern  Europe. 
— "Peace  politicians  may  say  that  a  vjar  always 
does  more  harm  than  good  to  the  nations  which 
engage  in  it.  Perhaps  it  always  does,  at  any  rate, 
morally  speaking,  to  the  victors:  but  that  it  does 
not  to  the  vanquished,  Austria  stands  as  a  living 
evidence.  Finally  excluded  from  Italy  and  Ger- 
many by  the  campaign  of  1S66,  she  has  cast  aside 
her  dreams  of  foreign  domination,  and  has  set 
herself  manfully  to  the  task  of  making  a  nation 
out  of  the  various  conflicting  nationalities  over 
which  she  presides.  It  does  not  require  much  in- 
sight to  perceive  that  as  long  as  she  held  her 
position  in  Germany  this  fusion  was  hopeless. 
The  overwhelming  preponderance  of  the  German 
element  made  any  approach  to  a  reciprocity  of 
interests  impossible.  The  Germans  always  were 
regarded  as  sovereigns,  the  remaining  nationalities 
as  subjects;  it  was  for  these  to  command,  for  those 
to  obey.  In  like  manner,  it  was  impossible  for 
the  Austrian  Government  to  establish  a  mutual 
understanding  with  a  population  which  felt  it- 
self attracted — alike  by  the  ties  of  race,  language, 


and  geographical  position — to  another  poUtical 
union.  Nay  more,  as  long  as  the  occupation  of  the 
Italian  provinces  remained  as  a  blot  on  the  Im- 
perial escutcheon,  it  was  impossible  for  the  Gov- 
ernment to  command  any  genuine  sympathy  from 
any  of  its  subjects.  But  with  the  close  of  the  war 
with  Prussia  these  two  difficulties — the  relations 
with  Germany  and  the  relations  with  Italy — were 
swept  away.  From  this  time  forward  Austria 
could  appear  before  the  world  as  a  Power  binding 
together  for  the  interests  of  all,  a  number  of 
petty  nationalities,  each  of  which  was  too  feeble 
to  maintain  a  separate  existence.  In  short,  from 
the  year  1866  Austria  had  a  raison  d'etre,  whereas 
before  she  had  none.  .  .  .  Baron  Beust,  on  the 
7th  of  February,  1867,  took  office  under  Franz 
Joseph.  His  programme  may  be  stated  as  follows. 
He  saw  that  the  day  of  centralism  and  imperial 
unity  was  gone  past  recall,  and  that  the  most  lib- 
eral Constitution  in  the  world  would  never  recon- 
cile the  nationalities  to  their  present  position,  as 
provinces  under  the  always  detested  and  now  de- 
spised Empire.  But  then  came  the  question — 
Granted  that  a  certain  disintegration  is  inevitable, 
how  far  is  this  disintegration  to  go?  Beust  pro- 
posed to  disarm  the  opposition  of  the  leading  na- 
tionality by  the  gift  of  an  almost  complete  inde- 
pendence, and,  resting  on  the  support  thus  ob- 
tained, to  gain  time  for  conciliating  the  remaining 
provinces  by  building  up  a  new  system  of  free 
government.  It  would  be  out  of  place  to  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  well-known  measure  which 
converted  the  'Austrian  empire'  into  the  'Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy.'     It  will  be  necessary,  how- 

16 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1866 


Political 
System 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1867 


ever,  to  describe  the  additions  made  to  it  by  the 
political  machinery.  The  Hungarian  Reichstag  was 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  ttie  Austrian 
Reichsrath.  It  was  to  meet  in  Pesth,  as  the  Reichs- 
rath  at  Vienna,  and  was  to  have  its  own  respon- 
sible ministers.  From  the  members  of  the  Reichs- 
rath and  Reichstag  respectively  were  to  be  chosen 
annually  sixty  delegates  to  represent  Cisleithanian 
and  sixty  to  represent  Hungarian  interests — twenty 
being  taken  in  each  case  from  the  Upper,  forty 
from  the  Lower  House.  These  two  'Delegations,' 
whose  votes  were  to  be  taken,  when  necessary,  col- 
lectively, though  each  Delegation  sat  in  a  distinct 
chamber,  owing  to  the  difference  of  language, 
formed  the  Supreme  Imperial  Assembly,  and  met 
alternate  years  at  Vienna  and  Pesth.  They  were 
competent  in  matters  of  foreign  policy,  in  mili- 
tary administration,  and  in  Imperial  finance.  At 
their  head  stood  three  Imperial  ministers — the 
Reichskanzler,  who  presided  at  the  Foreign  Of- 
fice, and  was  ex  officio  Prime  Minister,  the  Min- 
ister of  War,  and  the  Minister  of  Finance.  These 
three  ministers  were  independent  of  the  Reichsrath 
and  Reichstag,  and  couM  only  be  dismissed  by  a 
vote  of  want  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  Dele- 
gations. The  'Ausgleich'  or  scheme  of  federation 
with  Hungary  is,  no  doubt,  much  open  to  criti- 
cism, both  as  a  whole  and  in  its  several  parts.  It 
must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  administra- 
tively and  politically  it  was  a  retrogression.  At  a 
time  in  which  all  other  European  nations — notably 
North  Germany — were  simplifying  and  unifying 
their  political  systems,  Austria  was  found  doing 
the  very  reverse.  .  .  .  The  true  answer  to  these 
objections  is,  that  the  measure  of  1867  was  con- 
structed to  meet  a  practical  difficulty.  Its  end 
was  not  the  formation  of  a  symmetrical  system  of 
government,  but  the  pacification  of  Hungary.  .  .  . 
The  internal  history  of  the  two  halves  of  the  em- 
pire flows  in  two  different  channels.  Graf  An- 
drassy,  the  Hungarian  Premier,  had  a  compara- 
tively easy  task  before  him.  There  were  several 
reasons  for  this.  In  the  first  place,  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  Magyars  in  Hungary  was  more  as- 
sured than  that  of  the  Germans  in  Cisleithania. 
It  is  true  that  they  numbered  only  5,000,000  out 
of  the  i6,ooc,ooo  inhabitants;  but  in  these  5,000,000 
were  included  almost  all  the  rank,  wealth,  and 
intelUgence  of  the  country.  Hence  they  formed 
in  the  Reichstag  a  compact  and  homogeneous  ma- 
jority, under  which  the  remaining  Slovaks  and 
Croatians  soon  learnt  to  range  themselves.  In  the 
second  place,  Hungary  had  the  great  advantage  of 
starting  in  a  certain  degree  afresh.  Her  govern- 
ment was  not  bound  by  the  traditional  policy  of 
former  Vienna  ministries,  and  ...  it  had  man- 
aged to  keep  its  financial  credit  unimpaired.  In 
the  third  place,  as  those  who  are  acquainted  with 
Hungarian  history  well  know.  Parliamentary  in- 
stitutions had  for  a  long  time  flourished  in  Hun- 
gary. Indeed  the  Magyars,  who  among  their  many 
virtues  can  hardly  be  credited  with  the  virtue  of 
humility,  assert  that  the  world  is  mistaken  in 
ascribing  to  England  the  glory  of  having  invented 
representative  government,  and  claim  this  glory 
for  themselves.  Hence  one  of  the  main  difficulties 
with  which  the  Cisleithanian  Government  had  to 
deal  was  already  solved  for  Graf  Andrassy  and  his 
colleagues." — Austria  since  Sadowa  (Quarterly  Re- 
view, V.  131,  pp.  90-os). — See  also  Turkey:  1878: 
Excitement  in  England. 

1867. — Description  of  the  constitution. — Polit- 
ical system  in  the  dual  empire. — The  Austro- 
Hungarian  constitution  is  not  a  uniform  state  con- 
stitution in  the  same  sense  as  the  German  imperial 
constitution.  Its  older  stages  are,  in  respect  to 
the   German   Austrian  crown  lands,  the  same  as 


those  of  the  German  empire.  But  the  homogeneity 
of  Austria-Hungary  is  expressed  in  principle  in 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
in  1 7 13,  wherein  all  the  sectional  possessions  of  the 
whole  monarchy  bound  themselves  to  the  same 
order  of  succession  and  thus  to  permanent  asso- 
ciation. [See  Austria:  171S-1738;  1740.]  The 
unity  of  the  state  is  from  the  outset  monarchical. 
The  title  of  emperor  of  Austria  dates  from  1804. 
"The  constitution  of  the  centralised  State  was 
legally  formed  by  the  Imperial  Diploma  of  i860 
and  the  Patent  of  1861,  depending  on  it.  This 
constitution  comprises  a  Landtag  and  Reichsrat 
with  almost  the  same  principle  of  division  as  in 
the  German  Imperial  draft  constitution  of  184S, 
except  that  there  is  only  the  one  sovereign  in 
question  throughout.  A  distinction  is  also  made 
in  this  Act  of  the  Constitution  between  the  coun- 
tries belonging  to  the  Hungarian  Crown  and  those 
of  the  Austrian  section,  but  the  preponderating 
intention  is  centralization.  .  .  .  The  legal  inde- 
pendence and  territorial  integrity  of  Hungary  and 
its  neighbouring  countries  is  solemnly  declared  by 
the  oath  of  the  sovereign.  In  this  the  older  Hun- 
garian constitutions  are  recurred  to,  and  especially 
the  revolutionary  legislation  of  184S.  By  this  act 
of  separation  two  States,  themselves  divided  sev- 
eral times,  arose  with  foundation  and  superstruc- 
ture, each  of  which  already  has  an  imperial  con- 
stitution superior  to  its  provincial  constitutions, 
but  which  have  the  same  monarch,  and  hence 
carry  on  certain  joint  institutions  either  naturally 
or  by  means  of  a  treaty.  The  principal  concerns 
of  the  united  State  are:  the  joint  Ministry  for 
Foreign  Affairs,  the  Imperial  Ministry  for  War 
for  all  matters  relating  to  the  joint  army  and  the 
navy  (the  Landwehr  on  both  sides  being  still 
maintained),  the  joint  Ministry  for  Finance  for 
joint  expenses,  whilst  the  financial  systems  are 
separate,  a  joint  ddministration  for  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina.  The  preliminary  estimate  for  joint 
expenses  is  presented  to  a  meeting  of  the  Dele- 
gations for  deliberation  (and  to  be  passed),  which 
meeting  consists  of  deputations  from  the  parlia- 
ments of  both  sides.  .  .  .  The  agreements  at  pres- 
ent [1917]  valid  between  Austria  and  Hungary 
date  from  December,  1907,  and  last  till  December 
31,  IQ17.  They  include  the  determination  of  the 
contribution  obligatory  on  both  sides  (Beitrags- 
p fitch t)  and  the  customs  and  commercial  treaty. 
There  is  a  Court  of  Arbitration  for  disputed  ques- 
tions. Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  taken  into 
the  joint  customs  union  in  1879.  In  this  respect 
nothing  was  altered  by  the  declaration  of  the  he- 
reditary sovereignty  of  the  Imperial  house  in  1008. 
The  administration  there  is  inspected  by  Austria 
and  by  Hungary.  Central  European  treaties  are 
prepared  by  the  joint  Foreign  Office,  but  must  be 
passed  by  the  separate  national  representative 
bodies.  Hence  it  is  true  to  say:  we  do  not  know 
exactly  whether  we  have  to  deal  with  one  or  with 
two  States." — F.  Naumann,  Central  Europe,  pp. 
325-327. — "The  study  of  politics  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary is  complicated  for  the  British  or  American 
reader  by  the  fact  that  although  he  may  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  theory  of  parliamentary  gov- 
ernment upon  which  the  systems  of  the  two  coun- 
tries rest,  he  will  not  necessarily  be  able  to  under- 
stand the  way  in  which  it  is  worked.  One  of  the 
Hungarian  leaders  recently  took  advantage  of 
this  circumstance  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  Eng- 
lish people  by  postulating  a  case  in  which  the 
scene  was  moved  from  Hungary  to  Great  Britain. 
The  defeat  on  vital  questions  of  a  great  political 
party  was  described  as  being  followed  by  the  call- 
ing of  the  Opposition  by  the  King,  who,  instead 
of  instructing  the  putative  Prime  Minister  to  form 


717 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1867 


Foreign 
Policy 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1882 


a  government  to  carry  out  the  mandate  given  to 
his  party  by  the  electors,  asked  him,  certainly,  to 
form  a  cabinet,  but  at  the  same  time  required  him 
to  carry  out  the  desires  of  the  sovereign,  and  not 
of  the  nation  as  expressed  at  the  election.  Natu- 
rally this  presentation  of  the  case  is  likely  to  win 
sympathy  from  the  British  public,  and,  moreover, 
it  is  in  its  broad  features  a  true  account  of  what 
happened  after  the  final  destruction  of  the  Liberal 
party  in  Hungary  in  1004.  It  is,  however,  at  the 
same  time  utterly  misleading,  because  the  parlia- 
mentary systems  of  Austria  and  Hungary  are 
quite  different  in  their  workings  from  that  of 
Great  Britain.  It  is,  indeed,  impossible  to  ap- 
preciate the  political  situation  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  history.  ...  Lit  is  therefore  necessary  to 
recapitulate  the  main  points  involved.!  Every 
thing  in  Austro-Hungarian  political  life  dates  from 
1867.  At  that  time  the  King  ratified  the  Hungari- 
an Constitution  and  bestowed  a  similar  one  on  his 
Austrian  lands.  In  doing  so  he  entered,  as  Em- 
peror of  Austria,  into  an  arrangement  with  the 
independent  allied  kingdom  of  Hungary.  His  own 
constitutional  position  was  defined  in  so  doing. 
Hungarians  accepted  the  arrangement,  though  a 
certain  number  of  irrcconcilables  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge it,  and  Louis  Kossuth  died  abroad 
rather  than  do  so.  Like  all  constitutions,  the 
Hungarian  one  is  not  in  the  form  of  a  treaty  or 
.single  document  but  is  the  growth  of  centuries, 
partly  founded  on  fundamental  principles  recog- 
nised by  the  rulers  and  partly  on  long-established 
custom.  The  position  of  a  king  in  such  a  consti- 
tutional monarchy  is  affected  more  by  precedent 
than  by  actual  law.  .  .  .  The  King  of  Hungary 
both  reigns  and  governs,  though  he  is  bound  to 
govern  with  the  will  of  the  people ;  but  conversely 
the  people  cannot  govern  without  him.  The  King 
and  Parliament  are  indivisible  for  this  purpose. 
King  Francis  Joseph  has  successfully  asserted  hi? 
prerogatives,  in  that  he  has  actually  refused  to 
sanction  bills  passed  by  both  houses  of  parliament. 
Without  his  sanction  they  are  of  course  invalid, 
as  they  would  be  in  any  constitutional  mon- 
archy. .  .  .  The  relations  of  the  Crown  and  the 
ministers,  and  of  the  ministers  and  the  political 
parties,  are  quite  foreign  to  anything  within  the  ex- 
perience of  parliamentary  life  in  Britain.  The 
ministers  are  the  servants  of  the  Crown  rather 
than  of  parliament,  and  the  political  parties  have 
to  shape  a  programme  which  the  Crown  will  sanc- 
tion before  they  arc  likely  to  be  asked  to  take 
office.  In  the  event  of  a  deadlock  the  Crown, 
which  is  bound  to  summon  parliament  at  stated 
intervals,  can  exercise  its  prerogative  and  dismiss 
it  on  the  same  day.  .  .  .  Besides  the  Austrian  par- 
liament and  the  Hungarian  parliament,  and  the 
Austrian  government  and  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment, there  is  that  debated  land  of  Common  .Af- 
fairs over  which  the  Delegations  hold  sway.  The 
Hungarian  dislike  of  creating  anything  like  a  dual 
parliament  led  to  the  extraordinary  device  of  these 
two  bodies,  debating  separately  and  not  allowed 
even  to  speak  to  each  other,  like  two  children 
whose  mothers  will  not  'make  friends.'  They  com- 
municate in  writing  and.  if  it  is  necessary  to  take 
a  joint  vote,  they  vote  without  debating!  The 
position  of  the  Emperor  and  King  towards  this 
amorphous  creation  was  naturally  defined  by  the 
compact  of  1867  which  gave  rise  to  it.  [See  also 
Jugo-Slavia:  1848-1S67.]  The  ministers  of  com- 
mon affairs  {Kaiserlicli  and  Koiiiglich)  are  also  re- 
sponsFBle  to  the  Emperor  and  King,  a  mutual 
responsibility  complicated  by  the  obligation  to 
obtain  a  third  ratification,  from  the  Delegations, 
■who  in  their  turn  are  answerable  to  the  parlia- 
ments  of    the   two   countries.     The   King   on   his 

7 


side  is  responsible  also  to  the  ministers  and  par- 
Uaments,  with  one  extremely  important  reserva- 
tion. In  the  department  of  defence  he  is,  as  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, not  responsible  to  anyone  in  the 
appointment  of  officers  or  the  organisation  of  the 
army.  The  minister  of  war  is  not  required  to 
countersign  acts  dealing  with  these,  though  re- 
sponsible for  such  matters  as  commissariat,  equip- 
ment, and  the  technical  side,  while  the  parlia- 
ments of  the  two  countries,  by  the  standing  laws, 
retain  the  control  of  recruiting.  The  contingent 
of  recruits  is  voted  annually  by  each  parliament, 
and  in  case  either  refuses  to  contribute  their  quota 
there  is  no  possible  means  of  coercion." — .\.  R.  and 
E.  Colquhoun,  Whirlpool  of  Europe,  pp.  280-203. 

1867. — Foreign  policy  before  1867. — Subse- 
quent change. — "In  past  times,  when  Austria  had 
held  France  tight  bound  between  Spain,  Germany, 
and  the  Netherlands,  she  had  aspired  to  a  domi- 
nant position  in  Western  Europe;  and,  so  long  as 
her  eyes  were  turned  in  that  direction,  she  natu- 
rally had  every  interest  in  preserving  the  Ottoman 
Empire  intact,  for  she  was  thus  guaranteed  against 
all  attacks  from  the  south.  But,  after  the  loss  of 
her  Italian  possessions  in  1S05,  and  of  part  of 
Croatia  in  iSoo.  after  the  disasters  of  1840,  i8sq 
and  1866.  she  thought  more  and  more  seriously  of 
indemnifying  herself  at  the  expense  of  Turkey.  It 
was  moreover  evident  that,  in  order  to  paralyze 
the  damaging  power  of  Hungary,  it  was  essentia! 
for  her  to  assimilate  the  primitive  and  scattered 
peoples  of  Turkey,  accustomed  to  centuries  of 
complete  submission  and  obedience,  and  form  thus 
a  kind  of  iron  band  which  should  encircle  Hun- 
gary and  effectually  prevent  her  from  rising.  If, 
in  fact,  we  glance  back  at  the  position  of  Austria 
in  i860,  and  take  the  trouble  carefully  to  study 
the  change  of  ideas  and  interests  which  had  then 
taken  place  in  the  policy  of  France  and  of  Russia, 
the  tendencies  of  the  strongly  constituted  nations 
who  were  repugnant  to  the  authority  and  influ- 
ence of  .Austria,  the  basis  of  the  power  of  that 
empire,  and,  finally,  the  internal  ruin  with  which 
she  was  then  threatened,  we  cannot  but  arrive  at 
the  conclusion  that  Austria,  by  the  very  instinct 
of  self-preservation,  was  forced  to  turn  eastwards 
and  to  consider  how  best  she  might  devour  some, 
at  least,  of  the  European  provinces  of  Turkey. 
Austrian  statesmen  have  been  thoroughly  con- 
vinced of  this  fact,  and,  impelled  by  the  instinct 
above-mentioned,  have  not  ceased  carefully  and 
consistently  to  prepare  and  follow  out  the  policy 
here  indicated." — V,  Caillard,  Bulgarian  imbroglio 
(Fortnightly  Revirw.  Dec,  1885). — For  policy  in 
Balkans,  see  also  Jugo-Slavia:   1867- 1014. 

1868  (March). — Commercial  treaty  with  Ger- 
many.    See  Tariff:    1S53-1870. 

1868-1917. — Relations  and  conditions  among 
Jugo-Slav  peoples.     See  Jugo-Slavia:    1868-1017. 

1869-1883. — Parochial  poor  relief  abolished. 
See  Cn.\RiTiEs:    .Austria  and   Hungary:    1783-1Q00 

1873. — Government  control  of  telegraphs.  See 
Telegraphs  and  telephones:  1873:  .Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

1878. — Treaty  of  Berlin. — Secret  treaty  with 
English. — Acquisition  of  Bosnia  and  Herzego- 
vina. See  Berlin,  Congress  of;  Bosnia-Herze- 
govina: 1878;  TvRKEv:  1878;  and  World  War: 
Causes:  Indirect:  d,  2. 

1878-1914.— Friendship  for  Turkey.— Desire  for 
influence  in  Bosporus.    See  Bosporus:  1878-1014. 

1879. — Austro-German  Alliance.  See  Dual 
Alliance;  Triple  .Alliance:  Austro-German  al- 
liance of  1870;  World  Wak:   Causes:   Indirect:   c. 

1880-1914. — Red  Cross  and  relief  work.  See 
Red  Cross:    1864-1014. 

1882. — Triple  Alliance.    See  Italy:   1870-1901 ; 

18 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1887 


Attitude  of     AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1900-1903 
Hungary  ' 


Triple  Alliance:  Predicament  of  Italy:  1870-1882; 
Content  of  the  treaties;  Success  of. 

1887  (February  20). — Triple  Alliance  renewed. 
— Hostility  to  France.  See  Triple  Alliance: 
Content  of  the  treaties. 

1891. — Special  commercial  treaty  with  Ger- 
many.— Triple  Alliance  renewed.  See  Tariff: 
1870-1900;  Triple  Alliance:  Content  of  the 
treaties. 

1897. — Rescript  continuing  the  Ausgleich.  See 
Austria:    1897    (December). 

1898  (April). — Withdrawal  from  the  blockade 
of  Crete  and  the  "Concert  of  Europe."  See  Tur- 
key:  1897-1899. 

1898  (June). — Sugar  conference  at  Brussels. 
See  Sugar  Bounties. 

1898  (Sept.). — Assassination  of  the  empress. — 
On  Sept.  10,  Elizabeth,  empress  of  Austria  and 
queen  of  Hungary,  was  assassinated  at  Geneva 
by  an  Italian  anarchist,  Luigi  Luccheni,  who 
stabbed  her  with  a  small  stiletto,  exceedingly  thin 
and  narrow  in  the  blade.  The  murderer  rushed 
upon  her  and  struck  her,  as  she  was  walking,  with 
a  single  attendant,  on  the  quay,  towards  a  lake 
steamer  on  which  she  intended  to  travel  to  Mon- 
treux.  She  fell,  but  arose,  with  some  assistance, 
and  walked  forward  to  the  steamer,  evidently  un- 
aware that  she  had  suffered  worse  than  a  blow. 
On  the  steamer,  however,  she  lost  consciousness, 
and  then,  for  the  first  time,  'the  wound  was  dis- 
covered. It  had  been  made  by  so  fine  a  weapon 
that  it  showed  httle  external  sign,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  empress  felt  little  pain.  She  lived 
nearly  half  an  hour  after  the  blow  was  struck. 
The  assassin  attempted  to  escape,  but  was  caught. 
.\s  Swiss  law  forbids  capital  punishment,  he  could 
be  only  condemned  to  solitary  confinement  for 
life.  This  terrible  tragedy  came  soon  after  the 
festivities  in  .Austria  which  had  celebrated  the 
jubilee  year  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph's  reign. 

1899  (May-July). — Representation  in  the 
Peace   Conference  at   The   Hague.     See   Hague 

CONFERENCES. 

1899-1901. — Attitude  towards  impending  re- 
volt in  Macedonia. — Anarchism  in  Balkan 
States.  See  Turkey:  1899-1901;  and  Balkan 
States:   1899-1901. 

1900  (June-December). — Cooperation  with  the 
powers  in  China.  See  Ciuna:  1899-1900  (Sep- 
tember-February). 

1900. — Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  renounces 
the  right  of  his  children  to  succeed  to  the 
thrones. — Since  the  tragically  mysterious  death 
in  1889  of  the  emperor's  only  son,  Rudolph,  the 
heir  presumptive  to  the  several  Hapsburg  crowns 
had  been  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  son  of 
the  emperor  Francis  Joseph's  brother,  the  late 
.'\rchduke  Karl  Ludwig.  In  order  to  contract  a 
morganatic  marriage  in  1900  he  renounced  the 
right  of  his  children  to  the  imp>erial  and  regal 
succession. — See  also  Austria:    iqoo. 

1900-1903. — Attitude  of  Hungary  toward  the 
Dual  Monarchy. — Clerical  interference  in  poli- 
tics.— Elections  of  1901. — Austrian-German  dis- 
satisfaction with  the'  commercial  Ausgleich. — 
Promises  of  electoral  reform. — Its  effect  on  the 
various  nationalities  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
empire. — On  Sept.  25,  iqoo,  the  Times  correspond- 
ent summarized  an  important  speech  by  the  Hunga- 
rian statesman.  Count  Apponyi,  to  his  constituents, 
in  which  the  same  forecast  of  a  political  catas- 
trophe in  Austria  was  intimated.  Count  Apponyi, 
— "after  dwelling  upon  the  importance  of  main- 
taining the  Ausgleich,  remarked  that  affairs  in 
Austria  might  take  a  turn  which  would  render  its 
revision  indispensable  owing  either  to  a  complete 
suspension  of  the  constitutional  system  in  Austria, 


the  maintenance  of  which  was  one  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  arrangement  of  1867,  or  such  modifi- 
cations thereof  as  would  make  the  existing  form 
of  union  between  the  two  countries  technically 
untenable  or  politically  questionable.  In  either 
case  the  revision  could  only  confirm  the  inde- 
pendence of  Hungary.  But  even  then  Count  Ap- 
ponyi believed  that  by  following  the  traditions 
of  Francis  Deak  it  would  be  possible  to  harmo- 
nize the  necessary  revision  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  Dual  Monarchy.  It  would,  how- 
ever, be  a  great  mistake  to  raise  that  question  un- 
less forced  to  do  so  by  circumstances.  Count 
Apponyi  went  on  to  say  that  the  importance  ot 
Hungary,  not  only  in  the  Monarchy  but  through- 
out the  civilized  world,  was  enormously  increased 
by  the  fact  that  it  secured  the  maintenance  of 
Austria-Hungary,  threatened  by  the  destructive 
influence  of  the  Austrian  chaos,  and  thus  consti- 
tuted one  of  the  principal  guarantees  of  European 
tranquillity.  The  peace-abiding  nations  recognized 
that  this  .service  to  the  dynasty,  the  Monarchy, 
and  the  European  State  system  was  only  possible 
while  the  constitutional  independence  and  national 
unity  of  Hungary  was  maintained.  It  was  clear 
to  every  unprejudiced  mind  that  Hungarian  na- 
tional independence  and  unity  was  the  backbone 
of  the  Dual  Monarchy  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant guarantees  of  European  peace.  But  the 
imposing  position  attained  by  Hungary  through 
the  European  sanction  of  her  national  ideal  would 
be  imperilled  -if  they  were  of  their  own  initiative 
to  raise  the  question  of  the  union  of  the  two 
countries  and  thus  convert  the  Austrian  crisis  into 
one  affecting  the  whole  Monarchy."  In  Novem- 
ber a  significant  speech  in  the  Reichsrath  at  Buda- 
Pesth,  by  the  very  able  Hungarian  prime  minister, 
M.  Szcll,  was  reported.  "He  foreshadowed  the 
possibility  of  a  situation  in  which  Austria  would 
not  be  able  to  fulfil  the  conditions  prescribed  in 
the  Ausgleich  Act  of  1867  with  regard  to  the 
manner  of  deaUng  with  the  affairs  common  to 
both  halves  of  the  Monarchy.  He  himself  had, 
however,  made  up  his  mind  on  the  subject,  and 
was  convinced  that  even  in  those  circumstances 
the  Hungarians  would  by  means  of  provisional 
measures  regulate  the  common  affairs  and  interests 
of  the  two  States,  'while  specially  asserting  the 
rights  of  Hungary  and  its  independence.'  An- 
other version  of  this  somewhat  o  acular  statement 
runs  as  follows: — 'Hungary,  without  infringing  the 
Ausgleich  law,  will  find  ways  and  means  of  regu- 
lating those  affairs  which,  in  virtue  of  the  Prag- 
matic sanction,  are  common  to  both  States,  while 
at  the  same  time  protecting  her  own  interests  and 
giving  greater  emphasis  to  her  independence.'  M. 
Szell  added: — 'When  the  right  time  comes  I  shall 
explain  my  views,  and  eventually  submit  pro- 
posals to  the  House.  Meanwhile,  let  us  husband 
our  strength  and  keep  our  powder  dry.'  The  self- 
confident  and  almost  defiant  tone  of  this  forecast, 
coming  from  a  responsible  statesman  accustomed 
to  display  such  prudence  and  moderation  of  lan- 
guage as  M.  Szell,  has  made  a  profound  impres- 
sion in  Austria.  It  assumes  the  breakdown  of  the 
Austrian  Parliamentary  system  to  be  a  certainty, 
and  anticipates  the  adoption  by  Hungary  of  one- 
sided measures  which,  according  to  M.  Szell,  will 
afford  more  effective  protection  to  its  interests  and 
confirm  its  independence.  This  seems  to  be  in- 
terpreted in  Vienna  as  an  indication  that  the  Hun- 
garian Premier  has  a  cut  and  dried  scheme  ready 
for  the  revision  of  the  Ausgleich  in  a  direction 
which  bodes  ill  for  Austria.  An  article  in  the 
A^etie  Frrie  Presse.  of  Vienna,  on  the  hostility  of 
the  Vatican  to  .\ustria  and  Hungary  was  partially 
communicated  in  a  despatch  of  October  ii.    The 


719 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1900-1903 


Tis2a's 
Ministry 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1903-1905 


Vienna  journal  ascribes  this  iiostility  in  part  to 
resentment  engendered  by  the  alliance  of  Catholic 
Austria  with  Italy,  and  in  part  to  the  Hungarian 
ecclesiastical  laws.  It  remarked:  "Never  has 
clericalism  been  so  influential  in  the  legislation  and 
administration  of  this  Empire.  The  most  power- 
ful party  is  the  one  that  takes  its  'mot  d'ordre' 
from  the  Papal  Nunciature.  It  guides  the  feudal 
nobiUty,  it  is  the  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  the  Ger- 
man population,  it  has  provoked  a  20  years'  re- 
action in  Austria,  and,  unhindered  and  protected, 
it  scatters  in  Hungary  that  seed  which  has  thriven 
so  well  in  this  half  of  the  Monarchy  that  nothing 
is  done  in  Austria  without  first  considering  what 
will  be  said  about  it  in  Rome."  A  day  or  two 
later  some  evidence  of  a  growing  resentment  in 
Austria  at  the  interference  of  the  clergy  in  politics 
was  adduced:  "Thus  the  Czech  organ,  inspired 
by  the  well-known  leader  of  the  party.  Dr. 
Stransky,  states  that  a  deputation  of  tradespeople 
called  on  the  editor  and  expressed  great  indigna- 
tion at  the  unprecedented  manner  in  which  the 
priests  were  joining  in  electoral  agitation.  They 
added  that  they  'could  no  longer  remain  mem- 
bers of  a  Church  whose  clergy  took  advantage  of 
religious  sentiment  for  political  purposes.'  The 
Peasants'  Electoral  Association  for  Upper  .Austria 
has  just  issued  a  manifesto  in  which  the  following 
occurs: — 'V\'e  have  for  more  than  20  years  in- 
variably elected  the  candidates  proposed  by  the 
Clerical  party.  What  has  been  done  during  that 
long  period  for  us  peasants  and  small  tradespeople? 
What  have  the  Clerical  party  and  the  Clerical 
members  of  Parliament  done  for  us?  How  have 
they  rewarded  our  long  fidelity?  By  treason. 
.  .  .  We  have  been  imposed  upon  long  enough. 
It  is  due  to  our  self-respect  and  honour  to  eman- 
cipate ourselves  thoroughly  from  the  mamelukes 
put  forward  by  the  Clerical  wire  pullers.  We  must 
show  that  we  can  get  on  without  Clerical  lead- 
ingstrings.' 

"In  the  year  iqoo  the  Emperor  called  a  fresh 
ministry,  with  Korber  at  its  head,  which  at  first 
seemed  likely  to  get  along  peacefully.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  the  Czechs  began  to  reiterate  their 
demands,  and  after  more  stormy  scenes  the  Reichs- 
rath  was  again  dissolved.  At  the  elections  of  1901 
the  Clericals  lost  heavily  and  the  Extreme  Left 
increased  its  numbers,  the  Schoenerer  group  of  Pan- 
German  Radicals  now  numbering  twenty-one.  A 
feature  of  this  period  was  the  increasing  enmity 
between  these  parties  and  the  Church.  In  1902 
the  German  Popular  Party  separated  from  the 
more  moderate  sections.  The  relationship  with 
Hungary  came  up  for  debate  on  the  question  of 
the  renewal  of  the  commercial  compromise.  A 
number  of  .Austrian-Germans  were  entirely  dis- 
satisfied with  the  basis  of  the  arrangement,  and 
still  more  with  the  way  in  which'  it  was  always 
worked  by  Hungary,  which  is  able,  by  political 
solidarity  in  the  Delegations,  to  get  the  whip 
hand.  Korber  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that 
without  more  favourable  terms  for  Austria  he 
would  not  sanction  a  fresh  commercial  Ausgleich, 
and  the  difficulties  reached  such  an  acute  stage 
that  he  \vanted  to  resign,  but  was  persuaded  to 
remain  in  office  to  avoid  the  chaos  which  other- 
wise must  ensue.  The  new  army  bills  were  a 
great  bone  of  contention,  and  the  action  of  Hun- 
gary in  refusing  to  ratify  them  led  to  a  similar 
policy  of  obstruction  on  the  part  of  the  Czechs 
and  Croats.  In  1905  Gautsch  took  office  again,  an 
appointment  which  was  made  by  the  Crown  in 
much  the  same  spirit  as  that  which,  shortly  after, 
dictated  the  calling  of  Fejervar>-  to  form  a  Hun- 
garian cabinet.  The  Emperor  and  King,  faced 
with    irreconcilable    opposition    in   each    countiy. 

720 


was  making  a  desperate  attempt  to  obtain  a  ma- 
jority for  the  policy  he  favoured  by  means  of  com- 
promises, but  the  unsuccess  of  these  tactics  ulti- 
mately led  to  a  fresh  phase  (described  more  fully 
later  on)  in  which  the  question  of  electoral  reform 
was  used  to  disarm  the  opposition  in  both  coun- 
tries. The  expedient  of  giving  his  sanction  to 
universal  suffrage  was  not  dictated  by  any  demand 
for  that  reform  in  the  Austrian  Parhament,  though 
a  measure  of  electoral  reform  had  )ong  been 
pressed  for.  On  the  whole,  all  the  Slav  nationalist 
parties  are  favourable  to  the  scheme,  except  the 
Poles,  who  naturally  oppose  bitterly  any  measure 
which  would  put  power  in  the  hands  of  the  Ruthe- 
nian  peasants.  'The  German  Liberals  are  some- 
what divided  in  their  opinions,  but  the  Clerical 
Party  are  not  opposed  to  it,  except  that  portion 
closely  allied  with  the  old  Conservatives.  The 
Socialists  are  naturally  delighted,  and  the  Gov- 
ernment is  now  devoting  itself  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  best  basis  for'  the  reform.  In  this 
rapid  survey  of  the  course  of  Austrian  parliamen- 
tary history  since  the  .\usgleich  too  little  has,  per- 
haps, been  said  of  the  Hungarian  question  in 
Austria — that  is  the  ever-recurring  problem  of 
the  relations  of  the  two  halves  of  the  monarchy. 
If  all  internal  questions  between  Germans,  Czechs, 
Poles,  Slovenes,  Clericals  and  Anti-Clericals,  Na- 
tionalists and  Federalists  could  by  some  miracle 
have  disappeared  there  would  still  have  remained 
this  perennial  source  of  discontent.  The  German 
party  particularly,  although  in  its  old  form  re- 
sponsible for  the  Ausgleich,  is  now  far  from  united 
in  approving  the  basis  on  which  the  two  countries 
are  joined  together,  and  is  practically  unanimous 
in  declaring  that,  whatever  the  changes  made, 
they  must  not  be  in  favour  of  Hungary,  which  al- 
ready has  much  the  best  of  the  bargain." — A.  R. 
and  E.  Colquhoun,  iVIiirlpool  of  Europe,  pp.  302- 
30s. 

1900-1913. — Desire  for  expansion  in  Near  East. 
See  NovT  Bazar. 

1902. — New  commercial  treaty  with  Germany. 
See  T.-vriff:   1902-1Q06. 

1902. — Triple  Alliance  renewed.  See  Triple 
Allianxe:  Content  of  the  treaties. 

1902  (June). — Sugar  Bounty  Conference.  See 
SuG.AR  Bounty  Coxferenxe. 

1903-1904. — Concert  with  Russia  in  submitting 
the  Miirzsteg  program  of  reform  in  Macedonia 
to  Turkey.  See  Macedonia:  20th  century;  and 
Turkey:    1903-1908. 

1903-1905. — Language  struggle.— Count  Tisza's 
ministry. — Rise  of  new  parties. — "In  1903  began 
the  agitation  over  the  new  army  bills,  and  the 
'language  of  command'  question  became  a  promi- 
nent feature  in  the  Nationalist  propaganda.  A 
campaign  of  obstruction  ensued,  which  led  to  the 
most  violent  scenes  both  in  and  out  of  the  cham- 
ber. Count  Stephen  Tisza,  son  of  the  old  Liberal 
Premier  and  heir  to  the  Liberal  traditions,  tried  in 
vain  to  form  a  Cabinet.  He  and  his  party  are 
upholders  of  the  .iXusgleich,  and  although  identified 
with  the  name  Liberal  in  Hungary  are  rather  the 
Tory  Moderate  Party.  Baron  Hedervary,  the  suc- 
cessful autocratic  Ban  of  Croatia,  was  asked  to 
form  a  Cabinet,  and  did  so  by  dropping  the  army 
bills  for  the  time,  but  King  Francis  Joseph  was 
by  no  means  in  favour  of  these  concessions,  and 
announced  his  intention  of  maintaining  all  his  pre- 
rogatives as  regards  'my  army.'  He  flung  down 
the  gauntlet  to  the  Independents,  and  summoned 
Hedervary  again,  but  in  1903  this  minister  was 
succeeded  by  one  who  was  expected  to  be  more 
successful  in  obtaining  a  genuine  support  from 
parliament,  and  Count  Stephen  Tisza  took  office. 
For   two   years   he   held    things   together   with   a 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1903-1905      -,A°'w,!n'Lr„  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1905-1906 


with    Hungary 


strong  hand,  but  despite  his  high  character,  his 
autocratic  temper  made  him  enemies,  and  private 
jealousies,  aided  by  his  lack  of  tact  and  organis- 
ing power,  eventually  caused  his  downfall.  When 
he  saw  the  opposition  gathering  force  he  tried  to 
put  through  a  coup  d'etat  to  smash  the  obstruc- 
tion. An  alteration  in  the  standing  orders  was 
carried,  but  the  most  violent  scenes  followed,  and 
after  a  struggle  Tisza  was  forced  to  resign.  The 
break  up  of  the  once  great  Liberal  Party  and  the 
final  defeat  of  Count  Stephen  Tisza  took  place  in 
1905,  and  by  this  time  the  second  great  reorganisa- 
tion of  parties  in  Hungary  was  accomplished. 
With  Tisza's  fall  the  old  Liberal  Party  melted  as 
if  by  magic,  nor  are  there  any  signs  at  present 
of  its  revival.  The  defeat  of  the  Liberals  was 
effected  by  a  coalition  of  four  groups  which  have 
been  formed  out  of  the  Extreme  Right  and  Ex- 
treme Left  of  earlier  days.  These  were  the  Clerical 
Independents,  the  Independence  party  under  Kos- 
suth and  Apponyi,  the  Clerical  People's  party,  and 
the  Liberal  Dissentients  or  Andrassy  group.  The 
Clerical  Independents  have  been  fused  with  the 
Independence  Party,  which  for  various  reasons  is 
now  [1907]  the  most  prominent  in  the  state  and 
the  one  whose  leaders  make  most  noise  in  the 
world.  In  1905  this  party  represented  the  old 
Irreconcilables  or  Extreme  Nationalists,  who 
seemed  at  one  time  to  have  almost  disappeared, 
merged  in  the  Liberals.  They  desired  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  compromise  of  1867  so  that  Hungary 
might  return  to  the  status  of  184S,  when  for  a 
short  time  she  was  an  entirely  separate  kingdom. 
The  connection  of  the  son  of  Louis  Kossuth  with 
this  group  gives  it  a  fictitious  resemblance  to  the 
Patriotic  Party  of  1848,  and  with  him  is  associated 
the  picturesque  figure  of  Albert  Apponyi,  the 
Magyar  orator,  whose  fine  periods  and  impressive 
appearance  have  made  him  the  effective  representa- 
tive of  his  country  in  England  and  America.  The 
two  Clerical  parties  are  united  in  their  desire  to 
increase  the  influence  of  the  church,  to  check  the 
growing  power  of  the  Jews,  and  to  repeal  the 
civil  marriage  and  divorce  lav/s,  but,  while  the 
Clerical  Independents  join  with  Kossuth's  party, 
the  Clerical  Populists  desire  the  maintenance  of 
the  Ausgleich  with  a  progressively  separatist  in- 
terpretation. The  Andrassy  group,  whose  leader 
belonged  to  the  Liberals  by  tradition  and  was 
originally  the  close  friend  of  Tisza,  has  consid- 
erable influence  through  his  great  historic  name 
and  family.  He  was  left  somewhat  stranded  by 
the  events  of  rooj  and  maintained  a  sort  of  bal- 
ance between  Tisza  and  the  Opposition,  but  finally 
threw  his  weight  against  the  former,  influenced, 
it  is  said,  by  personal  feelings,  which  had  much  to 
do  with  the  fall  of  the  Liberal  premier.  Like  his 
father,  Count  Tisza,  a  man  of  high  attainments 
and  sterling  character,  was  lacking  in  the  tact 
and  suppleness  essential  for  the  difficult  task  be- 
fore him.  Besides  the  four  main  groups  there  was 
one  other,  composed  of  the  personal  supporters  of 
ex-Premier  Banffy,  and  these  five  bodies,  all  tak- 
ing such  different  points  of  view,  were  in  1903 
bound  together  by  a  solemn  pact  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  Liberal  party  and  government." — 
A,  R.  and  E.  Colquhoun,  Whirlpool  of  Europe, 
pp.  309-311. 

1904-1909. — Effects  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
in  Europe  and  on  the  Triple  Alliance.  See 
Triple  Alliance. 

1905. — Action  with  other  powers  in  forcing 
financial  reforms  in  Macedonia  on  Turkey.  See 
Turkey:   1903-1908. 

1905-1906. — Count  Tisza's  resignation. — Fejer- 
v4ry  ministry. — Hungarian  demands. — Deadlock 
between    the    king    and    parliament. — Forceable 


dissolution  of  parliament. — Final  agreement  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  coalition  party. — 
Wekerle  cabinet. — Universal  male  suffrage 
adopted. — "One  of  the  last  acts  of  Count  Tisza 
was  to  put  through  the  commercial  treaties  with 
Germany,  to  which  reference  has  been  made,  his 
desire  being  to  checkmate  the  Independence  party 
by  presenting  them  with  the  accomplished  fact,  so 
that  the  commercial  compromise  must  be  renewed. 
The  King  wished  Tisza  to  continue  to  hold  office, 
but  that  minister  was  neither  able  nor  willing  to 
continue  to  govern  without  parliamentary  support. 
The  King  therefore  called  on  Baron  Fejervary,  an 
old  soldier,  whose  personal  devotion  to  his  sov- 
ereign did  not  permit  him  to  refuse,  and  who  had 
been  Minister  of  National  Defence  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century.  With  some  difficulty  Fejervary  got 
a  cabinet  together,  but,  despite  his  high  character 
and  personal  popularity,  it  was  impossible  not  to 
realise  that  he  was  appointed  against  the  sense  of 
the  parliamentary  majority  and  represented  the 
sovereign  but  not  the  people.  He  was,  in  fact, 
defeated  at  once  in  the  House,  but  was  instructed 
by  his  sovereign  to  remain  in  office  and  try  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  Coalition." — A.  R.  and  E. 
Colquhoun,  Whirpool  oj  Europe,  pp.  312-313, — In 
the  August  number  (1905)  of  The  American  Re- 
view oj  Reviews,  Count  Albert  Apponyi,  leader 
of  one  of  the  parties  united  more  or  less  in  the 
Hungarian  apposition,  gave  the  Hungarian  side 
of  the  political  issues  with  Austria.  In  part,  he 
wrote:  "The  writer  had  the  honor  of  delivering 
at  St.  Louis,  at  the  Arts  and  Science  Congress  of 
last  year,  a  short  historical  account  of  our  re- 
lation with  the  Austrian  dynasty.  There  are  to 
be  found  the  chief  facts,  which  show:  (i)  That 
our  forefathers  called  that  dynasty  to  the  Hun- 
garian throne'  not  in  order  to  get  Hungary  ab- 
sorbed into  an  Austrian  or  any  other  sort  of  em- 
pire, but,  on  the  contrary,  under  the  express  con- 
dition of  keeping  the  independence  and  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Hungarian  kingdom  unimpaired; 
(2)  that  this  condition  has  been  accepted  and 
sworn  to  by  all  those  members  of  the  dynasty 
(Joseph  II.  alone  excepted)  who  ascended  the 
Hungarian  throne;  (3)  that,  nevertheless,  practical 
encroachments  on  our  independence,  followed  by 
conflicts  and  reconciliations,  have  been  at  all 
epochs  frequent;  (4)  but  that  a  judicial  fact  never 
occurred  which  could  be  construed  into  a  modifi- 
cation of  that  fundamental  condition  of  the  dy- 
nasty's title  to  Hungary.  .  .  .  The  physical  per- 
son of  the  ruler  is,  in  truth,  the  same  in  both 
countries,  but  the  juridical  personality  of  the  King 
of  Hungary  is  distinct  and,  as  to  the  contents  of  its 
prerogative,  widely  different  from  the  judicial 
personality  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  Hungary 
is  the  oldest  constitutional  country  on  the  European 
Continent.  The  royal  prefogative  in  her  case  is 
an  emanation  of  the  constitution, — not  prior  to 
it, — and  consists  in  such  rights  as  the  nation  has 
thought  fit  to  vest  in  her  king.  In  Austria,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  existing  constitution  is  a  free  gift 
of  the  Emperor,  and  has  conferred  on  the  people 
of  Austria  such  rights  as  the  Emperor  has  thought 
fit  to  grant  to  them.  The  title  of  'Emperor  of 
Austria-Hungary'  .  .  .  [sometimes  used]  is  sim- 
ply nonsense.  The  time-hallowed  old  Hungarian 
crown  has  not  been  melted  into  the  brand-new 
Austrian  imperial  diadem.  That  imperial  title 
docs  not  contain,  to  any  extent,  the  Hungarian 
royal  title.  The  Emperor  of  Austria,  as  such,  has 
just  as  much  legal  power  in  Hungary  as  the 
President  of  the  United  States  has.  He  is,  jurid- 
ically speaking,  a  foreign  potentate  to  us.  On 
these  fundamental  truths,  no  Hungarian — to  what- 
ever party  he  may  belong — admits  discussion.  .  .  . 


721 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1905-1906       fi°"J^"^*t        AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,   1905-1906 


The  Liberal  party,  vanquished  at  the  last  elec- 
tions, does  not  in  the  least  differ  from  the  victo- 
rious opposition  as  to  the  principles  laid  down  in 
these  pages;  it  only  advocated  a  greater  amount 
of  forbearance  against  the  petty  encroachments 
which  practically  obscured  them.  That  policy  of 
forbearance  became  gradually  distasteful  to  the 
country ;  seeing  it  shaken  in  the  public  mind,  the 
recent  prime  minister,  Count  Tisza,  formed  the 
unhappy  idea  of  gaining  a  new  lease  of  power  on 
its  behalf  by  a  parliamentary  coup  d'etat.  The 
rules  of  the  House  were  broken,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent future  obstruction,  chiefly  against  miUtary 
bills.  This  brought  matters  to  an  acute  crisis. 
The  parliament  in  which  that  breach  of  the  rules 
had  taken  place  became  unfit  for  work  of  any  sort, 
the  country  had  to  be  consulted,  and  down  went 
the  Liberal  party  and  the  half-hearted  policy  it 
represented  with  no  hope  for  revival. 

"The  army  question,  with  its  ever-recurring  dif- 
ficulties, is  a  highly  characteristic  feature  of  the 
chronic  latent  conflict  between  the  Austrian  and 
the  Hungarian  mentality.  It  amounts  to  this,  that, 
as  we  are  a  nation,  we  mean  to  have  an  armed 
force  corresponding  to  our  national  individuality, 
commanded  in  our  language,  and  serving  under 
our  flags  and  emblems.  It  would  be  unnatural 
for  any  nation,  and  would  be,  in  fact,  an  ab- 
dication of  the  title  of  'nation,'  to  renounce  such 
a  national  claim.  The  Austrians,  on  the  other 
hand, — and,  unhappily,  their  influence  is  still  prev- 
alent in  this  question, — not  yet  having  abandoned 
the  idea  of  a  pan-.^ustrian  empire,  uncompro- 
misingly adhere  to  the  present  military  organiza- 
tion, which  makes  the  German  language  and  the 
imperial  emblems  prevalent  throughout  the  whole 
army,  its  Hungarian  portion  included.  The  lat- 
ter [the  coalition]  had  now  crystalHsed  their  joint 
ambitions  into  a  demand  for  the  use  of  Hun- 
garian as  the  language  of  command,  a  plank  in 
the  nationalist  platform  which  is  discussed  on  its 
own  merits  in  Chapter  X.  The  suggestion  of 
minor  concessions,  as  we  have  seen,  was  rejected 
by  the  Coalition,  and  with  frank  cynicism  some 
of  the  party  allowed  that  the  language  question 
was  not  the  end  but  the  beginning  of  their  de- 
mands. The  new  Minister  of  the  Interior,  a  young 
t-iberal,  Mr.  Kristoffy,  now  had  the  idea  that  the 
only  way  to  break  up  the  Coalition  was  to  raise 
some  question  on  which  they  were  fundamentally 
divided,  and  accordingly  he  proposed  a  scheme  of 
universal  suffrage.  The  opposition  of  the  Crown 
to  such  a  revolutionary  proposal  delayed  its  sanc- 
tion for  some  time,  and  gave  the  Coalition  time  to 
consider  its  position  and  to  organise  resistance  on 
new  lines.  The  quondam  leader  of  the  Liberal 
government.  Count  Tisza,  came  forward  as  a  bitter 
opponent  of  the  proposal,  which  is  indeed  far 
from  palatable  to  a  .large  majority  of  the  con- 
servative and  liberal  landowners,  who  have  the 
old  aristocratic  prejudices  against  popular  govern- 
ment and  who  are  also  afraid  that  the  vote  given 
to  the  Slav  and  Roumanian  population  will  shake 
the  dominant  position  of  the  Magyars.  This  suf- 
frage question  must  be  touched  on  again,  as  it 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  crucial  in  the  his- 
tory of  modern  Hungary.  Meanwhile,  because 
of  the  condition  of  deadlock  caused  by  the  dis- 
agreement between  the  Kinc  and  Parliament,  af- 
fairs throughout  the  country  were  in  a  state  of 
ex  lex.  Taxes  could  not  be  collected,  officials  re- 
signed rather  than  be  identified  with  an  un- 
popular government,  and  it  was  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  that  a  cabinet  could  be  kept  together. 
Fejervary.  a  hich-souled  and  high-principled  Mag- 
yar, was  placed  in  a  most  painful  position,  but 
the   debt   of   gratitude   he   owed   to   his   sovereign 


(who  had  saved  his  life  during  a  severe  illness  by 
sending  to  Berlin  for  the  necessary  surgical  help 
and  paying  all  expenses  himself)  did  not  allow 
the  old  soldier  to  waver  in  his  fidelity.  The  Coali- 
tion were  offered  office  on  terms,  but  these  they 
would  not  entertain,  and  Fejervary  had  to  remain 
at  the  post  of  duty  as  the  target  of  the  Opposi- 
tion. The  Pariiametit  had,  by  law,  to  be  sum- 
moned at  intervals  every  year,  but  the  Crown  has 
the  power  to  dissolve  it  at  once,  and  this  was 
done  by  the  King  in  June,  September,  October,  and 
December,  1905,  and  again  in  February,  1906.  In 
view  of  the  opposition  shown  to  the  commissary 
who,  in  February,  was  charged  to  enter  the  House 
and  read  the  Royal  rescript,  Francis  Joseph 
promptly  backed  his  prerogatives  with  force  and 
sent  a  colonel  and  soldiers  with  drawn  swords  to 
carry  out  his  orders.  The  Coalition  leaders,  being 
advised  that  their  legal  position  did  not  allow  them 
to  resist  this  order,  submitted  for  the  time,  but 
signed  a  declaration  that,  on  March  ist,  1906,  when 
by  law  the  Parliament  must  again  be  summoned, 
they  would  refuse  to  be  dissolved  and  would  re- 
main sitting.  Such  procedure  would  be  flat  re- 
bellion. The  most  dramatic  situation  which,  in 
modern  times,  has  occurred  in  any  State  or  Par- 
liament was  thus  created.  .  .  .  The  Coalition,  it 
must  be  mentioned,  had  at  first  tried  to  make 
terms  with  the  Crown,  but  their  tactics  had  se- 
verely angered  Francis  Joseph,  because,  while  their 
representatives  avowed  t'iiat  all  they  wanted  was 
the  dismissal  of  the  Fejervary-Kristoffy  Cabinet, 
the  leaders  openly  declared  that  they  would  only 
make  peace  on  terms  of  substantial  concession. 
After  this  the  old  monarch  refused  to  negotiate, 
and,  summoning  the  Coalition  to  his  presence, 
read  them  his  list  of  conditions  and  curtly  dis- 
missed them.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  first  week  in 
April  nothing  was  done  and  chaos  reigned.  Fe- 
jervary, it  is  said,  urged  his  master  to  avoid  the 
crisis  by  not  summoning  the  parliament  at  all, 
but  Francis  Joseph  was  firm  in  his  determination 
that  he  would  fulfil  the  letter  of  the  constitution 
and  let  the  first  breach  (if  made)  come  from  the 
other  side.  On  Monday,  .April  gth.  the  summons 
for  the  new  Parliament  had  to  go  out.  On  Sat- 
urday the  miracle  happened.  .At  the  eleventh 
hour  the  Coalition  and  the  Crown  came  to  terms, 
which  were  actually  arranged  on  the  last  day  of 
grace,  and  by  these  terms  the  Coalition  took 
office.  .  .  .  The  vital  questions  of  the  language  of 
command,  economic  independence,  and,  practi- 
cally, of  the  continuance  of  the  Dual  Monarchy, 
are  thus  postponed.  .  .  .  .And  the  transition  gov- 
ernment contains  practically  all  the  leaders  of  any 
note  except,  of  course.  Count  Tisza,  who  has  re- 
tired into  private  life  on  his  estate.  There  Is 
Francis  Kossuth,  leader  of  the  Independence  party 
and  heir  to  the  prestige  and  popularity,  as  well 
as  the  rather  inflated  eloquence  of  his  father,  but 
not  to  the  mental  and  physical  stamina  of  that 
remarkable  man.  That  the  son  of  Louis  Kossuth, 
who  died  in  exile  rather  than  recognise  the  hated 
Habsburg  as  King  of  Hungary,  should  now  be  a 
minister  of  that  same  Habsburg  is  one  of  time's 
revenges.  The  younger  Kossuth  is  more  pliable 
than  his  father,  but  he  and  his  party  still  stand 
[1007!  for  the  idea  of  complete  separation  and 
the  repudiation  of  the  Ausgleich.  With  him  is 
Count  Andrassy,  one  of  the  party  who  wrought 
the  work  of  '67,  the  inheritor  of  the  Deak  tra- 
dition, if  there  is  such  a  thing  as  political  con- 
sistencv.  Dr.  Wekerle,  who  introduced  the  anti- 
clerical laws,  and  Count  Zichy,  a  Catholic,  arc 
colleagues,  and  towering  over  all  is  that  handsome, 
specious,  frothy  politician  who.  beginning  life  as 
a  Don  Quixote,  now  gives  one  the  impression  of 


722 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1906 


Agram 
Trials 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1908-1909 


an  American  demagogue — the  great  Hungarian 
nobleman,  Count  Albert  Apponyi.  [The  king  re- 
quested Wekerle  to  foim  a  cabinet  including  in  it 
Kossuth,  Apponyi,  Andrassy  and  Zichy.  At  the 
election  held  shortly  afterward  the  Independence 
party  won  about  250  out  of  400  seats.  The  new 
parliament  was  opened  on  May  22,  igo6.]  .  .  . 
By  Autumn,  1906,  a  new  crisis  arose,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  levy  of  recruits  for  the  common  army, 
which  the  King  desired  and  the  Hungarian  gov- 
ernment refused.  A  secret  pact  with  the  Coalition 
gave  the  King  the  right  to  demand  recruits  in  case 
of  'unavoidable  necessity,'  and  the  European  situa- 
tion seemed  to  him  to  fulfil  those  conditions.  The 
Hungarians,  however,  saw  only  an  opportunity 
for  wringing  from  him  fresh  concessions." — A.  R. 
and  E.  Colquhoun,  The  whirlpool  of  Europe,  pp. 
313-316,  316,  316-317,  317-— In  Austria,  the  grand 
event  of  iqo6  was  the  franchise  reform,  which  ex- 
tinguished the  whole  system  of  class  representation 
and  established  a  representative  Parliament  on  the 
broad  basis  of  a  manhood  vote.  "Every  male 
citizen  who  had  completed  his  twenty-fourth  year 
and  was  not  under  any  legal  disability  was  en- 
titled to  be  registered  as  a  voter  after  one  year's 
residence.  Every  male,  including  members  of  the 
Upper  House,  who  had  possessecl  Austrian  citizen- 
ship for  at  least  three  years  and  had  completed  his 
thirtieth  year,  was  eligible  for  election  as  a  deputy ; 
but  members  of  the  Upper  House  elected  to  the 
Lower  could  not  sit  in  both  at  once.  Voting  was 
to  be  direct  in  all  provinces.  In  Galicia,  how- 
ever, every  constituency  would  return  two  depu- 
ties, each  voter  having  one  vote,  so  as  to  permit 
of  the  representation  of  racial  minorities,  the  popu- 
lation being  composed  of  Poles  and  Ruthenians. 
Voting  was  to  be  obligatory  under  penalty  of  a 
fine  wherever  a  provincial  Diet  should  so  decide. 
This  Bill  was  passed,  in  the  face  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Conservative  and  aristocratic  members 
of  both  Houses  and  of  the  extreme  representatives 
of  the  various  nationalities,  mainly  through  the 
influence  of  the  Emperor.  He  regarded  it  as  the 
only  way  to  get  rid  of  Parliamentary  obstruction, 
and  the  best  means  of  stimulating  loyalty  to  the 
dynasty." 

Two  changes  of  ministry  occurred  in  Austria 
during  iqo6.  Baron  Gautsch.  as  premier,  giving 
way  to  Prince  Hohenlohe  in  April,  and  the  latter 
resigning  in  June,  to  be  succeeded  by  Baron  Beck. 
Count  Goluchowski,  who  had  been  Austro-Hun- 
garian  minister  of  foreign  affairs  since  1895,  re- 
signed in  October,  because  of  ill-feeling  against 
him  in  Hungary,  and  was  succeeded  by  Baron 
Aehrenthal, 

1906  (January-April). — At  the  Algeciras  Con- 
ference on  the  Morocco  question.  See  Al- 
geciras; France:  1904-1906;  and  Germany:  1905- 
1906. 

1906. — Triple  Alliance  renewed.  See  Triple 
Alliance:  Content  of  the  treaties. 

1907. — Final  negotiation  of  a  new  financial 
Ausgleich. — Adjustment  of  the  vexed  questions 
of  tariff,  joint  debt,  and  revenue  quotas. — The 
long  struggle  toward  a  readjustment  of  the  Aus- 
gleich or  agreement  of  1867  between  Austria  and 
Hungary,  on  its  financial  side,  was  brought  to  a 
close  on  October  8,  1907,  by  the  signing  of  a  new 
agreement  that  day.  Tt  continued  the  common 
customs  arrangement  until  1917.  and  provided  that 
commercial  treaties  concluded  with  foreign  powers 
must  be  signed  by  the  representatives  of  both 
Austria  and  Hungary — a  concession  by  Austria  to 
Hungary.  Hitherto  the  Austrian  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  had  conducted  such  negotiations. 
On  its  part,  Hungary  made  the  minor  concession 
of  conforming  its  stock  exchange  laws  to  those  of 


Austria.  Previously,  excise  duties  had  been  com- 
mon to  both  states;  henceforth  they  were  to  be 
left  to  each  state  to  be  determined  and  levied.  In 
the  joint  fiscal  burden,  Hungary's  contribution  was 
increased  from  34.4  per  cent  to  36,4  per  cent. 
Provision  was  made  for  a  court  of  arbitration,  com- 
posed of  four  Austrian  and  four  Hungarian  mem- 
bers, who  must  chose  a  ninth  member  as  chair- 
man. 

1908. — Acquisition  of  submarines  in  navy.    See 
Submarines:  1900-1918. 

1908-1909. — "Greater  Serbia  Conspiracy." — 
Agram  trials. — Friedjung  trial. — Among  the  state- 
ments made  to  defend  the  annexation  of  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina  [see  Turkey:  1008J  was  one  by  Dr. 
Friedjung,  the  Austrian  historian,  who  asserted 
that  the  Southern  Slavs  were  planning  a  conspiracy 
against  Austria-Hungary.  As  a  result  a  long  prose- 
cution was  conducted  at  Agram  which  excited 
wide  attention  throughout  Europe.  After  a  trial 
lasting  seven  months  (from  April  to  October) 
sentences  were  handed  down  in  the  cases  of  fifty- 
two  school  teachers,  priests,  and  other'  persons 
charged  with  connection  with  what  was  known 
as  the  "Greater  Serbia  conspiracy."  The  prisoners 
were  accused  of  h^h  treason  in  participating  in  a 
movement  for  the  union  of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and 
Bosnia  to  Serbia,  even  carrying  the  propaganda 
among  the  troops  of  the  .Austro-Hungarian  army. 
Thirty  of  the  accused  were  condemned  to  terms 
of  rigorous  imprisonment  varying  from  four  to 
twelve  years,  and  twenty-two  were  acquitted.  The 
persons  condemned  gave  notification  of  appeal.  In 
the  meantime  attacks  were  being  made  on  the 
authenticity  of  Dr.  Friedjung's  statement.  "Dr. 
Friedjung,  then  an  intimate  friend  and  adviser  ol 
Baron  von  Aehrenthal,  stated  in  the  Neue  Frcie 
Presse  of  March  25,  1900 — the  famous  article  that 
led  to  the  Friedjung  trial  of  December  1909  .  .  . 
Early  in  1909  when  war,  or,  as  the  Austrian  ex- 
pression ran,  a  'punitive  expedition'  against  Ser- 
via  was  believed  to  be  imminent,  a  selection  of 
these  'proofs'  [of  a  conspiracy]  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  Dr.  Friedjung,  who  based  upon  them 
a  series  of  articles  intended  to  be  a  war  blast.  . 
Dr.  Friedjung  accused  M.  Supilo,  the  Serbo-Croa- 
tian leader,  and  several  other  prominent  Serbs  and 
Croatians  of  the  Monarchy,  of  corrupt  and  trea- 
sonable intercourse  with  the  Servian  government. 
The  publication  led  to  the  trial,  in  which  the 
'proofs'  were  demonstra'ted  to  be  clumsy  forgeries; 
and  to  the  disclosure  made  by  Professor  Masaryk 
in  the  Delegations  of  19 10  that  the  forgeries  had 
been  largely  the  work  of  a  man  named  Vasitch 
who  had  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  forging 
them  by  Captain  von  Svientochowski  of  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  Legation  at  Belgrade.  During  the 
Friedjung  trial.  Count  Aehrenthal  informed  a 
foreign  visitor  that  he  had  never  believed  in  the 
authenticity  of  the  'proofs'  of  the  conspiracy;  and 
he  hastened,  as  soon  as  their  veritable  character 
was  revealed,  to  disavow  them  in  his  official  or- 
gan, the  Fremdenblalt.  He  appeared  insensible 
to  the  discredit  which  the  exposure  of  his  methods 
had  cast  upon  the  Monarchy.  His  principles  that 
all  is  fair  in  diplomacy  and  that  'accomplished 
facts  are  the  most  conclusive  proofs,'  doubtless 
explain  his  conduct ;  and  but  for  the  withdrawal 
of  Russian  support  from  Scrvia  after  the  inter- 
vention of  the  German  .Embassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg on  March  24.  1900 — the  day  before  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Friedjung  article — .Aehrenthal's 
methods  might  have  been  placed  beyond  possibil- 
ity of  detection  by  an  Austro-Hungarian  invasion 
of  Servia  and  by  the  execution,  under  martial  law, 
of  the  Serbo-Croatians  whom  the  forgeries  charged 
with  high   treason.     But,   according  to  a  homely 


723 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1908-1909 


Balkan 
Wars 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  19H 


Italian  proverb,  'II  diavo'.o  fa  le  pcntole  ma  non  i 
copcrchi.' " — H.  W.  Steed,  Hapsburg  monarchy, 
pp.  24s,  259-260. — On  December  31  it  was  an- 
nounced from  Vienna  that  all  but  two  of  the 
condemned  had  been  set  at  liberty  pending  their 
appeal,  this  being  consequent  on  the  revelations  of 
forgery  in  the  documents  on  which  they  were  con- 
victed. 

1908-1909. — Arbitrary  annexation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina. — Violence  to  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin. — European  disturbance  and  its  settle- 
ment. See  Bosni.\-Herzegown"a:  rgoS;  Bulgaria: 
1Q08-1909;  D.^lj.l\tia:  1861-1914;  and  Turkey: 
1 90S;  World  War:  Causes:  Indirect:  e. 

1908-1914. — Need  of  German  friendship.  See 
World  War:   Diplomatic  background:   71,  vi. 

1909. — Program  for  naval  construction.  See 
War,  Prep.^ratiox  for:  1909:  Italian  and  Austrian 
program. 

1909  (December). — Alleged  plan  of  a  feder- 
ated triple  monarchy. — "There  has  been  circulated 
in  Paris  a  curious  document,  full  of  figures,  sup- 
posed to  be  based  on  authentic  information.  This 
document  relates  to  the  plan  attributed  to  Prince 
Lentur  and  Count  d'Aehrenthal  to  change  the  dual 
monarchy  of  .\u5tria-Hungary  into  a  triple  mon- 
archy. Croatia,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  and  Dalma- 
tia,  according  to  the  scheme,  would  be  united  into 
an  independent  and  constitutional  kingdom,  cor- 
responding to  the  old  Illyria.  The  double  state, 
Austria-Hungary,  would  be  changed  into  a  three- 
fold Austria-Hungary-Illyria.  A  Slav  nation 
would  thus  stand  side  by  side  with  the  Teutonic 
nation  of  Austria  and  the  Magyar  nation  of  Hun- 
gary. Its  extent  would  be  a  good  deal  smaller,  a 
little  more  than  one-third,  of  the  other  two,  and 
its  population  about  a  quarter  of  the  Hungarian 
and  one-sixth  of  the  .Austrian.  According  to  this 
document,  which  is  declared  to  have  strong  claims 
to  be  considered  authentic,  this  change  would  no 
doubt  be  followed  by  a  further  one.  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  would  also  want  home  rule.  The  mon- 
archy would  thus  become  a  kind  of  Federal  state. 
Hungary  alone  would  remain  standing  strong  and 
united  as  the  centre  and  leader  of  this  federation." 
— N.  Y.  Evening  Post,  Dec.  29,  1909. 

1911. — Support  of  Germany  in  Morocco  crisis. 
— In  this  crisis  Austria-Hungary  played  an  unim- 
portant part,  supporting  Germany  in  her  diplo- 
matic contest  with  France.^See  also  Morocco: 
I9ir-i9i4. 

1911-1912.— Attitude  toward  Italy  in  the 
Turko-Italian  War. — The  Italian  government 
was  warned  by  .Austria-Hungary  that  military  op- 
erations were  not  to  be  directed  against  Eurof>ean 
Turkey,  as  .Austria-Hungary  did  not  want  to  have 
the  Balkan  question  opened  at  that  time. — See  also 
Balkan  states:  1912:  First  Balkan  War. 

1911-1913. — Increase  in  army.'  See  Was,  Prep- 
aration* FOR:    1911-1913. 

1912. — Berchtold  proposition.  See  Balkan 
States:    1912:    Balkan  league. 

1912  (December). — Triple  Alliance  renewed. — 
Balkan  situation.  See  Italy:  1912-1914;  Triple 
.Alliance:   Content  of  the  treaties. 

1913. — Austria-Hungary  and  the  Albanian 
question. — It  was  mainly  at  the  insistence  of 
Austria  that  the  powers  intervened  to  prevent  the 
partition  of  Albania  among  the  Balkan  allies.  The 
question  was  settled  temporarily  by  the  London 
conference  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  Edward 
Grey  by  the  creation  of  Albania  as  an  independent 
state. — ^See  also  Albania:    1913 ;   Balkan  States: 

1912-1913- 

1913. — Interest  in  Second  Balkan  War. — Re- 
lations with  Rumania.  See  B.\lkan  St.\tes:  1913 ; 
and  Rumania:   1912-1913. 


1914. — Control    of    railways.     See    Railroads: 
1917-1919. 

1914. — Austro-Hungarian  foreign  policy. — 
Rivalry  between  Russia  and  Austria-Hungary. 
— Growth  of  hostility  between  Serbia  and  Aus- 
tria-Hungary.— "The  foreign  policy  of  Austria- 
Hungary  .  .  .  had  to  do  mostly  with  ambitions 
in  the  Balkans  and  attempts  to  extend  to  the  south. 
With  the  new  German  Empire  cordial  relations 
were  established.  With  respect  to  Italy  the  old 
ambitions  were  completely  given  over.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  while  other 
European  powers  were  making  themselves  greater 
by  colonial  expansion  the  Dual  Monarchy  hoped 
to  reach  southward  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic  and  down  through  the  Balkans  to  an  out- 
let, perhaps  at  Salonica.  As  early  as  the  War  for 
Greek  Independence  it  was  evident  that  Austria 
and  Russia  were  suspicious  of  each  other  in  ri- 
valry about  the  Balkans.  This  was  more  apparent 
in  1877,  when  the  Russo-Turkish  War  began.  In 
the  ne.xt  year,  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  when 
Russia  was  forced  to  let  a  great  part  of  what 
she  had  accomplished  be  undone,  .Austria-Hungary 
was  given  the  administration  of  the  two  Turkish 
provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  peopled 
with  South  Slavs,  and  conveniently  adjoining  her 
own  Slavic  provinces  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia- 
Slavonia.  In  the  following  year  she  joined  the 
German  Empire  in  alliance,  from  which  she  got 
added  protection  against  Russia,  though  Germany 
was  not  yet  disposed  to  forfeit  the  friendship  of 
Russia.  Year  by  year  the  rivalry  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  Russia  for  greater  power  and  influence 
in  the  Balkans  increased." — E.  R.  Turner,  Europe, 
p.  444. — ".Austria  came  more  and  more  to  be 
Russia's  principal  opponent  in  the  Balkans,  dread- 
ing the  extension  of  Russian  power  southward. 
During  much  of  this  time  either  Russia  or  Austria 
would  gladly  have  got  the  Ottoman  provinces, 
but  failing  that,  each  was  resolved  that  no  other 
power  should  get  them." — Ibid.,  p.  449. — "Not 
only  did  Austria-Hungary  desire  to  expand  south- 
ward through  the  Balkans,  but  her  great  river, 
the  Danube,  emptied  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  much 
of  her  commerce  went  out  past  Constantinople. 
That  is  to  say,  if  Russia  succeeded  in  her  ambi- 
tion, then  Austria-Hungary  could  be  largely  closed 
in  and  at  Russia's  mercy,  while  if  .Austria  got 
what  she  desired,  then  Russia  would  be  largely  at 
her  mercy  in  like  manner." — Ibid.,  p.  516. — In  this 
matter  Hungary  was  quite  as  hostile  as  Austria 
to  the  aggrandizement  of  Russia  and  the  ambi- 
tions of  Rumania  and  Serbia.  In  their  foreign 
policy,  therefore,  the  two  members  of  the  dual 
monarchy  presented  a  united  front  to  the  world 
and  were  both  equally  anxious  to  \)uild  up  a 
powerful  army  and  navy.  "In  1908  Austria-Hun- 
gary annexed  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  in  spite  of 
a  general  European  treaty,  and  in  direct  defiance 
of  Russia.  By  the  Treaty  of  BcrHn  the  two  Turk- 
ish provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  had  been 
put  under  the  control  of  Austria-Hungary,  though 
sovereignty  continued  to  be  vested  in  Turkey. 
Actual  connection  with  Turkey  ceased,  however, 
and  the  government  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  set  to 
work  to  bring  order  to  the  districts  and  make 
them  thoroughly  subservient  to  its  rule.  The 
people  were  largely  debarred  from  professional  and 
government  positions  and  treated  as  inferior  to 
Hunaarians  or  Germans,  but  considerable  material 
prosperity  was  brought  about,  and  in  many  re- 
spects the  condition  of  the  South  Slavs  in  these 
provinces  was  better  than  that  of  those  who  ruled 
themselves  in  Servia  and  Montenegro.  As  time 
went  on  therefore,  .Austria-Hungary  came  to  regard 
them  as  part  of  her  dominion,  and  Turkish  own- 


724 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1914 


World 
War 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1914-1915 


ership  as  a  fiction.  Thus  things  continued  until 
IQOS.  In  that  year  occurred  the  so-called  Young 
Turk  revolution  in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Ignor- 
ing the  Austrian  possession  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, the  Young  Turks  invited  the  population 
of  the  provinces  to  send  representatives  to  an 
assembly  in  Constantinople.  This  seemed  an  at- 
tempt to  prepare  for  Turkish  possession  of  the 
country  again  later  on.  But  complete  mastery  of 
the  district  was  now  necessary  for  the  Teutonic 
scheme  of  controlling  the  way  down  to  Turkey 
and  the  greater  domain  across  the  straits.  Under 
no  circumstances  would  either  Germany  or  Austria 
see  the  loss  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  threatened, 
and  so  Austria  acted  at  once.  October  3d,  the 
Dual  Monarchy  cast  aside  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
without  consulting  the  other  parties  to  the  treaty, 
and  announced  that  the  provinces  were  annexed. 
A  dangerous  crisis  ensued.  Turkey,  most  directly 
aggrieved,  strongly  protested,  but  could  do  nothing, 
and  after  a  while  accepted  pecuniary  compensation. 
Great  Britain  and  France,  who  had  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  protested.  To  Russia — also  a 
signatory,  and  much  more  greatly  interested  be- 
cause of  her  position  and  ambition  in  the  Bal- 
kans— the  affront  was  far  greater  and  she  insisted 
that  the  matter  be  laid  before  a  European  con- 
gress. Most  furious  of  all  was  Servia,  the  neigh- 
boring South  Slavic  state,  who  had  long  hoped 
that,  on  the  breaking  up  of  European  Turkey, 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  would  be  hers.  If  now 
the  provinces  were  finally  incorporated  into  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, then  the  dream  of  future  Servian 
greatness  would  never  be  realized.  Accordingly, 
while  Russia  was  prepared  to  oppose  the  action 
as  strongly  as  she  could,  Servia  was  resolved  to 
fight  to  the  death,  and  could  with  difficulty  be 
restrained  from  attacking  her  powerful  neighbor." 
— Ibid.,  pp.  500-501. — See  also  Bosnia-Herzego- 
vina:  1908 — and  Turkey:  1908. — "But  in  igi3> 
after  the  Second  Balkan  War,  not  only  was  the 
strength  of  Turkey  as  a  European  power  so  weak- 
ened that  she  counted  for  little  more  than  pos- 
sessor of  the  incomparable  site  of  Constantinople 
and  territories  in  Asia,  but  Servia,  the  bitter 
enemy  of  Austria,  had  come  out  of  both  wars 
with  increased  power  and  territory  -and  greatly 
increased  prestige.  .  .  .  Altogether,  the  position  of 
Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  was  much  less 
good  with  respect  to  the  Balkans  than  before. 
Austria  greatly  desired  to  settle  at  once  her  ac- 
count with  Servia,  and  reduce  her  permanently  to 
a  position  in  which  she  could  never  again  be  a 
source  of  apprehension.  It  was  learned  afterward 
that  in  August  1913  Austria-Hungary  tried  to  get 
her  partners  in  the  Triple  Alliance  to  join  her  in 
proceeding  against  Servia.  But  the  Italian  gov- 
ernment refused  to  give  sanction,  and  the  matter 
was  dropped  until  the  next  year." — Ibid,  pp.  510- 
511. — See  also  Balkan  States:  1914;  and  Italy: 
1913:  Austrian  plan  to  attack  Serbia. — The  aspira- 
tion of  Austro-Hungarian  capitalists  to  finance  rail- 
ways and  exploit  in  general  the  whole  of  the  Bal- 
kan peninsula  to  Greece — an  aspiration  which  had 
largely  influenced  the  annexation  of  Bosnia-Herze- 
govina— was  seriously  checked  by  the  wars  of  1912- 
1913,  and  was  the  direct  cause  of  the  World  War. 
— See  also  World  War:  Diplomatic  background: 
5;  8;  69. 

1914  (June). — Assassination  of  the  archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand. — On  Sunday  morning,  June 
28,  the  archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  nephew  of  the 
emperor  Francis  Joseph  and  heir  to  the  Hapsburg 
throne,  was  assassinated  by  a  Pan-Serbian  agitator 
named  Gavrilo  Princip,  who  fired  several  shots 
from  a  Browning  pistol.  Both  the  archduke  and 
his   morganatic   wife,   the   duchess   of   Hohenberg, 


who  accompanied  him,  were  fatally  wounded. 
"He  was  just  the  man,  in  a  word,  that  the 
decrepit  monarchy  needed  to  be  set  up  once 
more.  All  that,  however,  the  Servian  plotters 
cared  little  about.  The  circumstance  that 
signed  his  death  warrant  in  Belgrade  was  that 
Francis  Ferdinand  stood  committed  to  the  Trias 
idea.  The  Trias  in  lieu  of  the  Dual  Monarchy. 
The  Ausghich  had  reached,  according  to  him,  the 
end  of  its  usefulness,  and  in  place  of  it  was  to 
come  a  Triple  Monarchy,  a  confederation  of  three 
distinct  political  entities;  each  part  was  to  tie  in- 
dependent of  the  others,  save  in  a  few  reserved 
points.  These  reserved  points  were  to  be  con- 
fined to  absolute  essentials — the  field  of  foreign  re- 
lations, political  and  economic  treaties,  army  and 
navy — in  the  main,  then,  those  provided  for  in 
the  Austrian  compromise  with  Hungary  of  1867. 
.  .  .  Francis  Ferdinand,  though  of  purely  Teuton 
stock  himself,  was  known  as  a  Slavophil.  He  not 
only  had  mastered  Czech  completely,  but  had  writ- 
ten much  in  that  difficult  tongue.  He  had  like- 
wise possessed  himself  of  a  familiar  knowledge  of 
the  other  Slav  tongues  in  Austria-Hungary,  and 
the  Serbo-Croatian  language  he  spoke  perfectly." 
— W.  von  Schierbrand,  Austria-Hungary:  The 
Polyglot  empire,  pp.  loi,  102,  103. — See  Serbia: 
1914;  Serajevo:  1914;  World  War:  Causes:  Direct. 

1914  (July). — Decision  for  war. — Ministerial 
councils. — Ultimatum  presented  to  Serbia  (July 
23). — Mobilization  of  troops. — Aircraft  strength. 
— Bethmann-Hollweg's  review  of  events  preced- 
ing war.  See  World  War:  Diplomatic  background: 
13;  14;  15;  16;  25;  26;  31;  33;  73,  ii;  77;  Prep- 
aration for  war:  a;  1914:  X.  War  in  the 
air:  a. 

1914  (July  28). — Declaration  of  war  on  Serbia. 
— Version  of  Austro-Serbian  quarrel  by  Francis 
Joseph.  See  World  War:  Diplomatic  background: 
28;  29;  31;   Causes:  Indirect:  k. 

1914  (July  30-Septemher  10). — Invasion  of 
Serbia. — Siege  of  Belgrade.  See  World  War: 
1914:  III.  Balkans:   a,  1. 

1914  (August). — Violations  of  Triple  Alliance. 
— Relations  with  Italy  over  war.  See  Italy: 
1914:  Position  of  Italy;  World  War:  1915:  IV. 
Italy:    a. 

1914  (August  6). — War  declared  on  Russia. 
See  World  War:  Diplomatic  background:  67. 

1914  (August  27-September  3). — Invasion  of 
Galicia  by  Russians. — Capture  of  Lemberg.  See 
World  War:   1914:  II.  Eastern  front:  d,  1. 

1914  (October). — Investment  of  Przemysl  by 
Russians. — Summary.  See  World  War:  1914: 
II.  Eastern   front:   d,  4;    d,  5. 

1914. — Desire  to  control  policy  in  Rumania. — 
Italy's  attitude.  See  World  War:  Diplomatic 
background:  9;  11;  1916:  V.  Balkan  Theater:  c; 
c,  4;  Italy:  1914;  Austro-Serbian  crisis;  Baron 
Sonnino's   diplomatic   duel. 

1914  (November-December). — Second  attack 
and  defeat  in  Serbia.  See  World  War;  1914:  HI. 
Balkans:  a,  2;  a,  3. 

1914-1915. — Attitude  of  the  peoples  in  the 
Dual  Monarchy  towards  the  war. — Hungarian 
enthusiasm. — "From  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Austro-Serbian  crisis,  those  natural  pillars  of  the 
empire,  the  nobility,  the  army,  the  bureaucracy, 
and  the  Church,  together  with  the  German  and 
Magyar  populations,  rallied  enthusiastically  round 
the  Government  and  the  Hapsburg  throne.  The 
almost  passionate  phraseology  of  the  Austrian  ul- 
timatum to  Serbia,  so  unusual  in  a  diplomatic 
document  of  this  nature,  was  an  accurate  reflection 
of  the  popular  mood.  The  Viennese  press  unani- 
mously demanded  decisive  measures.  'The  situa- 
tion between  our  Government  and  that  of  King 


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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1914-1915 


World 
War 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1914-1915 


Peter  has  become  intolerable,'  asserted  the  Neue 
Freie  Presse.  'Our  ultimatum  has  been  the  natural 
result.'  The  Reichspost  urged  the  Government  to 
take  decisive  measures  against  the  Serbian  foe, 
'who  is  as  implacable  and  relentless  as  he  is  das- 
tardly.' The  formal  outbreak  of  hostilities  was 
hailed  with  jubilation  'When  we  consider  the 
provocations  of  which  Serbia  has  been  guilty  for 
so  many  years,'  exclaimed  the  Tageblatt,  'the  sol- 
emn pledges  made  and  broken,  the  defiance  which 
we  have  put  up  with  from  an  unscrupulous  neigh- 
bor whom  no  kindness  can  appease,  we  experience 
a  sense  of  relief  on  this  outburst  of  war.'  Hun- 
garian sentiment  was  even  more  enthusiastic.  'The 
whole  nation  joyfully  hastens  to  follow  the  call  of 
his  Majesty  to  the  flag,'  cried  Premier  Tisza  amid 
the  frantic  cheers  of  the  Hungarian  deputies.  'If 
we  had  stood  these  conditions  any  longer,'  ex- 
claimed Count  .Albert  Apponyi,  head  of  the  Opposi- 
tion, 'we  would  have  reached  the  point  where 
Europe  would  have  called  us  her  second  "Sick 
Man." '  'It  is  peace  and  not  war  that  we  want ; 
but  a  peace  which  leads  to  life,  not  to  death,' 
asserted  the  .\rchbishop  of  Esztergom,  Roman 
Catholic  primate  of  Hungary.  'There  are  sit- 
uations in  political  life,'  said  Count  Julius 
-Andrassy,  'that  can  be  likened  only  to  the  en- 
circling of  Sedan,  which  demoralizes  and  van- 
quishes the  surrounded  foe  before  the  first  shot 
is  fired.  Such  would  have  been  our  fate  if,  after 
the  continued  vexations  of  years,  after  the  expendi- 
ture of  many  millions,  caused  by  Serbia,  we  should 
have  continued  to  submit  to  the  invidious  attacks 
of  Russian-protected  Serbia.  .  .  .  Had  we  waited 
longer,  our  self-esteem,  our  self-trust,  would  have 
been  torn  to  shreds,  and  so  would  our  power  of 
resistance,  our  inner  unity,  our  integrity.'  The 
Magyar  press  displayed  a  decidedly  bitter  tone 
against  the  enemy.  That  leading  Budapest  paper, 
the  Pester  Lloyd,  wrote.  'The  Serbian  Government 
will  be  shown  up  as  a  nest  of  pestilential  rats 
which  come  from  their  territory  over  our  border 
to  spread  death  and  destruction.'  The  broadening 
of  the  conflict  into  a  war  with  Russia  caused  no 
surprise,  since  Serbia  had  from  the  first  been  con- 
sidered merely  the  catspaw  of  Russian  imperial- 
ism. 'The  true  cause  of  the  war,'  asserted  Count 
Julius  Andrassy,  'is  the  Eastern  ambition  [of 
hegemony  in  the  Balkans]  of  Russia,  which  is  as 
old  as  her  position  as  a  great  Power,  and  which 
has  long  been  hanging  over  us  like  a  sword  of 
Damocles.'  Dr.  Dumba,  Austro-Hungarian  am- 
bassador to  the  United  States,  undoubtedly  voiced 
the  prevailing  Austrian  opinion  when  he  wrote 
in  the  North  American  Review  for  September, 
igi4:  'The  war  between  Austria-Hungary  and 
Russia  may  well  be  said  to  be  the  outcome  of 
conflicting  civilizations  and  conflicting  aims.  The 
controversy  between  the  Dual  Monarchy  and  the 
Serbian  Kingdom  is  only  an  incident  in  the  greater 
struggle  between  German  civilization  as  repre- 
sented by  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  Russian  out- 
post on  the  southern  frontier  of  the  Dual  Monarchy 
.  .  .  The  Serbian  Kingdom  is  the  torpedo  which 
Russia  has  launched  at  the  body  of  Austria.' 
Hungarian  opinion  tended  to  give  the  war  an 
even  broader  interpretation.  'Pan-Russianism,  that 
is  the  word!'  exclaimed  the  Revue  de  Uangrie 
(Budapest).  'No!  The  present  war  is  not,  as 
certain  persons  assert,  a  war  of  Slavism  against 
Germanism.  It  is  a  war  of  a  great  part  of  civil- 
ized Europe  against  Russian  autocracy  and  Serb 
terrorism.  ...  If  the  Triple  Entente  (in  which 
the  empire  of  the  Tsars  holds  a  preponderant 
place),  should  win  in  this  war,  it  would  mean  the 
European  sluice-gates  open  to  Muscovite  autoc- 
racy, to  Cossack  militarism,  to  all  sorts  of  politi- 


cal and  religious  heresies.     The  dyke  once  broken, 
it  would  be  the  end  of  European  civilization.' 

"Such  was  the  temper  of  the  governing  classes 
and  of  the  German  and  Magyar  populations.  .  .  . 
Unquestionably  there  was  much  disloyalty  among 
certain  racial  groups.  The  Serb  element  of  the 
Yugo-Slavs,  in  particular,  appears  to  have  been 
honeycombed  with  secessionism,  and  even  among 
the  Croats  many  malcontents  were  discovered. 
Some  of  these  escaped  abroad,  notably  the  Croat 
deputy,  Hinkovitch,  and  these  exiles  presently 
founded  the  'South  Slav  Committee'  in  London, 
to  influence  Entente  public  opinion  .  .  .  The 
Croats,  though  desirous  of  Yugo-Slav  unity,  gen- 
erally wished  it  in  the  '.\ustrian'  sense;  i.  e.,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Croat  over  the  Serb  element  in 
any  future  Yugo-Slav  state.  .  .  .  Croat  mobs 
marched  through  the  streets  crying,  'Death  to  the 
Serbs!'  Serb  shops  were  sacked  and  Serb  lead- 
ers roughly  handled.  The  Croat  deputy.  Dr.  Sus- 
tersics,  voiced  the  feelings  of  the  great  majority 
of  his  people  when  he  declared;  '.  .  .  Francis  Fer- 
dinand was  bound  to  come  to  this  end,  especially 
as  he  was  the  friend  of  the  southern  Slavs.  Im- 
perialistic Serbia  saw  with  alarm  the  rise  of  this 
potent  personality,  this  knight  "without  fear  and 
without  reproach,"  who  showed  both  the  will  and 
the  power  to  promote  peaceful  relations  between 
the  southern  Slavs  and  the  Hapsburg  dynasty.' 
The  Croats  thus  entered  the  war  against  their  Ser- 
bian kindred  in  a  far  more  loyal  frame  of  mind 
than  would  have  been  possible  under  any  other 
circumstances.  .  .  .  The  Czechs  displayed  neither 
the  indignant  loyalty  nor  the  bitter  secessionism 
of  the  Yugo-Slav  populations.  .  .  .  The  fierce 
struggles  which  had  long  raged  in  Bohemia  be- 
tween the  Czechs  and  the  large  German  minority 
constantly  protected  by  Vienna  had  engendered 
widespread  Czech  resentment  against  the  Austrian 
Government.  Russian  propaganda  had  of  course 
made  the  most  of  this  golden  opportunity,  and 
for  some  years  previous  to  the  war  a  genuine 
secessionist  party  had  existed  among  the  Czechs, 
with  the  erection  of  a  Czech-Slovak  national  state 
under  Russian  protection  as  its  goal.  But  these 
extremists  were  comparatively  few  in  number,  and 
drastic  government  measures  at  the  outbreak  of 
war  quickly  broke  up  their  party  organization. 
Some  of  their  leaders,  like  Professor  Masaryk,  es- 
caped abroad;  others,  such  as  Dr.  Kramar,  were 
imprisoned.  A  few  were  shot  for  high  treason. 
The  most  serious  result  of  Czech  discontent  was 
the  poor  spirit  shown  by  Czech  troops,  whole 
regiments  surrendering  to  the  enemy  with  prac- 
tically no  resistance.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
existed  a  fairly  strong  loyalist  minority  which  dis- 
liked the  thought  of  ."Austrian  disruption  and 
feared  the  results  of  Russian  victory.  Typical  of 
Czech  loyalist  press  comment  are  the  words  of  the 
HIas  Naroda  (Prague):  'The  crime  of  Serajevo 
revealed,  as  by  a  lightning  flash,  the  monarchy's 
deplorable  situation.  .  .  .  But,  at  one  stroke,  all 
dis-sension  disappeared.  In  vain  did  the  enemy 
make  advances  to  the  non-German  nationalities' 
'We  are  all  glad  to  assert  the  close  union  of  nation- 
alities. ...  All  the  nationalities  are  defending  the 
throne  and  the  empire,'  declared  the  HIasyz  Hane 
of  Prossnitz.  'We  belong  voluntarily  to  the  .Aus- 
tro-Hungarian Monarchy,'  said  the  Cesky  Dennin 
of  Pilsen,  'that  monarchy  beneath  whose  protec- 
tion the  Czech  people  has  arrived  at  its  present 
maturity.'  [See  also  Czecho-Slovakia;  and  JtiGo- 
Slavia.)  The  attitude  of  .  .  .  the  Poles  was  not 
left  for  a  moment  in  doubt.  .Almost  without  ex- 
ception, the  .Austrian  Poles  proved  loyalist  to  the 
core  For  many  years  the  Poles  of  Galicia  had 
enjoyed    complete    local    self-government    and    full 


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cultural  liberty — a  situation  doubly  appreciated 
by  contrast  to  the  depressed  condition  of  their 
kinsmen  under  Russian  and  Prussian  rule,  Galicia 
was  full  of  Polish  refugees  from  Russian  persecu- 
tion. The  Austrian  Poles,  therefore,  hailed  the 
war  as  a  crusade  for  the  liberation  of  their  race 
from  Russian  domination.  The  exiles  at  once 
raised  several  Polish  legions,  20,000  strong,  which, 
under  their  gifted  leader,  Josef  Pilsudski,  fought 
with  fanatical  bravery  against  the  Russian  troops. 
The  attitude  of  the  Austrian  Poles  comes  out 
strongly  in  the  manifesto  of  the  National  Polish 
Committee  issued  at  the  beginning  of  the  war: 
Should  Russia  keep  Russian  Poland,  and  add 
Galicia  and  Posen  thereto,  Europe  would  be  ex- 
posed to  the  infiltration  of  Russian  despotism  and 
Byzantinism.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  Poland  is 
torn  from  Russia,  it  will  mean  a  guarantee  for 
the  progressive  expansion  of  Western  civilization 
toward  eastern  Europe,  as  well  as  protection  against 
the  introduction  of  Cossack  principles  into  modern 
life.  .  .  .  Let  no  one  accuse  the  Poles  now  fight- 
ing in  the  legions  side  by  side  with  the  Austrian 
armies  of  being  unfaithful  to  their  historic  tradi- 
tions. Russian  was  Poland's  arch-enemy  in  the 
past,  and  will  be  in  the  future.  It  is  precisely  their 
part  in  Western  civilization  and  the  national  in- 
dividuality of  their  country  that  the  Poles  are 
now  defendmg  against  the  Russians,  contemners 
of  the  one  and  persecutors  of  the  other.'  In  an 
appeal  addressed  to  Poles  throughout  the  world, 
the  noted  Polish  poet,  George  Zulawski,  wrote: 
We  stand  to-day  by  Austria,  and  do  not  doubt 
(or  a  moment  her  goodwill.  Let  the  Grand  Duke 
Nicholas  juggle  with  promises  never  meant  to  be 
kept ;  we  know  how  we  are  treated  here.  After 
having  lost  our  liberty  we  have  found  in  this 
monarchy,  the  most  liberal  in  Europe,  shelter  and 
protection.  We  are  full-fledged  citizens;  we  en- 
joy here  the  liberty  of  autonomy  and  of  our  na- 
tional advance.  .  .  .  To-day,  God  had  entrusted 
the  honor  of  the  Polish  nation  to  us  Polish  vol- 
unteers, and  we  will  return  it  into  the  hands  of 
God  alone.'  'The  historic  mission  of  the  Poles 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  Polish  history,' 
wrote  Professor  Josef  Buzek  in  the  Oesterreicbische 
Rundschau  of  September,  1914,  'consists  in  the 
protection  they  have  afforded  as  foreposts  of  the 
Occident  to  the  Western  civilization  founded  upon 
the  principles  of  the  Catholic  Church,  against  at- 
tack by  the  Byzantine  Orient.  ...  In  the  pres- 
ent world-war  the  Poles  will  take  up  once  more 
their  historic  mission  in  closest  union  with  Austria- 
Hungary.  Their  struggle  will  concern  the  driv- 
ing of  the  hereditary  Russian  foe  from  Polish 
ground.'  So  strong  was  Polish  fear  and  hatred  of 
Russia  that  the  outbreak  of  war  and  the  example 
of  their  Galician  kinsmen  swept  even  the  Prussian 
Poles  into  the  stream,  notwithstanding  the  bad 
relations  which  had  existed  between  Poles  and 
Germans  for  many  years.  Accordingly,  most  of 
the  Prussian  Polish  leaders  endorsed  the  pastoral 
letter  of  Monsignor  Likowski.  archbishop  of 
(inesen  and  primate  of  Poland,  issued  August  q, 
iqi4,  which  accused  Russia  of  being  the  provoker 
nf  the  war  and  the  persecutor  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  exhorted  the  Poles  to  fight  valiantly 
for  the  king  of  Prussia — 'for  it  is  he  who  will 
free  from  the  yoke  our  oppressed  brethren  be- 
yond the  frontier.'  [See  Poland:  1014-1917.] 
.Almost  identical  was  the  attitude  of  .  .  .  the 
Ruthenians.  For  many  years  the  Ruthenians  of 
Eastern  Galicia  had  regarded  their  province  as 
a  'Piedmont'— the  nucleus  of  a  future  Ukrainian 
national  state  carved  out  of  South  Russia ;  much 
as  the  Serbs  had  regarded  Serbia  as  the  nucleus 
for  a  future  Yugo-Slav  state  carved  out  of  South- 


west Austria-Hungary.  To  the  Ruthenians,  there- 
fore, the  war  appeared  as  a  golden  opportunity, 
the  words  of  the  proclamation  issued  by  the 
Ukrainian  National  Committee,  composed  both  of 
Ruthenians  and  exiles  from  the  Russian  Ukraine. 
'Unless  the  Ukrainian  provinces  are  separated  from 
Russia,'  runs  this  manifesto,  'even  the  most  crush- 
ing defeat  for  that  country  will  be  but  a  feeble 
blow,  from  which  Czarism  would  recover  in  a 
few  years,  to  take  up  again  its  ancient  role  of 
a  disturber  of  the  peace  of  Europe.  Only  a  free 
Ukraine,  which  would  be  supported  by  the  Triple 
Alliance  (i.  e.,  the  Central  Powers),  could  form, 
with  its  extensive  domain,  reaching  from  the  Car- 
pathians to  the  Don  and  to  the  Black  Sea,  the 
necessary  protective  wall  between  Europe  and 
Russia,  a  bulwark  that  would  defeat  forever  the 
greed  for  expansion  on  the  part  of  Czarism,  and 
free  the  Slavic  world  from  the  baneful  influence 
of  Pan-Muscovitism.' 

"Such  optimistic  notes  were,  however,  quickly 
stilled  by  the  crushing  series  of  disasters  that  now 
overtook  the  Hapsburg  Monarchy.  The  failures 
in  Serbia,  the  Russian  conquest  of  Ekistern  Ga- 
licia, and  the  destructive  Cossack  raids  into  North- 
ern Hungary,  spread  consternation  and  alarm 
throughout  the  empire.  The  disloyal  rejoiced,  and 
only  the  severest  military  repression  prevented 
seditious  disturbances  among  the  Serbo-Croats  of 
the  south  and  in  Bohemia.  The  Entente  press 
was  full  of  rumors  that  Austria-Hungary  meditated 
a  separate  peace,  but  such  rumors  seem  to  have 
been  without  serious  foundation.  Undoubtedly 
the  empire  was  pessimistic,  but  it  was  a  pessimism 
of  desperate  resolution,  not  of  abject  despair. 
The  Magyars,  to  whom  rumor  had  assigned  the 
leading  peace  role,  breathed,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
only  defiant  fury.  At  the  end  of  1914,  the  Pester 
Lloyd  exclaimed  hotly,  'Let  our  opponents  under- 
stand once  and  for  all:  We  are  going  to  hold  out 
to  the  end,  and  we  have  not  for  a  single  moment 
meditated  a  separate  peace  with  any  one.'  .  .  . 
At  first  sight,  one  might  have  thought  that  Italy's 
declaration  of  war  upon  the  empire  in  May,  1915, 
would  have  greatly  accentuated  the  prevailing 
gloom.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  did  more  than 
anything  else  to  solidify  patriotic  feeling  and 
rouse  Austria  to  fresh  exertions.  The  whole  em- 
pire quivered  with  furious  wrath  and  scornful 
contempt  for  Italy,  the  'traitor'  nation.  Emperor 
Franz-Joseph's  proclamation  to  his  people,  with 
its  stinging  words — 'Perfidy  whose  like  history  does 
not  know' — was  an  accurate  reflection  of  the  popu- 
lar emotion.  'If  war  be  indeed  only  a  con- 
tinuation of  political  policy  with  different  means,' 
wrote  that  leading  Austrian  publicist,  Freiherr  von 
Chlumecky,  in  the  Oesterreicliische  Rundschau, 
'then  Italy  can  point  to  the  fact  that,  free  from 
all  scruples  of  political  faith  and  morality,  she 
has  consistently  pursued  a  course  in  the  world 
war  which  she  followed  in  peace  for  many  years. 
To  be  at  once  .Austria's  ally  and  her  most  ma- 
lignant foe — that  has  for  decades  been  Italy's 
policy.  .  .  .  Italy  dares  the  war,  not  so  much  for 
territorial  aggrandizement  as  for  the  realization  of 
the  aim  she  pursued  in  peace  as  well  with  all 
the  means  at  her  command — to  hurl  Austria  from 
her  position  of  a  great  power.  .  .  .  Against  this 
design,  however,  the  whole  Empire  will  rise  to 
defend  itself  as  one  man.  Austrian  blood  is  not 
easily  stirred,  but  now  when  we  are  threatened 
by  cowardly  brigands  with  a  dagger  thrust  in 
the  back,  now  will  our  wrath  rise  to  a  mighty 
flame,  and  all  Austria  echo  the  cry,  "Down  with 
the  traitors!"  .  .  .  Revenge  for  a  breach  of  faith 
unexampled  in  history — that  will  continue  to  be 
the  watchword;   and   we   shall   not   rest,   nor  our 


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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1915 


children,  or  children's  children,  if  that  be  neces- 
sary, until  a  people  devoid  of  all  political  and 
moral  loyalty  shall  have  paid  a  heavy  penalty  for 
the  crime  committed  against  our  sovereign  and 
our  country!'  Hungarian  opinion  equaled  Aus- 
trian in  its  fury.  'We  are  persuaded,'  exclaimed 
the  Revue  de  Hongrie  of  June,  iqi5,  'that  the 
Italian  Government's  breach  of  plighted  faith  will 
be  stigmatized  by  posterity,  and  that  without 
distinction  of  nations.  But,  in  awaiting  this,  we 
Hungarians,  who  formerly  fought  for  Italian  in- 
dependence under  Garibaldi,  will  take  care  that 
the  infamy  of  Salandra  and  his  ilk,  who  seek  to 
revive  the  epoch  of  the  Borgias,  shall  not  pass 
unavenged.  We  shall  not  wait  for  history  to 
punish  them ;  we  shall  charge  ourselves  with  that 
duty.'  Much  more  significant,  however,  was  the 
attitude  of  the  Slavs.  Italy's  avowed  intention 
to  seize,  not  only  Italian-speaking  Trentino  and 
Trieste,  but  also  large  tracts  of  territory  in- 
habited by  a  Serbo-Croat  population,  roused  all 
the  Austrian  Slavs  to  wrathful  indignation.  Even 
the  Czech  press  warmed  to  unwonted  interest  and 
loyalty.  'The  peoples  of  .Austria-Hungary,'  as- 
serted the  Hlas  Naroda  of  Prague,  'prefer  war 
with  Italy  to  a  boughten  peace,  precarious  and 
uncertain,'  'Because  of  the  perfidy  of  Italian 
policy,'  wrote  the  Cecil  (Prague),  bitterly,  'a 
war  to-day  breaks  out  which  is  just  another  raid 
of  the  brigands  of  the  Abruzzi.'  .And  the  Proudy 
of  Olmiitz  exclaimed  defiantly,  'One  more  or  less; 
what  does  it  matter!' 

"It  was,  however,  the  Serbo-Croats  of  the  South 
who  manifested  the  hottest  indignation.  'Not  an 
inch  of  Austro-Hungarian  territory  to  these  perfidi- 
ous "Allies" !'  exclaimed  the  Hrvalska  of  Agram. 
'The  solid  fists  of  the  Croats  and  Slovenes  will  be 
plenty  strong  enough  to  smash  any  Italian  attempt 
to  grab  our  littoral.'  .  .  .  'We  pray  with  all  our 
heart  for  the  crushing  of  Italy  and  the  complete 
failure  of  its  vile  speculations,'  wrote  the  Hrvaiski 
Pokret  (.Agram),  'and  we  are  convinced  that  our 
Croatian  and  Slovene  soldiers  will  have  a  good 
big  share  in  bringing  this  about.' 

"Very  interesting  was  the  attitude  of  the  -Aus- 
trian Italians.  These  people,  numbering  about 
800,000,  are  divided  into  three  geographically 
separate  groups:  the  Trentino  district  of  South 
Tyrol:  the  Istrian  region  at  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic,  centering  about  the  city  of  Trieste;  and 
the  isolated  colonies  of  the  islands  and  port  towns 
of  the  Dalmatian  coast.  The  longing  of  Italian 
'Irredentists'  to  'redeem'  these  race  brethren  by 
incorporating  them  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was 
undoubtedly  shared  by  a  majority  of  the  Austrian 
Italians,  and  the  Austrian  militarj'  authorities 
had  to  take  sharp  measures  to  check  disloyalty. 
Nevertheless,  the  loyalist  minority  was  larger  than 
is  generally  supposed,  and  on  this  occasion  did 
not  fail  to  express  their  sentimenls.  In  Trentino, 
loyalist  addresses  were  signed  by  leading  notables, 
including  five  Italian  members  of  the  Tyrolese 
Provincial  Diet,  while  the  Risveglio  of  Trent  as- 
serted: 'No  one  has  ever  solicited  Italy's  in- 
tervention. This  war  serves  particular  interests 
which  are  absolutely  opposed  to  the  interests  of 
Italian  Tyrol.'  .  .  .'in  Dalmatia,  //  Dalmata  of 
Zara  wrote:  'The  Dalmatians  of  Italian  speech 
declare  in  this  solemn  hour  that  they  will  make 
every  sacrifice  asked  of  them.  .  .  .  Dalmatian 
fidelitv  is  traditional.  We  have  inherited  it  from 
our  fathers,  and  we  will  give  a  new  proof  of 
it  by  attesting  our  loyalty  both  to  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  and  to  the  institutions  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian state.'  [See  also  .AnRiATic  ouestion:  Re- 
lations between  Italy  and  Jugo-Slavia.]  .  .  .  After 
the  fall  of  Warsaw,  the  A'oxca  Rejorma.  of  Cracow 


wrote:  'That  which  to-day  fills  Polish  hearts  is 
something  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  ordinary  hu- 
man delight.  Entire  generations  of  Poles  have 
not  been  permitted  to  experience  this  sentiment, 
which  only  a  Pole  can  understand.  The  solid  walls 
of  our  prison  have  crumbled  into  dust.  They 
have  been  cast  down  by  the  mighty  breath  of 
civilization.'  The  C::ar  said:  'Russia  to-day  suf- 
fers a  hard  and  merited  chastisement.  The  loss 
of  Warsaw  is  the  first  step  in  her  downfall.'  The 
Ruthenian  press  joined  in  this  chorus  of  jubila- 
tion, which  was  further  swelled  by  the  voices  of 
the  loyalist  Czechs.  The  Hlas  Naroda  of  Brunn 
wrote:  'All  the  peoples  of  our  monarchy  are  to- 
day filled  wuth  enthusiasm.  The  Czech  nation 
turns  grateful  eyes  upon  its  valorous  sons  who, 
with  the  other  .Austro-Hungarian  nations,  bring 
liberty  to  the  Polish  nation.  Not,  be  it  noted, 
the  liberty  promised  by  the  false  friends  of  Slavism 
at  Petersburg,  nor  the  liberty  of  the  Chinovniks 
of  Moscow,  but  a  liberty  based  upon  civilization, 
moraUty,  and  conscience.  The  Russian  despotism 
reaps  the  first-fruits  of  the  seeds  which  it  has 
sown.'  The  Lidone  Noviny  remarked:  'Under 
Russian  rule,  the  Poles  knew  only  servitude. 
Equally  lamentable  is  the  fate  of  the  Ukrainians. 
Under  the  pretext  of  liberating  the  Balkan  states, 
the  empire  of  the  Tsars  wished  only  to  engulf 
them  in  its  tyranny.  It  even  allies  itself  with  the 
Italians — those  declared  adversaries  of  Slavism — 
in  order  jointly  to  enslave  the  Slovenes  and 
Croats.' " — T.  L.  Stoddard,  Present-day  Europe, 
pp.  123-137. — See  also  World  War:  Diplomatic 
background:   12;  75. 

1914-1916. — Serbian  deportations. — Treatment 
of  the  Serbs.  See  World  War:  Miscellaneous 
auxiliary  services:  X.  .Alleged  atrocities  and  viola- 
tions of  international  law:    b,   1. 

1915. — Political  changes. — Rupture  with  Italy. 
— Count  Berchtold.  the  foreign  minister,  "the 
man  who  started  the  war,"  resigned  in  January 
and  was  succeeded  by  Baron  Burian,  a  Hungarian 
of  Slovak  descent.  The  dominating  influence  of 
Count  Tisza,  Hungarian  premier,  gradually  eclipsed 
that  of  the  Austrian  premier.  Count  Stiirgkh,  so 
that  the  war  policy  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  was 
directed  with  increasing  energy  from  Budapest 
rather  than  Vienna.  The  outstanding  events  of 
the  year  were  the  critical  negotiations  with  Italy 
— a  diplomatic  duel  between  Baron  Burian  and 
the  Italian  foreign  minister,  Baron  Sonnino,  as- 
sisted by  the  persuasive  intervention  of  Prince 
BUlow  as  German  representative  in  Rome.  The 
negotiations  fell  through  and  on  May  23  Italy 
broke  away  from  the  Triple  .Alliance  and  declared 
war  on  Austria-Hungary.  The  German  emperor 
visited  \'ienna  in  November,  and  shortly  afterwards 
the  .Austrian  cabinet  underwent  several  changes  in 
ministerial  posts. — See  also  Italy:  iqoi-igiS;  1915: 
Italy  declares  war;  Triple  alll\xce:  Break  up  of 
Triple  .Alliance. 

1915. — Conquest  and  rule  of  Lithuania,  Vol- 
hynia,  Poland  and  Podolia  by  Central  Powers. 
See  PoLANT):   191S-191S. 

1915. — Summary  of  successes  on  Eastern 
front.    See  World  W.ar:  1915:  II.  Eastern  front:  b. 

1915. — Fight  to  control  Carpathian  mountain 
passes. — Surrender  of  Przemysl  (March  22).  See 
World  War:  1915:  II.  Eastern  front:  d;  e;  f. 

1915  (May-June). — Attacks  on  Italy.  See 
World  W.ar:  1915:  IV.  Italy:  d. 

1915  (Jime). — Protest  against  United  States 
trade  with  Allies. — United  States  reply.  See 
U.  S.  .A.:  1915  (June) :  Protests  by  Central  Powers. 

1915  (September). — Recall  of  Ambassador 
Dumba  from  United  States.  See  U.  S.  -A.:  1915 
(September). 


728 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1915 


World 
War 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1916-1917 


1915  (November  7). — Sinking  of  the  Ancona. 
— Apology.     See  U.  S.  A.:   igis   (December). 

1916. — Language  and  alphabet  forced  on  Serbs. 
See  World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliar>'  services: 
X.  Alleged  atrocities  and  violations  of  international 
law:  b,  2. 

1916  (January-February). — Attacks  in  Albania 
and  Montenegro.  See  World  War:  igib;  V.  Bal- 
kan theater:  a. 

1916  (May-June). — Offensive  against  Italy. — 
Failure.  See  World  War:  1916:  I.  Military  situ- 
ation: d,  2. 

1916  (August  27). — Rumania's  declaration  of 
war.^Reasons.  See  World  War:  1916:  V.  Bal- 
kan theater:  c,  5. 

1916. — Legislative  standstill. — Racial  dissen- 
sions.— Assassination  of  the  premier. — Except  in 
Hungary,  all  parliamentary  and  legislative  activity 
had  ceased  since  the  outbreak  of  war.  The 
Reichsrath  and  nearly  a  score  of  provincial  legis- 
latures had  ceased  to  function.  Racial  riots  and 
antagonisms  were  sternly  suppressed.  On  Octo- 
ber 21  the  Austrian  premier,  Count  Stiirgkh,  was 
shot  dead  in  a  restaurant  by  Dr.  Friedrich  Adler, 
a  journahst,  who  was  subsequently  acquitted  of 
the  charge  of  murder.  Dr.  Enist  von  Koerber  suc- 
ceeded as  premier  and  formed  a  new  cabinet. 

1916  (November  21). — Death  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph.— A  tragic  figure  was  removed  from  world  his- 
tory by  the  death,  on  November  21,  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph.  Born  on  August  18,  1S30,  he  as- 
cended the  throne  in  his  nineteenth  year.  The  nu- 
merous political  crises  that  harrassed  his  long  reign 
were  overshadowed  by  a  remarkable  series  of  do- 
mestic tragedies.  His  brother,  Maximilian  of  Mex- 
ico, was  executed;  the  latter's  widow,  living  in  1921, 
lost  her  reason  over  fifty  years  ago ;  his  wife, 
the  Empress  Elizabeth,  fell  under  the  dagger  of 
an  assassin ;  his  only  son  and  heir  committed  sui- 
cide or  was  murdered ;  his  nephew  and  heir-pre- 
sumptive was  murdered  with  his  consort  in  the 
streets  of  Serajevo — an  event  that  formed  the  pre- 
lude to  the  World  War.  The  venerable  monarch 
himself  lived  to  see  his  realm  gradually  being 
shattered  in  the  greatest  crisis  of  its  checkered 
history,  and  died  in  the  shadow  of  defeat.  Within 
two  years  later,  the  unwieldy  empire  which  he 
had  so  laboriously  held  together  lay  crushed, 
bleeding  and  bankrupt,  while  his  successor  on  the 
throne  was  a  refugee  in  a  foreign  land.  "He  was 
in  his  eighty-sixth  year — the  oldest  sovereign  in 
the  world.  He  had  reigned  for  sixty-eight  years, 
having  begun  his  active  political  life  just  after 
the  fall  of  Mettcrnich.  He  had  fought  many 
wars,  and  had  always  been  beaten ;  he  had  had 
to  yield  time  and  again  his  most  cherished  con- 
victions; he  had  suffered  the  deepest  public  and 
private  sorrows;  and  in  the  end  he  had  come 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  permanent  things 
in  Europe  from  his  sheer  length  of  life  and  te- 
nacity in  suffering.  He  was  the  last  believer  in 
the  old  theory  of  the  divine  right  of  monarchs 
.  .  .  and  this  passionate  faith  gave  him  strength 
and  constancy.  To  this  creed  everything  was  sac- 
rificed— ease,  family  affection,  private  honour,  the 
well-being  of  individuals  and  of  nations — until  he 
became  an  inhuman  monarchical  machine,  grinding 
out  decisions  like  an  automaton.  His  age  and 
his  afflictions  persuaded  the  world  to  judge  him 
kindly,  and  indeed  the  tragic  loneliness  of  his 
life  made  the  predominant  feeling  one  of  pity." 
— J.  Buchan,  Nelson's  history  of  the  war,  v.  18, 
p.  124. 

1916  (December  12). — Peace  note  of  Central 
Powers  to  the  neutral  powers  and  Vatican  for 
Entente  Allies.  See  World  War:  1916:  XI.  Peace 
proposals:  a;  a,  3. 


1916. — Ships   sunk  by  Italy  in  the   Adriatic. 

See  World  War:  191 7:  IX.  Naval  operations:  b,  2. 
1916-1917.— Accession  of  Charles  (Karl)  I.— 
Ministerial  changes. — Domestic  disorder. — Mo- 
rale.— Francis  Joseph's  "successor  on  the  throne  was 
his  great-nephew,  the  Archduke  Charles  Francis 
Joseph,  the  son  of  that  Archduke  Otto  who  was 
the  younger  brother  of  the  murdered  Francis 
Ferdinand.  He  was  in  his  thirtieth  year,  and 
had  for  some  months  been  commander  in  chief  on 
the  southern  section  of  the  Eastern  front.  ...  He 
was  known  as  a  good  sportsman  and  a  young 
man  of  frank  and  engaging  manners;  but  he 
had  scarcely  the  education  to  fit  him  to  sit  on 
the  most  difficult  throne  in  Europe.  .  .  .  He 
wished  to  safeguard  the  remains  of  his  sovereignty, 
and  it  was  believed  that  he  might  show  a  certain 
independence  in  policy." — J.  Buchan,  Nelson's  his- 
tory of  the  war,  v.  18,  p.  125. — Immediately  an 
attempt  was  made  to  clean  house,  which  led  to 
the  inference  that  the  young  ruler  was  opposed 
to  the  war  policy  of  Germany  and  was  working 
for  peace. — "Koerber  [the  premier]  was  an  hon- 
est and  fairly  liberal  bureaucrat,"  wrote  J. 
Buchan;  "strongly  pro-Austrian,  and  he  was  not 
disposed  to  listen  readily  to  Pan-German  extrem- 
ism. His  task  was  threefold — to  agree  with  Ger- 
many on  the  future  of  Poland,  to  carry  a  new 
Ausgleith  with  Hungary,  and  to  strength  the  non- 
Slav  elements  in  the  Austrian  Parliament  by  the 
grant  of  a  larger  autonomy  to  Galicia.  All  three 
tasks  raised  the  question  of  relations  with  Ger- 
many. ...  It  was  clear  that  Koerber  was  in- 
clined to  prove  refractory  to  German  guidance 
on  all  points,  and  the  pro-German  faction  in 
Austria  took  alarm.  ...  On  13th  December  he 
found  himself  compelled  to  resign." — Ibid.,  p. 
123. — Koerber's  administration  had  lasted  only 
two  months  when  Dr.  Spitzmiiller  was  called  to 
the  helm.  He  "was  entrusted  with  the  forma- 
tion of  a  fresh  Ministry,  whose  immediate  busi- 
ness was  to  carry  the  new  Ausgleich.  But  Spitz- 
miiller found  it  impossible  to  proceed  without 
summoning  Parliament,  and  such  a  step  would 
raise  other  controversial  matters  which  he  wished 
to  keep  slumbering.  By  20th  December  [1916]  he 
had  failed  to  make  any  headway,  and  a  Bohemian 
noble,  Count  Clam-Martinitz,  was  called  to  the 
task.  At  first  sight  this  appeared  to  mark  the 
dawn  of  a  new  policy.  .  .  .  Baron  Burian,  the 
faithful  disciple  of  Tisza  .  .  .  was  replaced  by  a 
Czech,  Count  Ottokar  Czernin,  who  had  been  noted 
in  the  past  for  his  anti^Magyar  leanings.  ...  On 
the  whole  the  new  Ministry  had  a  federalist  com- 
plexion. The  more  reactionary  of  the  Court  of- 
ficials and  the  permanent  civil  servants  disap- 
peared. ...  It  looked  as  if  the  Emperor  Charles 
intended  to  make  a  stand  against  the  tyranny  alike 
of  Berlin  and  Budapest.  But  the  appearance  was 
illusory.  .  .  .  The  Dual  Monarchy  depended  for 
its  very  existence  upon  Germany,  and  so  long  as 
it  remained  so  long  would  Germany  dominate 
its  attitude.  The  Austrian  Germans  would  re- 
fuse, as  in  1870,  to  permit  any  anti-German 
tendency  in  Austria's  foreign  policy,  and  they 
would  insist  upon  their  own  domination  in  the 
Austrian  Government.  The  Magyar  minority  in 
Hungary  would  never  admit  any  interference  with 
their  political  supremacy  or  allow  an  acre  of  soil 
within  the  boundaries  of  Hungary  to  be  removed 
from  their  authority.  Their  attitude  had  remained 
the  same  since  1848,  and  the  ideas  of  Andrassy 
the  Elder  and  Koloman  Tisza  were  the  ideas 
of  their  sons.  As  long  as  the  Dual  Monarchy 
continued,  there  must  be  German  domination  in 
Austria  and  Magyar  domination  in  Hungary,  in- 
tense dissatisfaction  among  the  subject  races,  and 


729 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1917 


World 
War 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,   1917-1918 


irredentist  claims  by  the  border  states.  While 
this  lasted  the  Hapsburg  power  must  be  in  a 
condition  of  unstable  equilibrium,  and  be  com- 
pelled to  look  outside  for  support.  That  support 
could  come  only  from  Germany." — Ibid.,  pp.  120- 
127,  132. — Clam-Martinitz  failed  in  his  domestic 
policy  as  well  as  in  an  attempt  to  make  terms 
with  Russia.  He  reconvoked  the  Reichsrath,  which 
assembled  on  May  30,  IQ17.  Racial  antagonism 
broke  out  afresh ;  the  Poles  opposed  the  budget, 
and  the  premier  resigned.  He  was  succeeded  by 
a  stop-gap  ministry  under  Dr.  Seidler  on  June 
24.  The  all-powerful  Tisza  fell  in  Hungary  dur- 
ing May,  though  he  still  retained  much  of  his 
pro-German  influence.  His  successor.  Count 
Esterhazy,  was  a  former  O.xford  student.  The  col- 
lapse of  Russia  gave  Austria-Hungary  a  breathing- 
space  and  enabled  the  ministry  to  concentrate  its 
efforts  on  the  Italian  front. — Austria  "had  long 
ago  lost  heart  in  the  war,  and  was  faced  with  the 
unpleasing  alternatives  of  defeat — which  meant 
disruption — and  victory,  which  involved  a  phan- 
tom existence  under  German  tutelage.  In  either 
case  her  bankruptcy  was  assured.  Count  Czernin 
.  .  .  courted  popularity,  and  showed  an  amiable 
weakness  for  the  rhetoric  as  opposed  to  the  sub- 
stance of  democracy.  At  a  public  dinner  at  Buda- 
pest early  in  October  he  gave  his  own  views  of 
peace,  forecasting  a  general  disarmament  and  a 
League  of  Nations,  now  that  Central  Europe  had 
shown  that  it  could  not  be  subdued  by  force  of 
arms." — J.  Buchan,  v.  21,  p.  206. — See  also  World 
War:  1017:  XII.  Political  conditions  in  the  bellig- 
erent countries:   g. 

1917. — Relations  with  China  in  war.  See 
Chin.a:    1Q17. 

1917. — Conquest  of  Rumania  by  Central  Pow- 
ers. See  World  W.ar:  191 7:  V.  Balkan  theater: 
d,  1. 

1917. — Attacks  in  Trentino. — Battles  in  Piave 
Region. — Battle  of  the  Isonzo.  See  World  War: 
1Q17:  IV'.  .•\ustro-Italian  front:  a;  a,  3;  b;  d;  d,  4; 
d,  5;  e. 

1917. — Political  conditions. — Report  of  Count 
Czernin. — Attitude  on  U-boat  warfare.  See 
World  War:  1017:  XII.  Political  conditions  in  the 
belligerent  countries:   b. 

1917  (April  6). — Relations  severed  with  United 
States.  See  U.  S.  A.:  iqi?  (.^pril):  War  declared 
against  Germany. 

1917  (August-September). — Note  of  the  Pope 
to  all  belligerents  asking  for  the  termination  of 
war. — Their  reply.  See  World  W.^r:  191 7:  XI. 
Efforts  toward  peace:  c;  g;  j. 

1917  (December  4). — United  States  Congress 
passes  war  resolution.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1917  (De- 
cember). 

1917  (December  15). — Armistice  with  Russia. 
— Text.  See  World  War:  1917:  III.  Russia  and 
the  Eastern  front:  q,  6;  also  Miscellaneous  and 
auxiliary  services:  I.  .Armistices:  a. 

1917-1918.— Breakdown  of  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy.— Opposition  of  subject-nationalities. — 
"Lone  before  the  surrender  of  Bulgaria  and 
Turkey,  long  before  the  German  defeat  on  the 
Western  Front,  the  Dual  Monarchy  faced  dis- 
aster. Unlike  her  confederates,  .\ustria-Hungary 
suffered  less  from  foreign  prowess  than  from  in- 
ternal weakness.  Ever  since  the  Russian  Revolu- 
tion, in  March,  lor?,  the  task  of  dominating  a 
majority  of  Slavs  by  a  minority  of  Magyars  and 
German-.Austrians,  under  any  theory  of  democracy 
or  national  self-determination,  had  become  utterly 
hopeless.  .At  first  each  of  the  subject  nationalities, 
— Czechoslovaks,  Jugoslavs.  Poles.  Ruthenians 
(Ukrainians),  and  Rumans. — clamored  for  auton- 
omy within  the  Dual  Monarchy,  but  as  time  went 


on  they  all  demanded  complete  separation  from 
German  .Austria  and  from  Hungary.  Each  of  the 
subject  nationalities  developed  remarkable  solidar- 
ity, the  clergy  and  the  university  professors  vying 
as  a  rule  with  the  business-men,  the  peasants,  and 
the  artisans,  in  the  furtherance  of  national  inter- 
ests. Separatist  propaganda  was  carried  on  in 
the  open  and  by  stealth.  Loyalty  to  the  Haps- 
burgs  was  undermined.  In  such  cities  as  Prague, 
.\gram,  Laibach,  Cracow,  and  Lemberg  there  were 
increasingly  frequent  riots  and  demonstrations.  Mu- 
tinies in  the  Austro-Hungarian  army  were  everyday 
occurrences;  and  many  Czechoslovak.  Jugoslav,  and 
Polish  troops  deserted  to  the  Allies  and  served  the 
.Allied  cause  in  Russia  or  on  the  Western  Front 
or  in  Italy.  'National  Councils'  of  the  'several 
subject  nationalities  were  organized  in  Paris,  or 
London,  or  Rome,  or  Washington;  and  these 
'provisional  governments'  not  only  fanned  the 
flame  of  sedition  within  Austria-Hungary  but 
strove  to  secure  active  Allied  assistance  in  their 
efforts  to  disintegrate  the  Dual  Monarchy." — 
C.  J.  H.  Hayes,  Brief  history  of  the  great  war,  pp. 
348-349. — See  also  Brest-Litovsk  treaties:    1918. 

"In  iqi7  'disloyal'  agitation  had  been  less 
prevalent  among  Poles  than  among  Czechoslovaks 
and  Jugoslavs.  The  Poles  of  Galicia  had  always 
been  treated  rather  liberally  by  the  Habsburgs, 
and  the  erection  of  a  kingdom  of  Poland  by  Aus- 
tro-German  decree  of  November  5,  1910,  had 
temporarily  appeased  the  .Austrian  Poles  and  en- 
abled Premier  von  Seidler  to  control  a  majority 
of  votes  in  the  .Austrian  Reichsrat.  But  in  the 
winter  of  1917-191S  Austria  lost  the  support  of 
her  Poles,  for  she  was  obliged  to  agree  to  Ger- 
many's policy  respecting  Poland,  and  Germany's 
policy  was  to  strengthen  Ukrainia  at  Poland's  ex- 
pense. Thus  the  Polish  province  of  Cholm  was 
incorporated  into  the  new  Ukrainian  state,  despite 
the  vehement  protests  of  the  German-appointed 
Polish  Regency  at  Warsaw  (February  14,  1918) 
and  the  bitter  imprecations  of  the  .Austrian  Poles 
In  Galicia.  Thenceforth  the  Poles,  as  well  as  the 
Jugoslavs  and  the  Czechoslovaks,  were  openly  hos- 
tile to  the  Dual  Monarchy.  General  Joseph  Pil- 
sudskl.  a  great  national  hero  and  formerly  quite 
pro-.Austrian,  directed  such  an  agitation  in  Poland 
against  the  Teutons  that  for  the  safety  of  Mittel- 
Europa  he  was  arrested  and  deported  to  Ger- 
many. Joseph  Haller,  a  colonel  in  the  Austrian 
army,  deserted  after  the  treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk, 
with  his  Polish  regiment,  and,  after  joining  the 
Czecho5lo%'aks  in  Russia,  made  his  way  to  Paris, 
where  he  assumed  supreme  command  of  a  Polish 
army  fighting  for  the  Allies  in  France.  And  when 
the  Polish  deputies  in  the  Austrian  Reichsrat  united 
with  the  already  numerous  opposition  of  Czech 
and  Jugoslav  deputies,  parliamentary  government 
in  Austria  became  impossible.  The  only  session 
of  the  Reichsrat  during  the  Great  War  was  closed 
abruptly  by  Emperor  Charles  and  Premier  von 
Seidler  on  May  4,   1918. 

"The  majority  of  the  population  of  the  Dual 
Monarchy  were  at  last  becoming  articulate,  and, 
what  was  far  more  significant,  they  were  uniting 
in  common  opposition  to  the  continuance  of  the 
Habsburg  Empire.  This  was  the  burden  of  the 
Pan-Slavic  Congress  held  at  Prague  on  January 
6,  1918,  of  a  second  Congress  held  at  .Agram  on 
March  2,  and  of  a  third  held  at  Laibach  in  July. 
But  greater  freedom  of  speech  naturally  prevailed 
outside  of  .Austria-Hungary  than  within;  and  con- 
sequently the  clearest  statement  of  the  aims  of 
the  subject  peoples  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  was 
made  at  the  famous  Congress  of  Oppressed  .Aus- 
trian Nationalities  convened  at  Rome  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Italian   Government  on  April   10, 


730 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,   1917-1918 


Military 
Debacle 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1918 


1918.  This  Congress,  which  included  leading  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Czechoslovaks,  Jugoslavs,  Rumans, 
and  Poles,  unanimously  adopted  the  following  reso- 
lutions: (i)  Every  people  proclaims  it  to  be 
its  right  to  determine  its  own  nationality  and  to 
secure  national  unity  and  complete  independence; 
(2)  Every  people  knows  that  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Monarchy  is  an  instrument  of  German 
domination  and  a  fundamental  obstacle  to  the 
realization  of  its  free  development  and  self-govern- 
ment;  (3)  The  Congress  recognizes  the  necessity  of 
lighting  against  the  common  oppressors. 

"That  the  Congress  at  Rome  faithfully  re- 
flected the  sentiments  of  the  subject  nationalities 
in  Austria-Hungary  was  amply  demonstrated  three 
days  later  by  a  noteworthy  assembly  at  Prague. 
On  this  occasion  the  Reichsrat  deputies  of  the 
Czech  nation  and  those  of  the  Jugoslav  nation, 
the  latter  speaking  in  the  name  of  the  Croats, 
Slovenes,  and  Serbs,  met  and  made  a  joint  agree- 
ment, through  an  oath  worthy  of  everlasting  re- 
membrance, lo  suffer  and  struggle  relentlessly  to 
free  their  peoples  from  the  foreign  yoke  and  bring 
down  into  the  dust  the  old  imperialistic  Empire, 
covered,  as  they  said,  with  the  maledictions  of 
mankind.  To  the  appeals  of  the  oppressed  Aus- 
trian nationalities  the  Allies  did  not  turn  deaf  ears 
.Already,  in  1Q17,  France  had  authorized  the  or- 
ganization of  Polish  and  Czechoslovak  armies  on 
the  Western  Front  and  had  recognized  them  as 
belligerent  units;  and  now,  on  April  21,  igi8, 
llal.\'  recognized  the  Czechoslovak  National  Coun- 
cil as  a  de  facto  government  and  placed  a  Czecho- 
slovak legion  beside  her  own  troops  on  the  Piave 
Front.  On  May  2q  Secretary  Lansing,  in  be- 
half of  the  United  States,  declared  'that  the  na- 
tionalistic aspirations  of  the  Czechoslovaks  and  the 
Jugoslavs  for  freedom  have  the  earnest  sympathy 
of  this  Government';  and  a  week  later  the  sixth 
session  of  the  Supreme  War  Council,  meeting 
at  Versailles  and  attended  by  the  prime  ministers 
of  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Italy,  adopted  reso- 
lutions that  'the  creation  of  a  united,  independent 
Polish  state,  with  free  access  to  the  sea,  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  conditions  of  a  solid  and  just 
peace  and  the  rule  of  right  in  Europe,'  and  that 
'the  Allies  have  noted  with  satisfaction  the  declara- 
tion of  the  American  Secretary  of  State,  to  which 
they  adhere,  expressing  the  greatest  sympathy  with 
the  national  aspirations  of  the  Czechs  and  Jugo- 
slavs for  freedom.'  [Sec  also  Jugo-Slavia;  rqi8 
(April-October)  .1  Of  the  complete  independence 
of  Czechoslovakia,  formal  recognition  was  ac- 
corded by  France  on  June  30,  by  Great  Britain 
on  August  13,  by  the  United  States  on  Septem- 
ber 2,  and  by  Japan  on  September  g.  No  other 
course  could  honorably  be  taken  by  the  Allies 
toward  a  country  whose  soldiers  at  the  time  were 
waging  war  against  the  Central  Empires  in  France, 
in  Italy,  and  most  thrillingly  in  Russia.  Under 
the  circumstances  the  Habsburg  officials  at  Vienna 
and  Budapest  bent  all  their  energies  to  the  task 
of  preserving  some  semblance  of  order  in  their 
dominions  until  such  time  as  the  Germans  should 
have  won  the  war  and  come  to  their  assistance. 
They  proclaimed  martial  law  in  Bohemia  and  in 
Croatia.  They  imprisoned  'seditious'  persons  and 
endeavored  to  suppress  'revolutionary'  publica- 
tions. They  kept  a  fairly  large  army  on  the 
Italian  Front,  though  they  discovered  to  their 
chagrin  that  it  was  no  longer  fit  for  any  offensive 
operations.  They  sent  some  artillery  and  a  few 
regiments  of  infantry  to  aid  Ludendorff  in  his  su- 
preme effort  on  the  Western  Front.  Most  of  all, 
for  the  success  of  the  great  German  offensive  in 
France  they  prayed  ceaselessly  and  imploringly. 
There  was  little  else   that  they   could  do.     There 


was  no  other  hope  for  them.  German  defeat 
would  mean  for  Germany  simply  defeat ;  for  the 
Dual  Monarchy,  it  would  signify  dissolution." — 
C.  J.  H.  Hayes,  Brief  history  of  the  great  war,  pp. 
349-352. — See  also  Adriatic  question:  Torre- 
Trumbic  agreement. 

1918. — Treaty  of  Bucharest  signed,  March  26. 
See  Bucharest,  Treaty  of. 

1918. — Operations  on  Austro-Italian  front. — 
Offensive  against  Italians. — Battle  of  Vittorio 
Veneti.  See  World  War:  iqi8:  IV.  Austro-Italian 
theater;  a;  b;   c;   c,  2. 

1918. — British  propaganda.  See  World  War: 
Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  III.  Reports  and 
censorship:   d,  2. 

1918  (January). — Count  Czernin's  reply  to 
Wilson's  fourteen  points.  Sec  World  War:  iqi8: 
X.  Statement  of  war  aims:  c. 

1918  (February). — Correspondence  in  reply  to 
Wilson's  four  additional  bases  of  peace.  See 
U.   S.  A.:    1918   (February). 

1918  (July). — Count  Burian's  answer  to  Wil- 
son's speech  on  war  aims.  See  World  War:  1918: 
X.  Statement  of  war  aims:  i. 

1918  (September-October). — Peace  proposal 
to  belligerent  states.— Reply  of  Wilson.— -Note 
to  him  regarding  peace  terms.  See  World  War: 
igi8:  X.  Statement  .of  war  aims:  k;  1;  n;  a; 
U.  S.  A.:   1918  (September-November). 

1918. — Military  debacle. — Dissolution  of  the 
monarchy. — In  the  late  summer  of  iqiS  it  had 
become  evident  to  the  Hungarians  and  German- 
Austrians  that  the  great  German  offensive  in 
France  was  a  failure,  and  that  the  continued  suc- 
cess of  the  allied  armies  in  the  Balkans  under  Gen- 
eral Franchet  d'Esperey,  who  by  October  ha<l 
actually  reached  Hungarian  territory  in  the  valley 
of  the  Danube,  made  it  manifest  that  utter  de- 
feat menaced  the  Central  Powers.  The  actual 
ruin  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  military  machine, 
however,  did  not  come  till  the  last  week  of  Octo- 
ber. [See  also  Hung.\ky:  1918:  End  of  world 
war.l  It  was  on  the  24th  of  this  month  that 
the  Italian  commander  General  Diaz  began  his 
great  offensive  from  the  mouth  of  the  Piave  river 
on  the  south  to  the  Trentino  on  the  north.  The 
Italian  army  was  keyed  up  to  the  highest  point 
of  efficiency  and  had  been  reinforced  by  French 
and  British  troops  as  well  as  considerable  artil- 
lery to  replace  what  they  had  lost  the  year  before 
at  Carporctto.  Throughout  these  last  days  of 
October  the  battle  raged  over  the  same  ground 
that  had  seen  the  mighty  struggle  of  the  preced- 
ing months.  The  Italians  themselves  captured 
Monte  Grappa  with  over  30,000  prisoners,  while 
the  French  stormed  Monte  Seiscmol  on  the  Asiago 
plateau.  The  advance  of  the  Allied  forces  cut  the 
Austro-Hungarian  army  in  two,  thrusting  the 
northern  half  back  into  the  mountains  in  utter 
confusion  while  the  southern  half  was  driven 
eastward  across  the  Venetian  plains  with  the 
heaviest  losses  in  men  and  material.  Already  by 
November  3  the  cities  of  Trent  and  Trieste  had 
been  recovered  for  Italy  and  all  semblance  of  even 
defensive  power  had  gone  from  the  beaten  enemy. 
The  political  repercussions  of  this  series  of  de- 
feats were  even  more  interesting.  By  October 
20,  the  foreign  ministry  of  Austria-Hungary,  Count 
Julius  Andrassy,  had  communicated  to  President 
Wilson  his  willingness  to  make  peace  independent 
of  Germany.  On  November  3  the  fateful  armistice 
involving  as  it  did  the  unconditional  surrender  of 
the  Hapsburg  State  was  signed.  This  military  col- 
lapse on  the  Italian  front  involved  a  similar 
collapse  of  the  Hapsburg  political  system  and  Pro- 
fessor Lammasch,  who  represented  the  anti-mili- 
taristic elements  of  the  monarchy,  became  the  head 


73^ 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1918         Dissolution  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  1918 


of  the  transition  government. — See  also  World 
War:  1918:  IV.  Austro-Italian  theater:  c,  9;  c,  15; 
d;  XI.  End  of  the  war:  a,  5;  Miscellaneous  auxil- 
iary services:   I.  Armistices:  e. 

1918. — Total  casualties  and  property  loss  due 
to  the  World  War.  See  World  War:  Miscella- 
neous auxiliar\'  services:  XIV.  Cost  of  war:  a;  b, 
3 ;  b,  4. 

1918.  —  Independence  of  C2echo-Slovakia. — 
The  first  of  the  submerged  peoples  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary to  emerge  into  their  new  independence  was  that 
of  the  Czechs  and  Slovaks.  Already  at  Paris  on  the 
i8th  of  October,  the  independence  of  Czecho- 
slovakia had  been  proclaimed,  and  on  October  29, 
Dr.  Kramarcz  announced  the  existence  of  the  new 
republic.  During  the  next  few  days  representatives 
of  the  Czechs  and  Slovaks  drafted  a  constitution 


Charles  relinquishes  power. — Count  Tisza  as- 
sassinated. —  There  now  remained,  out  of  all 
the  heterogeneous  elements  which  had  formerly 
constituted  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy, 
only  the  German-speaking  territories  of  Austria 
proper  and  the  Tyrol,  and  the  purely  Magyar 
districts  of  central  Hungary.  In  Vienna  a  popu- 
lar revolution  broke  out  on  October  30  and 
eventually  an  Austrian  Republic  composed  of  the 
old  Archduchy  of  .\ustria  and  Tyrol  was  created, 
with  the  Hapsburgs  left  out.  The  formal  proclama- 
tion of  this  fact  was  made  at  Vienna  by  the 
National  Assembly  on  November  13.  In  Hungary 
the  slumbering  fires  of  national  independence  burst 
out  into  flame.  The  people  had  never  forgotten 
the  events  of  1848-1849,  nor  renounced  entirely 
a  certain   fierce  spirit  of  nationalism.     On  Octo- 


A    fN   D 


8UKHA(?ESI_ 


BOUNDARY  OFfiUSTRIA- 


\  ^  »••*  0ouNOMRy  oF/iuiTnmi^ii 


TCRR/TORV  LOST  TO 
/^UST/f/ft 


DISSOLUTION  OF  AUSTRI.VHUXGARY 


for  their  state  along  the  lines  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  Professor  Masaryk 
was  chosen  president  a  few  days  later. 

1918. — Independence  of  Jugo-Slavia,  Transyl- 
vania, Temesvar  and  Galicia. — Cession  of  Dal- 
matia  and  Carniola. — What  took  place  in  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  and  Slovakia  was  duplicated  among 
the  south  Slavs  of  Croatia,  Slavonia  and  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina.  The  independence  of  these  provinces 
and  a  desire  to  be  united  with  Serbia  and  Monte- 
negro was  proclaimed  October  29.  At  Agram.  on 
November  24,  "the  Unitary  Kingdom  of  Serbs, 
Croats,  and  Slovenes"  was  established  by  a  con- 
vention made  up  of  representatives  of  all  these 
different  peoples.  By  the  Peace  Treaty  this  king- 
dom was  increased  by  the  cession  of  Dalmatia 
and  Carniola. 

1918. — Freedom  of  Poland.    See  Poland:  1018. 

1918. — German  Austria  becomes  a  republic 
(November  13). — Hungary  a  republic. — Emperor 


ber  28,  a  popular  tumult  in  Budapest  began  the 
new  revolution.  By  November  16,  Hungary  was 
a  republic  and  the  .Austrian  connection  was  at  an 
end.  Count  Michael  Karolyi,  long  known  for 
his  advocacy  of  independence  for  Hungary  and  his 
antipathy  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  became  the 
head  of  the  new  government.  Emperor  Charles, 
the  last  of  the  Hapsburgs,  on  November  11,  1918, 
the  date  of  the  German  armistice,  addressed  his 
people  as  follows,  "Since  my  accession,  I  have 
incessantly  tried  to  rescue  my  peoples  from  this 
tremendous  war.  I  have  not  delayed  the  re- 
establishment  of  constitutional  rights  or  the  open- 
ing of  a  way  for  the  people  to  substantial  national 
betterment.  Filled  with  an  unalterable  love  for 
my  people,  I  will  not,  with  my  person,  be  a 
hindrance  to  their  free  development.  I  acknowl- 
edge the  decision  taken  by  German  Austria  to 
form  a  separate  state.  The  people  have  by 
their  deputies  taken  charge  of  the  government.     I 


732 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  CONSTITUTION 


AUSTRO-GERMAN   ALLIANCE 


relinquish  all  participation  in  the  administration 
of  the  state.  Likewise  I  have  released  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Austrian  government  from  their  of- 
fices. May  the  German  Austrian  people  realize 
harmony  from  the  new  adjustment.  The  happi- 
ness of  my  people  was  my  aim  from  the  be- 
ginning. My  warmest  wishes  are  that  an  in- 
terval of  peace  will  avail  to  heal  the  wounds  of 
this  war."  "The  Great  War  began  in  July,  igi4, 
with  the  attack  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  of  Austria- 
Hungary  upon  the  little  Slav  state  of  Serbia. 
By  the  autumn  of  1918,  however,  Serbia  {q.  v.) 
was  free  and  amply  avenged.  Within  the  former 
confines  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  were  now  the 
three  independent  republics  of  Czecho-Slovakia, 
German  Austria,  and  Hungary,  while  large  por- 
tions of  its  erstwhile  territories  were  added  to 
Poland,  to  Italy,  to  Rumania,  and  to  Serbia.  The 
Habsburg  Empire  was  destroyed;  it  had  taken  the 
sword,  and  by  the  sword  it  had  perished." — C.  J. 
H.  Hayes,  Briej  history  oj  the  great  war,  p.  356. — 
On  November  i  Count  Stephen  Tisza,  "the  strong 
man  of  Hungary,"  was  assassinated. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  Constitution  of,  Prin- 
cipal provisions. — For  a  general  account  of  the 
Ausgleich,  or  agreement,  under  which  the  duality 
of  the  former  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  was  ar- 
ranged in  1867,  see  Austria:  1866-1867,  and  Aus- 
tria-Hungary: 1867.  The  following  describes  the 
principal  features  of  the  constitutional  organization 
under  which  the  empire  existed  from  1S67  to  igi8: 
"The  emperor  has  an  absolute  veto  on  all  measures 
in  all  of  the  three  parliaments  after  named.  He 
can  also  dissolve  any  of  them.  The  legislative  and 
administrative  assemblies  of  the  empire  are  four 
in  number,  viz.:  (i).  The  Delegationen,  which  is 
the  imperial  parliament.  (2).  The  Reichsrath  and 
the  Reichstag,  which  are  the  parliaments  for  Aus- 
tria proper  and  Hungary  respectively.  (3).  The 
Landtag,  which  is  the  parliament  for  the  provinces 
of  the  empire  of  Austria.  (4).  The  Gemeinderath 
or  the  Gemeindeausschuss,  which  are  the  councils 
of  the  communes,  but  they  have  no  legislative  func- 
tions proper."  The  Delegationen,  or  imperial  parha- 
ment  of  the  dual  empire,  "acts  as  one  House,  but 
meets  in  two  chambers  or  bodies,  one  for  Austria 
and  one  for  Hungary.  Each  chamber  has  60  mem- 
bers, composed  of  20  members  elected  from  the 
upper  house  of  each  part  of  the  united  empire,  and 
40  from  the  lower.  It  is  elected  for  one  year  only. 
The  chambers  of  the  imperial  parliament  meet  at 
the  same  time  and  in  the  same  place,  alternately  in 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and,  as  a  rule,  in  the  cities 
of  Vienna  and  Buda-Pesth.  They  legislate  for  the 
united  empire  on  (i)  its  foreign  policy,  (2)  its 
finances,  (3)  its  army  and  navy,  and  (4)  for  the 
affairs  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  as  they  have  no 
Landtag  of  their  own.  A  minister  of  state  for  each 
of  the  first  three  of  these  matters  controls  its  de- 
partments, while  the  fourth  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  common  finance  minister.  The  minis- 
ters are  appointed  by  the  emperor  after  consulta- 
tion with  leaders  of  parties.  The  presidents  of  the 
Delegationen,  as  also  the  vice-presidents,  must  be 
members  of  the  chambers,  but  they  receive  no  spe- 
cial salary.  They  are  elected  by  the  members.  Each 
chamber  meets  separately,  and  discusses  the  meas- 
ures and  bills  submitted  to  it  by  the  ministers  of 
state,  or  by  any  six  of  its  members.  If  both  cham- 
bers agree  upon  the  matter  submitted  to  them,  the 
emperor's  sanction  is  obtained  to  it,  and  it  becomes 
law.  If  the  chambers  cannot  agree,  after  each  of 
them  has  discussed  the  matter  three  times,  upon 
written  communication  from  the  other,  a  session  of 
both  chambers  is  convened,  and  the  question  is 
decided  by  a  majority  of  those  present.  Two  thirds 
of  the  members  of  the  house  must,  however,  in  this 


case  be  in  attendance.  In  the  ordinary  case  the 
quorum  of  each  chamber  is  30  members.  The  sit- 
tings of  the  chambers  are  public,  but  they  may  be 
private  on  the  proposition  of  the  president  or  of 
five  members,  and  voted  upon.  The  chambers  are 
convened  by  the  writ  of  the  emperor.  .  .  .  Each 
chamber  appoints  24  judges  to  hear  and  determine 
any  cases  which  may  be  brought  against  the  min- 
isters of  the  crown  for  breach  of  power.  .  .  .  Two 
per  cent,  being  first  paid  by  Hungary,  the  balance 
of  the  imperial  expenditure  is  borne  in  the  propor- 
tion of  70  per  cent,  by  Austria  and  30  per  cent,  by 
Hungary,  the  former  being  the  wealthier  coun- 
try. .  .  .  The  Reichsrath  [the  Austrian  parliament] 
.  .  .  consists  of  two  houses — one  called  the  Herren 
House,  or  Upper  House;  the  other  called  the  Ab- 
geordneten  House,  i.  e.  the  House  of  Deputies,  or 
the  Lower  House.  It  is  elected  for  six  years.  The 
Herren  House  is  composed  of  (i)  Princes  of  the 
imperial  house,  who  are  majors.  (2)  Chiefs  of 
noble  houses,  owning  large  estates,  nominated  by 
the  emperor,  who,  being  once  nominated,  are  mem- 
bers for  life,  and  their  successors  after  them,  and 
so  this  class,  to  some  extent,  is  one  of  hereditary 
legislators.  (3)  Archbishops  and  bishops  with  the 
dignity  of  prince.  (4)  Men  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  science,  art,  commerce,  law,  or  med- 
icine, who  are  nominated  by  the  emperor  for  hfe, 
on  the  advice  of  the  ministers  of  state.  The  num- 
ber of  members  of  the  Upper  House  is  not  fixed, 
but  it  is  about  200.  .  .  .  The  Lower  or  Abge- 
ordneten  House  is  that  of  the  deputies,  elected  by 
the  people,  and  consists  of  353  members.  It  is 
elected  for  six  years.  The  people  vote  for  its  mem- 
bers in  four  classes  in  their  various  provinces.  The 
first  class  are  the  owners  of  large  estates,  who  elect 
8S  members.  .  .  .  The  second  class  are  those  who 
pay  five  florins  of  direct  taxation  in  towns,  and 
includes  all  doctors  of  the  universities,  whether  they 
pay  taxes  or  not.  The  towns  are  grouped  so  as  to 
give  one  member  for  each  group.  The  groups  need 
not  be  of  equal  size.  This  class  elects  115  mem- 
bers. The  third  class  is  the  chambers  of  commerce 
and  industry,  which  elect  22  members.  .  .  .  The 
fourth  class  are  the  members  of  the  country  com- 
munes who  pay  five  florins  of  direct  taxation.  They 
elect  131  members.  The  communes  for  this  pur- 
pose are  divided  into  groups  of  500  voters,  and  a 
certain  number  of  communes  make  an  electoral  dis- 
trict. .  .  .  The  elections  are  not  all  held  on  one 
day,  and  each  class  votes  by  itself  in  each  province 
on  a  particular  day.  The  communes  vote  first,  then 
the  citizens,  then  the  chambers,  and  then  the  land- 
owners, all  on  different  days.  The  election  takes 
place  in  a  public  hall,  where  the  voters  gather;  and 
their  names  being  called  over,  if  present,  they  go 
up  to  the  presiding  officer,  and  vote  orally,  or  by  a 
card  placed  by  them  in  a  box.  If  not  present  when 
called  upon,  they  can  attend  and  vote  later  on." — 
J.  P.  Coldstream,  Institutions  of  Austria,  ch.  2. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY:  Masonic  societies. 
See  Masonic  societies:  Austria-Hungarv. 

AUSTRIAN  LANGUAGE  DECREES.  See 
Austria:   1803-1000;  iqoq. 

AUSTRIAN  REICHSRATH.  See  Austria: 
1803-1000;  i8q7  (October-December);  1898;  and 
1 800- 1 00 1. 

AUSTRIAN  SCHOOL  OF  ECONOMICS. 
See  EcoNOivncs:  Forerunners  of  the  historical 
school. 

AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION,  War  of  the. 
See  Austria:  1740  (October-November)  to  1743- 
1744;  Belgium:  174s;  1746-1747;  Enciand:  1739- 
1741;  I74!;-I747;  Italy:  1741-1743  to  1746-1747. 

AUSTRO-ENGLISH  ALLIANCE:  Treaty 
of  Worms  (1743).    See  Austria:  1743-1744. 

AUSTRO-GERMAN  ALLIANCE  (1870).  See 


733 


AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  BANK 


AUTOMOBIbES 


Dual  alliance;  Tmple  alliance:  Austro-Ger- 
man  alliance  of  1870. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  BANK.  See  Money 
AND  banking:  Modern;   1703-iqis. 

AUSTRO-ITALIAN  WAR.  See  Italy:  1S62- 
1806. 

AUSTRO-RUSSIAN  ALLIANCE  (1848). 
See  Hungary:   1847-1849. 

AUSTRO-SARDINIAN  WAR.  See  Austria: 
1856-1S59. 

AUSTRO-SERBIAN  QUARREL.  See  World 
War:   Diplomatic  background:    8. 

AUSTRO  -  SPANISH  CONFLICT.  See 
Italy:    i7i.^-i735- 

AUTERI.  See  Irel.\nd:  Tribes  of  early  Celtic 
inhabitants. 

AUTHARIS  ("the  Longhaired")  (d.  591), 
Lombard  king.  Resists  barbarian  invasions  of 
Italy.    See  Lombards,  or  Lanoobardi:  573-754. 

AUTHOR,  steamer  sunk  by  Mowe.  See  World 
War:   1016:  IX.  Naval  operation:  c. 

AUTHORS:  Laws  protecting.    See  Copyright. 

AUTOCRACY.    See  .Absolutism. 

In  Russia.    See  Russia:  1894;  1909-1911. 

AUTO-DA-FE,  the  ceremony  during  which  the 
sentences  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  were 
read.  It  was  often  regarded  as  an  interesting 
spectacle,  and  became  one  of  the  formative  elements 
in  the  development  of  the  Spanish  drama.  "The  auto 
da  je  represented,  as  the  words  implr,  merely 
the  decision  in  the  given  case,  and  not  the 
imposition  of  the  penalty  as  has  often  been  stated. 
The  general  rule  was  for  the  executions  to-  take 
place  on  holidays,  which  in  Spain  are  indeed  'holy 
days,'  or  days  in  celebration  of  events  in.  church 
history.  .A  procession  was  held,  in  which  the 
functionaries  of  the  Inquisition  took  part.  .A 
public  announcement  of  the  decisions  was  made, 
and  those  who  were  condemned  to  death  were 
turned  over  to  the  civil  authorities,  who  carried 
out  the  execution  in  the  customary  place." — C.  E. 
Chapman,  History  of  Spain,  p.  234. — See  also 
Mexico:   1535-1822. 

AUTOMATIC  GUNS.  See  Riples  and  re- 
volvers: World  War;  Ordnance:   20th  centurv. 

AUTOMOBILE  RACES,  Early.  See  .Auto- 
mobiles: 1804-1806. 

AUTOMOBILES:  1678-1803.— Early  experi- 
ments in  France  and  England. — ".Although  in- 
ternal combustion  to  drive  a  piston  in  a  cylinder 
was  produced  with  gunpowder  in  1678  by  .Abbe 
D'Hautefeuille,  and  a  carriage  to  be  driven  without 
the  horse  was  a  chaise  propelled  by  human  foot 
work,  first  conceived  by  John  Vevers  of  England 
in  1760,  there  is  no  record  that  the  two  ideas  were 
combined  until  it  was  done  in  France  somewhere 
between  1760  and  1770.  The  first  automobile  ever 
made  was  that  produced  by  Nicholas  Joseph  Cug- 
not,  a  Frenchman,  and  it  is  today  on  exhibition  in 
the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  in  Paris. 
There  is  no  record  of  how  Cugnot  came  to  conceive 
the  idea  of  his  invention,  but  it  is  surmised  that 
he  had  read  about  James  Watt,  in  England,  having 
discovered  the  principle  of  steam  as  motive  power. 
This  was  about  1755.  .  .  .  The  visible  expression 
of  this  idea  which  we  can  see  in  the  Paris  Con- 
servatory is  in  the  form  of  a  tractor  for  a  field  gun, 
Cugnot  having  been  a  captain  in  the  engineering 
corps  of  the  French  army. 

"The  tractor  has  a  single  drive  wheel  actuated  by 
two  single  acting  brass  cylinders,  connected  by  an 
iron  steam  pipe  with  a  round  boiler  of  copper  con- 
taining fire  pot  and  chimneys.  .Attached  to  this 
first  motor-driven  road  vehicle  is  a  wagon,  on  which 
it  was  Cugnot's  idea  to  have  a  field  gun  mounted. 
On  either  side  of  the  single  drive  wheel  of  this 
cUimsv  contrivance  are  located  ratchet  wheels    Pis- 


tons acting  alternately  on  these  ratchet  wheels  re- 
volved the  drive  wheel  in  quarter  revolutions.  For 
the  copper  boiler  of  this  first  motor  car,  additional 
water  was  needed  after  the  machine  had  travelled 
a  few  feet,  the  exhaust  of  steam  quickly  leaving  the 
boiler  dry.  The  speed  attained  was  very  slow,  by 
reason  of  the  mechanical  complications  in  trans- 
mitting power  to  the  drive  wheel.  .As  for  running 
smoothly,  the  machine  wobbled,  and  bumped,  and 
strained,  and  groaned,  and  finally  ran  into  a  wall. 
This  was  because  it  was  overbalanced  by  its  boiler 
and  engine  and  had  no  steering  gear." — H.  L,  Bar- 
ber, Story  of  the  automobile,  pp.  50-52. — ".About 
the  time  that  Cugnot  ran  his  machine  into  a  wall, 
William  Murdock,  a  mechanic,  was  w-orking  for 
Watt,  the  English  inventor  of  steam.  Whether  he 
knew  of  Cugnat's  automobile  attempt  or  not,  there 
is  no  evidence  extant.  .  .  .  Despite  Watt  and  his 
mournful  views  of  the  impossibility  of  building 
an  engine-run  road  carriage  that  would  advance 
over  English  roads,  Murdock  went  ahead  and  built 
a  model  of  an  engine-run  road  carriage;  but. when 
he  had  it  finished,  Watt's  discouraging  views  pre- 
vailed, and  Murdock  did  not  attempt  to  enlarge  his 
model  to  a  full  sited  form.  He  stopped  with  the 
model,  which  is  at  the  present  day  in  the  British 
Museum.  Murdock's  invention  was  tested,  and  the 
tests  showed  that  an  advance  in  efficiency  over  the 
creation  of  Cugnot  had  been  made.  The  model  was 
driven  by  a  single  cylinder  of  three-inch  bore.  It 
had  a  one-and-a-half-inch  stroke>  .A  crank  con- 
verted the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  steam  en- 
gine into  rotary  motion,  the  service  performed  in 
the  Cugnot  invention  by  the  quarter  revolution 
ratchet  drive.  Murdock's  idea  was  patented  by  a 
man  named  Pickard,  in  1780.  The  first  automo- 
bile known  to  have  been  constructed  and  put  on 
the  road  was  built  by  Richard  Trevithick  at  Cam- 
borne, England,  in  1801.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a 
stagecoach,  accommodating  six  or  seven  persons. 
The  engine,  boiler  and  firebox  were  at  the  rear. 
The  engine  was  one  of  the  first  high  pressure  en- 
gines. A  single  cylinder  motor  was  employed,  and 
spur  gear  and  crank  axle  were  used  to  transmit  the 
motion  of  the  piston  rod  to  the  drive  wheels.  With 
this  coach  Trevithick  carried  six  or  seven  men 
over  hills  for  a  mile  the  first  day  of  the  trial.  The 
second  day  it  made  six  miles.  Even  with  these 
performances,  the  invention'.^  impracticability  must 
have  been  decreed,  because  it  was  not  continued  in 
operation.  Trevithick  himself  felt,  no  doubt,  that 
it  must  be  improved  upon,  for,  in  1S03,  he  built 
another  contrivance  driven  by  a  horizontal  single 
cylinder  with  s'/l-inch  bore  and  a  30-inch  stroke. 
But  the  driving  wheels  were  ten  feet  in  diameter. 
Fatal  were  these  great  clumsy  wheels  to  popular 
approval  of  the  invention,  and  no  further  advance 
was  made.  Trevithick  had  made  one  further  step, 
and  there  the  matter  rested.  He  had  developed  the 
high  pressure  steam  engine,  and  he  had  really  made 
the  first  automobile,  if  such  it  could  be  called." — 
Ibid.,  pp.  54-57- 

1780-1824. — America's  early  efforts  in  automo- 
bile making. — English  water  tube  boiler. — "Ju.st 
as  the  English,  represented  by  Murdock  and  Trev- 
ithick, were  laboring  on  the  steam  propulsion 
idea,  and  France,  in  the  person  of  Cugnot,  was  ex- 
perimenting with  it,  so  .America  was  groping  to  fiml 
the  solution.  Cugnot's  activities  began  about  1760 
and  ended  with  his  death  in  1804.  Trevithick's 
period  was  from  1780  to  1803.  The  .American 
experiments  started  about  1784.  The  man  whom 
records  show  to  have  been  the  pioneer  in  practical 
excursions  into  the  realm  of  carriages  driven  by 
steam,  was  Oliver  Evans,  born  in  Delaware  but  liv- 
ing in  Philadelphia.  He  developed  the  high  pres- 
sure,   non-condensing    engine    although    his    only 


734 


AUTOMOBILES 


First  Motor  Coaches 
Development   of    Trucks 


AUTOMOBILES 


knowledge  of  steam  was  derived  from  reading  wiiat 
little  was  then  printed  about  it,  and  his  own  dis- 
coveries. ...  In  1787,  four  years  before  Trevithick 
built  his  steam  coach  at  Camborne,  England,  Evans 
secured  a  patent  from  the  State  of  Maryland,  giv- 
ing him  the  exclusive  right  to  make  and  use,  within 
its  borders,  carriages  propelled  by  steam.  That  he 
immediately  built  a  steam  carriage  in  pursuance  ol 
this  authority  is  doubtful.  The  only  authentic 
record  of  an  attempt  is  of  one  that  he  constructed 
in  Philadelphia  seven  years  later." — H.  L.  Barber, 
Story  of  the  automobile,  pp.  57-58, — "In  1824, 
W.  H.  James  [in  England)  who  had  patented 
a  water  tube  boiler  for  locomotives,  built  a  pas- 
senger coach,  of  which  each  drive  wheel  was  re- 
volved by  two  cylinders  receiving  steam  by  means 
of  a  pipe  from  a  boiler.  A  pressure  of  200  pounds 
of  steam  to  the  inch  was  maintained.  The  equiva- 
lent of  differential  action  was  supplied  by  indepen- 
dent application  of  power  to  the  two  drive  wheels. 
The  coach  accommodated  twenty  persons.  The 
contrivance  ran  satisfactorily  on  trials,  and  James 
secured  financial  backing  and  built  another  coach 
weighing  6,000  pounds  which  ran  12  to  15  miles 
an  hour.  But  the  higher  the  rate  of  speed,  the 
worse  off  the  early  automobile  builder  was.  Al- 
though James  equipped  his  coach  with  laminated 
steel  springs,  the  road  shocks  and  vibration  stopped 
it  every  few  miles.  Steam  joints  and  connections 
were  broken  as  fast  as  they  could  be  put  together. 
The  great  need  was  a  method  of  shock  absorption, 
and  either  no  one  knew  that  this  was  the  key  to 
the  problem,  or,  if  it  was  realized,  no  one  knew 
the   remedy.  .  .  ." — Ibid.,   pp.   61-62. 

1826-1895. — Later  American,  French  and  Eng- 
lish attempts. — Principle  of  the  "differential." — 
First  application  for  motor  patent. — "A  year  after 
James  built  his  first  motor-coach  in  England — in 
1825 — Thomas  Blanchard  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  re- 
vived the  horseless  carriage  subject  which,  in 
.\merica,  had  been  last  experimented  with  by  Oli- 
ver Evans  in  1804.  Blanchard  built  a  road  vehicle 
that  was  one  of  the  best  produced  up  to  that  time 
It  was  easy  of  manipulation  and  climbed  hills  suc- 
cessfully. Blanchard  took  out  a  patent  on  it,  but 
when  he  started  to  find  people  who  would  buy  a 
completed  carriage  he  could  discover  none.  ...  At 
the  time  James  was  building  his  two  coaches,  and 
after  Blanchard  had  given  up  trying  to  interest 
Americans  in  his  invention,  a  Frenchman  named 
Pecqueur  was  experimenting  on  phases  of  the  auto- 
carriage.  He  discovered  the  principle  of  the  'dif- 
ferential,' the  balance  mechanism  which  enables 
one  wheel  to  revolve  faster  than  the  other  in  turn- 
ing corners.  He  invented  a  planet  gearing  in  this 
connection,  which  was  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  the 
differential,  and  apphed  it  to  a  steam  wagon  which 
he  built  in  1828.  The  differential  of  today  is  based 
on  the  principle  discovered  by  Pecqueur.  While 
Pacqueur  was  evolving  this  invention,  Goldsworthy 
Gurney  in  England  made  a  car  which  was  a  prac- 
tical failure  in  about  everything  except  that  it  dem- 
onstrated that  sufficient  friction  between  the  drive 
wheels  and  the  roadbed  could  be  created  to  pro- 
duce propulsion.  A  trip  of  almost  200  miles  from 
London  and  return  was  made  in  1823  by  Gurney 
in  the  second  vehicle  he  built,  in  which  the  engine 
was  concealed  in  the  rear.  His  car  made  12  miles 
an  hour  for  part  of  the  trip.  From  this  time — 
1828  to  1840 — the  automobile  really  had  a  vogue 
in  England.  A  number  of  them  were  made  and  run 
as  passenger  carriers.  For  four  months  a  motor 
carriage  made  the  nine  mile  trip  from  Gloucester  to 
Cheltenham  four  times  a  day.  The  'Infant'  built 
tv  Walter  Hancock  made  trips  between  London  and 
Stratford.  The  'Era,'  also  made  by  Hancock,  ran 
from  London  to  Greenwich.     To  such   an  extent 


did  the  auto-bus  business  develop,  that  speed  of  30 
miles  an  hour  was  claimed,  and  one  conveyance  in 
1834  ran  over  1,700  miles  without  repairs  or  read- 
justment. At  least,  that  was  the  claim  made,  and 
as  a  claim  it  has  a  familiar  sound.  .  .  .  But  there 
was  one  feature  about  these  early  English  motor 
busses  that  was  their  undoing.  They  weighed  three 
tons  and  over,  and  the  wheel  rims  were  metal.  The 
diameter  of  the  wheels  was  six  feet.  The  rubber 
tire  was  unthought  of.  The  effect  on  roads  of  run- 
ning a  3-ton,  metal  rimmed  vehicle,  carrying  eleven 
to  twenty  passengers,  was  disastrous,  and  parlia- 
ment, incited  by  horse  owners  and  others,  legis- 
Tated  them  out  of  existence  by  making  the  toll 
charges  prohibitive.  ...  In  1878  Bollee  built  a 
steam  omnibus  which  ran  between  Paris  and  Vienna, 
making  22  miles  an  hour.  In  this  car  was  reached 
the  highest  efficiency  the  art  had  attained  up  to 
that  time.  Practically  an  identical  car  was  built  in 
1880  by  Bollee,  which  was  entered  by  him  15  years 
later  and  won  honors  in  the  Paris-Bordeaux  race. 
...  In  i87q  an  American  did  a  thing  which  has 
had  much  to  do  with  giving  the  United  States  its 
long  delayed  start  in  the  automobile  industry.  This 
man  was  George  B.  Selden  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  He 
applied  for  the  first  patent  for  the  gasoline  motor, 
as  the  driving  force  of  a  road  vehicle.  This  was 
before  any  automobile  had  been  equipped  with  an 
internal  combustion  hydro-carbon  motor.  This 
motor  had,  however,  been  in  use  for  some  time 
in  running  stationary  engines.  .  .  .  Selden  built  a 
gasoline  motor  under  the  specifications  contained 
in  his  application  for  a  patent,  and  it  performed 
satisfactorily  in  experiments.  But  he  did  not  build 
an  automobile  containing  the  gasoline  motor.  He 
did  not  secure  his  patent  until  1895,  16  years  after 
he  had  made  apphcation  for  it.  .  .  .  In  iqoo  Sel- 
den disposed  of  it  to  the  Electric  Vehicle  Company 
of  New  Jersey." — H.  L.  Barber,  Story  of  the  auto- 
mobile, pp.  65-68. 

1858-1919. — Origin  and  development  of  motor 
transport. — Steam  wagons. — Electric  trucks. — 
Traction  enterprise  in  America. — Caterpillar 
tractor  in  war  uses. — "Although  in  a  commercial 
sense  the  truck  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy,  it  is 
not  so  young  in  its  engineering  development.  In- 
quirers are  often  surprised  to  learn  that  it  really 
antedates  the  pleasure  automobile.  The  earliest  in- 
ventors of  the  self-propelled  road  vehicle  had  their 
thoughts  influenced  in  that  respect  by  the  commer- 
cial possibilities  of  the  steam  stage  coach  and  trac- 
tion engine.  For  illustration,  the  Cugnot  steam 
wagon  built  in  France  in  1760-70  was  designed  to 
haul  heavy  artillery ;  the  Hancock,  the  Gurney 
and  the  Russell  steam  vehicles  built  in  England  in 
the  period  from  1820  to  1840  were  stage  coaches 
that  were  actually  operated  in  service  as  paying 
passenger  conveyances.  The  earliest  recorded  road 
vehicle  in  the  United  States  was  a  combined  boat 
and  road  wagon  built  in  1804  by  or  for  Oliver 
Evans,  who  obtained  privileges  to  operate  road 
wagons  in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  The  first 
power  road  vehicle  that  is  known  to  have  operated 
on  its  own  power  of  which  there  is  authentic  knowl- 
edge was  a  huge  steam  traction  engine  built  in  New 
York  City  in  1858  to  be  used  for  hauling  merchan- 
dise from  the  Mississippi  River  to  Colorado.  The 
idea  originated  with  Major  General  Joseph  R. 
Brown,  an  Indian  agent  in  Minnesota.  The  engine 
was  designed  and  built  by  J.  A.  Reed,  of  New  York, 
and  after  being  driven  under  its  own  power  through 
the  streets  of  the  city  up  to  Twenty-third  Street 
and  back  to  the  Christopher  Street  Ferry,  was 
shipped  by  rail  and  river  steamer  to  Nebraska  City. 
The  populace  gave  it  a  great  reception  there,  and 
a  string  of  about  a  dozen  wagons  filled  with  people 
was  hauled  through  the  city,  preparatory  to  driv- 


735 


AUTOMOBILES         Development   of    Trucks        AUTOMOBILES 


ing  the  engine  to  Denver  under  its  own  power. 
About  7  miles  out  of  Nebraska  City,  a  crank  was 
broken  and  the  machine  was  stored  in  Arbor  Lodge, 
owned  by  J.  Sterling  Morton.  The  Civil  War  and 
the  beginnmg  of  construction  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  prevented  the  making  of  repairs  and  ended 
the  venture,  which  had  cost  thousands  of  dollars. 
Eventually  the  machine  was  sold  for  $200  and  the 
boiler  and  engine  removed  for  use  in  a  mill.  .  .  . 
The  earliest  experiments  with  steam  road  engines 
had  very  little  if  any  influence,  however,  on  the 
development  of  the  commercial  vehicle  either  in 
Europe  or  America.  Besides  the  Reed  steam  trac- 
tion engine  referred  to  already,  other  early  Amer- 
ican self-propelled  vehicles  belonged  to  the  class  of 
commercial  or  utility  vehicles.  A  steam  fire  engine 
driven  by  its  own  power  was  built  in  1840  by  Cap- 
tain Ericsson.  How  successful  it  was  is  not  known, 
but  in  1867-70  the  Amoskeag  Corporation,  in  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  built  several  self-propelled  steamers, 
one  of  which,  after  being  hurriedly  sent  to  Boston 
during  the  great  Boston  fire  in  1872,  and  perform- 
ing efficient  service,  was  purchased  by  the  city  of 
Boston.  In  1876  the  city  of  Hartford  bought  a 
self-driven  steamer,  which  was  named  Jumbo,  and 
was  kept  in  ser\'ice  for  many  years.  Development 
of  the  modern  commercial  vehicle  was  practically 
contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  pleasure  car.  As 
early  as  1895,  in  the  pioneering  days  of  Duryea, 
Winton,  Haynes  &  Apperson,  Woods,  Riker,  Olds, 
Morris  &  Salom  and  others,  when  the  Horseless  Age 
was  started  and  the  Times-Herald  road  race  in  Chi- 
cago on  Thanksgiving  Day  inaugurated  the  auto- 
mobile contest  era  in  this  countn.',  the  possibilities 
of  the  motor  vehicle  for  industrial  and  commercial 
purposes  were  foreseen  by  many  constructors,  A 
gasoline  delivery  wagon,  built  by  the  Langert  Com- 
pany of  Philadelphia,  was  entered  in  the  Cosmopol- 
itan race.  Charles  E.  Woods,  a  Chicago  carriage 
builder,  had  constructed  one  or  more  electric  de- 
livery wagons  and  C.  S,  Fairfield,  of  Portland,  Ore- 
gon, had  built  a  sightseeing  stage  seating  eighteen 
to  twenty  passengers  which  was  driven  by  a  kero- 
sene engine.  To  Woods  seems  to  belong  the  credit 
for  being  the  first  .American  manufacturer  to  pro- 
duce business  vehicles  commercially.  The  delivery 
wagons  built  by  the  Woods  Motor  Vehicle  Co.  in 
the  early  go's  were  driven  by  two  1200-watt  elec- 
tric motors  giving  3^  horsepower  output  for  five 
hours  with  a  32  cell  battery.  The  running  gear  had 
carriage  wheels  and  the  front  wheels  were  steered 
by  a  vertical  rod  on  the  left  side  fitted  with  a 
streetcar  brake  handle.  Charles  E.  Woods,  of  the 
C.  E.  Woods  Co.,  well  known  electrical  engineer  of 
Chicago  and  New  York,  made  a  long  and  very 
careful  study  of  the  motor  vehicle  from  an  engi- 
neering and  practical  standpoint  in  the  early  ex- 
perimental days  in  .America  and  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  the  first  demand  of  the  public  would 
be  for  light  delivery  wagons,  then  for  public  con- 
veyances, next  for  liveries  and  finally  for  heavy 
private  trucks.  ...  In  i8q6  a  horse  van  was  con- 
verted into  a  steam  wagon  to  haul  furniture  for 
the  Shepard  &  Co.  department  store  of  Providence, 
R.  I.,  by  the  Cruickshank  Engineering  Works  of 
the  same  city.  The  design  was  by  L.  F.  N.  Bald- 
win and  showed  a  boiler  and  6-horsepower  engine 
mounted  under  the  wagon  bed,  with  side  chain 
drive.  That  the  truck  industr>'  as  well  as  the 
passenger  car  industry  abroad  was  considerably  fur- 
ther advanced  than  in  America  at  this  period  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  first  heavy  vehicle 
trials  were  held  in  France  from  August  5  to  11, 
i8q7,  by  the  .Automobile  Club  of  France.  Ten 
vehicles  competed,  including  four  omnibuses,  two 
tractors,  one  waconette,  one  freight  or  merchandise 
truck  and  one  brake.    It  will  be  seen  how  the  pas- 


senger-carrying vehicle  predominated.  The  steam 
vehicles  showed  superiority  in  hill-climbing  and 
hauling  loads  exceeding  one  ton,  but  the  Panhard 
gasoline  omnibus  was  highly  commended  for  clean- 
liness, fuel  economy  and  management.  The  Winton 
delivery  wagon,  brought  out  in  iSqS,  was  the  first 
gasoline  commercial  vehicle  to  be  produced  on  a 
commercial  scale  in  the  United  States.  Eight  of 
these  vehicles  were  under  construction  in  October 
of  that  year.  The  panel  body  was  mounted  on 
the  regular  Winton  pleasure  chassis,  which  was 
driven  by  a  6-horsepower  s  by  6  inch  single-cylin- 
der horizontal  engine  suspended  under  the  body 
with  a  planetary  change-speed  gear  mounted  on  an 
extension  of  the  crank-shaft.  The  running  gear  had 
tubular  axles  and  reaches  and  final  drive  was  by  a 
single  chain  to  the  differential  gear  on  the  rear  axle. 
The  machine  was  steered  by  a  tiller  and  the  wheels 
were  of  the  wire  spoke  suspension  type.  In  the 
same  year  the  Dursea  Motor  Wagon  Co.,  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  brought  out  a  Ught  deliver>' 
model  having  a  panel  body  mounted  on  the  three- 
wheel  passenger  car  chassis  designed  by  Charles  E. 
Duryea;  and  S.  Messinger,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  pro- 
duced a  gasoline  delivery  wagon  weighing  1000 
pounds  and  driven  by  a  6-horsepower  4  by  6-inch 
engine.  A.  L.  Riker,  pioneer  American  experi- 
menter with  electricity  as  a  motive  power  for  tri- 
cycles and  pleasure  cars,  had  produced  an  electric 
delivery  wagon  model,  and  one  of  these  machines, 
built  for  B.  Altman  &  Co.,  dr>-  goods  merchants  in 
New  York,  was  placed  on  exhibition  in  the  elec- 
trical show  held  in  Madison  Square  Garden  in  May, 
1898.  It  had  a  rated  capacity  of  500  pounds  and 
weighed  2000  pounds.  The  battery  alone  weighed 
icoo  pounds.  The  vehicle  was  mounted  on  wire 
wheels  fitted  with  3-inch  pneumatic  tires  and  had 
a  radius  of  action  of  30  miles  at  a  speed  of  10  miles 
an  hour.  Mr.  Riker,  who  was  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1868  and  graduated  from  the  Columbia 
College  Law  School,  began  experimenting  with  elec- 
trically driven  vehicles  and  in  1895  built  a  self- 
propelled  quadricycle  made  of  two  bicycles  placed 
side  by  side  for  experimental  purposes.  In  the  go's 
he  produced  designs  for  large  electric  4-wheeled 
passenser  and  delivery  vehicles.  He  had  already 
formed  the  Riker  Electric  Motor  Co.  of  Brooklyn, 
of  which  he  was  president.  This  was  succeeded  in 
1 901  by  the  Electric  Vehicle  Co.  of  Hartford,  which 
continued  the  manufacture  of  electric  vehicles  un- 
der the  name  Columbia,  acquired  from  the  Pope 
Manufacturing  Co.  ...  A  crude  oil  tractor  built 
in  1898  by  the  Best  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  San 
Leandro,  Cal.,  was  probably  the  first  .American  in- 
ternal combustion  tractor  for  hauling  merchandise. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  was  driven  by  a  75- 
horsepower  4-cylinder  motor  and  was  designed  to 
haul  a  gross  weight  of  120,000  pounds  on  two 
trailer  wagons  at  a  speed  of  4  to  8  miles  an  hour. 
The  first  Waverley  electric  wagon  announced  made 
its  appearance  the  same  year  in  Indianapolis  as  the 
product  of  the  American  Electric  Vehicle  Co.  Its 
chief  characteristics  were  a  tubular  frame,  ball- 
bearing wood  wheels  fitted  with  cushion  tires,  sin- 
gle 3 '/<> -horsepower  motor  supported  longitudinally 
on  the  frame  with  enclosed  direct  drive  from  the 
armature  shaft  to  the  rear  axle  differential;  a  44- 
cell  battery  concealed  in  the  body  bed  and  tiller 
steer.  .  .  .  Now  came  a  brief  period,  in  1898-Q, 
when  the  struggling  young  industr>'  was  burdened 
by  the  flotation  of  many  heavily  capitalized  stock 
companies  to  exploit  public  service  electric  cab  and 
compressed  air  trucking  services.  Anticipating  big 
profits  in  such  undertakings  or  believing  the  public 
anticipated  them  and  was  ready  to  invest  heavily, 
the  Whitney-Widcner-Elkins  syndicate,  of  Philadel- 
phia and  New  York,  secured  control  of  the  patents 


736 


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War  Uses 
of  the  Tractor 


AUTOMOBILES 


owned  by  the  Pope  Manufacturing  Co.  for  the 
construction  of  motor  vehicles  and  those  owned  by 
the  Electric  Storage  Battery  Co.  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  vehicle  batteries  and  formed  the  Columbia 
Automobile  Co.  This  company  then  united  these 
patents  with  those  owned  by  the  Electric  Vehicle 
Co.  under  the  ownership  of  a  third  company  or- 
ganized as  the  Columbia  &  Electric  Vehicle  Co., 
whose  stock  was  taken  equally  by  the  Columbia 
Automobile  Co.  and  the  Electric  Vehicle  Co.  The 
new  company  purchased  the  entire  plant  of  the 
Columbia  Automobile  Co.  in  Hartford  and  soon 
afterward  acquired  the  stock  and  plant  of  the 
New  Haven  Carriage  Co.  at  New  Haven.  About 
the  same  time  the  Electric  Vehicle  Co.  bought  up 
the  Seamans  &  Halske  Electric  Co.  of  America  for 
the  production  of  motors  and  other  electric  equip- 
ment. With  this  combination  of  manufacturing 
plants,  having  facilities  for  the  production  of  about 
Scoo  vehicles  a  year,  the  Electric  Vehicle  Co.  began 
organizing  transportation  companies  in  leading 
cities  as  an  outlet  for  the  product.  The  first  four 
formed  were  the  New  York,  the  New  England  and 
the  Illinois  Electric  Vehicle  Transportation  com- 
panies, each  capitalized  at  $25,000,000,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Electric  Vehicle  Co.,  capitahzed  at 
$6,000,000." — J.  R.  Doolittle,  ed.,  Romance  of  the 
automobile  industry,  pp.  351-356. — See  also  below 
ig20. 

"An  innovation  in  this  war  [World  War],  devel- 
opment of  which  in  the  future  promises  to  be  even 
more  important,  was  the  increased  use  of  motor 
transportation.  As  applied  to  the  artillery,  this 
meant  the  use  of  caterpillar  tractors  to  haul  the 
big  guns,  especially  over  rough  ground.  When  we 
entered  the  war  no  suitable  designs  existed  for 
caterpillar  tractors  of  size  appropriate  for  the 
medium  heavy  artillery.  But  new  S-ton  and  lo-ton 
types  were  perfected  in  this  country,  put  into  pro- 
duction, and  1,100  shipped  overseas  before  Novem- 
ber I  [1Q18].  About  300  larger  tractors  were  also 
shipped  and  350  more  secured  from  the  French  and 
British.  The  tank  was  an  even  more  important 
application  of  the  caterpillar  tractor  to  war  uses. 
In  the  case  of  the  small  6-ton  tanks,  the  efforts  of 
this  country  were  largely  concentrated  on  improve- 
ment of  design  and  on  development  of  large  scale 
production  for  the  igip  campaign.  Up  to  the  time 
of  the  armistice  64  had  been  produced  in  this  coun- 
try, and  the  rate  at  which  production  was  getting 
under  way  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  the 
armistice  the  total  completed  to  March  31,  igio, 
was  778.  The  burden  of  active  service  in  France 
was  borne  by  227  of  these  tanks  received  from  the 
French.  The  efforts  of  this  country  in  the  case 
of  heavy  30-ton  tanks  were  concentrated  on  a 
cooperative  plan,  by  which  this  country  was  to 
furnish  Liberty  motors  and  the  rest  of  the  driving 
mechanism,  and  the  British  the  armor  plate  for 
1,500  tanks  for  the  iqiq  campaign.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  about  one-half  the  work  on  the 
American  components  for  this  project  had  been 
completed  before  November  11  [igiS],  and  the 
work  of  assembly  of  the  initial  units  was  well  un- 
der way.  For  immediate  use  in  France,  this  coun- 
try received  64  heavy  tanks  from  the  British." — 
The  War  with  Germany:  United  Slates  official  sta- 
tistical summary,  p.  80. — During  the  war,  "motor 
trucks  to  the  number  of  47,018  went  forward,  and 
when  fighting  ceased  were  being  shipped  at  the  rate 
of  10,000  a  month.  .  .  .  Beyond  the  range  of  the 
narrow-gauge  railway  [in  the  war  zones]  came  the 
motor  truck.  The  truck  could  go  over  roads  that 
were  under  shell  fire.  It  could  retire  with  the  Army 
or  push  forward  with  advancing  troops.  Trucks 
were  used  on  a  larger  scale  in  this  war  than  was 
ever  before  thought  possible.    The  American  Infan- 


try division  on  the  march  with  the  trucks,  wagons, 
and  ambulances  of  its  supply,  ammunition,  and 
sanitary  trains  stretches  for  a  distance  of  30  miles 
along  the  road.  The  650  trucks  which  the  tables 
of  organization  of  the  division  provide  are  a  large 
factor  in  this  train.  The  need  for  trucks  increased 
moreover  during  the  latter  months  of  the  war  as 
trench  warfare  gave  place  to  a  war  of  movement. 
As  the  forces  moved  forward  on  the  offensive  away 
from  their  railway  bases,  more  and  more  trucks  were 
demanded.  The  Army  overseas  never  had  all  the 
trucks  it  needed  during  the  period  of  hostilities.  .  .  . 
The  supply  was  least  adequate  during  the  last  four 
months  of  the  war,  when  the  shipment  of  trucks 
fell  behind  the  accelerated  troop  movement.  The 
difficulty  was  almost  entirely  a  shortage  of  ships. 
At  practically  all  times  there  were  quantities  of 
trucks  at  the  ports  of  embarkation,  but  trucks  take 
enormous  amounts  of  cargo  space  on  ships.  It  is 
slow  and  difficult  work  to  load  them,  and  time  after 
time  embarkation  officials  were  forced  to  leave  the 
trucks  standing  at  the  ports  and  load  their  ships 
rapidly  with  supplies  needed  still  more  urgently 
overseas.  In  October  and  November  [igi?]  more 
ships  were  pulled  out  of  the  trades  and  the  trucks 
were  shipped  even  at  the  expense  of  other  essential 
supplies.  The  shipment  kept  pace  with  the  troop 
movement,  but  the  initial  shortage  could  not  be 
overcome  until  February.  The  number  of  trucks 
sent  overseas  prior  to  the  armistice  was  40,000 
and  of  these  33,000  had  been  received  in  France. 
The  trucks  ranged  in  size  from  three-quarters  of  a 
ton  to  5  tons." — Ibid.,  pp.  46,  54-55. 

1885-1894. — Benz  and  Daimler  gasoline  mo- 
tors.— "In  1885,  Benz,  a  German,  built  the  first  road 
vehicle  to  be  run  by  the  internal-combustion,  hydro- 
carbon motor.  It  was  a  tricycle,  and  its  motor  was 
single-cylindered,  four-cycled,  after  the  type  of  an 
engine  developed  in  1876,  in  Germany,  by  Otto, 
and  water  cooled.  It  had  electric  ignition  and  a 
mechanical  carburetor.  Benz  secured  a  patent  in 
1886  on  his  invention  and  it  ran  successfully,  mak- 
ing ten  miles  an  hour.  Benz  was  limited  to  the  use 
of  certain  streets  in  Mannheim,  Germany,  for  run- 
ning his  machine,  out  of  deference  to  the  tendency 
to  nerves  of  horses  and  their  drivers  or  riders.  This 
tricycle  by  Benz  was  the  forerunner  of  the  Benz 
automobile.  This  is  one  of  the  most  successful  and 
popular  cars  in  Germany — and  before  the  war,  in 
all  Europe.  The  first  automobile  imported  to  the 
United  States  was  a  Benz  car  brought  to  the  Chi- 
cago World's  Fair  in  i8g3.  Up  to  igi?  the  Benz 
car  was  an  entrant  in  most  automobile  speed  con- 
tests. While  Benz  was  perfecting  the  gasohne  motor 
in  its  attachment  to  the  tricycle,  Gottlieb  Daimler, 
another  German,  was  producing,  in  1885,  the  motor- 
cycle. Daimler  had  devoted  himself  sedulously  to 
the  problem  of  reducing  the  weight  and  increasing 
the  power  of  the  gas  engine,  in  order  to  adapt  it 
to  high  efficiency  road  vehicles.  He  invented  the 
hot  tube  ignition  to  take  the  place  of  ignition  by 
flame.  By  regulation  of  the  heat  of  the  tube,  the 
compressed  charge  of  hydro-carbon  vapor  could  be 
fired  automatically  at  a  specific  point  in  the  cycle. 
Through  the  increased  speed  thus  produced  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  motor  could  be  reduced." — H.  L. 
Barber,  Story  of  the  automobile,  pp.  6g-7o, — 
"Daimler  got  into  touch  with  M.  Levassor,  who  was 
so  impressed  with  the  patrol  boat  and  a  quadricycle 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  in  i88q  that  he  set 
to  work  to  build  a  complete  motor-car.  After 
many  failures  he  succeeded,  and  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  things  in  connection  with  his  success 
is  the  fact  that  the  form  of  construction  adopted 
by  him — in  fact,  one  may  say  invented  by  him — 
is  the  form  adopted  even  to  this  present  day.  His 
first  car  had  the  engine  in  front,  a  sliding  change- 


737 


AUTOMOBILES 


American  Progress 
Electric    and    Gasoline    Cars 


AUTOMOBILES 


speed  gear  arranged  for  various  speeds,  a  counter- 
shaft carrying  a  differential  gear,  and  sprockets  for 
a  chain-drive  on  to  the  back  wheels,  and  was  sim- 
ilar in  a  number  of  other  points." — C.  Jarrott,  Ten 
years  of  motoring  and  motor  racing,  p.  i6. — 
"The  Daimler  motor  was  a  big  step  in  advance,  as 
was  proved  by  the  supremacy  which  the  German 
and  French  automobile  makers  at  once  attained. 
The  French  secured  rights  to  the  Daimler  motor 
and  operated  under  them  with  such  success  that 
from  i88g  to  i8g4,  before  the  United  States  had 
really  waked  up  to  motor  car  making,  they  were 
beginning  to  put  out  gasoline  automobiles  success- 
fully."— H.  L.  Barber,  Story  of  the  automobile,  p. 
70. 

1889-1905. — America  builds  steam  and  electric 
cars. — First  American  gasoline  car. — French  im- 
provements.— "At  this  time,  we,  in  this  country, 
were  following  the  steam  and  storage  battery 
fetishes.  The  first  steam  car  in  the  United  States 
that  might  be  called  modern  was  built  by  S.  H. 
Roper  of  Massachusetts,  in  1889.  In  iqoo,  steam 
car  building  in  America  gave  promise  of  disputing 
the  gasoline  car  records  then  being  made  in  France, 
but  by  1905  the  gasoline  car  manufacturers  had 
taken  the  cue  from  the  European  gasoline  suc- 
cesses, and  this  form  of  motor  came  to  the  front. 
Contemporaneously  with  the  activities  in  steam 
car  building  in  the  United  States,  was  the  pioneer 
electric  car  construction  era.  The  first  electric  auto- 
mobile was  built  in  i8qi,  and  made  its  first  ex- 
hibit on  appearance  in  the  streets  of  Chicago  in 
September,  1892.  The  builder  of  this,  the  first 
electric  driven  vehicle,  was  William  Morrison  of 
Des  Moines,  Iowa.  It  was  brought  by  J.  B. 
McDonald,  president  of  the  American  Battery  Com- 
pany, Chicago.  .  .  .  The  date  of  the  building  of 
the  first  American  gasoline  automobile  that  ran 
was  1892.  The  man  who  performed  the  feat  was 
Charles  E.  Duryea.  He  had  the  assistance  of  his 
brother,  Frank  Duryea,  but  what  was  more,  he 
had  the  benefit  of  knowledge  of  what  had  been 
accomplished  in  Europe  in  the  gasoline  motor  field. 
Panhard,  Levassor,  Peugeot,  De  Dion,  Bouton,  and 
SerpoUet  were  Frenchmen  who  had  done  things  with 
gasoHne  cars,  all  (except  SerpoUet  and  Levassor) 
principally  through  the  manufacture  of  finished 
cars.  Levassor  conceived  the  idea  of  a  central 
frame  to  carry  the  power  plant,  and  thus  solved 
the  problem  of  road  shock.  SerpoUet  had  done 
more.  He  had  invented  the  flash  boiler,  reviving 
an  art  the  English  had  previously  discovered,  which 
made  the  use  of  dry  or  superheated  steam  possible. 
Higher  pressure  could  be  used,  water  economies 
effected  and  weight  reduced.  When  Duryea  and 
others,  about  1892,  gave  concentrated  thought  to 
gasoline  propulsion,  all  the  problems  of  automobile 
making  had  found  solution,  except  two:  .  .  . 
a  method  of  cushioning  wheel  ,  rims,  and  some 
method  by  which  the  motor  could  be  so  placed 
that  it  would  be  immune  from  shocks  and  vibra- 
tions. So,  when  Duryea,  in  1892,  built  the  first 
-American  gasoline  car  that  would  run  successfully, 
he  merely  'assembled'  the  ideas  that  had  then  ac- 
cumulated. Duryea  built  his  first  car  in  1802. 
Henry  Ford  built  his  in  1893.  Elwood  Haynes  built 
his  in  1804.  There  were  but  four  gasoline  cars  in 
the  United  States  in  i8g6 — Duryea,  Ford,  Haynes, 
and  Benz,  the  last  being  the  German  car  which 
was  imported.  With  the  accomplishments  of  the 
builders  of  steam,  electric  and  gasoline  motored 
vehicles  at  this  time — 1895 — the  practical  success  of 
horseless  carriages  had  been  definitely  settled.  Prac- 
tically all  fundamental  problems  had  been  solved. 
To  make  them  finally  an  accepted  addition  to  the 
world's  methods  of  transportation  in  general  use, 
two  things  only  were  needed.    One  was  the  devel- 


opment of  perfecting  devices,  such  as  rubber  tires, 
the  production  of  which  began  about  1889;  and  the 
other  was  the  general  acceptance  of  automobiles 
by  the  people — a  cordial,  popular  approval,  mani- 
fested by  their  purchase  and  use.  .  .  .  The  first 
American  made  gasoline  automobile  sold  in  the 
United  States  was  disposed  of  March  24,  i8q8.  The 
sale  of  steamers  and  electrics  had  been  going  on  for 
several  years  before,  but  not  very  extensively." — 
Ibid.,  pp.  70-75. 

1892-1916.— Rise  of  Henry  Ford. — Standard- 
ization.— "The  real  'fathers'  of  the  automobile  are 
Gottlieb  Daimler,  the  German  who  made  the  first 
successful  gasoline  engine,  and  Charles  Goodyear, 
the  American  who  discovered  the  secret  of  vul- 
canized rubber.  Without  this  engine  to  form  the 
motive  power  and  the  pneumatic  tire  to  give  it 
four  air  cushions  to  run  on,  the  automobile  would 
never  have  progressed  beyond  the  steam  carriage 
stage.  It  is  true  that  Charles  Baldwin  Selden,  of 
Rochester,  has  been  pictured  as  the  'inventor  of  the 
modern  automobile'  because,  as  long  ago  as  1879, 
he  applied  for  a  patent  on  the  idea  of  using  a  gaso- 
line engine  as  motive  power,  securing  this  basic 
patent  in  1895,  but  this,  it  must  be  admitted,  forms 
a  flimsy  basis  for  such  a  pretentious  claim.  The 
French  apparently  led  all  nations  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  motor  vehicles,  and  in  the  early  nineties 
their  products  began  to  make  occasional  appear- 
ances on  American  roads.  The  type  of  American 
who  owned  this  imported  machine  was  the  same 
that  owned  steam  yachts  and  a  box  at  the  opera. 
Hardly  any  new  development  has  aroused  greater 
hostility.  It  not  only  frightened  horses,  and  so 
disturbed  the  popular  traffic  of  the  time,  but  its 
speed,  its  glamour,  its  arrogance,  and  the  haughty 
behavior  of  its  proprietor,  had  apparently  trans- 
formed it  into  a  new  badge  of  social  cleavage.  It 
thus  immediately  took  its  place  as  a  new  gewgaw 
of  the  rich ;  that  it  had  any  purpose  to  serve  had 
occurred  to  few  people.  Yet  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish machines  created  an  entirely  different  reaction 
in  the  mind  of  an  imaginative  mechanic  in  Detroit. 
Probably  American  annals  contain  no  finer  story 
than  that  of  this  simple  American  workman.  Vet 
from  the  beginning  it  seemed  inevitable  that  Henry 
Ford  should  play  this  appointed  part  in  the  world 
Born  in  Michigan  in  1S63,  the  son  of  an  English 
farmer  who  had  emigrated  to  Michigan  and  a 
Dutch  mother.  Ford  had  always  demonstrated  an 
interest  in  things  far  removed  from  his  farm.  Only 
mechanical  devices  interested  him.  .  .  .  Henry  Ford 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  ran  away  to  get  a  job  in  a 
machine  shop.  Here  one  anomaly  immediately 
impressed  him.  No  two  machines  were  made  ex- 
actly alike;  each  was  regarded  as  a  separate  job. 
With  his  savings  from  his  weekly  wage  of  $2.50, 
young  Ford  purchased  a  three  dollar  watch,  and 
immediately  dissected  it.  If  several  thousand  of 
these  watches  could  be  made,  each  one  exactly , 
alike,  they  would  cost  only  thirty-seven  cents  a- 
piece.  'Then,'  said  Ford  to  himself,  'everybody 
could  have  one.'  He  had  fairly  elaborated  his 
plans  to  start  a  factory  on  this  basis  when  his 
father's  illness  called  him  back  to  the  farm.  This 
was  about  1880;  Ford's  next  conspicuous  appear- 
ance in  Detroit  was  about  1892.  This  appearance 
was  not  only  conspicuous;  it  was  exceedingly  noisy. 
Detroit  now  knew  him  as  the  pilot  of  a  queer 
affair  that  whirled  and  lurched  through  her  thor- 
oughfares, making  as  much  disturbance  as  a  freight 
train.  In  reading  his  technical  journals  Ford  had 
met  many  descriptions  of  horseless  carriages,  the 
consequence  was  that  he  had  again  broken  away 
from  the  farm,  taken  a  job  at  $45  a  month  in  a 
Detroit  machine  shop,  and  devoted  his  evenings 
to  the  production  of  a  gasoline  engine.    His  young 


738 


AUTOMOBILES 


American  Progress 
Paris-Rouen   Race 


AUTOMOBILES 


wife  was  exceedingly  concerned  about  his  health; 
the  neighbors'  snap  judgment  was  that  he  was 
insane.  Only  two  other  Americans,  Charles  B. 
Duryea  and  Elwood  Haynes,  were  attempting  to 
construct  an  automobile  at  that  time.  Long  before 
Ford  was  ready  with  his  machine  .  .  .  foreign 
makes  began  to  appear  in  considerable  numbers. 
But  the  Detroit  mechanic  had  a  more  comprehen- 
sive inspiration.  He  was  not  working  to  make  one 
of  the  finely  upholstered  and  beautifully  painted 
vehicles  that  came  from  overseas,  '.\nything  that 
isn't  good  for  everybody  is  no  good  at  all,'  he  said. 
Precisely  as  it  was  V'ail's  ambition  to  make  every 
American  a  user  of  the  telephone  and  McCormick's 
to  make  every  farmer  a  user  of  his  harvester,  so  it 
was  Ford's  determination  that  every  family  should 
have  an  automobile.  He  was  apparently  the  only 
man  in  those  times  who  saw  that  this  new  machine 
was  not  primarily  a  luxury  but  a  convenience.  Yet 
all  manufacturers,  here  and  in  Europe,  laughed  at 
his  idea.  Why  not  give  every  poor  man  a  Fifth 
Avenue  house  ?  Frenchmen  and  Englishmen 
scouted  the  idea  that  any  one  could  make  a  cheap 
automobile.  Its  machinery  was  particularly  refined 
and  called  for  the  highest  grade  of  steel ;  the  clever 
Americans  might  use  their  labor-saving  devices  on 
many  products,  but  only  skillful  handwork  could 
turn  out  a  motor  car.  European  manufacturers 
regarded  each  car  as  a  .separate  problem;  they  indi- 
vidualized its  manufacture  almost  as  scrupulously 
as  a  painter  paints  his  portrait  or  a  poet  writes  his 
poem.  The  result  was  that  only  a  man  with  sev- 
eral thousand  dollars  could  purchase  one.  But 
Henry  Ford — and  afterward  other  American  makers 
— had  quite  a  different  conception.  .  .  .  [About 
IQ02]  Ford  had  built  a  machine  which  he  entered 
in  the  Grosse  Point  races  that  year.  It  was  a 
hideous-looking  affair,  but  it  ran  like  the  wind  and 
outdistanced  all  competitors.  From  that  day  Ford's 
career  has  been  an  uninterrupted  triumph.  But  he 
rejected  the  earliest  offers  of  capital  because  the 
millionaires  would  not  agree  to  his  terms.  They 
were  looking  for  high  prices  and  quick  profits,  while 
Ford's  plans  were  for  low  prices,  large  sales,  and 
u.se  of  profits  to  extend  the  business  and  reduce 
the  cost  of  his  machine.  Henry  Ford's  greatness 
as  a  manufacturer  consists  in  the  tenacity  with 
which  he  has  clung  to  this  conception.  Contrary 
to  general  belief  in  the  automobile  industry  he 
maintained  that  a  high  sale  price  was  not  necessan,- 
tor  large  profits ;  indeed  he  declared  that  the  lower 
the  price,  the  larger  the  net  earnings  would  be. 
Nor  did  he  believe  that  low  wages  meant  pros- 
perity. The  most  efficient  labor,  no  matter  what 
the  nominal  cost  might  be,  was  the  most  econom-' 
ical.  The  secret  of  success  was  the  rapid  produc- 
tion of  a  serviceable  article  in  large  quantities." — 
— B.  J.  Hendrick,  Age  of  big  business,  pp.  174-180. 
— See  also  Detroit:  1812-1Q16. — "Thus  Henry  Ford 
did  not  invent  standardization ;  he  merely  applied 
this  great  American  idea  to  a  product  to  which, 
because  of  the  delicate  labor  required,  it  seemed  at 
first  unadapted.  He  soon  found  that  it  was  cheaper 
to  ship  the  parts  of  ten  cars  to  a  central  point  than 
to  ship  ten  completed  cars.  There  would  therefore 
be  large  savings  in  making  his  parts  in  particular 
factories  and  shipping  them  to  assembling  estab- 
lishments. In  this  way  the  completed  cars  would 
always  be  near  their  markets.  Large  production 
would  mean  that  he  could  purchase  his  raw  ma- 
terials at  very  low  prices;  high  wages  meant  that 
he  could  get  the  efficient  labor  which  was  demanded 
by  his  rapid  fire  method  of  campaign.  It  was 
necessary  to  plan  the  making  of  every  part  to  the 
minutest  detail,  to  have  each  part  machined  to 
its  exact  size,  and  to  have  every  screw,  bolt,  and 
bar  precisely  interchangeable.    About  the  year  1007 


the  Ford  factory  was  systematized  on  this  basis.  In 
that  twelvemonth  it  produced  10,000  machines, 
each  one  the  absolute  counterpart  of  the  other 
qggg.  American  manufacturers  until  then  had  been 
content  with  a  few  hundred  a  year!  From  that 
date  the  Ford  production  has  rapidly  increased ; 
until,  in  iqib,  there  were  nearly  4,000,000  auto- 
mobiles in  the  United  States — more  than  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  world  put  together — of  which  one-sixth 
were  the  output  of  the  Ford  factories.  Many  other 
.'\merican  manufacturers  followed  the  Ford  plan, 
with  the  result  that  .American  automobiles  are  du- 
plicating the  story  of  American  bicycles;  because 
of  their  cheapness  and  serviceability,  they  are  rap- 
idly dominating  the  markets  of  the  world.  In  the 
Great  War  American  machines  have  surpassed  all 
in  the  work  done  under  particularly  exacting  cir- 
cumstances."— Ibid,,  pp.  182-183. — "A  few  years 
ago  an  English  manufacturer,  seeking  the  explana- 
tion of  America's  ability  to  produce  an  excellent 
car  so  cheaply,  made  an  interesting  experiment.  He 
obtained  three  American  automobiles,  all  of  the 
same  'standardized'  make,  and  gave  them  a  long 
and  racking  tour  over  English  highways.  Work- 
men then  took  apart  the  three  cars  and  threw  the 
disjointed  remains  into  a  promiscuous  heap.  Every 
bolt,  bar,  gas  tank,  motor,  wheel,  and  tire  was 
taken  from  its  accustomed  place  and  piled  up,  a 
hideous  mass  of  rubbish.  Workmen  then  pains- 
takingly put  together  three  cars  from  these  dis- 
ordered elements.  Three  chauffeurs  jumped  on 
these  cars,  and  they  immediately  started  down  the 
road  and  made  a  long  journey  just  as  acceptably 
as  before.  The  Englishman  had  learned  the  secret 
of  American  success  with  automobiles.  The  one 
word  'standardization'  explained  the  mystery." — 
Ibid.,  p.  173. 

1894-1896. — Prevailing  conditions  in  early 
automobile  races.  —  Paris-Rouen  race.  —  First 
races  in  America  and  England. — Variety  of  cars. 
— "What  were  the  conditions  prevailing  at  the  time 
of  those  good  old  days — the  days  of  Paris-Berlin, 
Paris-Bordeaux,  and  Paris-Vienna  races?  Obvi- 
ously the  competitive  element  existed  between  the 
various  manufacturers  of  cars  taking  part;  the\ 
entered  for  a  race  in  the  hope  that  they  could 
successfully  beat  their  rivals;  but  the  general  idea 
underlying  the  whole  event  was  the  desire  to  prove 
to  the  world  that  motor-cars  would  go,  and  that 
they  were  capable  of  travelling  long  distances  in  a 
reliable  and  speedy  manner.  The  events  were 
looked  upon  as  educational  both  to  the  public  and 
to  the  manufacturer,  in  the  evolution  of  vehicles, 
which  were  something  more  than  mere  pieces  of 
machinery  made  for  sale  and  barter.  And  lessons 
were  learned,  experience  and  knowledge  gained, 
and  that  side  of  the  sport  which  was  influenced 
by  the  financial  aspect  of  the  event  was  satisfied 
in  these  rewards,  and  the  extermination  of  all  op- 
position to  each  individual  interest  was  not  thought 
of  The  men  who  drove  were  also  dominated  by 
this  idea.  Dozens  of  them  were  independent,  racing 
their  own  cars;  others  were  racing,  if  not  on  their 
own  cars,  at  any  rate  at  their  own  expense;  and 
none  but  were  so  enamoured  of  the  sport  as  a 
sport,  as  to  make  the  mere  question  of  money 
subservient  to  the  keen  desire  to  drive  a  racing-car 
and  to  race.  To  race  against  one's  friends,  against 
one's  compatriots,  and  against  one's  foreign  rivals; 
to  drive  one's  car  faster  and  reach  the  distant  goal 
sooner  than  somebody  else  in  the  event.  And  good 
fellowship  and  good  sportsmanship  prevailed 
amongst  all,  to  add  pleasure  and  enjoyment  to  the 
actual  racing  itself.  And  then  the  conditions  of 
actual  racing  were  so  different.  In  the  rapid  march 
of  progress  new  cars  were  built  for  each  event. 
Months  saw  extraordinary   progress,   and  working 


739 


AUTOMOBILES 


Races 
Companies  Founded 


AUTOMOBILES 


as  the  makers  were  in  order  to  get  their  machines 
out  for  the  event,  they  invariably  failed  to  do  so 
until  the  very  last  minute.  They  were  not  partic- 
ularly handicapped  in  consequence  because  every 
maker  was  in  the  same  plight,  and  consequently  in 
each  event  a  long  line  of  practically  untried  new 
motor-cars  formed  up,  their  capabilities  to  be  tested 
and  their  merits  discovered  over  hundreds  of  miles 
of  unknown  road.  And  much  of  the  charm  of  the 
sport  lay  in  its  glorious  uncertainty.  Where  a  re- 
sult is  bound  to  happen  there  is  no  real  sport,  and 
never  were  results  more  obscure  than  the  results 
of  those  races.  The  fact  of  travelling  successfully 
three-parts  of  the  distance  proved  nothing,  because 
probably  some  part  would  break  and  trouble  ensue 
which  placed  one  hopelessly  liors  de  combat,  and 
we  all  struggled  on,  making  the  best  of  our  trou- 
bles, sympathizing  with  each  other's  misfortunes, 
and  doing  our  best  to  arrive  at  the  finish.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  excitement  of  driving  a  new  and  prac- 
tically untried  machine,  you  had  also  the  fact  that 
you  were  driving  a  much  faster  machine  than  you 
had  ever  driven  before,  because  the  power  of  the 
motors  was  increased  for  each  event,  and  with  all 
these  glorious  elements  of  uncertainty,  a  feeling  that 
you  were  perhaps  driving  faster  than  any  one  had 
ever  driven  before,  and  there  was  a  lack  of  that 
grimness  and  ferocity  which  marks  latter-day 
motor-racing.  To  secure  real  and  exciting  sport 
obviously  the  spice  of  danger  was  an  added  inter- 
est, because  since  we  were  not  then  accustomed  to 
the  speeds,  this  sense  of  danger  always  existed." — • 
C.  Jarrott,  Ten  years  of  motors  and  motor  racing, 
pp.  qt-qS. — "Levassor's  experiments  [see  above 
18S5-18Q4]  and  successes  were  copied,  and  eventu- 
ally sufficient  vehicles  were  in  existence  to  warrant 
the  holding  of  a  race — or  rather  a  trial — in  [July] 
1804,  from  Paris  to  Rouen.  [Forty-six  cars  were  en- 
tered of  which  twelve  only  were  steam  cars.]  The 
first  to  arrive  was  a  steam  vehicle,  built  by  De  Dion 
et  Bouton,  but  the  success  of  the  petrol  vehicles  was 
sufficiently  pronounced  to  establish  it  as  a  fact  be- 
yond all  question  that  they  were  practical  and  suc- 
cessful. The  excitement  in  France  in  connection 
with  this  race  was  very  great,  the  new  road  vehicles 
being  welcomed  by  the  French  populace  with  open 
arms.  Although  the  first  arrival  was  the  De  Dion 
Bouton  steamer,  nevertheless  the  Panhard  and 
Peugeot  cars  were  given  the  first  prize,  a  De  Dion 
steamer  gaining  the  second,  and  a  Serpollet  steam 
car  being  awarded  the  third.  A  movement  was  soon 
after  started  for  the  holding  of  another  race  for  the 
following  year,  in  which  the  Count  De  Dion  and 
the  Baron  de  Zuylen  took  an  active  part.  It  was 
eventually  decided  that  a  race  should  be  run  from 
Paris  to  Bordeaux  and  back,  without  stoppages  of 
any  kind.  M.  Levassor  built  a  special  car  for  the 
event,  having  a  small  ^Yj  h.  p.  motor,  and  a  number 
of  other  cars  were  also  turned  out'  by  the  various 
firms  interested  to  take  part.  The  race  was  held 
on  II  June,  1895,  the  start  being  from  Versailles, 
and  twenty-three  vehicles  presented  themselves  at 
the  starting-point.  Of  these,  nine  completed  the 
journey,  eight  of  them  being  petrol-driven  carriages 
and  one  steam.  M.  Levassor  won  the  event,  by 
accomplishing  the  journey  in  forty-eight  hours  on 
his  little  car — a  magnificent  performance,  consider- 
ing the  stage  of  development  to  w-hich  the  motor 
vehicles  had  attained  at  that  time." — It'id.,  pp.  6-7. 
— On  "Thanksgiving  Day,  1805,  the  first  American 
automobile  race  was  run  from  Chicago  to  VVauke- 
gan.  The  organizer  and  patron  was  a  newspaper — 
the  Chicago  Times-Herald.  Of  two  entrants,  the 
'Buggyaut'  of  Charles  E.  Duryea  was  one." — H.  L. 
Barber,  .S(ory  of  the  aniomobile,  p.  73. — "Novem- 
ber 14,  i8q6.  A  foggy,  dull,  wet.  typical  November 
morning  found  me  making  my  way  along  Holborn 


to  the  Central  Hall.  This  had  been  engaged  for 
the  purposes  of  a  garage  for  the  use  of  the  intrepid 
people  who  were  on  that  morning  to  make  a  run, 
involving  much  danger  and  personal  risk,  from 
London  to  Brighton  [32  miles].  For  the  first  time 
in  English  history  legal  restrictions  in  regard  to  the 
use  of  motor-cars  on  the  public  highways,  except 
when  preceded  by  a  man  with  a  red  flag,  had  been 
removed,  and  we  were  to  be  allowed  to  drive  a  car 
on  the  road  at  a  speed  not  exceeding  twelve  miles 
an  hour.  The  run  from  London  to  Brighton  had 
been  arranged  to  celebrate  this  important  event. 
.  .  .  Leon  Bollee  was  there,  with  a  small  fleet  of 
those  extraordinary  little  machines  invented  by  him 
which  always,  to  my  mind,  resembled  land  torpedoes 
more  than  anything  else.  The  Panhard  and  Levas- 
sor machines,  which  had  previously  taken  part  in 
the  great  Paris-Marseilles  race,  were  also  there ;  and 
a  dozen  other  notabilities  in  what  was  then  the 
somewhat  limited  automobile  world.  .  .  .  Most  of 
the  cars  were  historical,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
they  had,  even  then,  accomplished  great  deeds.  In 
the  first,  driven  by  M.  Meyer,  was  seated  Mr.  H.  J. 
Lawson,  President  of  the  Motor-Car  Club,  the  car 
itself  being  the  identical  Panhard-Levassor  on 
which  M.  Levassor  had  achieved  his  great  victory 
of  the  previous  year  in  the  Paris-Bordeaux  race. 
Xo.  2  was  a  German  Daimler  landaulette,  which 
had  the  previous  week  occupied  a  prominent  posi- 
tion in  the  Lord  Mayor's  Show,  and  contained, 
amongst  other  distinguished  personages,  Herr  Gott- 
lieb Daimler  himself.  No.  3  was  a  Panhard-Levas- 
sor car,  which  had  won  the  Paris-Marseilles  race. 
No.  4  belonged  to  the  Hon.  Evelyn  Ellis.  McRobie 
Turrell  .  .  .  was  also  driving  a  Panhard-Levassor 
car,  whilst  Leon  and  .\medee  Bollee  and  H.  O. 
Duncan  were  all  handling  Bollee  tandem  machines. 
-Another  machine  of  great  interest  was  driven  by 
Mr.  E.  J.  Pennington,  who,  at  that  time,  was  claim- 
ing great  things  for  the  motor  invented  by  him. 
.And  an  .American-made  machine,  in  the  shape  of 
the  Duryea,  also  figured  prominently.  Another 
bold  person,  in  the  shape  of  Mr.  Gorton,  junior, 
rode  a  fearful  and  wonderful  tricycle,  which  started 
off  with  many  kicks  and  jumps,  much  to  the  alarm 
of  the  crowd." — C.  Jarrott,  Ten  years  of  molars 
and  motor  racing,  pp.  1-3. 

1898-1916. — Foundation  of  automobile  com- 
panies.— Diversity  of  types. — "The  year  of  the 
Spanish-.American  war — iSqS — saw  the  beginning  of 
a  veritable  rain  of  automobile  manufacturers  in  the 
United  States.  In  that  year  the  Stanley,  Stearns, 
Thomas,  Matheson,  Winton,  and  the  Waverley 
Company  entered  the  field.  In  iSqo,  there  ap- 
peared the  Locomobile  Company,  Olds,  Baker-Elec- 
tric and  Pierce-Racine  (later  absorbed  by  J.  I.  Case 
and  now  the  Case  car).  In  looo,  Packard,  Peer- 
less, Glide,  National  Electric,  Lambert,  Elmore, 
Babcock,  Jackson,  Knox  and  Lane  were  entrants 
in  the  lists.  In  looi,  Acme,  Gaeth,  Pierce-.Arrow, 
White,  Royal  Tourist,  Stevens-Duryea,  Waltham- 
Orient,  Pope-Toledo,  Welrh,  Pullman  and  Rambler. 
In  IQ02,  Cadillac,  Franklin,  Pope,  Studebaker,  Sul- 
tan, Okey,  Walter  and  Schacht.  In  1903,  Ford, 
Auburn,  Overland,  Molinc,  Premier,  Corbin,  Berg- 
dall,  Holsman,  Columbus  and  Chadwick.  In  1Q04, 
Buick,  Cleveland,  .American  Napier,  Stoddard-Day- 
ton,  Marmon,  Mitchell,  Jewel,  Mclntyre,  Pitts- 
burgh Electric,  Ranch  &  Lang  and  Simplex.  In 
iqo5,  .Alco,  .American,  Dorris,  Johnson,  Jonz,  Kis- 
selcar,  Maxwell,  Monarch,  Reo,  Studebaker,  Gar- 
ford  and  .American  Mors.  In  iqo6,  .Anderson, 
A. B.C.,  Cartercar,  Brunn,  Thomas-Detroit,  Kearns, 
Sterling,  Mora,  Moon.  Pennsylvania,  Palmer  & 
Singer  and  Stavcr.  In  1007,  .Albany,  .Atlas,  Brush, 
Bertolet,  Byridcr,  Carter,  Chalmers,  Coppock,  De 
Luxe,  Oakland,  Regal,  Selden,  Speedwell,  Interstate, 


740 


AUTOMOBILES 


Mechanical  Progress 
Growth  of  Industry 


AUTOMOBILES 


Lozier  and  Great  Western.  In  igoS,  Sharp-Arrow, 
Pittsburgh  6,  Crown  Midland,  Rider-Lewis,  Paige- 
Detroit,  Velie,  Cole,  E.M.F.  and  Hupmobile.  In 
igoQ,  Hudson,  Advance,  Cunningham,  Coates- 
Goshen,  Ohio  and  Abbott.  Since  igog  to  date  new 
cars  put  on  the  market  include:  Stutz  (1911), 
Chevrolet  (igi2).  Grand,  Chandler,  Saxon  and 
Scripps-Booth  (1913),  Dodge  and  Dort  (1914), 
Owen  Magnetic  (1915),  Drexel  and  Elgin  (iqi6). 
Other  automobiles  in  the  field  are  the  Maibohm, 
Allen,  Ben-Hur,  Crow-Elkhart,  Harroun,  Lexington 
and  Madison.  .  .  .  The  earlier  manufacturers  of 
motor  cars  included  many  who  had  been  engaged 
in  manufacturing  bicycles,  and  following  them  was 
a  group  that  had  successfully  manufactured  wagons 
and  carriages.  Still  another  set  of  manufacturers 
were  machinery  men.  In  the  list  of  names  of  auto- 
mobile companies  which  have  been  organized  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  industry's  development,  there 
are  some  which  have  gone  out  of  business;  but  not 
many.  The  industry,  generally  speaking,  has  had 
comparatively  few  complete  failures.  Mortality  has 
been  lower  with  it  than  with  many  other  business 
enterprises.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  intelligence 
which  the  manufacturers  brought  to  the  busine.ss, 
plus  the  demand  which  sprang  up  for  the  automo- 
bile as  soon  as  the  people,  instructed  with  great 
and  liberal  space  by  the  press,  reahzed  it  was  the 
vehicle  that  could  give  what  they  wanted.  Never 
was  the  value  of  a  concerted  campaign  of  education 
better  demonstrated.  That  unusually  intelligent 
study  of  the  subject  of  suiting  the  popular  desire 
was  given  by  manufacturers  is  evidenced  in  many 
ways,  but  in  none  that  is  so  typical  as  was  the 
standardization  of  motor  cars.  At  one  stage  of  the 
industry  its  very  life  was  threatened  by  a  lack  of 
uniformity  in  the  mechanical  construction  of  the 
various  types  of  the  automobile.  The  big  idea  that 
has  made  Henry  Ford's  millions  was  a  combination 
one.  It  was  the  building  of  a  motor  and  car  com- 
bined which  could  be  constructed  at  a  cost  that 
would  command  large  quantity  production.  This 
conception  by  Ford,  alone,  simple  though  it  was, 
proclaims  him  the  genius  he  undoubtedly  is.  The 
purchase  of  cars  between  i8g8,  when  sales  first  be- 
gan to  be  made,  and  1903,  when  Ford  put  out  his 
car,  was  practically  confined  to  people  of  wealth 
and  leisure.  It  required  both  to  own  and  operate 
an  automobile.  Men  bought  them  at  a  cost  of 
$3,000  to  .$12,000  each.  Purchasers  were  exhilarated 
by  auto-intoxication — with  little  thought  of  the 
practical  uses  the  invention  could  be  put  to.  Snob- 
bishness, social  impression  and  display  of  superior 
wealth  were  back  of  many  purchases." — H.  L.  Bar- 
ber, Story  of  the  automobile,  pp.  QS-g8. 

1900-1920. — Fuel  problem. — Starting  devices. — 
"It  seems  amusing  to  us,  today,  to  turn  back  to 
igio-i2  and  read  that  the  vast  increase  in  the  use 
of  the  automobile  had  caused  such  a  demand  for 
gasoline  that  the  quality  had  gone  down  to  a  point 
that  constituted  a  problem.  We  will  understand 
this  better  if  we  realize  that  the  cars  of  igoo  and 
igos,  burning  the  high-grade  gasoline  then  on  the 
market,  were  expected  to  start,  under  all  conditions 
and  without  priming,  on  a  half  or  even  a  quarter 
turn  of  the  crank.  When  the  fuel  became  of  such 
sort  that  this  was  not  feasible,  there  was  a  universal 
consensus  that  some  sort  of  starting  motor  would 
have  to  be  devised.  A  great  many  sorts  were  put 
forward,  but  those  that  worked  pneumatically  or 
through  springs  or  by  introducing  a  preliminary 
charge  of  acetylene  or  some  other  violent  explosive 
and  touching  it  off  with  the  spark  went  overboard 
when  it  was  shown  clearly  that  a  wet  battery  could 
be  built  that  would  not  be  damaged  by  such  rough- 
ing as  it  would  get  from  riding  in  a  car,  and  that  a 
generator   could   be   installed   that   would  keep  it 


charged  to  the  necessary  voltage  for  starting.  The 
development  of  the  electric  starter  began  in  1910, 
and  by  1013  was  complete,  all  the  better  cars  being 
by  that  time  so  equipped.  But  if  a  battery  must 
be  carried  for  this  purpose,  economy  demands  that 
it  be  used  also  for  lighting  and  ignition,  relieving 
the  car  of  weight  and  installation  expense  repre- 
sented by  oil  lamps  and  magneto.  So  we  find  at 
this  time  the  very  general  reversion  to  battery  igni- 
tion, referred  to  above.  The  magneto,  however,  has 
not  submitted  tamely  to  this.  Admitting  that  at 
the  slow  engine-speeds  of  cranking  whether  man- 
ually or  by  motor,  the  battery  gives  a  better  spark 
than  the  magneto,  the  advocates  of  the  latter  point 
out  that  its  spark  increases  in  intensity  with  engine 
speed  and  that  it  ought  therefore  to  be  better  after 
the  car  gets  under  way.  Opinion  here  is  still  in  a 
point  of  flux;  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the 
present  vogue  of  dual  ignition  represents  really  an 
effort  to  get  the  best  of  both  systems,  or  merely  a 
desire  to  sidestop  the  question  of  choosing  between 
them." — Rise  of  the  automobile  (Scientific  Amer- 
ican, Oct.  2,  1920,  p.  358). 

1902-1915. — Development  of  engines. — Cooling 
devices. — Steering  gear. — "In  1907  the  first  six- 
cylinder  model  appeared  in  England,  the  work  of 
Napier,  and  the  precedent  was  quickly  followed, 
until  by,  say,  igio,  it  might  have  been  said  that  the 
two-cylinder  car  of  igo2  had  become  a  four,  and 
the  four  a  six.  At  the  same  time  Hewitt  produced 
an  eight,  but  this  precedent  was  ignored  for  nearly 
a  decade;  the  earliest  of  the  existing  eights  appears 
to  be  the  Cadillac,  of  1914.  The  tendency  toward 
sixes,  and  later  eights,  continued;  and  finally,  in 
1915,  the  Packard,  almost  the  last  car  to  give  up 
the  single  cylinder,  was  the  first  to  set  the  mark  at 
twelve.  A  change  of  importance  that  ought  to  be 
mentioned  is  that  from  chain  drive,  universal  in 
the  early  models,  to  the  propeller  shaft  with  bevel 
gears.  If  a  date  were  to  be  set  at  which  this  be- 
came first  effective,  it  would  be  somewhere  in  the 
vicinity  of  1905.  The  early  designers  surrounded 
the  single  cylinder  with  a  water  jacket,  but  made 
no  definite  provision  for  water  economy.  Perhaps 
they  did  not  expect  their  cars  to  run  far  enough, 
on  one  stretch,  to  require  fresh  water.  But  by 
1900  the  cruising  radius  had  gone  up,  and  radiators 
recognizable  as  such  made  their  appearance,  though 
as  late  as  1902  they  were  universally  low  with 
sloping  fronts.  The  higher,  vertically  up-standing 
type  appeared  in  1904-05,  and  swept  the  field  clean 
within  two  years  at  the  most.  Circulation  was  by 
pump,  until  the  Renault  designers  incorporated  the 
thcrmo-syphon,  which  spread  to  a  few  other  models 
after  igo?.  But  it  must  be  emphasized  that  air- 
cooling  is  not  a  recent  development ;  the  Franklin, 
which  would  be  the  Wilkinson  if  named  after  its 
creator,  dates  back  continuously  to  1902-03,  and 
the  Knox  and  Marmon,  among  others,  were  air- 
cooled  for  a  time.  The  dividing  line  between  horse- 
less carriage  and  automobile  may  perhaps  be  drawn 
from  the  point  where  the  motor  was  transferred  to 
the  front  and  the  conservative  upright  steering  post 
with  horizontal  rod  replaced  by  the  more  sporty 
wheel.  Among  the  names  that  lived,  the  Knox, 
Duryea,  Haynes,  Oldsmobile,  Stearns  and  Pierce 
were  all  handled  through  rods  in  1902;  the  vogue 
of  the  wheel  appears  to  have  become  definitely 
established  not  earlier  than  1904.  And  Levassor's 
example  in  putting  the  engine  where  it  belongs  was 
still  defied  in  1902  by  the  Stearns,  Pierce,  Packard, 
Oldsmobile  and  others,  but  had  become  universal 
two  years  later.  So  perhaps  we  might  say  that  the 
period  before  1900  was  that  of  the  horseless  car- 
riage, and  that  after  four  years  of  transition  we 
come  to  the  automobile." — Ibid.,  p.  358. 

1909-1916. — Growth    of   production. — Reduced 


741 


AUTOMOBILES 


AVA 


prices. — "The  average  price  of  all  motor  vehicles, 
combining  pleasure  cars  and  trucks,  was,  in  1916, 
$636.  The  preponderance  of  passenger  cars  at  the 
lower  prices  brought  the  average  down,  since  the 
average  price  of  motor  trucks  alone  was  about 
!!!i,8oo.  For  every  motor  truck  sold,  eighteen  pas- 
senger cars  were  disposed  of  in  1016.  With  stand- 
ardization and  the  consequent  lowering  of  cost,  the 
automobile  industry  acquired  a  momentum  that  has 
carried  production  forward  on  a  constantly  ascend- 
ing scale,  as  witness  these  figures  of  passenger  cars 
alone: 


No.  of 
Year  cars  made 

iqog So.ooo 

igio 185,000 

iQii 200,000 


Year 


No.  of 
cars  made 


1912 250,000 

iqis 842,249 

1916 1,617,708 


The  manufacture  of  motor  trucks  almost  doubled 
in  one  year.  The  number  produced  in  1015  was 
50^500.  In  1910  the  number  made  was  92,130. 
The  above  table,  showing  the  rate  of  increase  in 
passenger  cars  made  in  seven  years,  makes  it  clear 
that  the  greatest  growth  in  the  passenger  car  busi- 
ness has  been  since  and  including  the  year  1911. 
That  was  the  year  in  which  the  largest  number  of 
medium  and  low  priced  standardiEed  cars  with  re- 
finement of  detail  and  added  equipments,  selling 
from  ?i,500  down  to  $500,  was  first  put  on  the 
market."  Ford  almost  doubled  his  output  in  that 
year.  The  next  years,  1912  and  1913,  also  he  more 
than  doubled  each  year  his  output  of  the  previous 
year.  .And  in  loib  he  made  nearly  one-thi-d  of  all 
the  passenger  cars  produced  in  the  entire  United 
States  in  that  year.  Could  anything  demonstrate 
more  conclusively  than  these  facts,  that  if  you  have 
an  article  within  the  price  of  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, it  will  sell,  if  the  people  want  it  ?  The  one 
idea  of  Henry  Ford — quantity  sales — saved  to  the 
United  States  the  premiership  in  automobile  mak- 
ing. For  other  manufacturers  adopted  it,  some 
radically,  others  in  a  modified  form.  Its  influence 
was  unquestioned  in  putting  the  price  of  motor  cars 
at  a  figure  at  which  a  person  happening  to  have 
less  than  the  income  of  a  millionaire  could  afford 
to  buy  one,  so  that  when  every  one  of  the  many 
values  and  benefits  of  the  existence  of  the  modern 
automobile  is  scheduled,  let  us,  in  giving  credit  for 
them,  place  the  name  of  Ford  at  the  head  of  the 
list.  When  we  have  arrived  at  our  destination,  or 
have  attained  an  object  much  desired,  our  satis- 
faction is  such  that  we  are  in  a  forgiving  mind  and 
prone  to  forget  the  sacrifices  we  had  to  make,  the 
difficulties  we  had  to  overcome,  the  strenuous  work 
we  had  to  do.  The  end  justified  the  means,  and 
we  don't  think  long  about  the  hardships  in  the 
means.  Preeminence  of  the  United  States  in  the 
motor  field  has  not  been  gained  without  hardships, 
sacrifices  and  disappointments  by  those  engaged  in 
it,  nor  was  it  reached  by  the  immediate  and  unin- 
terrupted success  of  all  companies  organized  to  com- 
mercialize the  invention." — H.  L.  Barber,  Slory  of 
the  automobUr,  pp.  100-102. 

1920. — Immense  spread  of  automotive  industry 
and  traffic. — "The  present  survey  may  well  be  con- 
cluded with  a  word  about  the  position  held  today 
in  the  world's  economy  by  the  automotive  indus- 
tries. It  is  in  a  way  hardly  necessary  to  dilate 
upon  this,  yet  one  or  two  concrete  statements  may 
help  to  a  true  realization  of  the  vital  importance 
of  the  automobile  to  our  way  of  doing  things.  For 
one  thing,  we  are  told  that  while  all  the  railroads 
of  the  United  States  in  the  course  of  a  year  yield 
about  45  billion  passenger-miles,  the  automobiles 
of  the  entire  nation  are  responsible  for  70  billion 
of  these  units  of  transportation,     .\gain,  with  the 


3,700  passenger  cars  manufactured  in  1809,  the  first 
year  for  which  records  exist,  and  with  the  411 
trucks  of  1904,  we  may  compare  the  present  normal 
production  of  some  two  million  passenger  cars  and 
three  hundred  thousand,  plus,  trucks.  Finally,  we 
have  the  fact  that  there  are  something  like  seven 
million  automotive  vehicles  of  all  sorts  in  opera- 
tion in  this  country  today.  Figures  are  given  for  the 
United  States  for  the  very  simple  reason  that,  alike 
in  manufacture  and  use,  this  is  the  land  of  the 
automobile.  Under  the  head  of  general  remarks 
about  the  role  of  the  automobile  in  twentieth  cen- 
tury economy  the  difficulty  is  wholly  that  of  find- 
ing a  brief  statement  that  shall  do  the  subject  jus- 
tice. In  every  single  thing  that  we  do  today  the 
automobile  or  the  truck  or  the  tractor  occupies  a 
position  of  importance.  Perhaps  the  most  illumi- 
nating statement  that  could  be  made  would  have 
to  do  with  the  manner  in  which  all  distances  up 
to  fifty,  seventy-five,  or  even  a  hundred  miles  are 
made  to  vanish  into  nothing  by  the  magic  influence 
of  the  motor.  The  isolation  of  farm  life  is  a  thing 
of  the  past,  for  the  farmer  cannot  possibly  be  more 
than  an  hour  from  a  town  that  gives  him  access  to 
high-class  schools  and  stores  and  amusements.  City 
congestion,  serious  as  it  is,  would  be  vastly  worse 
were  it  not  for  the  manner  in  which  the  automobile 
extends  the  suburbs  and  the  area  of  food  supply  far 
beyond  the  remotest  possibilities  of  twenty  years 
ago.  Trucks  carry  freight  from  New  York  to  Phil- 
adelphia in  less  time  than  it  would  take  to  get  it 
to  the  freight  yards  and  loaded  on  a  train.  In  a 
word,  the  automobile — taking  this  term  to  include 
all  gasoline-driven  vehicles — is  with  little  question 
the  greatest  ameliorating  influence  in  modern  life." 
— Rise  oj  the  automobile  (Scientific  American,  Oct. 
2,  1920,  p.  360). 

AUTONOMY,  self-government;  administrative 
independence  of  a  city  or  state.  The  term  was 
applied  to  the  states  of  ancient  Greece  where 
every  city  or  small  community  claimed  sovereign 
power.  In  modern  hiztory  it  is  used  to  describe 
the  condition  of  a  country  which  has  complete 
control  of  its  own  affairs  while  nominally  under 
the  power  of  another  state. 

AUTUN,  Origin  of.    See  Gaul:  The  people. 

287  A.  D. — Sacked  by  the  Bagauds.     See  Ba- 

GAUDS. 

AUVERGNE,  an  ancient  government  of  France 
which  came  under  the  French  crown  in  1S32; 
inhabited  by  the  .Arverni  in  Cjesar's  time,  Vcr- 
cingetorix  at  one  time  leading  them  against  the 
Romans.  See  .-Edui;  Burgundy:  1364;  Gaul:  The 
people;  France:  1665;  also  Maps  of  medieval  peri- 
od: 1154-1360. 

AUVERGNE,  School  of.— "The  school  of  Au- 
vergne  arose  in  a  region  where  the  worship  of 
Mercur}'  had  been  popular  in  the  days  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  where  many  Gallo-Roraan  statues 
and  reliefs  existed.  From  such  remains  of  an- 
tiquity the  early  medieval  sculptors  seem  to  have 
derived  their  inspiration.  They  produced  works 
in  high  relief,  often  with  a  good  deal  of  under- 
cutting. ...  In  choice  of  subjects  this  school 
shows  a  preference  for  allegorical  figures,  especially 
for  the  conflict  of  the  Virtues  with  the  Vices: 
among  these  the  punishment  of  .Avarice  is  most 
popular.  .  .  .  The  capitals  of  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  du  Pont,  at  Clermont,  of  the  early  part 
of  the  twelfth  century,  are  good  examples  of  the 
work  of  this  school." — H.  N.  Fowler,  History  of 
sculpture,  p.   107-108. 

AUXILIUM,  old  English  tax.    See  Tallage. 

AVA,  a  town  and  former  capital  of  the  em- 
pire of  Burma;  situated  on  the  Irrawaddy  river, 
six  miles  south  of  Mandalay,  the  present  capital. 
See  Burma:  Early  history;  India:  1823-1833. 


742 


AVALAKITESVARA 


AVARS 


AVALAKITESVARA,  Buddhism.  See  Myth- 
OLOCv:  Eastern  Asia:  Indian  and  Chinese  influ- 
ences. 

AVALON,  Lord  Baltimore's  name  for  his  prov- 
ince of  Newfoundland.    Sec  Newfoundland:  i6io- 

1655- 

AVARICUM.     See  Bourges,  Origin  of. 

AVARS. — The  true  Avars  are  represented  to 
have  been  a  powerful  Turanian  people  who  ex- 
ercised in  the  sixth  century  a  wide  dominion  in 
Central  Asia.  Among  the  tribes  subject  to  them 
was  one  called  the  Ogors,  or  Ouigours,  or  Ouiars, 
or  Ouar  Khouni,  or  Varchonitcs  (these  diverse 
names  have  been  given  to  the  nation)  which  is 
supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  national  family 
of  the  Huns.  Some  time  in  the  early  half  of  the 
sixth  century,  the  Turks,  then  a  people  who  dwelt 
in  the  very  center  of  Asia,  at  the  foot  of  the  Altai 
mountains,  making  their  first  appearance  in  his- 
tory as  conquerors,  crushed  and  almost  annihilated 
the  Avars,  thereby  becoming  the  lords  of  the  Oui- 
gours,  or  Ouar  Khouni.  But  the  latter  found 
an  opportunity  to  escape  from  the  Turkish  yoke. 
"Gathering  together  their  wives  and  their  chil- 
dren, their  flocks  and  their  herds,  they  turned  their 
waggons  towards  the  Setting  Sun.  This  immense 
exodus  comprised  upwards  of  200,000  persons. 
The  terror  which  inspired  their  flight  rendered 
them  resistless  in  the  onset ;  for  the  avenging  Turk 
was  behind  their  track.  They  overturned  every- 
thing before  them,  even  the  Hunnic  tribes  of 
kindred  origin,  who  had  long  hovered  on  the 
north-east  frontiers  of  the  Empire,  and,  driving 
out  or  enslaving  the  inhabitants,  established  them- 
selves in  the  wide  plains  which  stretch  between 
the  Volga  and  the  Don.  In  that  age  of  imperfect 
information  they  were  naturally  enough  con- 
founded with  the  greatest  and  most  formidable 
tribe  of  the  Turanian  stock  known  to  the  nations 
of  the  West.  The  report  that  the  Avars  had 
broken  loose  from  Asia,  and  were  coming  in  ir- 
resistible force  to  overrun  Europe,  spread  itself 
all  along  both  banks  of  the  Danube  and  penetrated 
to  the  Byzantine  court.  [See  Byzantine  empire: 
Part  in  history.]  With  true  barbaric  cunning,  the 
Ouar  Khouni  availed  themselves  of  the  mistake, 
and  by  calling  themselves  Avars  largely  increased 
the  terrors  of  their  name  and  their  chances  of 
conquest."  The  pretended  Avars  were  taken  into 
the  pay  of  the  empire  by  Justinian  and  employed 
against  the  Hun  tribes  north  and  cast  of  the 
Black  sea.  They  presently  acquired  a  firm  foot- 
ing on  both  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  turned 
their  arms  against  the  empire.  The  important 
city  of  Sirmium  was  taken  by  them  after  an 
obstinate  siege  and  its  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword. 
Their  ravages  extended  over  central  Europe  to 
the  Elbe,  where  they  were  beaten  back  by  the 
warlike  Franks,  and,  southwards,  through  Moesia, 
Illyria,  Thrace,  Macedonia  and  Greece,  even  to 
the  Peloponnesus.  Constantinople  itself  was 
threatened  more  than  once,  and  in  the  summer 
of  626,  it  was  desperately  attacked  by  Avars  and 
Persians  in  conjunction  (see  Rome:  565-628),  with 
disastrous  results  to  the  assailants.  But  the  seat 
of  their  empire  was  the  Dacian  country — modern 
Rumania,  Transylvania  and  part  of  Hungary — in 
which  the  .'\vars  had  helped  the  Lombards  to  crush 
and  extinguish  the  Gepids.  [See  Rumania:  B.C. 
Sth  century  to  A.  D.  1241.]  The  Slavic  tribes 
which,  by  this  time,  had  moved  in  great  num- 
bers into  central  and  south-eastern  Europe,  were 
largely  in  subjection  to  the  Avars  and  did  their 
bidding  in  war  and  peace.  "These  unfortunate 
creatures,  of  apparently  an  imperfect,  or,  at  any 
rate,  imperfectly  cultivated  intelligence,  endured 
such  frightful  tyranny  from  their  Avar  conquerors, 


that  their  very  name  has  passed  into  a  synonyme 
for  the  most  degraded  servitude." — J.  G.  Shep- 
pard.  Fall  of  Rome,  led.  4. — See  also  Albania: 
Name  and  people;  Balkan  States:  Races  exist- 
ing; and  Europe:  Introduction  to  historic  period: 
Migrations. 

Also  in:  E.  Gibbon,  History  oj  the  decline  and 
fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  ch.  42. 

7th  century. — Slavic  revolt. — The  empire  of 
the  Avars  was  shaken  and  much  diminished  in 
the  seventh  century  by  an  extensive  rising  of  their 
oppressed  Slavic  subjects,  roused  and  led,  it  is 
said,  by  a  Frank  merchant,  or  adventurer,  named 
Samo,  who  became  their  king.  [See  Bulgaria: 
/th  century]  The  first  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
were  a  tribe  called  the  Vcndes,  or  Wendes,  or 
Venedi,  in  Bohemia,  who  were  reputed  to  be  half- 
castes,  resulting  from  intercourse  between  the 
Avar  warriors  and  the  women  of  their  Slavic 
vassals.  Under  the  lead  of  Samo,  the  Wendes 
and  Slovenes  or  Slavonians  drove  the  Avars  to 
the  east  and  north ;  and  it  seems  to  have  been 
in  connection  with  this  revolution  that  the  em- 
peror Heraclius  induced  the  Serbs  or  Servians  and 
Croats — Slavic  tribes  of  the  same  race  and  religion 
— to  settle  in  depopulated  Dalmatia.  "  'From  the 
year  630  A.  D.,'  writes  M.  Thierry,  'the  Avar  peo- 
ple are  no  longer  mentioned  in  the  annals  of 
the  East ;  the  successors  of  Attila  no  longer  figure 
beside  the  successors  of  Constantine.  It  required 
new  wars  in  the  West  to  bring  upon  the  stage  of 
history  the  khan  and  his  people.'  In  these  wars 
[of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne]  they  were  finally 
swept  off  from  the  roll  of  European  nations." — 
J.  G.  Sheppard,  Fall  of  Rome,  lecture  4. 

626. — Attack  on  Constantinople  with  Persians. 
See  Rome:  Medieval  City:  565-628. 

640. — Devastation  of  Albania.  Sec  Albania: 
Early  history. 

791-805. — Conquest  by  Charlemagne. — "Hun- 
gary, now  so  called,  was  possessed  by  the  Avars, 
who,  joining  with  themselves  a  multitude  of  Hun- 
rish  tribes,  accumulated  the  immense  spoils  which 
both  they  themselves  and  their  equally  barbarous 
predecessors  had  torn  from  the  other  nations  of 
Europe.  .  .  .  They  extended  their  limits  towards 
Lombardy,  and  touched  upon  the '  very  verge  of 
Bavaria.  .  .  .  Much  of  their  eastern  frontier  was 
now  lost,  almost  without  a  struggle  on  their  part, 
by  the  rise  of  other  barbarous  nations,  especially 
the  various  tribes  of  Bulgarians."  This  was  the 
position  of  the  Avars  at  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
whom  they  provoked  by  forming  an  alliance  with 
the  ambitious  duke  of  Bavaria,  Tassilo, — most 
obstinate  of  all  who  resisted  the  Frank  king's 
imperious  and  imperial  rule.  In  a  series  of  vigor- 
ous campaigns,  between  701  and  707  Charlemagne 
crushed  the  power  of  the  Avars  and  took  pos- 
session of  their  country.  The  royal  "ring"  or 
stronghold — believed  to  have  been  situated  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Tatar,  between  the  Danube 
and  the  Theiss — was  penetrated,  and  the  vast 
treasure  stored  there  was  seized.  Charlemagne 
distributed  it  with  a  generous  hand  to  churches, 
to  monasteries  and  to  the  poor,  as  well  as  to 
his  own  nobles,  servants  and  soldiers,  who  arc 
said  to  have  been  made  rich.  There  were  sub- 
sequent risings  of  the  Avars  and  wars,  until  805, 
when  the  remnant  of  that  almost  annihilated  peo- 
ple obtained  permission  to  .settle  on  a  tract  of 
land  between  Sarwar  and  Haimburg,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  where  they  would  be  pro- 
tected from  their  Slavonian  enemies.  This  was  the 
end  of  the  Avar  nation. — G.  P.  R.  James,  History 
of  Charlemagne,  bks.  q  and  1 1 . 

Also  in:  J.  I.  Mombert,  History  of  Charles  the 
Great,  bk.  2,  ch.  7. 


743 


AVARS,   RINGS  OF 


AVEZZANO 


AVARS,  Rings  of  the.— The  fortifications  of 
the  Avars  were  of  a  peculiar  and  effective  construc- 
tion and  were  called  Hrings,  or  Rings.  "They 
seem  to  have  been  a  series  of  eight  or  nine 
gigantic  ramparts,  constructed  in  concentric  circles, 
the  inner  one  of  all  being  called  the  royal  circle 
or  camp,  where  was  deposited  all  the  valuable 
plunder  which  the  warriors  had  collected  in  their 
expeditions.  The  method  of  constructing  these 
ramparts  was  somewhat  singular.  Two  parallel 
rows  of  gigantic  piles  were  driven  into  the  ground 
some  twenty  feet  apart.  The  intervening  space 
was  filled  with  stones,  or  a  species  of  chalk,  so 
compacted  as  to  become  a  solid  mass.  The  sides 
and  summit  were  covered  with  soil,  upon  which 
were  planted  trees  and  shrubs,  whose  interlacing 
branches  formed  an  impenetrable  hedge." — J.  G. 
Sheppard,  Fall  of  Rome,  lecture  9. 

AVEBURY,  a  village  of  Wiltshire,  England. 
It  is  the  site  of  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  monu- 
ment, similar  to  Stonehenge  but  more  primitive. 
"The  numerous  circles  of  stone  or  of  earth  in 
Britain  and  Ireland,  varying  in  diameter  from  30 
or  40  feet  up  to  1,200,  are  to  be  viewed  as  temples 
standing  in  the  closest  possible  relations  to  the 
burial-places  of  the  dead.  The  most  imposing  group 
of  remains  of  this  kind  in  this  country  [England] 
is  that  of  Avebury  [.\bury],  near  Devizes,  in  Wilt- 
shire, referred  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  to  a  late  stage 
in  the  Neolithic  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  bronze 
period.  It  consists  of  a  large  circle  of  unworked 
upright  stones  1,200  feet  in  diameter,  surrounded 
by  a  fosse,  which  in  turn  is  also  surrounded  by  a 
rampart  of  earth.  Inside  are  the  remains  of  two 
concentric  circles  of  stone,  and  from  the  two  en- 
trances in  the  rampart  proceeded  long  avenues 
flanked  by  stones,  one  leading  to  Beckhampton, 
and  the  other  to  West  Kennett,  where  it  formerly 
ended  in  another  double  circle.  Between  them  rises 
Silbun.'  Hill,  the  largest  artificial  mound  in  Great 
Britain,  no  less  than  130  feet  in  height.  This  group 
of  remains  was  at  one  time  second  to  none,  'but 
unfortunately  for  us  [says  Sir  John  Lubbock]  the 
pretty  little  village  of  Avebury  [Abury],  like  some 
beautiful  parasite,  has  grown  up  at  the  expense 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  ancient  temple,  and  out  of 
650  great  stones,  not  above  twenty  are  still  stand- 
ing. In  spite  of  this  it  is  still  to  be  classed  among 
the  finest  ruins  in  Europe.' " — W.  B.  Dawkins, 
Early  man  in  Britain,  ch.  10. — See  also  Stone- 
henge. 

AVEIN,  Battle  of  (1635).  See  Netherlands: 
1635-1638. 

AVENGERS,  or  Vendicatori,  a  secret  clan 
formed  in  Sicily  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century  for  the  purpose  of  avenging  so  called 
"popular  wrongs."  The  organization  came  to  an 
end  with  the  persecution  of  its  leaders  by  William 
II,  the  Norman  king. 

AVENTINE.    See  Seven  Hills  of  Rome. 

AVENTINUS,  Johann  Turmair  (1477-1534), 
historian  in  Renaissance.    See  History:  22. 

AVERNUS,  LaV-e  and  cavern.— A  gloomy  lake 
called  Avernus.  which  filled  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  situated  a  little  to  the  north  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  was  the  object  of  many  super- 
stitious imaginations  among  the  ancients.  "There 
was  a  place  near  Lake  Avernus  called  the  prophetic 
cavern.  Persons  were  in  attendance  there  who 
called  up  ghosts.  Anv  one  desiring  it  came 
thither,  and.  having  killed  a  victim  and  poured 
out  libations,  summoned  whatever  ghost  he  wanted. 
The  ghost  came,  very  faint  and  doubtful  to  the 
sight." — Maximus  Tyrius,  quoted  by  C.  C.  Fel- 
ton,  Greece,  ancient  and  modern,  c.  2,  lecture  9. — 
See  also  Cumx  and  Bal.«. 


AVERROES  (Abul-Walid  Muhammad  ibn- 
Ahmad  Ibn-Muhammad  ibn-Rushd)  (1126-1198), 
Arabian  philosopher.    See  Averroism. 

AVERROISM.— "The  works  of  the  Arab  free- 
thinker Averroes  (twelfth  century)  which  were 
based  on  .Aristotle's  philosophy,  propagated  a  small 
wave  of  rationalism  in  Christian  countries.  Aver- 
roes held  the  eternity  of  matter  and  denied  the 
immortality  of  the  soul ;  his  general-  view  may 
be  described  as  pantheism.  But  he  sought  to 
avoid  difficulties  with  the  orthodox  authorities  of 
Islam  by  laying  down  the  doctrine  of  double 
truth,  that  is  the  coexistence  of  two  independent 
and  contradictory  truths,  the  one  philosophical, 
and  the  other  religious.  This  did  not  save  him 
from  being  banished  from  the  court  of  the  Spanish 
caliph.  In  the  University  of  Paris  his  teaching 
produced  a  school  of  freethinkers  who  held  that 
the  Creation,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
other  essential  dogmas,  might  be  true  from  the 
standpoint  of  religion  but  are  false  from  the  stand- 
point of  reason.  .  .  .  This  dangerous  movement 
was  crushed,  and  the  saving  principle  of  double 
truth  condemned,  by  Pope  John  XXI.  The 
spread  of  Averroistic  and  similar  speculations 
called  forth  the  Theology  of  Thomas,  of  Aquino 
in  South  Italy  (died  1274),  a  most  subtle  thinker, 
whose  mind  had  a  natural  turn  for  scepticism. 
He  enlisted  -Aristotle,  hitherto  the  guide  of  in- 
fidelity, on  the  side  of  orthodoxy,  and  construct- 
ed an  ingenious  Christian  philosophy  which  is 
still  authoritative  in  the  Roman  Church." — J.  B. 
Bury,  Historv  of  freedom  of  thought,  pp.  68- 
69. 

AVERY,  Samuel  P.  (1822-1904),  American 
connoisseur  and  art  dealer.  .\  founder  and  long  a 
trustee  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 
York  City.  Gift  of  architectural  library  for  Colum- 
bia Universitv.    See  Gifts  and  Bequests. 

AVERYSBORO,  Battle  of.  See  U.  S.  A.  1865 
(February-March):   The  Carolinas. 

AVESNES,  a  railroad  town  of  France,  thirty 
miles  east  of  Cambrai,  overrun  by  the  Germans 
in  August,  1914,  and  recovered  by  the  British, 
November  8,  1918.  See  World  War:  1918:  II. 
Western  front:  w,  2;  x,  3. 

AVESTA,  or  Zend-Avesta,  sacred  writings  of 
the  Parsees  ascribed  by  them  to  Zoroaster  and  his 
immediate  disciples.  The  present  collection  which 
exists  in  Pahlavi  is  only  a  fragment  of  the  original 
Zoroastrian  scriptures.  The  name  "Zend-.Avesta" 
came  into  use  in  Europe  about  1771  W'hen  .Anquetil 
Duperron  translated  the  remnants  of  the  .Avesta. 
Although  Hyde,  an  Oxford  scholar,  had  written  on 
the  subject  at  an  earlier  date,  he  failed  to  create 
the  interest  that  Duperron  aroused.  A  century 
later  Spiegel  made  a  noteworthy  translation,  inter- 
preting the  Parsee  documents  from  a  viewpoint 
entirely  different  from  that  of  Duperron.  In  fact 
the  interpretation  of  the  .A vesta  is  a  matter  of  such 
philological  difficulty  that  no  agreement  has  been 
reached  even  on  the  most  important  points.  It 
was  from  these  translations  of  the  Pahlavi  books 
where  the  text  and  translation  are  spoken  of  as 
"Avesta  and  Zend"  that  the  misnomer  Zend-.\vesta 
arose.  The  book  is  not  contained  in  a  single  manu- 
script, but  in  a  collection  of  writings  as  the  Old 
Testament  is.  Although  these  do  not  measure  up 
to  the  Old  Testament,  nevertheless,  as  the  basis  of 
the  Zoroastrian  faith,  and  as  the  only  literary  leg- 
acy of  the  ancient  Iran,  they  hold  a  place  of 
unique  importance  in  the  world's  literature. — See 
also     Magmns;     P.arsees;     Persian     literatxtre; 

ZOROASTRHNS. 

AVEZZANO,  Italy.  Earthquake  of  1915.  See 
Italy:   1915:   Severe  earthquakes. 


744 


AVIATION 


AVIATION 


AVIATION 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  BALLOONS 
AND  DIRIGIBLES 

Early  history. — Inception  of  the  balloon. — It  is 

not  improbable  that  when  primitive  man  iirst 
began  to  think  he  instinctively  felt  a  desire  to 
emulate  the  flight  of  birds  as  his  eyes  followed 
their  inexplicable  progress  through  the  air.  Dur- 
ing later  ages,  as  records  show,  he  has  philoso- 
phized, schemed  and  experimented  to  conquer  the 


about  the  time  of  the  founding  of  Rome,  caused 
to  be  built  an  apparatus  with  which  he  sailed 
in  the  air  above  the  chief  city  of  Trinovantes, 
but  that  losing  his  balance  he  fell  upon  a  temple 
and  was  killed.  ...  A  better  authenticated  legend 
seems  to  be  that  of  Simon  the  Magician,  who  in 
the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Nero  (about  67  A.  D.)  undertook  to  rise  toward 
heaven  like  a  bird  in  the  presence  of  everybody. 
The  legend  relates  that  'the  people  assembled  to 


S>ketcK   0/  F/yina  Ma.chine 
S^  Leonardo  da.  Yinci 


Ed.-r7^   f 6^  Century 
Design  foy  a.n  /Airship 


Pi ir ship  Mode/ 
6ui/i   in  1785 


jBa.lloon  hui/t 

by  Cha^rles  7n/80'9- 


TYPES   OF   EARLY  ATTEMPTS    AT   FLYING-MACHINES 


air,  only  to  be  thrown  back  upon  the  conclusion 
— apparently  definite  and  final — that  he  had  not, 
and  could  not  hope  to  attain  the  necessary  power 
to  operate  a  pair  of  wings  of  sufficient  spread 
to  carry  him  through  the  air.  A  famous  pioneer 
of  aviation.  Octave  Chanute,  has  traced  the  prob- 
able inception  of  these  ambitious  projects  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Roman  era.  In  i8g4  he 
published  a  book  "Progress  in  flying  machines," 
in  which  he  fixes  "the  earliest  legend  of  an  ex- 
periment which  we  may  fairly  suppose  to  have 
been  tried  with  an  aeroplane  ...  in  the  some- 
what fabulous  chronicles  of  Britain,  wherein  it 
is  related  that  King  Bladud,  the  father  of  King 
Lear,  who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  in  Britain 


view  so  extraordinary  a  phenomenon,  and  Simon 
rose  into  the  air  through  the  assistance  of  the 
demons  in  the  presence  of  an  enormous  crowd, 
but  that  St.  Peter  having  offered  up  a  prayer, 
the  action  of  the  demons  ceased  and  the  magician 
was  crushed  in  the  fall  and  perished  instantly.' 
It  seems,  therefore,  certain  from  this  tale,  which 
has  come  down  to  us  without  any  material  altera- 
tion, that  even  in  that  barbarous  age  a  man  suc- 
ceeded in  rising  into  the  air  from  the  earth  by 
some  means  which  have  unfortunately  remained 
unknown.  .  .  .  There  is  a  tradition  of  the  eleventh 
century  concerning  Oliver  of  Malmesbury  who, 
in  some  of  the  accounts,  is  styled  'Elmerus  de 
Malemeria,'  and  who  was  an  English  Benedictine 


745 


AVIATION 


Balloons 


AVIATION 


monk,  said  to  have  been  a  deep  student  ol  mathe- 
matics and  of  astrology,  thereby  earning  the  repu- 
tation ol  a  wizard.  The  legend  relates  that  hav- 
ing manufactured  some  wings,  modeled  after  the 
description  that  Ovid  has  given  of  those  of 
Daedalus,  and  having  fastened  them  to  his  hands, 
he  sprang  from  the  top  of  a  tower  against  the 
wind.  He  succeeded  in  sailing  a  distance  of  125 
paces,  but  either  through  the  impetuosity  or  whirl- 
ing of  the  wind,  or  through  nervousness  resulting 
from  his  audacious  enterprise,  he  fell  to  the  earth 
and  broke  his  legs.  .  .  .  .\  more  explicit  tradition  01 
the  same  kind  comes  from  Constantinople  where, 
under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Manuel  Com- 
menus,  probably  about  the  year  11 78,  a  Saracen 
(reported  to  be  a  magician,  of  course),  whose 
name  is  not  given,  undertook  to  sail  into  the 
air  from  the  top  of  the  tower  of  the  Hippodrome 
in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor.  .  .  .  'The  Saracen 
kept  extending  his  arms   to  fetch  the  wind.     At 


SPHERICAL  BALLOONS 

Start  of  a  balloon  race 

last  when  he  deemed  it  favorable,  he  rose  into 
the  air  like  a  bird,  but  his  flight  was  as  unfor- 
tunate as  that  of  Icarus,  for  the  weight  nf  his 
body  having  more  power  to  draw  him  down  than 
his  artificial  wings  had  to  sustain'  him,  he  fell  and 
broke  his  bones.'  .  .  .  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
traditions  of  partial  success  with  a  flying  ma- 
chine refers  to  J.  B.  Dante,  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician of  Perugia,  who,  toward  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  seems  to  have  succeeded  in 
constructing  a  set  of  artificial  wings  with  which 
he  sailed  over  the  neighboring  lake  of  Trasimene. 
We  have  no  description  of  the  apparatus,  but  this 
was  presumably  an  aeroplane,  soaring  upon  the 
wind,  for  we  have  seen  abundantly  that  all  experi- 
ments have  failed  with  flapping  wings,  man  not 
having  the  strength  required  to  vibrate  with  suf- 
ficient rapidity  a  surface  sufficient  to  carry  his 
weight  in  the  air." — O.  Chanutc.  Progress  in  flying 
machines,  pp.  76-78,  80,  8t. 

13th  century. — Roger  Bacon  (1214-1202)  sug- 
gested a  plan  of  flotation  of  a  large  hollow  sphere 
of   ver\'    thin   copper,   to   be   filled    with    "etherial 


air  or  liquid  fire,"  which  he  conceived  would 
navigate  the  air  as  a  ship  does  the  water.  There 
is  no  definite  record  that  he  submitted  his  theories 
to  a  practical  test. 

14th  century. — Bishop  .\lbert  of  Halberstadt  be- 
lieved it  would  be  possible  to  enclose  hot  air 
in  a  sphere  and  raise  the  same  into  the  air. 

17th  century. — .-V  Portuguese  Jesuit,  Francis 
Mendoza,  and  Caspar  Schott,  a  German  Jesuit, 
respectively  evolved  different  theories  to  make 
hollow  spheres  float  in  the  air  by  lire  and  "etherial 
fluid."  A  more  impractical  suggestion  was  that  of 
an  Italian  Jesuit,  Francesco  Lana  (1631-1687), 
who  proposed  four  thin  copper  balls  each  of 
twenty  or  twenty-five  feet  diameter,  entirely  ex- 
hausted of  air.  One  of  these  balls  or  balloons 
was  to  be  attached  to  the  corners  of  a  square 
basket  or  car,  which  latter  was  to  carry  a  mast 
and  sail.  The  fallacy  underlying  his  theory 
consisted  in  the  physical  condition  that  the 
envelopes  would  be  too  thin  to  withstand  at- 
mospheric pressure.  Vet  it  was  upon  this  princi- 
pal that  the  modern  balloon  was  subsequently 
evolved. 

1783-1784. — The  earliest  practical  experiments  in 
ballooning  were  made  in  this  year,  during  which, 
it  may  be  said,  a  new  science  was  born.  Until 
the  eighteenth  century,  aeronautics  still  appeared 
to  be  an  impracticable  idea.  In  17S3.  however, 
the  brothers  Joseph  and  Etienne  Montgolfier  at 
.■\nnonay,  France,  invented  the  free  balloon  which 
proved  the  simplest  method  of  overcoming  gravity. 
The  heated  air  used  in  the  Montgolfier  balloon 
was  soon  replaced  with  hydrogen,  an  important 
advance,  since  this  gas  lifts  about  sixty-eight 
pounds  per  1,000  cubic  feet  as  against  some  ten 
pounds  for  the  highest  temperature  that  is  prac- 
tical for  a  hot-air  balloon.  The  largest  of  this 
type  ever  built  was  Le  Flesselles,  which  was 
launched  at  Lyons,  France,  in  1784  and  measured 
100  feet  in  diameter  and  130  feet  in  height.  Its 
\olume  is  given  as  5qo,qqq  cubic  feet.  The  im- 
portant events  of  these  two  years  are  summarized 
as  follows: 

Sept.  10.  17S3. — Joseph  Montgolfier  sent  up  a 
balloon  charged  with  hot  air,  carrying  a  cage  con- 
taining a  sheep,  a  cock  and  a  duck,  these  being, 
so  far  as  we  know  with  any  degree  of  certainty, 
the  first  living  creatures  to  ascend  into  the  air 
by  means  of  a  human  invention;  height,  about 
1,500    feet. 

Oct.  15. — Jean  Franqois  Pilatre  de  Rozier  (1756- 
1785)  ascended  in  a  Montgolfier  captive  balloon — 
the  first  human  air  passenger. 

Nov.  21. — Pilatre  de  Rozier  and  the  marquis 
d'Arlandes  ascended  in  a  free  fire  balloon  from 
the  Bois  de  Boulogne  to  about  500  feet.  They 
traveled  about  five  miles  within  twenty-five  min- 
utes and  descended  in  safety. 

November. — The  first  balloon  ascended  from 
British  soil,  without  any  passenger.  It  was  made 
by  an  Italian,  the  Conte  Zambeccari.  and  inflated 
with  hydrogen  gas.  The  balloon,  which  rose  in 
London,  traveled  forty-eight  miles  in  two  hours 
and  a  half. 

Dec.  I. — Jacques  Alexandre  Cesar  Charles  (1746- 
1823),  a  French  mathematician  and  physicist,  was 
the  first  to  inflate  a  balloon  with  hydrogen  gas. 
He  made  an  ascent  from  Paris  in  company  with 
one  of  the  brothers  Robert,  who  had  manufactured 
the  balloon  They  rose  to  about  2,000  feet  and 
sailed  twenty-seven  miles,  when  they  came  to 
earth  and  Robert  left  the  car.  Charles  con- 
tinued the  trip  alone.  The  lightened  balloon 
shot  up  to  a  height  of  two  miles  The  device  of 
suspending  the  car  from  a  hoop  attached  to  the 
netting  and  also  the  valve  on  top  of  the  balloon. 


746 


/ 


AVIATION 


Balloons 
Parac/iittes 


AVIATION 


both   of   which   are   still   in   use   to-day,   were   in- 
troduced by   Charles. 

Feb.  22,  1784. — First  balloon  across  the  chan- 
nel.— A  balloon,  without  a  passenger,  flew  from 
Kent  to  Warneton,  French  Flanders,  seventy-five 
miles. 

Aug.  27. — The  first  human  being  to  ascend 
from  British  soil  is  believed  to  have  been  J. 
Tytler,  He  went  up  in  a  balloon  of  his  own 
make  at  Edinburgh  and  traveled  hall  a  mile. 

Sept.  15. — Vincente  Lunardi,  attached  to  the 
Neapolitan  embassy  in  London,  ascended  in  a  bal- 
loon, accompanied  by  a  pigeon,  a  dog  and  a  cat. 

1821. — Coal  gas  for  inflation  of  balloons  first 
used  by  George  Green,  an  English  aeronaut. 

1844. — John  Wise,  America's  pioneer  balloonist, 
invented  the  rip  panel,  a  ribbon  covering  a  vertical 
seam  on  the  upper  half  of  the  balloon,  which 
on  landing,  can  promptly  be  pulled  off  to  allow 
instant  deflation  and  thus  prevent  dragging  by 
the   wind. 

1862  (May  24).— In  .iVmerican  Civil  War,  Gen- 
eral Stoneman  ascended  in  a  captive  balloon  and 
directed  his  artillery  fire. 

1870-1913. — Balloon  developments. — Kite-bal- 
loons.— Parachutes. — Remarkable  flights. — The 
modtrn  free  ballodii  varies  in  size  to  contain  from 
g.ooo  to  80,000  cubic  feet.  Larger  balloons  have  been 
constructed  and  successfully  operated.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  (1870- 
1871),  some  164  passengers  were  carried  out  of 
Paris,  together  with  valuable  documents  and 
3,000,000  despatches.  Out  of  sixty-six  balloons, 
only  five  were  captured  by  the  Germans  be- 
sieging the  city,  and  two  were  lost  in  the  At- 
lantic. One  balloon,  carrying  two  passengers,  was 
driven  by  wind  storms  from  Paris  to  Norway, 
where  it  fell  into  a  snow  drift.  So  great  was 
the  moral  and  material  success  of  this  enterprise 
that  Bismarck  threatened  to  shoot  every  aeronaut 
as  a  spy,  while  Krupp  produced  the  first  anti- 
aircraft gun.  In  i8qj,  the  defects  of  the  cap- 
tive balloon  were  overcome  by  two  German  offi- 
cers. Captains  Parseval  and  Siegsfeld,  who  de- 
vised the  so-called  kite  balloon.  This  consists  of 
an  elongated  gas-bag  divided  into  two  unequal 
portions,  the  larger  of  which  (comprising  about 
four-fifths  of  the  total  volume)  is  filled  with 
hydrogen,  the  remaining  one-fifth  constituting  the 
ballonet  or  air-cell,  which  is  automatically  in- 
flated by  the  wind  through  a  convenient  aperture. 
In  the  World  War  the  kite  balloon  was  used  by 
practically  all  the  belligerents;  on  the  Western 
front  alone  hundreds  of  them  were  to  be  seen 
behind  both  Allied  and  German  lines.  Since  the 
occupants  of  these  kite  balloons  have  no  means 
of  defending  themselves  against  airplane  attacks, 
they  are  provided  with  parachutes  which  enable 
them  to  jump  from  the  fired  balloon  and  descend 
in  safety.  In  balloons  men  have  risen  higher  than 
any  airplane  has  mounted  yet.  Coxwell  and 
Glaisher  were  once  credited,  upon  their  own  re- 
port, of  having  reached  an  altitude  of  .^7,000  feet, 
about  seven  miles,  in  a  balloon  which  ascended 
at  Wolverhampton,  England,  on  Sept.  5,  1862. 
One  of  the  aeronauts  lost  consciousness  at  five 
and  a  half  miles;  the  other,  though  dazed  and 
frozen  numb,  retained  his  wits  and  managed  to 
bring  the  balloon  safely  to  earth.  It  is  doubted 
now  if  they  even  reached  a  height  of  six  miles. 
On  July  II,  1807,  Salomon  A.  .\ndree,  Swedish 
engineer  and  aeronaut,  started  from  Danes  island, 
Spitsbergen,  in  a  balloon  with  two  companions, 
Strindberg  and  Fankel,  in  an  attempt  to  reach 
the  North  Pole  They  were  never  heard  of  again, 
and  nothing  is  known  of  their  fate,  though  sev- 
eral   relief    expeditions    were    sent    to    search    for 


them  between  1897  and  i8qg.  Two  days  after 
their  departure  they  had  released  a  carrier  pigeon 
bearing  a  message  indicating  that  the  balloon  was 
at  the  time  about  145  miles  northeast  of  the  start- 
ing point.  In  a  very  large  balloon,  the  Preussen 
(.Prussia),  Professor  Berson  and  Dr.  Suring  as- 
cended near  Berlin  on  July  31,  iqoi,  to  a  height 
of  34,430  feet,  which  has  been  accepted  as  a 
record.  On  May  28,  1013,  three  Frenchmen,  MM. 
Bienaime.  Schneider  and  Lenorique,  in  the  Icare, 
provided  with  oxygen  respiration  apparatus,  rose 
to  33,074  feet  and  were  almost  frozen.  Two  com- 
panions of  (Jaston  Tissandier  succumbed  to  the 
cold  at  28,160  feet  in  the  balloon  Zenith  on  April 
15,  1875,  but  apparently  these  aeronauts  carried 
no  oxygen  outfit.  In  relation  to  aviation,  bal- 
loon records  are  pertinent  only  as  indicating  the 
peril  to  vitality  at  very  high  altitudes.  Piloting 
an  airplane  is  different  from  sitting  in  the  car  . 
of  a  balloon.    Once  the  pilot's  limbs  are  benumbed 


"TURTLE"    OBSERVATION    BALLOON 

there  is  danger  that  he  will  lose  control  of  his 
machine,  and  this  danger  naturally  increases  the 
higher  he  goes. 

1884-1897. — Transition  from  balloon  to  diri- 
gible.— Flight  of  La  France. — By  a  process  of 
natural  sequence,  the  free  balloon  led  to  the  dirigi- 
ble. The  former  cannot  be  guided,  and  is  at  all 
times  at  the  mercy  of  the  winds:  the  balloon  must 
travel  in  whatever  direction  the  wind  blows. 
Combine  a  power  plant  with  a  suitable  free  balloon 
and  the  result  is  an  airship.  Whereas  the  spherical 
shape  is  the  only  one  for  free  balloons,  quite  a 
variety  of  forms  have  been  constructed  and  pro- 
posed for  airships,  or,  as  they  may  be  called, 
motor-balloons.  Roze,  a  Frenchman,  placed  two 
separate  balloons  side  by  side ;  another  attempt 
was  made  with  an  elliptical  cross-section  form,  to 
resist  the  influence  of  the  wind  in  landing  But 
the  great  majority  of  constructors  adopt  the  more 
or  less  oblong  and  rounded  shapes.  One  of  the 
earlier  theories  in  vogue  some  twenty  years  ago 
with    regard   to   the  shape   best    adapted    for   air- 


747 


AVIATION 


Dirigibles 
Zeppelin's  Achievements 


AVIATION 


ships  was  that  cone-shaped  bodies  fly  better  than 
cylindrical  ones.  The  swiftest  fliers,  swallows  and 
seagulls,  have  a  tapered  form,  rounded  in  front 
the  same  as  a  drop  of  water,  which,  in  a  sense, 
has  the  property  of  assuming  the  most  favorable 
form  for  cleaving  the  air  during  its  fall.  E.xperi- 
ments  with  models,  such  as  are  made  before  a 
marine  vessel  is  built,  yield  no  useful  results  in 
the  case  of  large  airships,  on  account  of  the 
elasticity  of  the  air  and  its  capacity  to  accept  in- 
stantly a  high  rate  of  speed.  Little  success  at- 
tended experiments  with  a  lish-like  form  of  bal- 
loon, severely  tapered,  because  this  shape  de- 
mands a  larger  resisting  cross-section,  from  which 
no  advantage  accrues.  Fishes,  therefore,  cannot  be 
taken  as  models  for  aerial  craft,  seeing  that  the 
rigidity  of  the  airship  body  excludes  the  possibility 
of  propulsion  with  or  from  its  rear  end,  as  in 
the  case  of  fishes.  All  this  applies  only  to  air- 
ships whose  lengths  do  not  exceed  from  six  to 
eight  times  their  diameter.  The  longer  types  are 
better  oblong,  with  pointed  ends,  as  adopted  by 
Count  Zeppelin.  The  tapered  form  is  the  best  for 
shorter  airships,  but  of  no  value  for  long 
vessels. 

There  are  three  main  classes  of  dirigibles,  the 
rigid,  semi-rigid,  and  non-rigid.  The  rigid  system 
is  that  in  which  the  carrying  body  is  firmly  built. 
This  type  can  only  be  constructed  on  a  very  large 
scale,  as  the  skeleton  alone  requires  from  25  to  33 
per  cent,  of  the  total  lifting  power.  Such  a 
vessel,  however,  is  much  safer  in  the  air  than  one 
of  the  limp  or  semi-rigid  type,  but  dangerous 
when  standing  on  the  ground;  although  there  is 
less  necessity  for  frequent  descents  in  order  to  re- 
plenish the  gas,  it  runs  considerable  risk  in  descend- 
ing during  rough  weather,  and  is  liable  to  de- 
struction if  it  does  not  land  near  a  garage.  Still 
more  dangerous  would  be  a  descent  upon  the 
sea,  as  the  waves  and  wind  would  speedily  destroy 
the  whole  vessel.  The  rigid  framework  is  covered 
with  fabric,  which  encloses  a  number  of  druni- 
shaped  gas  bags.  In  the  semi-rigid  type  the  carry- 
ing body  is  made  of  limp  material  like  an  ordi- 
nary balloon,  but  fixed  upon  a  metal  or  wooden 
frame,  which  supports  the  balloon  underneath,  re- 
taining at  least  its  longitudinal  form,  though  not 
the  shape  of  the  gas  bag.  The  third  system  re- 
nounces the  solidity  of  the  first  as  well  as  the 
supporting  frame  of  the  second,  and  is  therefore 
styled  the  non-rigid  limp  system.  The  forms  of 
all  these  bodies  vary:  some  are  more  or  less 
tapered  at  the  ends,  others  are  cylindrical  in 
shape.  The  covers  are  made  of  waterproof  cotton, 
silk,  gold-beaters'  skin  or  sheet  metal.  In  most 
cases  the  propellers  are  attached  to  the  front  or 
at  both  sides,  as  near  the  center  of  resistance  as 
possible.  The  cars  are  attached  to  the  balloon 
bodies  either  rigidly  or  non-rigidly;  that  is  to  say, 
loosely  suspended.  In  the  rigid  Zeppelm  type, 
the  gas  is  regulated  after  the  manner  of  free 
balloons;  in  the  semi-rigid  and  non-rigid  systems, 
this  is  done  by  inflating  ballonets  or  airbags,  which 
may  aptly  be  described  as  "lung  ballonets."  The 
elevating  and  descending  appliances  are  either  mov- 
able planes  or  sliding  weights,  by  which  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  is  shifted.  The  dirigible  repre- 
sents the  collaboration  of  almost  countless  in- 
ventors. No  one  man  can  be  accorded  credit  for 
the  dirigible  as  we  know  it  to-day.  Three  men 
were  the  founders  of  the  science  of  airship  con- 
struction, namely,  General  Meusnier  of  the  French 
army,  who  in  17S4  laid  down  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  non-rigid  airship;  Renard  and 
Krebs,  also  French  officers,  who  designed  and 
built  in  1884  the  first  airship.  La  France,  which 
conclusively   demonstrated   its  ability — and   conse- 


quently the  possibility — to  navigate  the  air  in 
any  desired  direction;  and  finally,  the  late  Count 
Zepplin,  a  Germ:m  cavalry  general,  who  began 
the  construction  of  a  rigid  airship  in  1897,  which 
in  its  trial  flight  in  June,  1900,  made  eighteen 
miles  an  hour.  Renard  and  Krebs  had  been 
drawn  to  the  "conquest  of  the  air"  from  the  re- 
sults previously  achieved  by  Henri  Giffard  in 
1S55,  who  sought  to  propel  a  gas-inflated  vessel 
through  the  air  by  means  of  a  steam  engme ;  the 
experiments  of  Dupuy  de  Lome  in  1870-1782; 
and  the  results  achieved  by  Albert  and  Gas- 
ton Tissandier  in  1SS3.  "Dupuy  de  Lome  at- 
tempted to  solve  this  vexatious  problem,  which 
had  been  occupying  the  minds  of  men — brilliant 
and  otherwise — for  centuries,  and  the  knowledge 
which  he  accumulated  from  his  experiments  pro- 
vided the  foundation  upon  which  Captains  Renard 
and  Krebs  pursued  their  studies.  Dupuy  de 
Lome  conceived  his  idea  from  the  German  in- 
vestiture of  the  city  of  Paris.  On  February  2nd, 
1872,  a  vessel  was  built  according  to  his  designs, 
and  despite  the  indifferent  propelling  resources 
available,  he  succeeded  in  imparting  a  speed  of 
about  five  miles  an  hour  to  his  craft  in  calm  air. 
In  1SS3  the  brothers  Tissandier  attacked  the  issue 
because  by  this  time  an  alternative  means  of  pro- 
pelling an  airship  had  been  devised.  Gramme  had 
given  the  world  the  electric  dynamo,  and  it  was 
thought  that  thereby  aerial  navigation  might  be 
solved.  .  .  .  Several  experiments  .  .  .  were  car- 
ried out,  but  the  first  decisive  flight  was  not  made 
until  September,  1884, — after  the  maiden  trip  of 
La  France — when  the  vessel  made  a  two  hours' 
sojourn  in  the  air  during  which  it  attained  a 
speed  of  thirteen  and  a  half  feet  per  second 
and  performed  various  evolutions  But  it  was 
La  France  and  the  work  of  Renard  and  Krebs 
which  really  constituted  the  starting-point  of 
aerial  navigation." — F  A.  Talbot,  All  about  in- 
ventions and  discoveries,  pp.  239-240. 

1896-1914. — Count  von  Zeppelin's  achieve- 
ments.— Forlanini's  dirigible. — Progress  in  con- 
struction.— The  blimp. — "The  Zeppelin  has  al- 
ways aroused  the  world's  attention,  although  this 
interest  has  fluctuated.  Regarded  at  first  as  a 
wonderful  achievement  of  genius,  afterwards  as  a 
freak,  then  as  the  ready  butt  for  universal  ridi- 
cule, and  finally  with  awe,  if  not  with  absolute 
terror — such  in  brief  is  the  history  of  this  craft 
of  the  air.  Count  von  Zeppelin  [1838-1917]  de- 
veloped his  line  of  study  and  thought  for  one  rea- 
son only.  As  an  old  campaigner  and  a  student  of 
military  affairs  he  realised  the  shortcomings  of 
the  existing  methods  of  scouting  and  reconnoiter- 
ing.  He  appreciated  more  than  any  other  man  of 
the  day  perhaps,  that  if  the  commander-in-chief 
of  an  army  were  provided  with  facilities  for  gaz- 
ing down  upon  the  scene  of  operations,  and  were 
able  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  information 
accruing  to  the  man  above  who  sees  all,  he  would 
hold  a  superior  position,  and  be  able  to  dispose  his 
forces  and  to  arrange  his  plan  of  campaign  to  the 
most  decisive  advantage  In  other  words,  Zeppelin 
conceived  and  developed  his  airship  for  one  field 
of  application  and  that  alone — military  operations. 
...  As  is  well  known,  Zeppelin  evolved  what  may 
be  termed  an  individual  line  of  thought  in  connec- 
tion with  his  airship  activities.  ...  He  clung  te- 
naciously to  his  pet  scheme  [of  a  rigid  airship] 
and  to  such  effect  that  in  1896  a  German  Engineer- 
ing Society  advanced  him  some  funds  to  con- 
tinue his  researches  This  support  sufficed  to 
keep  things  going  for  another  two  years,  during 
which  time  a  full-sized  vessel  "was  built.  The 
grand  idea  began  to  cn,'stallise  rapidly,  with  the 
result   that   when   a  public   company   was  formed 


748 


AVIATION 


Dirigibles 
Zeppelin's  Achievements 


AVIATION 


in  i8gS,  sufficient  funds  were  rendered  available  to 
enable  the  first  craft  to  be  constructed.  It  aroused 
considerable  attention,  as  well  it  might,  seeing 
that  it  eclipsed  anything  which  had  previously 
been  attempted  in  connection  with  dirigibles.  .  .  . 
The  vessel  was  of  great  scientific  interest,  owing 
to  the  ingenuity  of  its  design  and  construction. 
.  .  .  The  construction  of  the  vessel  subsequently 
proved  to  be  the  easiest  and  most  straightforward 
part  of  the  whole  undertaking.  There  were  other 
and  more  serious  problems  to  be  solved.  How 
would  such  a  monster  craft  come  to  earth?  How 
could  she  be  manipulated  upon  the  ground?  How 
could  she  be  docked?  Upon  these  three  points 
previous  experience  was  silent.  One  German  in- 
ventor [Dr. 'VVdlfert]  who  likewise  had  dreamed 
big  things,  and  had  carried  them  into  execution, 
paid  for  his  temerity  and  ambitions  with  his  life 
[1897],  while  his  craft  was  reduced  to  a  mass 
of  twisted  and  torn  metal.  [Dr.  Wblfert  was 
experimenting   with   a   dirigible  balloon   driven   by 


certain  influential  Teuton  aeronautical  experts  who 
had  previously  ridiculed  Zeppelin's  idea  had  made 
a  perfect  volte-jace.  They  became  staunch  ad- 
mirers of  the  system,  while  other  meteorological 
savants  participated  in  the  trials  for  the  express 
purpose  of  ascertaining  just  what  the  ship  could 
do.  As  a  result  of  elaborate  trigonometrical  cal- 
culations it  was  ascertained  that  the  airship  at- 
tained an  independent  speed  of  30  feet  per  second, 
which  exceeded  anything  previously  achieved.  The 
craft  proved  to  be  perfectly  manageable  in  the 
air,  and  answered  her  helm,  thus  complying  with 
the  terms  of  dirigibility.  The  creator  was  flushed 
with  his  triumph,  but  at  the  same  time  was 
doomed  to  experience  misfbrtune.  In  its  descent 
the  airship  came  to  "earth"  with  such  a  shock 
that  it  was  extensively  damaged.  The  cost  of  re- 
pairing the  vessel  was  so  heavy  that  the  company 
declined  to  shoulder  the  liability,  and  as  the  Count 
was  unable  to  defray  the  expense  the  wreck  was 
abandoned.     Although   a   certain   meed   of  success 


lli|ll)lj;iJ|MI  II 


A    ZEPl'ELIN    IN    FLIGHT 


COUNT  ZEPPELIN 


a  gasoline  motor  which  exploded  during  flight.  In 
the  same  year  an  aluminum  dirigible  operated  by  a 
Daimler  motor  was  wrecked.]  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances Count  Zeppelin  decided  to  carry  out 
his  flights  over  the  waters  of  the  Bodensee  [Lake 
Constance]  and  to  house  his  craft  within  a  floating 
dock.  In  this  manner  two  uncertain  factors  might 
be  effectively  subjugated.  .  .  .  The  first  ascent  was 
made  on  July  2nd,  iqoo,  but  was  disappointing, 
several  breakdowns  of  the  mechanism  occurring 
while  the  vessel  was  in  mid-air,  which  rendered 
it  unmanageable,  although  a  short  flight  was  made 
which  sufficed  to  show  that  an  independent  speed 
of  thirteen  feet  per  second  could  be  attained.  The 
vessel  descended  and  was  made  fast  in  her  dock, 
the  descent  being  effected  safely,  while  manoeuvring 
into  dock  was  successful.  At  least  three  points 
about  which  the  inventor  had  been  in  doubt  ap- 
peared to  be  solved — his  airship  could  be  driven 
through  the  air  and  could  be  steered;  it  could 
be  brought  to  earth  safely ;  and  it  could  be 
docked.  ...  On  October  17th  and  21st  of  the 
same  year  further  flights  were  made.     By  this  time 


had  been  achieved  the  outlook  seemed  very  llack 
for  the  inventor.  No  one  had  any  faith  in  his 
idea.  He  made  imploring  appeals  for  further 
money,  embarked  upon  lecturing  campaigns,  wrote 
aviation  articles  for  the  Press,  and  canvassed  pos- 
sible supporters  in  the  effort  to  raise  funds  for 
his  next  enterprise.  Two  years  passed,  but  the 
fruits  of  the  propaganda  were  meagre.  It  was 
at  this  juncture,  when  everything  appeared  to  be 
impossible,  that  Count  Zeppelin  discovered  his 
greatest  friend.  The  German  Emperor,  with  an 
eye  ever  fi.xed  upon  new  developments,  had  fol- 
lowed Zeppelin's  uphill  struggle,  and  at  last,  in 
iqo2,  came  to  his  aid  by  writing  a  letter  which 
ran: — 

"  'Since  your  varied  flights  have  been  reported 
to  me  it  is  a  great  pleasure  to  me  to  express  my 
acknowledgment  of  your  patience  and  your  labours, 
and  the  endurance  with  which  you  have  pressed 
on  through  manifold  hindrances  till  success  was 
near.  The  advantages  of  your  system  have  given 
your  ship  the  greatest  attainable  speed  and  dirigi- 
bility, and  the  important  results  you  have  obtained 


749 


AVIATION 


Dirigibles 
Zeppelin's   Achievements 


AVIATION 


have  produced  an  epoch-making  step  forward  in 
the  construction  of  airships  and  have  laid  down 
a  valuable  basis  for  future  experiments. ' 

"This  Imperial  appreciation  of  what  had  been 
accomplished  proved  to  be  the  turning  point  in 
the  inventor's  fortunes.  It  stimulated  financial 
support,  and  the  second  airship  was  taken  in 
hand.  But  misfortune  still  pursued  him.  Acci- 
dents were  of  almost  daily  occurrence.  Defects 
were  revealed  here  and  weaknesses  somewhere  else. 
So  soon  as  one  trouble  was  overcome  another 
made  itself  manifest.  The  result  was  that  the 
whole  of  the  money  collected  by  his  hard  work 
was  expended  before,  the  ship  could  take  to  the 
air.  A  further  crash  and  blasting  of  cherished 
hopes  appeared  imminent,  but  at  this  moment  an- 
other Royal  personage  came  to  the  inventor's  aid. 
The  King  ot  W'iirtcmberg  took  a  personal  in- 
terest in  his  subject's  uphill  struggle,  and  the 
Wiirtemberg  Government  granted  him  the  proceeds 
of  a  lottery.  With  this  money,  and  with  what 
he  succeeded  in  raising  by  hook  and  by  crook, 
and  by  mortgaging  his  remaining  property,  a 
round  £20,000  [."Siocoool  was  obtained.  With  this 
capital  a  third  ship  was  taken  in  hand,  and  in 
1Q05  it  was  launched.  It  was  a  distinct  improve- 
ment upon  its  predecessors.  .  .  .  The  trials  with 
this  vessel  commenced  on  November  30th  [1905], 
but  ill-luck  had  not  been  eluded.  The  airship  was 
moored  upon  a  raft  which  was  to  be  towed  out 
into  the  lake  to  enable  the  dirigible  to  ascend. 
But  something  went  wrong  with  the  arrangements. 
A  strong  wind  caught  the  ungainly  airship,  she 
dipped  her  nose  into  the  water,  and  as  the  motor 
was  set  going  she  was  driven  deeper  into  the 
lake,  the  vessel  only  being  saved  by  hurried  defla- 
tion. Six  weeks  were  occupied  in  repairs,  but  an- 
other ascent  was  made  on  January  17th,  1906. 
The  trials  were  fairly  satisfactory,  but  inconclu- 
sive. .  .  .  The  vessel  was  brought  down,  and  was 
to  be  anchored,  but  the  Fates  ruled  otherwise.  .\ 
strong  wind  caught  her  during  the  night  and  she 
was  speedily  reduced  to  indistinguishable  scrap. 
Despite  catastrophe  the  inventor  wrestled  gamely 
with  his  project.  The  lessons  taught  by  one  dis- 
aster were  taken  to  heart,  and  arrangements  to 
prevent  the  recurrence  thereof  incorporated  in  the 
succeeding  craft.  Unfortunately,  however,  as  soon 
as  one  defect  was  remedied  another  asserted  itself. 
It  was  this  persistent  revelation  of  the  unexpected 
which  caused  another  period  of  indifference  to- 
wards his  invention.  Probably  nothing  more 
would  have  been  heard  of  the  Zeppelin  after  this 
last  accident  had  it  not  been  for  the  intervention 
of  the  Prussian  Government  at  the  direct  instiga- 
tion of  the  Kaiser,  who  had  now  taken  Count 
Zeppelin  under  his  wing.  A  State  Lottery  was  in- 
augurated, the  proceeds  of  which  were  handed 
over  to  the  indefatigable  inventor,  together  with 
an  assurance  that  if  he  could  keep  aloft  24  hours 
without  coming  to  earth  in  the  meantime,  and 
could  cover  450  miles  within  this  period,  the 
Government  would  repay  the  whole  of  the  money 
he  had  lavished  upon  his  idea,  and  liquidate  all 
the  debts  he  had  incurred  in  connection  therewith. 

".Another  craft  was  built,  larger  than  its  pre- 
decessors, and  equipped  with  two  motors  develop- 
ing 170  horse-power  .  .  .  The  crucial  test  was 
essayed  on  August  5th.  1908.  .  .  .  Victory  ap- 
peared within  measurable  distance:  the  arduous  toil 
of  many  patient  years  was  about  to  be  rewarded. 
The  airship  was  within  sight  of  home  when  it 
had  to  descend  owing  to  the  development  of  an- 
other motor  fault  But  as  it  approached  the 
ground,  Nature,  as  if  infuriated  at  the  conquest, 
rose  up  in  rebellion.  .A  sudden  squall  struck  the 
unwieldy  monster.     Within  a  few  moments  it  be- 


came unmanageable,  and  through  some  inscrutable 
cause,  it  caught  fire,  with  the  result  that  withm  a 
few  moments  it  was  reduced  to  a  tangled  mass  of 
metallic  framework.  It  was  a  catastrophe  that 
would  have  completely  vanquished  many  an  in- 
ventor, but  the  Count  was  saved  the  gall  of  de- 
feat. His  flight,  which  was  remarkable,  inasmuch 
as  he  had  covered  380  miles  within  24  hours,  in- 
cluding two  unavoidable  descents,  struck  the  Teu- 
ton imagination.  .  .  .  The  German  nation  sympa- 
thised with  the  indomitable  inventor,  appreciated 
his  genius,  and  promptly  poured  forth  a  stream  of 
subscriptions  to  enable  him  to  build  another  ves- 
sel. The  intimation  that  other  Powers  had  ap- 
proached the  Count  for  the  acquisition  of  his  idea 
became  known  far  and  wide,  together  with  the  cir- 
cumstance that  he  had  unequivocally  refused  all 
offers.  He  was  striving  for  the  Fatherland,  and 
his  unselfish  patriotism  appealed  to  one  and  all. 
Such  an  attitude  deserved  hearty  national  appre- 
ciation, and  the  members  of  the  great  German 
public  emptied  their  pockets  to  such  a  degree  that 
within  a  few  weeks  a  sum  of  £300,000  or  $1,500,000 
was  voluntarily  subscribed.  .Ml  financial  embar- 
rassments and  distresses  were  now  completely  re- 
moved from  the  Count's  mind.  He  could  forge 
ahead  untrammelled  by  anxiety  and  worry.  An- 
other Zeppelin  was  built  and  it  created  a  world's 
record.  It  remained  aloft  for  38  hours,  during 
which  time,  it  covered  6qo  miles,  and,  although  it 
came  to  grief  upon  alighting,  by  colliding  with 
a  tree,  the  final  incident  passed  unnoticed.  Ger- 
many was  in  advance  of  the  world.  It  had  an 
airship  which  could  go  anywhere,  irrespective  of 
climatic  conditions,  and  in  true  Teuton  perspective 
the  craft  was  viewed  from  the  military  standpoint. 
Here  was  a  means  of  obtaining  the  mastery  of  the 
air:  a  formidable  engine  of  invasion  and  aerial 
attack  had  been  perfected.  Consequently  the 
Grand  Idea  must  be  supported  with  unbounded 
enthusiasm.  The  Count  was  hailed  by  his  august 
master  as  'The  greatest  German  of  the  twentieth 
century.'  and  in  this  appreciation  the  populace 
whole-heartedly  concurred." — F.  A  Talbot,  Aero- 
planes and  dirigibles  of  war,  pp.  25,  29-30,  32-33, 
35i  37- — "The  disasters  experienced  by  all  early 
airships  and  most  particularly  by  the  Zeppelins 
were  always  seized  upon  by  those  who  desired  to 
convince  the  country  what  unstable  craft  they 
were,  and  however  safe  in  the  air  they  might  be 
were  always  liable  to  be  wrecked  when  landing  in 
anything  but  fine  weather.  Tho.'^c  who  might  have 
sunk  their  money  in  airship  building  thereupon 
patted  themselves  upon  the  back  and  rejoiced  that 
they  had  been  so  far-seeing  as  to  .avoid  being  en- 
gaged upon  such  a  profitless  industry." — G.  Whale, 
British  airships,  pp.  191-192. — Besides  turning  out 
a  large  number  of  skillful  and  daring  pilots,  Italy 
has  produced  some  remarkable  innovations  both 
in  dirigibles,  airplanes,  machinery  and  appliances. 
Senator  Enrico  Forlanini  holds  as  high  a  reputa- 
tion in  airship  construction  as  the  late  Count 
Zeppelin.  The  Italian  inventor  began  his  airship 
experimenting  and  dreaming  many  years  before 
his  German  competitor.  Forlanini's  first  airship, 
the  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  begun  in  1901  and 
completed  in  1009.  He  had  constructed  a  second 
and  improved  dirigible  by  1912.  called  Cittn  di 
Milano.  The  reliability  of  his  construction  be- 
came recognized  by  the  Italian  government,  which 
ordered  one  for  the  navy,  the  F-i.  From  that  time 
he  turned  out  an  airship  almost  every  year,  each 
one  an  improvement  on  its  predecessors.  These 
dirigibles  are  of  the  semi-rigid  type,  and  thus 
differ  considerably  from  the  Zeppelin  rigid  form; 
they  are  lighter  and  can  rise  to  great  heights  in 
less  time.     Another  impwrtant   point   of  difference 


/.SO 


AVIATION 


Dirigibles 
Zeppelins  and  Blimps 


AVIATION 


is  that  Forlanini  builds  his  cars  close  to  and  into 
the  rigid  keel  instead  of  suspending  them  under- 
neath. Like  Zeppelin,  he  also  has  experienced 
disasters  and  aerial  shipwrecks.  "Count  von  Zep- 
pelin, despite  anything  which  may  be  said 
to  the  contrary,  may  be  regarded  as  the  in- 
ventor, pioneer,  and  only  successful  exponent  of 
the  rigid  type  of  airship.  Imitators  have  striven  to 
eclipse  his  achievements,  but  have  only  met  with 
exasperating  failure  and  disappointment." — F.  A. 
Talbot,  All  about  inventions  and  discoveries,  Lon- 
don, IQ16,  p.  246. — "As  regards  the  future  develop- 
ment of  aircraft,"  said  an  expert  addressing  the 
Institution  of  Naval  Architects  in  London  on 
March  13,  iqi3,  "there  is  no  visible  Umit  to  the 
growth  of  the  rigid  airship.  It  is  on  the  same 
footing  in  this  respect  as  an  ordinary  [marine] 
ship.  If  we  double  their  size  they  will  lift  eight 
times  more  and  will  have  eight  times  the  buoy- 
ancy, but  they  will  require  only  four  times  the 
propelling  power  to  move  at  the  same  speed." — By 
the  time  Zeppelin  appeared  among  the  air  con- 
querors, "the  high-speed  internal  combustion  mo- 
tor, owing  to  its  success  in  the  world  of  mechani- 
cal propulsion  over  the  highways,  had  become 
recognized  as  a  suitable  engine  for  aeronautical 
duty,  while  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  concerning 
the  comparatively  new  metal  aluminum  had  been 
acquired.  Zeppelin  admittedly  knew  nothing 
about  aeronautics,  but  he  set  out  to  build  an  air- 
ship which  differed  from  all  its  prototypes  in 
every  sense,  and  particularly  in  one  connection — 
its  colossal  dimensions.  His  first  craft  measured 
420  feet  in  length  by  thirty-eight  feet  in  diameter. 
Two  cars  were  provided — near  the  bow  and 
towards  the  stern  respectively — in  each  of  which 
was  placed  a  sixteen  horse-power  motor,  driving 
independent  propellers.  But  it  was  the  design  of 
this  monster  craft  which  aroused  the  greatest  in- 
terest, inasmuch  as  it  differed  entirely  from  any 
which  had  gone  before.  The  outer  shell  was  polyg- 
onal in  section,  and  was  built  up  of  a  metallic 
girder  skeleton  over  which  was  stretched  the  fabric 
or  skin.  Instead  of  the  envelope,  as  it  may  be 
called,  being  charged  with  gas  in  the  usual  manner 
— such  as  a  balloon — the  interior  was  subdivided 
into  a  number  of  compartments  insulated  from 
one  another  by  a  thin  wall  or  diaphragm  of  fabric. 
Consequently,  the  interior  of  the  skin  became  re- 
solved into  a  number  of  cells,  and  in  each  of  these 
was  placed  a  balloon  inflated  with  hydrogen.  The 
balloons  themselves  favoured  the  conventional 
spherical  form,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  cell  was 
not  occupied  by  the  gas-bag.  This  arrangement 
was  adopted  because  it  left  a  space  around  the  gas- 
bag through  which  the  air  was  free  to  circulate. 
It  was  maintained  that  this  arrangement  would 
render  the  gas-bag  less  susceptible  to  the  fluctua- 
tions of  temperature,  which  cause  the  hydrogen 
to  expand  and  to  contract  respectively,  according 
to  heat  and  cold." — Ibid  .  pp.  243-244. — It  was  the 
progressive  efforts  of  Zeppelin  that  gave  the  great- 
est impetus  to  modern  airship  construction,  while 
the  various  setbacks  he  encountered  owing  to  the 
disasters  which  befell  several  of  his  creations, 
.served  as  useful  object  lessons  not  only  for  his  own 
guidance,  but  for  that  of  all  airship  builders  and 
navigators.  Zeppelin  I  taught  that  a  movable 
weight,  suspended  from  wires,  was  insufBcient  to 
effect  the  necessary  stability  in  straight  sailing. 
Zeppelin  II  was  wrecked  in  storm  near  Kiss- 
legg;  Zeppelin  III,  completed  in  igoy,  worked  bet- 
ter than  its  predecessors  and  attained  a  speed  of 
over  thirty-three  miles  an  hour.  Zeppelin  IV 
was  burnt  in  August,  iqo8,  near  Echterdingen. 
The  Count  had  once  driven  this  440-foot  balloon 
from  Friedrichshafen,  on  Lake  Constance,  to  Lu- 


cerne, 248  miles,  within  twelve  hours.  Starting  once 
again  from  Friedrichshafen,  intending  a  soo-mile 
trip,  he  made  a  landing  at  Oppenheim,  200  miles 
distant,  returned  thence  to  Stuttgart,  and  finally 
to  Echterdingen,  where  a  hurricane  wrecked  the 
airship.  The  cause  of  the  disaster  was  said  to  be 
due  to  the  ignition  of  detonating  gas  by  atmospheric 
electricity.  From  the  advent  of  Zeppelin  the  skill, 
ingenuity  and  efforts  of  many  engineers  of  various 
nationalities  have  contributed  to  bring  the  airship 
to  its  present  efficient  stage  of  development.  "In 
the  early  days  of  the  {world]  war  an  airship  was 
constructed  by  Mr.  Marshall  Fox  which  is  worthy 
of  mention,  although  it  never  flew.  It  was  claimed 
that  this  ship  was  a  rigid  airship,  although  from 
its  construction  it  could  only  be  looked  upon  as 
a  non-rigid  ship,  having  a  wooden  net-work  around 
its  envelope.  The  hull  was  composed  of  wooden 
transverse  frames  forbing  a  polygon  of  sixteen 
sides,  with  radial  wiring  iitted  to  each  transverse 
frame.  The  longitudinal  members  were  spiral  in 
form  and  were  built  up  of  three-ply  lathes.  A 
keel  of  similar  construction  ran  along  the  under 
side  of  the  hull  which  carried  the  control  position 
and  compartments  for  two  Green  engines,  one  of 
40  horse-power,  the  other  of  80  horse-power,  to- 
gether with  the  petrol,  bombs,  etc.  In  the  hull 
were  fitted  fourteen  gasbags  giving  a  total  ca- 
pacity of  100,000  cubic  feet.  The  propeller  drive 
was  obtained  by  means  of  a  wire  rope.  The  gross 
lift  of  the  ship  was  4,276  lb.,  and  the  weight  of 
the  structure,  complete  with  engines,  exceeded  this 
It  became  apparent  that  the  ship  could  never  fly, 
and  work  was  suspended.  She  was  afterwards  used 
for  carrying  out  certain  experiments  and  at  a 
later  date  was  broken  up." — G.  Whale,  British 
airships,  pp.  68-60. 

"The  diminutive  airship  .  .  .  has  the  distinction 
of  being  the  first  commercial  airship  to  be  sold  in 
the  United  States.  It  is  known  as  Goodyear's 
Pony  Blimp.  The  builders  had  in  view  the  need 
for  small,  efficient,  inexpensive  airships,  which 
might  be  used  for  commercial  service  or  for  pur- 
poses of  sport.  In  the  tests  which  have  already 
been  made,  it  has  demonstrated  its  air-worthiness, 
showing  a  quick  response  to  the  propeller  and  the 
controls,  and  decided  economy  in  operation.  It 
is  believed  that  aero  clubs  will  take  advantage  of 
this  opportunity  to  train  their  members  in  air- 
ship navigation  so  that  they  may  become  compe- 
tent pilots  for  larger  dirigibles,  particularly  as  the 
costs  of  operation  are  relatively  low.  This  par- 
ticular ship  has  been  sold  to  a  western  syndicate 
which  announces  that  it  will  use  it  for  the  develop- 
ment of  commercial  service.  The  Blimp  is  05  feet 
long,  has  a  maximum  diameter  of  28  feet  and  a 
height  of  40  feet.  Its  volume  is  35,000  cubic 
feet.  The  car,  which  is  12  feet  in  length,  can  ac- 
commodate a  crew  of  two  people.  Driven  by  its 
40  horse-power  engine,  it  has  a  maximum  speed  of 
40  miles  per  hour  and  a  range,  at  full  speed,  of 
400  miles,  with  a  ceiling  at  6,000  feet  This  means 
that  with  two  men  aboard,  and  at  an  elevation  of 
6,000  feet,  it  can  travel  some  400  miles  at  a  speed 
in  still  air  of  40  miles  per  hour.  Of  course,  by 
taking  advantage  of  favorable  winds,  with  the 
motor  idle,  the  fuel  may  be  conserved  and  the 
total  range  under  such  conditions  may  be  increased 
considerably  over  400  miles.  For  landing,  the 
Blimp  is  equipped  with  mooring  harness  and  an- 
chors which  permit  ground  stops  to  be  made 
when  desired  for  the  replenishment  of  gas  and 
supplies." — Scientific   American,   Apr.    24,    iq20,   p. 

459- 

1897. — Attempt  of  balloon  to  reach  North  Pole. 
See  Arctic  exploration:  1917-1918:  Chronological 
record:    1897. 


751 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Langley  and  Maxim 


AVIATION 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  AIRPLANES 
AND  AIR  SERVICE 

1809-1874.  —  The  airplane.  —  Beginnings. — The 
fundamental  theor>'  of  the  airplane  was  set  forth 
by  an  Englishman,  Sir  George  Cayley,  as  early 
as  1809,  and  actually  furnished  the  basis  upon 
which  the  modern  "heavier-than-air"  flying  ma- 
chine was  subsequently  built.  It  was  he  who  in- 
vented that  well-known  toy  made  of  two  screws 
of  four  feathers  each,  fixed  horizontally  one  above 
the  other,  with  a  flexible  attachment  like  a  bow 
and  cord  between  them.  By  winding  the  string 
of  the  bow  around  the  axle  of  the  two  screws  the 
bow  is  bent  taut.  On  being  thrown  into  the  air, 
the  bow  relaxes,  unwinds  the  cord  and  thus  speed- 
ily revolves  the  screws,  though  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, which  causes  the  apparatus  to  mount  in 
the  air.  The  date  of  this  invention  is  1796,  and 
Cayley  published  an  account  of  it  in  iSog.  He 
calculated  that  if  the  area  of  the  screws  was  en- 
larged to  200  feet,  they  would  lift  a  man  pro- 
vided the  power  to  revolve  them  could  be  ap- 
plied. Other  models  were  produced  on  the  vertical 
screw  or  helicopter  principle  by  J.  Degen  in  i8i6 


OTTO  LILIENTHAL  IN  HIS  GLIDER 
Stollen,  Germany,  1896 

and  O.  Sarti  in  1823,  while  a  steam  model  by  W. 
Phillips  appeared  in  1842,  which  is  said  to  have 
risen  to  a  great  height  and  traveled  a  considerable 
distance.  The  earliest  attempt  at  aviation  on  a 
considerable  scale  was  that  of  Henson,  an  Eng- 
lishman, who  in  1S43  began  to  work  on  the  plans 
of  what  became  famous  in  aeronautical  history  as 
Henson's  aerostat,  a  combination  of  aerial  screws 
with  supporting  structures  occupying  a  nearly  hori- 
zontal position.  According  to  records  in  the  patent 
office.  Henson's  apparatus  consisted  of  an  airplane 
of  canvas  or  oiled  silk  stretched  upon  a  frame 
made  rigid  by  trussing,  both  above  and  below. 
Under  this  was  to  have  been  attached  a  car  in- 
tended to  house  the  steam  engine  that  was  to  gen- 
erate the  motive  power.  Two  rotating  wheels  were 
to  propel  the  machine,  acting  upon  the  air  after 
the  manner  of  windmills.  Stretched  upon  a  tri- 
angular frame  was  a  long  tail,  likewise  covered 
with  canvas  or  oiled  silk,  and  which  could  be  ex- 
panded or  contracted,  moved  up  or  down,  as  de- 
sired for  ascending  or  descending.  Unfortunately, 
this  ancestor  of  the  airplane  never  reached  the 
stage  of  actual  construction — it  remained  a  dream 
on  paper.  .Another  Englishman,  named  Stringfel- 
low,  who  cooperated  with  Henson,  built  a  success- 
ful   flying   model   in    1847.     With   these   two   ex- 


amples before  him,  F.  H.  Wenham  in  1866  invented 

an  apparatus  which  he  called  "Wenham's  aero- 
plane," and  two  years  later  Stringfellow  came  along 
with  another  model  combining  Wenham's  ma- 
chine with  Henson's  aerial  screws.  Exhibited  at 
the  Crystal  palace  in  London,  this  model  won  a 
$500  prize.  In  1874  Thomas  Moy  devised  an 
"aerial  steamer,"  a  light  powerful  skeleton  frame 
resting  on  three  wheels,  a  new  type  of  light  en- 
gine, two  long,  narrow,  horizontal  planes  and 
large  aerial  screws.  Moy's  idea  was  to  obtain 
initial  velocity  by  a  run  on  the  ground,  a  theory 
that  was  justified  many  years  later  by  the  experi- 
ments of  the  Wright  Brothers. 

1889-1900. — Langley  and  Maxim  experiments. 
— German  and  English  gliding  machines. — Oc- 
tave Chanute. — The  old,  yet  still  youthful,' science 
of  aviation  made  long  steps  forward  owing  to  the 
experiments  and  research  of  Professor  Langley, 
secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  Wash- 
ington, and  of  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  in  England. 
Their  investigations  began  in  iSSq-iSgo.  The 
former  devised  numerous  small  models  and  one 
large  flying  plane,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
"aerodromes."  All  were  constructed  on  a  common 
principle  and  were  provided  with  extensive  flying 
surfaces  in  the  shape  of  rigid  planes  inclined  at  an 
upward  angle  applied  somewhat  after  the  pattern 
of  Henson's  idea.  Langley  flew  his  smaller  models 
in  the  lecture  room  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion and  the  large  one  on  the  Potomac  river  below 
Washington.  In  1803  he  experimented  with  tteam- 
driven  machines  made  of  steel  and  aluminum.  In 
1896  one  of  his  machines  flew  half  a  mile,  the 
greatest  achievement  for  a  heavier-than-air  ma- 
chine up  to  that  time.  Congress  provided  $50,000 
for  the  construction  of  a  Langley  "aerodrome"  of 
sufficient  dimensions  to  carry  passengers  and  to 
be  used  for  military  purposes.  The  machine  was 
built,  but  failed  to  meet  the  stipulated  require- 
ments. The  valuable  aerotcchnic  work  of  Dr.  S. 
P.  Langley  (1834-1906)  may  be  briefly  summa- 
rized as  follows: — (i)  His  aerodynamic  experiments 
were  sufficiently  complete  to  form  a  substantial 
basis  for  practical  pioneer  aviation.  (2)  He  built 
and  launched  the  first  steam  model  airplane  capa- 
ble of  prolonged  free  flight  and  possessing  good 
inherent  stability.  (3)  He  built  the  first  internal- 
combustion  motor  suitable  for  a  practical  man- 
carrying  airplane.  {4)  He  developed  and  success- 
fully launched  the  first  gasoline  model  airplane 
capable  of  sustained  free  flight.  (5)  He  developed 
and  built  the  first  man-carrying  airplane  capable 
of  free  flight.  A  "Langley  Day"  was  celebrated  by 
the  .Aero  Club  of  Washington  on  May  s,  1913,  in 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  unveiling  of  a 
tablet  to  commemorate  the  services  performed  by 
Langley  in  demonstrating  the  practicability  of 
mechanical  flight.  In  iqio  a  Handley-Page  air- 
plane was  named  "Langley"  in  his  memory,  and 
an  airway  in  the  United  States  (Virginia)  was 
named  after  him.  Meanwhile,  Maxim  designed  a 
machine  consisting  of  a  platform  bearing  a  large 
water  tube  boiler  and  a  number  of  concave-con- 
vex planes  arranged  in  tiers.  Two  large  vertical 
screws  placed  aft  were  propelled  by  steam  engines. 
Like  that  of  Langley,  the  apparatus  of  Maxim 
proved  a  failure  in  its  trial  during  1894.  Yet 
these  failures  were  not  devoid  of  value;  the  errors 
and  mistaken  theories  of  all  these  pioneers  became 
landmarks  for  their  successors  in  the  same  field, 
who  gathered  the  useful  lesson  of  what  to  avoid — 
of  what  was  practical  or  impossible.  Simultane- 
ously, there  were  other  earnest  workers  striving 
to  solve  the  problems,  namely,  Chanute  in  America, 
Percy  Pilcher  in  England  and  Lilienthal  in  Ger- 
many, each  contributing  valuable  data  to  the  stock 


752 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Chanute's   Achievements 


AVIATION 


of  common  experience  in  aviation.    Otto  Lilienthal 
"built    a    machine   comprising    wings   and    rudder, 
wliicli   might   be   described   as   a   huge   kite,    with 
which    he    indulged    in    sailing    flights.      He    ap- 
proached the  problem  from  the  severely  scientific 
point    of    view,    discovering    new    facts    and    data 
for   himself.      With    this    contrivance    by    starting 
from  an  artificial  hill  nearly  one  hundred  feet  in 
height  he   was   able  to  sail   over   distances   up   to 
1,000  feet.    Flushed  with  the  success  thus  achieved, 
he  endeavored  to  propel  himself  through  the  air, 
for   which   purpose   he   installed   a    two-and-a-half 
horse-power     motor,     the     idea     being     to     move 
through  the  air  in  any  direction.     Unfortunately, 
his  researches  were  brought  to  an  abrupt  conclu- 
sion.     While    testing    a    new    steering    contrivance 
which  he  had  designed,  he  fell  from  a   height  of 
forty-five   feet   and   broke   his   spine,   from    which 
accident   he   died   on   August    loth,    1896." — F.   A. 
Talbot,   All    about   inventions   and   discoveries,    p. 
247. — In    his    early    experiments    Lilienthal    "con- 
structed wings  (14-ft.  span),  striving  to  mount  the 
air  as  the  bird  does,  by  pushing  against  it  the  in- 
clined  plans   of   his   wings.  ...  It   is   pretty   gen- 
erally   admitted    that    the    first    airplane    to    have 
actually  left  the  ground,  carrying  a  man,  was  the 
bat-shaped   machine,   fitted   with   a   twenty   horse- 
power steam   engine,   with   which   M.   C.  Ader   of 
France    made    several    short    flights    from     i8go- 
1896." — Scientific   American,   Oct.   2,   1920. — "Con- 
temporaneously   with    these    experiments    in    Ger- 
many,   an    English    marine    engineer,    Mr.    Percy 
S.    Pilcher,   was   attacking    the    self-same    problem 
and  along  almost  identical  lines.     He  contrived  a 
gliding  apparatus,  the  knowledge  gained  from  the 
use  of  which  was  quite  as,  if  not  more,  valuable 
than  that  advanced  by  Lilienthal.     Pilcher  selected 
the  biplane  form  of  gliding  apparatus  for  his  in- 
vestigations.    Flushed  with  the  measure  of  success 
which  he  achieved,  he  was  also  tempted  to  install 
a  motor  in  his  machine.     Indeed,  he  contrived  an 
aeroplane  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  father  of 
those  in   use  to-day.     He  built  an   oil  motor  de- 
veloping four  horse-power,  but  although  this  ma- 
chine   was    constructed    he    never    tested    it.      He 
resolved  to  carry  out  further  experiments  with  his 
gliding    apparatus    before    trusting    himself    to    a 
motor-driven  machine,  and  in  October,  1899,  while 
giving    a    demonstration    in    a    park    near    Rugby, 
while  he  was  sailing  at  a  height  of  about  thirty- 
two  feet,  a  weak  part  of  the  machine  broke.     The 
accident  threw  Pilcher  to  the  ground,  and  he  died 
thirty-four  hours  later,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
two   years." — F.   A.   Talbot,   All   about   inventions 
and    discoveries,    pp.     247-248.— "The     dangerous 
character   of   the   Lilienthal   flying   apparatus   was 
brought   home   very   convincingly   by   Mr.   A.   M. 
Herring   while   acting   as   assistant   to   Mr.   Octave 
Chanute,  of  Chicago,  Illinois,  U.  S.  A.     He  built 
an   exact   copy   of   the   German   investigator's   ap- 
paratus with  which  experiments  were  carried  out 
a    month    after  Lilienthal's   untimely   end.     These 
trials  served  to  prove   how  the   German   worker's 
fatal   accident   occurred,   and   although   about   one 
hundred  successful  glides  therewith  were  made,  it 
was    discarded    as    being    far    too    dangerous   and 
fickle.     Mr.  Octave  Chanute  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  problem  of  human  flight,  and  expended  con- 
siderable time  and  money  in  a  series  of  beautiful 
experiments,  the  information  gleaned   from  which 
has  played  an  important  part  in  the  contemporary 
flying  era.     He  built  several  machines  with  which 
to  test  his  theories.     The  first  practical  appliance 
had    twelve    wings,    and    the    outstanding    feature, 
which   served   to   differentiate   it   from   any   which 
had  gone  before,  was  the  incorporation   of  facili- 
ties whereby  the  wings  might  be  moved  in  accord- 


ance with  the  desires  of  the  operator,  who  stood 
upright  within  the  machine.  Hitherto  the  equilib- 
rium of  gliding  apparatuses  depended  upon  the 
movement  of  the  man  in  relation  to  the  machine. 
That  is  to  say,  the  man  moved  his  body.  Chanute 
reversed  this  practice.  He  caused  the  man  to  be 
rigid,  and  the  wings  to  be  movable.  As  events 
subsequently  proved,  this  was  the  correct  line  of 
experiment.  The  multiple-winged  machine  com- 
pleted three  hundred  highly  successful  flights. 
Then  Chanute  decided  to  reduce  the  number  of 
wings  and  built  a  double-decker,  or,  as  we  should 
term  it  to-day,  a  biplane,  thereby  virtually  re- 
verting to  Pilcher's  apparatus.  This  machine  made 
some  seven  hundred  flights,  or  rather  glides,  and 
without  a  single  accident.  This  machine  was  re- 
markable for  the  introduction  of  a  rudder  at  the 
rear,  which  was  the  idea  of  Mr.  Herring,  and  this 
rudder  was  of  such  design  and  operation  that  the 
relative  wind,  catching  either  its  horizontal  or 
vertical  planes,  altered  the  angle  of  incidence  of 
the  supporting  planes  to  meet  the  conditions  which 
arose.  Consequently,  stability  and  safety  became 
accentuated.  In  view  of  the  success  which  Cha- 
nute had  achieved  with  his  double-decker,  the  ques- 
tion arose  as  to  whether  the  stage  had  not  been 
reached  at  last  when  a  motor  might  be  intro- 
duced. .  .  .  Chanute,  however,  maintained  that 
the  introduction  of  the  motor  was  premature.  .  .  . 
Forthwith  he  built  another  machine — a  three- 
decker,  or  triplane,  this  time — which  was  subjected 
to  many  searching  tests.  In  this  machine  the  glider 
gripped  the  lower  front  upright  members  support- 
ing the  planes,  his  legs  dangling  beneath.  When 
flying  and  when  approaching  the  ground  the  man 
doubled  up  his  legs.  This  arrangement  was 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  alighting. 
Chanute  has  been  described  as  the  father  of  the 
hcavier-than-air  machine,  or  dynamic  flight,  and 
the  distinction  is  well  merited.  .  .  .  Certainly  his 
work  contributed  such  valuable  results  as  to 
prompt  other  industrious  and  persevering  experi- 
menters to  embrace  the  problem,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  but  throughout  Europe  as  well. 
There  were,  in  particular,  two  men  who,  fasci- 
nated by  Chanute's  achievements,  took  up  the  sub- 
ject. They  had  a  small  cycle  store  in  the  eastern 
American  city  of  Dayton,  Ohio.  They  were  also 
first-class  mechanics,  .and,  in  fact,  built  their  own 
machines.  In  igoo  these  two  bicycle  makers,  Wil- 
bur and  Orville  Wright,  built  a'  gliding  machine 
upon  the  broad  lines  favoured  by  Chanute,  but 
with  planes  having  quite  twice  the  superfices  of 
any  which  had  been  tested  previously.  They  also 
abandoned  the  upright  position  for  the  flier 
in  favor  of  one  prone  upon  the  bottom  plane." 
—Ibid.,  pp.  247-251. — Not  long  after  the  ex- 
periments of  Langley  and  Chanute  the  scientific 
students  of  the  problem  were  pointed  by  the  vet- 
eran inventor  of  the  telephone.  Dr.  Alexander  Gra- 
ham Bell. 

1896-1910.— Wright  brothers.— Bl^riot's  cross- 
Channel  flight. — French  pioneers. — Prophecies 
of  Newcomb  and  Edison. — In  1896  there  came 
the  two  workers  who  advanced  from  empiricism  to 
science  in  their  undertaking,  and  who  won  the  first 
great  successes  by  a  happy  combination  of  the 
two.  The  brothers  Orville  and  Wilbur  Wright 
have  told,  in  an  article  contributed  to  The  Cen- 
tury Magazine,  how  they  were  stirred  to  serious 
interest  in  the  aviation  problem  in  1896  and  be- 
gan to  read  what  Langley,  Chanute,  Mouillard  and 
others  had  written  on  it.  Entering,  purely  as  a 
sport,  on  experiments  in  gliding  flight,  on  Lilien- 
thal's lines,  they  became  fascinated  by  the  pur- 
suit. From  the  first  they  appear  to  have  chosen 
what  is  known  as  the  biplane  structure  for  their 


753 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Wright  Brothers 


AVIATION 


machines,  the  invention  of  which  they  credit  to  a 
previous  inventor,  VVenham.  whose  design  of  it 
had  been  improved  by  Stringfellow  and  Chanute. 
To  this  construction  they  steadfastly  adhered.  At 
the  outlet  of  their  experimenting  the  Wrights 
found  a  difficulty  in  the  balancing  of  "flyers"  which 
previous  workers  did  not  seem  to  have  treated 
seriously  enough,  and  they  settled  themselves  to 
the  conquest  of  it  at  once.  This  and  other  prob- 
lems soon  carried  them  from  empirical  testing  into 
scientific  studies,  which  occupied  several  years. 
They  found  that  the  accepted  measurements  ot 
wind  pressure,  on  given  plane  surfaces  exposed  at 
different  angles,  were  unreliable,  and  they  applied 
themselves  to  the  making  and  tabulating  of  meas- 
urements of  their  own.  It  was  not  until  this  work 
had  given  them  "accurate  data  for  making  cal- 
culations, and  a  system  of  balance  effective  in 
winds  as  well  as  in  calms,"  as  well  as  the  neces- 
sary data  for  designing  an  effective  screw  pro- 
peller, that  they  felt  themselves  prepared  "to  build 
a  successful  power-flyer." 

So  far,  these  thorough-going  workers  at  the 
problems  of  aviation  had  been  experimenting  with 
a  machine  designed,  as  they  said,  "to  be  flown  as 
a  kite,  with  a  man  on  board,"  or  without  the 
man,  "operating  the  levers  through  cords  from  the 


chine  in  circles  of  flight ;  and  then,  at  the  end  of 
September,  igos,  they  suspended  experiments  for 
more  than  two  years,  which  they  spent  in  busi- 
ness negotiations  and  in  the  construction  of  new 
machines.  Their  experimenting  was  not  resumed 
until  May.  igoS  (again  at  Kitty  Hawk).  .\t  this 
time  it  was  directed  to  the  testing  of  the  ability 
of  their  machine  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a 
contract  with  the  United  States  government  to 
furnish  a  flyer  capable  of  carrying  two  men  and 
sufficient  fuel  supplies  for  a  flight  of  twenty-five 
miles,  with  a  speed  of  forty  miles  an  hour. 

Meantime,  during  the  two  years  of  suspended 
experimenting  by  the  Wrights,  other  workers  in 
Europe  and  .\merica  had  been  approaching  their 
successes,  so  far  as  to  be  competitors  for  the  im- 
portant prizes  now  being  offered  for  winning  in 
the  aviation  field.  M.  Santos-Dumont,  turning 
his  attention  from  dirigible  balloons  to  aeroplanes, 
had  made,  at  Paris,  the  first  public  flight  on  that 
side  of  the  ocean ;  and  though  he  covered  no  more 
than  2  20  yards,  it  was  a  long  stride  in  practical 
success.  Henri  Farman,  Louis  Bleriot,  M.  -^cla- 
grange.  in  France,  Glenn  H.  Curtiss  and  \.  M. 
Herring,  in  the  United  States,  were  making  ready 
to  dispute  honors  with  the  Dayton  aviators,  of 
whose  actual  achievements  the  public  knew  little. 


ORVILLE  WRIGHT 


WRIGHT  MACHINE  IN  FIRST  LONG 
FLIGHT 


WILBUR  WRIGHT 


ground."  Their  active  experimenting  began  in 
October,  iqoo,  at  Kitty  Hawk.  North  Carolina. 
In  iQoi  they  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  Cha- 
nute. and  he  spent  some  weeks  with  them,  observ- 
ing and  encouraging  their  work.  In  September  and 
October,  they  say,  "nearly  one  thousand  gliding 
flights  were  made,  several  of  which  covered  dis- 
tances of  over  600  feet.  Some,  made  against  a 
wind  of  thirty-six  miles  an  hour,  gave  proof  of 
the  effectiveness  of  the  devices  for  control."  Late 
in  iqo3  they  had  reached  the  point  of  testing  a 
power-machine,  and  sailed  into  the  air  with  it  for 
the  first  time  on  December  17  in  the  presence  of 
five  lookers-on.  "The  first  flight,"  they  tell  us, 
"lasted  onh'  twelve  seconds ;  a  flight  very  modest 
compared  with  that  of  birds;  but  it  was,  never- 
theless, the  first  in  the  history  of  the  world  in 
which  a  machine  carrying  a  man  had  raised  itself 
by  its  own  power  into  the  air  in  free  flight,  had 
sailed  forward  on  a  level  course,  without  reduc- 
tion of  speed,  and  had  finally  landed  without 
being  wrecked.  The  second  and  third  flights  were 
a  little  longer,  and  the  fourth  lasted  fifty-nine 
seconds,  covering  a  distance  of  852  feet  over  the 
ground  against  a  twenty-mile  wind."  In  the 
spring  of  rqo4  the  experimenting  of  the  Wright 
Brothers  was  transferred  from  Kitty  Hawk.  \.  C  . 
to  a  pr.iirie  not  far  from  their  home,  at  Dayton. 
Ohio  There  they  overcame  final  difficulties  in  the 
maintaining  of  equilibrium  when  turning  their  ma- 


as  yet.  On  all  sides  there  was  readiness  for  sur- 
prising and  astonishing  the  public  in  igoS.  Far- 
man,  at  Paris,  in  March,  exceeded  a  flight  of  two 
miles:  Delagrange,  at  Milan,  in  June,  covered 
ten  miles.  and  more;  Farman,  in  July, 
raised  his  record  to  eleven  miles,  and  Dela- 
grange carried  his  to  fifteen  and  a  half  in 
September.  The  Wrights  had  made  flights  that 
ranged  from  eleven  to  twenty-four  miles  in  the  fall 
of  1005 ;  and  now,  in  their  renewed  trials  of 
ioo8.  these  distances  were  more  than  doubled. 
Wilbur  Wright  went  abroad,  to  exhibit  their  ma- 
chine in  France  and  elsewhere,  while  Orville.  in 
September,  submitted  it  to  official  tests  at  Fort 
Myer.  near  Washington  There,  on  different  days 
in  that  month,  rounding  circuits  of  the  parade 
ground,  he  made  time  records  of  continuous  flight 
that  ran  from  fifty-six  to  seventy-four  minutes, 
travelling  estimated  distances  that  stretched  in 
one  instance  over  fifty-one  and  a  third  miles. 
These  trials  at  Fort  Myer  were  interrupted  sadly 
by  an  accident,  from  the  breaking  of  a  propeller- 
blade,  which  caused  the  machine  to  drop  to  the 
ground  while  in  flight.  Lieutenant  T.  E.  Selfridge, 
U.  S.  A  .  who  rode  with  Mr.  Wright  at  the  time, 
was  killed,  and  Mr.  Wright  suffered  a  broken 
leg.  W'ilbur  Wright,  meantime,  was  entering  on 
great  triumphs  in  France.  M  Le  Mans,  on  Septem- 
ber :i.  he  traversed  sixty-eight  miles  in  a  continu- 
ous flight  of  a  little  more  than  an  hour  and  a  half. 


754 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Wright    Brothers 


AVIATION 


This  achievement,  which  won  him  the  Michelin 
prize,  was  far  surpassed  by  him  on  December 
i8,  when  ninety-five  miles  were  travelled  in 
an  hour  and  fifty-four  minutes,  and  again,  on 
December  31,  when  the  stay  in  the  air  was  pro- 
longed to  two  hours,  nine  minutes  and  some 
seconds,  and  the  distance  covered  was  Tb'/z  miles 
These  records  of  the  Wrights  for  time  of  continu- 
ous flight  were  subsequently  beaten  by  a  number 
of  European  competitors.  Otherwise,  the  records 
of  I  pop  show  no  very  marked  advance  beyond 
those  of  igo8;  but  the  year  had  excitements  in 
aviation,  connected  especially  with  attempted  flights 
over  the  English  channel.  Hubert  Latham,  a  re- 
cent French  practitioner  in  aviation,  was  the  first 
to  venture  this  leap  through  the  air  from  France 
to  England.  His  machine  was  ark  Antoinette 
monoplane,  designed  by  M.  Levasseur.  He 
launched  it  from  Calais  in.  the  early  morning  of 
July  ig,  and  traversed  about  six  miles  of  the 
passage  when  his  motor  failed  and  he  fell  to  the 
water,  unhurt,  and  was  rescued  by  an  attendant 
steamer.  Six  days  after  Latham's  failure,  on  July 
25,  Louis  Bleriot,  using  another  monoplane  ma- 
chine, made  the  crossing  with  brilliant  success, 
flying  from  Calais  to-  Dover,  twenty-one  miles,  in 
twenty-three  minutes,  and  winning  the  prize  of 
£1000  which  the  London  Daily  Mail  had  offered 
for  the  performance  of  the  feat.  Latham  then 
repeated  his  attempt  and  was  unfortunate  again, 
his  motor  giving  out  after  it  had  carried  him 
within  two  miles  of  the  Dover  shore.  Orville 
Wright,  at  this  time,  July  27,  was  demonstrating 
at  Fort  Myer  the  ability  of  his  aeroplane  to  carry 
two  persons  in  a  well-sustained  flight.  With 
Lieutenant  Frank  P.  Lahm,  of  the  Signal  Corps,  as 
a  passenger,  and  having  President  Taft  among  his 
spectators,  he  made  a  flight  of  one  hour,  twelve 
minutes  and  forty  seconds,  accomplishing  upwards 
oi  fifty  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  forty  miles 
an  hour  A  day  or  two  afterwards  he  carried  Lieu- 
tenant Benjamin  D.  Foulois  over  the  ten-mile 
course  from  Fort  Myer  to-  Alexandria  at  a  speed 
of  more  than  forty-two  miles  an  hour. 

In  the  last  week  of  August,  iqoq,  the  first  race 
meeting  for  heavier-than-air  flying  machines  oc- 
curred at  Rheims,  France,  and  a  dozen  aviators 
from  France,  England  and  America  competed  for 
large  prizes  in  long  distance  and  duration  flights. 
A  number  of  new  records  was  made,  and  new 
names  acquired  note.  Louis  Paulhan  kept  the 
air  for  two  hours  and  forty-three  minute?  with  a 
V'oisin  biplane,  covering  83  miles.  Latham  sur- 
passed this  in  distance  and  speed,  making  g6 
miles  in  two  hours  and  eighteen  minutes;  and  this 
again  was  beaten  by  Henri  Farman,  who  travelled 
118  miles,  remaining  in  the  air  over  three  hours. 
Mr.  Glenn  H.  Curtiss  won  the  prize  for  speed, 
doing  18  miles  in  twenty-five  minutes  and  forty- 
five  seconds. 

In  IQOQ  the  Wright  brothers  delivered  an  air- 
plane to  the  United  States  government-  which  met 
the  specifications  dictated  by  the  War  department. 
The  salient  features  demanded  were:  Parts  to  be 
assembled  in  one  hour;  capable  of  being  trans- 
ported in  army  wagons,  dis-assembled ;  carry  two 
persons  weighing  350  pounds;  speed,  forty  miles 
per  hour;  perfect  control  and  equilibrium;  steer- 
able  in  all  directions;  safety  devices,  etc. 

Orville  Wright  had  now  gone  abroad  and  his 
brother  had  returned  to  America.  The  latter  had 
established  a  flying  school  at  Pau,  in  France,  and 
trained  a  number  of  pupils.  During  iqoq  he  had 
also  visited  England  and  Italy.  He  had  sold  the 
French  patent  rights  on  his  machine  for  .$100,000. 
Tn  August  and  September  Orville  Wright  gave 
exhibitions   in    Berlin,  breaking   some   of   his   own 


records,  carrying  a  passenger  in  his  machine  for 
an  hour  and  thirty-five  minutes,  on  September  18, 
and  rising,  on  October  i,  to  an  unexampled  height, 
believed  to  have  exceeded  1000  feet.  This,  how- 
ever, was  greatly  exceeded  in  January,  1910,  by 
Hubert  Latham,  at  Mourmelon,  France,  who  rose 
to  3,280  feet,  and  by  Louis  Paulhan,  at  Los  Angeles, 
California,  4,165  feet.  On  October  3  the  crown 
prince  of  Germany  was  Wright's  companion  in  a 
short  flight.  Meantime  Wilbur  Wright,  in  America, 
had  endeavored  to  supply  one  of  the  spectacles 
arranged  for  the  Hudson-Fulton  celebration  at 
New  York;  but  the  intended  program  of  aviation 
was  spoiled  by  forbidding  winds.  He  did,  how- 
ever, make  one  astonishing  flight,  on  October  4, 
from  Governor's  island,  up  the  Hudson  to  Grant's 
tomb,  and,  on  his  return,  passing  over  the  British 
battle-ships  then  lying  in  the  river.  The  distance 
travelled  was  about  twenty  miles  and  the  time  of 
the  journey  thirty-three  minutes  and  a  half.  Un- 
fortunately it  was  unexpected,  and  was  seen  by  a 
small  part  only  of  the  millions  who  had  been 
watching  several  days  for  a  flight.  On  the  next 
day  Mr.  Wright  made  the  statement  that  no  more 
public  exhibitions  would  be  given  by  his  brother 
or  himself.  "Hereafter,"  he  said,  "we  shall  devote 
all  our  efforts  to  the  commercial  exploitation  of 
our  machines,  and  fly  only  as  a  matter  of  ex- 
periment, to  test  the  value  of  whatever  changes 
we  decide  to  make  in  the  construction." 

The  following  is  by  Dr.  Simon  Newcomb 
(d.  iQoq),  the  distinguished  astronomer:  "It 
would  seem  that,  at  the  present  time,  the 
public  is  more  hopeful  of  the  flying-machine  than 
of  the  dirigible  balloon.  The  idea  that  because 
such  a  machine  has  at  last  been  constructed  which 
will  carry  a  man  through  the  air,  there  is  no  limit 
to  progress,  is  a  natural  one.  But  to  judge  of 
possibilities,  we  must  advert  to  the  distinction 
already  pointed  out  between  obstacles  interposed 
by  nature,  which  cannot  be  surmounted  by  any  in- 
vention, and  those  which  we  may  hope  to  over- 
come by  possible  mechanical  appliances.  The 
mathematical  relations  between  speed,  sustaining 
power,  strength  of  material,  efficiency  of  engine, 
and  other  elements  of  success  are  fixed  and  deter- 
minate, and  cannot  be  changed  except  by  new 
scientific  discoveries,  quite  outside  the  power  of 
the  inventor  to  make.  That  the  gravitation  of 
matter  can  in  any  way  be  annulled  seems  out  of 
the  question.  Should  any  combination  of  metals 
or  other  substances  be  discovered  of  many  times 
the  stiffness  and  tensile  strength  of  the  fabrics 
and  alloys  with  which  we  are  now  acquainted, 
then  might  one  element  of  success  be  at  our  com- 
mand. But,  with  the  metals  that  we  actually 
have,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  weight  of  an  engine 
with  a  given  driving  power,  and  it  may  be  fairly 
assumed  that  this  limit  is  nearly  reached  in  the 
motors  now  in  use.  .  .  .  Owing  to  the  levity  of 
the  air,  the  supporting  surface  must  have  a  wide 
area.  We  cannot  set  any  exact  limit  to  the  neces- 
sary spread  of  sail,  because  the  higher  the  speed 
the  less  the  spread  required.  But,  as  we  increase 
the  speed,  we  also  increase  the  resistance,  and  there- 
fore we  must  have  a  more  powerful  and  necessarily 
heavier  motor.  .  .  .  Bearing  in  mind  that  no  limit 
is  to  be  set  to  the  possible  discovery  of  new  laws 
of  nature  or  new  combinations  of  the  chemical  ele- 
ments, it  must  be  understood  that  I  disclaim  any 
positive  prediction  that  men  will  never  fly  from 
place  to  place  at  will.  The  claim  I  make  is  that 
they  will  not  do  this  until  some  epoch-making 
discovery  is  made  of  which  we  have  now  no  con- 
ception, and  that  mere  invention  has  nearly  reached 
its  limit.  It  is  very  natural  to  reason  that  men 
have    done    hundreds    of    things    which    formerly 


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Airplanes 
Altitude  Records,  Safety  Devices 


AVIATION 


seemed  impossible,  and  therefore  they  may  fly. 
But  for  ever>-  one  thing  seemingly  impossible  that 
they  have  succeeded  in  doing  there  are  ten  which 
they  would  like  to  do  but  which  no  one  believes 
that  they  can  do.  No  one  thinks  of  controlling 
wind  or  weather,  of  making  the  sun  shine  when 
we  please,  of  building  a  railroad  across  the  At- 
lantic, of  changing  the  ocean  level  to  suit  the  pur- 
poses of  commerce,  of  building  bridges  of  greater 
extent  than  engineers  tell  us  is  possible  with  the 
strength  of  the  material  that  we  have  at  com- 
mand, or  of  erecting  buildings  so  high  that  they 
would  be  crushed  by  their  own  weight.  Why  are 
we  hopeless  as  to  all  these  achievements,  and  yet 
hopeful  that  the  flying-machine  may  be  the  ve- 
hicle of  the  future,  which  shall  transport  us  more 
rapidly  than  a  railroad  train  now  does?  It  is 
simply  because  we  all  have  so  clear  a  mental  view 
of  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  reaching  such  ends 
as  those  just  enumerated  that  we  do  not  waste  time 
in  attempting  to  surmount  them,  and  we  are 
hopeful  of  the  flying-machine  only  because  we  do 
not  clearly  see  that  the  difficulties  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  we  should  encounter  in  erecting 
a  structure  which  would  not  be  subject  to  the  laws 
of  mechanics. 

"I  have  said  nothing  of  the  possible  success  of 
the  flying-machine  for  the  purposes  of  military 
reconnaissance  or  any  other  operations  requiring 
the  observer  to  command  a  wide  view  of  all  that 
is  on  the  landscape.  This  is  a  technical  subject 
which,  how  great  soever  may  be  its  national  im- 
portance, does  not  affect  our  daily  life." — S.  Xew- 
comb.  Prospect  of  aerial  navigation  {North  Amer- 
ican Review,  March,  iqoS). 

More  optimistic  and  prophetically  accurate  in 
parts  was  the  following  prognostication  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  the  inventor:  "In  ten  years 
flying  machines  will  be  used  to  carry  mails.  They 
will  carry  passengers,  too,  and  they  will  go  at  a 
speed  of  loo  miles  an  hour.  There  is  no  doubt 
of  this."  These  were  the  words  of  Mr.  Edison  in 
an  interview  published  in  the  New  York  Times, 
August  I,  IQOQ.  But  while  sure  that  the  "flying 
machine  has  got  to  come,"  he  was  not  at  all  sure 
that  it  would  come  along  the  lines  pursued  in  the 
experiments  of  that  time.  "The  f3>'ing  problem 
now  consists  of  75  per  cent,  machine  and  25  per 
cent,  man,"  he  said,  "while  to  be  commercially 
successful  the  flying  machine  must  leave  little  to 
the  peculiar  skill  of  the  operator  and  must  be  able 
to  go  out  in  all  weathers."  He  continued:  "If  I 
were  to  build  a  flying  machine  I  would  plan  to 
sustain  it  by  means  of  a  number  of  rapidly  re- 
volving inclined  planes,  the  effect  of  which  would 
be  to  raise  the  machine  by  compressing  the  air 
between  the  planes  and  the  earth.  Such  a  ma- 
chine would  rise  from  the  ground  as  a  bird  does. 
Then  I  would  drive  the  machine  ahead  with  a 
propeller." 

Mr.  Edison  believed  it  to  be  a  question  of 
power.  "Is  it  not  thinkable  that  a  method  will 
be  discovered  of  wirelessly  transmitting  electrical 
energy  from  the  earth  to  the  motor  of  the  ma- 
chine in  mid-air?"  He  asked  and  answered  his 
own  question,  saying: — "There  is  no  reason  to 
disbelieve  that  it  can  and  will  be  done."  He 
added,  however,  that  there  was  great  room  for 
improvement  in  explosive  engines.  "Any  day  we 
are  hkely  to  read  that  somebody  has  made  picric 
acid  or  something  else  work— done  some  little  thing 
that  will  transform  the  flying  machine  from  a  toy 
into  a  commercial  success."  And  when  it  is  per- 
fected, he  said,  the  flying  machine  may  end  war 
by  becoming  a  means  of  attack  that  cannot  be 
resisted. 

1908-1920.  —  Altitude  records.  —  Aeronautic 


maps. — Number  of  pilots  in  different  countries. 
— Safety  record  in  airplane  flight. — Qualiflca- 
tions  for  aviators. — Parachutes. — The  remark- 
able progress  made  since  1908  in  the  construction 
and  manipulation  of  flying  craft  may  best  be  il- 
lustrated by  the  ever-rising  barometer  of  altitude 
records  achieved  by  daring  aviators.  Yet  all  the 
skill  and  physical  courage  required  to  perform 
these  thrilling  feats  would  be  unavailing  without 
the  efficient  machinery  and  reUable  construction 
of  the  craft  to  which  these  men  entrust  their  lives. 
In  1908  the  record  was  400  feet,  which  was  more 
than  quadrupled  in  the  following  year,  when  it 
rose  to  1,640  feet.  In  1910  it  was  10,745  i^et;  in 
1911  it  grew  to  13,050;  in  1912,. — 17,882;  in  1913, 
— 19,600;  in  1914, — 25,756.  The  next  four  years 
were  devoted  to  the  war,  during  which  period  com- 
petitive flying  rested  in  abeyance,  so  far  as  ex- 
hibition "aerobatics"  were  concerned.  More 
wonderful  records  were  piled  up  in  the  grim  busi- 
ness of  war  of  which  the  outside  world  heard  but 
little  at  the  time.  On  Sept.  18,  igi8.  Major  R.  W. 
Schroeder,  an  .American  army  aviator,  ascended 
28,000  feet  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  which  was  beaten  by 
Captain  Lang,  an  .American,  in  England  on  Jan. 
2,  1919,  who  rose  to  30,500  feet.  Roland  Rohlfs 
broke  the  .American  record  on  July  30,  1919,  by 
making  30,700  feet  in  a  400  h.p.  Curtiss  triplane. 
Adjutant  Casale  and  Lieutenant  Romanet.  French 
aviators,  raised  the  record  to  33,136  and  34,200 
feet  respectively,  which  was  almost  equalled  by 
Rohlfs  on  Sept.  18,  1919,  w'hen  he  attained  32,450 
feet.  Major  Schroeder  was  reported  to  have 
broken  all  previous  records  on  Feb.  27,  1920.  He 
climbed  36,020  feet  above  the  earth,  over  six 
miles.  He  lost  consciousness  due  to  the  e.xhaustion 
of  his  oxygen  supply,  and  fell  more  than  five 
miles  in  two  minutes,  according  to  the  instru- 
ments on  his  machine.  When  2,000  feet  from  the 
ground  he  recovered  sufficiently  to  right  his  plane 
and  make  a  safe  landing  at  McCook  field.  He 
was  picked  up  temporarily  bhnded  and  paralyzed 
by  cold.  He  recovered  a  few  days  later  and  gave 
the  following  details  of  his  experience: 

"The  temperature  at  the  peak  of  the  climb  was 
sixty-seven  degrees  below,  Fahrenheit.  The  center 
section  of  my  machine  was  coated  an  inch  thick 
with  ice.  The  exhaust  from  the  motor  sprayed 
fumes  of  carbon  monoxide  over  me,  and  I  was 
breathing  this  continually  along  with  the  oxygen. 
I  had  set  out  with  three  hours'  supply  of  oxygen, 
and  four  hours'  fuel  supply.  I  was  getting  along 
rapidly.  I  knew  by  reading  my  instruments  that 
I  had  broken  the  record;  that  I  was  flying  higher 
than  any  man  had  ever  flown  before.  I  had  an 
hour  and  one-half  supply  of  fuel  left  and  was  quite 
elated.  I  was  wondering  just  how  far  I  could 
climb  in  that  time  when  I  found  my  reserve  tank 
of  oxygen  emptied.  I  had  discarded  the  original 
tank  some  minutes  before,  because  it  did  not  func- 
tion properly,  and  when  I  exhausted  my  reserve 
I  turned  back  to  it.  It  would  not  work.  I  had 
torn  off  my  heavy  goggles,  because  the  motor  ex- 
haust was  crystallizing  on  them  and  interfered  with 
my  vision.  I  turned  toward  the  instruments — 
then  everything  went  blank  and  I  fell  into  a  flat 
nose  dive.  As  far  as  I  can  remember,  part  of  the 
fall  was  in  a  straight  dive.  The  rest  was  a  spin- 
ning nose  dive.  I  believe  I  was  really  34,000  feet 
high  when  I  fell  against  the  switchboard.  My 
motor  was  on  at  the  time  I  was  trjing  to  turn 
off  the  switch  as  I  nosed  the  plane  head  down.  I 
must  have  turned  the  switch  off.  lost  conscious- 
ness completely,  but  revived  long  enough  to  make 
a  landing." — In  certifying  the  record,  however,  the 
Aero  Club  of  .America  fixed  the  height  at  33,113 
feet.      At    the    tenth    International    Geographical 


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Airplanes 
Development  of  Types 


AVIATION 


Congress  held  in  Rome  durinK  iqt^,  an  Italian 
naval  officer,  G.  Roncagli,  proposed  the  prepara- 
tion of  an  aeronautic  map  of  the  world,  while  an 
Austrian,  T.  Scheinpflug,  suggested  that  photo- 
graphs of  the  earth  taken  from  aeroplanes  should 
be  converted  into  topographical  maps.  Statistics 
collected  in  the  summer  of  1913  showed  that  France 
led  the  way  with  a  supply  of  600  trained  pilots, 
Germany  coming  second  with  300,  Italy  third  with 
17s,  Great  Britain  fourth  with  13S,  Russia  fifth 
with  eighty,  Japan  sixth  with  twenty,  United 
States  seventh  with  nineteen,  and  Mexico  eighth 
with  five.  The  war  made  aviators  by  the  tens 
of  thousands.  Until  1914,  an  aviator  was  a  rare 
person ;  it  was  a  great  distinction  to  hold  a 
pilot's  license ;  few  persons  had  gone  aloft  in  air- 
planes. But  with  the  call  for  fighting  aviators, 
the  various  countries  soon  trained  thousands  of 
young  men  for  flying  duty. 

The  Information  Branch  of  the  United  States 
Au-  Service  in  igiq  prepared  for  the  Manufac- 
turers' Aircraft  Association  a  tabulation  showing 
the  comparative  safety  of  fiying  when  reasonable 
precautions  are  observed.  The  conclusions  were 
based  on  records  kept  at  the  various  army  train- 
ing fields,  and  tend  to  show  that  the  «afety  of  the 
airplane  is  such  as  to  warrant  the  mterest  of  the 
business  world.  Summed  up,  the  army  records 
show  that  there  was  only  one  fatality  for  every 
2,919  hours  of  flight,  or  the  equivalent  of  almost 
235,000  miles  of  travel  in  the  air.  Even  then,  al- 
lowance must  be  made  for  the  intensiveness  with 
which  the  wartime  training  was  carried  on.  An 
analysis  of  the  accident  report  showed  that  the 
greater  majority  of  the  mishaps  at  the  flying 
fields  were  the  result  of  bad  judgment  or  physical 
difficulty  experienced  by  the  student,  and  not 
through  structural  weakness  in  the  plane  or  en- 
gine. A  recapitulation  of  the  reports  apparently 
substantiates  this  view,  as  there  were  only  298 
fatalities  among  20,142  aviators.  The  increasing 
safety  of  the  airplane  received  further  corrobora- 
tion by  experience  gained  in  Great  Britain  during 
the  first  year  after  the  war.  During  that  year 
(1919)  a  total  of  70,000  passengers  were  carried 
in  38,954  flights  with  but  one  fatal  accident.  The 
number  of  miles  flown  was  734,200  and  the  goods 
carried  totaled  116,498  pounds.  No  fewer  than 
114  aerodromes  were  licensed  and  519  machines 
registered  during  the  year.  Commenting  on  these 
figures,  Major  Gen.  Sir  F.  H.  Sykes,  controller 
general   of   civil   aviation,   was  quoted   as   saying: 

"We  have  conquered  the  air  and  our  immediate 
task  is  to  exploit  our  victory  in  the  interest  of 
commercial  development."  Of  paramount  impor- 
tance is  the  personal  equation  or  temperamental 
composition  of  a  successful  aviator.  A  perfect 
knowledge  of  all  the  rules  of  the  game  of  flying 
will  not  save  a  man  who  lacks  confidence  in  him- 
self and  is  inclined  to  hesitate.  A  half-second  of 
indecision  may  be  fatal.  Initiative,  the  sporting 
instinct  and  a  certain  irresponsibility,  qualities  in- 
herent in  American  youth,  have  been  found  of  far 
greater  value  in  the  air  than  the  logical,  scientific, 
severely  disciplined  character  of  the  Germans,  and 
account  for  the  superiority  of  the  Allied  aviators 
in  general.  The  most  eminent  of  British  scien- 
tists have  devoted  special  study  to  the  psychologi- 
cal and  physiological  aspects  of  flying.  One  au- 
thority says  that  good  eyesight,  normal  hearing, 
good  "muscle  sense,"  and  equilibration  are  indis- 
pensable qualifications.  But  most  important  of  all 
is  the  right  temperament — not  an  easy  thing  for  a 
medical  board  to  examine.  Of  the  types — the  im- 
aginative and  the  unimaginative — the  imaginative 
youth  is  said  to  make  the  better  pilot  if  he  can 
keep  his  imagination  under  control.    He  who  has 


led  an  outdoor  life  and  has  played  many  games 
is  most  likely  to  pass  the  test,  although,  of  course, 
there  are  exceptions.  Splendid,  powerfully  built 
sportsmen  have  been  known  to  fail  altogether,  and 
anaemic,  frail-looking  youths  of  the  student  type 
have  blossomed  into  brilliant  pilots.  "It  is  excep- 
tionally interesting  .  .  .  that  the  natural  desire  of 
the  flying  man  to  diminish  the  boredom  of  aero- 
drome flying  by  the  practice  of  'stunting'  was  met 
by  the  French  military  authorities  with  precisely 
the  same  discouragement  as  was  accorded  to  the 
corresponding  enthusiasts  by  the  British  authori- 
ties in  pre-war  and  early  war  days.  The  'stunts' 
which  in  1918  are  dignified  by  the  name  of  'aero- 
batics,' and  which  eventually  formed  the  basis  of 
the  tactics  of  military  flying  were  .  .  .  rigorously 
forbidden  by  the  French,  and  military  flyers  were 
punished  for  having  dived  too  steeply  or  turned 
too  quickly.  .  .  .  We  may  also  note  that  the  noble 
art  of  looking  with  a  blind  eye  upon  a  military 
order  has  saved  British  aeronautics  from  the  ex- 
tinction which  would  have  been  its  fate  had  our 
fliers  suppressed  with  self-denying  acquiescence 
their  instinctive  desire  to  acquire  the  art  of  rapid 
manoeuvring,  looping,  diving,  spinning,  fluttering, 
rolling  and  the  like.  In  France  the  same  seems  to 
have  taken  place.  Those  who  disobeyed  the  or- 
der acquired  the  art  of  manoeuvring,  and  those 
who  acquired  the  art  of  manoeuvring  survived. 
Thus  even  in  so  tightly  organized  an  institution 
as  the  army  can  we  detect  the  advantage  of  in- 
dividualist effort." — Future  of  aeronautics  {Lon- 
don Times  Literary  Supplement,  Jan.  9,  1919). — • 
"A  considerable  controversy  raged  in  the  press 
and  elsewhere  a  few  months  before  the  cessation 
of  hostilities  [1918]  on  the  subject  of  equipping 
the  aeroplane  with  parachutes  as  a  life-saving  de- 
vice. In  the  airship  service  this  had  been  done  for 
two  years.  The  best  type  of  parachute  available 
was  selected,  and  these  were  fitted  according  to 
circumstances  in  each  type  of  ship.  The  usual 
method  is  to  insert  the  parachute,  properly  folded 
for  use,  in  a  containing  case  which  is  fastened 
either  in  the  car  or  on  the  side  of  the  envelope  as 
is  most  convenient.  In  a  small  ship  the  crew  are 
all  the  time  attached  to  their  parachutes  and  in 
the  event  of  the  ship  catching  fire  have  only  to 
jump  overboard  and  possess  an  excellent  chance 
of  being  saved.  In  rigid  airships  where  members 
of  the  crew  have  to  move  from  one  end  of  the 
ship  to  the  other,  the  harness  is  worn  and  para- 
chutes are  disposed  in  the  keel  and  cars  as  are 
lifebuoys  in  seagoing  vessels.  Should  an  emer- 
gency arise,  the  nearest  parachute  can  be  attached 
to  the  harness  by  means  of  a  spring  hook,  which 
is  the  work  of  a  second,  and  a  descent  can  be 
made.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  there  has  never 
been  a  fatal  accident  or  any  case  of  a  parachute 
failing  to  open  properly  with  a  man  attached." — 
G.  Whale,  British  airships,  past,  present  and  fu- 
ture, pp.  31-32- 

1910-1920. — Development  of  the  seaplane. — 
All  metal  planes. — Liberty  motor. — Airplane 
types. — Hangars  and  floating  airdromes. — The 
first  float  seaplane  that  left  the  water  under  its 
own  power  and  returned  thereto  was  built  by 
Henri  Fabre,  of  France,  the  trials  taking  place  on 
March  28,  1910,  near  Marseilles.  Thence  the  de- 
velopment of  the  seaplane  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
persistent  efforts  of  Glenn  H.  Curtiss,  of  Ham- 
mondsport,  N.  Y.,  who  produced  the  first  prac- 
tical float-seaplane  in  191 1  and  developed  the 
following  year,  simultaneously  with  M.  Denhaut 
of  France,  the  boat  seaplane,  or  flying  boat.  The 
seaplane  differs  from  the  land  machine,  in  having 
the  car  shaped  like  a  boat,  so  that  it  can  alight 
on   the  water,  upon   which  it   floats,  and  hydro- 


757 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Development  of  Types 


AVIATION 


planes  permit  it  to  arise  without  difficulty.  In  the 
United  States  and  other  navies,  most  large  ships 
carry  at  least  one  seaplane,  while  special  vessels 
carrying  ten  to  twenty-five  planes  accompany 
large  naval  forces.  "At  first  glance,  the  giant  sea- 
plane of  our  Navy  appears  formidable  while  rest- 
ing on  the  water,  and  still  more  so  when  hauled 
up  on  the  shore  where  its  boat-like  body  lies  fully 
uncovered  to  view.  In  flight  it  does  not  seem  so 
large;  indeed,  it  might  well  be  mistaken  for  the 
smaller  flying  boats  by  the  layman,  since  all  air- 
craft are  deceptive  while  in  flight.  But  viewed 
close  up  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  size  of 
this  craft,  with  its  iio-foot  span,  two  Liberty 
motors  developing  from  400  to  500  horse-power 
each  and  driving  propellers  lo^j  feet  in  diameter, 
and  a  body  over  50  feet  in  length.  The  fact  is 
that  the  body,  or  hull,  is  nothing  short  of  a  50- 
foot  yacht,  but  instead  of  velvet  cushioned  berths 
and  other  comforts  its  interior  is  given  over  to  a 
tangle  of  braces,  wires,  steering  and  controlling 
devices,  instruments,  a  wireless  station,  a  six-sta- 
tion intercommunicating  telephone  system,  fuel 
tanks  and  guns,  all  of  which  are  the  means  of 
combating  the  U-boat  and  of  carrying  out  long- 
distance patrols  at  sea.  On  the  water  the  seaplane 
develops  a  speed  up  to  50  miles  an  hour,  and  the 
moment  it  slips  off  the  surface  and  soars  upwards 
the  speed  increases  to  lOO  miles  an  hour.  As  in 
every  other  heavier-than-air  machine,  the  naval 
aircraft  engineers  have  had  to  secure  strength  in 
iheir  structure  while  keeping  a  strict  eye  on  the 
weight.  Thus  the  required  strength  of  every  piece 
of  material  entering  into  the  construction  is  de- 
termined by  exhaustive  tests;  and  in  a  hundred 
ways  both  wood  and  metal  parts  are  thinned  and 
lightened  until  this  maximum  of  strength  is  pre- 
served and  the  minimum  weight  reached.  A  com- 
pleted wing,  painted  in  battleship  gray,  looks  like 
a  solid  steel  armor  plate ;  but  strip  off  the  fabric 
which  carries  the  paint  and  inside  is  seen  a  skele- 
ton frame  of  spruce  webs  and  piano  wire  braces. 
The  webs,  or  ribs,  which  form  this  frame  are  set 
between  full  length  beams,  these  beams  being  re- 
duced to  the  smallest  possible  size  consistent  with 
the  great  strain  to  which  they  are  subjected.  .  .  . 
Every  part  is  carefully  varnished  as  if  for  dis- 
play and  the  whole  covered  by  fabric  stretched 
until  it  rings  like  a  drum.  The  strength  is  there, 
to  be  sure,  but  the  weight  is  not;  so  that  a  40- 
foot  wing,  eight  feet  in  width,  which  appears  to 
weigh  at  least  a  ton,  is  readily  lifted  by  one  man. 
This  same  construction  is  followed  in  the  entire 
seaplane.  The  keel  is  but  little  more  than  a  strip 
of  wood,  but  a  perfect  system  of  bracing  makes 
it  strong  as  a  steel  girder.  .  .  .  There  is  no  hap- 
hazard work  about  the  building  of  one  of  these 
boats.  Every  piece  of  wood  or  metal  is  given 
an  individual  part  number.  Each  one  is  designed 
for  a  particular  place  and  the  use  of  jigs  and  dies 
makes  possible  a  degree  of  standardization  of  wood 
and  metal  parts  which  is  as  near  perfect  as  can 
be  reached  in  aircraft  production." — A.  C.  Les- 
raraboura  (Scientific  American,  Dec.  14,  iqi8,  pp. 
481,  486). 

"Canvas,  wood  and  a  maze  of  bracing  wires 
have  been  the  materials  of  the  airplane  builder 
ever  since  the  Wrights  flew  their  first  machine  over 
the  sand  dunes  of  Kitty  Hawk.  From  time  to  time 
some  one  has  come  forth  with  the  suggestion  that 
metal  be  used  instead  of  wood,  but  the  sugges- 
tion has  received  little  serious  thought.  The 
bracing  wire?  have  been  slowly  reduced  in  number 
by  improved  designs;  but  the  wood  and  canvas 
might  have  remained  to  the  present  day  if  German 
aircraft  constructors  had  not  departed  from  the 
time-honored   idea   and   experimented   with   metal 


planes.  During  the  closing  months  of  the  war 
German  airmen  appeared  over  the  Allied  lines 
flying  marvelous  all-metal  machines.  At  the  time 
these  were  considered  freaks  of  little  if  any  real 
value.  Aeronautical  men  outside  of  Germany  were 
only  too  hasty  in  their  condemnation  of  the  all- 
metal  German  machines.  How,  they  asked,  could 
one  make  a  practical  all-metal  machine?  Was  not 
the  weight  of  even  the  lightest  aluminum  alloy 
considerably  heavier  than  wood,  matching  strength 
with  strength?  And  so  the  German  aircraft  con- 
structors stole  a  long  march  on  the  aircraft  con- 
structors of  all  other  nations.  With  the  ending 
of  hostilities  certain  all-metal  German  machines 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Allied  experts,  and 
then  the  advantage  of  this  new  form  of  construc- 
tion became  known.  Still,  it  was  a  much  mooted 
question  whether  such  construction  was  practical 
in  any  machine  other  than  one  intended  for 
aerial  combat,  \Mherein  engine  power  was  almost 
unlimited  since  the  main  consideration  was  per- 
formance irrespective  of  expense. 

"Several  weeks  ago  [June-July,  1020]  an  all- 
metal  monoplane  made  a  new  .American  record. 
This  machine,  the  JL-6,  is  nothing  more  than  a 
German  Junkers'  limousine  six-seater — one  of  sev- 
eral machines  of  this  type  brought  to  these  United 
States  by  an  enterprizing  business  man  who  has 
the  future  of  aviation  at  heart.  The  speed  of  the 
all-metal  monoplane  was  surprizing.  But  most 
surprizing  was  the  low  fuel  consumption.  This 
seemingly  heavy  machine  excelled  by  a  good  deal 
the  efficiency  of  the  relatively  flimsy  wood  and 
canvas  planes.  Germany  has  scored  a  very  de- 
cisive success  in  airplane  construction.  To  deny 
that  fact  would  be  foolhardy  It  appears  that  Dr. 
Junkers  of  Germany  has  gone  ahead  along  new 
lines,  ignoring  the  old  misconceptions  about  the 
heaviness  of  metals  and  the  necessity  of  canvas 
for  the  wing  surfaces.  He  has  produced  machines 
with  thick,  unbraced  cantilever  planes,  corrugated 
aluminum  alloy  for  the  wing  surfaces,  and  all- 
metal  struts.  At  one  stroke  he  has  wiped  out 
canvas,  wood  and  the  maze  of  wires,  and  in  their 
stead  he  has  introduced  tremendous  strength,  un- 
approached  wearing  qualities,  fireproof  character- 
istics, and  unrivalled  efficiency. — The  wood  and 
canvas  airplane — the  airplane  which  we  know  so 
well — is  a  frail  structure  compared  with  this  all- 
metal  machine.  The  wood  and  canvas  machine 
has  a  life  of  about  a  year  or  two  with  steady  use; 
the  all-metal  airplane,  with  little  to  deteriorate 
from  exposure  to  the  elements,  has  a  life  of  sev- 
eral years.  The  all-metal  machine  can  withstand 
hard  landings,  which  would  cost  the  usual  airplane 
smashed  members.  Germany  is  not  confining  the 
all-metal  construction  to  small  airplanes.  .Already 
she  has  constructed  several  giant  airplanes,  one 
of  the  largest  being  the  Zeppehn-Staaken  mono- 
plane. This  machine  proved  one  of  the  greatest 
surprizes  in  store  for  the  Allied  officials  who 
visited  Germany  right  after  the  armistice.  It  is 
powered  with  four  260  horse  power  motors, 
mounted  as  tractors  on  the  leading  edge  of  the 
wings.  The  mechanics  can  actually  get  about 
inside  the  monoplane  wings  and  repair  and  ad- 
just the  engines  while  in  the  air.  This  giant  ac- 
commodates eighteen  passengers,  or  it  can  carry 
a  one-ton  load  of  useful  cargo.  All  comforts  are 
included  for  the  passengers— easy  chairs,  large 
windows,  pantry,  lavatory,  a  luggage  compartment, 
and  a  sleeping  cabin  which  also  serves  as  a  col- 
lision buffer  m  a  bad  landing." — Independent,  Sept. 
4,  1020,  p.  282. 

"When  the  war  first  broke  out.  airplanes  were 
fitted  with  100  horse-power  engines.  Very  soon 
they  were  found  to  be  insufficient  and  engines  of 


758 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
■Development  of  Types 


AVIATION 


12S  horse-power  were  made.  The  engine  power 
then  gradually  increased  to  150,  175,  200,  250;  and 
it  was  about  in  that  neighborhood  when  Major 
Hall  and  Mr.  [J.  G.]  Vincent  were  called  upon 
to  furnish  the  United  States  standard  motor.  It 
was  felt  that  a  motor  should  be  designed  so  far 
ahead  in  power  of  anything  else  that  had  been 
produced  that,  by  the  time  it  could  be  turned  out 
in  quantity,  it  would  still  be  well  in  the  lead.  .Ac- 
cordingly, a  horse-power  of  between  350  and  400 
was  sought  and  the  size  of  the  cylinders  was 
changed  from  4  \  0  to  5  x  7.  Because  of  the 
larger  cylinders  required  in  the  new  motor,  the 
angle  of  the  V  was  changed  from  40  to  45  de- 
grees. The  larger  pistons  and  cylinders  required 
slightly  greater  clearances.  .  .  .  These  and  other 
slight  modifications  were  thoroughly  discussed  and 
decided  upon  by  the  two  motor  experts  who 
worked  unceasingly  and  arrived  at  the  finished 
design  in  a  conference  lasting  five  days.  They  had 
a  herculean  task  before  them  and  deserve  the 
highest  praise  for  the  successful  outcome  of  their 
efforts.  As  soon  as  the  conference  was  over,  tele- 
graphic instructions  were  sent  on  to  the  Packard 
plant  and  work  was  started  immediately  upon  the 
new  motor.  Even  before  blue  prints  arrived  the 
wood  model  was  prepared  in  the  general  form 
and  essential  features  of  the  new  motor.  Work 
un  the  new  engine  was  pushed  at  the  highest  speed 
possible,  and  on  the  third  day  of  July,  it  was  com- 
pleted and  shipped  to  Washington.  The  next  day 
it  arrived  there,  on  the  Nation's  birthday,  and 
was  christened  the  'Liberty  Motor.' 

"After  the  first  experimental  motor  had  been 
completed  it  was  subjected  to  a  great  many  try- 
ing tests,  and  was  found  to  be  exceedingly  ef- 
ficient and  very  light.  It  developed  a  horse-power 
of  considerably  over  400  and  its  weight  was  but 
little  over  800  pounds.  Its  weight  per  horse-power 
was  therefore  about  two  pounds,  which  is  much 
lighter  than  the  majority  of  airplane  motors.  On 
endurance  tests  it  stood  up  wonderfully.  It  was 
tested  at  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak  in  order  to 
determine  its  action  under  conditions  of  rarified 
atmosphere — and  proved  very  satisfactory.  At  the 
Bureau  of  Standards  in  Washington,  a  special  room 
was  set  aside  in  which  a  partial  vacuum  was  cre- 
ated equivalent  to  that  which  exists  at  the  maxi- 
mum height  to  which  an  airplane  engine  has  been 
carried.  In  this  room  the  engine  was  found  to 
operate  perfectly.  At  one  of  its  first  altitude  tests 
in  a  plane  the  American  record  for  altitude  was 
smashed.  Not  until  September  was  the  order  to 
proceed  with  the  manufacture  of  the  Liberty 
Motor  definitely  given,  and  immediately  work  was 
started  in  the  Packard  plant.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  first  experimental  motor  was  de- 
livered to  the  Government  on  the  4th  day  of  July, 
and  the  first  production  motor  was  sent  to  Wash- 
ington on  Thanksgiving  Day.  This,  however,  did 
not  mean  that  the  production  problems  had  all 
been  solved.  .  .  .  The  motor  which  was  delivered 
to  the  Government  on  Thanksgiving  Day  de- 
veloped a  number  of  small  troubles.  One  of  these 
was  the  difficulty  of  lubrication,  and  eventually  it 
was  found  necessary  to  change  the  scupper  system 
to  the  original  forced  lubrication  system.  But  the 
most  important  change  was  made  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  cylinders.  In  the  first  Liberty  Motor, 
the  cylinders  had  to  be  bored  from  the  solid — an 
operation  that  was  very  costly  in  time  and  money. 
This,  however,  was  a  copy  of  the  best  foreign  en- 
gineering practice,  and  was  followed  as  a  nec- 
essary detail  by  our  engineers.  It  was  at  this 
juncture  that  the  engineers  of  the  Ford  Motor  Car 
Company  made  a  notable  contribution.  They  de- 
veloped a  cylinder  forged  out  of  steel  tubing,  which 


enabled  the  manufacturers  to  turn  out  the  cylinders 
at  very  low  cost  and  in  exceedingly  large  quan- 
tities. Seamless  steel  tubing  is  used,  and  this  in 
but  four  operations  under  the  forge  press  and 
bulldozer,  is  converted  into  a  headed  and  flanged 
cylinder  blank  on  which  a  minimum  of  machining 
need  be  done.  The  manufacture  of  these  cylinders 
was  not  undertaken  until  the  end  of  January  and 
.  .  .  [later  were]  turned  out  in  very  large  quan- 
tity. One  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
Liberty  Motor  had  to  do  with  the  form  of  igni- 
tion. In  the  original  Packard  motor,  the  'Deico' 
system  of  ignition  was  used.  This  consists  in 
generating  current  with  a  small  electric  generator 
geared  to  the  engine  shaft  and  then  transmitting 
the  current  oy  means  of  a  pair  of  distributors  to 
the  spark  plugs.  Magneto  ignition  was  tried,  but 
it  proved  impossible  to  design  a  single  magneto 
which  would  operate  with  the  irregular  timing  re- 
quired in  an  engine  in  which  the  cylinders  were 
set  at  the  unusual  angle  of  45  degrees.  A  single 
magneto  could  not  be  used  and  so  a  battery  of 
four  magnetos  had  to  be  employed  This  added 
somewhat  to  the  weight  of  the  engine.  Then  fur- 
ther difficulties  were  encountered.  Owing  possibly 
to  the  vibration  of  the  engine  at  high  speed,  the 
magnets  of  the  magneto  showed  fatigue  and  grad- 
ually lost  their  muKnetic  property.  So  thtt  even- 
tually it  was  decided  to  return  again  to  the  original 
system  of  ignition.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  in 
a  number  of  very  important  features,  it  has  been 
necessary  to  revert  to  the  original  design.  .  .  .  The 
efficiency  of  the  Liberty  Motor  is  not  to  be  ques- 
tioned by  anyone  who  has  examined  it  thoroughly. 
It  is  far  more  powerful  than  any  other  airplane 
engine  ever  produced  on  a  quantity  production 
basis.  It  exceeds  in  power  all  but  a  few  experi- 
mental machines.  Although  rated  at  400  horse- 
power it  has  shown  on  test  as  high  as  4S5  horse- 
power; and  its  weight  is  820  pounds." — Scientific 
American,  June  i,  1918.  pp.  500,  515. — "England, 
France,  and  Italy  had  reached  the  point  where 
they  could  build  airplanes  much  faster  than  they 
could  build  engines,  when  hostilities  ceased.  Both 
countries  had  accepted  the  Liberty  motor  as  the 
best  airplane  engine,  and  both  were  building  their 
planes  to  fit  this  American  engine,  when  the  order 
came  to  cease  firing.  How  much  faster  we  were 
building  engines  than  were  our  European  asso- 
ciates is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  largest 
day's  production  of  the  engine  most  closely  ap- 
proximating the  Liberty  in  quality,  the  Rolls- 
Royce,  was  fifty-nine,  while  the  Liberties  were 
being  turned  out  at  the  rate  of  150  a  day!  In 
October,  America's  production  of  airplane  engines 
was  5,603.  This  is  more  than  the  total  produc- 
tion of  France  and  England  together  for  the  ivhote 
four  years  of  the  war!" — World's  Work,  Feb., 
iqiq,  p.  473. 

King  and  Leslie  give  the  following  classifica- 
tion of  types  of  airplanes: 

Monoplane.     Having  one  main  lifting  surface. 

Biplane.  Having  two  main  lifting  surfaces 
mounted  one   above  the   other. 

Triplane.  Having  three  main  lifting  surfaces 
mounted  one  above  the  other. 

Tractor.  A  tractor  airplane  is  drawn  forward 
by  means  of  a  propeller  placed  in  front  of  the 
main   lifting  surfaces. 

Pusher,  h  pusher  airplane  is  thrust  forward  by 
means  of  a  propeller  at  the  rear  of  the  main 
lifting  surfaces. 

.Aeroplane.  .A  land  machine  equipped  with  a 
landing  gear  with  free  running  wheels,  which  en- 
able it  to  take  off  and  land  on  the  earth 

Hydro-aeroplane  (or  seaplane).  A  water  ma- 
chine equipped  with  either  single  or  double  floats 


759 


AVIATION 


Airplanes 
Progress  in   World   War 


AVIATION 


which  enable  it  to  take  off  and  alight  on  water^ 
Flying  boat.    Equipped  with  a  boat-shaped  hull 
which  takes  the  place  of  fuselage  and  pontoons  of 
a   hydro-aeroplane. 

The  term  hangar  is  applied  to  the  structures  in 
which  flying  machines  are  stored.  There  are  many 
and  varied  types  constructed  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  various  aircraft,  those  built  to  house  airplanes 
necessarily  being  of  different  construction  from 
those  built  to  enclose  the  huge  modern  airships. 
During  the  World  War,  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  navy,  floating  carriers  were  constructed. 
These  might  practically  be  called  floating  air- 
dromes, since,  besides  carrying  the  airplanes,  they 
also  served  as  the  field  for  their  starting  off  and 
alighting.  "The  first  one  of  these  was  merely  a 
large  commercial  steamer  equipped  with  a  deck  on 
which  the  airplanes  could  take  off  and  land,  with 
a  hangar  deck  immediately  below  this  in  which 
the  airplanes  could  be  kept  ready  for  flight,  and 
with  machine-shop  facilities,  spare  parts  for  the 
airplanes,  and  all  other  accessories  for  keeping 
them  in  condition  on  the  ship.  The  first  carrier 
was  the  Argus,  which  had  a  deck  535  feet  long 
and  68  feet  broad.  Her  hangar  held  twenty  air- 
planes, or  practically  a  squadron.  Her  speed  was 
only  twenty  knots.  It  was  evident  at  once  that 
any  vessel  having  such  a  slow  speed  w-ould  not 
only  be  a  prey  to  other  warships,  but  also  to  sub- 
marines— not  to  mention  destruction  by  hostile 
air  attack — and  there  were  many  other  things 
about  this  carrier  which  were  not  satisfactory,  as  it 
was  the  first  attempt  in  this  direction.  The  next 
carrier  to  be  built  was  a  warship  being  constructed 
for  a  South  American  country,  which  was  trans- 
formed into  a  carrier  and  renamed  the  Eagle. 
This  ship  is  capable  of  carrying  about  forty  air- 
planes in  her  hangars,  or  two  squadrons.  Still 
another  carrier  is  the  Hermes,  with  a  speed  of 
twenty-five  knots;  while  more  are  being  built. 
The  British,  however,  recognized  that  these  vessels 
could  not  operate  far  enough  in  advance  of  their 
fleets  so  as  to  go  out  and  fight  for  control  of  the 
air,  but  would  have  to  stay  near  the  fleet  and  be 
protected,  because  their  speed  was  not  great 
enough  to  protect  themselves.  Consequently,  they 
took  the  vessels  that  were  most  readily  available, 
that  had  the  required  speed  and  at  the  same  time 
fighting  power  to  ward  off  other  vessels — that  is, 
their  battle  cruisers — and  transformed  them  into  a 
combination  carrier  and  battle  cruiser.  They  are 
now  reported  to  have  a  division  of  battle  cruis- 
ers, or  four  of  these  hieh-speed  vessels,  equipped 
with  airplanes.  They  all  have  a  speed  of  about 
thirty-five  knots,  or  forty  miles  an  hour;  and  have 
very  heavy  gun  power — equal  to  that  of  any  bat- 
tleship— and  with  the  airplane  carriers  attached 
to  them  they  have  the  power  of  concentrating  the 
equivalent  of  one  or  more  groups  of  pursuit  avia- 
tion wherever  they  desire.  ...  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  whole  development  for  the  use  of  air- 
craft over  the  water  is  not  in  air  tactics,  in  types 
of  airplanes  particularly,  or  in  the  securing  and 
training  of  air  personnel;  but  is  essentially  a  de- 
velopment of  floating  airdromes.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  floating  airdromes  must  be  made  to 
suit  the  requirements  of  the  airplanes  first — that 
is,  if  we  are  going  to  fight  and  drive  out  of  the 
air  an  opposing  aviation,  we  must  brine  to  bear 
against  it  airplanes  that  can  do  the  work.  \cxt. 
the  airplane  carriers  must  be  able  to  defend  them- 
selves against  attack  on  the  water.  .\s  to  the  first 
requirement,  the  airplane  carriers  should  be  capa- 
ble of  accommodating  a  complete  tactical  unit, 
or  one  group  of  100  pursuit  airplanes;  and  in  the 
second  case,  in  order  to  be  able  to  defend  itself, 
and  be  capable  of  taking  the  offensive  quickly,  it 


should  have  a  speed  of  at  least  forty  knots,  or 
around  fifty  miles  an  hour,  which  is  entirely 
possible  at  this  time.  To  answer  these  require- 
ments, the  airplane  carrier  should  be  about  1000 
feet  in  length,  with  a  landing  deck  of  this.size.  Its 
width  would  be  over  100  feet  and  it  could  be 
equipped  with  all  the  facilities  for  handling  the 
airplanes  quickly  either  by  day  or  by  night.  Even 
one  airplane  carrier  of  this  kind  would  give  the 
side  possessing  it  complete  control  over  the  water 
at  the  present  time,  and  render  an  opposing  fleet 
incapable  of  acting  with'  its  observation  aviation." 
— W.  Mitchell,  Avialion  over  the  water  {Ameri- 
can Review  of  Reviews,  Oct.,  1920,  pp.  393-395). 
— For  the  aviator,  the  problem  of  the  landing 
field  is  of  vital  importance,  as,  next  to  the  actual 
trials  of  flight  itself,  the  greatest  dange'  is  in 
making  the  landing.  To  alight  safely,  a  landing 
field  must  be  properly  constructed,  and  in  recog- 
nition of  this  situation,  municipal  and  private  cor- 
porations are  beginning  to  construct  fields  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  aviation.  The  word  "hangar," 
which  is  French,  signifies  a  shed,  barn  or  outhouse. 
1914-1918. — Great  European  progress  during 
World  War. — Growth  of  American  air  service. — 
Great  progress  was  made  in  aviation  during  the 
World  War.  So  thoroughly  did  the  airplane  prove 
its  military  worth  on  the  battlefields  of  Europe, 
that  all  possible  efforts  and  facilities  were  con- 
centrated on  the  development  of  the  airplanes  of 
the  belligerents.  The  airplane  was  improved  by 
leaps  and  bounds.  Airplanes  became  "the  eyes  of 
the  army  and  navy."  "In  the  years  before  the 
war  it  had  become  the  fashion  to  announce  that 
the  next  European  conflict  would  witness  a  phe- 
nomenal use  of  aircraft.  Ingenious  romancers  had 
pictured  an  .Armageddon  in  the  clouds,  and  lovers 
of  peace  had  clung  to  the  notion  that  the  novelty 
and  frightfulness  of  such  a  warfare  would  make 
the  Powers  of  the  world  hesitate  to  draw  the 
sword.  The  results  have  been  both  below  and  in 
excess  of  expectation.  The  air  was  a  realm  of 
pure  guesswork,  for  in  the  Tripoli  and  Balkan 
wars  there  was  no  serious  aerial  service,  though 
various  adventurers  experimented  in  the  new  arm. 
.  .  .  France  led  the  way  in  aerial  experiment,  and 
her  government  between  1909  and  1914  acquired 
the  largest  air  fleet  in  the  w'orld.  Her  aviators 
were  brilliant  performers,  especially  in  long-dis- 
tance flights,  but  they  were  not  thoroughly  ab- 
sorbed into  the  military  machine.  They  had  less 
knowledge  of  the  tactical  use  of  aircraft  than  of 
their  mechanical  capabilities,  and  the  organization 
of  the  French  Air  Corps  was  severely  criticized  by 
the  Committee  of  the  Senate  just  before  the  war. 
.  .  .  There  was  no  government  standardized  pat- 
tern, and  hence  supply  of  spare  parts  and  acces- 
sories became  a  difficulty.  The  French  airmen  had 
brilliant  technical  skill  and  endless  courage — men 
like  Garros  and  Pegoud  [the  latter  was  the  first 
to  'loop  the  loop']  had  no  rivals — but  as  a  corps 
they  were  not  so  fully  organized  for  war  as  their 
neighbours.  [See  also  L.vf.^vette  Eswdrille.] 
The  Germans  had  preferred  at  first  to  interest 
themselves  rather  in  airships  than  in  aeroplanes, 
but  their  military  advisers  were  well  aware  of  the 
value  of  the  latter,  and  had  prepared  a  strong 
corps.  The  German  aviator  could  not  fly  as  well 
as  the  French;  on  the  whole  he  had  not  as  useful 
a  machine;  but  he  understood  perfectly  his  place 
in  the  military  plan.  He  was  thoroughly  trained 
to  reconnaissance  work,  and  especially  to  the  task 
of  range-finding  for  the  field  guns.  The  .Aus- 
trian air  service  was  much  inferior,  though  it  con- 
tained some  dashing  pilots.  The  Russian  had 
enormously  improved,  under  the  Grand  Duke 
Alexander,  but  it  sufferec  from  a  shortage  of  ma- 


760 


TYPES  OF  AEROPLANES 

I,  German  Aviatik  A-C;  capacity,  25  passengers.  2,  British  Handley-Page  passenger  machine.  3,  American 
Martin  bomber.  4,  French  Farman  plane;  capacity,  27  passengers.  5,  Caproni  triplane,  Italian.  6,  All-metal 
Larsen  monoplane.  7,  United  States  "Owl"  plane  used  by  air  mail  service;  3  motors,  420  h.p.  each.  8,  German 
seaplane  fitted  with  pontoons;  type  of  plane  carried  on  warships,  9.  De  HaviIand-4  plane  used  in  London-Paris 
service. 


AVIATION 


Air  Service 
Growth 


AVIATION 


chines  and  a  chronic  difficulty  in  rapid  manufac- 
ture.     It    possessed,    however,    several    giant    bi- 
planes,  useful   for   destructive   purposes,    for   each 
could  carry  over  a  ton's  weight  of  explosives.    The 
British  air  service,  the  last  to  be  started  .  .  .  had 
a  good  type  of  machine  and  enough   of  them,  a 
number   of   highly    qualified   pilots   and    observers 
accustomed   to  go  out  in  all  weathers  and  under 
every    condition     of    difficulty,     and,    above     all, 
trained  in   tactical   co-operation   with   other  arms. 
.  .  .  The  British  Royal  Flying  Corps  contained  a 
military   and  a  naval  wing.     Each   wing   was   di- 
vided   into    squadrons,    consisting    of    twenty-tour 
aeroplanes   and   twenty-four   pilots,   under   a   ma- 
jor or  commander." — J.  Buchan,  Nelson's  History 
of  the  war,  v.  S,  pp.  54-S6. — The  World  War  broke 
out   at    a    moment    of    unprecedented    activity    in 
aeronautical  development.    "It  was  a  time  of  par- 
ticular  interest   to    the   student,   the    evolution    of 
the  larger  sea-planes  and  of  aeroplanes  driven  by 
two  or  more  engines  having  begun  under  promis- 
ing conditions.     Improvements  in  design  and  con- 
struction,  that   in   various   combinations   were   re- 
sponsible  for   these    developments,   also   accounted 
for  the  making  of  new  and  important  records  in 
duration    of    flight    and   load-carrying    during   the 
first   six    months   of    1Q13.  .  .  .  Perhaps   the   most 
important    line    of    development   in    the   aeroplane 
has  been  towards  multiple-engine  craft — i.  e.,  ma- 
chines driven  by  two  or  more  motors  employable 
either  together  or  independently — for  this  promises 
to  solve  the  problem  of  reliability,  and  to  obviate 
unpremeditated  landings  due  to  failure  of  driving 
power,  hitherto  the  principal  drawbacks  to  flying. 
.  .  .  The  principal  multiple-engine  aeroplane  is  of 
Russian   design — the   Sikorsky,   a  machine   with   a 
span  of   120  feet  and  of  great  lifting  capacity;  it 
has  carried  seyenteen  passengers  into  the  air  in  a 
flight    of    eighteen    minutes.      The    Curtiss    flying 
boat,  designed  to  fly  across  the  .fMlantic,  is  driven 
by    two    motors.  .  .  .  The    development     of    the 
high-speed  biplane  has  continued,  and  the  former 
association  of  the  monoplane  type  with  the  highest 
speeds   has   been   broken   down.  ...  A   great   ad- 
vance  in    the   armouring    of   aeroplanes   has   been 
made  in   France,  and  in   many   military   machines 
the   engine   and   the   pilot    are   protected   by    thin 
nickel-steel  plates  capable  of  stopping  a  rifle  bullet 
at  600  yards.  ...  In  comparison   with  the   over- 
land  flying   machine  the  seaplane   is  in   an   unde- 
veloped   stage,    and    although    Great    Britain    has 
made  more  progress  than  any  other  country,  the 
machines  hitherto  built  are  not  really  seaworthy. 
.  .  .  There  is  little  to  record  under  this  head   [of 
airships].     As  regards  military   aircraft,   the   need 
for  armament  on  top  of  the  gas-container  is  now 
acknowledged,  its  object  being  to  repel  aeroplane 
attacks.      Some    of    the    German    airships    are    so 
armed.  ...  As    to    arming    semi-rigid    and    non- 
rigid  airships  on  top,  it  appears  to  be  almost  im- 
possible."—C.      C.     Turner,     Aviation     in     1^14 
iHazell's    Annual,    1915,    pp.    426-427). — See    also 
Aces. 

The  American  Air  Ser\'ice  may  be  said  to  have 
started  on  March  3,  iqn,  which  "deserves  to  be 
rnarked  as  a  red-letter  day  in  .\merican  aviation 
history;"  for  on  that  day,  "when  aviators  were 
in  the  air  all  over  the  world,  and  when  France 
was  asking  for  $x,ooo,ooo  for  aviation,  the  new 
science  was  formally  recognized  in  the  United 
States  with  an  appropriation  of  $125,000."  Offi- 
cers,_  however,  did  not  come  forward  to  the  new 
service  in  any  numbers,  and  up  to  December,  1913, 
only  nineteen  had  qualified.  The  result  was  the 
introduction  of  a  bill  in  Congress  on  August  23, 
IQ13,  providing  for  an  establishment  within  the 
Signal   Corps  of  an   aviation   section   with   an   in- 


761 


crease  to  sixty  officers  and  260  men,  who  were  to 
receive  prestige  and  extra  rewards  in  this  "extra- 
hazardous" service.  This  bill  did  not  become  law 
until  July  18,  1914;  so  that  on  the  outbreak  of 
war  America,  although  decidedly  behind  the  great 
powers  in  Europe,  had  at  last  a  definite  line  along 
which  aviation  might  develop.  During  the  period 
of  American  neutrality  up  to  April,  191 7,  aviation 
in  Europe  was  being  forced  to  remarkable  devel- 
opments, which  were  to  a  great  extent  hidden 
from  America.  "This  complete  exclusion  from 
scientific  developments  abroad,  unavoidable  though 
it  was,  was  destined  to  have  a  most  serious  effect 
on  America's  later  preparation."  It  appears  that 
it  was  not  so  much  the  achievement  of  aircraft 
in  Europe  which  spurred  the  American  aviation 
program,  but  the  lessons  learned  from  the  Persh- 
mg  expedition  into  Mexico,  which  followed  the 
raids  across  the  Mexican  border  in  March,  1916. 
This  punitive  expedition,  with  its  "long  tenuous 
line  across  the  sands  of  Northern  Mexic*  afforded 
the  first  practical  demonstration  of  the  value  of 
aircraft  for  reconnaissance  in  the  history  of  tbe 
American  Service,  and  showed  as  nothing  else 
could  the  vital  necessity  of  airplanes."  On  April 
6,  1917,  war  was  declared  on  Germany,  and  plans 
were  made  to  "meet  the  aerial  programme  ap- 
proved by  the  General  Staff  as  a  balanced  branch 
of  a  many  sided  military  establishment."  On 
May  26  a  cablegram  was  received  in  Washington 
from  the  French  premier,  M.  Ribot,  at  a  time 
when  the  American  air  service  possessed  fewer 
than  300  airplanes.  The  message  read  as  fol- 
lows: 

"It  is  desired  that,  in  order  to  cooperate  with  the 
French  aeronautics,  the  American  Government 
should  adopt  the  following  programme:  the  for- 
mation of  a  flying  corps  of  four  thousand  five 
hundred  aeroplanes — personnel  and  material  in- 
cluded—to be  sent  to  the  French  front  during  the 
campaign  in  1918.  The  total  number  of  pilots, 
including  reserve,  should  be  five  thousand,  and 
fifty  thousand  mechanicians.  Two  thousand  planes 
should  be  constructed  each  month,  as  well  as  four 
thousand  engines,  by  the  American  factories.  That 
is  to  say  that  during  the  first  six  months  of  19 18 
sixteen  thousand  five  hundred  planes  {of  the  last 
type)  and  thirty  thousand  engines  will  have  to  be 
built.  The  French  Government  is  anxious  to  know 
if  the  American  Government  accepts  this  proposi- 
tion, which  will  allow  the  Allies  to  win  the  su- 
premacy of  the  air." 

This  cablegram  was  translated  into  a  bill  which 
was  rushed  through  Committee  and  on  June  13 
reported  unanimously  with  an  amendment  to  the 
effect  that  .$640,000000  be  appropriated.  This 
enormous  sum  could  not  be  asked  for  without  a 
"very  special  preparation  of  the  public  mind." 
How  that  preparation  was  carried  out  forms  a 
story  of  absorbing  interest.  Then  on  July  "the 
great  programme  was  launched  with  President  Wil- 
son's signature  of  the  Aviation  Act." — Adapted 
from  A.  Sweetser,  American  air  service. — See  also 
Ordn.ince:  20th  century;  U.  S.  A.:  1918  (Febru- 
ary-October) ;  World  War:  1915:  X.  War  in  the 
air;  1917:  It.  Western  front:  c,  4;  VIII.  United 
States  and  the  war:  i,  9;  X.  War  in  the  air:  a; 
1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c;  VIII.  Aviation; 
IX.  Naval  operations:  c,  5;  also  Miscellaneous  aux- 
iliary services:  IV.  Aviation:  a,  1;  a,  2;  a,  3;  a,  6; 
b;  VI.  Military  and  naval  equipment:  c,  1; 
Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1920:  Contents  of  treaty:  Part 
V.  Military  clauses;  Air  clauses;  and  Part  X. 

1918-1921. — Air  service  after  the  World  War. 
— British  air  routes. — Mail  service  opened  in 
Great  Britain  and  United  States. — Forest  patrol 
work. — Lawson  air-liner. — Air  routes  in  Italy. — 


AVIATION 


Air  Service 
Routes 


AVIATION 


London-Paris  air  route. — Royal  Dutch  air  serv- 
ice.— Commercial  aeronautics. — Although  passen- 
ger and  mail  service  did  not  make  great  strides 
in  most  countries  until  after  the  World  War,  in 
Germany  passenger  air  lines  were  in  operation 
several  years  before.  "The  German  airship  pas- 
senger services  continue  their  popularity,  and  again 
there  was  a  complete  freedom  from  mishaps.  In 
1013  the  three  vessels  employed  made  310  trips, 
covering  an  aggregate  of  16,000  miles,  and  carry- 
ing 1,471  passengers,  besides  their  crews." — C.  C. 
Turner,  Avialion  in  1914  (Hazell's  Annual,  191S, 
/>.  427).— Between  1918  and  1921  air  routes  were 
opened  up  in  rapid  succession  and  air  lines  were 
established.  "The  -Mr  Ministry  has  issued  details 
of  some  of  the  aerial  routes  which  will  be  de- 
clared open.  The  routes  are  to  be  regarded  as 
provisional,  since  experience  aloac  can  decide  upon 
the  arrangement  of  aerodromes  which  is  most  suit- 
able for  carrying  out  the  aerial  business  of  the 
country.  ...  At  the  date  of  the  armistice 
there  were  337  aerodromes  and  landing 
grou.ids  in  the  British  Isles.  About  100 
will  be  required  for  the  Royal  Air  Force, 
while  116  have  already  been  relinquished  for 
cultivation  and  other  purposes.  This  leaves 
about  120  aerodromes,  some  with  extensive  ac- 
commodation, which  will  ultimately  be  available 
for  civilian  purposes.  .  .  .  The  main  routes  at 
present  outlined  are  summarised  below,  the  Lon- 
don terminus  being  situated  at  Hounslow: — (i) 
London-Scotland;  (2)  London-Dublin;  (3)  Lon- 
don-Manchcster-Belfast ;  (4)  Continental  route  via 
Lympne;  (5)  Dutch  route  via  Hadleigh;  (6) 
Scandinavian  route  via  New  Holland;  (7)  Lon- 
don-Plymouth; and  (8)  London-Bristol.  The 
various  aerodromes  along  these  routes  arc  clearly 
shown  .  .  .  and  when  any  route  has  been  de- 
clared open  pilots  using  it  will  find  petrol,  accom- 
modation, and,  where  possible,  mechanics  to 
handle  their  machines  at  each  of  these  aerodromes. 
Such  pilots  must,  of  course,  comply  with  the  regu- 
lations as  regards  licensing  and  inspection  of  ma- 
chines. The  Government  makes  no  promise  of 
help  to  aviators  who  descend,  whether  by  choice 
or  by  force  of  circumstances,  at  places  other  than 
the  official  'a'r  stations.'  It  has  been  decided  to 
limit  the  overseas  traffic  for  the  present  to  four 
'appointed'  aerodromes.  Three  of  these  will  be 
those  named  under  routes  (4),  (5),  and  (6)  of 
the  above  list,  while  the  fourth  will  be  at  Houn- 
slow in  order  to  facilitate  direct  communication 
between  London  and  the  Continent.  .  .  .  Rigid 
supcr\ision  with  regard  to  the  construction  and 
air-worthiness  of  machines  intended  for  passenger 
services  will  be  insisted  upon,  but  progress  will 
not  be  hampered  by  any  inspection  of  inventions 
or  of  purely  experimental  machines." — Nature, 
May  I,  1919,  p.  171. — During  May  and  June,  1918, 
aerial  mail  ser\'ice  was  established  in  .\merica  and 
Europe.  .\rmy  aviators  carried  mail  from  N'ew 
York  to  Washington  in  three  hours — twenty-two 
minutes,  and  on  June  3  a  mail  service  was  estab- 
lished between  New  York,  Boston  and  Montreal. 
.\erial  mail  service  between  London  and  Paris 
began  on  May  28.  First  mail  airplane  flew  be- 
tween New  York  and  Chicago  on  September  10. 
On  July  31,  loiQ,  Senator  Harry  S.  New  of  the 
Senate  Committee  on  Military  .Affairs,  advocated 
the  uniting  of  the  army,  navy,  and  postal  air  serv- 
ice under  one  administrative  head.  "The  last  re- 
port of  the  British  Wx  Ministry  difclo.'^es  to  the 
world  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  has  had  the 
vision  to  comprehend  not  only  the  possibilities 
but  the  certainties  of  aeronautics  and  is  determined 
to  derive  for  England  all  the  benefits  that  they 
afford.     Of  course  it  is  known  to  those  in  the  air 

7 


service  of  the  Government  and  the  comparatively 
small  public  which  has  kept  informed  that  Eng- 
land, for  instance,  has  appropriated  $330,000,000 
for  aeronautical  equipment  and  e.\perimentation 
for  the  next  fiscal  year.  The  people  of  our  country 
as  a  class  know  nothing  of  it  and  I  fear  have  no 
conception  of  the  real  meaning  of  this  fact.  I 
am  more  concerned  with  the  commercial  future  of 
aeronautics  than  I  am  concerned  with  it  as  a 
purely  military  arm ;  for  it  is  in  the  commercial 
field  that  its  greatest  development  is  next  to  oc- 
cur. I  believe  that  the  next  war  will  be  brought 
to  a  very  quick  decision  by  that  power  which 
is  best  equipped  with  aeronautical   devices. 

"The  United  States  appropriated  $25,000,000  for 
her  navy  and  $25,000,000  for  her  army  for  the 
purpose  of  aviation,  which  includes  expenditures 
of  every  kind  and  will  really  provide  for  very 
little  in  the  way  of  equipment.  As  I  have  said, 
the  great  progress  to  be  expected  is  in  the  near 
future  along  commercial  lines.  Great  Britain  is 
projecting  mail  and  express  routes  all  over  the 
world,  from  London  to  the  Continent,  London  to 
South  .Africa,  London  to  India,  London  to  Brazil. 
Similar  programs  are  planned  for  .Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  Canada.  Many  lines  are  being  put 
into  operation  in  Europe.  France,  England,  Spain, 
and  Germany.  There  is  no  longer  any  question 
that  airships  of  various  types  will  be  employed  to 
a  very  considerable  extent  in  the  transportation 
of  mails,  express,  and  passengers — to  what  an  ex- 
tent, nobody  can  foresee,  and  only  the  future  can 
determine.  The  only  question  now  is:  How  far 
behind  the  other  nations  will  the  United  States 
start  ?  Having  created  these  agencies,  shall  she 
permit  herself  to  be  completely  outclassed  in  their 
development  and  utilization." — American  and  Eu- 
ropean aerial  activity  contrasted  (New  York 
Times.  Aug.  3,  1919.) — "Now  that  the  war  is 
over  and  the  War  Department  finds  itself  with 
more  airplanes  than  are  likely  to  be  needed  for 
departmental  purposes,  it  has  been  decided  to  try 
out  the  plan  of  patroling  the  national  forests 
from  the  sky,  and  on  June  i  the  work  will  begin 
On  the  same  day,  under  an  arrangement  between 
the  forest  service  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  War  Department,  observations  covering  a 
large  part  of  the  .Angeles  National  Forest  will  be 
begun  from  a  captive  balloon  stationed  over  the 
Army  Balloon  School  near  .Arcadia,  Cal.  Two 
routes  of  airplane  patrol  work  will  be  operated 
from  March  Field,  twelve  miles  southeast  of  Riv- 
erside. Cal.  Two  planes  will  be  used  on  each 
route,  each  route  will  be  approximately  100  miles 
long  and  will  be  covered  twice  a  day.  This  will 
be  the  beginning  of  experimental  work  in  which 
the  adaptability  of  aircraft  to  forest  patrol  work 
is  to  be  thoroughly  tried  out.  If  the  tests  prove 
successful  it  is  expected  that  the  airplane  patrols 
will  be  extended  before  the  end  of  the  1919  season, 
and  that  airplanes  will  become  a  permanent  fea- 
ture of  the  ceaseless  battle  against  fires  in  the  na- 
tional forests.  The  airplane  routes  from  March 
Field  will  afford  an  opportunity  to  5ur\-ey  about 
2,000  square  miles  in  the  .Angeles  and  Cleveland 
National  Forests  The  airplanes  are  not  equipped 
with  wireless  telephone  apparatus  of  such  a  na- 
ture that  they  can  communicate  with  the  ground 
without  the  installation  of  expensive  ground  m- 
strumcnts,  .so  warnings  of  fires  will  be  transmitted 
by  means  of  parachute  messages  dropped  over  a 
town,  the  finder  to  telephone  them  to  the  Forest 
Service ;  by  special  landings  made  to  report  by 
telephone;  and  by  returning  to  the  base  and  re- 
porting from  March  Field  direct  to  the  forest 
supervisor.  Fires  will  be  located  and  reported  by 
squares   drawn   on   duplicate   maps,   one   to   be   in 

62 


AVIATION 


Air  Service 
Commercial   Uses,    Aerial    Law 


AVIATION 


the  possession  of  each  airplane  observer  and  an- 
other to  be  in  the  office  of  the  forest  supervisor." 
— iWew  York  Times,  May  14,  1919. — During  the 
same  year  (1919)  the  Lawson  air-liner  began  op- 
erations. This  airplane,  operated  as  a  passenger- 
carrying  machine,  made  trips  during  the  autumn, 
traveling  between  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  New  York  and 
Washington.  It  carried  twenty-six  passengers  in  a 
comfortable  cabin,  and  was  specially  designed  for 
high  speed  and  fuel  economy.  On  December  26, 
1919,  the  Cape-to-Cairo  air  route  was  declared 
open.  During  1920  there  was  a  strong  upward 
movement  in  aerial  activity  in  Italy,  .\erial  mail 
.■■ervices  were  established  between  the  principal 
cities ;  plans  were  in  preparation  for  a  regular 
.service  to  Athens  and  communications  with  the 
Italian  colonies  in  Africa.  In  March,  1921,  the 
Information  Bureau  of  the  Post  Office  Department 
announced  that  airplanes  in  the  air  mail  service 
of  the  United  States  government,  totaling  twenty- 
one  in  all,  had  flown  more  than  1,500,000  miles 
and  carried  in  the  neighborhood  of  49,000,000 
letters. 

British  aircraft  reappeared  on  the  London-Paris 
air  route  on  March  19,  1921.  "A  working  ar- 
rangement was  come  to  between  the  Air  Ministry 
and  Messrs.  Handley  Page  and  Messrs.  Instone, 
by  which  it  has  been  possible  to  resume  the  daily 
air  services  to  and  from  Paris.  The  single  fare 
from  London  to  Paris  is  six  guineas  [$31]  and  the 
return  fare  fi2  |$6ol.  It  was  the  adoption  of  this 
fare  by  the  French  air  transport  companies  that 
drove  the  British  machines  off  the  service.  .  .  . 
In  addition  to  passengers,  mails  and  goods  will 
again  be  carried.  The  charge  for  goods  will  be 
one  shilling  [25  cents]  per  lb.  for  100  lb.  weight, 
and  lod.  [20  cents]  for  each  lb.  over  that  quan- 
tity. The  contract  with  the  French  firms  for  the 
carriage  of  mails  was  a  temporary  one  and  no 
technical  difficulties  were  met  in  handing  the  mails 
back  to  the  British  firms.  .  .  .  The  Handley  Page 
and  Instone  firms  to  maintain  two  services  daily. 
...  All  machines  are  fitted  with  Rolls-Royce  en- 
gines."— London  Times,  March  21,  102 1. — In  April, 
1921,  the  Royal  Dutch  air  service  inaugurated  a 
regular  passenger  service  between  London  and 
Rotterdam-Amsterdam.  From  the  last-named  city 
airplane  connections  can  be  made  for  Paris,  Brus- 
sels and  Hamburg. — "There  is  being  formed  in  the 
United  States  an  organization  of  recognized  me- 
chanical and  financial  strength  to  manufacture  and 
operate  a  fleet  of  .  .  .  gigantic  airships  for  trans- 
continental air  lines,  to  be  employed  in  passenger, 
freight,  express  and  mail  traffic.  Minor  organiza- 
tions are  now  under  way  for  operating  with  air- 
ships of  the  non-rigid  or  blimp  type  in  this 
country,  and  from  this  country  to  neighboring 
ports  in  the  Caribbean.  One  concern  intends  to 
operate  between  Key  West  and  Havana,  and  along 
the  coast  from  Key  West  to  New  York;  also  from 
New  York  to  Chicago,  with  intermediate  stops  at 
Washington  or  Pittsburg,  or  the  Lake  Ports.  An- 
other corporation  is  embarking  on  a  lighter-than- 
air  enterprise  between  Detroit  and  Cleveland. 
Other  corporations  arc  either  operating,  or  plan- 
ning to  operate  in  the  near  future,  heavier-than- 
air  traffic  lines  between  Key  West  and  Havana, 
and  along  the  .Atlantic  Coast ;  also  across  the  con- 
tinent from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  on  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  New 
York  to  Boston,  and  one  giant  seaplane  has  re- 
cently flown  from  Key  West  to  New  York  in  less 
than  fifteen  hours.  These  are  a  few  of  the  indi- 
cations that  we  are  entering  the  era  of  commer- 
cial aeronautics." — C.  A.  Tinker,  Commercial  aero- 
nautics (North  American  Review,  Apr.,  1921,  p. 
452-453.)— The    R-j6,    the    first    British-built    air- 


ship adapted  for  commercial  purposes  was  com- 
pleted in  March.  It  was  built  by  Messrs.  William 
Beardmore  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  was  designed  three 
years  before  by  the  admiralty.  Changes  of  policy 
placed  it  under  the  control  of  the  civil  side  of  the 
air  ministry,  along  with  other  big  dirigibles.  The 
two  principal  characteristics  of  the  R-j6  are  its 
passenger  accommodation  and  mooring  gear.  Her 
constructional  features  may  be  tabulated  as  fol- 
lows: 

Length:  672  ft.,  30  ft.  longer  than  R-34. 

Maximum  diameter:    78  ft    0  in. 

Cubic  capacity:   2,100,000  ft.  of  hydrogen  gas. 

Nominal  lift:   63.8  tons. 

Maximum  speed:  65  miles  an  hour. 

Normal  cruising  speed:  50  miles  an  hour. 

Range:  Over  4,000  miles. 

The  normal  complement  of  the  R-3ti  is  four  of- 
ficers and  twenty-four  men.  A  full  wireless  equip- 
ment is  carried,  and  all  the  engine-carrying  cars 
arc  in  telephonic  communication  with  the  control- 
car.  It  is  possible,  also,  to  walk  from  any  one 
part  of  the  ship  to  any  other.  "It  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  at  the  present  time  there  has  been  de- 
signed only  one  plane  primarily  for  commercial 
use:  that  is,  the  Giant  Caproni,  of  one  hundred 
passenger  capacity,  now  in  a  hangar  in  Italy.  It 
has  never  been  tested.  The  reason  is  that  the  mili- 
tary authorities  controlling  Italian  aviation  have 
never  given  permission  for  it  to  leave  the  ground 
because  Caproni  did  not  include  certain  features 
which  would  permit  his  plane  to  be  converted  to 
military  use." — C.  A.  Tinker,  Commercial  aero- 
nautics (North  American  Review,  Apr.,  1921,  p. 
451). — See  also  Cape-to-Cairo  railway:  Air  route 
established;  City  planning:  Aeroplane  in  city  plan- 
ning. 

1918-1921. — Aerial  law.— Control  of  naviga- 
tion.— Peace  conference  commission. — Aerial 
League  of  the  World. — Air  diplomats. — Aero- 
nautic schools. — Aeronautic  nomenclature. — "A 
new  branch  of  the  law  is  being  developed — the  law 
of  the  air.  The  development  is  going  on  right 
before  your  eyes.  -The  present  generation  [1921] 
has  seen  the  origin  of  this  new  branch  of  law  and 
will  see  much  of  its  development.  .  .  .  Nobody 
thinks  of  the  airplane  as  a  trespasser  or  as  a 
nuisance,  yet  this  is  precisely  what  the  craft  of  the 
air  is;  the  law  always  follows  the  facts.  The  facts 
determine  the  fundamental  conditions  out  of  which 
the  law  springs,  and  the  customs  and  habits  which 
aircraft  make  necessary  are  already  shaping  the 
legal  principles  that  will  guide  us  in  the  future. 
When  we  watch  an  aviator  soaring  over  the  earth, 
we  do  not  think  of  him  as  a  violator  of  the  law, 
yet,  technically,  that  is  what  he  is;  for,  through- 
out his  journey,  unless  he  be  over  the  seas,  he  is 
flying  over  the  land  of  others,  and  this  flight  is  a 
trespass  over  the  land.  When  we  look  into  the 
old  common  law,  we  find  that  the  theory  of  own- 
ership has  always  been  this:  A  man  who  owns  a 
piece  of  land  owns  not  only  the  surface  of  the  land 
and  the  immediate  subsoil,  but  he  owns  straight 
downward  as  far  as  he  may  wish  to  go  and  he 
owns  .straight  upward  into  the  sky.  Unquestion- 
ably,  in  the  view  of  the  common  law,  every  air- 
plane flying  over  the  land  of  others  is,  no  matter 
at  what  height,  a  trespasser.  If  we  wish  to  be 
more  technical  and  pursue  this  matter  as  a  lawyer 
might  follow  it,  we  can  turn  to  an  ancient  case 
that  has  a  most  interesting  bearing  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  airplane  law.  The  balloon  offered 
the  first  situation  out  of  which  the  development 
of  air  law  may  be  said  to  have  begun.  In  181 5 
mention  is  made  for  the  first  time  of  the  rights  of 


763 


AVIATION 


Air  Service 
Regulation 


AVIATION 


a  man  m  a  balloon,  in  Pickering  vs.  Rudd,  i 
Starkie,  page  56,  4  Campb.  2ig,  16  Revised  Rep. 
777,  and  then  as  dictum.  The  plaintiff  was  ob- 
jecting because  the  defendant  had  climbed  on  a 
temporary  platform  above  his  ground  and  lopped 
off  a  troublesome  Virginia  creeper  that  overhung 
the  defendant's  close.  Lord  Ellenborough  ob- 
served: 'I  recollect  a  case  where  I  held  that  firing 
a  gun  loaded  with  shot  into  a  field  was  a  breaking 
of  the  close.  ...  I  never  yet  heard  that  firing  in 
vacuo  could  be  considered  as  a  trespass.  .  .  . 
Would  trespass  lie  for  passing  through  the  air  in 
a  balloon  over  the  land  of  another?'  And  here  is 
an  even  more  authoritative  pronouncement.  Pol- 
lock, the  great  English  law  writer  on  torts  and 
other  subjects,  discusses  the  whole  question  in  a 
brilliant  manner.  On  page  433  of  his  work  on 
'Torts'  he  says:  'It  has  been  doubted  whether 
it  is  a  trespass  to  pass  over  the  land  without  touch- 
ing the  soil,  as  one  may  in  a  balloon,  or  to  cause 
a  material  object,  as  shot  fired  from  a  gun,  to  pass 
over  it.  .  .  .  It  docs  not  seem  possible,  on  the 
principles  of  the  common  law,  to  assign  any  rea- 
son why  an  entrj*  at  any  height  above  the  surface 
should  not  also  be  a  trespass.  The  improbability 
of  actual  damage  may  be  an  excellent  practical 
reason  for  not  suing  a  man  who  sails  over  one's 
land  in  a  balloon ;  but  this  appears  irrelevant  to 
the  pure  legal  theory.  .  .  .  Then  one  can  hardly 
doubt  that  it  might  be  a  nuisance,  apart  from  any 
definite  damage,  to  keep  a  balloon  hovering  over 
another  man's  land.'  Before  we  leave  the  purely 
legal  side  of  this  subject  there  is  another  interesting 
principle  which  the  aviator  must  keep  in  mind, 
especially  if  he  be  flying  anywhere  over  the  State 
of  New  York,  and  that  principle,  expressed  in 
plain  human  terms,  is  this:  If  his  plane  makes  an 
unexpected  descent,  and  thereby  attracts  a  crowd 
which  swarms  on  to  some  person's  property  and 
destroys  something,  the  aviator  may  be  liable.  It 
will  be  enough  to  quote  the  language  of  the  Court 
in  this  case.  The  layman  will  enjoy  it  as  much  as 
the  lawyer:  'I  will  not  say  that  ascending  in  a 
balloon  is  an  unlawful  act,  for  it  is  not  so ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  the  aeronaut  has  no  control  over 
its  motion  horizontally;  he  is  at  the  sport  of  the 
winds  and  is  to  descend  when  and  how  he  can; 
his  reaching  the  earth  is  a  matter  of  hazard.  .  .  . 
Now-,  if  his  descent  under  such  circumstances  would 
ordinarily  and  naturally  draw  a  crowd  of  people 
about  him,  either  from  curiosity  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rescuing  him  from  a  perilous  situation,  all 
this  he  ought  to  have  foreseen  and  must  be  re- 
sponsible for.'  This  was  the  famous  case  of  Guille 
vs.  Swan,  New  York  case,  found  at  ig  Johns, 
page  381.  The  balloonist  in  this  case  had  to  pay 
Sgo  for  potatoes,  turnips,  and  flowers  that  were 
ruined  by  the  onru=h  of  his  admirers  who  tried 
to  rescue  him ;  and  the  aviator  who  goes  up  must 
bear  in  mind  that  he  may  have  to  pay  something 
for  damages  also." — W.  C.  Williams  {OulTook, 
Sept.  22,  ig20,  pp.  144-145). 

"The  year  following  the  armistice  witnessed 
many  remarkable  achievements  in  air  navigation, 
demonstrating  its  future  commercial  value  as  a 
new  means  of  intercommunication  and  transporta- 
tion. The  crossing  of  the  .Atlantic  Ocean  from  the 
mainland  of  the  United  States  to  England,  via  the 
Azores  and  the  European  Continent,  was  closely 
followed  by  a  continuous  flight  from  Newfound- 
land to  Ireland  in  about  fifteen  hours.  The  dis- 
tance between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  and 
return  was  traversed  in  slightly  more  than  forty- 
eight  hours.  The  use  of  aircraft  for  the  regular 
transportation  of  mails  and  passengers  increases 
day  by  day  both  here  and  abroad.  An  art  thus 
expanding  by   leaps   and   bounds   requires   a   wise 


system  of  legal  regulation  and  control,  both  in  its 
own  interest  and  for  the  safety  of  the  commu- 
nity. Aerial  navigation,  like  the  navigation  of  the 
seas,  is  international  in  scope,  and  its  adequate 
regulation  by  law  presupposes  the  cooperation  of 
nations  through  international  conventions.  This 
has  long  been  recognized  both  by  scientific  ex- 
perts and  by  jurists.  It  was  also  accepted  as  a 
basic  principle  by  the  official  International  Confer- 
ence upon  Aerial  Navigation  held  in  Paris  upon 
the  call  of  the  French  Government  in  May,  June 
and  November,  igio.  and  also  by  the  unofficial 
conference  for  the  Regulation  of  Aerial  Locomo- 
tion held  at  Verona  in  June,  igio.  The  Com- 
mission on  Air  Na\ngation  \vas  one  of  a  number 
of  commissions  created  under  the  authority  of  the 
Peace  Conference  [igi8]  having  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  the  adjustments  of  the  war  itself.  Its 
labors,  so  far  as  they  were  connected  with  the 
work  of  the  Peace  Conference,  consisted  of  the 
regulation  of  the  new  means  of  intercourse  be- 
tween nations  in  such  a  manner  as  to  promote 
friendly  relations  and  to  avoid  friction.  The  Con- 
vention relating  to  International  Air  Navigation 
is  reported  to  have  been  signed  on  October  13, 
igig,  by  all  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers, 
excepting  Japan  and  the  United  States.  The  con- 
vention is  restricted  wholly  to  peace  times  and 
does  not  affect  the  freedom  of  action  of  the  con- 
tracting states  in  time  of  war,  either  as  belligerents 
or  as  neutrals.  The  convention  recognizes  that 
every  state  has  complete  and  exclusive  sovereignty 
in  the  air  space  above  its  territory'  and  territorial 
waters.  But  each  state  undertakes  in  time  of 
peace  to  accord  freedom  of  innocent  passage  to 
foreign  aircraft  without  distinction  as  to  national- 
ity, provided  the  conditions  of  the  conventions  are 
observed.  .  .  .  .^ny  nation  has  the  right  to  map 
out  areas  prohibited  for  military  reasons  or  for 
public  safety,  but  notice  of  such  areas  must  be 
given  to  the  central  bureau  and  published.  The 
fact  that  prohibited  areas  must  apply  alike  to 
domestic  as  well  as  to  foreign  aircraft  will  serve 
as  a  counterbalance  to  any  extreme  view  of  mili- 
tary needs.  The  right  of  innocent  passage  is  there- 
fore practically  assured.  The  convention  de- 
termines the  nationality  of  aircraft  according  to 
rules  similar  to  those  established  for  seagoing 
vessels.  .  .  .  .\ircraft  cannot  be  validly  registered 
in  more  than  one  country  at  the  same  time.  No 
nation  may  permit  the  flight  above  its  territory  of 
aircraft  not  possessing  the  nationality  of  one  of 
the  contracting  states.  This  marks  an  important 
variance  from  the  rule  of  maritime  shipping  be- 
cause vessels  of  all  duly  recognized  countries  are 
permitted  to  enter  the  territorial  waters  of  other 
nations.  .  .  .  The  issuance  of  certificates  of  air- 
worthiness and  the  competence  of  officers  and  crew 
are  matters  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  con- 
tracting states  so  long  as  they  obser\'e  the  tech- 
nical minimum  standards  set  forth  in  the  an- 
nexes. A  permanent  International  Commission  for 
Air  Navigation  is  established  which  may  vary 
these  standards  from  time  to  time.  Certificates 
which  are  issued  or  rendered  valid  by  the  state  of 
the  aircraft's  flag  must  be  recognized  in  all  other 
states.  .  .  .  The  annexes  also  provide  in  detail  for 
the  marks  and  numbers  w-hich  aircraft  must  carry, 
also  the  lights  and  signals,  rules  of  air\vay  and 
markings  of  aerodromes.  .  .  .  The  annexes  pro- 
vide the  details  to  be  embodied  in  documents 
which  aircraft  must  carry,  which  include  the  fol- 
lowing: (a)  certificates  of  registration;  (6)  cer- 
tificate of  air-worthiness;  (c)  certificate  of  mini- 
mum technical  skill  for  commanding  officer  and 
pilot ;  (d)  licenses  for  pilots,  navigators  and  en- 
gineers;  (c)   list  of  passengers;   (/)   bill  of  lading 


764 


AVIATION 


Air  Service 
Aeronautic   Schools 


AVIATION 


and  manifest;  (g)  log  book;  (h)  special  license 
for  wireless  equipment.  These  requirements  pre- 
suppose some  coordination  between  the  local  and 
the  national  authorities,  which  federal  regulation 
can  alone  provide.  The  convention  provides  for 
the  organization  of  an  international  union  for  the 
administration  of  international  air  navigation  and 
for  the  elaboration  of  legislation  to  be  applicable 
to  it  from  time  to  time.  The  organ  of  the  union 
will  be  the  International  Ccmimission  for  Air  Navi- 
gation. Its  organization  is  to  be  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  League  of  Nations.  Representation  is 
measured  somewhat  after  the  principle  adopted  for 
the  Assembly  of  the  League.  The  five  great  Allies 
have  each  two  representatives.  All  other  con- 
tracting states  have  each  one  representative,  the 
self-governing  British  Dominions  and  India  count- 
ing for  this  purpose  as  states.  The  vote  is  taken 
according  to  states,  but  the  five  great  Powers  re- 
serve to  themselves  the  majority  of  the  votes  by 
the  provision  that  each  shall  have  'the  least  whole 
number  of  votes  which,  when  multiplied  by  five, 
will  give  a  product  exceeding  by  at  least  one  vote 
the  total  number  of  votes  of  all  the  other  contract- 
ing states.'  The  greatly  extended  use  of  aircraft 
for  commercial  transportation  which  now  seems 
impending  will  require  entirely  new  methods  of 
customs  administration.  The  convention  essays  to 
lay  down  certain  rules  by  which  the  states  are  to 
cooperate  in  administering  customs  and  in  the 
prevention  of  customs  fraud.  Aircraft  must  de- 
part from  and  alight  only  upon  especially  de- 
signated 'customs  aerodromes.'  Places  for  cross- 
ing a  frontier  are  to  be  indicated  on  aeronautical 
maps.  The  inspection  of  documents  is  regulated 
ir  a  manner  analogous  to  marine  vessels;  but  the 
convention  wisely  allows  a  certain  latitude  for 
aircraft  over  which  strict  control  at  or  near  the 
frontier  is  not  required.  Any  disagreement  re- 
lating to  the  interpretation  of  the  convention  is 
to  be  referred  to  the  Permanent  Court  of  Inter- 
national Justice  to  be  established  by  the  League  of 
Nations  and,  until  its  establishment,  to  arbitra- 
tion. But  the  International  Commission  for  Air 
Navigation  is  competent  to  determine,  by  a  ma- 
jority of  votes,  a  dispute  upon  any  of  the  tech- 
nical regulations." — A.  K.  Kuhn,  International 
aerial  navigation  and  the  Peace  Conference,  igig 
{American  Journal  of  International  Law,  Jtily, 
1020,  pp.  370-375,  378-370). — See  also  Interna- 
tional law;  Versailles,  Treaty  of:  Part  XI. 

Plans  for  the  foundation  of  an  international 
aeronautic  association,  to  be  known  as  the  Aerial 
League  of  the  World,  have  been  completed.  It  is 
planned  to  have  affiliations  in  nearly  every  country 
of  the  world.  Its  purposes,  as  set  forth  in  Flying 
(New  York),  are:  "(i)  To  encourage  the  use  of 
aircraft  for  all  purposes  throughout  the  world.  (2) 
To  promote  safety  in  aerial  navigation  and  in  the 
construction  of  aircraft,  aerodromes,  accessories, 
etc.  (3)  To  encourage  and  urge  the  establishing 
of  suitable  landing-places  for  aircraft  all  over  the 
world  and  standardize  said  landing-places  and 
equip  them  with  standardized  lighting  and  sig- 
naling devices  and  guiding  lights  to  facilitate  aerial 
navigation.  (4)  To  cause  and  urge  the  establish- 
ing of  recognized  airways  throughout  the  world  to 
interconnect  aerially  all  the  world's  commercial 
centers,  and  wherever  aircraft  can  solve  problems 
of  transportation.  (5)  To  provide  a  scientific  and 
practical  solution  to  the  difficult  problem  of  op- 
erating permanent  aerial  transportation  lines  at 
night  and  in  fogs,  over  fixt  routes,  without  danger 
of  collision  to  aircraft  flying  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, by  bringing  about  the  adoption  of  airways 
eighty  miles  wide,  which  will  permit  aircraft,  by 
keeping  to  the  right,  to  avoid  collision  even  if  they 


should  deviate  from  their  course,  owing  to  wind 
drift.  (6)  To  establish  a  protective  organization 
which  will  undertake  to  protect  airmen  legally  in 
securing  national  and  international  legislation  and 
the  adoption  of  proper  rules  of  the  air  and  regula- 
tions to  govern  aerial  navigation  and  to  protect  the 
interests  of  owners  and  users  of  aircraft  against 
unjust  and  unreasonable  legislation,  and  to  main- 
tain the  lawful  right  and  privileges  of  owners  and 
users  of  all  forms  of  aircraft  whenever  and 
wherever  such  rights  and  privileges  are  menaced, 
as,  for  instance,  in  preventing  the  adoption  of 
restrictive  aerial  laws,  discouraging  over-charging 
when  airmen  damage  property,  prosecuting  per- 
sons for  wilfully  placing  obstructions  on  aviation 
fields,  or  crowding  aircraft  landing-fields,  ex- 
tinguishing guide  lights,  destroying  landmarks, 
selling  watered  gasoline  to  aviators,  selling  in- 
ferior hydrogen  and  gas  to  balloonists,  etc.  (7) 
To  standardize  aircraft  insurance  rates  and  insur- 
ance adjusting.  (8)  To  establish  aeronautic  in- 
formation bureaus  throughout  the  world,  (q)  To 
study  the  possibility  of  air  travel  in  different 
countries  and  prepare  maps  of  airways.  (10)  To 
establish  a  clearing-house  of  aeronautic  activities 
where  people  interested  in  aerial  touring,  commer- 
cial aerial  transportation,  and  air  travel  can  get 
practical  information  and  assistance.  (11)  To  or- 
ganize aerial  exploration  and  surveying  expeditions. 
(12)  To  cooperate  with  aerial  leagues,  aero  clubs, 
and  other  organizations,  aerial  transportation  com- 
panies, travel  agencies,  chambers  of  commerce, 
manufacturers,  and  other  established  organizations 
to  carry  out  the  above-mentioned  purposes  and 
advance  the  science  and  art  of  aerial  navigation. 
.  .  .  The  president  of  the  League  is  Maj.  Charles 
J.  Glidden,  the  founder  of  the  Glidden  Automobile 
Tours,  a  pioneer  in  aeronautics  since  1905  and 
acting  chairman  of  the  contest  committee  of  the 
Aero  Club  of  America." — World-wide  league  to 
promote  flying  (Literary  Digest,  Oct.  g,  1920, 
p.  82). — On  Feb.  iq,  iqiq,  the  appointment  of  an 
air  attache  to  the  British  embassy  at  Washington 
was  announced.  In  the  following  year  Italy  also 
appointed  air  attaches  to  several  of  their  em- 
bassies. 

"The  University  of  Detroit  has  gone  ahead  with 
plans  to  establish  a  five-year  course  in  aeronautics. 
The  university  is  confident  that  Detroit  will  even- 
tually become  an  aircraft  and  aircraft-equipment 
center,  and  that  the  demand  for  men  trained  in 
aerial  science  will  be  greater  than  the  visible  supply 
here  below. 

"The  uninitiated  may  wonder  what  there  is  in 
aeronautics  to  require  five  years'  training.  The 
average  man  who  has  flown  an  airplane  in  war 
or  peace  is  more  likely  to  wonder  if  it  is  possible 
to  cram  all  there  is  to  know  about  aerial  naviga- 
tion and  aerial  equipment  into  five  years.  Whether 
or  not  it  is  possible  to  do  the  subject  justice  in 
that  length  of  time  remains  to  be  seen,  but  judged 
by  present  standards  the  University  of  Detroit  can 
produce  aeronautical  engineers  of  a  caliber  su- 
perior to  anything  now  known.  Like  medicine, 
law,  chemistry,  and  a  multitude  of  other  sciences, 
theory  in  aeronautics  is  one  thing;  practise  is 
quite   another. 

"Lieut.  Thomas  F.  Dunn,  dean  of  the  new  de- 
partment of  aeronautics  at  the  University  of  De- 
troit, puts  it  this  way:  'There  are  lots  of  engi- 
neers who  can  tell  you  all  about  aeronautics  on 
the  ground,  but  when  they  get  up  into  the  thin 
air  their  theory  is  like  a  ship  without  a  rudder 
and  no  compass — very  active,  but  with  indefinite 
plans  as  to  the  future.'  The  impression  that  takes 
hold  of  us  is  that  there  are  two  ways  of  getting 
an   aeronautical   education.     One   is   to  go   up   In 


7^5 


AVIATION 


Nvw   Vocuhulary 
Important  flights 


AVIATION 


the  air  first  and  gather  some  experience,  and  if 
spared  for  future  investigation,  return  to  solid 
earth  and  tackle  the  theory.  The  other  way  is  to 
tackle  the  theory  first  and  then  try  it  out  on  the 
air. 

"Some  idea  of  the  latitude  of  this  subject  is  con- 
veyed by  the  following  subjects  to  be  taught: 
Higher  mathematics,  communication,  mapping,  as- 
tronomy, physics,  meteorology,  weather  calcula- 
tions, theory  of  flight,  balloons,  aerodynamics, 
aerostatics,  aircraft  mechanics,  testing  drawing,  ad- 
ministration, chemistry,  electricity,  engineering 
principles,  metal-working,  working  design  and  con- 
struction, topography,  wireless  telephony  and  te- 
legraphy, safety  devices,  uses  of  instruments,  some 
commercial  law,  and  all  there  is  or  will  be  on 
aerial  navigation  laws,  principles  of  law  as  it  is 
or  will  be  applied  to  the  air,  and  aerial  photog- 
raphy."— F.  W.  Hersey,  in  Michigan  Manufacturer 
and  Financial  Record,  quoted  by  Literary  Digest, 
July  i6,  1021. 

It  is  estimated  that  aviation  has  introduced 
over  200  new  words  into  the  English  language, 
either  original  or  taken  over  from  other  languages. 
Those  words  or  phrases  in  common  use  on  the 
flying  fields  or  in  aircraft  plants  are  strangers  to 
the  average  reader.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who 
are  unacquainted  with  the  meanings  of  such  words 
as  "fuselage,"  "nacelle,"  "drift,"  "aileron,"  and 
such  phrases  as  "air  pockets,"  "parasite  resistance," 
"traihng  edge,"  etc.,  the  Manufacturers'  .Aircraft 
.\ssociation  issued  in  iqiq  a  "Flying  dictionary" 
with  the  aid  of  a  report  compiled  by  the  national 
advisory  committee  for  aeronautics  at  Washington. 
Quite  a  number  of  books  on  aviation  contain  glos- 
saries with  technical  details,  yet  one  of  the  handi- 
caps is  the  proper  description  of  equipment  so 
as  to  give  the  public — generally  uninstructed — an 
accurate  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  current  hap- 
penings. This  difficulty  has  also  been  encountered 
in  government  aircraft  activities  and  appears  more 
ihan  ever  now  that  commercial  aviation,  with 
proper  encouragement,  promises  to  develop  in  the 
pear  future. 

1921. — New  aircraft  for  U.  S.  Navy. — Early  in 
the  year  the  United  States  Navy  Department  was 
building,  at  its  yard  at  League  island,  a  giant 
flying  boat  intended  to  be  the  largest  of  its  kind  in 
the  world,  to  tower  above  a  three-story  building  in 
height  and  have  a  wing  spread  of  nearly  a  Slew 
York  city  block.  .As  given  in  official  figures,  the 
dimensions  were:  height,  48  feet;  wing  spread, 
150  feet;  length.  67  feet;  designation  to  be  the 
G-B  type  On  .'\pril  14  it  was  anounced  that  the 
great  rigid  airship  ZR-2.  then  in  its  final  stages 
of  trial  flights  and  equipment  in  England  and 
purchased  by  the  United  States  government,  would 
make  the  trip  to  America  late  in  July,  iq2i,  under 
command  of  Commander  Maxfield,  U.  S.  N. 
.American  officers  and  enlisted  men  had  been  train- 
ing in  England  for  nearly  a  year  in  anticipation  of 
the  transatlantic  flight  to  bring  the  airship  over. 
The  cost  of  the  airship — -the  largest  in  the  world — 
was  stated  to  be  about  $2,500,000.  Its  original 
British  name  was  the  R-:}8;  its  length  600  feet; 
height,  03  feet ;  diameter,  86  feet ;  gas  capacity, 
2,724,000  cubic  feet,  and  a  useful  weight-carrying 
capacity  of  forty-five  tons.  On  .August  24,  how- 
ever, just  as  it  was  completing  satisfactorily  its 
final  trial  cruise,  the  ZR-2  met  with  a  tragic  fate. 
.At  5  45  p.m  ,  while  traveling  over  the  city  of 
Hull,  the  monster  aircraft  "buckled";  flames  in- 
stantly broke  out  and  several  explosions  followed. 
It  seemed  to  the  horrified  spectators  on  the  ground 
that  the  vessel  would  fall  upon  the  city,  but  the 
commander.  Captain  .A.  A.  Wann,  steered  it  over 
the  river  Humber,  into  which  it  fell.    Three  mem- 


bers of  the  crew  made  successful  parachute  de- 
scents;  two  others,  including  Wann,  were  subse- 
quently taken  off  the  wreck.  These  were  the  only 
survivors  out  of  forty-nine — thirty-two  British  and 
seventeen  .Americans.  The  disaster  was  attributed 
to  structural  weakness. 

IMPORTANT   FLIGHTS   SINCE   1900 

1900.— First  Zeppelin's  trial  flight. 

1901  (Oct.  ig). — .Alberto  Santos-Dumont  navi- 
gated a  dirigible  from  St.  Cloud  to  Paris,  around 
the  Eiffel  tower  and  back  to  starting-point;  time, 
thirty    minutes. 

1903  (Dec.  17). — "Wright  Bros,  fitted  a  biplane 
glider  with  a  16  H.P.  motor,  driving  double  screws 
behind  the  planes.  Total  weight  of  machine,  750 
pounds.  Flew  at  speed  of  30-25  miles  per  hour  for 
a  period  of  twelve  seconds.  Tests  made  on  the 
Kill-Devil  dunes,  N.  C,  ultimately  sustained  flight 
for  a  period  of  59  seconds,  covering  852  feet.  First 
successful  sustained  flight  in  the  world." — Aircraft 
year  book,  iqig,  p.  311,  Aeronautical  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  America. 

1904. — Pierre  and  Paul  Lebaudy  navigated  a 
dirigible  of  their  own  construction,  fitted  with  a 
40  h.p.  motor,  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  near 
Paris. 

1907    (October). — .A   British   war   dirigible  Nulli 
Secundus    sailed    from    Farnborough    to    London, 
circled  St.  Paul's  cathedral  and  flew  to  the  Crystal 
palace,  about  fifty  miles;  time,  three  hours  thirty 
five  minutes. 

1909  (July  25). — French  aviator  Louis  Bleriot 
made  first  flight  across  English  channel,  from 
Calais  to  Dover,  in  thirty-one  minutes. 

1910  (.April  20). — Roger  Sommer,  at  Mourme- 
lon,  France,  went  up  with  four  passengers. 

May  21 — Count  Jacques  de  Lesseps  flew  from 
Calais  to  Dover;   the  second  cross-Channel  flight. 

May  20. — Glenn  Curtiss  flew  from  .Albany  to 
New  York  city,  making  two  stops  on  the  way ; 
distance — 145   miles. 

June  2.— (Tharles  Stewart  Rolls  (of  Rolls-Royce), 
an  Englishman,  made  the  first  round-trip  flight 
over  the  English  channel,  in  a  Wright  biplane. 

June  13. — Charles  K..  Hamilton,  flying  for  the 
Sew  York  Times,  made  the  first  round-trip  flight 
between  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

July  Q. — Rene  Labouchere,  at  Reims,  France, 
made  a  continuous  non-stop  flight  of  211.27  miles, 
the  world   record  at  that  time. 

July  10. — Jan  Oliaslaegers,  at  Reims,  broke  La- 
bouchere's  record,  with  a  continuous  flight  of  244 
miles  in  five  hours,  three  minutes  and  fifty-one 
seconds. 

Aug.  7-17. — Alfred  Leblanc  flew  over  a  circular 
course,  Paris.  Troyes,  Nancy,  Mezieres,  Douai, 
.Amiens,  and  back.    Total  distance  485  miles. 

Aug.  7. — John  B.  Moisant  made  the  first  flight 
over  the  English  channel  with  a  passenger. 

Sept.  23. — Peruvian  aviator  Jorge  Chavez-Dart- 
nell  flew  over  the  .Alps ;  crossed  Simplon  pass  at 
Dondo,  flying  towards  Italy.  He  was  killed  a  few 
days  later  by  fall  of  his  machine  in  Switzer- 
land. 

October. ^ — First  dirigible  attempt  to  cross  At- 
lantic. In  October,  Walter  Wellman,  an  .American 
explorer,  and  Melvin  Vaniman  made  a  courageous 
attempt  to  cross  the  .Atlantic  ocean.  The  under- 
taking was  all  the  greater  when  it  is  remembered 
that  aviation  was  still  an  undeveloped  science. 
These  two  pioneers  set  out  from  .Atlantic  city  in 
the  rigid  dirigible  .America  with  a  crew  of  four 
men,  including  two  .Americans,  one  Englishman 
and  an  .Australian.  Not  possessing  the  machinery 
and  other  appliances  of  the  necessary  strength  and 


766 


AVIATION 


Important  ['lights 


AVIATION 


efficiency  to  dictate  their  route,  the  utmost  they 
could  hope  for  was  to  reach  some  point  on  the 
coast  of  Great  Britain  or  France  wherever  the 
wind  might  carry  them.  The  elements  were 
against  them;  bad  weather  made  it  impossible  to 
reach  any  European  shore.  The  balloon  was  blown 
out  of  its  course  and  soon  came  to  grief ;  it  was 
finally  picked  up  by  a  steamer  midway  between 
New  York  and  Bermuda,  1,000  miles  off  Cape 
Hatteras.  The  crew  were  rescued  but  the  dirigible 
had  to  be  abandoned. 

Oct.  28. — Maurice  Tabuteau,  at  Buc,  France, 
broke  the  world  record  with  a  continuous  flight  of 
six  hours  and  covered  a  distance  of  28Q  miles. 

Oct.  II. — Archie  Hoxsey,  at  St.  Louis,  took 
Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt  up  as  a  passenger. 

1911. — (Feb.  i). — Captain  C.  Bellenger  flew  from 
Paris  to  Bordeaux,  330  miles,  in  eight  hours  and 
twenty-two  minutes. 

Feb.  2. — Bellenger  flew  from  Bordeaux  to  Pau, 
France,  140  miles. 


Bologna,  Italy,  over  the  Apennines,  at  an  altitude 
of  4,500  feet. 

1912. — (March  7). — Salmet,  in  a  Bleriot  machine, 
flew  from  London  to  Paris  in  three  hours  and  six- 
teen minutes. 

April  16. — First  cross-Channel  flight  by  a 
woman. — Miss  Harriet  Quimby,  a  British  aviatrix, 
piloted  an  airplane  across  the  channel. 

April  28. — Hewitt  flew  from  Holyhead  to  Dub- 
lin in  one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes. 

May  25. — Fish  flew  from  Chicago  to  Milwaukee 
in  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes, 

June  IS  to  July  10. — Andreadi  flew  from  Se- 
bastopol   to   Petrograd,   1,670   miles. 

Ju[y  2. — During  a  test  flight  of  a  second  dirigible 
(after  the  America)  named  the  Akron,  Melvin 
Vaniman  and  four  of  the  crew  were  killed  by  an 
explosion  of  the  hydrogen  gas  with  which  the 
balloon  was  inflated. 

Aug.  18-19. — Andemars  made  first  Paris  to  Ber- 
lin flight,  S41  miles,  in  two  days. 


FIRST  AERIAL  CROSSING   OF  THE  CHANNEL,    1909 
Bleriot  monoplane  just  before  landing  at  Dover 


April  22. — P.  Vedrines  flew  from  Paris  to  Pau, 
a  distance  of  310  miles,  in  six  hours  and  fifty-five 
minutes. 

June  28. — L.  Beachey  flew  over  Niagara  Falls. 

June  30  to  July  11.— Harry  N.  Atwood  flew 
from  Boston  to  Washington  via  New  London,  New 
York,  Atlantic  city,  and  Baltimore. 

July  24.— M.  Vasselieff  flew  from  St.  Petersburg 
to  Moscow. 

Aug.  14  to  25. — Atwood  flew  from  St.  Louis  to 
New  York  via  Chicago,  Cleveland,  and  Buffalo. 
Air  distance,  1,266  miles.  Flying  time,  twenty- 
eight  hours  and  fifty-three  minutes:  average  daily 
flight,  105  miles.  Average  speed,  fifty-one  miles  an 
hour 

Sept.  Q — First  aerial  mail  in  United  Kingdom 
inaugurated  between  Hendon  (London)  and  Wind- 
sor. 

Sept.  17  to  Dec.  10— G.  P.  Rodgers  flew  from 
New  York  to  Long  Beach,  Cal.,  a  distance  of 
4,231  miles.  Time  in  air  was  three  days  ten  hours 
and  four  minutes. 

Oct.    21. — De    Hansey    flew    from    Florence    to 


Sept.  28. — Daucourt  circled  Paris  seven  times, 
497  miles,  in  twelve  hours  and  twenty-two  min- 
utes. 

1913. —  (Jan.  25). — Brelovuccic  flew  over  the  Alps, 
fifty  miles,  in  twenty-five  minutes. 

March  28.— Lieutenant  T.  De  W.  Milling,  U. 
S.  A.,  with  passenger,  flew  from  Texas  city  to  San 
.\ntonio,  240  miles,  in  three  hours  and  twenty 
minutes. 

April  15.— Daucourt  flew  from  Paris  to  Berlin 
in  thirteen  hours  and  thirty-nine  minutes. 

April  17. — Hamel  flew  from  Dover,  England,  to 
Cologne,  Germany,  24'i  miles,  in  four  hours  and 
eighteen  minutes. 

May  17. — Rosillio  flew  from  Florida  to  Cuba, 
100  miles,  in  two  hours  and  eight  minutes. 

June  I  to  July  2. — Brindejouc  des  Moulinais 
made  the  round  trip  from  Paris  to  Warsaw  via 
Stockholm,  Petrograd,  and  the  Hague,  3,002  miles. 

Aug.  25-27. — Hawker  flew  around  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  1,043  miles,  in  two  and  one-half 
days. 

Sept.  I— .\lphonse  Pegoud,  French  aviator,  made 


767 


AVIATION 


Important  Flights 


AVIATION 


the  first  loop-the-loop  maneuver  in  a  Bleriot  mono- 
plane. 

1914. — One  of  the  most  noteworthy  flights  dur- 
ing the  year  occurred  on  Feb.  ii,  when  the  French 
pilot  Agenor  Parmelin  flew  from  Geneva,  Swit- 
zerland, over  Mont  Blanc  in  France,  to  Aosta  in 
Italy,  attaining  an  altitude  of  over  16,000  feet. 
This  feat  was  rivalled  in  America  by  Silas  Christ- 
offerson,  who  flew  on  June  25  over  the  peak,  of 
Mount  Whitney  in  California.  This  mountain  is 
14,898  ft.  high  and  Christofferson  attained  an  al- 
titude of  15,728  feet,  about  a  thousand  feet  above 
the  peak.  In  London,  the  American  aviator  W.  L. 
Brock  won  the  British  Aerial  Derby  flight  around 
London  and  the  round  flight  London-Manchester, 
winning  the  Daily  Mail  gold  cup  and  $2,000  of- 
fered by  the  Anglo-American  Oil  company. 
Against  seven  competitors  on  July  11,  Brock  also 
won  the  London  to  Paris  and  back  race.  The 
French  aviator  Gilbert,  starting  on  June  6,  flew 
2,000  miles  round  France  in  two  days;  Lieut. 
Geyer  flew  80s  miles  in  a  day  in  Germany ;  Verrier 
won  the  Pommery  cup  with  a  flight  from  Buc  to 
Genthin,  Germany,  a  distance  of  52°  miles,  in 
May;  Adjutant  Quennehen  made  a  625  miles' 
flight  across  country  on  June  12,  without  stopping, 
in  thirteen  hrs.  forty  min.;  the  German  aviator 
Basser  in  four  days,  spending  eighteen  hrs.  12 
min.  in  the  air,  flew  with  a  passenger  from  Berlin 
to  Constantinople,  via  Buda-Pesth  and  Bucharest; 
flights  over  the  Alps  were  made  by  Parmelin,  on 
Feb.  II,  from  Geneva  to  Aosta  over  Mont  Blanc; 
by  Bider,  from  Berne  to  Brigues,  by  the  Jung- 
frau,  on  April  23 ;  and  by  Landini,  over  the  Alps 
Apennines,  on  July  27;  a  number  of  flights 
through  Asia  Minor  by  French  and  Turkish  avi- 
ators bound  for  Jerusalem  and  Cairo  were  made, 
the  Turkish  aviators  suffering  two  double  fatal 
accidents  besides  minor  mishaps. — Hazell's  Annual, 
IQ15,  p.  431. — Sikorsky,  with  his  "giant"  airplane 
at  Petrograd,  remained  in  the  air  with  ten  pas- 
sengers for  one  hour  and  forty-si.x  minutes,  on 
June  18. — On  July  4,  H.  Kantner  circled  New 
York  city,  forty-six  miles,  in  forty-three  minutes 
and  twenty-six  seconds. 

"A  number  of  accidents  to  airships  have  oc- 
curred [during  1914].  Of  these  may  be  mentioned: 
April  i8th,  the  City  of  Milan  (Italian).  During 
deflation  after  landing  the  gas  was  ignited  by  a 
smoker's  match  and  about  forty  persons  were 
injured  in  the  resulting  explosion,  one  fatally.  June 
20th,  the  Korting-Wimpassing  (Austrian).  This 
airship  was  run  into  by  a  Farman  biplane  and  its 
gas  exploded  by  a  flame  from  the  motors.  The 
seven  occupants  of  the  airship  and  the  two  occu- 
pants of  the  biplane  were  all  killed.  June  14th, 
the  Ersatz  Zi  (German  Zeppelin),  wrecked  while 
landing  in  a  storm  at  Diedenhofen ;  no  loss  of 
life.  June  24th,  a  Russian  military  airship, 
wrecked  in  a  storm,  the  crew  escaping  with  slight 
injuries." — C.  C.  Turner,  Aviation  in  1Q14  (Ha- 
zell's Annual,  1915,  p.  427). 

1915. — In  this  year  the  war  in  Europe  completely 
put  an  end  to  aviation  so  far  as  competitive  long- 
distance and  cross-country  flights  were  concerned. 
In  Europe  all  airplanes  were  commandeered  for 
military  purposes  and  practically  all  aviators  en- 
tered the  service  of  their  respective  countries. 

1916. — (April  i). — S.  McGordon  flew  from  New- 
port News,  V'a.,  to  Washington  and  return,  300 
miles;  in  four  hours  and  twenty-nine  minutes. 

April  30.— E.  T.  McCauley,  at  Newport  News, 
flew  eighty-eight  miles  with  six  passengers  in  one 
hour,  ten  minutes  and  live  seconds. 

May  20. — Victor  Carlstrom  flew  from  Newport 
News,  Virginia,  to  New  York  without  a  stop  in 
four  hours  and  one  minute,  covering  between  350 


and  400  miles,  thereby  making  the  longest  and  fast- 
est cross-country  record  in  the  United  States.  On 
Nov.  19  Miss  Ruth  Law  broke  that  record  by 
flying  from  Chicago  to  Hornell,  N.  Y.,  668  miles, 
without  a  stop. 

May  24. — Victor  Carlstrom  flew  from  New  York 
to  Washington,  237  miles,  in  three  hours  and  seven 
minutes. 

June  2o.^Lieut.  A.  Marchal,  French  Army,  flew 
from  west  front  in  France  to  Poland,  a  continuous 
flight  of  812  miles.     Time  not  stated. 

Nov.  2-3. — Victor  Carlstrom,  flying  for  the  New 
York  Times,  flew  from  Chicago  to  New  York, 
with  one  stop,  due  to  engine  trouble.  Distance 
967  miles.  Time  in  air,  eight  hours,  twenty-eight 
minutes  and  thirty  seconds. 

Nov.  19-20. — Miss  Ruth  Law  flew  from  Chicago 
to  New  York,  with  one  stop.  Time  in  air,  eight 
hours,  fifty-five  minutes  and  thirty-five  seconds. 

1917. —  (.\ug.  29). — Captain  G.  Lauriati  flew  from 
Turin  to  Naples  and  return,  920  miles,  in  ten  hours 
and  thirty-three  minutes. 

Sept.  24. — Captain  Lauriati  flew  from  Turin  to 
London,  700  miles,  in  twelve  hours  and  two 
minutes. 

Oct.  22. — Captain  A.  Silvio  flew  from  Norfolk, 
Va.,  to  Mineola,  L.  I.,  330  miles,  in  four  hours  and 
twenty-five  minutes. 

Oct.  22. — Lieutenant  Baldioli  flew  from  Norfolk 
to  Mineola  in  two  hours  and  fifty-five  minutes. 

1918 — German  Zeppelin  L-yg  flew  from  Bulgaria 
to  south  of  Khartum  and  back  without  landing 
en  route,  a  distance  of  over  4,000  miles. 

First  non-stop  airplane  flight  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  city  was  made  April  19  of  this  year 
by  Captain  E.  F.  While,  an  American  Army 
aviator.  He  traveled  727  miles  in  a  De  Haviland-4 
army  reconnoissance  plane  at  an  average  speed 
of  about   106  miles  an  hour. 

April  26,  the  naval  seaplane  f-5,  with  Lieuten- 
ant Commander  Grow  and  Ensign  Thomas  as 
pilots,  broke  all  records  for  an  endurance  flight 
by  remaining  in  the  air  a  little  over  twenty  hours 
for  a  flight  of   1,250  miles. 

December. — For  the  first  time,  an  aerial  con- 
cert was  performed  over  London.  A  big  bomb- 
ing plane  carried  a  band  aloft,  shut  off  the  en- 
gines and  had  a  concert  while  it  glided  to  earth. 
Another  powerful  machine,  a  Handley-Page  which 
was  to  have  been  used  for  dropping  600  pound 
bombs  on  Berlin  had  the  war  continued,  was  reg- 
ularly carrying  forty  persons  at  a  time  over  Lon- 
don. 

1919. — Captain  E.  F.  White  made  the  first  non- 
stop flight  from  Chicago  to  New  York,  between 
breakfast  and  dinner,  in  six  hours  and  fifty  min- 
utes, a  trifle  more  than  one-third  of  the  time 
required  by  the  fastest  express  train. 

May. — Attempts  to  cross  Atlantic. — Before  the 
World  War  broke  out  the  London  Daily  Mail 
offered  a  prize  of  £10,000  ($50,000)  for  the  first 
crossing  of  the  Atlantic.  Directly  after  the  war 
the  capabilities  of  airplanes  and  airships,  strenu- 
ously developed  during  that  conflict,  justified  the 
belief  that  the  crossing  could  be  accomplished  un- 
der favorable  circumstances.  Early  in  the  year 
several  entries  were  made  for  the  prize.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  competition,  the  United  States 
naval  air  service  prepared  a  flying-boat  to  cross 
via  the  Azores  islands,  and  the  British  air  min- 
istry announced  that  the  rigid  airship  R-34  would 
attempt  the  double  crossing  of  the  ocean. — "One 
of  the  greatest  adventures  ever  undertaken  by 
men — the  crossing  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  aerial 
flight — was  attempted  both  by  .\merican  and  Brit- 
ish aviators  in  M.ay,  1910.  Some  of  the  Ameri- 
cans who  dared  the  dangers  of  thisfcrossing  knew 


768 


/ 


AVIATION 


Important  Flights 
Transatlantic 


AVIATION 


the  joy  of  Columbus  when  he  first  spied  the  hazy 
outUne  of  the  New  World  coast.  .  .  .  Two  Brit- 
ish aviators  [Hawker  and  Grieve],  staking  all  on 
the  desperate  resolve  to  reach  the  other  hemisphere 
by  direct  flight,  disappeared  from  the  world's 
knowledge  for  six  days  and  were  considered  lost 
in  midocean  until  news  came  that  they  had  been 
rescued.  Two  others  later  achieved  success  and 
fame.  Curiously  enough,  the  project  of  trans- 
atlantic flight  developed  in  America  as  a  national, 
not  a  private,  enterprise,  and  the  pioneer  airmen 
who  reached  Portugal  from  Newfoundland  were 
enlisted  men  in  the  service  of  the  United  States 
Navy;  the  British  attempt,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  purely  a  private  venture.  Harry  Hawker 
and  Lieutenant  Commander  Grieve  flew  to  fulfill 
the  conditions  of  a  $50,000  prize.  .  .  .  Captain 
Raynham,  another  British  competitor  for  the  same 
prize,  met  with  disaster  in  'hopping  off'  and  had 
to  give  up  the  project  for  a  time." — Nen'  York 
Times  Current  History,  July,  1919,  p.  qq. — 
See  also  Atlantic  ocean:  Trans-Atlantic  steamers, 
cables,  airplanes. 

May. — American  seaplane  first  across  Atlantic. 
— On  Nov.  30,  1Q18,  it  was  announced  from  Wash- 
ington that  the  navy's  newest  seaplane,  the  Giant 
NC-i,  the  largest  seaplane  in  the  world,  had 
broken  all  records  for  the  number  of  passengers 
carried  in  any  airplane  when  it  made  a  flight  with 
fifty  men  on  board  on  Wednesday,  Nov.  27,  at 
the  naval  air  station  at  Rockaway,  Long  Island. 
This  was  the  first  American  tri-motor  seaplane  and 
was  propelled  by  three  Liberty  motors  that  de- 
veloped a  maximum  of  1,200  h.p.,  giving  it  a 
cruising  speed  of  eighty  miles  an  hour. — "The 
'NC  iiying  boats — the  'N'  for  Navy  and  the  'C 
for  Curtiss,  these  two  combined  letters  indicat- 
ing the  joint  production  of  the  United  States 
Navy  and  the  Curtiss  Engineering  Corporation 
— have  an  interesting  history.  This  airplane  type 
is  not  only  of  extraordinary  size,  but  of  unusual 
construction,  and  represents  an  original  American 
development.  According  to  a  statement  issued  by 
Acting  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Roosevelt,  the  de- 
sign was  initiated  in  the  Fall  of  1917  by  Rear 
Admiral  D.  W.  Taylor,  chief  instructor  in  the 
navy,  who  had  in  mind  the  development  of  a 
seapiane  of  the  maximum  size,  radius  of  action, 
and  weight-carrying  ability  for  use  in  putting  down 
the  submarine  menace.  ...  It  was  the  intention 
of  the  Navy  Department  to  fly  a  fleet  of  these 
planes  overseas,  and  if  the  war  had  continued 
this  intention  would  have  been  fulfilled.  .  .  . 
Plans  for  the  flight  were  in  process  of  making 
as  early  as  March  22,  iqig,  when  six  officers  of 
the  navy  and  one  of  the  Marine  Corps  were  as- 
signed to  the  transatlantic  section  of  the  office 
of  the  Director  of  Naval  Aviation  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  such  plans.  .  .  .  Test  trials  at  Rockaway 
Beach  toward  the  end  of  March  gave  auspicious 
results,  one  of  the  NC  boats  leaving  the  water 
with  26,000  pounds  gross  load,  as  against  the 
22,000  believed  at  one  time  to  be  the  limit  of 
carrying  capacity.  This  test  demonstrated  that 
these  craft  could  carry  sufficient  gasoUne  to  cross 
from  Newfoundland  to  the  Azores  Islands  with- 
out alighting  for  fuel.  These  trial  flights  went  on 
continuously  from  April  22.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  it  was 
announced  by  Commander  John  H.  Towers  .  .  . 
that  the  details  of  the  destroyer  and  dreadnought 
patrols  to  be  stationed  along  the  entire  course  of 
the  contemplated  flight  had  been  completed;  the 
advance  guard  had  already  sailed,  and  others 
were  scheduled  to  leave  daily.  Ultimately  half  a 
hundred  destroyers,  cruisers,  and  dreadnoughts 
took  part  in  the  work  of  patrolling  the  route. 
Each  of  tie  crews  of  the  three  NC  ships  to  at- 


769 


tempt  the  flight,  as  officially  announced,  included 
six  members.  .  .  .  The  seaplanes  began  the  historic 
effort  to  cross  the  Atlantic  through  the  air  at 
q:Sq  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  8.  .  .  .  Two 
of  the  planes  reached  Halifax  the  same  day  at  8 
o'clock  (7  o'clock  New  York  time).  This  first 
flight,  S40  nautical  miles,  took  exactly  nine  hours. 
The  NC-4,  however,  was  missing.  ...  (It  had) 
dropped  out  of  wireless  touch  and  was  not  heard 
from  until  the  following  day.  May  g,  when  it  was 
learned  that  this  plane  had  been  forced  by  en- 
gine trouble  to  come  down  at  sea,  and  had  pro- 
ceeded under  its  own  power  to  Chatham  Bar, 
on  the  Massachusetts  coast.  .  .  .  Meantime  the 
NC-i  and  NC-3,  not  waiting  for  the  NC-4,  took 
flight  from  Halifax  in  the  morning  of  May  10, 
and  reached  Trepassey  Harbor,  N.  F.,  at  4:14 
and  7:50  A.  M.,  respectively.  .  .  .  They  had  just 
completed  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  away 
on  Many  15,  when  the  NC-4  arrived  at  Trepassey. 
.  .  .  The  three  planes,  thus  reunited,  went  to 
their  moorings,  and  began  preparations  for  a 
common  departure  at  the  first  favorable  moment." 
— New  York  Times  Current  History,  July,  1919, 
pp.  99-102. — "The  AT  I,  3,  and  4  .  .  .  left  'Trepas- 
sey Bay  at  6:05  P.M.  (Friday,  May  16).  It 
was  a  clear  moonlight  night,  and  as  twenty-one 
United  States  destroyers  were  stationed  along  the 
route  from  North  latitude  46-17  to  39-40,  the 
airships  were  in  communication  with  the  fleet  all 
the  way  over.  Because  of  a  thick  fog  which  ob- 
tained near  the  Azores  the  NC-4  landed  at  Horta 
of  the  eastern  group  at  q.20  A.M.,  just  15  hours 
and  18  minutes  after  starting.  The  NC-i  landed 
at  sea  and  sank,  and  the  NC-3,  which  flew  out 
of  its  course,  landed  at  Ponta  Delgada.  The 
NC-4  in  its  flight  from  Trepassey  to  Lisbon  cov- 
ered a  distance  of  2,150  nautical  miles  in  26.47 
hours'  actual  flying,  or  at  an  average  speed  of 
80.3  nautical  miles." — E.  J.  David,  .-Urcraft,  its 
development  in  war  and  peace  and  its  commercial 
future,  pp.  250-260. — According  to  the  report  of 
Lieutenant-Commander  Read,  of  the  NC-4  as  pub- 
lished in  the  World  (New  York),  "The  Three  and 
Four  together  left  Mistaken  Point  at  10. i6,  and 
ten  minutes  later  sighted  the  One,  several  miles 
to  the  rear,  and  flying  higher.  We  were  flying 
over  icebergs,  with  the  wind  astern  and  the  sea 
smooth  Our  average  altitude  was  800  feet.  The 
NC-4  drew  ahead  at  10.50  (P.M.),  but  when 
over  the  first  destroyer  made  a  circle  to  allow 
the  NC-3  to  catch  up.  We  then  flew  on  together 
until  11.5s,  when  we  lost  sight  of  the  NC-3,  her 
running  lights  being  too  ciim  to  be  discerned. 
From  then  on  we  proceeded  as  if  alone.  ...  As 
it  grew  lighter  the  air  became  bumpy,  and  we 
climbed  to  1,800  feet,  but  the  air  remained  bumpy 
most  of  the  night.  ...  At  5.45  we  saw  the  first 
of  dawn.  As  it  grew  lighter  all  our  worries  ap- 
peared to  have  passed.  The  power-plant  and 
everything  else  was  running  perfectly.  The  radio 
was  working  marvellously  well.  ...  At  8  o'clock 
we  saw  our  first  indications  of  trouble,  running 
through  light  lumps  of  fog.  It  cleared  at  8.12, 
but  at  q.27  we  ran  into  more  fog  for  a  few  min- 
utes. At  9.4s  the  fog  became  thicker  and  then 
dense.  The  sun  disappeared  and  we  lost  all 
sense  of  direction.  The  compass  spinning  indicated 
a  steep  bank,  and  I  had  visions  of  a  possible 
nose  dive.  Then  the  sun  appeared  and  the  blue 
sky  once  more,  and  we  regained  an  even  keel 
and  put  the  plane  on  a  course  above  the  fog, 
flying  between  the  fog  and  an  upper  layer  of 
clouds.  We  caught  occasional  glimpses  of  the  wa- 
ter, so  we  climbed  to  3,200  feet,  occasionally  chang- 
ing the  course  and  the  altitude  to  dodge  the  clouds 
and   fog.  ...  At    11.13    we  sent   a   radio   to    the 


AVIATION 


Iiiiportaiil  Flights 
Transatlantic 


AVIATION 


destroyer  and  could  hear  Corvo  reply  that  the 
visibility  was  ten  miles.  Encouraged  by  this 
promise  of  better  conditions  farther  on,  we  kept 
going.  Suddenly,  at  11.27,  we  saw  through  a  rift 
what  appeared  to  be  a  tide-rip  on  the  water. 
Two  minutes  later  we  saw  the  outline  of  rocks. 
The  tide-rip  was  a  line  of  surf  along  the  southern 
end  of  Flores  Island.  It  was  the  most  wel- 
come sight  we  had  ever  seen  .  .  .  The  visibility 
then  was  about  12  miles.  We  had  plenty  of 
gasoline  and  oil,  and  decided  to  keep  on  to  Ponta 
Delgada.  Then  it  got  thick  and  we  missed  the 
next  destroyer,  Xo.  2.5.  The  fog  closed  down. 
.  .  .  .^t  1.04  we  sighted  the  northern  end  of  Fayal, 
and  once  more  felt  safe.  We  headed  for  the  shore, 
the  air  clearing  when  we  reached  the  beach  We 
rounded  the  island  and  landed  in  a  bicht  we  had 
mistaken  for  Horta." 

Meanwhile,  A'C-,?  was  thrown  out  of  her  course 
by   the  high  velocity   of   the   upper  winds.     Com- 


(May  iq].  Off  the  port  we  declined  proffered 
aid  by  the  destroyer  Harding,  which  had  been 
sent  out  to  meet  u:-,  and  "taxied'  into  port  under 
our  own  power.  During  the  two  days'  vigil  of 
seeking  land  or  rescue  ships  we  tired  all  our 
distress  signals,  none  of  which  apparently  were 
seen  Without  informing  the  crew  of  the  fear 
that  I  had  that  we  would  be  lost,  I  packed  our 
log  in  a  waterproof  cover,  tied  it  to  a  life-belt, 
and  was  prepared  to  cast  it  adrift  when  the  A'C-.? 
sank.  The  nervous  s*rain  was  terrible  while  we 
were  drifting,  and  the  men  smoked  incessantly. 
This  was  the  only  thing  that  kept  them  awake." 
— E.  J.  David,  Aircraft,  pp.  270-272— The  NC-i 
was  less  fortunate,  as  described  in  the  following 
statement  by  Lieutenant  Commander  P.  N.  L. 
Bellinger:  "...  We  proceeded  on  the  course,  be- 
ing guided  by  the  smoke  and  searchlights  from 
the  destroyers,  and  the  star  shells  they  sent  up 
■After   passing   most    of   the    station   ships   we   did 


OBirial   Phntoemph.  I'     ,■?    Navy 

NC-4  AT  LISBON   AFTER   FLIGHT  FROM    XEWFOUNDLAND 


mander  Towers  reported  that  "having  run  short  of 
fuel  and  encountered  a  heavy  fog,  the  .VC-  ?  came 
down  at  i  o'clock  Saturday  afternoon  in  order  that 
we  might  obtain  our  bearings.  The. plane  was  dam- 
aged as  it  reached  the  water,  and  was  unable  to 
again  rise.  While  we  were  drifting  the  205  miles  in 
the  heavy  storm  the  high  seas  washed  over  or 
pounded  the  plane,  and  the  boat  began  to  leak.  So 
fast  did  the  water  enter  the  boat  that  the  members 
of  the  crew  took  turns  in  bailing  the  hull  with  a 
small  hand-pump,  while  others  stood  on  the  wings 
in  order  to  keep  the  plane  in  balance.  Meanwhile 
we  were  steering  landward.  .  .  .  The  clearing  of 
the  weather  proved  only  temporar\;,  for  later  a 
storm  came  up  and  continued  for  4S  hours  With 
both  lower  wings  wrecked,  and  pontoons  lost,  and 
the  hull  leaking,  and  the  tail  of  the  machine  dam- 
aged, the  plane  was  tossed  about  like  a  cork 
In  order  to  conserve  the  remaining  470  gallons 
of  fuel  we  decided  to  'sail'  landward,  hoping 
to  sight  a  destroyer  on  the  way.  But  we  dici  not 
pass  a  single  ship  until  we  reached  Ponta  Delgada 


not  meet  with  any  trouble  until  we  got  into 
fog  at  11:10  .\.M.  Saturday,  when  we  were  near 
Station  18.  .After  being  in  the  fog  for  some  time 
we  alighted  on  the  water  at  1:10  P.  M  Satur 
day.  We  kept  to  our  course  until  we  struck  the 
fog,  when  we  lost  our  bearings.  We  deemed 
it  advisable  to  head  into  the  winci,  toward 
land,  to  get  our  bearings  before  proceeding.  We 
were  then  flying  about  3,000  fret  up.  We  dropped 
to  fifty  feet  in  order  to  sight  water,  and  found 
that  the  wind  was  in  a  different  direction  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  than  it  v.'as  above,  and 
also  that  the  fog  was  more  dense  at  the  lower 
altitude  We  made  a  good  landing  oi.  the  sea, 
which  was  rough  and  choppy  with  heavy  swells. 
The  strong  wind  continued  until  we  were  picked 
up.  At  6  P  M.  (Greenwich  tim'^').,  we  sighted 
the  masts  of  the  Ionia  on  its  way  to  Fayal  and 
Gibraltar  above  the  horizon.  We  were  unable 
to  see  the  hull  of  the  Ionia,  and,  as  she  did  not 
have  wireless,  we  w'"'e  unable  to  communicate 
with    her.      We   therelore   started   taxying   toward 


770 


AVIATION 


Imporlant  Flightx 
Transatlantic 


AVIATION 


her.  About  this  time  the  loiiia  sighted  us,  and 
lowered  a  boat  which  picked  us  up  at  6:20  P.M. 
Our  position  when  we  were  picked  up  was  lati- 
tude 3g  degrees  58  minutes  north,  longitude  30 
degrees  15  minutes  west.  We  tried  to  sal- 
vage the  plane,  but  the  towlings  of  the  Ionia 
broke  and  we  were  forced  to  give  up  the  at- 
tempt. We  were  rescued  with  difficulty  because 
the  small  boat  of  the  Ionia  was  tossed  about 
like  a  cork.  All  of  us  were  seasick,  otherwise 
we  did  not  suffer.  We  sent  out  SOS  calls  after 
landing,  but  the  radio  sending  radius  was  only 
fifty  miles  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  While 
awaiting  rescue  we  intercepted  messages  between 
destroyers.  ...  If  the  fog  had  not  been  so  thick 
we  could  have  continued  to  Ponta  Delgada.    Our 


days  that  the  aviators  were  lost.  From  the 
destroyer  to  which  Hawker  and  Grieve  were 
transferred  off  the  Scottish  coast,  the  former  sent 
this  brief  report  to  the  Daily  Mail:  "My  ma- 
chine stopped  owing  to  the  water  filter  in  the 
feed  pipe  from  the  radiator  to  the  water  pump 
being  blocked  with  refuse,  such  as  solder  and  the 
like,  shaking  loose  in  the  radiator.  It  was  no 
fault  of  the  Rolls-Royce  motor,  which  ran  abso- 
lutely perfect  from  start  to  finish,  even  when 
all  the  water  had  boiled  away.  We  had  no  trouble 
in  landing  on  the  sea,  where  we  were  picked  up 
by  the  tramp  ship  Mary,  after  being  in  the  water 
for  ninety  minutes."  It  was  officially  announced 
by  the  admiralty  that  the  aviators  were  picked 
up   in   latitude   50°    20',   longitude   29°   30'.     The 


VICKERSVIMY   PLANE  AS   IT  LANDED   AT  CLIFDEN,   IRELAND.   AFTER  CROSSING  FROM 

NEWFOUNDLAND 
Aviators,  Alcock  and   Brown 


engines  worked  splendidy  throughout.  The  average 
altitude  of  the  flight  was  between  500  and  3,500 
feet." — New  York  Times  Current  History,  July, 
iqiq,  pp.   103-104. 

May. — Hawker's  attempted  Atlantic  flight. — On 
May  19,  Harry  Hawker  and  Lieut. -Commander 
Mackenzie  Grieve,  two  British  aviators,  started 
from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  to  make  a  direct 
flight  to  Ireland.  They  flew  fourteen  and  a  half 
hours,  and  although  swept  off  their  course  they 
were  able  to  lake  their  bearings  when  radiator 
trouble  compelled  them  to  make  a  descent. 
Shortly  before  this  became  imperative,  they  steered 
for  the  shipping  route,  over  which  they  zigzagged 
and  finally  descended  upon  the  water  about  two 
miles  in  front  of  the  Danish  ship  Mary,  which 
picked  them  up.  ,'\s  the  Mary  was  not  fitted 
with  wireless  apparatus  na  news  of  the  rescue 
could  be  transmitted,  and  it  was  feared  for  some 


airplane,  badly  battered,  was  brought  in  a  few 
days  later  by  a  vessel  that  had  picked  it  up. 
On  July  12,  IQ2I,  Hawker  was  killed  at  Hendon, 
when  his  machine  crashed  to  earth  and  burst  into 
flames. 

June. — First  continous  transatlantic  flight. — 
"The  great  achievement  of  flying  across  the 
.Atlantic  Ocean  without  a  single  stop  was  ac- 
complished for  the  first  time  June  14-15,  iQio. 
by  Captain  John  .Alcock  and  Lieutenant  .Arthur 
W.  Brown,  one  an  Englishman,  the  other  an 
American,  when  they  covered  the  i,q8o  miles  be- 
tween Newfoundland  and  Ireland  in  16  hours  and  ' 
12  minutes  at  a  speed  of  120  miles  an  hour.  The 
night  of  June  14-15  thus  became  a  permanent 
landmark  in  the  history  of  the  conquest  of  the 
air." — New  York  Times  Current  History,  .luly, 
iqio. — Describing  the  experiences  of  himself  and 
Lieutenant   Brown,   Captain  .Mcock,   in   a  message 


771 


AVIATION 


importani  Flights! 
Transatlantic 


AVIATION 


from  Galway  to  the  London  Daily  Mail,  which 
awarded  them  the  $50,000  prize  fur  making  the 
first  non-stop  tlight  across  the  Atlantic  between 
Europe  and  America,  said:  "We  had  a  terrible 
journey.  The  wonder  is  that  we  are  here  at  all. 
We  scarcely  saw  the  sun  or  moon  or  stars.  For 
hours  we  saw  none  of  Ihem.  The  fog  was  dense, 
and  at  times  we  had  to  descend  within  300  feet 
of  the  sea.  For  four  hours  our  machine  was 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  ice  carried  by  frozen 
sleet.  At  another  time  the  fog  was  so  dense 
that  my  speed  indicator  did  not  work,  and  for 
a  few  minutes  it  was  alarming.  We  looped  the 
loop,  I  do  believe,  and  did  a  steep  spiral.  We  did 
some  comic  stunt?,  for  I  have  had  no  sense  of 
horizon.  The  winds  were  favorable  all  the  way, 
northwest,  and  at  times  southwest.  We  said  in 
Newfoundland  that  we  could  do  the  trip  in  six- 
teen hours,  but  we  never  thought  we  should.  An 
hour  and  a  half  before  we  saw  land  we  had 
no  certain  idea  where  we  were,  but  we  believed 
we   were  at  Galway   or  thereabouts.     Our  delight 


17,  igig,  when  the  airplane  which  he  was  driving 
crashed  to  earth  at  Cote  d'Evrard,  about  twenty- 
live  miles  north  of  Rouen,  France.  He  was  twenty- 
seven    years    old. 

Julv.— f!>5(  dirigible  flight  across  Atlantic. — 
The  British  dirigible  R-34,  «'i'h  thirty  (plus  a 
stowaway)  on  board,  commanded  by  Major  G.  H. 
Scott,  left  East  Fortune,  near  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, at  2  A.  M.  on  July  2,  crossed  the  .Atlantic 
making  deviations  over  Newfoundland  and  Nova 
Scotia,  and  landed  at  Mitieola,  N.  Y.  at  g  A.  M.  on 
Sunday,  July  6.  The  voyage  took  loS  hours,  twelve 
minutes;  the  distance  covered  was  3,521  miles.  On 
July  10  the  airship  started  on  the  return  voyage, 
and  after  circling  New  York  city  recrossed  the 
Atlantic  and  arrived  safely  at  Pulham,  Norfolk,  in 
seventy-five  hours,  having  maintained  constant 
wireless  communication  with  land  en  route,  thus 
rounding  out  one  of  the  greatest  achievements 
in  the  history  of  transatlantic  travel.  Among  those 
who  made  the  first  voyage  was  a  representative 
of    the   United   Stales   naval   air   service   and   two 


IlRITISll   DIRIGIBLE,  R-.u 
At  Mineola,  Long  Islaiul.  N.  Y.,  after  its  transatlantic  flight 


In  seeing  Eastal  Island  and  Tarbot  Island,  live 
miles  west  of  Clifden,  was  great.  The  people 
did  not  know  who  we  were,  and  thought  we  were 
scouts  looking  for  .Alcock.  We  encountered  no 
unforeseen  conditions.  We  did  not  suffer  from 
cold  or  exhaustion,  except  when  looking  over  the 
side ;  then  the  sleet  chewed  bits  out  of  our 
faces.  We  drank  coffee  and  ale,  and  ate  sand- 
wiches and  chocolate.  Our  flight  has  shown  that 
ihe  .Mlantic  flight  is  practicable,  but  I  think  it 
-hould  be  done,  not  with  an  aeroplane  or  sea- 
plane, but  with  flyiii^'-boats.  We  had  plenty  of 
reserve  fuel  left,  using  only  two-thirds  of  our 
supply.  The  only  thing  that  upset  me  w.is  to 
see  the  machine  at  the  end  get  damaged.  From 
above  the  bog  looked  like  a  lovely  field,  but  the 
machine  sank  into  it  to  the  axle,  and  fell  over 
un  her  side." — E.  J.  David,  Aircraft,  pp.  201-202. 
— The  machine  u.sed  in  this  flight  was  a  \ickers- 
Vimy  biplane  and  the  total  time  occupied  for  the 
voyage  was  sixteen  hours  and  twelve  minutes. 
The  aviators  received  the  $50,000  prize  offered 
by  the  Daily  Mail  and  both  were  knighted  by  the 
king.  Sir  John  Mcork  lived  to  enjoy  his  triumph 
for   only   six   months,   for   he   was  killed   on    Dec 


officers  representing  the  British  air  ministry.— 
"The  R-34  and  her  sister  dirigible,  the  R-33,  were 
constructed  by  the  British  Government  both  for 
naval  scouting  and  for  bombing  German  cities. 
The  R-34  is  672  feet  long,  and  79  feet  in  diameter 
at  her  greatest  girth.  From  the  top  of  the  cigar- 
shaped  bag  to  the  lower  point  of  her  five  gondolas 
she  measures  about  go  feel.  But  it  is  well  to 
bear  in  mind  at  this  point  that  the  R-34  is  by 
no  means  the  largest  dirigible  in  the  world ;  the 
Germans,  at  this  moment,  have  larger  Zeppelins 
in  the  air,  and  the  British  still  larger  rigid  dirigibles 
pretty  well  under  way.  Under  the  cigar-shaped 
bag  of  the  R-34  are  suspended  the  four  gondolas 
that  carry  the  crew  while  on  active  duty,  as 
well  as  the  five  engines.  The  forward  gondola 
contains  the  navigating  quarters,  wireless  station, 
and  an  engine  The  other  engines  are  disposed 
in  the  following  manner:  One  engine  in  each  of 
Ihe  gondolas  amidship,  and  two  in  the  gondola  aft, 
a  propeller  being  provided  for  each  engine  with 
the  exception  of  the  rear  gondola,  which  has  but 
one  propeller  for  Ihe  two  engines.  The  engines 
are  of  the  Sunbeam  Maori  type,  each  develop- 
ing   250-275    horse-power,    and    with    a    speed    of 


772 


AVIATION 


Important  Flights 


AVIATION 


2,500  revolutions  per  minute,  enabling  the  airship 
to  make  some  70  miles  an  hour  under  favorable 
conditions.  However,  under  ordinary  circumstances 
the  engines  are  not  operated  at  full  speed,  and 
the  airship  cruises  along  at  about  50  miles  an 
hour  in  fairly  still  air.  .  .  .  The  lifting  power  of 
the  R-J4  is  obtained  from  19  gas  bags  contained 
within  the  dur-alumin  skeleton,  which  is  covered 
with  a  taut  fabric  skin.  Each  gas  bag  is  placed 
in  a  compartment  and  separated  from  its  neighbors 
by  netting,  in  order  to  prevent  rubbing ;  and  a 
valve  fastened  to  each  gas  bag  and  controlled  by 
hand  wheels  or  wires  from  the  navigating  quar- 
ters up  forward  permits  gas  to  be  released  from 
any  bag  at  will,  in  order  to  regulate  the  buoyancy 
and  trim." — ■Scientific  American,  July  iq,  iqig, 
pp.  58-66. — "The  story  of  the  actual  flight  across 
the  Atlantic,  as  told  by  the  informal  log  kept 
by  General  Maitland  and  other  officers,  was  not 
particularly  eventful.  The  most  difficult  moment 
after  departure  was  in  crossing  the  hills  of  Scot- 
land; owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  petrol  carried 
(almost  5,000  gallons,  weighing  15.8  tons)  the 
dirigible  had  to  fly  low,  and  at  the  same  time 
pass  over  Northern  Scotland,  where  the  hills  in 
places  rise  to  a  height  of  3.000  feet.  The  wind 
here  was  broken  up  into  violent  currents  and  air 
pockets.  The  most  disturbed  conditions  were  met 
in  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde,  sxjuth  of  Loch  Lomond, 
which,  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  looked 
particularly  beautiful  in  the  gray  dawn  light.  The 
islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde  were 
quickly  passed.  The  north  coast  of  Ireland  ap- 
peared for  a  time,  and  soon  faded  from  view  as 
the  R-34  headed  out  into  the  Atlantic.  Most 
of  the  day-by-day  log  following  the  description 
of  this  first  stage  of  the  journey  was  taken  up  by 
cloud  observations,  color  effects,  accounts  of  wire- 
less exchanges,  and  of  sleeping  and  eating  ar- 
rangements. Icebergs  were  sighted  toward  New- 
foundland. A  message  of  congratulation  from 
the  Governor  of  Newfoundland  was  received. 
.\nxieties  consequent  on  the  serious  depletion  of 
the  fuel  supply  marked  the  last  stages  of  the 
journey.  Immediately  after  the  news  [of  arrival 
in  America]  had  been  officially  received,  Secretary 
Daniels  sent  this  message  of  congratulation: 
'Major  G.  H.  Scott,  Commanding  the  R-34:  The 
.American  Navy  extends  its  greetings  to  you  and 
the  heroic  crew  of  the  R-34,  and  congratulates 
you  on  the  success  of  your  great  flight  across 
the  ocean.  The  arrival  in  .America  of  the  first 
lighter-than-air  craft  to  cross  the  .Atlantic  marks 
another  decided  advance  in  the  navigation  of  the 
air.  Coming  so  soon  after  the  flights  of  Read, 
Alcock,  and  Hawker,  it  completes  a  remarkable 
series  of  achievements  in  aviation  in  which  Brit- 
ish and  Americans  may  take  a  just  pride,  and 
which  have  served  to  increase  the  cordial  rela- 
tions and  comradeship  of  the  two  navies  which 
have  prevailed  throughout  the  war.  .America  joins 
with  the  British  in  honoring  you  and  the  service 
you  represent.  Josephus  Daniels.' " — New  York 
Times  Current  History,  Atig.  iqiq,  p.  257. — "For 
more  than  300  years  after  the  crossinr'  of  the 
.Atlantic  by  Columbus,  wind  power  remained  the 
sole  means  for  propelling  ships  across  the  ocean 
until  in  i8iq  the  Savannah,  an  .American  steam- 
ship of  350  tons,  with  a  length  of  100  feet,  crossed 
from  Savannah,  Georgia,  to  Liverpool  in  twenty- 
five  days.  The  Savannah,  however,  was  also  pro- 
vided with  sails.  The  first  real  steam  transit  was 
effected  by  the  Sirius  and  the  Great  Western,  both 
in  April,  1838,  in  eighteen  and  fifteen  days  re- 
spectively. Just  100  years  after  the  sailing  of  the 
Savannah  three  successful  flights  were  made  across 
the    Atlantic,    one    by    the    American    hydroplane 


NC-4,  another  by  the  British  biplane  of  Alcock 
and  Brown,  the  third  by  the  giant  British  dirigible 
R-34. — New  York  Times  Current  History,  Aug., 
igiq,  p.  254. — In  its  seventy-fifth  anniversary 
number,  October  2,  iq20,  the  Scientific  American, 
p.  338,  states:  "The  Burton  family,  encircling  the 
fireside,  read  with  unconcealed  wonder  the  ac- 
count of  a  hollow  globe  of  oiled-silk  filled  with 
hydrogen  gas,  thus  giving  it  a  sufficient  buoyancy 
to  travel  through  the  air.  And  they  marveled 
still  more  at  the  spindle-shaped  saloon,  suspended 
beneath  the  balloon,  carrying  5,000  pounds  of 
passengers  and  luggage.  Twenty-five  passengers  in 
a  balloon  traveling  at  100  miles  per  hour!  What 
of  it  ?  Nothing  alarming  or  startling,  in  view 
of  our  present-day  achievements.  But  the  fore- 
going facts  were  being  read  in  the  Scientific  Ameri- 
can of  September  i8th,  1845.  .  .  .  For  (in  igig) 
the  R-34  in  108  hours  traveled  6,300  air  miles 
from  East  Fortune,  Scotland  to  Mineola,  Long 
Island,  due  to  adverse  winds.  And  on  the  pas- 
senger list  were  thirty  officers  and  men,  and  a 
stowaway !" 

August. — A  Caproni  airplane  was  wrecked  on 
Aug.  2,  when  all  its  fourteen  occupants — princi- 
pally newspaper  editors — were  killed.  The  giant 
Caproni  airplane  is  an  Italian  production.  It 
was  reported  in  igiq  that  Signor  Caproni  would 
be  a  competitor  for  the  "blue  ribbon"  of  trans- 
atlantic flight,  and  not  a  few  American  news- 
papers hailed  with  enthusiasm  the  prospect  of 
an  Italian  making  the  first  voyage  by  air  to  the 
new  world  which  his  compatriot  Columbus  had 
laboriously  reached  by  water  427  years  before. 

October. — American  trans-continental  race. — 
The  War  Department  organized  a  reliability  race 
across  the  continent,  which  opened  on  Oct.  8. 
Sixty-two  army  aviators  started  from  New  York 
or  San  Francisco  on  a  round  flight.  The  con- 
test was  won  by  Lieut.  B.  W.  Maynard,  who 
covered  5,400  miles  in  net  flying  time  of  sixty- 
seven    hours,   three    minutes,   forty   seconds. 

1919-1920.— Capt.  Ross  Smith  and  Lieut.  K.  M. 
Smith,  with  three  mechanics,  flew  a  Vickers-Rolls- 
Royce  two-engine  airplane  from  London  to  Aus- 
tralia, starting  on  Nov.  12  and  arriving  at  Mel- 
bourne on  Feb.  25,  rg2o.  This  feat  won  the  $50,- 
000  prize  offered  by  the  .Australian  government 
for  the  first  airplane  flight  from  Great  Britain 
to  Australia.  British  airplane  flight  from  London 
to  Karachi,  5,200  miles. 

1920  (January). — Lieutenants  H.  Parer  and  J. 
Mcintosh  started  from  London  on  Jan.  8,  1920,  and 
reached  Port  Darwin  (Northern  territory,  Aus- 
tralia), after  remarkable  adventures  on  August   2. 

February. — Lieut.Col.  P.  Van  Ryneveld  and 
Flight-Lieut.  C.  J.  Q.  Brand,  with  two  mechanics, 
started  from  Brooklands  (near  London)  on  Febru- 
ary 4  to  fly  to  the  Cape.  Their  machine  was 
wrecked  at  Korosko,  Egypt;  they  returned  to  Cairo, 
secured  another  machine,  in  which  they  reached 
Buluwayo,  Rhodesia,  where  they  were  again 
smashed  up.  A  third  machine  was  secured,  with 
which  they  reached  the  Cape  on  March  20. 

Captains  Cockerell  and  Broome,  pilots,  accom- 
panied by  Dr.  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell,  the  zoologist, 
and  two  mechanics,  flew  from  England  February  6 
in  an  attempt  to  reach  the  Cape.  The  machine 
crashed  at  Tabora,  in  the  Kenya  Protectorate 
(former  German  East  Africa). 

Two  Italian  airplanes,  piloted  by  Lieutenants 
Masiero  and  Ferrari,  ascended  from  Rome  on  Feb- 
ruary 12  and  arrived  at  Tokyo  on  May  30. 

December  12. — Sadi  Lecointe  breaks  world's 
speed  record  in  France  (Dec.  12,  1920),  flying  two- 
and-a-half  miles  in  46  seconds,  or  198  miles  an  hour 

1921  (March).— A   United  States  naval   balloon 


77i 


AVICENNA 


AXELBORG  BANK 


piloted  by  G.  K.  Wilkinson  ot  Houston,  Tcxa?, 
accompanied  by  four  student  pilots,  ascended  from 
the  Pensacola  naval  station  on  March  22.  Two 
days  later  carrier  pigeons  released  from  the  bal- 
loon brought  messages  saying  that  the  balloon  was 
sinking  and  drifting  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Nothing  further  was  learnt  about  the  missing  men, 
and  on  April  8  the  balloon  was  picked  up  drifting 
in  the  gulf  by  a  fishing  boat,  which  brought  the 
wreck  to  Panama  city,  Florida.  No  trace  of  the 
crew   was  found. 

Also  in:  H.  Tumour,  Astra  Casira,  experiments 
and  adventures  in  the  atmosphere  (London.  1865). 

T.    Forster,   Annals    of   some    remarkahle   aerial 

and  Alpine  voyages  (London.  1832).— J.  Wise, 
System  of  aeronautics,  comprehending  its  earliest 
htvesligaiians  (Philadelphia.  1850). — W.  de  Fon- 
vielle,  Histoire  de  la  navigation  aerienne  (Paris, 
1007). ^F.  Walker.  Aerial  navigation  (London, 
1902). — O.  Lilienthal,  Der  Vogelfliig  als  Grundlage 
der  Fliege  Ktinst  (Berlin,  1880;  Eng.,  1911). — 
Santos  Dumont,  My  airships  (New  York,  1Q04). 
—.\.  Hildebrandt,  iirships  past  and  present  (New 
York,  IQ08). — C.  C.  Turner,  Aerial  navigation  of 
to-day  (London.  lOop). — F.  T.  Bedell,  Aeroplane 
characteristics  (Ithaca.  N.  Y.,  1Q18). — Capt.  V.  W. 
Page.  A.  B.  C.  of  aviation  (New  York,  iqig). — 
.\.  Berget,  Conquest  of  the  air  (igoq). — ".\vion," 
Aeroplanes  and  aero  engines  (1018). — H.  D.  Hazel- 
tine,  Law  of  the  air  (iqii). — E.  N.  Pales,  Learn- 
ing to  fly  in  the  U.  S.  army  (igi?). — C.  B.  Hay- 
ward,  Practical  aviation  ((Thicago,  loio). — G.  C. 
Loening,  Military  aeroplanes  (Boston.  iot6). — H. 
Woodhouse.  Text  book  of  military  aeron-autics 
(igi8)  ;  Idem.,  Text  book  of  naval  aeronautics 
(1917). — Col.  J.  G.  Vincent.  Xext  sirps  in  com- 
mercial aviation  (Xew  York  Times  Book  Review, 
March  13,  ig2i). 

.AxxuALS. — F.  T.  Jane.  All  the  world's  aircraft. 
— Flying  Book  (London). — Brassey's  Saval  An- 
nual.—.iircra  ft  Year  Book.—Jl.  B.  Mathews,  Avi- 
ation Pocket  Book. — .innuario  dcll'.ieronautica 
(Milan). 

AVICENNA  (080-1037).  .\rabian  philosopher. 
See  B.^cd.\d:  763-833. 

AVIGNON,  French  town,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhone,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  it  was  part  of  the  Burgundian 
kingdom.     See  Bt'RGUNnv:   S43-g33. 

1226. — Siege  by  Louis  VIII.  Sec  .\lbigenses: 
1217-1229. 

1309-1348. — Made  the  scat  of  the  papacy. — 
Purchase  of  the  city  by  Clement  V.  See 
Christi.axity:  Decline  of  papacy;  and  Pap.\cy: 
1204-1348. 

1367-1369. — Temporary  return  of  Urban  V  to 
Rome.     Sec  Papacy:   1352-137S 

1377-1417.— Return  of  Pope  Gregory  XI  to 
Rome. — Residence  of  the  anti-popes  of  the 
great  schism.     See  Papacy:    M77-1417. 

1687-1689. — Taken  and  surrendered  by  French. 
See  Pap.^cy:    1682-1603. 

1790-1791. — Revolution  and  anarchy. — Atroci- 
ties committed. — Reunion  with  France  decreed. 
See   Franxe:    1700-1791. 

1797. — Surrendered  to  France  by  the  pope. 
See  Ffanxe:   1706-1707  (October  April) 

1815. — Possession  by  France  confirmed.  See 
Vienna.  Congress   or. 

AVILA,  Pedratias  d'  (Davila,  Pedrarias)  (c 
1440-1530),  Spanish  agent  in  America.  Sec 
Colombia:   1449-1536. 

AVILES,  Pedro  Men^ndez  de  (i5io-iS74)- 
Founding  of  St.  .Augustine  for  Spain.  See 
Florioa:    1564-156,5;;    1565. 

AVION,  the  French  word  for  a  military 
aeroplane. 


AVION ES. — "The  .\vi0ne5  were  a  Suevic  clan. 
They  are  mentioned  by  Tacitus  in  connexion  with 
the  Reudigni.  .^ngli,  Varini.  Eudoses,  Suardones 
and  Nuithones.  all  Suevic  clans.  These  tribes  must 
have  occupied  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz  and  Sleswick-Holstein  the  Elbe 
being  their  Eastern  boundary.  It  is,  however, 
impossible  to  define  their  precise  localities." 
—A.  J.  Church  and  W.  J.  Brodi'bb,  Minor 
works  of  Tacitus,  geographical  notes  to  the 
Germany. 

AVIS,   House    of.     See   Portugal:    1383-1385- 

AVIS,  Knights  of.— This  is  a  Portuguese  mili- 
tary-religious order  which  originated  about  1147 
during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  and  which  for- 
merly observed  the  monastic  rule  of  St.  Benedict. 
It  became  connected  with  the  order  of  Calatrava 
in  Spain  and  received  from  the  latter  its  prop- 
erty in  Portugal.  Pope  Paul  III  united  the  grand 
mastership  to  the  crown  of  Portugal. — F.  C.  Wood- 
house,  Military  religious  orders,  pt.  4. — See  also 
Portugal:    1095-1325. 

AVITUS,  Marcus  Mjecilius,  Roman  emperor 
(Western),  455-456;  waged  wars  against  the  Huns 
and  Vandals ;  fourteen  months  after  accession  was 
deposed  bv  Ricimer.  See  Rome:  Empire:  455- 
476. 

AVKSENTIEV,  Nicolai,  Russian  anti-Bol- 
shevik leader,  head  of  a  new  .\1I-Russian  g.;vern- 
mcnt  set  up  at  Ufa  in  1017.  See  Russia:  1918- 
1020. 

AVLONA,  or  Valona,  a  town  and  seaport 
in  what  was  formerly  the  Turkish  vilayet  of 
Janina,  .Albania ;  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
struggle  between  the  Normans  and  the  Byzantines 
and  also  during  the  World  War.  when  at  the 
very  outset,  an  Italian  expedition  crossed  the  Strait 
of  Otranto  and  seized  the  town.  ".\  more  cer- 
tain territorial  loss  to  .Mbania  is  that  of  the  port 
of  .Aviona,  which  Italy  occupied  in  1914,  and 
which  she  assuredly  will  be  allowed  to  keep.  .After 
all,  her  posse  sion  of  it  is  no  more  unnatural  than 
England's  position  at  Gibraltar  or  our  own  at 
Panama." — C.  H.  Haskins  and  R.  H.  Lord,  Some 
problems  of  the  Peace  Conference,  p.  281. — The 
town  has  since  been  definitely  assigned  to  Italy,  the 
remainder  of  .Mbania  being  independent. — See  also 
World  War:  1914:  III.  Balkans:  e;  also  Balkan 
States:  Map. 

AVOCOURT,  a  town  in  the  department  of 
Ihc  Meusc.  France,  ten  miles  northwest  of  \'erdun ; 
was  attacked  durinc  the  World  War  by  the  Ger- 
mans in  a  drive  against  \'crdun  (1916).  The  at- 
tack upon  the  town  proved  unavailing  and  this 
part  of  the  French  line  before  Verdun  remained 
intact. — Sec  also  World  War:  1917:  II.  Western 
front:  f ,  1 ;  f.  2. 

AVOGADRO,  Amedeo,  Conte  Di  Quaregna 
(1776-1856).  Italian  physicist.  Publbhed  many 
important  physical  memoirs  on  electricity,  specific 
heats,  capillary  attraction,  atomic  volumes,  etc.  He 
is  known  chiefly,  however,  through  the  hypothesis 
bearing  his  name  (.Avogadro's  hypothesis),  that 
under  like  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure, 
equal  volumes  of  all  gases  contain  the  same  num- 
ber of  molecules. — See  also  Chemistry:  Modem: 
Lavoisier. 

AVOLD,  Battle  of  (1870).  See  France:  1870 
(July-.August). 

AVRE,  tributary  of  the  Somme,  southeast  of 
Amiens,  the  region  of  fighting  in  iqi8.  See  World 
War:  1918:  II.  Western  front:  c,  29;  d,  3. 

AVVIM,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
west   corner    of    Canaan,    from    which    they    were 
driven   by   the  Philistines. — H.   Ewald,  History   of 
Israel,  hk.  1.  sect.  4. 
AXELBORG  BANK.    See  Housing:  Denmark. 


774 


AXUM 


AZORES 


AXUM,  kinKci(im  of.  Sec  Abyssinia:  Embraced 
ill   ancient    Ethiopia;    and   Arabia:    Sabacans. 

AYACUCHO,  a  small  plain  in  the  valley  of 
the  Vcnda-Mayu  streamlet,  Peru,  midway  be- 
tween Lima  and  Cuzco,  where  on  December  g, 
1824,  a  victory  corresponding  to  the  American 
victory  at  Yorktown,  was  won  by  the  revolution- 
ary army  of  South  America  under  General  Sucre, 
thereby  securing  the  independence  of  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies. — See  also  Bolivia:  1809-1825; 
Peru:  1820-1826. 

AYETTE,  a  village  in  France,  south  of  Arras. 
It  was  seized  by  the  Germans  and  recaptured  by  the 
British  in  1918.  See  World  War:  iqi8:  II.  West- 
ern front:  c,  26;   c,  28. 

AYLESBURY  ELECTION  CASE.  See  Eng- 
land:   170^. 

AYLESFORD,  Battle  of  (455).— The  first  bat- 
tle fought  and  won  by  the  invading  Jutes  after 
their  landing  in  Britain  under  Hengest  and  Horsa. 
It  was  fought  at  the  lowest  ford  of  the  river 
Medwav.     Sec  England:   440-473. 

AYLJESWORTH,  Allen  Bristol  {1854-  ),  Chief 
Justice  of  England.  On  Alaskan  Boundary  ques- 
tion, see  Alaskan  Boundary  question:  1869-1908: 
Basis  of  dispute. 

AYLLON,  Lucas  Vasquez  de  (1475-1526), 
exploration  bv.    See  .America:   I5iq-i52i;. 

AYLMER,  Sir  Arthur  Percy  Fitzgerald 
(1858-  ),  British  general.  He  was  in  immedi- 
ate command  of  the  forces  trying  to  relieve  Gen- 
eral Townshend,  who  was  besieged  in  Kut-el- 
Amara.  See  World  War:  iqi6:  VI.  Turkish  the- 
ater: 9;  a,  1;  a,  1,  iii. 

AYMARAS.  See  Peru:  Paternal  despotism  of 
the  Incas. 

AYMERICH,  General,  French  commander  in 
Cameroons.  See  World  War:  1915:  Vlll.  Africa: 
c,  1;  c,  3. 

AYOUBITE,  or  Ayyubite,  dynasty.  See 
Saladin,  Empire  of. 

1192. — Its  description.  See  Crusades:  Mili- 
tary  aspect   of   the  crusades. 

AYUB  KHAN  (1855-  ),  Afghan  prince, 
youngest  son  of  Shcre  All  and  brother  of  Yakub 
Khan.  Besieged  Kandahar  in  1880;  defeated  by 
General  Roberts;  finally  surrendered  to  the  Brit- 
ish in  1887. 

AYUN  KARA,  a  town  of  Palestine,  south  of 
Jaffa,  occupied  by  the  British  (1917).  See  World 
War:   1917:  VI.  Turkish  theater:   c,  2,  iv. 

AYUNTAMIENTO,  a  Spanish  political  in- 
stitution originating  in  the  Middle  Ages,  resembling 
the  board  of  aldermen  or  common  council  of 
an  American  city.  The  ayuntamientos  were  munic- 
ipal legislatures  possessing  somewhat  different  au- 
thority at  different  times  and  places.  [See  Cuba: 
TQOi  (January).]  In  modern  Spain,  every  com- 
mune has  its  elected  ayuntamiento,  which  since 
January,  iqi8,  is  charged  with  the  entire  munic- 
ipal  government,   including    taxation. 

AYUR  VEDA.  See  Medical  science:  Ancient: 
Hindu. 

AYUTHIA.     See  Siam:    1351-1782. 

AZEF,  Evno  (c.  1871-  ),  Russian  political- 
police  agent.  See  Russiq:  1905  (January)  ;  1909- 
1911. 

AZERBAIJAN,  or  Aderbaijan,  a  province  of 
northwestern  Persia  (anciently  called  Atropatene), 
separated  from  Russia  on  the  north  by  the  Aras 
river  (see  Map  of  Russia  and  the  new  border 
states).  The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  adjoining 
part  of  Transcaucasia  which  in  1918  was  proclaimed 
an  independent  republic  with  the  great  oil  port  of 
Baku  on  the  Caspian  as  its  capital.  [See  Baku.] 
Azerbaijan  was  recognized  by  some  but  not  all  of 
the  Powers.    Part  of  Persia  was  also  claimed  by  this 


Mohammedan  republic.  In  1920  the  Russian  Soviet 
government  gained  control. 

1050-1063. — Overrun  by  Turkish  army.  See 
Turkey:   1004-1063. 

1604. — Under  control  of  Abbas  the  Great  of 
Persia.     See  Bagdad:  1393-1638. 

1915. — Operations  of  Russia  against  Turks 
and  Persians.  See  World  War:  1915:  VII.  Persia 
and  Germany. 

1918-1920. — Republic  formed.  See  C.mjcasus: 
1918-1920. 

1919-1920. — Relations  with  Georgian  republic. 
See  Georgia,  Republic  of:  1919-1920. 

1920. — Free  passage  to  Black  sea  granted.  See 
Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1920:  Part  XI:  Ports,  water- 
ways and  railways. 

1921. — Extent  of  territory.  See  Europe:  Mod- 
ern:  Political  map  of  Europe. 

AZEV.     Sec  Azov. 

AZINCOURT.     See  .\gincourt. 

AZIZIEH,  or  Aziziyeh,  a  village  in  Mesopo- 
tamia in  the  Tigris  valley  fifty  miles  above  Kut-al- 
Amara.  See  World  War:  ioiS:  VI.  Turkey:  c; 
191 7:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  a,  1,  iii. 

AZO  DYES.  See  Chemistry:  Practical  ap- 
plication:  Dves:  Theoretical  investigation. 

AZOF.    See  Azov. 

AZORES,  an  archipelago  in  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
an  integral  part  of  the  republic  of  Portugal.  The 
name  (Portuguese  Agores,  hawks)  comes  from  the 
numerous  hawks  or  buzzards  once  common  there. 
These  islands  are  situated  between  the  37th  and 
40th  degrees  of  north  latitude.  They  comprise 
three  groups  rather  widely  separated.  At  the 
northwest  are  Corvo  and  Flores  about  1000  miles 
southeast  of  Newfoundland.  At  the  southeast  are 
St.  Michaels  and  St.  Mary  and  the  very  small 
island  of  Formigas.  Cape  da  Roca,  Portugal, 
the  nearest  point  on  the  continent,  is  over  800 
miles  distant,  while  the  nearest  part  of  the  Afri- 
can mainland  is  over  000  miles  away.  The  cen- 
tral group  of  islands  consists  of  Fayal,  Pico,  St. 
George,  Terceira  and  Graciosa.  "There  is  no 
evidence  that  the  Azores  were  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  but  many  Carthaginian  coins 
have  been  found  in  Corvo.  Arabian  geographers 
of  the  1 2th  and  14th  centuries  describe  islands 
in  the  Western  Ocean  beyond  the  Canaries.  These 
seem  to  have  been  the  Azores,  for  they  are  the 
same  in  number,  have  a  similar  climate  and  pos- 
sess many  hawks.  In  a  map  of  1351  these  islands 
fare  shown],  the  western  group  bearing  the  name 
Brazil  Island  the  southern  group  Goat  Islands  and 
the  middle  group  Wind  or  Dove  Islands.  In  that 
day  the  word  Brazil  meant  any  red  dye  stuff. 
[The  Portuguese  captain]  Gonzalo  Velho  Cabral 
reached  Santa  Maria  in  1432  and  St.  Michaels  in 
1434  land  laid  claim  to  the  islands].  By  1457 
the  other  islands  had  been  found.  {Between  1432- 
1461  Portuguese]  colonization  was  rather  rapid. 
So  many  Flemish  settlers  came  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  15th  century  that  the  islands  became  known 
as  the  Flemish  Islands.  The  inhabitants  of  Santa 
Maria  were  the  first  Europeans  to  receive  the 
news  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus, 
for  he  stopped  there  on  his  return  in  1493.  After 
the  discovery  of  Brazil  trading  vessels  from  .Amer- 
ica and  from  India  frequently  stopped  in  the 
Azores  and  many  sea-fights  for  valuable  cargoes 
took  place  there.  During  the  Elizabethan  period 
many  such  encounters  occurred.  One  of  these 
was  the  notable  fight  off  Flores  in  1591  between 
the  English  ship  'Revenge'  commanded  by  Sir 
Richard  Grenville  and  a  Spanish  fleet  of  over 
fifty  vessels.  In  the  i8th  cenliirv  the  British 
government  secured  from  the  Barbary  pirates  an 
immunity    which    enabled    her    American    colonies 


775 


AZOTUS 


AZTEC  INDIANS 


to  carry  on  a  large  trade  in  fish,  lumber  and  pro- 
visions to  the  Azores,  Madeira  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean."— Annual  report  of  the  American  his- 
torical association,  1908,  v.  i,  p.  120. — These 
islands  are  in  the  earthquake  belt  and  have  had 
many  severe  shocks.  The  emigration  from  the 
Azores  has  been  heavy.  There  are  about  100,000 
Azoreans  in  the  United  States.  Many  emigrants 
return  to  the  Azores.  Ponta  Delgada  on  St. 
Michael's,  the  largest  city,  had  17,600  inhabitants 
in  1919.  It  was  from  this  harbor  that  the  NC-4 
began  the  final  leg  of  its  epochal  transatlantic 
flight  [see  Avi,\tion;  Important  flights  since  iqoo: 
iQig  (May).]  At  one  time  Easter  lilies  were 
raised  for  the  export  trade.  An  agronomer's  sta- 
tion is  maintained  by  the  government  to  examine 
all  plants  brought  into  St.  Michael's.  This  is  be- 
cause the  lilies,  orange  trees  and  vineyards  were 
once  destroyed.  Many  pineapples  are  shipped  to 
England  and  much  wine  is  exported.  Lobsters  are 
exported,  and  dairy  products  are  important.  On 
Fayal  there  is  considerable  pottery  and  lace-mak- 
ing. The  inhabitants  of  St.  Michael's  are  ambitious 
to  make  their  island  a  famous  summer  and  winter 
resort.  The  Azores  were  a  naval  base  in  the 
World  War. — See  also  America:  Map  showing  voy- 
ages of  discovery. 

Also  in:  C.  W.  Furlong,  Two  mid-Atlantic 
islands  (Harper's  Magazine,  Nov.,  1Q16). — A.  T. 
Halberle,  Azores  (National  Geographic  Magazine, 
June,  iqiq).— W.  F.  Brown,  Azores  (1886).-— A.  S. 
Brown,  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands  'trith  the 
Azores   (looi). 

AZOTUS.    See  Syria:  B.  C.  64-63. 

AZOV,  a  fortified  town  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Don,  si.x  miles  from  the  sea  of  .-Xzov. 
It  is  an  important  Russian  sea  port  serving  as  the 
principal  outlet  for  southeastern  Russia.  The 
population  in  1013  was  about  27,000.  The  Greek 
colony  of  Tanais  located  near  the  present  site  of 
Azov   was  a   flourishing   mart   of   trade. 

B.  C.  115. — .Azov  was  conquered  by  Mithra- 
dates. 

A.  D.  10th  century. — It  fell  under  the  rule  of 
successive  Asiatic  tribes  until  captured  by  Vladimir 
I  of  Russia  in  the  tenth  century. 

13th  century. — Captured  by  the  Genoese. — 
During  this  period  it  was  strongly  fortified  by 
the  Genoese,  and  became  a  place  of  great  im- 
portance as  the  commercial  center  of  Indo-Chinese 
trade. 

1395. — Timur  captured  and  sacked  it. 

1471. — Turks  took  the  town  and  by  closing  the 
trade  routes  to  the  East  ruined  its  prosperitv. 

1696.— Taken  by  the  Russians.  See  Turkey: 
1684-1606. 

1699.— Controlled  by  Russia  through  Peace  of 
Carlowitz.     See  Hungary:    1683-160Q. 

1711.— Restoration  of  the  Turks.'  See  Sweden: 
1707-1718. 

1736-1739.— Captured  by  the  Russians.— Se- 
cured to  them  by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade.  See 
Russn:    1 734- 1 740. 

AZTEC,  American  vessel  sunk  April  i,  1917,  by 
German  submarine.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1017  (Februarv- 
.Aprin. 

AZTEC  AND  MAYA  PICTURE-WRITING. 
— "No  nation  ever  reduced  it  ( pictography  1  more 
to  a  system.  It  was  in  constant  use  in  the  daily 
transactions  of  life.  They  [the  Aztecsl  manu- 
factured for  writing  purposes  a  thick  coarse  paper 
from  the  leaves  of  the  agave  plant  by  a  process 
of  maceration  and  pres,sure.  An  .\ztec  book 
closely  resembles  one  of  our  quarto  volumes.  It 
is  made  of  a  single  sheet.  12  to  i^  inches  wide,  and 
often  60  or  70  feet  long,  and  is  not  rolled,  but 
folded  either  in  squares  or  zigzags  in  such  a  man- 


/ 


ner  that  on  opening  there  are  two  pages  bk- 
posed  to  view.  Thin  wooden  boards  are  fastened 
to  each  of  the  outer  leaves,  so  that  the  whole 
presents  as  neat  an  appearance,  remarks  Peter 
Martyr,  as  if  it  had  come  from  the  shop  of  a  skil- 
ful book-binder.  They  also  covered  buildings, 
ta[)estries  and  scrolls  of  parchment  with  these 
devices.  .  .  .  What  is  still  more  astonishing,  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  in  some  instances,  their  figures 
were  not  painted,  but  actually  printed  with  mov- 
able blocks  of  wood  on  which  the  symbols  were 
carved  in  relief,  though  this  was  probably  con- 
fined to  those  intended  for  ornament  only.  In 
these  records  we  discern  something  higher  than 
a  mere  symbolic  notation.  They  contain  the  germ 
of  a  phonetic  alphabet,  and  represent  sounds  of 
spoken  language.  The  symbol  is  often  not  con- 
nected with  the  idea,  but  with  the  word.  The 
mode  in  which  this  is  done  corresponds  pre- 
cisely to  that  of  the  rebus.  It  is  a  simple  method, 
readily  suggesting  itself.  In  the  middle  ages  it 
was  much  in  vogue  in  Europe  for  the  same  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  chiefly  employed  in  Mexico 
at  the  same  time — the  writing  of  proper  names. 
For  example,  the  English  family  Bolton  was 
known  in  heraldry  by  a  'tun'  transfixed  by  a  'bolt.' 
Precisely  so  the  Mexican  Emperor  Ixcoatl  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Aztec  manuscripts  under  the  figure 
of  a  serpent,  'coati,'  pierced  by  obsidian  knives, 
'ixtli.'  ...  As  a  syllable  could  be  expressed  by  any 
object  whose  name  commenced  with  it,  as  few 
words  can  be  given  the  form  of  a  rebus  without 
some  change,  as  the  figures  sometimes  represent 
their  full  phonetic  value,  sometimes  only  that  of 
their  initial  sound,  and  as  universally  the  atten- 
tion of  the  artist  was  directed  less  to  the  sound 
than  to  the  idea,  the  didactic  painting  of  the 
Mexicans,  whatever  it  might  have  been  to  them, 
is  a  sealed  book  to  us,  and  must  remain  so  in 
great  part.  .  .  .  Immense  masses  of  such  docu- 
rnents  were  stored  in  the  imperial  archives  of  an- 
cient Mexico.  Torquemada  asserts  that  five  cities 
alone  yielded  to  the  Spanish  governor  on  one 
requisition  no  less  than  16,000  volumes  or  scrolls! 
Every  leaf  was  destroyed.  Indeed,  so  thorough 
and  wholesale  was  the  destruction  of  these 
memorials,  now  so  precious  in  our  eyes,  that  hardly 
enough  remain  to  whet  the  wits  of  antiquaries. 
In  the  libraries  of  Paris,  Dresden,  Pesth,  and  the 
Vatican  are,  however,  a  sufficient  number  to  make 
us  despair  of  deciphering  them,  had  we  for  com- 
parison all  which  the  Spaniards  destroyed.  Beyond 
all  others  the  Mayas,  resident  on  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  would  seem  to  have  approached  near- 
est a  true  phonetic  system.  They  had  a  regular 
and  well  understood  alphabet  of  27  elementary 
sounds,  the  letters  of  which  arc  totally  different 
from  those  of  any  other  nation,  and  evidently 
originated  with  themselves.  But  besides  these 
they  used  a  large  number  of  purely  conventional 
symbols,  and  moreover  were  accustomed  constantly 
to  employ  the  ancient  pictographic  method  in  ad- 
dition as  a  sort  of  commentary  on  the  sound  rep- 
resented. .  .  .  With  the  aid  of  this  alphabet,  which 
has  fortunately  been  preserved,  we  are  enabled 
to  spell  out  a  few  words  on  the  Yucatan  manu- 
scripts and  faqades.  but  thus  far  with  no  posi- 
tive results.  The  loss  of  the  ancient  pronuncia- 
tion i.s  especially  in  the  way  of  such  studies.  In 
South  America,  also,  there  is  said  to  have  been 
a  nation  who  cultivated  the  art  of  picture-writing, 
the  Panos,  on  the  river  Ucayale." — D.  G.  Brinton, 
Myths  of  the  new  world,  ch.  i. — See  also  Alpha- 
bet: Early  stages;  Indians,  .Amxrican:  Cultural 
area  in  Mexico  and  Central  .America:  Mava  area. 

AZTEC    INDIANS,   a   group  of   semi-civilized 
tribes  of  central  and  southern  Mexico.     The  prin- 

76 


AZTEC   INDIANS 


BAALBEK 


dpal  trible  fixed  their  capital  at  Tenochtillan 
(Mexico  City)  and  gradually  conquered  all  of  the 
south,  founding  the  Mexican  Empire.  This 
flourished  for  about  two  centuries,  until  it  was 
overthrown  by  Cortez  in  the  i6th  century. — See 
also  America,  Prehistoric;  Indians,  American: 
Cultural  areas  in  Mexico  and  Central  America; 
Aztec  area ;  and  Mavas. 

Development  of  civilization. — Its  similarity 
to  Egyptian.  See  America:  Theory  of  a  land 
bridge. 


Religion.  See  Mythology:  Latin-American 
mythology:   Aztec  gods. 

Writing.  See  Aztec  and  Maya  picture  writ- 
ing. 

Empire. — Wars  against  Cortez  and  final 
conquest.  See  Mexico:  1325-1502;  1519  (Feb- 
ruary-April); iSiQ  (October);  1519-1520;  1520 
(June-July);  1520-1521;  1521  (May-July);  1521 
(-"Vugust)  ;  1521-1524. 

AZUL,  Party  of  the.  See  Paraguay:  1902- 
1915- 


B 


BAAL,  the  supreme  deity  of  the  Canaanites. 
Was  known  by  various  names  to  other  peoples; 
worshiped  by  some  of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of 
."Vhab.  [See  also  Jerusalem:  B.C.  noo-700.] 
The  name  was  originally  a  title,  signifying  lord. 
— See  also  Baalbek. 

BAALBAC— See  Baalbek. 

BAALBEK,  or  Baalbac,  "city  of  Baal,"  the 
sun-god;  an  ancient  city  in  Syria,  northwest 
of  Damascus,  famous  for  its  ruins  which  date 
back  to  Roman  times.  During  the  period  of  the 
Seleucids  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Greek 
Heliopolis.  In  its  early  history  it  was  one  of  the 
most    splendid    of    Syrian    cities,    while    the    little 


village  now  on  its  site  had  a  population  in  1914 
of  only  2000.  "The  disappointment  experienced 
by  some  visitors  on  first  approaching  Ba'albek  is 
partly  owing  to  the  vast  proportions  of  the  sur- 
rounding region.  The  valley  of  Ccelesyria,  now 
called  el  Buka'a,  extends  to  a  great  distance  north- 
ward and  southward,  and  is  shut  in  by  the  long 
and  lofty  range  of  Lebanon  on  the  north-west, 
and  that  of  Anti-Lebanon  on  the  south-east.  Dur- 
ing the  many  hours  of  approach  along  its  undulat- 
ing surface  towards  Ba'albek  the  eye  grows  familiar 
with  such  magnitudes  as  the  extreme  length  of 
the  plain,  the  great  height  of  the  mountains,  and 
the  profound  depths  of  the  valleys,  and  in  com- 


©  PubltsLera'   I'hi.lo  .-^ervioe. 

TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN  AND  JUPITER.  BAALBECK 

777 


BAALBEK 


BABISM 


parison  with  them  any  structure  of  man's  design- 
ing, no  matter  how  imposing,  is  as  nothing.  .  .  . 
The  modern  traveller,  however,  does  not  linger 
amongst  the  remains  of  the  old  city,  nor  loiter 
about  the  narrow  streets  and  crooked  lanes  of 
the  present  town.  The  main  attractions  of  Ba'albek 
are  the  wonderful  ruins  of  these  temples,  which 
surpass  even  those  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  the 
vastness  and  boldness  of  their  design,  their  sym- 
metrical proportions,  and  the  delicate  execution 
of  their  elaborate  decorations.  It  has  been  well 
said  of  them  that  'these  temples  have  been  the 
wonder  of  past  centuries,  and  they  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  wonder  of  future  generations.'  .  .  . 
.As  Heliopolis,  Ba'albek  is  mentioned  by  several 
writers  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era;  but  the  principal  notices  of  it  are 
derived  from  the  coins  of  the  second  and  third 
centuries,  which  represent  it  as  a  Roman  colony, 
styled  Julia  Augusta  Felix.  The  coins  of  Sep- 
timius  Severus  show  two  temples,  one  a  larger 
and  another  a  smaller,  and  a  coin  of  Valerian  has 
two  temples  upon  it.  The  oracle  at  Ba'albek,  or 
Heliopolis,  was  consulted  by  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
in  the  second  century,  before  he  undertook  his 
second  expedition  against  the  Parthians:  but  the 
earliest  authentic  record  of  these  temples  is  found 
in  the  writings  of  John  of  Antioch,  surnamed 
Malalas,  about  the  seventh  century.  He  men- 
tions that  '.4?;iius  Antoninus  Pius  erected  at  Heli- 
opolis, in  Phoenicia  of  Lebanon,  a  great  temple 
of  Jupiter,  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.'  It 
is  possible  that  the  original  design  here  at  Ba'albek 
was  to  construct  a  platform  surrounded  by 
Cyclopean  stones,  and  to  erect  upon  it  an  altar 
consecrated  to  the  worship  of  Baal.  That  design 
appeal:,  never  to  have  been  fully  accomplished, 
and  the  Phoenicians  probably  adopted  this  site 
for  one  of  their  temples.  The  Greeks  and  Romans, 
in  their  turn,  may  have  adopted  both  the  site 
and  the  ruins  of  the  Phoenician  temple  for  their 
own  purposes;  and  .Antoninus  Pius  perhaps  be- 
gan to  build  his  temple  out  of  the  remains  of  one 
more  ancient,  and  it  was  probably  finished  by 
Septimius  Severus  fifty  years  later.  That  may 
have  been  the  smaller  temple,  and  it  was  probably 
consecrated  to  Jupiter;  the  great,  temple  of  Baal 
or  the  sun  was  apparently  never  finished.  .  .  . 
The  Canaanife  and  the  Hebrew,  the  Assvrian  and 
Egyptian,  the  Greek  and  the  Roman,  Saracen  and 
Christian,  Tartar  and  Turk— all  have  been  here; 
and  for  centuries  to  come  travellers  from  every 
nation  will  visit  these  ruins  with  wonder  and 
admiration." — W.  M.  Thomson,  Land  and  the 
book,  pp.  318-321,  ,340.  .341. 

632-639. — Capture  by  Arabs.  See  Cai.iph.ate: 
632-63g. 

890. — Pillaged  by   Carmathians.     See  Carma- 

THIANS. 

1918.— Reached  by  British.  See  World  W.-^r: 
iqrS:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  c,  23. 

BAASTARDS.    See  Griqua,  Griqualand. 

"BAB."      See    Babism. 

6ABAR  (i483-r53o),  founder  of  the  Mogul 
dynasty  in  India.  He  became  king  of  Ferghana 
in  I4Q4  and  king  of  Kabul  in  1504.  In  1526 
and  1527  he  conquered  the  Empire  of  Delhi  and 
was  Mogul  Emperor  or  Padishah  of  India  1526- 
15.30. — See  also   Ixdia:    1300-1605. 

BAB-EL-MANDEB  (Gate'  of  Tears),  the 
strait  connecting  the  Red  sea  and  Indian  ocean. 
On  the  water  route  to  India,  this  strategic  chan- 
nel is  dominated  by  the  British  fortified  islands  of 
Perim  and  more  substantially  by  the  Briti.^h  out- 
post of  .Aden 

BABENBERG  dynasty.  See  Austria: 
805-1246 


BABEUF,  Frangois  Noel,  pseudonym  Caius 
Giacchus  (1760-17Q7),  a  French  revolutionary  con- 
spirator and  journalist,  propounder  of  the  first 
practical  socialist  policy  (named  from  him,  Bab- 
ouvisme),  and  father  of  the  socialist  movements  of 
1848  and  1871.  He  edited  several  papers,  notably 
Le  Tribiin  du  peuple,  and,  advancing  his  com- 
munist doctrines,  organized  a  conspiracy  against 
the  Directory.  In  .April,  1707,  he  was  arrested 
and  guillotined. — See  also  Socialism:    1753-1707. 

BABINGTON'S  plot.     See  Fngland:   1585- 

1587- 

BABIS:  Relations  with  Persia  (i8g6).  See 
Persia:   i8q0. 

BABISM,  from  "Bab,"  the  "gate"  or  "door," 
a  title  given  to  a  young  religious  reformer,  named 
Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  who  appeared  in  Persia 
about  1844,  claiming  to  bring  a  divine  message 
later  and  higher  than  those  for  which  Jesus  and 
Mohammed  were  sent. — M.  F.  Wilson,  Story  of  the 
Bab  (Contemporary  Review,  Dec,  1885). — "Mirza 
-Ali  Mohammed,  known  as  The  Bab,  was  born 
in  October.  iSiq.  in  the  city  of  Shiraz,  in  southern 
Persia.  ...  On  May  23d.  1S44,  moved  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed  gave  His 
teachings  to  the  w'orld.  ...  .At  that  time  from 
various  parts  of  Persia  were  gathered  totiether  in 
Shiraz  eighteen  prepared  souls,  men  of  wisdom 
to  whom  it  had  been  given  to  understand  spiritual 
realities,  and  to  these  chosen  disciples  Mirza  Ali 
Mohammed  revealed  His  mission.  He  was  the 
door  ('Bab')  or  forerunner  of  a  great  prophet 
and  teacher  soon  to  appear.  He,  The  Bab,  had 
been  divinely  sent  as  a  herald  to  warn  the  peo- 
ple of  the  coming  of  The  Promised  One  and  to 
exhort  them  to  purify  themselves  and  prepare 
for  His  advent.  One — whom  He  entitled  'He 
whom  God  shall  manifest,'  the  Latter-Day  Mes- 
siah, promised  in  all  the  revealed  writings  of 
the  past — was  soon  to  come  and  establish  The 
Kingdom  of  God  upon  earth.  .  .  .  .Among  the  most 
prominent  of  The  Bab's  followers  was  Kurrat 
ul'Ayn,  poet,  orator  and  heroine  of  the  cause,  who, 
after  an  eventful  career  in  which  she  stood  forth 
as  a  powerful  exponent  of  the  new  faith,  suffered 
a  martyr's  death.  As  a  woman  many  decades 
ahead  of  her  time,  her  life  and  example  are  an 
inspiration  to  all,  and  especially  to  her  sisters  of 
the  Orient  who,  through  the  cause  for  which  she 
died,  are  now  being  lifted  from  their  former  con- 
dition of  ignorance  and  oppression  into  one  of 
knowledge  and  freedom.  ...  At  length.  His  fol- 
lowing having  attained  to  sreat  proportions,  the 
clergy  became  thoroughly  alarmed  and  instigated 
a  here.sy  trial  or  public  examination  of  His  doc- 
trines. This  investigation  was  held  in  Tabriz 
by  the  authority  of  the  governor  of  the  province, 
and  before  the  tribunal  The  Bab  was  brought 
a  prisoner.  .All  manner  of  insults  and  indignities 
were  heaped  upon  Him,  and  finally  He  was  flogged, 
one  of  the  chief  mullahs  applying  the  rods  with 
his  own  hands.  .After  this  'The  Bab  was  returned 
to  his  former  prison  in  the  fortress  of  Chih-rik 
About  this  time  becan  the  early  persecutions  and 
massacres  of  the  Babis  in  Persia.  .Aroused  by  their 
priests,  the  fanatical  Moslems  fell  upon  the  be- 
lievers in  many  parts  of  the  land,  pillaging  and 
burning  their  homes,  and  torturing  and  murder- 
ing men,  women  and  children.  .  .  .  Islam  is  the 
state  religion  of  Persia,  therefore  that  which  shakes 
its  power  produces  a  like  effect  in  the  workings 
of  the  government.  .At  length,  seeing  the  cause  to 
be  steadily  on  the  increase,  the  prime  minister  of 
the  state  ordered  that  The  Bab  be  killed,  hoping 
thus  to  put  an  end  to  the  matter  and  to  place 
himself  in  security  with  the  clergy  and  the  peo- 
ple.     .Accordingly,   The   Bab    was   again    removed 


778 


BABLl  TALMUD 


BABYLON 


from  the  prison  of  Chih-rik  and  taken  to  Tabriz, 
the  seat  of  the  local  government  of  the  province. 
Here,  on  the  gth  of  July,  1850,  He  suffered 
martyrdom.  ...  By  night  the  body  of  The  Bab 
was  removed  by  some  of  the  faithful,  and  after 
being  swathed  in  silk  it  was  disguised  as  a  bale 
of  merchandise  and  deposited  in  a  place  of  safety. 
As  conditions  and  wisdom  demanded,  from  time 
to  time  this  hiding  place  was  changed,  and  linally, 
on  the  2ist  of  March,  iqoq,  in  the  presence  of  a 
notable  gathering  of  pilgrims  from  various  parts 
of  both  the  Orient  and  the  Occident,  the  body 
of  The  Bab  was  laid  to  rest  by  Abdul-Bahak,  in 
a  sarcophagus,  in  the  crypt  of  the  shrine  of  The 
Bab  in  the  Holy  Land.  .  .  .  During  the  four  years 
of  The  Bab's  imprisonment  His  numerous  letters 
and  epistles  were,  with  the  greatest  difficulty, 
smuggled  out  of  the  prison  and  sent  to  the  fol- 
lowers in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These 
writings  contain  His  injunctions  to  the  believers 
for  their  guidance  and  protection  until  the  coming 
of  'Him  whom  God  shall  manifest.'  The  Bab's 
ordinances  were  given  for  the  people  of  His  time 
only,  and  were  commensurable  with  the  needs  and 
conditions  of  the  believers  during  the  interim  be- 
tween His  manifestation  and  the  manifestation  of 
the  greater  One  to  come.  The  Bab  was  the  'First 
Point'  of  this  revelation,  the  precursor  of  the 
greater  One.  In  His  teachings  He  reiterated  again 
and  again  that,  when  'He  whom  God  shall  mani- 
fest' appeared,  all  should  turn  unto  Him,  and  that 
He  would  reveal  teachings  and  ordinances  which 
would  replace  the  Babi  sacred  literature." — C.  M. 
Remey,  Bahai  movement,  ch.  2. — See  also  Baiiaism. 

Relation  of  Babis  with  Persia  (i8g6).  See 
Persia:    i8q6. 

BABLI  (Babylonian)  TALMUD.   See  Talmud. 

BABOEUF,  a  village  of  France,  northeast  of 
Paris  near  Noyon.  It  was  taken  by  the  British 
in  IQ18.  See  World  War:  igi8:  II.  Western  front: 
c,  20. 

BABOUVISM,  the  socialistic  doctrines  pro- 
pounded by  Babeuf  during  the  French  Revolution, 
— namely,  state  communism  or  state  ownership  of 
property ;  social  equality  in  rank  as  well  as  prop- 
erty; criticism  of  the  solution  of  the  agrarian  ques- 
tion.— See  also  Babeitf,  Franqois  NoiiL. 

BABU,  a  Hindu  title  of  respect,  but  com- 
monly applied  to  a  native  clerk  able  to  write 
English,  with  a  disparaging  implication  of  super- 
ficial education. 

BA-BUMANTSU.     See   Bushmen. 

BABUNA  PASS,  a  locality  near  Prilep,  Mace- 
donia, where  the  French  army  during  the  World 
War  attempted  (191 6)  to  give  aid  to  the  retreat- 
ing Serbian  army  which  was  forced  to  abandon 
its  h'ne  along  the  Vardar  river.  See  World  War: 
1015:  V.  Balkans:  b,  5. 

BABYLON:  The  city.— "The  city  stands  on 
a  broad  plain,  and  is  an  exact  square,  a  hundred 
and  twenty  furlongs  flifteen  miles]  in  length  each 
way,  so  that  the  entire  circuit  is  four  hundred  and 
eighty  furlongs.  While  such  is  its  size,  in  mag- 
nificence there  is  no  other  city  that  approaches  it. 
[See  also  Babylonia:  Position  and  importance  of 
Babylon.]  It  is  surrounded,  in  the  first  place, 
by  a  broad  and  deep  moat,  full  of  water,  be- 
hind which  rises  a  wall  fifty  royal  cubits  [a  cubit 
was  about  18  inches]  in  width  and  two  hundred  in 
height-  ...  On  the  top,  along  the  edges  of  the 
wall,  they  constructed  buildings  of  a  single  cham- 
ber facing  one  another,  leaving  between  them  room 
for  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  In  the  circuit 
of  the  wall  are  a  hundred  gates,  all  of  brass,  with 
brazen  lintels  and  side  posts.  The  bitumen  used 
in  the  work  was  brought  to  Babylon  from  the  Is, 
a  small  stream   which   flows   into   the    Euphrates 


at  the  point  where  the  city  of  the  same  name 
stands,  eight  days'  journey  from  Babylon.  Lumps 
of  bitumen  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  this 
river.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  portions  by 
the  river  which  runs  through  the  midst  of  it. 
This  river  is  the  Euphrates.  .  .  .  The  city  wall  is 
brought  down  on  both  sides  to  the  edge  of  the 
stream;  thence,  from  the  corners  of  the  wall, 
there  is  carried  along  each  bank  of  the  river  a 
fence  of  burnt  bricks.  The  houses  are  mostly 
three  and  four  stories  high;  the  streets  all  run  in 
straight  Hues;  not  only  those  parallel  to  the 
river,  but  also  the  cross  streets  which  lead  down 
to  the  water  side.  At  the  river  end  of  these 
cross  streets  are  low  gates  in  the  fence  that 
skirts  the  stream,  which  are,  like  the  great  gates 
in  the  outer  wall,  of  brass,  and  open  on  the 
water.  The  outer  wall  is  the  main  defence  of  the 
city.  There  is,  however,  a  second  inner  wall,  of 
less  thickness  than  the  first,  but  very  little  in- 
ferior to  it  in  strength.  The  centre  of  each  di- 
vision of  the  town  was  occupied  by  a  fortress. 
In  the  one  stood  the  palace  of  the  kings,  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  great  strength  and  size: 
in  the  other  was  the  sacred  precinct  of  Jupiter 
Belus,  a  square  enclosure,  two  furlongs  each  way, 
with  gates  of  solid  brass;  which  was  also  re- 
maining in  my  time.  In  the  middle  of  the  precinct 
there  was  a  tower  of  solid  masonry,  a  furlong 
in  length  and  breadth,  upon  which  was  raised  a 
second  tower,  and  on  that  a  third,  and  so  on  up 
to  eight.  The  ascent  to  the  top  is  on  the  outside, 
by  a  path  which  winds  round  all  the  towers.  .  .  . 
On  the  topmost  tower  there  is  a  spacious  temple." 
— Herodotus,  History  (translated  by  G,  Rawlinson), 
bk.  I,  ch.  17S-1S1. 

Origin  and  influence. — Added  historical  knowl- 
edge through  excavations. — "The  origin  of  the 
city  of  Babylon  is  veiled  in  impenetrable  obscur- 
ity. The  lirpt  city  built  upon  the  site  must  have 
been  founded  fully  four  thousand  years  before 
Christ,  and  it  may  have  been  much  earlier.  The 
city  is  named  in  the  Omen  tablet  of  Sargon,  and, 
though  this  is  no  procf  that  the  city  was  actually 
in  existence  more  than  three  thousand  years  be- 
fore Christ,  it  does  prove  that  a  later  tradition 
assigned  to  it  this  great  antiquity.  At  this  early 
date,  however,  it  seems  not  to  have  been  a  city 
of  importance.  During  the  long  period  of  the 
rise  of  the  kingdom  of  Sumer  (q.  v.)  and  Accad 
few  kings  in  the  south  find  Babylon  worthy  of 
mention,  though  Babylon  must  have  been  develop- 
ing into  a  city  of  influence  during  the  later  cen- 
turies of  the  dominion  of  Isin  and  Larsa.  From 
about  2200  B.  C.  the  influence  of  this  city  ex- 
tends almost  without  a  break  to  the  period  of  the 
Seleucides.  [See  also  Seleucidae.]  No  capital 
in  the  world  has  ever  been  the  center  of  so  much 
power,  wealth,  and  culture  for  a  period  so  vast. 
It  is  indeed  a  brilliant  cycle  of  centuries  upon 
which  we  enter.  The  rife  of  Babylon  to  supremacy 
over  the  more  ancient  cities  both  of  northern  and 
of  southern  Babylonia,  is  associated  with  the 
development  of  a  new  strain  of  blood  and  life 
among  the  Semites.  The  Semites,  who  had  poured 
in  successive  streams  of  migration  from  Arabia, 
had  found  homes  in  many  and  diverse  places,  and 
in  each  of  these  the  originally  homogeneous  race 
had  developed  civilizations  differing  in  some  points 
from  each  other." — R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  p.  75. — See  also  Semites:  Primi- 
tive Babylonia. — During  the  past  three  years,  name- 
ly from  i8q8  to  iQoi  "a  party  of  German  ex- 
plorers has  been  busy  excavating  from  two  to 
five  miles  north  of  the  village  of  Hillah, — about 
forty  miles  to  the  south  of  Bagdad.  These  mounds 
cover  the  remains  of  the  famous  city  of  Babylon, 


779 


BABYLON 


Excavations 


BABYLON 


so  familiar  to  us  all  from  its  associations  with 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  destroyer  of  Jerusalem. 
While  the  work  of  the  explorers  is  far  from  com- 
plete, they  have  already  been  fortunate  enough 
to  discover  the  exact  site  of  the  great  palace 
begun  by  Nabopolassar,  the  father  ol  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  completed  by  the  latter.  This  edifice 
was  famous  throughout  the  ancient  world.  It 
is  this  palace  to  which  the  author  of  the  Hook  of 
Daniel  refers  in  his  story  of  the  mystical  handwrit- 
ing on  the  wall  that  foretold  the  downfall  of  the 
great  city.  In  it  Cyrus,  on  his  conque.'t  of  Baby- 
lon, in  the  year  538  B.C.  [see  Persia:  B.C.  549- 
521],  took  up  his  official  residence,  and  the  same 


balustrade  running  round  the  tower  to  the  top. 
It  is  probably  this  tower  that  the  biblical  writer 
in  Genesis  had  in  mind  in  narrating  the  curious 
tale  of  the  dispersion  of  mankind.  (See  also 
Temples:  Stage  of  culture  represented  by  temple 
architecture.!  The  city  that  is  thus  being  brought 
to  light  through  the  pick  and  spade  is  essentially 
the  creation  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  so  that  the  words 
which  the  author  of  Daniel  puts  into  the  mouth 
of  the  King,  'Is  not  this  great  Babylon,  which  I 
have  built  for  the  royal  dwelling  place,  by  the 
might  of  my  power  and  for  the  glory  of  my 
majesty  ?',  receive  a  significance  through  the  ex- 
cavations of  the  twentieth  century  far  greater  and 


J^Xr.\VATIONS    AT    BAHYI.ON 


building  two  centuries  kiter  witnes.so(l  ihr  patlulic 
death  scene  of  .Mcxaniler  the  (Ireat.  Besides  the 
palace  the  explorers  have  also  discovered  the  ex- 
act site  of  one  of  the  most  important  edifices  in 
the  entire  history  of  Babylonia,  the  great  temple 
of  Marduk,  or  Bel.  the  head  of  the  Babylonian 
pantheon.  Although  the  beginning  of  this  struc- 
ture goes  back  to  a  very  ancient  period,  it  was 
Nebuchadnezzar  who  restored  and  enlarged  it  be- 
yond its  former  proportions,  and  within  the  sacred 
precinct  in  which  the  temple  stood  he  erected 
numerous  shrines  to  various  gods  and  godde.sses, 
who  constituted,  as  it  were,  the  court  of  the 
chief  god.  A  feature  of  the  precinct  was  a  huge 
tower  of  eight  stories  in  height,  formed  by  a 
series   of    stages,    one    above    the    other,    with    a 


/ 


more  rialistic  than  was  ever  dreamed  of." — M. 
Jaslrow,  Piihue  and  temple  of  Sebtuhiidnezziur 
{Harper's  Monthly  Magazine,  v.  104,  pp.  S0Q-810). 
Nebuchadrezzar  and  the  wall  of  Babylon. — 
"In  all  Nebuchadrezzar's  |or  Nebuihadnezzar's]  in- 
scriptions that  have  been  found — and  we  have  a 
great  many — he  especially  glories  in  his  construc- 
tions. He  seems  to  have  repaired  almost  every 
great  temple  in  the  land  and  built  not  a  few 
new  ones.  .  .  .  But  what  he  did  at  Babylon  not 
only  surpasses  all  his  other  works,  but  eclipses  those 
of  all  former  kings,  even  those  of  Sargon  at  Dur 
Sharrukin,  not  so  much  in  sjilendor  as  in  the 
vastncss  and  originality  of  his  conceptions, — an 
originality  due  probably  to  that  besetting  idea  of 
coupling    ;idornment    with    military    requirements, 

cSo 


BABYLON 


Excavations 
Celebrated    Wall 


BABYLON 


which  consistently  underlies  most  of  the  public 
works  he  undertook.  In  this,  however,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  followed  a  line  traced  out  first  by 
his  father.  Of  some  of  his  greatest  constructions, 
— such  as  the  new  palace,  the  great  city  walls, 
and  the  embankments  of  the  Euphrates, — he  es- 
pecially mentions  that  they  were  begun  by  Nab- 
opolassar,  but  left  unfinished  at  his  death.  Baby- 
lon, sacked  once  by  Sennacherib,  then  rebuilt  by 
Esarhaddon,  had  gone  through  a  conflagration 
when  besieged  and  taken  by  Asshurbanipal,  and 
must  have  been  in  a  sad  condition  when  the 
Chaldean  usurper  made  it  once  more  the  scat  of 
empire.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  thought  of  recon- 
structing it  in  such  a  manner  as  would  make  it 
a  capital  not  only  in  size  and  magnificence,  but 
in  strength:  it  was  to  be  at  once  the  queen  of 
cities  and  the  most  impregnable  of  fortresses. 
The  last  time  that  Babylon  had  been  taken  it 
had  been  reduced  by  famine.  This  was  the  first 
contingency  to  be  guarded  against.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  city  was  to  be  protected  by  a  double 
enclosure  of  mighty  walls,  the  inner  one  skirting 
its  outlines  narrowly,  while  the  outer  was  moved 
to  such  a  distance  as  to  enfold  a  large  portion  of 
the  land,  which  was  to  be  cultivated  so  that  the 
capital  could  raise  enough  grain  and  fodder  for 
its  own  consumption.  This  vast  space  also  would 
serve  to  shelter  the  population  of  the  surrounding 
villages  in  case  of  an  invasion.  It  has  not  been 
possible  to  trace  the  line  of  this  outer  wall,  which 
received  the  name  of  Niraitti-Bel,  nor  consequently 
to  determine  how  many  square  miles  it  protected, 
and  the  reports  of  ancient  writers  are  somewhat 
conflicting,  as  none  of  them,  of  course,  took  exact 
scientific  measurements  after  the  manner  of  our 
modern  surveyors.  Herodotus  gives  the  circum- 
ference as  somewhat  over  fifty  English  miles.  A 
large  figure  certainly.  But  it  has  been  observed 
that  it  scarcely  surpasses  that  yielded  by  the  cir- 
cumvallation  of  Paris;. and  besides  the  arable  and 
pasture  land,  it  must  have  embraced  suburbs,  not 
impossibly  Borsip  itself,  which  was  also  well 
fortified  at  the  same  time.  This  is  the  highest 
estimate.  The  lowest  (and  later)  gives  forty  miles. 
The  Nimitti-Bel  rampart  was  protected  on  the  out- 
side by  a  wide  and  deep  moat,  which  at  the 
same  time  had  supplied  the  material  for  the  wall. 
.  .  .  The  reports  about  the  height  and  thickness  of 
this  celebrated  wall  vary  still  more  considerably. 
Herodotus  says  it  was  350  feet  high  (apparently 
including  the  height  of  the  towers,  which  were 
built  at  regular  intervals  on  the  top  of  it),  with 
a  thickness  of  75  feet.  Now  no  effort  of  imagina- 
tion, even  with  the  knowledge  that  the  walls  of 
Babylon  were  numbered  among  the  'Seven  Won- 
ders of  the  World,'  (q.  v.)  can  well  make  us 
realize  a  city  wall,  nigh  on  fifty  miles  long,  sur- 
passing in  height  the  extreme  height  of  St.  Paul's 
of  London.  The  estimates  of  various  later 
writers  range  all  the  way  between  that  exorbitant 
figure  and  that  of  75  feet,^very  possibly  too 
moderate.  For  the  fact  remains  undisputed  that 
the  Nimitti-Bel  rampart  was  stupendous  both  in 
height  and  in  thickness;  that  towers  were  built 
on  the  top  of  it,  on  the  edges,  two  facing  each 
other,  and  that  there  remained  room  between  for 
a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  .\nd  the  contem- 
porary Hebrew  prophet,  Jeremiah,  speaks  of  Baby- 
lon as  'mounting  up  to  heaven,'  of  'the  broad 
walls  of  Babylon'  and  her  'high  gates.'  Of  these 
there  were  a  hundred  in  the  circuit  of  the  wall, 
according  to  Herodotus,  'and  they  were  all  of  brass, 
with  brazen  lintels  and  side-posts.'  This  outer 
wall  Herodotus  calls  'the  main  defence  of  the  city,' 
The  second  or  inner  wall,  named  Imgur-Bel,  he 
described  as  being  'of  less  thickness  than  the  first, 

78 


but  very  little  inferior  to  it  in  strength.'  Then 
there  were  the  walls  which  enclosed  the  two  royal 
palaces,  the  old  one  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  new  one  on  the  left, — and 
made  of  each  a  respectable  fortress;  for  it  was 
part  of  the  plan  of  reconstruction  that  the  city 
should  be  extended  across  the  river,  to  gain  a 
firmer  seat  and  full  control  of  this  all-important 
thoroughfare;  and  an  entire  new  quarter  was 
built  on  the  left  bank  around  the  new  and  mag- 
nificent palace.  And  as  it  was  desirable,  both  for 
convenience  and  defence,  that  the  two  sides  should 
be  united  by  permanent  means  of  communication, 
Nebuchadrezzar  built  [a  I  great  bridge  [across  the 
river],  but  so  that  it  could  be  kept  open  or  shut 
off  at  will,  as  a  further  safeguard  against  surprises. 
This  was  effected  by  means  of  platforms  made  of 
beams  and  planks,  which  were  laid  from  pier  to 
pier  in  the  daytime,  and  removed  for  the  night.  Of 
course  one  solitary  bridge  could  not  suffice  for 
the  traffic  of  a  population  which  cannot  have  been 
under  half  a  million,  and  the  river  was  gay  with 
hundreds  of  boats  and  barges  darting  with  their 
load  of  passengers  from  bank  to  bank,  or  gliding 
down  the  current,  or  working  against  it.  There 
were  many  landing-places,  but  no  quays  or  broad 
paved  walls  bordered  with  handsome  buildings, 
such  as  in  our  ideas  appear  as  the  necessary  ac- 
companiment of  a  beautiful  river  in  a  great  city. 
The  Euphrates  flowed  along  imprisoned  between  a 
double  wall,  of  burnt  brick  like  the  others,  which 
followed  its  course  on  either  bank  and  close  to 
the  edge  from  end  to  end  of  the  city.  Only  where 
the  streets  abutted  on  the  river — and  these  were 
disposed  at  regular  intervals,  in  straight  lines  and 
at  right  angles — there  were  low  gates  to  allow 
pedestrians  to  descend  to  the  landing-places.  The 
general  effect  must  have  been  peculiar  and  rather 
gloomy." — Z.  A.  Ragozin,  Media,  Babylon  and 
Persia,  pp.  227-232. — "The  Babylon  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar occupied  a  square  of  which  each  side  was 
nearly  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  was  bisected 
by  the  Euphrates  diagonally  from  northwest  to 
southeast.  .  .  .  The  great  squares  of  the  city  were 
not  all  occupied  by  buildings.  Many  of  them 
were  used  as  gardens  and  even  farms,  and  the 
great  fertility  of  the  soil,  caused  by  irrigation,  pro- 
ducing two  and  even  three  crops  a  year,  supplied 
food  sufficient  for  the  inhabitants  in  case  of  siege. 
Babylon  was  a  vast  fortified  province  rather  than 
a  city.  .  .  .  There  is  a  curious  fact  which  I  do 
not  remember  to  have  seen  noticed,  and  of  which 
I  will  not  here  venture  to  suggest  the  explana- 
tion. Babylon  stands  in  the  Book  of  Revelation 
as  the  emblem  of  all  the  abominations  which  are 
to  be  destroyed  by  the  power  of  Christ.  But 
Babylon  is  the  one  city  known  to  history  which 
could  have  served  as  a  model  for  John's  descrip- 
tion of  the  New  Jerusalem:  'the  city  lying  four 
square,'  'the  walls  great  and  high,'  the  river  which 
flowed  through  the  city,  'and  in  the  midst  of  the 
street  of  it,  and  on  cither  side  of  the  river  the 
tree  of  life,  bearing  twelve  manner  of  fruits;' 
'the  foundations  of  the  wall  of  the  city  garnished 
with  all  manner  of  precious  stones,'  as  the  base 
of  the  walls  inclosing  the  great  palace  were  faced 
with  glazed  and  enameled  bricks  of  brilliant  colors, 
and  a  broad  space  left  that  they  might  be  seen, 
— these  characteristics,  and  they  are  all  unique, 
have  been  combined  in  no  other  city." — W.  B. 
Wright,  Ancient  cities  from  the  dawn  to  the  day- 
light, pp.  41-44- 

Decline. — Use  of  ancient  wall  and  buildings  as 
a  quarry. — "The  policy  he  [Cyrus]  inaugurated  in 
the  provinces  of  his  empire  was  a  complete  reversal 
of  Assyrian  methods.  For  the  nationality  of  each 
conquered    race    was    respected,    and    it    was   en- 

I 


BABYLON 


Decline 


BABYLON 


couraged  to  retain  its  own  religion  and  its  laws 
and  customs.  Hence  Babylon's  commercial  life 
and  prosperity  suffered  no  interruption  in  conse- 
quence of  the  change  in  her  political  status.  Taxa- 
tion was  not  materially  increased,  and  little  was 
altered  beyond  the  name  and  title  of  the  reign- 
ing king  in  the  dates  upon  commercial  and  legal 
documents.  The  sieges  of  Babylon  by  Darius 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  city's  decay.  [See  also 
Babylonia:  Hammurabi:  His  character  and 
achievements.]  Her  defences  had  not  been  seri- 
ously impaired  by  Cyrus,  but  they  now  suffered 
considerably.  The  city  was  again  restless  during 
Darius's  closing  years,  and  further  damage  was 
done  to  it  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  when  the 
Babylonians  made  their  last  bids  for  independence. 
For  Xer.xes  is  said  not  only  to  have  dismantled 
the  walls,  but  to  have  plundered  and  destroyed 
the  great  temple  of  Marduk  itself  [See  Persia: 
B.  C.  486-405.]  Large  areas  in  the  city,  which  had 
been  a  wonder  of  the  nations,  now  began  to  lie 
permanently  in  ruins.  Babylon  entered  on  a  new 
phase  in  331  B.C.,  when  the  long  struggle  be- 
tween Greece  and  Persia  was  ended  by  the  de- 
feat of  Darius  HI.  at  Gaugamela.  For  Susa 
and  Babylon  submitted  to  Alexander,  who  on 
proclaiming  himself  King  of  Asia,  took  Baby- 
lon as  his  capital.  We  may  picture  him  gazing  on 
the  city's  great  buildings,  many  of  which  now 
lay  ruined  and  deserted.  Like  Cyrus  before  him, 
he  sacrificed  to  Babylon's  gods;  and  he  is  said 
to  have  wished  to  restore  E-sagila,  Marduk's  great 
temple,  but  to  have  given  up  the  idea,  as  it  would 
have  taken  ten  thousand  men  more  than  two 
months  to  remove  the  rubbish  from  the  ruins. 
But  he  seems  to  have  made  some  attempt  in  that 
direction,  since  a  tablet  has  been  found,  dated 
in  his  sixth  year,  which  records  a  payment  of  ten 
manehs  of  silver  for  'clearing  away  the  dust  of 
E-sagila.'  [For  Alexander's  conquest,  see  Mace- 
donia: B.C.  330-323]  While  the  old  buildings 
decayed,  some  new  ones  arose  in  their  place,  in- 
cluding a  Greek  theatre  for  the  use  of  the  large 
Greek  colony.  Many  of  the  Babylonians  them- 
selves adopted  Greek  names  and  fashions,  but  the 
more  conservative  elements,  particularly  among  the 
priesthood,  continued  to  retain  their  own  separate 
life  and  customs.  In  the  year  270  B.C.  we  have 
a  record  that  .^ntiochus  Soter  restored  the  temples 
of  Nabfl  and  Marduk  at  Babylon  and  Borsippa, 
and  the  recent  diggings  at  Erech  have  shown  that 
the  old  temple  in  that  city  retained  its  ancient 
cult  under  a  new  name.  In  the  second  century 
we  know  that  in  a  corner  of  the  great  temple 
at  Babylon,  Marduk  and  the  God  of  Heaven  were 
worshiped  as  a  two-fold  deity  under  the  name  of 
Anna-Bel;  and  we  hear  of  priests  attached  to  one 
of  Babylon's  old  shrines  as  late  as  the  year  2q 
B.  C.  Services  in  honour  of  the  later  forms  of 
the  Babylonian  gods  were  probably  continued  into 
the  Christian  era.  [See  Jews:  604-536  B.C.  to 
166-40  B.  C]  The  life  of  the  ancient  city  naturally 
flickered  longest  around  the  ruined  temples  and 
seats  of  worship.  Or.  the  secular  side,  as  a  com- 
mercial centre,  she  was  then  but  a  ghost  of  her 
former  self.  Her  real  decay  had  set  in  when 
Seleucus,  after  securing  the  satrapy  of  Babylon 
on  Alexander's  death,  had  recognized  the  greater 
advantages  offered  by  the  Tigris«for  maritime  com- 
munication. On  the  foundation  of  Sclcucia,  Baby- 
lon as  a  city  began  rapidly  to  decay.  Deserted 
at  first  by  the  official  classes,  followed  later  by 
the  merchants,  she  decreased  in  importance  as  her 
rival  grew.  Thus  it  was  by  a  gradual  and  purely 
economic  process,  and  through  no  sudden  blow, 
that  Babylon  slowly  bled  to  death."— L.  W.  King, 
History   of  Balyylon,  from   lite  foundation  of  the 


monarchy  to  the  Persian  conquest,  pp.  285-28S. 
—"From  this  time  onward  the  burnt  brick  of  the 
ancient  royal  buildings  was  re-used  for  all  manner 
of  secular  buildings.  The  Greek  theatre  at  Homera 
is  built  of  such  material.  Thus  the  pillared  build- 
ings of  .\mran  and  houses  at  Merkes,  that  arc 
built  of  brick  rubble,  belong  either  to  the  Greek 
(331-130  B.C.)  or  the  Parthian  (13Q  B.C. -226 
A.  D.)  periods,  but  to  which  of  them  cannot  be 
determined.  At  that  time  began  the  process  of 
demolishing  the  city  area,  which  perhaps  was  now 
only  occupied  by  isolated  dwellings,  a  process  that 
certainly  continued  throughout  the  Sassanide  pe- 
riod (226-636  A.  D.).  Amran  alone  was  inhabited, 
and  that  only  scantily,  as  is  shown  by  the  upper- 
most levels  there,  which  reach  down  as  late  as 
the  Arab  middle  age  Uirca  1200  A.D.).  When 
we  gaze  to-day  over  the  wide  area  of  ruins  we 
are  involuntarily  reminded  of  the  words  of  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  (L.  30):  'Therefore,  the  wild 
beasts  of  the  desert,  with  the  wild  beases  of  the 
islands,  shall  dwell  there,  and  the  owls  shall  dwell 
therein:  and  it  shall  be  no  more  inhabited  for 
ever;  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  generation 
to  generation.' " — R.  Koldewcy,  Excavations  at 
Babylon,  pp.  313-314. — "The  walls  of  Babylon 
were  destined  to  serve  still  another  purpose.  The 
spread  of  Mohammedanism  caused  new  cities  to 
be  built,  and  Babylon  was  the  quarry  for  their 
building  material.  The  walls  of  Babylon  were 
transformed  into  the  sacred  cities  of  Kerbela  and 
Nejef.  In  the  eleventh  century,  on  the  site  of 
the  southern  part  of  Babylon,  the  city  of  Hillah 
was  built.  Hillah  might  be  called  a  child  of 
Babylon,  for  it  is  almost  entirely  constructed  with 
Nebuchadnezzar's  bricks.  The  walls  of  the  houses 
are  built  of  them.  The  court-yards  and  streets 
are  paved  with  them,  and  as  you  walk  about  the 
city  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  everywhere 
meets  your  eye.  Many  of  the  ten  thousand  f>eople 
living  in  Hillah  still  gain  their  livelihood  by  dig- 
ging the  bricks  from  the  ruins  to  sell  to  the  mod- 
ern builders.  The  great  irrigating  dams  across  the 
Euphrates  are  constructed  entirely  of  them.  The 
people  of  Hillah,  too,  are  a  survival  of  Babylonian 
times.  Some  are  Arabs  of  the  same  tribes  which 
used  to  roam  the  desert  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  days. 
Some  are  the  children  of  the  Hebrew  exiles  of  old. 
Some,  calling  themselves  Christians,  are  the  de- 
scendants of  Babylonians,  perhaps  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar himself.  There  among  the  ruins  they  still 
live  in  the  same  kind  of  houses,  dressing  the  same, 
eating  the  same  food  as  did  their  ancestors  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  built  the  walls  of  Babylon." — 
E.  J.  Banks,  Seven  wonders  of  the  ancient  world, 
p.  67. — See  also  B.\bvloni,\. 

Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon,—- The  Hanging 
gardens  of  Babylon  were  considered  by  the  Greeks 
to  be  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  ancient  world. 
They  consisted  of  trees  and  flowers  apparently 
planted  upon  the  roof  of  some  building.  The 
structure  was  one  square  terrace  built  upon  an- 
other to  about  150  feet  in  height  and  resting  upon 
hollow  pillars  of  burnt  brick  which  were  filled  with 
earth.  It  was  necessary  to  keep  a  force  of  men 
employed  pumping  up  water  from  the  Euphrates 
for  irrigation.  It  is  said  that  Nebuchadrezzar,  aim- 
ing to  please  his  Median  Queen,  had  these  gardens 
constructed  so  that  they  may  recall  to  her  mind 
the  mountain  scenery  of  her  native  land. — See  also 
.\RCHiTEcrtiRE:   Oriental:   Mesopotamia. 

Also  in:  A.  H.  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 
— C.  J.  Fall,  Records  of  the  past.—C.  J.  Rich, 
Memoir  on  the  ruins  of  Babylon. — F.  H.  Weiss- 
bach,  Das  Stadtbild  von  Babvlon 

BABYLON  OF  THE  CRUSADERS.  See 
Crusades:  i24£-i254. 


782 


BABYLONIA 


BABYLONIA 


BABYLONIA 


Land  and  its  characteristics.— "Babylonia  is 
the  joint  delta  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and 
owes  its  prosperity  and  ruin  alike  to  man's  use  or 
abuse  of  the  gifts  of  these  two  rivers.  The 
Euphrates,  like  the  Nile,  passes  through  three  dis- 
tinct phases  in  its  course  to  the  sea.  Its  two  main 
sources  lie  deep  in  the  Armenian  highland,  and 
carve  out  parallel  courses  of  over  400  miles  before 
their  joint  streams  leave  the  mountains  through  a 
tremendous  gorge.  [See  also  Armenia:  Physical 
features.]  Then  for  720  miles  from  Samsat  to 
Hit  the  river  crosses  open  treeless  country,  more 
level  and  barren  as  it  recedes  from  the  hills.  From 
the  west  it  receives  only  one  important  tributary, 
the  Sajur,  which  comes  in  quite  high  up  near 
Carchemish,  and  from  the  east  only  two,  the  Belikh 
and  the  Khabur,  both  in  the  middle  third  of  this 
section.  As  far  as  the  Sajur,  both  banks  are 
habitable;  and  the  east  bank  was  formerly  so  as 
far  as  the  Khabur,  forming  the  district  of  Harran, 
and  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Mitanni.  Beyond  this 
the  country  is  desert,  both  on  the  Arabian  side 
and  in  the  greater  part  of  Mesopotamia,  the  region 
between  the  Two  Rivers.  The  river  itself  flows 
with  swift  stream  and  intermittent  rapids  within 
a  deep  rock-walled  bed.  usually  a  few  miles  wide 
and  capable  of  cultivation,  but  naturally  a  jungle 
of  tamarisk  and  reeds,  infested  by  wild  pig.  The 
few  sedentary  Arabs,  who  practise  a  primitive  ir- 
rigation with  water-wheels,  pay  blackmail  to  pow- 
erful nomad  tribes  of  the  desert.  The  palm  re- 
places the  olive  about  half  way  down.  Above  Hit 
the  river  has  narrows  and  is  full  of  islands;  but 
at  Hit  itself  solid  ground  ends  in  a  reef  of  harder 
rocks  with  springs  of  sulphur,  brine,  and  bitumen. 
The  river  here  is  about  250  yards  in  width,  and 
still  flows  briskly  through  this  last  obstruction. 
The  third  section  consists  wholly  of  alluvial  soil, 
and  extends  for  550  miles  from  Hit  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  river  soon  divides  into  two  principal 
channels,  and  these  into  minor  backwaters,  the 
wreck  of  ancient  canals.  It  first  deposits  copious 
silt,  and  then  fine  mud  like  that  of  the  Nile.  The 
thore  line  has  therefore  been  advancing  rapidly 
within  historic  time:  Eridu,  for  example,  which 
was  a  chief  port  of  early  Babylonia,  lies  now  125 
miles  from  the  sea.  If  the  present  rate  of  ad- 
vance, about  a  mile  in  thirty  years,  may  be  taken 
as  an  average — which  is,  however,  not  demon- 
strable yet — Eridu  may  have  begun  to  be  mud- 
bound  about  1800  B.C.  The  course  of  the  Tigris 
is  geographically  similar.  Two  chief  sources,  ris- 
ing near  those  of  the  Euphrates,  drain  the  south- 
eastern ranges  of  Armenia.  From  their  junction 
to  Samarra.  where  the  Tigris  fairly  enters  the 
delta,  is  about  250  miles,  first  through  rolling 
foothills,  in  an  open  valley  which  is  the  home- 
country  of  the  Assyrians;  then  through  steppe  and 
desert.  On  the  west  bank  there  are  now  no  tribu- 
taries, though  there  was  formerly  a  flood-channel 
from  the  south-east  of  the  Khabur  basin.  On  the 
east  bank,  however,  the  copious  drainage  of  the 
Median  highlands,  which  lie  nearly  parallel  with 
its  course,  is  brought  in  by  a  number  of  streams, 
of  which  the  most  notable  are  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Zab.  Consequently,  the  Tigris  brings  down 
eventually  rather  more  water  than  the  Euphrates: 
and  also  on  its  swifter  current  a  good  deal  more 
silt.  In  the  latitude  of  Bagdad,  about  100  miles 
below  Samarra,  and  consequently  well  within  the 
alluvial  area,  Euphrates  and  Tigris  approach  within 
3S  miles  of  each  other  but  soon  diverge  again  to 
a  distance  of  ico  miles.  It  was  a  little  above  this 
point  that  the  Euphrates  was  first  divided  in  an- 


tiquity into  two  main  branches,  of  which  the 
eastern  Saklawic  canal  is  in  part,  at  least,  ar- 
tificial, designed  to  water  a  large  district  west  of 
Bagdad,  and  also  as  an  overflow,  for  in  Upper 
Babylonia  the  Euphrates  lies  higher  than  the 
Tigris.  Lower  down,  the  levels  are  reversed,  and 
the  great  Shatt-el-Hai  canal,  past  the  site  of  Lag- 
ash,  relieves  the  Tigris,  and  at  times  overloads  the 
Euphrates  at  Ur  and  below.  In  addition,  the 
whole  of  the  joint  delta  has  been  from  very  early 
times  a  network  of  canals  designed  both  to  dis- 
tribute irrigation  water,  and  also  to  defend  the 
cultivated  lands  against  the  desert.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  Shatt-Hindie,  which  diverges  at 
Babylon,  and  follows  the  western  edge  of  the 
delta,  rejoining  near  ancient  Erech;  and  the  trans- 
verse Shatt-el-Hai  already  mentioned.  The  man- 
agement of  these  great  canals  needs  some  skill; 
the  rivers  rise  rather  irregularly,  as  the  mountain 
snow  melts,  from  March  to  May,  and  often  carry 
away  the  soft  earthen  dams  and  embankments. 
They  also  carry  down  so  much  silt,  that  centuries 
of  deposition  and  dredging  have  raised  the  main 
channels,  and  the  country  near  them,  above  the 
general  level.  The  two  main  streams,  whose 
mouths  were  still  a  day's  journey  apart  in  Alex- 
ander's time,  now  unite  [near]  Basra,  300  miles 
below  Bagdad.  Their  joint  channel,  the  Shatt- 
el-Arab,  is  1,000  yards  wide,  and  navigable.  A 
little  further  down  again,  it  receives  on  the  east 
side  the  main  stream  of  the  Karun  River,  from 
the  highlands  of  ancient  Elam.  Under  careful 
management,  the  whole  alluvial  region  is  of  amaz- 
ing fertility.  The  date  palm  is  indigenous,  and 
wheat  was  anciently  believed  to  be  so.  In  an- 
cient times  it  raised  two,  or  even  three,  crops  of 
wheat  a  year,  with  a  yield  of  200  or  300  grains 
from  one  seed.  The  rice,  which  is  now  the  prin- 
cipal grain  crop,  came  in  under  the  Arab  regime. 
The  present  desolation  is  due,  first  to  the  Turkish 
nomads  in  the  eleventh  century;  then  to  the  reck- 
less behaviour  of  Mesopotamian  Arabs.  All 
through  the  summer,  the  principal  streams  arc 
navigable,  or  can  easily  be  made  so,  and  sailing 
boats  ascend  as  far  as  Hit  and  Samarra;  but  by 
September  the  flood  is  over,  and  in  November  the 
rivers  are  at  their  lowest ;  and  natural  shoals  and 
the  remains  of  old  dams  are  grievous  obstacles. 

"Such  is  Babylonia.  But  before  we  enquire 
what  human  enterprize  was  to  make  of  it,  we 
must  note  equally  briefly  the  regions  which  en- 
close it.  West  of  the  Euphrates  lies  the  great  plain 
of  Arabia  (q.  v.),  rising  gently  towards  the  Jordan 
and  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  nearly-  featureless,  grass- 
land at  best,  and  in  great  part  utter  desert  now. 
Its  nomad  pastoral  inhabitants,  however,  have  ex- 
ercised, as  we  shall  see,  an  influence  on  the  fortunes 
both  of  Babylonia  and  all  other  regions  which 
fringe  it,  which  is  one  of  the  great  facts  of  history. 
Eastward,  beyond  the  Tigris,  towers  the  highland 
zone,  range  upon  range  of  massive  limestone 
mountains,  till  the  passes  to  the  plateau  be- 
hind them  rise  to  5,000  and  6,000  feet,  and  the 
peaks  to  over  11,000  feet.  The  nearer  parts  of 
the  plateau  vary  in  altitude  fiom  3,000  to  1,500 
feet.  The  width  of  the  mountain  belt  averages 
about  300  miles,  and  its  parallel  ranges  from  five 
to  ten  in  number.  Between  them  lie  valleys  of 
varying  size  and  elevation,  all  more  or  less  habit- 
able, but  secluded  from  each  other  and  from  the 
outer  world  on  either  side.  A  few  have  no  outfall, 
but  enclose  considerable  lakes,  like  Van  and  Urmia 
in  the  north,  and  Shiraz  in  the  south;  but  the 
majority  discharge  the  copious  water  which  pours 


783 


BABYLONIA 


Geographical 
Features 


BABYLONIA 


from  the  snow-clad  ridges,  through  great  gorges 
into  more  westerly  troughs,  and  so  eventually  into 
a  few  large  rivers.  Some  of  these,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  tributary  to  the  Tigris;  others  further 
south  issue  independently  into  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  form  their  own  hot  sodden  deltas;  while  in 
a  middle  section  three  of  the  largest,  Karun, 
Jarahi,  and  Tab,  now  join  their  mudflats  with 
those  of  the  Shatt-el-Arab,  and  have  created  an 
alluvial  area  nearly  half  as  large  as  Babylonia  'be- 
tween the  rivers';  more  encumbered  indeed  by 
silt,  but  with  lowlands  almost  as  fertile  under 
cultivation.  Above  these  foreshores  the  hills  be- 
tween Karun  and  Tigris,  lying  nearest  to  the 
ancient  head  of  the  gulf,  rise  gently  at  first,  in  a 
wide  expanse  of  rolling  country.  Then,  where  the 
first  mountains  stand  up,  and  catch  the  moisture 
from  the  winds,  comes  a  long  narrow  belt  of  for- 
est, dense  oak  below,  passing  to  cedar  and  pine; 
and  extending  from  the  Diyala  River  as  far  south 
as  Shiraz.  Access  to  this,  in  a  region  so  timber- 
less  otherwise,  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
great  objects  of  contention  in  ancient  times.  On 
the  greater  heights  come  more  alpine  conditions, 
with  some  moisture  and  hardy  vegetation  in  deep 
valleys;  but  on  the  eastern  slopes,  prevalent 
drought,  with  aromatic  scrubland  locally,  and 
some  output  of  medicinal  resins  and  gums. 
Then,  interpersed  with  marginal  oases,  wherever 
a  mountain  stream  runs  out  into  the  plain,  begins 
a  desolate  and  often  salt-strewn  plateau,  the  dead 
heart  of  Persia,  ancient  as  well  as  modern.  With 
this  dead  heart,  however,  and  even  with  the  fringe 
of  oases — mediaeval  and  modem  Persia — we  are 
not  now  concerned;  only  with  the  sequence  of 
alluvium,  foothills,  and  forest  belt,  which  make 
up  the  ancient  region  of  Elam  (q.v.),  and  with  the 
intermont  plains  and  upland  valleys  which  sus- 
tained the  old  Medes  and  Persians,  the  first  high- 
landers  to  play  a  part  in  universal  history. 

"Pausing  now  for  a  moment  to  compare  the 
situation  in  Mesopotamia  with  that  on  the  Nile, 
we  note  first  that  through  the  difference  in  direc- 
tion of  the  two  valleys  the  Nile  has  its  sub-tropical 
region  upstream,  and  its  almost  temperate  delta  in 
the  north;  the  Euphrates  has  its  delta  in  one  of 
the  hottest  summer  climates  of  the  world.  The 
Nile  has  its  cataracts  all  far  upstream,  so  that  the 
fall  of  the  valley  is  concentrated  at  a  few  points, 
and  a  sluggish  navigable  fairway  is  reserved  from 
Assuan  to  the  coast:  far  away  beyond  these  rap- 
ids, moreover,  the  Nile  has  already  deposited  its 
obstructive  silt,  and  bears  down  to  Egypt  only 
beneficial  mud,  which  is  invisibly  fine,  and  causes 
little  trouble  in  irrigation.  The  Euphrates,  on  the 
contrary,  descends  rapidly,  for  so  large  a  river, 
all  through  its  upper  course;  its  last  barrier  is  at 
Hit,  which  in  the  anatomy  of  this  valley  corre- 
sponds rather  to  Cairo  than  to  Assuan ;  it  conse- 
quently enters  the  fcnland  still  laden  with  silt,  and 
in  all  ages  has  industriously  blocked  one  bed  after 
another,  and  spread  the  disastrous  floods  of  which 
memory  was  preserved  by  Babylonian  legends  of 
a  deluge  which  flooded  even  the  desert ;  as  we 
read  in  the  best  known  version  'all  the  high  hills 
that  were  under  the  whole  heaven  were  covered: 
fifteen  cubits  upwards  did  the  waters  prevail'; 
and  there  are  very  few  'mountains'  in  alluvial 
Babylonia  which  would  not  be  devastated  by  a 
flood  of  this  moderate  depth.  Like  the  ordinary 
summer  flood  of  the  Euphrates  which  begins  in 
April  and  May,  and  is  highest  in  August,  that  del- 
uge lasted  about  twenty-one  weeks;  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 'the  seventh  month',  it  abated.  Frob  anxi- 
eties the  Nile  is  free.  In  Egyptian  religion  it  is 
the  sun  which  is  all-beneficent,  or  all-destroying, 
and  therefore  (in  due  course)  chief  god,  and  the 


'power  behind  the  throne.'  His  enemies  are  pow- 
ers of  dark  and  cold,  not  of  wet.  In  Babylonia, 
and  still  more  in  Assyria,  which  lies  closer  under 
the  hills,  men  and  the  high  gods  were  alike  power- 
less when  the  storm-demons  were  out.  The  first 
victory  of  good  was  the  binding  of  the  dragon 
which  broods  in  dark  water;  a  fit  emblem  of  the 
creeping  silt-shoal  which  grows  till  it  throttles 
the  canal.  For  many  reasons,  therefore,  it  is  in  the 
delta,  and  not  in  the  valley,  that  Babylonian  civi- 
lization grows ;  as  it  might  indeed  have  grown  in 
Egypt  too,  had  not  the  valley  culture  ripened 
sooner.  Consequently,  again,  the  Babylonian 
centres — some  dozen  in  all — lie  in  a  cluster,  not 
strung  on  one  green  thread  for  hundreds  of  miles. 
And  as  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  interweave 
their  currents,  first  one  receiving,  and  then  the 
other,  internal  communication  is  abnormally  com- 
plete; a  striking  contrast  with  the  perils  of  cross- 
delta  travel  in  Egypt.  No  one  went  up  to  Baby- 
Ion  to  go  from  Lagash  to  Ur,  as  train  and  boat 
alike  go  almost  up  to  Cairo  from  Alexandria  to 
Port  Said;  almost  everywhere  there  was  direct 
canal.  The  Euphrates,  however,  is  barred  to  large 
navigation  at  Hit,  and  though  the  Tigris  is  navi- 
gable by  steamers  to  Mosul,  ancient  traffic  on  it, 
and  on  the  Euphrates,  too,  was  exclusively  down- 
stream; the  rivers  being  over-rapid  and  unfit  for 
towing;  the  upstream  wind  which  overcomes  the 
Nile  quite  absent;  and  the  boats  (or  more  often 
rafts)  far  more  valuable  for  timber  in  so  wood- 
less a  country  than  for  laborious  haulage  upstream. 
The  best  were,  and  are,  made  like  coracles,  of  skins 
on  a  wooden  frame,  and  returned,  folded  up,  on 
donkey-back. 

"The  basis  of  Babylonian  culture  was  the  intense 
fertility  of  the  alluvial  soil,  wherever  water  could 
be  applied  to  it  in  due  amount.  With  excess  of 
water  it  became  noisome  fen:  in  defect,  it  parched 
to  a  desert:  and  there  are  now  large  tracts  of 
utter  desert  within  the  limits  of  irrigation.  But 
the  two  valleys  were  there,  nevertheless,  and  could 
bring  goods  in,  if  they  could  not  convey  them  out. 
They  flowed,  moreover,  as  we  have  just  seen,  from 
regions  of  produce  which  Babylonia  lacked;  wine 
in  particular,  and  olive  oil;  timber,  too,  and 
bitumen  from  Hit,  for  building  and  for  water- 
proofing; and  stone,  above  all.  It  is  difficult  for 
us  now  to  conceive  the  limitations  under  which  an 
architect  worked,  when  a  stone  door-socket  was 
a  rich  gift  of  a  king  to  his  god,  and  was  rescued 
from  one  ruin  after  another,  to  be  re-used  and 
proudly  redcdicated.  Then  again  eastward,  be- 
yond Tigris,  there  was  trade  through  the  foothills 
to  a  nearer  timber-country,  and  beyond  it  to  sun- 
burned lands  of  spices  and  drugs.  Across  the 
desert,  too,  you  could  reach  another  spice-country 
in  the  south ;  and  westward  lay  the  Red  Sea  coast, 
for  coral,  copper,  and  other  hard  stones.  In  re- 
turn, what  Babylonia  had  to  offer  was,  first  its 
inexhaustible  surplus  of  foodstuff,  corn,  and  dates; 
much  wool,  of  finer  quality,  because  better  nour- 
ished, than  that  of  the  desert  breeds;  still  richer 
cargoes  of  woven  woollens,  'Babylonitish  gar- 
ments,' and  in  due  time  other  kinds  of  manufac- 
tures too.  It  became,  also,  needless  to  say,  a 
supreme  centre  of  exchange;  a  kind  of  ancient 
London,  whither  the  world's  produce  converged 
into  wholesale  hands,  and  was  retailed  over  vast 
distances  by  regular  correspondents  and  branch 
houses.  The  beasts  of  burden  were  the  ass  and 
man;  camel  and  horse  alike  belong  to  a  far  later 
age,  the  former  introduced  from  Arabia,  where 
it  is  native,  the  latter  from  the  east  beyond  the 
hills." — J.  L.  Myres,  Dawn  of  history,  pp.  84-96. 
— See  also  Commerce:  Ancient:  B.C.  1500-1000. 
Historical  sources. — "The  sources  for  the  his- 


784 


BABYLONIA 


Historical  Sources 
Monumental  Records 


BABYLONIA 


tory  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  may  be 
grouped  under  four  main  heads:  I.  The  monu- 
mental remains  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
themselves;  II.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  texts; 
III.  The  Old  Testament;  IV.  The  Greek  and  Latin 
writers.  Of  these  four  by  far  the  most  important 
in  every  particular  arc  the  monumental  remains 
of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  .  .  .  From  the 
mounds  that  cover  the  ancient  cities  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  there  has  come  a  vast  store  of  tab- 
lets, which  now  number  certainly  not  less  than 
five  hundred  thousand  in  the  various  museums  of 
the  world.  These  tablets  contain  the  literature  of 
the  two  pieoples,  a  literature  as  varied  in  form 
and  content  as  it  is  vast  in  extent.  In  the  end  all 
of  this  literature  may  be  considered  as  sources  lor 
history.  Many  business  tablets  are  dated,  and 
from  these  dates  much  may  be  learned  for  chro- 
nology, while  even  in  the  tablets  themselves  there 
is  matter  relating  to  the  daily  life  of  the  people, 
all  of  which  must  ultimately  be  valuable  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  social  history.  So  also  are 
all  religious  texts,  all  omens  and  incantations, 
sources  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  religious 
development.  But  the  primary  sources  are  the  so- 
called  royal  inscriptions,  those,  namely,  that  were 
written  for  kings,  for  their  libraries  and  collec- 
tions or  for  their  glorification.  These  divide, 
roughly,  into  two  main  classes;  A.  Legendary,  and 
D.  Historical  and  Chronological.  The  legends 
begin  in  mythological  explanations  of  the  mysteries 
of  the  physical  universe  and  pass  on  slowly  into 
stories  of  heroes  with  whom  were  mingled  various 
threads  of  real  history.  A  number  of  similar 
legends  have  been  preserved  for  us  in  their  original 
cuneiform,  of  which  the  myth  of  Adapa,  the  king 
of  Kutha,  and  the  legend  of  the  birth  of  Sargon 
are  excellent  examples.  From  these  and  similar 
legends  there  may,  in  some  instances,  be  extracted 
kernels  of  historic  truth  not  to  be  overlooked  by 
the  serious  investigator.  The  Babylonian  historical 
inscriptions  may  be  divided  into  two  great  per- 
iods: (a)  Those  belonging  to  the  period  before 
Hammurapi  {circa  2000  B.C.),  and  (b)  those 
from  Hamraurapi  to  Nabonidus  (555-539  B.C.). 
In  the  first  period  by  far  the  larger  portion  of 
the  texts  are  votive  inscriptions,  inscribed  upon 
objects  of  beauty  or  of  value  dedicated  to  the 
deities,  or  describing  such,  or  they  are  building 
inscriptions  primarily  given  to  the  description  of 
temples  erected  by  kings  or  princes  to  the  gods. 
.  .  .  The  only  historical  material  of  importance 
upon  such  documents  as  these  consists  in  the 
names,  titles,  and  more  or  less  extended  genealogi- 
cal connections  of  the  kings.  Some,  however,  of 
the  earlier  kings  .  .  .  give  various  details  of  polit- 
ical affairs  useful  in  the  reconstruction  of  events. 
By  far  the  most  important,  as  also  the  most  ex- 
tended, inscriptions  of  this  early  period  belong  to 
Gudea,  patesi  of  Lagash  (circa  2450  B.C.),  whose 
two  great  cylinders,  the  one  containing  about  eight 
hundred  lines  of  writing  and  the  other  about  five 
hundred,  give  a  marvellous  picture  of  the  com- 
mon life  and  thought  and  feeling,  as  well  as  some 
details  of  political  life  in  that  far  distant  age.  .  .  . 
All  these  kings  wrote  in  Sumerian.  although  signs 
of  Semitic  influence  are  not  altogether  wanting 
in  them.  .  .  .  With  Hammurapi  begins  the  new 
period  of  historical  writing,  as  there  also  began 
new  political  conditions  after  northern  and  south- 
ern Babylonia  had  been  united  under  his  skilful 
and  beneficent  sway.  From  this  time  onward  the 
language  is  prevailingly  Semitic,  but  the  style  and 
form  of  the  Sumerian  records  is  carefully  followed 
as  the  norm.  .  .  .  From  Hammurapi  to  Nabonidus, 
a  period  of  about  fifteen  millenniums,  the  Baby- 
Ionian  kings  wrote  always  with   a   deep   religious 


tone,  and  paying  almost  no  heed  to  miltary  glory, 
wrote  ever  of  the  building  of  temples  and  palaces, 
the  digging  of  canals,  or  other  great  works  of 
peace.  The  tone  of  all  these  texts  is  epic  rather 
than  historical,  and  their  rhvthm  and  cadence 
poetical  rather  than  prosaic.  The  texts  of  Ham- 
murapi are  both  numerous  and  lengthy,  and  from 
him  come  also  a  large  number  of  letters  and  des- 
patches, valuable  for  social  and  institutional  his- 
tory. No  other  king  of  the  first  Babylonian  dy- 
nasty has  left  considerable  documents  except  Sam- 
suiluna.  From  that  time  onward  there  are  periods 
of  bloom  in  historiography  in  the  periods  Kassites, 
the  Tellel-Amarna  letters  (q.v.),  and  Nebuchad- 
rezzar I,  after  whom  comes  a  great  dearth  of  the 
longer  texts.  There  is  a  renaissance  of  such  liter- 
ature again  in  the  days  of  Shamasshumikin  (668- 
648  B.C.),  reaching  its  height  in  Nebuchadrezzar 
II  (604-561  B.C.)  and  Nabonidus  (556-540  B.C.). 
In  addition  to  these  historical  sources  the  Babylon- 
ians and  Assyrians  have  left  a  great  mass  of  chron- 
ological material.  ...  In  respect  of  their  value 
as  sources  of  knowledge  these  monumental  re- 
mains can  only  be  said  to  be  as  valuable  r.s  the 
records  of  other  ancient  peoples.  They  bear  for 
the  most  part  the  stamp  of  reasonableness.  Often, 
indeed,  do  they  contain  palpable  exaggerations  of 
kingly  prowess,  of  victories,  and  of  conquests. 
They  therefore  require  sifting  and  rigid  criticism. 
But  in  most  cases  it  is  possible  to  learn  from  the 
issue  of  the  events  the  relative  importance  of 
them,  and  so  be  able  to  check  the  measure  of  ex- 
travagance in  the  narrative.  .  .  .  [See  also  His- 
tory: 14.] 

"Egyptian  hieroglyphic  texts  are  of  very 
slight  importance  as  direct  sources  of  knowledge 
concerning  the  political  history  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  but  they  contain  many  places  and  per- 
sonal names  useful  in  the  elucidation  of  corre- 
sponding names  in  Assyrian  texts.  The  gain  of  the 
Old  Testament  has  been  greater  from  Assyrian 
studies  than  the  reverse,  though  the  apologetic 
value  of  monumental  testimony  has  often  been 
greatly  exaggerated.  Nevertheless,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  was  interest  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment which  inspired  most  of  the  early  explorers 
and  excavators  and  some  of  the  earlier  decipherers 
and  interpreters,  and  that  from  the  historical 
notices  in  the  Old  Testament  came  not  a  few 
points  for  the  outworking  of  details  in  the  newly 
discovered  inscriptions.  The  historical  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  are  still  of  importance 
as  sources  for  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  history  are 
especially  2  Kings,  while  of  even  greater  impor- 
tance, in  many  instances,  are  the  prophets  Isaiah, 
Nahum,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  Old  Testament  makes  direct  and  valuable 
contributions  as  a  historical  source  only  from  745 
B.  C,  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Tiglathpileser 
IV.  The  notices  of  the  earlier  periods  are  too 
vague,  or  too  doubtful,  as  to  the  neriod  of  their 
origin  to  be  more  valuable  than  as  confirmatory 
or  supplementary  to  the  original  Babylonian  or 
Assyrian  texts. 

"As  sources  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers  once 
held  first  place,  but  are  now  reduced  to  a  very 
insignificant  position  by  the  native  monumental 
records.  Nevertheless,  they  still  retain  some  im- 
portance, and  need  constantly  to  be  used  to  check 
and  control  the  native  writers  as  well  as  to  assist 
in  the  ordering  of  their  more  detailed  materials. 
First  in  importance  among  all  the  classical  writers 
stands  Berossos,  or  Berosos,  for  so  the  name  is 
also  transliterated  into  Greek.  He  was  a  Babylon- 
ian by  origin,  and  a  priest  of  the  great  god  Bel. 
The  dates  of  his  birth  and  of  his  death  are  equally 
unknown,  but  it  is  clear  that  he  was  living  in  the 


785 


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Historical  Sources 
Greek  Authorities 


BABYLONIA 


days  of  Alexander  the  Great  (356-323  B.C.),  and 
continued  to  live  at  least  as  late  as  Antiochus  I 
Soter  (280-261  B.C.).  [See  Seleucidae:  B.C. 
281-224  and  B  C.  224-187.]  He  wrote  a  great 
work  on  Babylonian  history,  the  title  of  which 
was  probably  Babyloniaca.  ■  ■  ■  Urthappily.  the 
original  work  has  perished,  and  all  that  remains 
is  e.xcerpts  which  have  come  to  us  after  much 
copying  and  many  transfers  from  hand  to  hand 
.  .  .  From  Berossos  but  little  is  to  be  learned  of 
direct  value,  but  the  support  which  we  gain  from 
these  fragmentary  remains  for  the  general  course 
of  the  history  is  very  great.  .  .  .  The  next  Greek 
writer  who  comes  before  us  as  a  possible  source  is 
Ktesias,  a  contemporary  of  Xenophon.  He  came 
...  as  a  prisoner  of  war  to  Persia,  where  he  spent 
seventeen  years  at  the  court.  ...  In  3Qq  be  re- 
turned to  his  native  city,  and  in  the  ease  thus 
achieved  proceeded  to  work  up  into  historical  form 
the  materials  he  had  collected.  He  wrote  In 
twenty-three  books  a  history  of  Persia  in  the  Ionic 
dialect.  The  first  six  books  treated  the  history  of 
Assyria  and  Media.  .  .  .  His  work  was  extensively 
used  in  the  ancient  world,  and  wherever  quoted 
became  at  once  the  object  of  sharp  controversy. 
He  was  accused  of  being  untrustworthy  and  in- 
different to  truth,  and  the  charges  and  the  con- 
troversy continue  until  today.  .  .  .  The  first  six 
books,  relating  to  the  early  history  of  Assyria,  are 
valueless.  .  .  .  The  books  themselves  have  per- 
ished. Only  fragments  of  them  survive  in  the 
quotations  by  Diodorus  and  Eusebius  and  others, 
and  in  an  epitome  by  Pbotius.  For  our  purpose 
they  scarcely  come  into  the  question  at  all.  Last 
of  all  among  the  classical  writers  we  come  to 
Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Of  the  value  of 
his  works  as  a  source  very  diverse  opinions  have 
been  and  are  still  held.  From  him  surely  much 
was  expected.  Born  in  Halicarnassus,  in  Caria, 
B.  C.  484,  he  had  associations  with  the  greatest 
men  of  his  time,  and  apparently  planned  his  history 
with  skill  and  care.  He  desired  to  tell  of  the 
famous  events  in  the  struggle  between  the  Greek 
and  the  barbarian,  and  this  led  him  to  treat  of  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  Persian  war.  In  the  very 
first  book  (chapters  1-5)  he  begins  with  the  as- 
saults of  the  East  upon  the  West  by  telling  the 
story  of  the  rape  of  Helen  on  the  one  side  and 
the  story  of  Europa  and  Media  on  the  other. 
From  this  mythological  foundation  he  is  carried 
first  to  the  Lydians,  whose  king,  Croesus,  made 
the  first  attack  upon  the  Greeks  of  the  .-Egean 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  From  these  he  passes  to  the 
Egyptians,  the  Babylonians,  and  the  Scythians, 
who  prepare  the  way  for  the  Persians.  .  .  .  The 
work  of  Herodotus,  as  it  has  come  down  to  ns, 
divides  naturally  into  three  main  parts.  The  first 
is  mainly  concerned  with  Asia,  including  Egypt, 
and  covers  the  reigns  of  Cyrus  and  Gambyses,  with 
the  accession  of  Darius ;  the  second  deals  with 
Europe,  and  the  third  with  Hellas.  .  .  .  His  posi- 
tion was  very  different  from  the  modern  historian, 
for  he  could  learn  very  little  from  books.  He 
seems,  indeed,  to  have  used  the  Logographi  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  among  them  quite  certainly 
Hecatsus,  and  probably  Xaiillius.  and  Hcllanicuf. 
and  possibly  also  Dionysius.  From  them  he  had  to 
turn  to  see  what  might  be  learned  from  visits  to 
the  countries  which  he  was  to  de.*cribe,  and  whose 
story  he  was  to  tell.  His  first  long  journey  was 
probably  to  Pontus,  and  the  interior  of  .^sia  Minor, 
and  this  was  probably  undertaken  before  44S, 
while  he  was  still  a  subject  of  the  Persian  king. 
His  next  great  journey  was  to  Phoenicia  and  south- 
ern Syria From  there  he   went  southward, 

along  the  coast  or  always  near  it  to  Gaza  and  the 
very   confines   of    Egypt    at    Pclusium,   and    from 


there  he  entered  Egypt.  Before  this  journey  along 
the  coast  he  had  made  the  great  voyage  into  the 
heart  of  ancient  kingdoms,  starting  from  Tyre,  or 
from  Poseidon  on  the  coast  farther  north.  From 
this  he  probably  reached  the  Euphrates  and  went 
southward  to  Babylon  upon  its  waters.  So  much 
seems  reasonably  certain.  .  .  .  Professor  Sayce  has 
attempted  to  prove,  with  much  learning  and  great 
acuteness,  that  'he  never  visited  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia.' .  .  .  That  Professor  Sayce  has  proved  upon 
Herodotus  a  host  of  inaccuracies,  some  travelers' 
tales,  and  has  effectually  disposed  of  his  claims 
to  rank  as  an  independent  source  of  ancient  history 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  Yet  that  in  this  case,  as  m 
other  similar  modern  judgments,  there  is  an  excess 
of  skepticism  is  perhaps  no  less  true.  There  is  good 
reason  for  believing  that  Herodotus  had  really 
visited  Babylon,  for  the  topographical  details  which 
he  gives  bear  frequently  the  stamp  of  an  eyewit- 
ness. .  .  .  He  still  remains,  what  Cicero  called 
him,  the  father  of  history,  though  he  also  was  able 
to  recognize  that  his  books  contained  material  that 
could  hardly  be  called  historical.  When  this  is 
granted  quite  freely,  and  the  mistakes,  inaccura- 
cies, and  love  of  marvels  have  all  been  mentioned, 
we  have  gone  far  enough.  It  were  better  not  to 
have  doubted  his  essential  vcracit\',  nor  to  have 
despised  his  worth.  After  these  there  remain 
among  classical  writers  few  who  deserve  to  be 
mentioned  as  sources." — R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  pp.  377-396. 

Earliest  inhabitants. — "If  we  call  up  before  us 
the  land  of  Babylonia,  and  transport  ourselves 
backward  until  we  reach  the  period  of  more  than 
four  thousand  years  before  Christ,  we  shall  be  able 
to  discern  here  and  there  signs  of  life,  society,  and 
government  in  certain  cities.  Civilization  has  al- 
ready reached  a  high  point,  the  arts  of  life  are 
well  advanced,  nnd  men  are  ab'e  to  write  dov.n 
their  thoughts  and  deeds  in  intelligible  language 
and  in  permanent  form.  .Ml  these  presuppose  a 
long  period  of  development  running  back  through 
millenniums  of  unrecorded  time.  At  this  period 
there  are  no  great  kingdoms,  comprising  many 
cities,  with  their  laws  and  customs,  with  subject  ter- 
ritory and  tribute-paying  5tat?3.  Over  the  entire 
land  there  are  visible,  as  we  look  back  upon  it, 
only  cities  dissevered  in  government,  and  perhaps 
in  intercourse,  but  yet  the  promise  of  kingdoms 
still  unborn.  In  Babylonia  we  know  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  cities  .■\gade.  Babylon,  Kutha,  Kish, 
Umma,  Shirpuria  (afterward  called  Lagash),  Guti, 
and  yet  others  less  famous.  .  .  .  Impelled  by  re- 
ligion, by  hunger,  and  by  ambition,  the  peoples  of 
Babylonia,  who  have  dwelt  apart  in  separate 
cities,  begin  to  add  city  to  city,  concentrating 
power  in  the  hands  of  kings.  Herein  lies  the  origin 
of  the  great  empire  which  must  later  dominate 
the  whole  earth,  for  these  little  kingdoms  thus 
formed  later  united  under  the  headship  of  one 
kingdom  and  the  empire  is  founded.  At  the  very 
earliest  period  whose  written  records  have  come 
down  to  us  the  land  which  we  now  call  Babylonia 
was  divided  into  two  great  parts,  of  which  the 
southern  was  later  called  Sumcr  (q.v.)  and  the 
northern  .Accad  (see  .^kk.hd),  the  dividing  line 
between  them  being  approximately  drawn  from 
Samarra  on  the  Tigris  to  Hit  on  the  Euphrates. 
North  of  this  line  Accad  is  somewhat  undulating 
in  surface,  and  rises  gradually  to  unite  with  the 
steppe-like  lands  of  Mesopotamia  on  the  north- 
western and  Assyria  on  the  northeastern  slopes. 
South  of  this  imaginary  line  lies  the  monotonously 
level  and  alluvial  land  of  Sumer.  The  earliest 
Sumerian  inhabitants  known  to  us  called  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  later  known  as  .Accad, 
by  the  strange  and  still  unexplained  name  of  Ki-uri 


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Inhabitants 


BABYLONIA 


or  Ki-urra.  In  later  times  the  name  of  the  city 
of  Agade  was  extended  by  the  Semites  to  cover 
the  whole  of  the  northern  land,  and  was  Semitized 
in  the  form  Akkadu  or  Accad.  The  southern  part 
of  the  country,  in  which  the  Sumerians  were  first 
settled,  they  called  simply  Kartag.  ...  At  the 
earliest  period  of  which  we  have  knowledge  the 
land  of  Sumer  was  inhabited  by  the  rounded- 
headed,  clean-shaven  Sumerians,  and  the  land  of 
Accad  by  the  long-headed  and  bearded  Semites. 
Both  of  these  races  were  dwelling  in  cities,  with 
settled  agricultural  communities  about  them.  The 
Sumerians  were  writing  upon  carefully  prepared 
clay  their  own  language,  agglutinative  in  character, 
and  in  a  script  which  they  had  either  devised  or 
at  least  perfected  from  an  original  picture  writing. 
With  their  language  there  was  early  evident  some 
intermixture  with  or  borrowing  of  Semitic  words, 
and  there  was  presumably  also  a  Semitic  element 
in  the  population,  and  racial  intermixture  already 
in  progress.  At  this  same  period  Accad  was  in- 
habited by  Semites  who  had  taken  over  from 
their  Sumerian  neighbors  the  cumbrous  and  awk- 
ward cuneiform  script,  and  were  using  it  to  write 
their  own  tongue — [see  Cuneiform  Inscriptions] 
a  language  inflected  and  not  agglutinative,  and 
quite  unrelated  in  form  and  vocabulary  to  the 
Sumerian.  They  also  borrowed  Sumerian  words 
and  adapted  them  to  their  own  modes  of  speech. 
.  .  .  The  early  history  of  both  Semites  and  Sumeri- 
ans is  lost  in  a  dim  past  from  which  no  ray  of 
light  has  penetrated  to  our  time.  The  Semites  .  .  . 
probably  came  originally  from  Arabia,  but  the 
course  they  followed  is  quite  unknown. "^ — R.  W. 
Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  1-4. — 
See  Semites:  Primitive  Babylonia .^ — "We  are  now 
able  to  trace  the  history  of  the  Euphrates  Valley 
back  to  a  period  considerably  beyond  3000  B.C. 
At  that  early  date  there  were  two  distinct  ethnic 
groups  forming  the  main  body  of  the  population. 
As  depicted  on  the  monuments  and  works  of  art 
the  one  group  is  clean  shaven,  the  other  bearded, 
though  not  infrequently  with  the  upper  lip  shaved. 
The  former  group  is  marked  by  obliquely  set  eyes 
and  a  long  but  not  thick  nose,  and  by  thin  lips 
and  rather  high  cheek  bones,  the  other  has  the 
fleshy  nose  and  thick  lips  as  well  as  other  features 
characteristic  of  the  Semitic  race.  The  variation 
extends  to  the  dress,  a  flounced  garment  hanging 
from  the  waist  in  the  one  case,  a  plaid  thrown 
across  the  shoulder  and  draping  the  entire  body 
in  the  other.  The  group  with  the  racial  character- 
istics of  the  Semites  was  known  as  the  Akkadians; 
the  other,  a  non-Semitic  group,  but  whose  pos- 
sible affinities  with  other  races  has  not  yet  been 
determined,  bore  the  name  Sumerian.  The  centre 
of  the  Semitic  settlements,  at  the  time  when  the 
monumental  material  comes  into  view,  was  in  the 
northern  section  of  the  Euphrates  Valley,  while 
the  strongholds  of  the  Sumerians  were  in  the 
south.  The  Semites  appear  to  have  entered  the 
valley  from  the  northwest,  coming  down  from  the 
mountain  regions  of  Syria,  while  the  Sumerians — 
also  a  people  of  mountainous  origin — probably 
came  from  the  northwest,  though  this  is  still  a 
mooted  point.  Which  of  the  two  groups  came 
first  is  likewise  a  question  to  which  as  yet  no  defi- 
nite answer  can  be  given,  though  there  is  much 
in  favor  of  Eduard  Meyer's  view  that  the  Semites 
or  Akkadians  were  the  first  on  the  ground  and 
that  the  Sumerians  entered  the  land  as  conquerors, 
holding  the  Akkadians  in  subjection  for  many 
centuries,  until,  about  2500  B.  C.,  the  tide  began 
to  turn.  At  aliout  2100  B.C.  we  find  the  Akka- 
dians definitely  in  control  in  the  entire  Euphrates 
Valley  and  maintaining  the  suppremacy  <  ver  the 
Sumerians,  though   not   without   some   periods   of 


temporary  reaction  especially  in  the  extreme 
southern  section  where  the  Sumerians  managed  to 
retain  a  semblance  of  political   independence. 

"More  important  than  the  question  of  the  origi- 
nal settlement  of  the  Valley  is  the  rivalry  between 
Sumerians  and  Akkadians  which  directly  stimulated 
the  intellectual  qualities  of  both  groups  and  led 
to  the  high  order  of  culture  for  which  the  Euphra- 
tes Valley  became  distinguished.  It  will  be  found 
to  be  a  general  rule  that  civilizations  of  the  first 
rank  develop  through  the  commingling  of  the  two 
distinct  races,  entering  into  rivalry  with  each 
other.  Such  a  commingling  develops  the  best 
qualities  in  both.  To  distinguish  in  detail  the 
elements  contributed  bv  each  as  a  task  that  lies 
beyond  the  scope  of  a  survey  of  the  religious  views 
and  practices  unfolded  in  the  Euphrates  Valley. 
Obviously,  the  share  of  the  Sumerians  in  the  ear- 
lier periods  was  far  greater.  The  cuneiform  script 
developing  from  picture  writing  is  of  Sumerian 
origin.  The  oldest  documents  of  all  kinds  are 
written  in  Sumerian.  Later,  when  the  Akkadians 
began  to  obtain  control,  the  script  was  adapted 
to  conveying  thoughts,  facts  and  data  in  Akkadian, 
while  the  Sumerian,  though  for  a  long  time  sur- 
viving in  the  cult,  became  archaic,  and  even  be- 
fore this  stage  was  reached,  was  modified  by  the 
introduction  of  Akkadian  elements.  In  return 
many  distinctly  Sumerian  features  passed  over 
into  Akkadian,  and  externally  in  the  use  of  hun- 
dreds of  characters  used  ideographically,  the 
."Akkadian  continued  to  show  a  Sumerian  aspect. 
In  the  domain  of  architecture,  one  may  see  the 
result  of  the  commingling  of  the  two  races  in  the 
two  types  of  religious  edifices  that  arose  in  the 
important  centres  of  the  Euphrates  Valley,  (i)  the 
house  as  the  dwelling  of  the  deity  modelled  after 
the  human  habitation,  and  (2)  the  stage  tower, 
a  huge  brick  construction  of  considerable  height 
with  a  winding  ascent,  clearly  in  imitation  of  a 
mountain  with  a  road  leading  to  the  top,  as  the 
seat  of  the  deity.  The  house-mot;/  for  the  temple 
is  of  Semitic  origin,  while  the  stage  tower  is  the 
contribution  of  the  Sumerians  who,  accustomed 
in  their  mountain  homes  to  worship  their  deitie.i 
on  mountain  tops,  endeavored  to  symbolize  this 
belief  by  the  imitation  of  &  mountain  when  they 
came  to  a  perfectly  flat  country  like  the  Euphrates 
Valley." — M.  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,  pp.  50-52.  See  Architecture:  Ori- 
ental: Mesopotamia. — "Since  Sumir,  the  Shinar  of 
the  Bible,  was  the  first  part  of  the  country  occu- 
pied by  the  invading  Semites,  while  Accad  long 
continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  seat  of  an  alien 
race,  the  language'  and  population  of  primitive 
Chaldea  have  been  named  Accadian  by  the  ma- 
jority of  Assyrian  scholars.  The  part  played  by 
these  Accadians  in  the  intellectual  history  of  man- 
kind is  highly  important.  They  were  the  earliest 
civilizers  of  Western  Asia,  and  it  i.=  to  them  that 
we  have  to  trace  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  re- 
ligious traditions  and  the  philosophy  not  only  of 
the  Assyrians,  but  also  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Ara- 
maeans, and  even  the  Hebrews  themselves.  It  was, 
too,  from  Chaldea  that  the  germs  of  Greek  art  and 
of  much  of  the  Greek  pantheon  and  mythology 
originally  came.  Columnar  architecture  reached 
its  first  and  highest  development  in  Babylonia;  the 
lions  that  still  guard  the  main  entrance  of  My- 
kerne  are  distinctly  Assyrian  in  character;  and  the 
Greek  Heraklcs  with  his  twelve  labours  finds  his 
prototype  in  the  hero  of  the  great  Chaldean  eoic. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  of  our  present  cul- 
ture is  not  owed  to  the  stunted,  oblique-eyed 
people  of  ancient  Babylonia ;  Jerusalem  and  Athens 
are  the  sacred  cities  of  our  modern  life;  and  both 
Jerusalem  and  Athens  were  profoundly  influenced 


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Inhabitants 
Religion 


BABYLONIA 


by  the  ideas  which  had  their  first  starting-point  in 
primival  Accad.  The  Semite  has  ever  been  a 
trader  and  an  intermediary,  and  his  earhest  work 
was  the  precious  trade  in  spiritual  and  mental 
wares.  Babylonia  was  the  home  and  mother  of 
Semitic  culture  and  Semitic  inspiration;  the 
Phcenicians  never  forgot  that  they  were  a  colony 
from  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  the  Israelite  recounted 
that  his  father  Abraham  had  been  born  in  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees,  Almost  the  whole  of  the  .Assyrian 
literature  was  derived  from  Accad,  and  translated 
from  the  dead  language  of  primitive  Chaldea."— 
A.  H.  Sayce,  Babylonian  literature,  pp.  6-7,  and  in 
his  Ancient  empires  of  the  East,  app.  2. — ''The 
place  of  China  in  the  past  and  future  is  not  that 
which  it  was  long  supposed  to  be.  Recent  re- 
searches have  disclosed  that  its  civilization,  like 
ours,  was  variously  derived  from  the  same  old 
focus  of  culture  of  south-western  .Asia.  ...  It  was 
my  good  fortune  to  be  able  to  show,  in  an  un- 
interrupted series  of  a  score  or  so  of  papers  in 
periodicals,  of  communications  to  the  Royal  Asi- 
atic Society  and  elsewhere,  published  and  unpub- 
lished, and  of  contributions  to  several  works  since 
.April  1880,  downwards,  that  the  writing  and  some 
knowledge  of  arts,  science  and  government  of  the 
early  Chinese,  more  or  less  enumerated  below, 
were  derived  from  the  old  civilization  of  Babylonia, 
through  the  secondary  focus  of  Susiana,  and  that 
this  derivation  was  a  social  fact,  resulting  not  from 
scientific  teaching  but  from  practical  intercourse  of 
some  length  between  the  Susian  confederation  and 
the  future  civilizers  of  the  Chinese,  the  Bak  tribes, 
w'ho,  from  their  neighbouring  settlements  in  the  N., 
moved  eastwards  at  the  time  of  the  great  rising 
of  the  XXIII.  century  B.C.  Coming  again  in  the 
field.  Dr.  J.  Edkins  has  joined  me  on  the  same  line." 
— T.  de  Lacouperie,  Babylonia  and  China  (Academy, 
Aug.  7,  1880.) — "We  could  enumerate  a  long  series 
of  affinities  between  Chaldean  culture  and  Chinese 
civilization,  although  the  last  was  not  borrowed 
directly.  From  what  evidence  we  have,  it  seems 
highly  probable  that  a  certain  number  of  families 
or  of  tribes,  without  any  apparent  generic  namj, 
but  among  which  the  Kutta  filled  an  important 
position,  came  to  China  about  the  year  2500  B.C. 
These  tribes,  which  came  from  the  West,  'vere 
obliged  to  quit  the  neighbourhood,  probably  noith 
of  the  Susiana,  and  were  comprised  in  the  feudal 
agglomeration  of  that  region,  where  they  must 
have  been  influenced  by  the  .Akkado-Chaldean  cul- 
ture."— T.  de  Lacouperie,  Early  history  of  Chinese 
civilization,  p.  32. — See  also  China:  Origin  of  the 
People. 

Religion. — From  animism  "  to  polytheism.— 
"The  Babylonian-.Assyrian  religion  in  its  oldest 
form  as  revealed  by  the  votive  inscriptions  of 
Sumcrian  rulers  and  by  specimens  of  literature  that 
may  with  great  probability  be  carried  back  to  the 
earliest  period,  is  long  past  the  stage  of  primitive 
beliefs,  though  it  shows  traces  that  in  its  concep- 
tion of  divine  government  of  the  universe  it  started 
from  what  is  commonly  termed  animism.  By  this 
term  is  meant  a  view  of  nature  ascribing  life  to 
all  phenomena  and  ot  the  same  order  as  th?  vital 
force  that  manifest?,  itself  in  human  and  animal 
activity.  Under  this  view  the  gods  worshipped 
by  man  are  personifications  cillicr  of  phenomena 
of  nature  or  of  objects  in  nature,  primarilv  the 
sun,  the  moon,  the  storm  'with  its  accompanim3nt 
of  rain,  thunder  and  lightning),  the  earth,  water 
(including  streams  and  wells),  trees  and  rocks 
Religion  being  the  partly  emotional,  partly  intel- 
lectual response  to  an  instinct,  confirmed  bv  ex- 
perience, that  man  is  not  the  .irbiter  of  his  fate, 
it  is  natural  for  him  to  make  the  effort  to  sup- 
plement his  inherent  and  self-evident  weakness  In 


the  presence  of  nature  by  securing  the  aid  of 
powers  upon  whose  favor  he  is  dependent.  The 
storm  destroys  his  handiwork,  and  therefore  to 
avoid  the  catastrophe  he  seeks  the  favor  of  the 
power  manifesting  itself  in  the  storm.  The  stream 
may  sink  his  primitive  craft  and  therefore,  before 
trusting  himself  to  the  treacherous  element,  he 
endeavors  to  assure  himself  of  the  favor  of  the 
spirit  or  power  residing  in  the  water.  When  he 
advances  to  the  agricultural  stage,  the  earth  and 
the  sun  are  the  two  forces  that  in  the  main  condi- 
tion his  welfare;  and  as  a  consequence  he  personi- 
fies the  earth  as  a  mother  in  whose  womb  the  seed 
has  been  placed,  which  with  the  cooperation  of 
the  sun  is  brought  to  fruition.  Starting  from  this 
animistic  conception  of  nature,  the  Sumerians  and 
.Akkadians  developed  a  pantheon,  all  the  members 
of  which  take  their  rise  as  personified  powers  of 
nature.  In  thus  grouping  the  gods  into  a  more  or 
less  definite  relationship — and  that  is  involved  in 
the  creation  of  a  pantheon — the  religion  passes  be- 
yond the  animistic  stage.  The  gods  in  the  larger 
centres  become,  primarily,  the  protectors  of  the 
place,  and  as  the  group  enlarges  its  geographical 
boundaries,  the  jurisdiction  and  the  attributes  of 
a  local  god  are  correspondingly  increased.  He  be- 
comes, irrespective  of  his  original  character,  the 
protector  of  the  fields,  the  guardian  of  the  army; 
it  is  he  who  gives  victory  over  the  enemy  and 
when  misfortunes  come,  it  is  the  god  who  sends 
the  punishment  because  of  anger  that  has  been 
aroused  in  him.  The  combination  of  little  groups 
into  a  powerful  state  brings  about  further  changes, 
and  as  one  state  comes  to  exercise  a  sovereignty 
over  other  combinations  of  groups,  the  gods  of 
the  various  localities  are  organized  after  the  pat- 
tern of  human  society  into  a  royal  court  with 
gradations  in  rank,  corresponding  to  the  class  dis- 
tinctions that  grow  in  complication  as  combina- 
tions of  groups  result  in  the  formation  of  a  po- 
litical unit. 

"Of  the  chief  local  gods  which  thus  take  on  a 
larger  character  we  may  single  out  Enki,  whom 
the  Akkadians  designated  as  Ea,  and  who  from 
being  the  patron  deity  of  Eridu,  lying  at  the  head 
of  'he  Persian  Gulf,  becomes  the  god  of  waters 
in  general.  Another  deity,  Enlil,  originally  a  storm- 
god  and  associated  with  the  old  Sumerian  centre. 
Nippur,  becomes  the  head  of  the  Sumerian  pan- 
theon because  of  the  importance  which  Nippur  ac- 
quired, in  part  political,  in  part  due  to  the  posi- 
tion of  Nippur  as  a  religious  centre.  .As  such, 
Enlil  acquires  attributes  originally  foreign  to  his 
nature.  He  becomes  an  agricultural  deity  and  is 
addressed  in  terms  which  show  that  he  has  ab- 
sorbed the  power  ascribed  to  the  sun  and  water 
as  well.  .At  Shirpuria,  another  Sumerian  centre, 
the  chief  deity  is  Ningirsu  [Ninib],  a  personifica- 
tion of  the  sun,  who  becomes  a  powerful  warrior, 
with  a  mighty  net  in  which  he  catches  the  soldiers 
of  the  enemy.  In  the  later  period  Marduk,  again 
a  solar  deit\',  as  the  patron  of  the  city  of  Baby- 
lon, becomes  supreme  over  all  the  gods  when 
Babylon  rises  to  the  position  of  the  capital  of  the 
Babylonian  empire.  With  this  step,  finally 
achieved  by  the  great  Hammurapi  (2125-2081 
B.  C),  the  attributes  of  all  the  other  great  gods  are 
bestowed  on  Marduk,  and  such  tendencies  toward 
a  monotheistic  conception  of  the  universe  as  are 
to  be  noted  in  the  course  of  the  development  of 
the  Babylonian  religion  gather  about  his  cult.  The 
proximity  of  Borsippa  to  Babylon  (lying  almost 
opposite  the  latter)  brought  about  a  close  asso- 
ciation between  Marduk  and  the  local  deity  of 
Borsippa,  known  as  Nabu  INebo],  who  may  have 
been  originally  a  personification  of  the  watery 
element — perhaps  the  god  of  the  Euphrates  more 


788 


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Polytheism 
Creation  Myths 


BABYLONIA 


particularly.  The  relationship  between  Marduk 
and  Nabu  i5  pictured  as  that  of  father  to  son,  and 
to  such  an  extent  are  the  original  traits  of  Nabu 
obscured  that  he  becomes  merely  a  somewhat 
pale  reflection  of  Marduk — a  junior  Marduk  by 
the  side  of  a  senior.  In  the  same  way  we  have  in 
the  many  other  iocahties  of  southern  and  northern 
Babylonia  deities  closely  associated  with  a  place 
as  patron  and  guardian  who  are  originally  per- 
sonifications of  the  sun,  moon,  water,  earth  or  the 
storm,  but  whose  original  character  tends  to  be- 
come obscured  through  one  circumstance  or  an- 
other, concomitant  with  changes  in  the  political 
kaleidoscope  and  with  advancing  social  conditions. 

"It  thus  happens  that  a  widely  diffused  poly- 
theism continues  to  be  the  striking  feature  of  the 
Babylonian-Assyrian  religion,  despite  the  counter 
endeavors  to  devise  theological  systems  that  aimed 
to  reduce  the  many  gods  to  a  limited  number  of 
superior  powers  in  actual  control  of  the  universe. 
Between  these  two  tendencies,  the  one  towards  pro- 
viding a  place  for  literally  hundreds  of  deities,  the 
other  towards  concentrating  actual  divine  power  in 
a  limited  number,  the  Babylonian-Assyrian  reli- 
gion runs  its  course  The  former  tendency  leads 
further  towards  recognizing,  besides  hundreds  of 
deities,  a  large  number  of  minor  divine  beings, 
demons  pictured  in  human  or  animal  form  to  whom 
diseases  and  all  kinds  of  mishaps  are  assigned. 
The  latter  tendency  has  its  outcome  in  the  division 
of  divine  government  among  three  powers.  There 
are  several  groups  of  such  triads.  Foremost  stands 
a  triad  composed  of  Anu,  to  whom  the  control  of 
the  heavens  is  assigned;  Enlil,  who  rules  the  earth 
and  the  atmosphere  above  it,  and  Ea,  who  rep- 
resents the  watery  element  surrounding  the  earth, 
and  on  which  the  earth  is  supposed  to  float  like  a 
rubber  ball.  In  the  case  of  all  three  gods  all  local 
limitations  have  entirely  disappeared,  as  have  all 
traces  of  the  specific  power  of  nature  originally 
personified  by  each  of  them.  Less  artificial  in 
character  and  of  more  practical  import  is  another 
triad  frequently  occurring  in  inscriptions  and  in- 
variably depicted  by  symbols  on  the  boundary 
stones,  consisting  of  Sin,  the  moon-god,  Shamash, 
the  sun-god,  and  Ishtar,  the  planet  Venus,  symbol- 
izing the  great  mother  goddess,  the  source  of  life 
and  fertility.  These  three  gods  represent  the 
chief  powers  upon  which  man  is  dependent,  sum- 
ming up,  as  it  were,  the  chief  protectors  of  human 
life  and  the  chief  guides  of  his  being.  In  place  of 
Ishtar,  Adad,  a  general  god  of  storm?  who  never 
appears  to  have  had  any  specific  local  cult,  is  in- 
troduced, and  not  infrequently  we  have,  instead 
of  a  triad,  a  group  of  four, — Sin,  Shamash,  Adad 
and  Ishtar,  in  which  combination  the  latter  rep- 
resents the  female  element  in  general,  essential  as 
a  complement  to  the  male  to  produce  the  mani- 
festation of  life  in  the  universe. 

"The  gods  exist  according  to  the  Babylonian- 
Assyrian  point  of  view  in  order  to  be  worshiped. 
They  feel  lonely  without  temples,  and  in  one  of 
the  accounts  of  creation  the  gods  are  represented 
as  creating  mankind  in  order  to  have  temples  and 
worshipers.  In  return,  the  gods  act  as  protectors 
of  humanity,  although  in  the  early  period  of  pre- 
dominating local  cults  each  god  is  interested  only 
in  those  who  dwell  within  his  jurisdiction.  Suc- 
cess in  undertakings,  good  crops,  business  ventures, 
health,  possessions,  victory  in  arms — all  come 
through  the  favor  of  the  gods.  The  aim  of  the 
cult,  therefore,  is  to  secure  and  happily  to  retain 
the  good-will  of  the  gods.  The  gods  must  be 
kept  in  good  humor.  They  crave  homage,  and 
woe  to  the  ruler  or  people  who  neglect  to  pay  the 
proper  respect  to  the  gods.  By  a  natural  corol- 
lary, all  misfortunes  are  ascribed  to  the  anger  of 


the  gods.  Bad  crops,  defeat  in  battle,  pestilence, 
destructive  storms,  mishaps  of  all  kinds,  including 
failure  in  business,  are  the  punishments  sent  by 
offended  gods.  The  theory  was  a  convenient  one, 
for  it  shifted  the  responsibility  from  one's  own 
shoulders  for  ill-fortune  and  placed  it  on  the  gods, 
but  on  the  other  hand  there  was  also  some  reason 
for  the  anger  of  the  superior  powers,  albeit  one 
was  not  always  able  to  fathom  it.  This  theory  of 
the  alternate  favor  and  anger  of  the  gods  formed 
the  basis  of  religious  ethics  as  well ;  it  dominates 
the  view  taken  of  sin,  for  sin  meant  the  commis- 
sion of  an  act  or  an  omission  of  one,  resulting 
in  arousing  the  anger  of  some  deity.  Such  an 
omission  might  consist  in  not  bringing  tribute  of 
in  not  asking  for  his  assistance  in  any  undertaking, 
while  the  commission  might  be  an  error  in  pro- 
nouncing certain  formulje  or  a  mistake  in  the 
performance  of  some  religious  rite.  By  the  side  of 
such  acts  or  misdeeds,  not  involving  a  breach  of 
ethics  from  our  point  of  view,  there  were  also 
actual  transgressions,  such  as  lying,  cheating,  steal- 
ing, adultery,  treachery,  cruelty,  failure  to  show 
proper  consideration  for  one's  parents  or  for  one's 
fellows  or  neglect  of  other  duties  that  would  arouse 
the  displeasure  of  a  god.  The  genuine  ethical 
element  thus  enters  into  the  religion,  but  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  status  of  the  religion  that 
down  to  the  latest  period  no  distinction  is  made 
between  an  ethical  misdeed  and  a  purely  ritualistic 
transgression  or  omission.  The  appeal  to  the  gods 
was  made  by  certain  acts  and  rites,  more  or  less 
symbolical,  accompanied  by  the  recital  of  certain 
formula  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  making  a 
direct  appeal  either  for  the  manifestation  of  di- 
vine power  or  for  the  removal  of  a  god's  dis- 
pleasure. The  aspects  of  the  cult  thus  resulting 
may  be  grouped  under  two  categories,  (i)  incan- 
tations, shading  off  into  prayers  and  hymns,  ac- 
companied by  rites  to  symbolize  the  release  of  a 
sufferer  from  disease  or  from  some  other  evil,  and 
(2)  divination  methods  to  ascertain  the  disposi- 
tion and  by  implication  the  intention  of  a  deity, 
and  thus  to  forestall  impending  evil,  or  at  all 
events  to  be  prepared  for  the  blow,  if  it  was  in- 
evitable."— M.  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Religion  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  pp.  53-63. — See  also  Assyria: 
People,  religion  and  early  history;  Religion:  B.C. 
2000-200. 

Creation  myths. — "In  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
various  creation  myths  were  developed.  One  of 
the  oldest  assumes  the  existence  of  the  earth  and 
narrates  the  building  of  cities  and  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture.  Another,  which  is  known 
only  through  the  broken  tablet  written  about  2100 
B.  C,  attributes  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
triad  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea,  together  with  the  goddess 
Ninkharsag,  while  Nintu  or  Ishtar  created  man- 
kind. The  best  known  of  these  myths  was  in  late 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  times  developed  into  an 
epic  in  seven  tablets  or  cantos.  The  essence  of 
this  story  is  that  Tiamat,  the  great  mother-dragon 
of  the  sea,  determined  to  destroy  the  gods  whom 
she  had  borne.  They  then  chose  one  of  their 
number,  Marduk,  to  fight  her;  he  overcame  her, 
split  her  in  two,  and  formed  of  one  part  of  her 
the  heavens  and  of  the  other  the  earth.  This  is 
evidence  that  in  substance  this  myth  is  very  old 
and  that,  in  earlier  forms  of  it,  Enlil  of  Nippur 
and  Ea  of  Eridu  had  stood  in  place  of  Marduk. 
In  still  another  creation-myth  the  god  Ashur  is 
the  chief  actor.  Such  a  myth  was  the  natural 
product  of  lower  Babylonia,  where,  on  account  of 
the  annual  overflow  of  the  rivers,  the  sea  seems 
to  come  and  try  to  overwhelm  the  land.  Other 
myths  relate  to  various  matters.  Two  are  con- 
cerned with   the   acquisition   of   knowledge  on  the 


789 


BABYLONIA 


Civic  Life 
Early  Monarchy 


BABYLONIA 


part  of  man.  According  to  one  of  these,  pre- 
served to  us  by  Berosos,  Oannes  (a  late  name  for 
Ea)  was  a  fish-god  who  lived  in  the  water  at 
night,  but  came  up  by  day  and  taught  men  ag- 
riculture, horticulture,  the  art  of  building  houses, 
and  how  to  make  laws.  According  to  another, 
called  the  Adapa-myth,  Ea  feared  lest  man,  who 
had  become  intelligent,  should  partake  of  the  food 
of  the  gods  and  become  immortal.  At  a  time 
when  Ea  knew  that  other  gods  would  offer  Adapa 
such  food  he  warned  Adapa  not  to  partake  of  it, 
lest  it  destroy  him.  Adapa  obeyed  Ea  and  thus 
missed  immortality.  These  myths  reflect  the  feel- 
ing that,  whije  the  gods  are  willing  to  help  man 
up  to  a  certain  point,  they  are  jealous  of  his  too 
great  advancement." — G.  A.  Barton,  Religions  of 
the  world,  pp.  26-28. 

Social  structure. — Temple  as  civic  center. — 
"With  manufactures  and  commerce  standing  so 
high  in  the  economy  of  Babylonia,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  if  the  social  structure  of  the  country 
developed  some  of  the  same  features  as  begin  to 
perplex  our  modern  world.  In  particular,  the 
right  was  fully  recognized,  to  practise  industry 
and  skill  and  enjoy  the  fruits  of  them,  irrespective 
of  sex.  Not  only  was  the  status  of  married  women 
high  (for  their  partnership  was  valued)  and  their 
freedom  great,  but  a  distinct  industrial  status  had 
been  found  for  unmarried  women,  in  large  co- 
operative societies  under  religious  sanction,  with 
vows  of  celibacy  and  strict  attention  to  business. 
Unlike  mediaeval  nuns,  however,  members  of  these 
orders  were  free  mistresses  of  their  time  and  la- 
bour: they  lived  where  they  would  and  worked 
at  what  they  liked,  insured  by  their  membership, 
so  long  as  they  kept  their  vows,  and  paid  their 
dues.  The  only  social  distinctions  were  those  be- 
tween slaves  and  freemen,  and  between  landless 
(which  practically  meant  industrial)  persons,  and 
land  owners.  The  latter  class  included  all  public 
servants,  because  public  services,  as  in  medieval 
Europe,  were  rewarded,  not  by  salaries,  but  by  a 
grant  of  land  sufficient  to  maintain  the  official  and 
meet  the  expenses  of  his  duty.  Privilege  entailed 
responsibility ;  and  offenders  were  punished  more 
heavily  if  they  belonged  to  the  'upper  classes'; 
doctors'  fees  were  graduated,  too,  according  to 
the  status  of  the  patient.  .\t  the  other  end  of  the 
scale,  slaves  could  save,  hold  property,  and  buy 
their  freedom ;  their  state,  as  throughout  the  an- 
cient world,  was  at  bottom  a  compulsory  initiation 
into  culture  higher  than  their  own. 

"Each  Babylonian  city  centred  round  the  temple 
of  its  patron  god;  and  the  antiquity  of  this  whole 
system  of  society  is  nowhere  better  illustrated  than 
in  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  temple  authori- 
ties. It  recalls  more  nearly  the  despotism  of  the 
priest-kings  of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty  than  any 
earlier  phase  in  the  growth  of  society  in  Egypt. 
The  chief  priest  of  the  temple  was  ruler  of  the 
city.  When  conquests  took  place,  and  Babylonian 
empires  were  built  up,  the  conqueror  provided  all 
the  viceroys  he  required,  by  appointing  a  man 
whom  he  could  trust,  to  be  chief  priest  in  each 
place.  This  personal  rule  was  well  suited  to  the 
needs  of  such  cities.  In  a  close-knit  industrial  so- 
ciety, preeminent  ability  discovers  itself,  incompe- 
tence is  found  out:  and  as  the  patron  god  was  at 
the  same  time  largest  landlord,  chief  employer,  and 
master  merchant,  he  had  the  largest  interest  of  any 
one  in  the  selection  of  an  efficient  minister.  In 
this  way  a  city  got  approximately  the  government 
it  de.served.  It  is  to  the  centralized  personal  re- 
sponsibility, which  is  the  mainspring  of  these 
simple  constitutions,  that  we  owe  a  large  part  of 
our  knowledge  of  their  working,  through  the  co- 
pious official  correspondence  which  passed  between 


over-lords  like  Hammurabi  and  his  viceroys,  or 
the  natural  pride  of  an  administrator  like  Gudea 
of  Tello,  in  recording  his  own  efficiency.  The 
temple  formed  a  distinct  quarter  of  the  city,  and 
had  usually  a  distinctive  name.  It  consisted  of  an 
artificial  mound,  high  enough,  like  the  'Tower  of 
Babel'  itself,  to  out-top  the  severest  inundation, 
with  a  platform  large  enough  to  contain  the  house 
of  the  god,  which  was  exactly  modelled  on  the 
palace  of  a  king,  just  as  his  daily  service  was,  on 
the  routine  of  a  royal  household.  The  deity  takes 
his  meals,  hears  music,  sleeps,  walks  in  his  garden 
or  tends  his  pet  animals,  just  like  a  human  sov- 
ereign. If  he  is  not  there  when  you  call  upon 
him,  it  is  because  he  is  a-hunting,  like  Baal  on 
Carmel.  Below  clustered  the  stores,  workshops, 
and  dwellings  of  the  temple  servants,  who  included 
masons,  smiths,  and  other  industrials:  as  well  as 
the  quarters  of  the  lay  population.  Other  im- 
portant buildings  occupied  similar  platforms.  Orig- 
inally perhaps  these  mounds  were  the  normal  ac- 
cumulation of  ages  of  debris,  more  copious  than 
ever  when  architecture  was  almost  wholly  in  mud; 
but  in  later  times  they  seem  to  have  been  faced 
with  decorative  brickwork  and  adapted  as  flood- 
platforms,  like  those  of  the  temples.  .\ny  building 
in  fact  which  was  intended  to  last,  had  perforce 
to  be  defended  so.  in  this  home-country  of  the  del- 
uge. But  the  ordinary  houses  were  not  worth 
preserving  long.  They  were  the  merest  hovels  of 
mud-brick,  little  more  than  sleeping-rooms  and 
shelters  from  the  sun,  with  verandahs  of  shittim- 
wood  from  the  fen  poplar.  Baked  brick  was  in- 
deed in  use,  even  in  the  earliest  layers,  but  mainly 
for  palaces  and  temples.  In  the  absence  of  na- 
tive stone,  sculpture  was  a  rarity;  and  the  Euphra- 
tes mud  bakes  to  a  dull  brown,  which  defies 
decoration.  Of  all  the  great  civilizations,  Baby- 
lonia alone  contributes  nothing  essential  to  the 
potter's  art." — J.  L.  Myres,  Damn  of  history,  pp. 
q8-ioo. — See  also  Temples;  Stage  of  culture  rep- 
resented by   temple   architecture. 

Early  (Chaldean)  monarchy. — "Our  earliest 
glimpse  of  the  political  condition  of  Chaldea  shows 
us  the  country  divided  into  numerous  small  states, 
each  headed  by  a  great  city,  made  famous  and 
powerful  by  the  sanctuary  or  temple  of  some  par- 
ticular deity,  and  ruled  by  a  patesi.  a  title  which 
is  now  thought  to  mean  priest-king,  i.e.,  priest  and 
king  in  one.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
beginning  of  the  city  was  ever>vvhere  the  temple, 
with  its  college  of  ministering  priests,  and  that  the 
surrounding  settlement  was  gradually  formed  by 
pilgrims  and  worshippers.  That  royalty  developed 
out  of  the  priesthood  is  also  more  than  probable. 
.  .  .  There  comes  a  time  when  for  the  title  of 
patesi  ,s  substituted  that  of  king.  ...  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  distinction  between  the  Semitic  new- 
comers and  the  indigenous  Shumiro-.Accadians  con- 
tinues long  to  be  traceable  in  the  names  of  the 
royal  temple-builders,  even  after  the  new  Semitic 
idiom,  which  we  call  the  .'\ssyrian,  had  entirely 
ousted  the  old  language.  .  .  .  Furthermore,  even 
superfical  observation  shows  that  the  old  language 
and  the  old  names  survive  longest  in  Shumir, — the 
South.  From  this  fact  it  is  to  be  inferred  with 
little  chance  of  mistake  that  the  North, — the  land 
of  Accad, — was  earlier  Semitized,  that  the  Semitic 
immigrants  established  their  first  headquarters  in 
that  part  of  the  country,  that  their  power  and 
influence  thence  spread  to  the  South  .  Fully  in  ac- 
cordance with  these  indications,  the  first  grand  his- 
torical figure  that  meets  us  at  the  threshold  of 
Chaldean  history,  dim  with  the  mists  of  ages  and 
fabulous  traditions,  yet  unmistakably  real,  is  that 
of  the  Semite  Sharrukin,  king  of  Accad,  or  Agade, 
as  the  great  Northern  city  came  to  be  called — more 


790 


BABYLONIA 


Position  of  Babylon 
First  Empire 


BABYLONIA 


generally  known  in  history  under  the  corrupt  mod- 
ern reading  of  Sargon,  and  called  Sargon  I.,  'the 
First,'  to  distinguish  him  from  a  very  famous 
Assyrian  monarch  of  the  same  name  who  reigned 
many  centuries  later.  As  to  the  city  of  Agade,  it 
is  no  other  than  the  city  of  Accad  mentioned  in 
Genesis  x,  lo.  It  was  situated  close  to  the  Euphra- 
tes on  a  wide  canal  just  opposite  Sippar,  so  that 
in  time  the  two  cities  came  to  be  considered  as 
one  double  city,  and  the  Hebrews  always  called 
it  'the  two  Sippars' — Sepharvaim,  which  is  often 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible.  .  .  .  The  tremendously  an- 
cient date  of  3800  B.  C.  is  now  generally  accepted 
for  Sargon  of  Agade — perhaps  the  remotest  au- 
thentic date  yet  arrived  at  in  history." — Z.  A. 
Ragozin,  Story  oj  Chaldea,  cli.  4. — See  also  Akkad; 
Assyria;  Chaldaea;  Elam;  Khassites;  Sumer. 

Also  in:  G.  Rawlinson,  Five  great  monarchies: 
Chaldea,  ch.  8. 

Position  and  importance  of  Babylon  (q.v.).— 
"This  continued  preeminence  of  a  single  city  is  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  ephemeral  authority  of  ear- 
lier capitals,  and  it  can  only  be  explained  by  some 
radical  change  in  the  general  conditions  of  the 
country.  One  fact  stands  out  clearly:  Babylon's 
geographical  position  must  have  endowed  her  dur- 
ing this  period  with  a  strategical  and  commercial 
importance  which  enabled  her  to  survive  the  rudest 
shocks  to  her  material  prosperity.  A  glance  at  the 
map  will  show  that  the  city  lay  in  the  north  of 
Babylonia,  just  below  the  confluence  of  the  two 
great  rivers  in  their  lower  course.  Built  originally 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  she  was  pro- 
tected by  its  stream  from  any  sudden  incursion 
of  the  desert  tribes.  At  the  same  time  she  was  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  broad  expanse  of  al- 
luvial plain  to  the  south-east,  intersected  by  its 
network  of  canals.  But  the  real  strength  of  her 
position  lay  in  her  near  neighbourhood  to  the 
trans-continental  routes  of  traffic.  When  approach- 
ing Baghdad  from  the  north  the  Mesopotamian 
plain  contracts  to  a  width  of  some  thirty-live 
miles,  and,  although  it  has  already  begun  to  ex- 
pand again  in  the  latitude  of  Babylon,  that 
city  was  well  within  touch  of  both  rivers.  She 
consequently  lay  at  the  meeting-point  of  two  great 
avenues  of  commerce.  The  Euphrates  route  linked 
Babylonia  with  Northern  Syria  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  was  her  natural  line  of  contact  with 
Egypt ;  it  also  connected  her  with  Cappadocia,  by 
way  to  the  Cilician  Gates  through  the  Taurus, 
along  the  track  of  the  later  Royal  Road.  Farther 
north  the  trunk-route  through  Anatolia  from  the 
west,  reinforced  by  tributary  routes  from  the 
Black  Sea,  turns  at  Sivas  on  the  Upper  Halys,  and 
after  crossing  the  Euphrates  in  the  mountains, 
first  strikes  the  Tigris  at  Diarbekr;  then  leaving 
that  river  for  the  easier  plain,  it  rejoins  the 
stream  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nineveh  and  so 
advances  southward  to  Susa  or  to  Babylon.  A 
third  great  route  thSt  Babylon  controlled  was  that 
to  the  east  through  the  Gates  of  Zatros,  the 
easiest  point  of  penetration  to  the  Iranian  plateau 
and  the  natural  outlet  of  commerce  from  Northern 
Elam.  Babylon  thus  lay  across  the  stream  of  the 
nations'  traffic,  and  in  the  direct  path  of  any 
invader  advancing  upon  the  southern  plains.  That 
she  owed  her  importance  to  her  strategic  position, 
and  not  to  any  particular  virtue  on  the  part  of 
her  inhabitants,  will  be  apparent  from  the  later 
history  of  the  country.  It  has  indeed  been  pointed 
out  that  the  geographical  conditions  render  neces- 
sary the  existence  of  a  great  urban  centre  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Mesopotamian  rivers.  And  this 
fact  is  amply  attested  by  the  relative  positions  of 
the  capital  cities,  which  succeeded  one  another  in 
that  region  after  the  supremacy  had  passed  from 


Babylon.  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon  and  Baghdad  are 
all  clustered  in  the  narrow  neck  of  the  Mesopo- 
tamian plain,  and  for  only  one  short  period,  when 
normal  conditions  were  suspended,  has  the  centre 
of  government  been  transferred  to  any  southern 
city.  The  sole  change  has  consisted  in  the  per- 
manent selection  of  the  Tigris  for  the  site  of  each 
new  capital,  with  a  decided  tendency  to  remove 
it  to  the  left  or  eastern  bank.  That  the  Euphrates 
should  have  given  place  in  this  way  to  her  sister 
river  was  natural  enough  in  view  of  the  latter's 
deeper  channel  and  better  water  way,  which  gained 
in  significance  as  soon  as  the  possibility  of  mari- 
time communication  was  contemplated." — L.  W. 
King,  History  of  Babylon,  pp.  4-5. — See  also 
Mesopotamia. 

First  Babylonian  empire. — "The  rise  of  Baby- 
lon to  a  position  of  preeminence  among  the  war- 
ring dynasties  of  Sumer  and  Akkad  may  be  re- 
garded as  sealing  the  final  triumph  of  the  Semite 
over  the  Sumerian.  His  survival  in  the  long  ra- 
cial contest  was  due  to  the  reinforcements  he  re- 
ceived from  men  of  his  own  stock,  whereas  the 
Sumerian  population,  when  once  settled  in  the 
country,  was  never  afterwards  renewed.  The  great 
Semitic  wave,  under  which  the  Sumerian  sank  and 
finally  disappeared,  reached  the  Euphrates  from 
the  coast-lands  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 
But  the  Amurru,  or  Western  Semites,  like  their 
predecessors  in  Northern  Babylonia,  had  come  orig- 
inally from  Arabia.  For  it  is  now  generally  rec- 
ognized that  the  Arabian  peninsula  was  the  first 
home  and  cradle  of  the  Semitic  peoples.  [See 
Semites:  Primitive.] 

'  "There  is  no  doubt  that  Sumu-la-ilum  was  the 
real  founder  of  Babylon's  greatness  as  a  military 
power.  We  have  the  testimony  of  his  later  de- 
scendant Samsuiluna  to  the  strategic  importance 
of  the  fortresses  he  built  to  protect  his  country's 
extended  frontier;  and,  though  DQr-Zakar  of  Nip- 
pur is  the  only  one  the  position  of  which  can  be 
approximately  iSentified,  we  may  assume  that  the 
majority  of  these  lay  along  the  east  and  south  sides 
of  Akkad,  where  the  greatest  danger  of  invasion 
was  to  be  anticipated.  It  does  not  seem  that 
Nippur  itself  passed  at  this  time  under  more  than 
a  temporary  control  by  Babylon,  and  we  may  as- 
sume that,  after  his  successful  raid,  Sumu-la-ilum 
was  content  to  remain  within  the  limits  of  Akkad, 
which  he  strengthened  with'  his  line  of  forts.  In 
his  late  years  he  occupied  the  city  of  Barzi,  anfl 
conducted  some  further  military  operations,  de- 
tails of  which  we  have  not  recovered;  but  those 
were  the  last  efforts  on  Babylon's  part  for  more 
than  a  generation.  The  pause  in  expansion  gave 
Babylon  the  opportunity  of  husbanding  her  re- 
sources, after  the  first  effort  of  conquest  had  been 
rendered  permanent  in  its  effect  by  Sumu-la-ilum. 
His  two  immediate  successors,  Zabum  and  Apil- 
Sin,  occupied  themselves  with  the  internal  admin- 
istration of  their  kingdom  and  confined  their  miU- 
tary  activities  to  keeping  the  frontier  intact.  Za- 
bum indeed  records  a  successful  attack  on  Kazallu, 
no  doubt  necessitated  by  renewed  aggression  on 
that  city's  part ;  but  his  other  most  notable 
achievements  were  the  fortification  of  Kar-Sha- 
mash,  and  the  construction  of  a  canal  or  reservoir. 
Equally  uneventful  was  the  reign  of  Apil-Sin,  for 
though  Dur-muti,  the  wall  of  which  he  rebuilt, 
may  have  been  acquired  as  the  result  of  conquest, 
he  too  was  mainly  occupied  with  the  consolidation 
and  improvement  of  the  territory  already  won. 
He  strengthened  the  walls  of  Barzi  and  Babylon, 
cut  two  canals,  and  rebuilt  some  of  the  great 
temples.  As  a  result  of  her  peaceful  development 
during  this  period  the  country  was  rendered  capa- 
ble of  a  still  greater  struggle,  which  was  to  free 


791 


BABYLONIA 


Great  Rulers 
Hammurabi 


BABYLONIA 


Sumer  and  Akkad  from  a  foreign  domination,  and, 
by  overcoming  the  invader,  was  to  place  Babylon 
for  a  time  at  the  head  of  a  more  powerful  and 
united  empire  than  had  yet  been  seen  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates.  The  country's  new  foe  was  her 
old  rival,  Elam,  who  more  than  once  before  had 
by  successful  invasion  affected  the  course  of  Baby- 
lonian affairs.  But  on  this  occasion  she  did  more 
than  raid,  harry,  and  return:  she  annexed  the  city 
of  Larsa,  and  by  using  it  as  a  centre  of  control, 
attempted  to  extend  her  influence  over  the  whole 
of  Sumer  and  Akkad.  It  was  at  the  close  of  Apil- 
Sin's  reign  at  Babylon  that  Kudur-Mabuk,  the 
ruler  of  Western  Elam,  known  at  this  period  as 
the  land  of  Emutbal,  invaded  Southern  Babylonia 
and,  after  deposing  Sili-Adad  of  Larsa,  installed 
his  own  son  Warad-Sin  upon  the  throne.  It  is  a 
testimony  to  the  greatness  of  this  achievement, 
that  Larsa  had  for  some  time  enjoyed  over  Nisin 
the  position  of  leading  city  in  Sumer.  Nur-Adad, 
the  successor  of  Sumu-la-ilum,  had  retained  control 
of  the  neighbouring  city  of  Ur,  and,  though  Enlil- 
bani  of  Nisin  had  continued  to  lay  claim  to  be 
King  of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  this  proud  title  was 
wrested  from  Zambia  or  his  successor  by  Sin-idin- 
nam,  Nur-Adad's  son.  Sin-idinnam,  indeed,  on 
bricks  from  Mukayyar  in  the  British  Museum 
makgs  a  reference  to  the  military  achievements  by 
which  he  had  won  the  position  for  his  city.  In 
the  text  his  object  is  to  record  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Moon-god's  temple  in  Ur,  but  he  relates  that  he 
carried  out  this  work  after  he  had  made  the 
foundation  of  the  throne  of  Larsa  secure  and  had 
smitten  the  whole  of  his  enemies  with  the  sword. 
It  is  probable  that  his  three  successors  on  tie 
throne,  who  reigned  for  less  than  ten  years  be- 
tween them,  failed  to  maintain  his  level  of  achieve- 
ment, and  that  Sin-magir  recovered  the  hegemony 
for  Nisin.  But  Ur,  no  doubt,  remained  under 
Larsajs  administration,  and  it  was  no  mean  nor 
inferior  city  that  Kudur-Mabuk  seized  and  oc- 
cupied. ...  At  first  Kudur-Mabuk's  footing  in 
Sumer  was  confined  to  the  city  of  Larsa,  though 
even  then  he  laid  claim  to  the  title  Adda  of 
Amurru,  a  reference  to  be  explained  perhaps  by 
the  suggested  Amorite  origin  of  the  Larsa  and 
Nisin  dynasties,  and  reflecting  a  claim  to  the  suze- 
rainty of  the  land  from  which  his  northern  foes 
at  any  rate  boasted  their  origin.  Warad-Sin,  on 
ascending  the  throne,  assumed  merely  the  title 
King  of  Larsa,  but  we  soon  find  him  becoming 
the  patron  of  Ur,  and  building  a  great  fortifica- 
tion-wall in  that  city.  He  then  extended  his  au- 
thority to  the  south  and  east,  Eridu,  Lagash,  and 
Girsu  all  falling  before  his  arms  or  submitting  to 
his  suzerainty.  During  this  period  Babylon  re- 
mained aloof  in  tjie  north,  and  Sin-muballit  is  oc- 
cupied with  cutting  canals  and  fortifying  cities, 
some  of  which  he  perhaps  occupied  for  the  first 
time.  It  was  cnSy  in  his  fourteenth  year,  after 
Warad-Sin  had  been  succeeded  at  Larsa  by  his 
brother  Rim-Sin,  that  we  have  evidence  of  Baby- 
lon taking  an  active  part  in  opposing  Elamite  pre- 
tensions. In  that  year  Sin-muballit  records  that 
he  slew  the  army  of  Ur  with  a  sword,  and,  since 
we  know  that  Ur  was  at  this  time  a  vassal-city  of 
Larsa,  it  is  clear  that  the  army  referred  to  was 
one  of  those  under  Rim-Sin's  command.  Three 
years  later  he  transferred  his  attention  from  Larsa 
to  Nisin,  then  under  the  control  of  Damik-ilishu, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Sin-magir.  On  that  oc- 
casion Sin-muballit  commemorates  his  conquest  of 
Nisin,  but  it  must  have  been  little  more  than  a 
victory  in  the  field,  for  Damik-ilishu  lost  neither 
his  city  nor  his  independence.  In  the  last  year 
of  his  reign  we  find  Sin-muballit  fighting  on  the 
other  front,  and  claiming  to  have  slain  the  army 


of  Larsa  with  the  sword.  It  is  clear  that  in  these 
last  seven  years  of  his  reign  Babylon  proved  her- 
self capable  of  checking  any  encroachments  to  the 
north  on  the  part  of  Larsa  and  the  Elamites,  and, 
by  a  continuance  of  the  policy  of  fortifying  her 
vassal-cities,  she  paved  the  way  for  a  more  vigor- 
ous offensive  on  the  part  of  Hammurabi,  Sin- 
muballit's  son  and  successor.  Meanwhile  the  un- 
fortunate city  of  Nisin  was  between  two  fires, 
though  for  a  few  years  longer  Damik-ilishu  suc- 
ceeded in  beating  off  both  his  opponents." — 
L.  W.  King,  History  of  Babylon,  pp.  119,  148- 
160. 

Hammurabi. — His  character  and  achievements. 
— "The  military  successes  of  Hammurabi  fall 
within  two  clearly  defined  periods,  the  first  during 
the  five  years  which  followed  his  sixth  year  of 
rule  at  Babylon,  and  a  second  period,  of  ten 
years'  duration,  beginning  with  the  thirteenth  of 
his  reign.  On  his  accession  he  appears  to  have  in- 
augurated the  reforms  in  the  internal  administra- 
tion of  the  country,  which  culminated  towards 
the  close  of  his  life  in  the  promulgation  of  his 
famous  Code  of  Laws ;  for  he  commemorated  his 
second  year  as  that  in  which  he  established  right- 
eousness in  the  land.  The  following  years  were 
uneventful,  the  most  important  royal  acts  being 
the  installatioii  of  the  chief-priest  in  Kashbaran. 
the  building  of  a  wall  for  the  Gagum,  or  great 
Cloister  of  Sippar,  and  of  a  temple  to  Nannar  in 
Babylon.  But  with  his  seventh  year  we  find  his 
first  reference  to  a  tnilitary  campaign  in  a  claim 
to  the  capture  of  Erech  and  Nisin.  This  tem- 
porary success  against  Damik-ilishu  of  Nisin  was 
doubtless  a  menace  to  the  plans  of  Rim-Sin  at 
Larsa,  and  it  would  appear  that  Kudur-Mabuk 
came  to  the  assistance  of  his  son  by  threatening 
Babylon's  eastern  border.  At  any  rate  Hammur- 
abi records  a  conflict  with  the  land  of  Emutbal  in 
his  eighth  year,  and,  though  the  attack  appears 
to  have  been  successfully  repulsed  with  a  gain 
of  territory  to  Babylon,  the  diversion  was  suc- 
cessful. Rim-Sin  took  advantage  of  the  respite 
thus  secured  to  renew  his  attack  with  increased 
vigour  upon  Nisin,  and  in  the  following  year, 
the  seventeenth  of  his  own  reign,  the  famous 
city  fell,  and  Larsa  under  her  Elamite  ruler  se- 
cured the  hegemony  in  the  whole  of  Central  and 
Southern  Babylonia.  Rim-Sin's  victory  must  have 
been  a  severe  blow  to  Babylon,  and  it  would  seem 
that  she  made  no  attempt  at  first  to  recover  her 
position  in  the  south,  since  Hammurabi  occupied 
himself  with  a  raid  on  MalgCim  in  the  west  and 
with  the  capture  of  the  cities  of  Rabikum  and 
Shalibi.  But  these  were  the  last  successes  during 
his  first  military  period,  and  for  nineteen  years 
afterwards  Babylon  achieved  nothing  of  a  similar 
nature  to  commemorate  in  her  date-iormuLt  For 
the  most  part  the  yeaKS  are  named  after  the  dedi- 
cation of  statues  and  the  building  and  enrichment 
of  temples.  One  canal  was  cut,  and  the  process 
of  fortification  went  on,  Sippar  especially  beina 
put  in  a  thorough  state  of  defence.  But  the  nega- 
tive evidence  supplied  by  the  formulae  iot  this 
period  suggests  that  it  was  one  in  which  Babylon 
completely  failed  in  any  attempt  she  may  have 
made  to  hinder  the  growth  of  Larsa's  power  in 
the  south.  [See  also  Elam.1  It  was  not  until 
nearly  a  generation  had  passed,  after  Rim-Sin's 
capture  of  Nisin,  that  Hammurabi  made  any  head- 
way against  the  Elamit'C  domination,  which  for 
so  long  had  arrested  afly  increase  in  the  power  of 
Babylon.  But  his  success,  when  it  came,  was  com- 
plete and  enduring.  In  his  thirtieth  year  he  re- 
cords that  he  defeated  the  army  of  Elam,  and 
in  the  next  campaign  he  followed  up  this  vic- 
tory  by  invading   the   land   of   Emut'bal,  inflicting 


792 


BABYLONIA 


Code  of 
Hammurabi 


BABYLONIA 


a  final  defeat  on  the  Elamites,  and  capturing  and 
annexing  Larsa. 

"An  estimate  of  the  extent  of  Hammurabi's  em- 
pire   may    be    formed    from    the    very    exhaustive 
record  of  his  activities  which  he  himself  drew  up 
as    the    Prologue    to    his    Code.      He    there    enu- 
merates the   great   cities  of  his  kingdom  and   the 
benefits  he  has  conferred  upon  each  one  of  them. 
The  list  of  cities  is  not  drawn  up  with  any  ad- 
ministrative   object,   but    from    a   purely    religious 
standpoint,  a  recital  of  his  treatment  of  each  city 
being    followed    by    a    reference    to    what   he    has 
done   for  its   temple   and   its  city-god.  .  .  .  While 
Sumu-la-ilum   may   have   laid   the   foundations   of 
Babylon's    military    power,    Hammurabi    was    the 
real    founder    of   her   greatness.     To    his    military 
achievements  he  ad  Jed  a  genius  for  administrative 
detail,  and  his  letters  and  despatches,  which  have 
been    recovered,   reveal   him    as    in    active   control 
of   even   subordinate   officials  stationed   in   distant 
cities  of  his  empire      That  he  should  have  super- 
intended   matters    of    public    importance    is    what 
might    be    naturally    expected;    but    we    also    see 
him  investigating  quite  trivial  complaints  and  dis- 
putes among  the  humbler  classes  of   his  subjects, 
and   often  sending   back  a  case  for  retrial   or  for 
further   report.     In   fact,   Hammurabi's  fame   will 
always   rest   on   his   achievements   as   a   law-giver, 
and  on  the  great  legal  code  which  he  drew  up  for 
use   throughout   his  empire.      It   is   true   that   this 
elaborate    system    of    laws,    which    deal    in    detail 
with  every  class  of  the  population  from  the  noble 
to  the  slave,  was  not  the  creative  work  of  Ham- 
murabi   himself.      Like    all     other    ancient     legal 
codes  it  was  governed  strictly   by  precedent,  and 
where  it  did  not  incorporate  earlier  collections  of 
laws,    it    was   based    on    careful    consideration    of 
established   custom.     Hammurabi's   great    achieve- 
ment  was  the   codification   of   this   mass   of   legal 
enactments  and  the  rigid  enforcement  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  resulting  code  throughout  the  whole 
territory  of  Babylonia.     Its  provisions  reflect  the 
king's  own  enthusiasm,  of  which  his  letters  give  in- 
dependent proof,  in  the  cause  of  the  humbler  and  the 
more  oppressed  classes  of  his  subjects.     Numerous 
legal   and    commercial    documents   also   attest   the 
manner  in  which  its  provisions  were  carried   out, 
and  we  have  evidence   that  the  legislative  system 
so  established   remained  in   practical  force   during 
subsequent    periods." — L.    W.     King,    History    of 
Babylon,  pp.  148-160. — "The  great  code  closes  with 
a  long  passage  in  which  the  king,  who  is  'a  father 
to  his  subjects,'  enjoins  obedience   to   these   upon 
all   people   and   upon   the   kings   who   should   rule 
after  him  'forever  and  ever.'     No  king  is  to  for- 
get  them:     'The   law   of   the   land,   which   I   have 
given,  the  decisions  which  I  have  pronounced  he 
shall  not  alter,  nor  efface  my  image.     If  that  man 
have    wisdom,    if    he    wish    to    keep    his    land    in 
order,  he  shall   take   heed   to   the  words   which   I 
have  written  upon  my  monument.     The  procedure, 
the  administration,  and  the  law  of  the  land,  which 
I   have   given,   the    decisions    which    I    have   pro- 
nounced, this  monument  will  show  unto  him.     He 
shall    so    rule    his    subjects,    pronounce    judgment, 
give  decisions,  drive  the  wicked  and  evildoers  from 
the    land,    and    promote    his    people's   prosperity.' 
Hammurapi   also   displayed   extraordinary   care   in 
the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  land,  and 
in  thus  increasing  the  wealth  and  comfort  of  the 
inhabitants.     The   chiefest   of   his   great   works   is 
best    described    in    his    own    ringing    words — the 
words  of  a  conqueror,  a  statesman,  and  a  patriot: 
'Hammurapi,  the  powerful  king,  king  of  Babylon, 
.  .  .  when  Anu  and  Bel  gave  unto  me  to  rule  the 
land  of  Sumer  and  Accad,  and  with  their  scepter 
filled  my  hands,  I  dug  the  canal  Hammurapi,  the 


abundance  of  the  people,  which  bringeth  abundance 
of  water  unto  the  land  of  Sumer  and  Accad.     Its 
banks  upon  both  sides  I  made  arable  land;  much 
grain   I  garnered   upon  it.     Lasting  water   I  pro- 
vided   for   the    land    of   Sumer   and   Accad.      The 
land   of   Sumer   and   Accad,   its  separated   peoples 
I  united,  with  blessings  and  abundance  I  endowed 
them,  in  peaceful  dwellings  I  made  them  to  live.' 
This  was  no  idle  promise  made  to  the  people  be- 
fore  the    union    of   Sumer   and   Accad    under   the 
hegemony  of  Babylon,  but  the  actual  accomplish- 
ment of  a  man  who  knew  how  to  knit  to  himself 
and    his    royal    house    the    hearts    of    the    people 
of  a   conquered   land.     There   is  a   world   of   wis- 
dom  in    the    deeds    of    this    old   king.     No    work 
could  possibly  have  been  performed  by  him  which 
would    bring    greater    blessing    than    the    building 
of  a  canal  by  which  a  nearly  rainless  land  could 
be  supplied  with   abundant  water.     After  making 
the   canal,    Hammurapi   followed   the   example    of 
his  predecessors  in  Babylonia  and  carried  out  ex- 
tensive   building    operations    in    various    parts    of 
the   land.     On   all  sides  we   find  evidences   of   his 
efforts  in  this  work.     In  Babylon  itself  he  erected 
a  great  granary  for  the  storing  of  wheat  against 
times    of    famine — a    work    of    mercy    as   well    as 
of  necessity,  which  would  find  prompt  recognition 
among  Oriental  peoples  then  as  now.    The  temples 
to  the  sun  god  in  Larsa   and  in  Sippar  were  re- 
built by   him;   the   walls   of   the   latter  city   were 
reconstructed  'like   a  great   mountain' — to   use   his 
own    phrase — and   the   city    was   enriched   by    the 
construction   of  a  new  canal.     The  great  temples 
of  E-sagila  in   Babylon  and  E-zida  in  the  neigh- 
boring  Borsippa   showed   in  increased  size   and  in 
beauty  the  influence  of  his  labors.     There  is  evi- 
dence,   also,    that    he    built    for    himself    a   palace 
at  the  site  now  marked  by  the  ruin  of  Kalwadha, 
near  Baghdad.     But  these  buildings  are   only  ex- 
ternal   evidences    of    the   great    work    wrought    in 
this  long   reign  for  civilization.     The  best   of   the 
culture  of  the  ancient  Sumerians  was  brought  into 
Babylon,    and    there    carefully    conserved.       What 
this    meant    to    the   centuries   that   came    after    is 
shown  clearly  in  the  later  inscriptions.    To  Babylon 
the  later  kings  of   Assyria   look  constantly   as  to 
the   real   center    of   culture    and   civilization.     No 
Assyrian    king    is   content    with    Nineveh    and    its 
glories,  great  though  these  were  in  later  days;  his 
greatest   glory   came   when    he   could   call   himself 
king  of  Babylon,  and  perform  the  symbolic  act  of 
taking  hold  of  the  hands  of  Bel-Marduk.    Nineveh 
was  the  center  of  a  kingdom  of  warriors,  Babylon 
the   abode   of  scholars;   and  the  wellspring   of  all 
this  is  to  be   found  in  the  work  of  Hammurapi. 
But   if   the    kings   of   Assyria   looked   to    Babylon 
with    longing   eyes,   yet    more    did    later    kings   in 
the  city  of  Babylon  itself  look  back  to  the  days 
of    Hammurapi    as   the   golden    age    of   their   his- 
tory.   Nabopolassar  and  Nebuchadrezzar  acknowl- 
edged his  position  in  the  most  flattering  way,  for 
they  imitated  in  their  inscriptions  the  very  words 
and  phrases  in  which  he  had  described  his  build- 
ing, and,  not  satisfied  with   this,  even  copied  the 
exact   form   of  his  tablets  and  the   style  of   their 
writing.     In  building  his  plans  were  followed,  and 
in  rule  and  administration  his  methods  were  imi- 
tated.    His  works  and   his  words  entitle  him   to 
rank    as   the    real    founder    of    Babylon." — R.   W. 
Rogers,    History    of   Babylonia   and   Assyria,    pp. 
86-qo. — "The  canal  to  which   this  king  boasts   of 
having  given  his  name,  the  'Nahar-Hammourabi,' 
was  called   in   later  days   the  royal  canal,   Nahar 
Malcha    [Radhwaniya].     Herodotus  saw  and   ad- 
mired   it,    its    good    condition    was    an    object    of 
care   to   the   king   himself,   and   we   know   that   it 
was    considerably    repaired    by    Nebuchadnezzar. 


793 


BABYLONIA 


Later   Empire 
Nahopolassar 


BABYLONIA 


When   civilization    makes   up   its   mind   to   reenter 
upon  that  country,  nothing   more   will   be  needed 
for  the  reawakening  in  it  of  life  and  reproductive 
enerRV,   than   the   restoration   of   the   great   works 
undertaken  by  the  contemporaries  of  Abraham  and 
Jacob"— G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez,  HiUory  oj  art 
in   Chaldxa   and   Assyria,   v.    i,   P-   40--' After    a 
reign   of   fifty-tivc   years,   Chammurabi    lor   Ham- 
murabi]   bequeathed   the    crown    of    Babylon    and 
the    united    kingdoms    of    Babylonia    to    his    son 
Samsu-iluna  (2200-2180  B.C.)      This  ^"1"    J<=lg"- 
ing  in  the  spirit  of  his  father,  developed  still  fur- 
ther the  national  system  of  canalization.  .  .  .  five 
kings  after  Chammurabi,  till  2098  B C,  complete 
the  list  of  the  eleven  kings  of  this  first  dynasty, 
who   reigned   in   all  304   years.     The   epoch   made 
memorable  bv  the  deeds  and  enterprise  of  Cham- 
murabi is  followed  by  a  period  of  368  years,  of 
the    occurrences    of    which    absolutely    nothing    is 
known,  except  the  names  and  regnal  years  of  an- 
other list  of  eleven  kings  reigning  in  the  "ty   ot 
Babylon.  ...  The  foreign  non-Scmitic  race,  which 
for  nearly  six  centuries   (c.   1730-1153).  from  this 
time  onward,  held  a  controlling  place  in  the  affairs 
of   Babvlcnia,   are   referred   to   in   the   mscriptions 
by  the 'name  Kasse.     These  Kasshites  came   from 
the   border  country   between   Northern   Elam   and 
Media,   and   were   in   all   probability   of   the  same 
race  as  the  Elamites.    The  references  to  them  make 
them    out    to    be    both    mountaineers    and    tent- 
dwellers.  ...  The    political    sway    of    the    foreign 
masters   was   undisputed,    but   the    genius    of    the 
government  and  the  national  type  of  culture  and 
forms  of  activity  were  essentially  unchanged.  .  .  . 
Through  centurv  after  century,  ...  the  dominant 
genius  of  Babylonia  remained  the  same.     It  con- 
quered  all   its 'conquerors,   and   moulded   them   to 
its    own    likeness    bv    the    force    of    its    manifold 
culture,  by  the  appliances  as  well  as  the  prestige 
of  the   arts  of   peace.  ...  The   Babylonians  were 
not    able    to    maintain    perpetually    their    political 
autonomv  or  integrity,  not  because  they  were  not 
brave  or  patriotic,"  but  because   "they   were  not, 
first  and  foremost,  a  military   people      Their  en- 
ergies were  mainly  spent  in  trade  and  manufacture, 
in  science  and  art.  ...  The  time  which  the  native 
historiographers     allow     to     the     new     [Kasshite] 
dynasty  is  577  years.  .  .  .  This  Kasshite  conquest 
of   Babylonia  .  .  .  prevented   the   consolidation    of 
the   eastern   branch   of   the  Semites,   by   alienating 
from      Babylonia      the      Assyrian      colonists.  .  .  _ 
Henceforth  there  was  almost  perpetual  rivalry  and 
strife   between    Assvria    and    the    parent    country. 
Henceforth,   also,  it   is   Assyria   that   becomes   the 
leading  power  in  the  West."— J    F.  McCurdy,  His- 
tory, prophecy  and  the  monuments,  hk.  2.  ch.  3, 
and  bk.  4,  c/i.'i.  (v.  t1.,  .4ssyr;a.— See  also  Akkad; 
Assyria;  Codes:  Hammurabi;  Egypt:  About  B.C. 
1500-1400;  HiTTiTEs;  Kassites;  Women's  rights: 

B.C.  2250-S3S-  .      u      •      .     ri-  ( 

Later  empire.— "When  Ashurbanipal  [king  ot 
Assyria,  668-626  B.  CI  died  the  time  had  come 
to  make  a  fresh  attempt  for  Chaldean  independence 
of  Assyria  and  Chaldean  dominance  over  Baby- 
Ionia,  'immediately  after  the  death  of  .\.5hurbani- 
pal  we  find  Nahopolassar  (Nabuapul-usur)  king 
of  Babylon.  We  do  not  know  what  his  origin 
was.  It  has  been  supposed  that  he  might  be  a 
son  of  Kandalanu;  and  this  supposition  would  ex- 
plain the  readiness  and  quickness  with  which  he 
secured  the  throne.  There  is.  however,  not  a 
shadow  of  evidence  for  the  view.  If  it  were  the 
case,  it  would  certainly  seem  natural  for  him 
to  have  spoken  of  his  royal  origin  in  one  or  the 
other  of  the  few  inscriptions  which  have  come 
down  to  us.    On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  possible 


to  prove  that  he  was  cither  of  pure  Babylonian  or 
of     Chaldean     origin.      The    kingdom     which     he 
founded    was,    however,    plainly    Chaldean.      Ihe 
king's  supporters  were  Chaldeans,  and  as  the  years 
went  on  the  Babylonian  influence  quite  gave  way 
to  Chaldean,  so  that  the  Babylonians  may  be  con- 
sidered as  also  losing  their  historic  identity  when 
Nineveh  fell.     The  change   of   rulers  from  Ashur- 
banipal to  Nabopolassar  was  momentous  in  con- 
sequences.     With    that    change    the    headship    ot 
Assyria    over    the   Semitic    peoples   of    Asia   came 
to    an    end   forever,   and    leadership    among    them 
passed  to  the  Chaldeans,  whose  Semitic  blood  was 
probably  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  pure  as  that  ot 
the  Assyrians.     They  had  apparently  not  suffered 
so    great    an    intermixture    with    other    peoples   as 
had  the  Babylonians.     With  this  change  of  rulers 
there  was  founded  not  merely  a  new  dynasty,  but 
also    a    new    kingdom.      It    is   indeed    possible    to 
consider  this  new  monarchy   as   a  reestablishment 
of    the    old    Babylonian    empire,    but   it    is    more 
in   accordance  with  the   facts  to  look  on  it   as  a 
new    Chaldean    empire    succeeding    to    the    wealtti 
and   position    of    the    ancient    Babylonian   empire. 
As  the  monarchy  which  he  founded  was  so  plainly 
Chaldean,  it  lies  near  to  the  other  facts  to  con- 
sider  Nabopolassar   himself   a    Chaldean.  — R.   W. 
Rogers,    Hhtorv    oj    Babylonia    and    Assyria,    pp. 
402-403.— "Having  seated  himself  firmly  upon  the 
throne   of    the   dual   monarchy   of   Babylonia   and 
Assyria,  Nabopolassar  proceeded  to  assure  to  him- 
self the  western  domains  over  which  the  Assyrian 
kings  had  held  swav.     To  this  end  he  set  out  to 
reestablish  Babylonian  power  in  Syria,  where  Sai- 
gon  of   Agade'had   made   his   influence   felt    2200 
years  earlier,  and  Hammurabi  had  warred  as  over- 
lord     Unfortunately  the  Bible  narrative  does  not 
help   us   here,    and    we    are    indebted   to    Berosus, 
as   quoted   by    Josephus.   for    the   history    of    this 
period       After    the    division    of    the    territory    ot 
Assyria,  of  which  Egypt  formed  a  part,  the  east- 
ern   allies    began    to    quarrel    among    themselves, 
and  the   King   of   Babylon   decided   to   act   on   his 
own   account.     Syria   at  that   time   was  in   reality 
a   vassal    of    Egypt,    Egypt   having    taken   posses- 
sion   of    it    on    the    fall    of    Assyria.      Having    re- 
ceived news  that  the  governor  whom  he  had  set 
over     Egypt,     and     over     parts     of     Ccelc-Syria 
and    Phcenicia,    had    revolted    from    him,    he    was 
not   able  to  bear   it   any   longer,   and,  conimitting 
certain  parts  of  his   armv   to   his  son   Nabuchod- 
onosor    (Nabu-kudurri-usur    or    Nebuchadrezzar), 
who  was  then  but  young,  he  sent  him  against  the 
rebel       This   is    regarded    as    having    taken    place 
in  60s  B.C.    The  governor  attacked  by  the  young 
Nebuchadrezzar   was  apparently   Necho.   who   was 
completely   defeated   at   Carchemish,   and   expelled 
from  Syria."— T.  G.  Pinches,  From  world-domtmon 
to  subjection  {Journal  oj  the  Victoria  Institute,  v. 
4Q,  pp.  113-114).— See  also  Egypt:   B.C.  670-525; 
Chaldea:   Chaldeans;   Phceniciaks:   B.C.  850-538. 
Nebuchadreizar.— "When  Nebuchadrezzar  stood 
at  the  borders  of  Egypt  and  a  messenger  advised 
him  of  his  father's  death  in  far-away  Babylonia, 
a  crisis  had  come  in  the  history  of  a  new  empire. 
But  for  that  death  Nebuchadrezzar  would  almost 
certainly    have    added    Egypt    to   his   laurels,   and 
that   were   a    thrilling   possibility.      But   a    danger 
fully   as  stirring  lav   also  before  him.     If  he  had 
failed   to   reach    Babylonia   before    the    discordant 
elements   in   the   new  world   empire   were   able   to 
gather   unity    and    force,   all   that    his   father   had 
built  might'  readily  be  destroyed.     The  day  cried 
for  a   man   of   decision   and   of    quick  movement. 
Nebuchadrezzar  reached  Babylon  from  the  borders 
of  Egypt  in  season  to  prevent  any  outbreak  in  favor 
of    a    usurper,    if    any    such    were    intended.     He 


794 


BABYLONIA 


Later  Empire 
Nebuchadrezzar 


BABYLONIA 


was  received  as  king  of   Babylon  without  a  sign 
of    any    trouble.      So    began    one    of    the    longest 
and  most  brilliant  reigns    (604-562    B.C.)    of  hu- 
man   history.      Nebuchadrezzar    has    not    left   the 
world  without  written  witnesses  of  his  great  deeds. 
In  his  inscriptions,  however,  he  follows  the  com- 
mon Babylonian  custom  of  omitting  all  reference 
to  wars,  sieges,  campaigns,  and  battles.     Only  in 
a   very   few   instances  is   there   a   single   reference 
to   any   of   these.     The    great   burden    of    all    the 
inscriptions    is    building.      In    Babylon    was    cen- 
tered his  chief  pride,  and  of  temples  and  palaces, 
and  not  of  battles  and  sieges,  were  his  boasts." — 
R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia,  and  Assyria,  p. 
504. — "When  Nebuchadrezzar  came  to  the  throne, 
he  found  himself  king  of   a   mighty   nation,  con- 
solidated by  his  father's  talent,  and  he  could  boast 
of  having  had  a  hand  himself  in  its  enlargement 
and  in  measures  for  its  greater  security.     Every- 
thing  was,   to   all   appearance,   at   peace,   and   the 
new  king  had  no  reason  to  fear  either  a  pretender 
to  the  throne  or  attack  from  without.     This  sat- 
isfactory state  of  things,  however,  was  not  to 'last, 
for   Jelioiakim,    King    of   Judah,    as   related   in    2 
Kings  xxiv,    i    ff.,   after   paying   tribute   for  three 
years,    rebelled,    but    was    again    reduced    to    sub- 
jection (604-602  B.C.).  Later,  apparently  owing  to 
the  promises  of  the  King  of  Egypt,  Jehoiachin,  son 
of   Jehoiakim,   in    his   turn    incurred    the   hostility 
of  the  King  of  Babylon,  who  sent  an  army  to  be- 
siege Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  journeyed  thither 
himself.    The  capture  of  the  city  followed,  and  the 
Jewish   king,   with   his   Court,   were   carried   away 
to    Babylon    (sq8    B.C.).     The    number    of   cap- 
tives  on    this    occasion   exceeded    10,000,   and    the 
treasures   of   the   palace   and   the   Temple   formed 
part    of    the    spoil.      The    country    was    annexed, 
however,    for    Nebuchadrezzar    made     Mattaniah, 
King  of  Judah  instead  of  Jehoiachin,  changing  his 
name   to   Zedekiah    (Bab.  form   Sidqd.  Sidqaa,   or 
Sidqaya) .     Passing  years  seemingly  weakened  any 
gratitude   Zedekiah   may    have   felt   to    the   power 
which  had  raised  him,  and,  encouraged  by  Pharaoh 
Hophra,    he    rebelled    in    the    ninth    year    of    his 
reign,   the   result   being   that   Jerusalem   was   once 
more     besieged.        Pharaoh      Hophra     thereupon 
inarched  with   an   army   to  the   help   of  his   ally; 
but  this  move  gave  the   Jewish  capital  but  little 
relief,  for  Nebuchadrezzar's  army  merely  raised  the 
siege    of    Jerusalem    long    enough    to    defeat    the 
Egyptians.     The  city  was  taken  at  the  end   of   a 
year  and  a  half,  notwithstanding  a  very  courageous 
resistance  (July,  586  B.C.)    [see  also  Jerusalem: 
B.C.  Q76-168].    Zedekiah,  with  his  army,  fled,  but 
was  pursued  by  the  Chaldeans  and  captured  near 
Jericho.     Nebuchadrezzar  was  then  at  Riblah  with 
his  officers   (2  Kings  xxv,  6),  and  there  judgment 
was  at  once  pronounced  against  the  faithless  vas- 
sal,  whose   sons   were    slain    before    his    eyes,   his 
own  sight  destroyed,  and  he  himself  carried  captive 
to  Babylon.   It  was  a  barbarous  sentence,  but  quite 
in   accordance  with   the   customs   of   the   age,   just 
as  the   legal  formalities  apparently   conformed   to 
Babylonian  usage.    The  destruction  of  the  Temple 
and  all  the  principal  houses  in  the  city,  by  Neb- 
uzaradan      (NabQ-zer-iddina),      the      captain      of 
Nebuchadrezzar's   guard,   followed,   and    those   re- 
maining   in   the    city   were   carried   captive.     The 
lowest  class  of  the  people  only  remained,  in  order 
to  carry  on  the  cultivation  of  the  land.    Naturally 
a    new    governor    was    appointed — not.    as    might 
reasonably  have  been  expected,  a  Babylonian,  but 
a  Jew — Gedaliah,  son   of  Ahikam.     His  death  at 
the  hands  of  his  own  countrymen  took  place  shortly 
afterwards,    and    with    him    disappeared    the    last 
vestige  of  Jewish  rule  in  Palestine. 
"The   turn   of  Tyre   came   next,   and   it  is  said 


that  Nebuchadrezzar  blockaded  this  maritime  port 
no  less  than  thirteen  years  (585-573  B.C.).  From 
a  fragment  of  a  tablet  in  the  British  Museum,  re- 
ferring to  Nebuchadrezzar's  thirty-seventh  year 
(567  B.C.),  we  learn  that  he  made  an  expedition 
against  an  Egyptian  king,  who  seems,  from  the 
remains  of  his  name,  to  have  been  Amasis.  In 
this  record  a  city — or,  perhaps,  a  province — called 
Putu-yaman  is  referred  to,  and  described,  appar- 
ently, as  being  a  distant  district  'within  the  sea.' 
This  idiom  is  used  by  Assur-bani-apli  when  speak- 
ing of  Cyprus.  [See  also  Persia:  B.C.  549-521.] 
Notwithstanding  the  doubt  which  exists  with  re- 
gard to  Tyre,  it  is  certain  that  the  Babylonian 
king  ultimately  became  master  of  the  city,  for 
a  contract  exists  dated  there  on  the  20th  of  Tam- 
muz,  in  Nebuchadrezzar's  fortieth  year.  ...  In 
addition  to  these  two  rulers  [Sennacherib  and 
Esarhaddon],  however,  both  his  sons — Samas-sum- 
ukin  or  Saosduchinos  and  Assur-bani-apli,  'the 
great  and  noble  Asnapper' — worked  at  restoring 
the  temples.  Nebuchadrezzar,  in  spite  of  this, 
doubtless  found  much  to  do  there,  and  numerous 
records  bearing  his  name  deal  at  length  with  his 
architectural  work.  The  great  temple  of  Belus 
(Merodach),  in  Babylonia  £-sagila,  together  with 
£-temen-ana-ki,  'the  temple  of  the  foundation  of 
heaven  and  earth,'  also  called  'the  tower  of  Baby- 
lon,' connected  with  it,  were  restored  by  him, 
as  were  likewise  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  other 
fanes  of  the  great  city.  His  inscriptions  also 
confirm  what  the  classical  authors  say  in  record- 
ing that  he  made  Babylon  practically  impregnable 
by  means  of  high  and  massive  walls  and  a  well- 
constructed  moat.  To  the  above  must  be  added 
the  quays  which  he  built  along  the  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  which  flowed  through  the  city, 
and  the  augmentation  of  the  great  palace  which 
Nabopolassar,  his  father,  had  built,  by  another 
just  as  extensive,  which,  he  states  (and  this  is 
confirmed  by  Herodotus),  was  erected  in  fifteen 
days!  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  all  the 
provisions  for  the  defence  of  Babylon  which  he 
places  to  his  own  credit  are  attributed  by 
Herodotus  to  Nitocris,  who  was  probably  one  of 
Nebuchadrezzar's  queens.  The  hanging  gardens, 
[for  description  of,  see  Architecture:  Oriental: 
Babylonia]  said  by  Herodotus  to  have  been  built 
by  Nebuchadrezzar  for  his  'Median'  queen,  Amuhia, 
were  probably  already  in  existence,  as  is  impHed 
by  one  of  the  bas-reliefs  in  the  Assyrian  Salon 
of  the  British  Museum;  it  was  carved  for  Assur- 
bani-apli,  the  'great  and  noble  Asnapper.'  It  shows 
a  slope,  the  highest  portion  of  which  is  sup- 
ported on  arches,  and  the  whole  is  richly  planted 
with  trees  and  irrigated  by  streams  of  water — 
a  real  oasis  in  a  land  which,  during  the  hot  season, 
is  simply  a  desert.  The  celebrated  'Istar-Gate,' 
discovered  by  the  German  explorers,  is  specially 
referred  to  by  Nebuchadrezzar  in  the  India  House 
of  Inscription.  [See  also  Babylon:  Nebuchad- 
rezzar and  the  walls  of  Babylon]  Wise,  war- 
like, energetic,  and  religious,  the  second  Nebuchad- 
rezzar will  always  live  in  history  as  the  type 
of  an  Eastern  ruler  of  old  who  knew  how  to  raise 
the  nation  which  he  governed  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  its  ancient  glory  and  power.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Awil-Maruduk  (Evil-Mero- 
dach)  in  561  B.  C."— T.  G.  Pinches,  From  world- 
dominion  to  subjection  (Journal  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  v.  49,  pp.  114-117). — See  also  Jews: 
B.C.  724-604  to  B.C.  S36-A.D.  50. 

Decline  of  the  empire. — "Nebuchadnezzar's  son, 
Amel-Marduk,  was  an  unworthy  successor  to  his 
father.  During  his  short  reign  he  was  restrained 
neither  by  law  nor  decency,  and  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  in  less  than  three  years  the  priestly  party 


795 


BABYLONIA 


Decline 
Invasion  of  Cyrus 


BABYLONIA 


should  have  secured  his  Assassination  and  have  set 
Neriglissar,  his  brother-in-law,  in  his  place,  a  man 
of  far  stronger  character  and  a  soldier.  The  son 
of  a  private  Babylonian,  Bel-shura-ishkun,  Nerig- 
lissar had  married  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  we  may  certainly  identify  him  with  Nergal- 
Sharezer,  the  Rab-mag  or  Babylonian  general  who 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  Neriglissar's 
death,  less  than  four  years  after  his  accession, 
must  certainly  have  been  the  death-blow  to  any 
hopes  his  generals  may  have  entertained  of  placing 
the  country's  military  organization  and  defence 
upon  a  sound  footing.  For  his  son  was  little 
more  than  a  child,  and  after  nine  months'  reign 
the  priestly  party  at  the  capital  succeeded  in  de- 
posing him  in  favour  of  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber, Nabonidus,  a  man  of  priestly  descent  and 
thoroughly  inbued  with  the  traditions  of  the 
hierarchy.  The  new  king  carried  on  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's tradition  of  temple-reconstruction  with 
enthusiasm,  but  he  had  none  of  his  great  predeces- 
sor's military  aptitude.  To  his  ow-n  priestly  de- 
tachment he  added  the  unpractical  character  of  the 
archsologist.  loving  to  occupy  himself  in  investi- 
gating the  past  history  of  the  temples  he  rebuilt,  in 
place  of  controlling  his  country's  administration. 
The  bent  of  his  mind  is  well  reflected  in  the 
account  he  has  left  us  of  the  dedication  of  his 
daughter,  Bel-shalti-Nannar,  as  head  of  the  col- 
lege of  votaries  attached  to  the  Moon-temple  at 
Ur.  It  is  clear  that  this  act  and  the  accompany- 
ing ceremonial  interested  him  far  more  than  the 
education  of  his  son ;  and  any  military  aptitude 
Belshazzar  may  have  des-eloped  was  certainly 
not  fostered  by  his  father  or  his  father's  friends. 
It  was  only  when  the  enemy  was  at  the  frontier 
that  the  king  must  have  realized  his  own  fatuity. 
Thus  with  the  accession  of  Nabonidus  the  close 
of  Babylon's  last  period  of  greatness  is  in  sight.  But 
the  empire  did  not  crumble  of  its  own  accord,  for 
in  one  of  his  foundation-records  the  king  boasts 
that  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia  and  the  West,  as 
far  as  Gaza  on  the  Egyptian  border,  continued 
to  acknowledge  his  authority.  It  required  pres- 
sure from  without  to  shatter  the  decaying  empire, 
which  from  the  first  must  have  owed  its  success 
in  no  small  measure  to  the  friendly  and  pro- 
tective attitude  of  Media.  When  that  essential 
support  was  no  longer  forthcoming,  it  lay  at 
the  mercy  of  the  new  power  before  which  Media 
herself  had  already  gone  down." — L.  W.  King, 
History   of  Babylon,  pp.  280-282. 

Invasion  by  Cyrus  the  Persian. — "We  next 
hear  that  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  Nabonidus, 
Cyrus,  who  had  already  conquered  the  rest  of 
Asia,  marched  upon  Babylon  [538  B.C. — see  Per- 
sia: 549-521  B.C.I.  The  native  forces  met  the  Per- 
sians in  battle,  but  were  put  to  flight,  with  their 
king  at  their  head,  and  took  refuge  behind  the 
ramparts  of  Borsippa.  Cyrus  thereupon  entered 
Babylon,  we  are  told,  and  threw  down  her  walls. 
.  .  .  Herodotus  states  that  the  last  king  of  Baby- 
lon was  the  son  of  the  great  Nebuchadnezzar — 
to  give  that  monarch  his  true  name — -for  in  so 
doing  he  bears  out,  so  far  as  his  testimony  is 
of  any  value,  the  words  of  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
which  not  only  calls  Belshazzar  son  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, but  also  introduces  the  wife  of  the  latter 
monarch  as  being  the  mother  of  the  ill-fated 
prince  who  closed  the  long  line  of  native  rulers. 
Such  being  the  only  testimony  of  secular  writers, 
there  was  no  alternative  but  to  identify  Belshazzar 
with  Nabonidus.  .  .  .  Yet  the  name  Nabonidus 
stood  in  no  sort  of  relation  to  that  of  Bel- 
shazzar; and  the  identification  of  the  two  per- 
sonages was.  undoubtedly,  both  arbitrary  and  dif- 
ficult.     The    cuneiform    inscriptions    brought    to 


Europe   from  the  site   of   Babylon   and   other  an- 
cient  cities   of   Chaldaea   soon   changed   the   aspect 
of  the  problem.  .  .  .  Nabonidus,  or,  in  the  native 
form,  Nabu  naid,  that  is  to  say,  "Nebo  exalts,'  is 
the  name  given  to  the  last  native  king  of  Babylon 
in    the    contemporary    records   inscribed    on    clay. 
This   monarch,   however,   was   found   to   speak   of 
his     eldest     son     as     bearing     the     very     name 
preserved    in    the    Book    of    Daniel,    and    hitherto 
known  to  us  from  that  source  alone.  .  .  .  'Set  the 
fear   of   thy   great   godhead   in   the   heart   of   Bel- 
shazzar, my  firstborn  son,  ray  own  offspring;  and 
let  him  not  commit  sin,  in  order  that  he  may  en- 
joy the  fulness  of  life.'  .  .  .  'Belshazzar,  my  first- 
born   son,  .  .  .  lengthen    his    days;    let   him    not 
commit   sin.  .  .  .'     These   passages  provide   us,  in 
an  unexpected  manner,  with  the  name  which  had 
hitherto  been   known   from   the   Book   of   Daniel, 
and    from    that    document    alone ;    but    we    were 
still   in    the    dark   as    to    the   reason    which   could 
have   induced   the   author   to   represent   Belshazzar 
as  king  of  Babylon.  ...  In   1882  a  cuneiform  in- 
scription   was   for   the   first   time   interpreted   and 
published  by  Mr.  Pinches;  it  had  been  disinterred 
among    the    ruins   of    Babylon    by    Mr.   Hormuzd 
Rassam.     This   document    proved   to   contain   the 
annals  of  the  king  whose  fate  we  have  just  been 
discussing — namely,  Nabonidus.    Though  mutilated 
in  parts,  it  allowed  us  to   learn  some  portions  of 
his  history,  both   before   and  during   the  invasion 
of    Babylonia    by    Cyrus;    and    one    of    the    most 
remarkable  facts  that   it  added   to  our  knowledge 
was   that    of    the   regency — if    that   term    may    be 
used — of  the  king's  son  during  the  absence  of  the 
sovereign  from  the  Court  and  army.    Here,  surely, 
the  explanation  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  found: 
Belshazzar   was,   at   the   time   of   the   irruption   of 
the  Persians,  acting  as  his  father's  representative; 
he  was  commanding  the  Babylonian  army  and  pre- 
siding  over  the   Babylonian   Court.     When   Cyrus 
entered    Babylon,    doubtless    the    only    resistance 
he  met  with  was  in   the   royal   palace,  and  there 
it   was  probably   slight.     In   the  same   night   Bel- 
shazzar  was  taken   and  slain. "^B.  T.   A.   Evetts, 
New  tight  OK  the  Bible  and  the  Holy  Land,  ch.  11, 
pt.  2. — "In  Xenophon's  account  of  the  taking  of 
Babylon,    the    well-known    story    of    the   entering 
of  the  city  through  the  river-bed  whilst  a  festival 
was    in    progress   is   given.      It    was    apprehended 
that  the  Babylonians  might  try  to  drive  back  the 
invaders  by  attacking   them  from   the  house-tops, 
but    Cyrus    pointed    out    that    this    could    easily 
be  stopped  by  setting  fire  to  the  porches,  as  the 
doors    were    of    palm-wood,    painted    over    with 
bitumen.     The  entry   into   the   city   was  duly   ef- 
fected, and  by  a  ruse  they  got  the  people  within 
the   palace   to    open    the   gates.     The    King    (Bel- 
shazzar)   was  found  with  his  sword   in  his  hand, 
surrounded   by    his   friends,   eager  to   defend   him. 
Overpowered  by  numbers,  he  died  fighting  for  his 
life  and  his  throne;  as  for  saving  his  country,  that 
was   past    hoping    for.     The   castles — that    is,   the 
palaces    of    Nahiopolassar    and    Nebuchadrezzar — 
having  .been   given   up  by   their  now   demoralized 
defenders,  the  people  were  commanded  to  deliver 
up  their  arms,  which  they  did.     The   Magi   (evi- 
dently the  Babylonian  priesthood)    were  then   or- 
dered   to   choose   for   the   gods   the   first-fruits   of 
certain  lands  owned  by  them,  in  accordance  with 
the    usage    in    conquered    countries;    and    houses, 
palaces,   and   property    were   delivered    to   Cyrus's 
followers  as  rewards  for  their  services.    The  Baby- 
lonians were  then  directed  to  cultivate  their  lands, 
pay   their  taxes,   and   serve   those   to   whom   they 
were    severally    given.      Cyrus    having    let    it    be 
known  that  people  might  seek  his  presence,  either 
to  pay  homage  or  to  consult  with  him,  they  came 


796 


BABYLONIA 


BACCHUS 


in    such    disorderly    multitudes    that    precautions 
against  a  renewal   of   this  state   of   things  had  to 
be    taken.      The    crowds    who   sought    him    seem 
to  be  referred  to  in  the  Babylonian  Chronicle,  but 
this   record   contains   no   mention    of   disturbances 
of  any  kind.    The  statements  of  the  Chronicle,  an 
official   document,   are    probably    to    be   preferred. 
When   Cyrus  entered   the   palace,  he   sacrificed   to 
Vesta   (doubtless  one  of  the  forms  of  Zerpanitu) 
and    'Regal    Jove'     (Bel-Merodach),    with    other 
deities   whom   the   Magi    (Babylonian   priesthood) 
thought    proper.      Cyrus   seems    to   have    been    of 
opinion    that    the    common    people    of    Babylonia 
entertained  considerable  enmity   toward   him,  and 
he  therefore  surrounded  himself  with  guards,  those 
most  closely  attached  to  him  being  eunuchs.     For 
the   keeping   of    the   city   a    Persian   garrison    was 
installed,  for  which  the   Babylonians  had  to  pro- 
vide.   A  long  speech  is  attributed  to  him,  in  which 
he  tells  his   followers  that   according   to   the   laws 
of  war  all  the  property  of  the  conquered  belonged 
to  them,  and  they  were  entitled  to  take  it  if  they 
so  chose.     Whether  this  was  in  any  case  actually 
done  does  not  appear,  but  it  may  be  regarded  as 
hardly  probable,  as  the  Babylonians  seem  to  have 
lived  fairly  contentedly  under  his  rule — or,  rather, 
under  that  of  Cambyses  and  Gobryas  the  Mede, 
both  of  whom  acted  as  governors-general  in  turn. 
Notwithstanding  all  possible  defects  that  may  have 
belonged   to  his  nature,  Cyrus   showed  considera- 
tion for  the  country,  friendliness  toward  the  peo- 
ple, but  severity   in   matters  which  concerned  his 
own   safety    and   authority    after   having    assumed 
the  title  'King  of  Babylon.'     In  an  age  far  more 
barbarous  than   our   own   he  exhibited  a  modera- 
tion  and   a   breadth   of   view    which   but    few,   in 
more  civilized  times,  have  shown ;  and  it  may  truly 
be  said  that  if  his  dynasty  did  not  last  the  fault 
was  not  his." — T.  G.  Pinches,  From  world-dominion 
to   subjection    (Journal    of    Victoria    Institute,    v. 
49,  pp.  123-124). 

Significance  of  the  fall  of  Babylon. — "Baby- 
lon was  now  in  the  possession  of  an  entirely 
new  race  of  men.  The  Indo-Europeans,  silent  for 
centuries,  had  come  at  last  to  dominion.  Nineveh, 
the  greatest  center  for  the  pure  Semitic  stock,  had 
fallen  first;  it  was  now  Babylon's  hour,  and 
Babylon  likewise  was  fallen.  The  fall  of  a  city 
which  had  long  wielded  a  power  almost  world-wide 
would  at  any  period  be  a  matter  of  great  mo- 
ment. But  this  fall  of  Babylon  was  even  more 
than  this.  Babylon  was  now  the  representative 
city  not  merely  of  a  world-wide  power,  it  was 
the  representative  of  Semitic  power.  The  Semites 
had  built  the  first  empire  of  commanding  rank 
in  the  world  when  Hammurapi  conquered  Sumer 
and  Accad  and  made  Babylon  capital  of  several 
kingdoms  at  once.  Out  of  this  center  had  gone 
the  colonists  who  had  built  another  and,  after  a 
time,  a  great  empire  at  Nineveh.  For  centuries 
two  Semitic  centers  of  power  bad  vied  with  each 
other  for  the  dominion  of  the  world.  Both  had 
held  it,  each  in  his  turn.  For  nearly  a  century 
Nineveh  had  been  in  the  hands  of  another  race, 
and  the  Semitic  civilization  had  been  supplanted 
there.  Babylon  had  been  made  the  center  of  a 
new  world  power  by  the  Chaldean  people,  but  they 
also  were  Semites.  This  branch  of  the  Semitic 
people  had  had  a  short  lease  of  power  indeed. 
The  power  was  now  taken  from  them  as  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Semitic  race.  Never  from  that 
hour  until  the  age  of  Islam  was  a  Semitic  power 
to  command  a  world-wide  empire.  The  power 
of  the  Semite  seemed  hopelessly  broken  in  that 
day,  and  that  alone  makes  the  peaceful  fall  of 
Babylon  a  momentous  event.  But  Babylon  stood 
for    more    than    mere    Semitic    power.      It    stood 


in  a  large  sense   for  Semitic  civilization.  .  .  .  As- 
syria   represented    far    more    than    Babylonia    the 
prowess    of    the    Semite    upon    fields    of    battle. 
Babylon  had  stood  for  Semitic  civilization,  largely 
intermixed  with  many  elements,  yet  Semitic  after 
all.     Here  were  the  great  libraries  of  the  Semitic 
race.    Here  were  the  scholars  who  copied  so  pains- 
takingly   every    little    omen    or    legend    that    had 
come  down  to  them  out  of  the  hoary  past.     Here 
were    the    men    who   calculated    eclipses,    watched 
the  moon's  changes,  and  looked  nightly  from  ob- 
servatories  upon    the   stately   march   of   constella- 
tions over   the   sky.     Here   were   the   priests   who 
preserved  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Sumerian 
language,  that  its  sad  plaints  and  solemn  prayers 
might  be  kept  for  use  in  temple  worship.     Much 
of  all  this  was  worthy  of  preservation — if  not  for 
any  large  usefulness,  certainly  for  its  record  of  hu- 
man progress  upward.   All  this  was  now  fallen  into 
alien   hands.     Would  it  be   preserved?     Would  it 
be  ruthlessly  or  carelessly  destroyed?     The  great- 
est thoughts  of  the  Semitic  mind  and  the  greatest 
emotions  of  its  heart  were  not,  indeed,  Babylonian, 
and  even  if  they  were,  they  could  not  die.     Not 
for    many    centuries    would    the    Semite    be    able 
to   found  another  such   center.     It   was   indeed   a 
solemn    hour    of    human    history.      The   glory    of 
Babylon  is  ended.    The  long  procession  of  princes, 
priests,  and  kings  has  passed  by.     No  city  so  vast  had 
stood   on   the   world   before   it.     No   city   with   a 
history  so  long  has  even  yet  appeared.     From  the 
beginnings  of  human  history  it  had  stood.     It  was 
in  other  hands  now,  and  ii  v/ould  soon  be  a  shape- 
less mass  of  ruins,  standing  alone  in  a  sad,  untilled 
desert."— R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  pp.  574-576.— See  also  Chronology:  Baby- 
lonian method;   Education:   Ancient:    B.C.  3Sth- 
6th    centuries:    Babylonia    and    Assyria;    Ethics: 
Babylonia  and  Assyria;  Libraries:  Ancient:  Baby- 
lonia   and    Assyria;     Medical    science:     Ancient 
Babylonia;   Money  and  banking:    Ancient  Egypt 
and    Babylonia;    Music:    Ancient:    B.C.   3Cioo-7th 
century;   Science:    Ancient:    Egyptian   and   Baby- 
lonian; Sculpture:  Western  Asia. 

Also  in:     M.  Duncker,  History  of  antiquity,  bk. 
4,  ch.   15. — G.  Maspero,  Dawn  of  civilizalion. — H. 
Radau,  Early  Babylonian  liistary. — A.  H.  Layard, 
Nineveh  and  Babylon. — H.  V.  Hilprecht,  Babylon- 
ian expedition   of  the   University  of  Pennsrvlitnia. 
BABYLONIAN   TALENT.'   See  Talent. 
BABYLONIAN  TALMUD.     See  Talmxid. 
"BABYLONISH     CAPTIVITY"    OF     THE 
POPES.     See   Papacy:    1294-1348. 

BAC  ST.  MAUR,  village  of  northern  France 
on  the  river  Lys.  The  region  of  fighting  in  iqi8. 
See  World  War:   iqiS:  II.  Western  front:  d,  5. 

BACCALAOS,  Bacalhas,  or  Bacalhao  coun- 
try.    See   Newfoundland,    Dominion   of:    1501- 
1578- 
BACCANALIA.    See  Bacchus. 
BACCHIAD.ff;.     See   Corinth. 
BACCHIC    FESTIVALS.     See   Dionysia   at 
Athens. 

BACCHUS  (Roman),  or  Dionysus  (Greek), 
god  of  the  vine  and  of  life.  His  worship  was 
widespread  and  appeared  in  numerous  forms  but 
was  always  connected  with  vegetation  and  fruit- 
fulness  generally.  His  chief  attributes  were  the 
thyrsus,  a  rod  ending  in  a  pine  cone  and  decorated 
with  ivy,  and  the  cantharus,  a  two-handled  drink- 
ing cup.  One  form  of  his  worship  was  the  Attic 
Dionysia,  a  joyous  and  rather  boistrous  celebra- 
ton  (see  Dionysia  at  Athens),  but  another  called 
the  Triateric  Dionysia  took  the  form  of  a  wild 
orgy.  It  was  introduced  into  Rome  in  the  2nd 
century  B  C.  and  called  the  Bacchanalia.  Bac- 
chus  was   the   offspring   of   Zeus  and   Semele,   the 


797 


BACCHYLIDES 


BACTRIA 


daughter  of  Cadmus.  Through  the  jealousy  of 
Hera,  Semele  was  destroyed  by  a  thunderbolt  but 
her  unborn  child  was  saved  by  Zeus,  and  intrusted 
to  Hemes  who  delivered  it  to  the  nymphs  of 
Nysa  to  be  reared.  At  Nysa  (which  has  never 
been  localized)  Bacchus  discovered  the  powers  of 
the  grape  and  became  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
nymphs  and  satvrs. 

BACCHYLIDES.  See  Greece:  B.  C.  8th-$th 
centuries. 

BACENIS.     See  Hercvnian  forest. 

BACH,  Alexander,  Baron  (1813-1893).— 
Bureaucratic  ideas.    See  Austria:   1849-1859. 

BACH,  John  Sebastian  (1685-1750),  German 
composer,  greatest  master  of  the  contrapuntal 
school  of  musical  composition,  whose  works  mark 
the  culmination  of  the  polyphonic  style  and  at 
the  same  time  reflect  the  new  homophonic  style ; 
equally  great  as  composer,  organist  and  harpsi- 
chord player.  His  enormous  output  includes  organ 
sonatas,  preludes  and  fugues,  compositions  for 
harpsichord  and  orchestra,  passion-music,  sacred 
cantatas,  etc.  They  constitute  the  source  of  mod- 
ern music. — See  also  Music:  Modern:  1650-1827. 

BACH,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel  C1714-1788), 
German  composer,  third  son  of  John  Sebastian 
Bach;  founder  of  the  forms  of  instrumental  com- 
position which  mark  the  transition  from  his 
father's  style  to  that  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  He 
wrote  church  music  including  many  cantatas,  pas- 
sions and  oratorios.  See  Music:  Modern:  1650- 
1827. 

BACHI,  or  Bashee  Islands  (Philippines), 
American  acquisition  of.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1898 
(July-December). 

BACHMAC,  a  village  and  railroad  junction  in 
the  Ukraine  in  southwestern  Russia,  east  of  Kiev. 
The  scene  of  a  battle  fought  in  1918.  See  World 
W.^r:   1918:  III.  Russia:  a,  1. 

BACILLI,  Soil.  See  Fertilizers:  Chemistry 
applied  to  soil  cultivation. 

BACON,  Augustus  Octavius  (1830-1Q14), 
American  legislator. — Resolutions  introduced 
January  11,  1899. — Address  of  January  18,  1899. 
See  U.  S..-\.:  iSog  (January-February). 

BACON,  Francis  (Baron  Verulam,  Viscount 
St.  Albans)  (1561-1620),  English  philosopher, 
statesman  and  essayist.  "Made  Lord  Chancellor, 
in  1618,  and  created  Viscount  St.  Albans,  in  1621, 
he  had,  in  spite  of  his  unusual  abilities,  risen 
very  slowly.  At  once  a  man  of  affairs  and  a 
man  of  letters,  he  wrote  on  many  subjects,  philos- 
ophy, scientific  theory,  literature,  history,  and 
law.  ...  He  favored  a  strong  monarchy  resting 
on  the  support  of  the  people  and  acting  for  the 
popular  good,  informed  and  advised  by  a  loyal 
Parliament.  .  .  .  Always  prone,  however,  to  over- 
look practical  difficulties,  he  failed  to  recognize 
that  Parliament  would  no  longer  tolerate  even 
a  benevolent  despot,  and  that,  in  any  event.  James 
was  not  the  man  to  exercise  such  power." — .\.  L. 
Cross,  History  of  England  and  greater  Britain,  p. 
296.- — Bacon  was  impeached  by  Parliament  in  1621 
on  a  charge  of  bribery.  [See  Enclaxd:  1625: 
Gains  of  Parliament.]  The  years  following  his 
impeachment  he  devoted  to  literature  and  sci- 
ence. "The  significance  o^  Lord  Bacon's  work 
lies  not  in  the  application  of  his  method  of  reason- 
ing [see  Europe:  Middle  Ages:  Scholasticism  fol- 
lowed by  humanism],  but  rather  in  his  insistence 
upon  experimentation  and  observation  of  nature, 
instead  of  blind  reliance  upon  a  perverted  logic  and 
an  unsubstantiated  authority.  .  .  .  Bacon  shows 
up  the  obstacles  that  lie  in  the  path  of  human 
progress, — the  ignorance  and  prejudice,  traditional 
views  and  blind  worship  of  authority  which  hold 
man    slave    to    nature.  .  .  .  The   great    object    of 


all  science  is  to  recover  man's  sovereignty  over 
nature.  ...  He  is  the  first  to  formulate  the  idea 
of  modem  progress  through  man's  conscious  ad- 
justment to  and  scientific  control  over  the  natural 
forces  of  the  universe.  .  .  .  [See  also  Education: 
Modern:  1561-1626.]  It  is  true  that  Bacon  did 
not  himself  make  any  real  contribution  to  sci- 
entific knowledge  and  that  his  fear  of  accepting 
improved  hypotheses  led  him  to  reject  the 
Copernican  theory  of  the  solar  system, — led  him 
also  to  underestimate  and  even  disregard  the  work 
which  was  being  done  by  some  of  his  con- 
temporaries. .  .  But  perhaps  the  most  significant 
effect  of  Bacon's  influence  upon  the  progress  of 
natural  science  .  .  .  was  the  impetus  given  by  his 
'Xew  Atlantis'  to  the  organization  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
which  took  place  in  1662." — G.  F.  Caldwell.  Eng- 
lish contributions  to  scientific  thought  (English 
leadership,  pp.  240-244). — .•\s  for  Bacon's  literary 
career,  he  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  man  of 
his  time.  The  so-called  Baconian  theory,  which 
originated  in  the  nineteenth  century,  holds  that 
Bacon  was  the  author  of  Shakespeare's  plays. 
Among  his  greatest  works  are:  "Novum  organum," 
"New  .■\tlantis,"  "The  advancement  of  learning," 
and  the  celebrated  series  of  "Essays." — See  also 
English  literature:  1530-1660. — For  his  part  in 
the  intellectual  revolution  of  the  time,  see  Europe: 
Modern  Period:   Revolutionary  Period. 

BACON,  Nathaniel  (1647-1676),  English  col- 
onist.—  E.xpedition  against  Indians.  —  Quarrel 
with  Berkeley. — Death.    See  V'irci.via:  1660-1677. 

BACON,  Robert,  Secretary  of  State,  United 
States.     See  I".  S.  .\.:   1905-1909. 

BACON,  Roger  (1214-1294),  English  scientist 
and  philosopher.  See  Europe:  Renaissance  and 
reformation:  Spirit  of  adventure;  Science:  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Renaissance;  Universities  and  col- 
leges:  012-127=;:   England:   Early  Oxford. 

BACON'S  REBELLION,  an  uprising  directed 
originally  against  the  murderous  and  predatory  as- 
saults of  the  Indian  population  of  Virginia  upon 
the  frontier  people  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  was  headed  by  Nathaniel  Bacon,  who 
was  impeded  at  every  step  in  his  defense  of  the 
white  border  population  by  the  unwillingness  of 
Governor  Berkeley  to  assist  his  cause,  and  finally 
culminated  in  successive  attacks  by  Bacon  and  his 
followers  on  the  capital  of  Virginia.  At  the  height 
of  his  success,  Bacon  died  and  the  movement  col- 
lapsed.— See  also  Virginia:  1660-1677. 

BACTERIOLOGY,  Development  of:  Experi- 
ments with  antitoxines. — Study  of  Malaria  para- 
sites. See  Medical  science:  Modern:  19th  cen- 
tury; and  I9th-20th  centuries. 

BACTRIA,  or  Bactriana,  the  ancient  name  of 
a  country  in  Asia  situated  north  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  range.  "Where  the  edge  [of  the  table- 
land of  Iran]  rises  to  the  lofty  Hindu  Kush, 
there  lies  on  its  northern  slope  a  favored  district 
in  the  region  of  the  Upper  Oxus.  ...  On  the 
banks  of  the  river,  which  flows  in  a  north-westerly 
direction,  extend  broad  mountain  pastures,  where 
support  is  found  in  the  fresh  mountain  air  for 
numerous  herds  of  horses  and  sheep,  and  beneath 
the  wooded  hills  are  blooming  valleys.  On  these 
slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  the  middle  stage  betw'een 
the  table-land  and  the  deep  plain  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  lay  the  Bactrians — the  Bakhtri  of  the 
Achaemenids,  the  Bakhdhi  of  the  Avesta.  ...  In 
ancient  times  the  Bactrians  were  hardly  dis- 
tinguished from  nomads;  but  their  land  was  ex- 
tensive and  produced  fruits  of  all  kinds,  with 
the  exception  of  the  vine.  The  fertility  of  the 
land  enabled  the  Hellenic  princes  to  make  great 
conquests." — M.  Duncker,  History  of  antiquity,  bk. 


798 


BADAJOS 


BADEN 


6,  ck.  2. — ^The  Bactrians  were  among  the  people 
subjugated  by  Cyrus  the  Great  and  their  coun- 
try formed  part  of  the  Persian  empire  until  the 
latter  was  overthrown  by  Alexander  (see  Mace- 
donia, &c.:  B.C.  330-323).  In  the  division  of  the 
Macedonian  conquests,  after  Alexander's  death, 
Bactria,  with  all  the  farther  east,  fell  to  the  share 
of  Seleucus  Nicator  and  formed  part  of  what 
came  to  be  called  the  kingdom  of  Syria.  About 
256  B.  C.  the  Bactrian  province,  being  then  gov- 
erned by  an  ambitious  Greek  satrap  named  Diodo- 
tus,  was  led  by  him  into  revolt  against  the  Syrian 
monarchy,  and  easily  gained  its  independence,  with 
Diodotus  for  its  king  (see  Seleucid.^:  281-224 
B.C.).  "The  authority  of  Diodotus  was  con- 
firmed and  riveted  on  his  subjects  by  an  undis- 
turbed reign  of  eighteen  years  before  a  Syrian 
army  even  showed  itself  in  his  neighbourhood. 
.  .  .  The  Bactrian  Kingdom  was,  at  any  rate  at 
its  commencement,  as  thoroughly  Greek  as  that  of 
the  Seleucids."  "From  B.C.  206  to  about  B.C. 
i8s  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Bac- 
trian monarchy,  which  expanded  during  that  space 
from  a  small  kingdom  to  a  considerable  empire" 
— extending  over  the  greater  part  of  modern  Af- 
ghanistan and  across  the  Indus  into  the  Punjab. 
But  meantime  the  neighboring  Parthians,  who 
threw  off  the  Seleucid  yoke  soon  after  the  Bac- 
trians had  done  so,  were  growing  in  power  and 
they  soon  passed  from  rivalry  to  mastery.  The 
Bactrian  kingdom  was  practically  extinguished 
about  150  B.  C.  by  the  conquests  of  the  Parthian 
Mithridates  I.,  "although  Greek  monarchs  of  the 
Bactrian  series  continued  masters  of  Cabul  and 
Western  India  till  about  B.  C.  126."— G.  Rawlin- 
son,  Sixth  great  oriental  monarcliy,  ch.  3-5. — 
Bactria  now  forms  part  of  Afghanistan,  border- 
ing on  Bokhara.  Since  the  World  War  the  Rus- 
sian soviet  govsrnment  has  acquired  considerable 
influence  in  this  whole  region  and  conditions  are 
unsettled. 

BADAJOS,  Geographical  congress  (1524). 
See  America;   151Q-1524:  Voyage  of  Magellan. 

BADAKSHAN.     See  Turkestan. 

BADEN. — A  German  republic,  formerly  a  grand 
duchy  under  the  empire. 

Early  Suevic  population.^The  original  in- 
habitants of  the  territory  which  now  constitutes 
Baden,  were  the  Suevi,  a  wandering  tribe  which 
had  spread  throughout  Germany,  probably  during 
the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  about  A.  D.  235. 
See  Suevi. 

1112-1813.— Early  history.— Charles  Fred- 
erick.— Aggrandizement  in  Napoleonic  wars. — 
Made  an  Electorate. — A  Grand  Duchy. — Member 
of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  later  of 
the  French  alliance. — The  history  of  Baden  prac- 
tically begins  with  Hermann,  the  son  of  the  mar- 
grave of  Verona,  who  took  the  title  of  margrave  of 
Baden  in  1112.  With  his  sons  and  grandsons 
originated  the  lines  of  Baden-Baden  and  Baden- 
Hochberg,  and  about  a  century  later,  Baden-Hoch- 
berg  was  divided  into  Baden-Hochberg  and  Baden- 
Sausenberg.  After  subsequent  aggrandizement  and 
subdivisions  the  territories  of  Baden-Baden  and 
Baden-Hochberg  were  united  under  margrave  Ber- 
nard I  in  1307,  and  with  the  extinction  of  the 
Baden-Sausenberg  line  in  1503,  the  whole  of  Baden 
was  united  under  Christopher.  He  divided  it, 
however,  again  among  his  sons,  who  in  1535 
founded  the  lines  of  Baden-Baden  and  Baden- 
Pforzheim,  the  latter  called  Baden-Durlach  since 
1565.  After  further  strife  and  subdivision  Baden 
became  definitely  united  in  1771  under  a  single 
ruler.  "The  ruler  at  this  time  was  the  Margrave 
Charles  Frederick,  one  of  the  noblest  and  most 
enlightened  princes  of  his  time;   a  man  of  learn- 


ing, and  the  patron  of  science  and  art;  a  true 
father  to  his  people,  who  through  hb  exemplary 
administration  rescued  his  land  from  imminent 
financial  ruin ;  and,  favored  by  the  fertility  of  its 
soil  as  well  as  by  the  natural  intelligence  and 
industry  of  the  inhabitants,  raised  it  again  to 
prosperity;  in  1767  he  abolished  torture,  and  in 
1783  serfdom,  thereby  sacrificing  40,000  florins  of 
yearly  income." — M.  Philippson,  Age  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  v.  15  of  History  of  all  nations,  p.  280. 
— Though  greatly  devastated  in  1706  owing  to  its 
participation  in  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution, 
on  the  side  of*  Austria,  its  territories  became  en- 
larged during  the  Napoleonic  wars.  (See  also 
Austria:  1708-1806.)  After  the  treaty  of  Lune- 
ville,  by  which  it  acquired  considerable  territory 
(see  Germany:  1801-1803),  Charles  Frederick  took 
the  title  of  elector,  in  1803,  and  upon  further 
aggrandizement  by  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg,  he 
took  the  title  of  grand-duke,  in  1806.  (See  Ger- 
many: 1805-1806,  and  1806:  January-August.) 
The  same  year  Baden  joined  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  but  abandoned  it  in  1813  to  join 
the  Allies  against  Napoleon.  (See  France:  1814: 
January-March.) 

1812. — Extent  of  territory.  See  Europe:  Mod- 
ern: Map  of  Central  Europe  in  1812. 

1815. — Embraced  in  Germanic  confederation. 
See  Vienna,  Congress  of. 

1818-1831. — Constitution  granted. — Leader  of 
German  states  in  constitutional  movement. 
See  Suffrage,  Manhood:  Germany:  J800-1840; 
and  1840-1850. 

1833. — Member  of  Zollverein.  See  Tariff: 
1833- 

1848. — During  the  German  uprisings  of  1848, 
Baden  became  the  center  of  revolutionary  ac- 
tivities, its  fortress  Rastadt  serving  as  an  en- 
trenched camp  for  the  revolutionists.  After  sev- 
eral unsuccessful  attempts  the  revolution  was 
suppressed  by  Prussian  troops  and  the  leaders  ex- 
ecuted.    See  Germany:  1848-1850. 

1862-1866. — Allied  with  Austria  in  war 
against  Prussia.     See  Austria:   1862-1866. 

1866. — Seven  weeks'  war. — Indemnity  and  ter- 
ritorial cession  to  Prussia.    See  Germany:  1866. 

1870-1871.— Member  of  North  German  confed- 
eration.— State  of  the  German  empire. — By  a 
treaty  of  November  15, 1870,  Baden  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  North  German  confederation,  and  with 
the  transformation  of  the  latter  into  the  Ger- 
man empire  in  1871,  it  became  one  of  its  states. 
— See  also  Germany:  1870  (September-Decem- 
ber), and   1871    (January). 

1918. — Declared  a  republic. — Its  constitution. 
— "November,  1918,  the  Grand  Duke  abdicated 
and  a  republic  was  declared.  The  Constitution 
calls  for  a  cabinet  of  six  members  elected  by  the 
legislature,  equal  male  and  female  suffrage  for 
all  over  20  years.  The  Initiative  and  Referendum 
are  also  part  of  the  Constitution." — J.  Moody, 
Moody's  Analyses  of  investments  (iqiq),  p. 
1172. 

1919. — Economic  reconstruction  after  the 
World  War. — Trade  provisions. — "The  Baden 
Ministry  of  Home  Affairs  has  created  a  Foreign 
Trade  Office  for  the  promotion  of  imports  and 
exports,  with  business  premises  at  Carlsruhe.  An 
Advisory  Council,  on  which  the  import  and  ex- 
port organization  concerned  will  be  represented, 
will  be  formed  in  conjunction  with  the  Office 
There  will  be  a  representative  also  in  Berlin.  It 
is  further  intended  to  appoint  a  Baden  representa- 
tive of  Commerce  in  Switzerland." — Weltwirt- 
schaftszeilung.  May  23,  quoted  by  the  Daily  Re- 
view of  the  Foreign  Press,  Economic  Supplement, 
June  25,  iqiQ. 


799 


BADEN,  TREATY 


BAGAUDS 


1920. — General  survey. — Physical  conditions. — 
Resources  and  industries. — Area. — Population. — 
Cities. — Education. — Baden  occupies  a  territory 
which  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine  and  is 
surrounded  by  Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Switzerland,  Wiirttemberg,  and  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Rhine,  extending  along  its  whole  length 
on  the  west.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  area  is  cov- 
ered by  the  Schwarzwald  and  the  less  elevated 
ranges  of  the  Odenwald,  which  slope  down  to- 
wards the  Rhine  valley,  the  only  great  plain  in 
Baden.  Besides  the  Rhine,  its  greatest  rivers  are 
the  Main  and  the  Neckar.  The  Danube  also  takes 
its  rise  here.  Of  its  numerous  lakes,  the  Bodensee 
is  best  known.  It  has  also  famous  mineral  springs. 
"The  leading  manufactures  are  tiles,  machinery, 
chemicals,  jewelry,  and  clocks.  The  chief  agri- 
cultural products  are  cereals,  potatoes,  hay,  to- 
bacco, hops,  grapes,  and  vegetables.  Salt  and 
building  stone  are  the  only  mineral  products." — 
J.  Moody,  Moody's  analyses  of  investments  (igiq), 
p.  1172. — According  to  the  latest  census  of  iqig,  its 
area  is  5,817  square  miles  with  a  population  of 
2,208,503.  The  majority  (1,271,015  in  igio)  are 
Catholics;  the  remainder  are  Protestants  and  Jews. 
The  principal  cities  are  Mannheim  (an  important 
river  port),  Karlsruhe  (the  capital),  Freiburg, 
Pforzheim  and  Heidelberg. — See  also  Germany: 
Map. 

Also  in:  E.  Rebmann,  Das  Grossherzogtum 
Baden  in  allgemeiner,  wirtschaftlicher  und  staat- 
licher  Hinsicht.     Karlsruhe,  iqi2. 

BADEN,  or  Rastadt,  Treaty  of  (1714)-  See 
Utrecht:   1712-1714. 

BADENFIELD,  Battle  of.  See  Saxons:  772- 
S04. 

BADENI,  Casimir  Felix,  Count   (1846-1009). 

Ministry  in  Austria.  ■  See  .Austria:   1803-1900. 

Connection  with  language  decrees.  See  .Aus- 
tria:   1897    (October-December). 

Work  on  the  franchise.  See  Suffrage,  Man- 
hood: Austria. 

BADEN-POWELL,  Agnes,  Organizer  of  Girl 
guides.    See  Girl  guides. 

BADEN-POWELL,  Sir  Robert  Stephenson 
Smythe  (1S57-  ),  British  general  and  author, 
joined  13th  Hussars,  1876,  served  with  that  regi- 
ment in  India,  Afghanistan  and  South  .\frica  (see 
South  Africa,  Union  of:  1899;  1900  (March- 
May));  organized  the  African  Constabulary. 
Founded  the  Boy  Scouts  in  1908.  (See  Boy 
Scouts.)  Writer  on  miUtary  and  recreational 
topics. 

"BADGER  STATE."    See  Wisconsin, 

BADR,  or  Bedr,  Battle  of.  See  Mohamme- 
danism. 

B.ffiCULA,  Battles  of  (209,  206  B.C.).  See 
Punic  Wars,  Second. 

B.SDA.    See  Bede. 

B.ffi;RS/ERK.     See  Berserker. 

BAESRODE,  commune  of  Belgium  in  East 
Flanders,  scene  of  German  atrocities  in  1914,  See 
World  War:  Miscellaneous  auxiliary  services:  X, 
.Alleged   atrocities,  etc.:    a,   10. 

B.ffiTICA,  ancient  name  of  the  province  in 
Spain  which  afterwards  took  from  the  Vandals  the 
name  of  Andalusia.  See  Sp.ain:  B.C.  218-25; 
also  Turdetani;  and  Vandals:  428. 

BiETIS,  ancient  name  of  the  Guadalquivir  river 
in  Spain. 

BAEYER,  Adolf  von  (1835-1917),  German 
chemist  awarded  Nobel  prize  in  1905.  See  Nobel 
prizes:  Chemistry:  1905. 

BAEZ,  Buenaventura  (1820-1884),  President 
of  Dominican  republic.  See  Santo  Domingo: 
1868-1873. 


BAFFIN,  William  (?-i622),  English  navigator 
and  explorer.  His  voyage  in  1616,  in  search  of 
a  northwest  passage  to  India,  resulted  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  bay  betv,'ee)i  Greenland  and  Canada 
which  he  named  Baffin's  bay.  His  account  of 
the  trip  was  published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society,  1849. 

BAFFIN  BAY,  a  great  gulf  in  northeastern 
Canada,  part  of  the  strait  separating  Baffin  Land 
from  Greenland.  It  was  named  by  William  Baffin 
who  discovered  and  explored  it  in  1615-1616.  The 
bay  is  sheeted  with  ice  in  the  winter,  but  is  navi- 
gable through  channels  in  the  ice  during  the  sum- 
mer. It  communicates  with  the  Atlantic  ocean  by 
Davis  strait,  and  with  the  .Arctic  ocean  through 
Lancaster,  Jones  and  Smith  straits,  also  named 
by  Baffin,  It  was  explored  in  the  early  twentieth 
century.     See   Arctic   E.xploration:    1910-1916, 

BAFFIN  LAND,  large  island  opposite  Green- 
land. See  .Arctic  exploration:  Map  of  Arctic 
regions. 

Extent  of  territory.    See  Canada:  Map. 

BAGAMOYO,  a  seaport  in  Tanganyika  terri- 
tory, formerly  German  East  Africa,  about  fifty 
miles  north  of  Dar-es-Salaam.  In  1916,  during 
the  World  War  was  taken  from  the  Germans  by  the 
British.  [See  World  War:  1916:  VII.  African  the- 
ater: a,  11.]  "North  of  Dar-es-Salaam  the  principal 
ports  are  Pagani  and  Bagamoyo.  The  latter  is 
immediately  opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar  and 
was  at  one  time  the  most  important  port  of  the 
country,  because,  prior  to  the  construction  of  the 
railroads,  the  development  of  towns,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  regular  and  direct  communication 
with  Europe,  the  bulk  of  the  trade  of  German  East 
Africa  was  carried  on  through  Zanzibar.  Caravan 
routes  from  the  interior  centered  at  Bagamoyo  and 
the  products  of  the  country  were  transported  in 
sailing  vessels  to  Zanzibar  only  30  miles  away. 
Similarly  the  imports  were  first  brought  into  Zan- 
zibar and  then  distributed,  largely  by  Indian  mer- 
chants, to  German  East  .Africa  via  Bagamoyo. 
The  building  of  the  Uganda  Railway,  which  di- 
verted a  large  part  of  the  trade  of  the  north  and 
northwestern  sections  to  the  route  via  Lake  Vic- 
toria and  Mombasa,  the  decline  of  the  dhow  traf- 
fic through  the  absorption  of  the  trade  by  the 
German  line  of  steamers,  the  building  of  the  rail- 
roads to  the  interior  from  Dar-es-Salaam  and 
Tanga,  and  the  lack  of  a  good  harbor  are  the  main 
factors  that  have  contributed  to  the  decline  of 
Bagamoyo.  A  certain  amount  of  trade  still  fol- 
lows the  old  route,  but  it  is  rapidly  decreasing." — 
{'.  .S.  Consular  report.  1014 

BAGATELLE,  a  small  village  in  the  Argonne, 
northwest  of  Verdun.  It  was  taken  by  the  Ger- 
mans in  1915.  See  World  War:  1915:  II.  Western 
front:  g. 

BAGAUDS,  Insurrection  of  the  (AD.  287). 
— The  peasants  of  Gaul,  whose  condition  had  be- 
come very  wretched  during  the  distractions  and 
misgovernment  of  the  third  century,  were  pro- 
voked to  an  insurrection,  .A.  D.  287,  which  was 
general  and  alarming.  It  was  a  rising  which  seems 
to  have  been  much  like  those  that  occurred  in 
France  and  England  eleven  centuries  later.  The 
rebel  peasants  were  called  Bagauds, — a  name  which 
some  writers  derive  from  the  Celtic  word  "bagad" 
or  "bagat,"  signifying  "tumultuous  assemblage." 
They  sacked  and  ruined  several  cities, — taking 
Autun  after  a  siege  of  seven  months, — and  com- 
mitted many  terrible  atrocities.  The  Emperor 
Maximian — colleague  of  Diocletian, — succeeded,  at 
last,  in  suppressing  the  general  outbreak,  but  not 
in  extinguishing  it  ever>where.  There  were  traces 
of  it  surviving  long  afterwards. — P.  Godwin,  His- 
tory of  France,  v.  i:  Ancient  Gaul,  bk.  2,  ch.  6. 
— See  also  Serfdom. 


800 


BAGDAD,  762-763 


Abbasid  Caliphs 


BAGDAD,  763-833 


Also  in:  W.  T.  Arnold,  Roman  system  of  pro- 
vincial administration,  ch.  4. 

BAGDAD,  the  principal  city  of  Irak  (Mesopo- 
tamia) ;  capital  and  only  important  city  of  the 
vilayet  of  the  same  name,  which  was  the  largest 
province  of  the  former  Turkish  Empire,  including 
the  greater  part  of  ancient  Babylonia. 

Captured  by  the  Assyrians.  See  Assyria: 
People,  religion  and  early  history. 

Early  commercial  importance.  See  Commerce: 
Medieval:   5th-Sth  centuries  A.  D. 

762-763. — Founding  of  the  new  capital  of  the 
Caliphs. — "The  history  of  Baghdad,  as  a  metropo- 
lis, coincides  with  the  history  of  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  Abbasid  Caliphs  [see  also  Caliphate:  715- 
750;  763;  and  815-945];  for  in  the  East  it  would 
appear  to  be  almost  a  necessity  of  the  case  that 
every  new  dynasty  should  found  a  new  capital  .  .  . 
The  last  Omayyad  Caliph,  Marwan  II,  was  routed 
and  slain  in  the  year  132  (A.  D.  750),  and  the  first 
Abbasid  Caliph  well  merited  his  name  of  Saffah 
— the  'Shedder  of  blood' — he  having  been  con- 
stantly occupied,  during  the  four  years  of  his  reign, 
in  hunting  down  and  putting  to  death  every  male 
descendant  of  the  house  of  Omayyah,  save  one 
youth  only  who,  escaping  to  Spain,  ultimately  ob- 
tained rule  there,  and  founded  the  dynasty  which 
afterwartls  came  to  be  known  as  the  Caliphate  of 
Cordova.  [See  also  Caliphate:  756-1031.]  In 
136  (A.  D.  754)  Mansur  succeeded  his  brother 
Saffah  on  the  throne,  and  during  the  twenty-two 
years  of  his  reign  built  Baghdad,  and  there  or- 
ganized the  government  of  the  Abbasids,  which 
first  established  in  power,  and  then  suffering  a 
long  decay,  was  destined  to  last  for  five  centuries 
seated  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  .  .  During  the 
last  period  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  Persian  Bagh- 
dad, on  the  western  side  of  the  Tigris,  had  been  a 
thriving  place,  and  at  the  period  of  the  Moslem 
Conquest  a  monthly  market  was  held  here.  It 
became  very  famous  in  the  early  annals  of  Islam 
for  the  very  successful  raid  of  which  it  was  the 
scene.  During  the  Caliphate  of  Abu  Bakr,  Khalid, 
the  general  of  the  Arab  army,  after  advancing 
some  way  into  Mesopotamia,  suddenly  dispatched 
a  body  of  troops  against  this  Suk  Baghdad,  as  the 
'Market'  held  at  the  Sarat  Point  was  then  called; 
the  raiders  surprised  the  town  'and  the  Moslems 
filled  their  hands  with  gold  and  silver,  obtaining 
also  the  wherewithal  to  carry  away  their  booty,' 
for  they  promptly  returned  again  to  Anbar  on  the 
Euphrates,  where  Khalid  lay  encamped  After 
this  incident  of  the  ycE'r  13  (A.D  634)  Baghdad 
appears  no  more  in  history  until  Mansur,  seeking 
out  a  site  for  the  new  capital,  encamped  here  in 
the  year  145  (A.D.  762).  We  are  told  that  the 
spot  was  then  occupied  by  several  monasteries 
(Dayr),  chiefly  of  Nestorian  monks,  and  from 
them  Mansur  learned  that  among  all  the  Tigris 
lands  this  district  especially  was  celebrated  for  its 
freedom  from  the  plague  of  mosquitoes,  the  nights 
here  being  cool  and  pleasant  even  in  the  height  of 
summer.  These  lesser  advantages,  doubtless,  had 
no  inconsiderable  influence  with  Mansur  in  the 
final  choice  of  this  as  the  place  for  the  new  capital 
of  the  Abbasids  in  Mesopotamia ;  but  the  practical 
foresight  shown  by  the  Caliph  has  been  amply 
confirmed  by  the  subsequent  history  of  Baghdad. 
This  city,  called  into  existence  as  by  an  enchanter's 
wand,  was  second  only  to  Constantinople  in  size 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  unrivalled  for 
splendour  throughout  Western  Asia,  becoming  at 
once,  and  remaining  for  all  subsequent  centuries, 
the  capital  of  Mesopotamia.  Wars,  sieges,  the 
removal  for  a  time  by  the  Caliphs  of  the  seat  of 
government  to  Samarra  (higher  up  the  Tigris), 
even  the  almost  entire  destruction  of  the  city  by 


the  Mongols  in  A.  D.  1258,  none  of  these  have  per- 
manently aftected  the  supremacy  of  Baghdad  as 
capital  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  country,  and 
now  after  the  lapse  of  over  eleven  centuries,  the 
Turkish  governor  of  Mesopotamia  still  resides  in 
the  city  founded  by  the  Caliph  Mansiir." — G.  Le 
Strange,  Bagdad  during  the  Abbasid  Caliphate, 
pp.  I -13. —See  also  Afghanistan. 

Also  in:  M.  Sykes,  Caliphs'  last  heritage,  pp. 
216-218. 

763-833.— Seat  of  the  Abbasid  Caliphs.— 
Wealth  and  intellectual  leadership. — "The  rea- 
sons which  had  made  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia 
the  site  where,  one  after  another,  all  the  great 
empires  of  Western  Asia  had  set  up  the  centre  of 
their  power  dictated  the  choice  of  the  same  region 
to  the  Caliphs.  In  the  eighth  century  it  was  still 
one  of  the  richest  agricultural  countries  in  the 
world,  as  it  had  been  from  immemorial  time,  and 
then,  as  for  ages  before,  the  chief  commercial  land 
routes  between  the  East  and  the  West  passed 
through  it.  Basra  and  Kufa  were  too  turbulent 
for  the  home  of  the  Caliph,  and  El  Mansur's  first 
aim  was  to  make  the  imperial  residence  secure. 
...  It  was  enclosed  by  three  walls  and  a  ditch. 
The  outer  wall  was  about  four  miles  round,  and 
between  it  and  the  second,  or  main,  wall  there 
was  an  open  ring  which  could  be  patrolled.  This 
prevented  enemies  or  traitors  outside  from  com- 
municating with  their  friends  within.  Between 
the  second  and  the  third  wall  lay  the  houses  of 
the  city.  Inside  the  third  wall  was  another  open 
space,  more  than  a  mile  across,  and  therefore 
large  enough  for  troops  to  manoeuvre  in.  In  the 
centre  was  the  Caliph's  palace,  the  'Golden  Gate.' 
Roads  from  the  four  city  gates  to  the  central  space 
divided  the  four  quarters  of  the  city.  These  loads 
were  flanked  by  barracks  and  lateral  walls  with 
side  gates,  so  that  in  case  of  disturbance  each 
quarter  could  be  shut  off  from  the  others.  It  grew 
rapidly,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury it  is  said   to  have  covered   25   square  miles. 

"It  is  impossible  even  to  sketch  the  history  of 
which  it  now  became  the  centre.  All  the  wealth, 
the  learning,  and  the  art  of  the  East  found  their 
chief  home  in  the  city  which  claimed  both  the 
civil  and  religious  allegiance  of  Islam  from  the 
Great  Wall  of  China  and  the  Indus  to  the  shores 
of  the  .(Ktlantic,  and  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Sa- 
hara. Its  wonderful  system  of  irrigation  canals, 
its  mosques  and  palaces,  its  vast  and  luxuriant  gar- 
dens, its  flourishing  colleges,  famous  wherever  the 
Koran  was  read,  its  baths  and  its  bazaars  thronged 
by  merchants  from  all  the  East,  its  looms,  its 
cunning  artificers,  and  its  immense  population 
made  it  the  greatest  and  the  most  renowned  city 
in  the  world.  The  revenue  of  the  Caliphs  has 
been  estimated  at  from  £72,000,000  to  £96,000,000 
of  money  at  its  present  value,  and  they  lavished 
it  upon  every  form  of  Oriental  luxury  at  their 
Court.  The  fellow-countrymen  of  Sindbad,  whose 
home  was  Baghdad  and  his  port  Basra,  and  of 
Hasan,  who  sailed  to  the  Islands  of  Wak,  were 
daring  seamen  and  observant  travellers.  They 
were  mathematicians,  geographers,  astronomers, 
alchemists,  physicians,  and  surgeons.  Algebra  and 
Arabic  numerals,  the  names  of  many  constellations, 
the  gilding  and  silvering  of  pills,  with  its  mystic 
relation  to  the  influence  of  the  planets,  are  faint 
memorials  of  their  almost  forgotten  labours. 
Avicenna  himself  was  the  most  famous  of  Arab 
physicians,  and  his  works  were  still  commented 
upon  in  the  University  of  Montpellier — itself  of 
Arab  origin — well  on  into  the  nineteenth  century. 
It  was  under  Mamun  (813-833)  that  an  event  in 
letters  took  place  which  still  continues  to  influence 
the   thought   of  the  world.     The   Caliph,  a  noble 


801 


BAGDAD,  815-945 


Under 
Mongol  Rale 


BAGDAD,  1393-1638 


patron  of  learning,  directed  that  a  number  of 
Greek  authors  should  be  translated  into  Arabic. 
Amongst  them  was  Aristotle,  and  it  was  from 
Latin  renderings  of  this  version  and  of  the  Arabic 
commentaries  upon  it  that  the  medieval  schoolmen 
derived  their  first  acquaintance  with  fundamental 
portions  of  the  Aristotelian  system." — The  Times 
(London),  weekly  edition,  Mar.  i6,  1917. — See  also 
Barmecides;   Caliphate:    763. 

Also  in:  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  Short  history  of  the 
Saracens,  pp.  444-44Q. 

815-945. — Decline  of  the  Caliphate.  See  Cali- 
phate: 815-945. 

1050.— In  the  hands  of  the  Seljuk  Turks. 
See  Turkey:   1004-1063. 

1132-1238. — Extent  of  territory.  See  Crusades: 
Map  of  Mediterranean  lands  after  1204. 

1258. — The  Fall  of  the  Caliphate.— Destruc- 
tion of  the  city  by  the  Mongols. — In  1252,  on 
the  accession  of  Mangu  Khan,  grandson  of  Jingis 
Khan,  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mongol  Empire 
[see  Mongols],  a  great  Kuriltai  or  council  was 
held,  at  which  it  was  decided  to  send  an  expedi- 
tion into  the  West,  for  two  purposes:  (i),  to  ex- 
terminate the  Ismaileans  or  Assassins,  who  still 
maintained  their  power  in  northern  Persia;  (2), 
to  reduce  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad  to  submission  to 
the  Mongol  supremacy.  The  command  of  the 
expedition  was  given  to  Mangu's  brother  Khulagu, 
or  Houlagou,  who  performed  his  appointed  tasks 
with  thoroughness  and  unmerciful  resolution.  In 
1257  he  made  an  end  of  the  Assassins,  to  the  great 
relief  of  the  whole  eastern  world,  Mahometan  and 
Christian.  In  1258  he  passed  on  to  Bagdad,  pre- 
ceded by  an  embassy  which  summoned  the  caliph 
to  submit,  to  raze  the  walls  of  Bagdad,  to  give 
up  his  vain  pretensions  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Moslem  world,  and  to  acknowledge  the  Great 
Khan  for  his  lord.  The  feeble  caliph  and  his 
treacherous  and  incapable  ministers  neither  sub- 
mitted nor  made  vigorous  preparations  for  de- 
fence. As  a  consequence,  Bagdad  was  taken  after 
a  siege  which  only  excited  the  ferocity  of  the 
Mongols.  They  fired  the  city  and  slaughtered  its 
people,  excepting  some  Christains,  who  are  said 
to  have  been  spared  through  the  influence  of  one 
of.  Khulagu's  wives,  who  was  a  Nestorian.  The 
sack  of  Bagdad  lasted  seven  days.  The  number 
of  the  dead,  we  are  told  by  Raschid,  was  800,000. 
The  caliph,  Mostasim,  with  all  his  family,  was 
put  to  death.— H.  H.  Howorth,  History  of  the 
Mongols,  V.  I,  pp.  193-201. 

For  a  considerable  period  before  this  final  ca- 
tastrophe, in  the  decline  of  the  Seljuk  Empire,  the 
Caliphate  at  Bagdad  had  become  once  more  "an 
independent  temporal  state,  though,  instead  of  rul- 
ing in  the  three  quarters  of  the  globe,  the  caliphs 
ruled  only  over  the  province  of  Irak  .\rabi.  Their 
position  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  Popes  in 
recent  times,  whom  they  also  resembled  in  as- 
suming a  new  name,  of  a  pious  character,  at  their 
inauguration.  Both  the  Christian  and  the  Mos- 
lem pontiff  was  the  real  temporal  sovereign  of  a 
small  state;  each  claimed  to  be  spiritual  sovereign 
over  the  whole  of  the  Faithful;  each  was  recog- 
nized as  such  by  a  large  body,  but  rejected  by 
others.  But  in  truth  the  spiritual  recognition  of 
the  Abbaside  caliphs  was  more  nearly  universal 
in  their  last  age  than  it  had  ever  been  before." 
With  the  fall  of  Bagdad  fell  the  caliphate  as  a 
temporal  sovereignty;  but  it  survived,  or  was 
resurrected,  in  its  spiritual  functions,  to  become 
merged,  a  little  later,  in  the  supremacy  of  the 
sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  "A  certain  .Ahmed, 
a  real  or  pretended  \bbasside,  fled  [from  Bagdad] 
to  Egypt,  where  he  was  proclaimed  cahph  by  the 
title  of  Al  Mostanser  Billah,  under  the  protection 


of  the  then  Sultan  Bibars.  He  and  his  successors 
were  deemed,  in  spiritual  things,  Commanders  of 
the  Faithful,  and  they  were  found  to  be  a  con- 
venient instrument  both  by  the  Mameluke  sultans 
and  by  other  Mahometan  princes.  From  one  of 
them,  Bajazet  the  Thunderbolt  received  the  title 
of  Sultan;  from  another,  Selim  the  Inflexible  pro- 
cured the  cession  of  his  claims,  and  obtained  the 
right  to  deem  himself  the  shadow  of  God  upon 
earth.  Since  then,  the  Ottoman  Padishah  has  been 
held  to  inherit  the  rights  of  Omar  and  of  Haroun, 
rights  which  if  strictly  pressed,  might  be  terrible 
alike  to  enemies,  neutrals,  and  allies." — E.  A.  Free- 
man, History  and  conquest  of  the  Saracens,  lec- 
ture, 4. 

Also  in:  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  Short  history  of  the 
Saracens,  pp.  397-399. — M.  Sykes,  The  Caliphs'  last 
heritage,  pp.  270,  271. 

1393-1638. — Under  Mongol  rule. — Timur. — 
Persian  and  Turkish  domination. — "Baghdad 
had  ceased  to  be  the  spiritual  centre  of  Islam.  .  .  . 
Baghdad  and  Mesopotamia  have  been  blasted  for 
six  centuries  by  the  Mongol  devastation.  By  ruin- 
ing the  whole  system  of  irrigation,  Hulagu  in  a 
single  year  "destroyed  the  work  of  three  hundred 
generations."  The  pagan  empire  of  the  II  Khans 
which  he  founded  presently  became  a  feeble  Shiah 
monarchy,  and  when  the  terrible  Timur  the  Lame 
(Tamerlane)  arose  to  imitate  and  to  surpass  the 
career  of  Chingiz,  Baghdad  opened  its  gates  on  his 
approach.  Nine  years  later  in  1401  it  defied  the 
conqueror  and  was  taken  by  assault.  [See  Timur.] 
.  .  .  Timur  died  in  his  splendid  palace  at  Samar- 
cand  in  1405,  and  Baghdad  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  'Black  Sheep'  and  then  of  the  'White  Sheep' 
Mongol  dynasties.  In  the  last  year  of  the  15th 
century  Shah  Ismail  founded  the  dynasty  of  the 
Safavis — the  'Sophys'  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton — 
who  at  once  gained  the  loyalty  of  the  Shiah  Per- 
sians because  the  blood  of  Ali  ran  in  their  veins. 
Against  Shah  Ismail  the  Turks,  led  by  Selim  'the 
Grim,'  won  the  great  battle  of  Chaldiran  in  1514 
and  occupied  Tabriz,  but  the  Sultan  was  prevented 
from  prosecuting  his  conquests  by  the  mutinous 
temper  of  his  troops. 

"In  1534  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman  Sultans, 
Suleiman  'the  Law-giver,'  'the  Magnificent,'  the 
conqueror  of  Belgrade  and  of  Rhodes,  the  victor 
of  Mohacs,  the  besieger  of  Vienna,  turned  his 
arms  against  Persia.  After  he  had  recaptured 
Tabriz,  Baghdad  surrendered  without  a  blow.  .  .  . 
Suleiman's  eastern  conquests  were  not  long  re- 
tained. In  1604  Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  with 
whose  troops  Sir  Robert  Sherley  charged,  ut- 
terly defeated  the  Turks  near  Lake  Urumiah. 
Baghdad  and  Mosul,  the  holy  places  Nejf  and 
Kerbela,  and  the  provinces  of  Azerbaijan  and  Kur- 
distan were  the  fruits  of  the  victory.  Baghdad 
seems  to  have  again  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  Turks  soon  after,  for  in  November,  1623,  it 
was  betrayed  to  the  Shah  by  the  son  of  the  Turkish 
commandant.  .  .  . 

"Baghdad,  however,  was  not  long  to  remain  in 
Persian  hands.  Two  attempts  to  recapture  it 
failed,  apd  ruined  the  Grand  Vizers  who  made 
them.  Hafiz  Pasha  vainly  besieged  it  for  nine 
months  in  1625-6,  and  Khosru  Pasha  retired  de- 
feated from  its  walls  in  1630.  But  eight  years 
later  the  bloodthirsty  Murad  IV.,  the  last  of  the 
fighting  Sultans,  led  a  great  army  against  it.  The 
Persians  made  a  valiant  defence  for  40  days  and 
the  Grand  Vizier  was  killed  in  an  assault.  Then, 
as  no  relief  came,  the  city  surrendered  on  Christ- 
mas Day,  163S.  Pretexts  were  found  first  for 
slaughtering  the  garrison  and  then  for  a  wholesale 
butchery." — The  Times  (London),  weekly  edition. 
Mar.  16,  1917. — See  also  Turkey:  1623-1640. 


802 


BAGDAD 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


1638-1919. — Turkish  rule. — From  its  recapture 
by  the  Turks,  Bagdad  remained  a  Turkish  pos- 
session with  a  brief  interval  during  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  when  it  became  an  inde- 
pendent pashalic. 

1919-1921. — Strategic,  economic  and  political 
center. — Objective  in  the  World  War.— Bag- 
dad controls  much  of  the  trade  of  Mesopotamia 
and  Arabia,  and  is  the  strategic  center  for  the  re- 
gion between  Constantinople  and  the  Persian  gulf. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  a  railroad  from  Constanti- 
nople projected  before  the  war  and  hurried  to 
completion  since  1914.  (See  also  Mesopotamia.) 
It  was  the  objective  of  the  Russian  and  British 
campaign  of  iQis-16  which  was  temporarily  aban- 
doned after  the  fall  of  Kut-el-Amara  in  April, 
1916.  (See  World  War:  1916:  VI,  Turkish  theater: 
d,  3.)  In  January,  1917,  the  British  began  a  new 
advance  up  the  Tigris  and  occupied  Bagdad  on 
March  11,  1917.  The  continuation  of  the  ad- 
vance from  the  city  caused  a  Turkish  retreat  into 
Mesopotamia,  whither  they  were  pursued  by  the 
Russians  from  Persia.  A  junction  of  the  British 
and  Russian  forces  on  April  4  was  followed  by  a 
British  drive  up  the  Bagdad  railway  to  Samara, 
and  the  British  occupation  of  the  Euphrates  val- 
ley. Operations  in  this  theater  were  retarded  by 
the  Russian  revolution. — See  also  Bagdad  railway; 
Mesopotamia;  World  War:  1917:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  a,  1;  a,  1,  iv;  a,  1,  v;  and  I.  Summary:  b. 

By  the  peace  treaty  with  Turkey,  Mesopotamia 
was  created  an  independent  state  and  allotted  un- 
der a  mandate  to  Great  Britain  by  the  Supreme 
Council.  See  Sevres,  Treaty  of:  1920:  Part  III. 
Political  clauses:  Syria  and  Mesopotamia. 

BAGDAD,  Babi  community  in.    See  Bahaism. 

BAGDAD  RAILWAY:  The  Plan.— German 
designs. — "In  1888,  a  group  of  German  financiers, 
backed  by  the  Deutsche  Bank,  which  was  to  have 
so  powerful  a  future  in  Turkey,  asked  for  the 
concession  of  a  railway  line  from  Ismidt  to  An- 
gora. The  construction  of  this  line  was  followed 
by  concessions  for  extension  from  Angora  to 
Caesarea  and  for  a  branch  from  the  Ismldt-Angora 
line  going  south-west  from  Eski  Sheir  to  Konia. 
The  extension  to  Caesarea  was  never  made.  That 
was  not  the  direction  in  which  the  Germans 
\vanted  to  go.  The  Eski-Sheir-Konia  spur  be- 
came the  main  line.  The  Berlin-Bagdad-Bassorah 
"all  rail  route"  was  born.  The  Germans  began  to 
dream  of  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  Balkan  Peninsula  was  to  revert  to 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Germany.  The  south  Slavs  and  the  pop- 
ulations of  the  Ottoman  Empire  would  be  dis- 
possesed  (the  philosopher  Haeckel  actually  prophe- 
sied this  in  a  speech  in  1905  before  the  Geographi- 
cal Society  of  Jena).  Russia  would  be  cut  off 
from  the  Mediterranean,  This  was  the  Pan-Ger- 
manist  conception  of  the  Bagdadbahn.  From  the 
moment  the  first  railway  concession  was  granted 
to  Germans  in  Asia  Minor,  which  coincided  with 
the  year  of  his  accession,  Wilhelm  II  has  been 
heart  and  soul  with  tiie  development  of  German 
interests  in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  His  first  move 
in  foreign  politics  was  to  visit  Sultan  Abdul 
Hamid  in  1889,  when  he  was  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  Bismarck.  In  1898,  the  Kaiser  made  his 
second  voyage  to  Constantinople.  This  voyage 
was  followed  by  the  concession  extending  the 
railway  from  Konia  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Bagdadbahn  in  the  official 
and  narrower  sense.  After  this  visit  of  the  Kaiser 
to  Abdul  Hamid,  the  pilgrimage  was  continued 
to  the  Holy  Land.  The  great  Protestant  German 
Church,  whose  corner-stone  was  laid  by  his  father 
in  1869,  was  solemnly  inaugurated  by  the  Kaiser. 


As  solemnly,  he  handed  over  to  Catholic  Ger- 
mans the  title  to  land  for  a  hospital  and  religious 
establishment  on  the  road  to  Bethlehem.  Still 
solemnly,  at  a  banquet  in  his  honour  in  Damas- 
cus, he  turned  to  the  Turkish  Vali,  and  declared: 
'Say  to  the  three  hundred  million  Moslems  of 
the  world  that  I  am  their  friend,'  To  prove  his 
sincerity  he  went  out  to  put  a  wreath  upon  the 
tomb  of  Saladin.  Wilhelm  II  at  Damascus  is 
reminiscent  of  Napoleon  at  Ca'ro.  Egypt  and 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia  have  always  cast  a  spell 
over  men  who  have  dreamed  of  world  empires; 
and  Islam,  as  a  unifying  force  for  conquest,  has 
appealed  to  the  imagination  of  others  before  the 
.  .  .  [former]  German  Kaiser.  The  revelation  of 
Germany's  ambition  by  the  granting  of  the  conces- 
sion from  Konia  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  German  financiers  for  a  firman 
constituting  the  Bagdad  Railway  Company,  led  to 
international  intrigues  and  negotiations  for  a  share 
in  the  construction  of  the  line  through  Mesopo- 
tamia. It  would  be  wearisome  and  ptofitleis  to 
follow  the  various  phases  of  the  Bagdad  question. 
Germany  did  not  oppose  international  participation 
in  the  concession.  The  expense  of  crossing  the 
Taurus  and  the  dubious  financial  returns  from 
the  desert  sections  influenced  the  Germans  to  wel- 
come the  financial  support  of  others  in  an  under- 
taking that  they  would  have  found  great  difficulty 
in  financing  entirely  by  their  own  capital.  The 
Bagdadbahn  concession  was  granted  in  1899.  The 
firman  constituting  the  company  followed  in  1903. 
Russia  did  not  realize  the  danger  of  German 
influence  at  Constantinople,  and  of  the  eventuali- 
ties of  the  German  'pacific  penertations'  in  Asia 
Minor.  She  adjusted  the  Macedonian  question 
with  Emperor  Franz  Josef  in  order  to  have  a  free 
hand  in  Manchuria,  and  she  made  no  opposition 
to  the  German  ambitions.  She  needed  the  friendly 
neutrality  of  Germany  in  her  approaching  struggle 
with  Japan,  Once  the  struggle  was  begun,  Rus- 
sia found  herself  actually  dependent  upon  the 
goodwill  of  Germany.  It  was  not  the  time  for 
Petrograd  to  fish  in  the  troubled  waters  of  the 
Golden  Horn,  The  situation  was  different  with 
Great  Britain,  The  menace  of  the  German  ap- 
proach to  the  Persian  Gulf  was  brought  to  the 
British  Foreign  Office  just  long  enough  before  the 
Boer  crisis  became  acute  for  a  decision  to  b? 
made,  Germany  had  sent  engineers  along  the  pro- 
posed route  of  her  railway.  She  had  neglected 
to  send  diplomatic  agents!  The  proposed — in  fact 
the  only  feasible — terminus  on  the  Persian  Gulf 
was  at  Koweit.  Like  the  Sultan  of  Muscat,  the 
Sheik  of  Koweit  was  practically  independent  of 
Turkey.  While  showing  deference  to  the  Sultan 
as  Khalif,  Sheik  Mobarek  resisted  every  effort  of 
the  Vali  of  Bassorah  to  exercise  even  the  semblance 
of  authority  over  his  small  domain.  In  1899, 
Colonel  Meade,  the  British  resident  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  signed  with  Mobarek  a  secret  conven- 
tion which  assured  to  him  'special  protection,'  if 
he  would  make  no  cession  of  territory  without 
the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment, The  following  year,  a  German  mission, 
headed  by  the  Kaiser's  Consul  General  at  Con- 
stantinople, arrived  in  Koweit  to  arrange  the 
concession  for  the  terminus  of  the  Bagdadbahn. 
They  were  too  late.  The  door  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
was  shut  in  the  face  of  Germany.  Wilhelm  II 
set  into  motion  the  Sultan,  The  Sublime  Porte 
suddenly  remembered  that  Koweit  was  Ottoman 
territory,  and  began  to  display  great  interest  in 
forcing  the  Sheik  to  recognize  the  fact.  A  Turkish 
vessel  appeared  at  Koweit  in  1901,  But  British 
warships  and  British  bluejackets  upheld  the  inde- 
pendence of  Koweit!    Since  the  Constitution   of 


803 


¥» 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


iqo8,  all  the  efforts  of  the  Young  Turks  at  Koweit 
have  been  fruitless.  Germany  [=tood]  blocked. 
British  opposition  to  the  German  schemes  was  not 
limited  to  the  prevention  of  an  outlet  of  the  Bag- 
dadbahn  at  Koweit.  Since  1708,  when  the  East 
India  Company  established  a  resident  at  Bagdad 
to  spy  upon  and  endeavour  to  frustrate  the  in- 
fluence of  the  French,  just  beginning  to  penetrate 
towards  India  through  the  ambition  of  Napoleon 
to  inherit  the  empire  of  Alexander,  British  inter- 
ests have  not  failed  to  be  well  looked  after  in 
Lower  Mesopotamia.  After  the  Lynch  Brothers 
in  i860  obtained  the  right  of  navigating  on  the 
Euphrates,  the  development  of  their  steamship  lines 
gradually  gave  Great  Britain  the  bulk  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  whole  region,  in  the  Persian  as  well 
as  the  Ottoman  hinterland  of  the  Gulf.  In  1805, 
German  commerce  in  the  port  of  Bushir  was  non- 


increased,  if  it  passed  by  the  Mediterranean  lit- 
toral around  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Alexandretta. 
Then  the  control  of  the  railway  would  have  been 
at  the  mercy  of  the  British  fleet.  When  the  're- 
vised' plans  went  from  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Works  to  the  Ministry  of  War,  it  was  not  hard 
for  the  German  agents  to  persuade  the  General 
Staff  to  restore  the  original  route  inland  across 
the  Amanus,  following  the  old  plan  agreed  upon  in 
the  time  of  Abdul  Hamid.  More  than  that,  the 
Germans  secured  concessions  for  a  branch  line 
from  .Aleppo  to  the  Mediterranean  at  Alexandretta, 
and  for  the  construction  of  a  port  of  Alexan- 
dretta. The  Bagdadbahn  was  to  have  a  Mediter- 
ranean terminus  at  a  fortified  port,  and  Germany 
was  to  have  her  naval  base  in  the  north-east  cor- 
ner of  the  Mediterranean,  eight  hours  from  Cy- 
prus and  thirty-six  hours  from   the  Suez   Canal! 


BAGDAD    RAILROAD 


existent,  while  British  commerce  surpassed  twelve 
million  francs  yearly.  In  igoj,  the  Hamburg- 
American  line  established  a  service  to  Bassorah. 
British  merchants  began  to  raise  the  cry  that  if 
the  Bagdadbahn  appeared  the  Germans  would  soon 
have  not  only  the  market  of  Mesopotamia  but 
also  that  of  Kermanshah !  The  Lynch  Company 
declared  that  the  Bagdadbahn  would  ruin  their 
river  service,  and  their  representations  were  listened 
to  at  London,  despite  the  absurdity  of  their 
contention.  The  Lynches  were  negotiating  with 
Berlin  also.  The  mixture  of  politics  and  com- 
merce in  Mesopotamia  is  a  sordid  story,  which 
does  not  improve  in  the  telling.  Germany  strength- 
ened her  railway  scheme,  and  her  hold  on  the 
territories  through  which  it  was  to  pass,  by 
the  accord  with  Russia  at  Potsdam  in  igio. 
The  last  clever  attack  of  British  diplomacy 
on  the  Bagdadbahn  was  successfully  met.  In 
tracing  the  extension  of  the  railway  beyond 
.•\dana,  it  was  suggested  to  the  Department  of 
Public  Works  that  the  cost  of  construction  would 
be  greatly  reduced  and  the  usefulness  of  the  line 


[See  also  Mediterranean  Sea.]     This  was  the  re- 
venge for  Koweit. 

"In  seeking  for  the  causes  of  the  present  conflict 
[the  World  War],  it  is  impossible  to  neglect  Ger- 
many in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  .As  one  looks  up 
at  Pera  from  the  Bosphoruf,  the  most  imposing 
building  on  the  hill  is  the  German  Embassy.  It 
dominates  Constantinople.  There  has  been  woven 
the  web  that  has  resulted  in  putting  Germany  In 
the  place  of  Great  Britain  to  prevent  the  Rus- 
sian advance  to  the  Dardanelles,  in  putting  Ger- 
many in  the  place  of  Russia  to  threaten  the  Brit- 
ish occupation  of  India  and  the  trade  route  to 
India,  and  in  putting  Germany  in  the  place  of 
Great  Britain  as  the  stubborn  opponent  of  the 
completion  of  the  African  Empire  of  France.  The 
most  conspicuous  thread  of  the  web  Ls  the  Bag- 
dadbahn. In  the  intrigues  of  Constantinople,  we 
see  develop  the  political  evolution  of  the  past 
generation,  and  the  series  of  events  that  made  in- 
evitable the  European  war  of  1914." — H.  A.  Gib- 
bons, New  map  of  Europe,  pp.  62-70. — See  also 
Turkey:  1914. 


804 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


"But  the  Germans  were  attracted  not  so  much  by 
the  commercial  and  industrial  opportunities  which 
the  Bagdad  Railway  was  to  open  to  them,  as  by  the 
political  advantage  which  control  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  would  offer.  If  in  the  future  there  should 
arise  a  struggle  with  Great  Britain  for  the  control 
of  the  seas  and  colonial  empire,  German  domina- 
tion in  Mesopotamia  would  threaten  the  British 
Empire  in  two  vital  points:  India  and  Egypt. 
This  was  the  point  of  view  adopted  by  Rohrbach, 
whose  views  on  German  policy  were  accepted  as 
sound  and  who  by  no  means  belonged  to  the  bel- 
ligerent party  in  Germany.  'One  factor,'  said  he 
in  igii,  'and  one  alone  will  determine  the  possi- 
bility of  a  successful  issue  for  Germany  in  such 
a  conflict:  whether  or  not  we  succeed  in  placing 
England  in  a  perilous  position.  A  direct  attack 
upon  England  across  the  North  Sea  is  out  of  the 
question;  the  prospect  of  a  German  invasion  of 
England  is  a  fantastic  dream.  It  is  necessary  to 
discover  another  combination  in  order  to  hit  Eng- 
land in  a  vulnerable  spot — and  here  we  come  to 
the  point  where  the  relationship  of  Germany  and 
Turkey  and  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Turkey 
become  of  decisive  importance  for  German  foreign 
policy,  based  as  it  now  is  upon  watchfulness  in  the 
direction  of  England.  .  .  .  England  can  be  at- 
tacked and  mortally  wounded  by  land  from  Europe 
only  in  one  place — Egypt.'  The  loss  of  Egypt 
would  mean  for  England  not  only  the  end  of  her 
dominion  over  the  Suez  Canal,  and  of  her  con- 
nections with  India  and  the  Far  East,  but  would 
probably  entail  the  loss  also  of  her  possessions  in 
Central  and  East  Africa.  The  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  a  Mohammedan  Power  like  Turkey  would  also 
imperil  England's  hold  over  her  sixty  million  Mo- 
hammedan subjects  in  India,  besides  prejudicing 
her  relations  with  Afghanistan  and  Persia.  Turkey, 
however,  can  never  dream  of  recovering  Egypt 
until  she  is  mistress  of  a  developed  railway  sys- 
tem in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  until,  through 
the  progress  of  the  Anatolian  Railway  to  Bagdad, 
she  is  in  a  position  to  withstand  an  attack  by 
England  upon  Mesopotamia.  The  Turkish  army 
must  he  increased  and  improved,  and  progress 
must  be  made  in  her  economic  and  financial  posi- 
tion. .  .  .  The  stronger  Turkey  grows,  the  more 
dangerous  does  she  become  for  England.  .  .  . 
Egypt  is  a  prize  which  for  Turkey  would  be  well 
worth  the  risk  of  taking  sides  with  Germany  in  a 
war  with  England.  The  policy  of  protecting 
Turkey,  which  is  now  pursued  by  Germany,  has 
no  other  object  but  the  desire  to  effect  an  insur- 
mce  against  the  danger  of  a  war  with  England." 
— C.  Seymour,  Diplomatic  background  of  the  war, 
p.  205. 

Route.    See  Turkey:  Map  of  Asia  Minor. 

Importance  to  western  world. — "The  region 
of  Asia  Minor  along  the  great  highway  leading 
from  Constantinople  to  Bagdad  has  from  the  most 
ancient  times  determined  the  fate  of  the  Near  East. 
Its  role  in  the  distant  past  has  ever  been  to 
threaten  the  existence  of  civilizations  and  powers 
that  arose  in  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates,  as  in 
the  intervening  lands  of  Palestine  and  Arabia.  .  .  . 
In  our  own  days  we  are  witnessing  what  promised 
to  be  the  reopening  of  the  old  historic  highway — 
the  bridge  uniting  Europe  to  Asia — to  Western 
control,  through  the  project  of  a  great  railway 
stretching  along  a  distance  of  nearly  2000  miles 
from  a  point  opposite  Constantinople  to  Bagdad, 
and  thence  to  Basra  and  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
That  project,  which  was  well  under  way  at  the 
time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  is  thus  marked 
through  its  historical  backgrouncl  as  one  of  the 
most  momentous  enterprises  of  our  age — more 
momentous  because  of  the  issue  involved  than  the 


opening  up  of  the  two  other  world  highways,  the 
Suez  and  Panama  canals.  The  creation  of  a  rail- 
way from  Constantinople  to  Bagdad  under  Euro- 
pean control  is  at  once  a  symptom  of  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Turkish  Empire  which  has  become 
a  mere  shadow  of  its  former  wide  extension,  and  a 
significant  token  of  the  new  invasion  of  the  East 
by  the  spirit  of  Western  enterprise.  Passing  along 
a  highway  over  which  armies  have  marched  for- 
ward and  backward  ever  since  the  days  of  an- 
tiquity, the  railway  is  also  a  link  connecting  the 
present  with  the  remote  past.  .  .  .  The  modem 
world  fights  for  this  region  as  the  ancient  world 
did,  with  the  railroad  as  the  new  symbol  of  a 
possession  stronger  and  firmer  than  the  garrisons 
and  outposts  of  antiquity  and  the  fortresses  of 
the  Roman  and  mediaeval  periods.  The  importance 
of  Constantinople  lies  in  its  position  as  the  starting 
point  of  the  great  highway  that  has  as  its  natural 
outlets  the  Bay  of  Alexandretta  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  other.  The  historical 
role  of  this  highway  gives  to  the  Bagdad  Railway 
a  political  import  far  transcending  its  aspect  as 
one  of  the  great  commercial  enterprises  of  our 
days.  Backed  as  the  project  was  by  the  German 
government,  steadily  growing  in  power  and  ag- 
gressiveness since  the  establishment  of  the  united 
German  Empire,  it  added  to  the  already  compli- 
cated Eastern  Question  an  aggravating  factor  that 
contributed  largely  to  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
war.  The  present  struggle  for  supremacy  among 
European  powers  resolves  itself  in  its  ultimate 
analysis  into  a  rivalry  for  the  control  of  the  East 
as  an  adjunct  to  commercial  expansion.  The  'trend 
towards  the  East'  did  not  originate  with  modern 
Germany.  It  began  with  Greece,  was  taken  up  by 
ancient  Rome  and  has  actuated  every  Western 
power  with  ambitions  to  extend  its  commerce  and 
its  sphere  of  influence — Spain,  Holland,  England 
and  France,  and  in  days  nearer  to  us  Russia  and 
Germany,  Austria  and  Italy.  Through  a  curious 
combination  of  circumstances,  superinduced  by 
the  gradual  weakening  of  the  once  dominant  Turk- 
ish Empire,  the  struggle  has  shaped  itself  into  its 
present  aspect  for  a  control  of  the  great  highway 
that  is  the  key  to  the  East — the  nearer  and  the 
farther  East.  .  .  .  From  the  historical  point  of 
view  there  are  thus  two  aspects  to  the  Bagdad  Rail- 
way. It  represents,  on  the  one  hand,  the  last  act 
in  the  process  of  reopening  the  direct  way  to  the 
East  which  became  closed  to  the  West  by  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  in  1453,  and  which  began  to  be 
reopened  with  the  loosening  of  Turkey's  hold  on 
one  end  of  the  historic  highway  stretching  across 
Asia  Minor.  On  the  other  hand,  the  conflict  to 
which  the  railway  gave  rise  illustrates'  once  more 
the  crucial  role  that  this  "highway  has  always 
played  in  determining  the  fate  of  the  Near  East 
from  the  most  ancient  days  down  to  our  times. 
The  opposition  of  the  European  powers  to  the 
Bagdad  Railway,  used  as  a  political  scheme  for  the 
aggrandizement  of  a  particular  country,  registers 
the  instinctive  protest  of  the  West  against  the 
domination  of  the  East  by  any  one  power — no 
matter  which.  .  .  .  The  Bagdad  Railway  in  the 
hands  of  Germany,  stretching  from  Constantinople 
via  Bagdad  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  would  have  meant 
the  practical  closing  of  the  highway  to  all  other 
nations — as  effectively  as  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople accomplished  this  in  1453.  The  his- 
tory of  Asia  Minor  gives  the  verdict  that 
the  highway  must  be  kept  open — if  the  world  is 
to  progress  peaceably  and  if  the  nations  of  the 
West  are  to  live  in  amicable  rivalry,  while  once 
more  passing  through  the  period  of  an  exchange 
between  Orient  and  Occident — such  as  first  took 
place  in  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great.     This 


805 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


BAGLIONI 


verdict  suggests  'internationalization'  of  the  high- 
way as  the  solution,  and  it  also  voices  a  warning  to 
the  West  that  the  reopening  of  the  highway  must 
not  be  used  for  domination  over  the  East  but  for 
co-operation  with  it,  not  for  exploiting  the  East, 
but  for  a  union  with  it."— M.  Jastrow,  War  and 
the  Bagdad  raUway,  pp.  26-30,   121.— "When  the 
fertility  of  Irak  has  been  restored,  it  must  be  put  m 
communication  by  railway  with  Arabia's  chief  ports. 
(I)  Bagdad  has  heretofore  communicated  with  the 
Mediterranean  by  circuitous  routes  to  the  North- 
west, which  cling  to  the  tiny  ribbon  of  moisture 
and  vecetation  deposited  across  the  Northern  sec- 
tion of  the  steppe  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  m 
their     descent     from     the     Armenian     mountains 
towards   the   Gulf.     The   harvests   of   Irak,   when 
they   are  reaped   once  more,  will  fully   repay  the 
construction  of  a  railway  from  Bagdad  to  Damas- 
cus, which  will  cross  Euphrates  and  run  due  West 
over  the  steppe.     The  distance  is  under  five  hun- 
dred miles,  less  by  one-third  than  the  course  the 
German   company"  has  surveyed  from  Bagdad   to 
Iskanderun,    and    Damascus,    lying    on    the    inner 
rim  of   the  Syrian  retaining  wall  near  the  middle 
point  of  its  extent,  is  the  natural  raiJway-centre 
of  Arabia.     Besides  being  the  starting-point  of  the 
pilgrim-line  to  ISIedina.  it  is  already  connected  by 
a  full-gauge  railway  with  Haifa,  the  harbour  un- 
der   Carmel's    shadow,    and    by    a    narrow-gauge 
line  over  Lebanon   with  Beirut,  the  greatest  port 
of  the  Syrian  coast.     (II)  Immediately  after  it  has 
put  Euphrates  behind  it,  this  new  Bagdad-Damas- 
cus railway   will  detach   a   branch   to   the   South, 
which  will  pass  through   Kerbela,  skirt  the  East- 
ern foot  of  the  plateau  parallel  with  the  Euphrates' 
course,    touch    the    Shatt-al-Arab    at    Basra,    and 
find  its  terminus  on  the  Persian  Gulf  at  Koweit. 
(Ill)     Direct     connection     between    Bagdad     and 
Europe  will  be  established  by  a  line  followmg  up 
the   Right   bank    of  the   Tigris   as   far   as   Mosul. 
There  it  will  change  direction  from  North-West  to 
West,  and  run  across  the  head-waters  of  the  Kha- 
bour,    between    the    Sinjar    and    Tor-.\bdin    hills. 
After  passing   through   Harran,   it   will  strike   the 
Euphrates,   cross  it   by   a   bridge   at   Jerabis,   and 
continue   in   the  same   w'esterly   direction   through 
the  hilly  country  between  Aleppo  and  Aintab,  up 
to   the   wall    of   Amanus,   which   it   will   have   to 
penetrate  by  a  tunnel  before  it  can  make  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Adana-Iskanderun  line  in  Anatolian 
territory.    A  branch  line  between  Jerabis  and  .\lep- 
po  is  already  completed,  and  the  last  link  in  the 
chain,  the  direct   connection  between   Aleppo  and 
Damascus  along  the  plateau  East  of  Lebannon,  has 
been  in  working  order  several  years.     (IV)  Owing 
to  the  lack  of  any   accessible  port  on  the  North 
Syrian   coast,   the  cutting   of   the   Amanus   tunnel 
will  probably  bring  a  large  area  in  >iorthern  Ara- 
bia, as  far  as  Mosul,  within  the  commercial  hin- 
terland of  the  favourably  situated  Anatolian  ports, 
Mersina  and  Iskanderun.     If  this  happens.  Aleppo 
will  forfeit   to  Adana  much  of  its  impoitance  as 
an  urban  centre,  unless  it  can  find  a  new  harbour 
of  its  own.     At  present  its  nearest  outlet  towards 
the  South   is  Tarabolus,   reached   through   a  con- 
venient  gap   in   Lebanon   by    a   branch   line    that 
leaves  the  Aleppo-Damascus  railway  at  Horns:  un- 
less Aleppo  can  open  up  more  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  sea,  and  establish  a  port  for  itself 
either   at   the   mouth    of   the   Orontes   or   slightly 
further  South  at  Latikia,  its  future  will  seriously 
be    compromised." — A    Toynbee,    Nationality    and 
the  war,  pp.  442-445. — See  also  Bosporus:    1878- 
igi4;  and  R.mlro.ws:  iSoq-iQi6. 

BAGDAD  RAILWAY  TREATY.  See  Ger- 
iANv:  1913:  Bagdad  Railway  Treaty;  World  War: 
Diplomatic  background:  71,  xvL 


BAGDADBAHN.    See  B.wd.ad  railway:  Plan. 

BAGENAL,  Sir  Henry  (d.  1578),  marshal  of 
army  in  Ireland.  Defeated  at  Yellow  Ford  by 
Hugh  O'Neill.    See  Ulster:  1585-1608. 

BAGIMONT'S  roll.— "Popes  taxed  the 
Church  in  Scotland  to  the  extent  of  about  three 
per  cent.,  and  in  the  end  of  the  13th  century  the 
Pope  reestimated  Scottish  ecclesiastical  property, 
which  had  immensely  increased  in  value.  The  task 
was  performed  by  Benemund  ('Bagimund')  [Boia- 
raund  or  sometimes  Bajimont]  de  \'icci  in  1275; 
the  object  was  to  collect  a  tenth  of  benefices  for 
relief  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  clergy  resisted  and 
protested  in  favour  of  the  old  rating.  The  Pope 
was  firm  and  'Bagimond's  Roll'  was  long  the  basis 
of  taxation  ecclesiastical." — .\.  Lang,  History  of 
Scotland,  z'.  I,  p.  154. 

BAGISTANA.     See  Behistun,  Rock  of. 

BAGLEY,  David  W.,  .American  lieutenant-com- 
mander, author  of  a  report  on  sinking  of  U.  S.  S. 
Jacob  Jones.  See  World  War:  1917:  IX.  Naval 
operations:   c,  5. 

BAGLIONI.— "The  Baglioni  first  came  into 
notice  during  the  wars  they  carried  on  with  the 
Oddi  of  Perugia  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 
This  was  one  of  those  duels  to  the  death,  like  that 
of  the  V'isconti  w-ith  the  Torrensi  of  Milan,  on 
which  the  fate  of  so  many  Italian  cities  of  the 
middle  ages  hung.  The  nobles  fought ;  the  towns- 
folk assisted  like  a  Greek  chorus,  sharing  the  pas- 
sions of  the  actors,  but  contributing  little  to  the 
catastrophe.  The  piazza  was  the  theatre  on  which 
the  tragedy  was  played.  In  this  contest  the  Bag- 
lioni proved  the  stronger,  and  began  to  sway  the 
state  of  Perugia  after  the  irregular  fashion  of 
Italian  despots.  They  had  no  legal  right  over  the 
city,  no  hereditary  magistracy,  no  title  of  princely 
authority.  The  Church  was  reckoned  the  supreme 
administrator  of  the  Perugian  commonwealth.  But 
in  reality  no  man  could  set  foot  on  the  Umbrian 
plain  without  permission  from  the  Baglioni.  They 
elected  the  officers  of  state.  The  lives  and  goods  of 
the  citizens  were  at  their  discretion.  When  a  Papal 
legate  showed  his  face,  they  made  the  town  too 
hot  to  hold  him.  ...  It  was  in  vain  that  from 
time  to  time  the  people  rose  against  them,  mas- 
sacring Pandolfo  Baglioni  on  the  public  square  In 
1393.  and  joining  with  Ridolfo  and  Braccio  of  the 
dominant  house  to  assassinate  another  Pandolfo 
w-ith  his  son  Niccolo  in  1460.  The  more  they  were 
cut  down,  the  more  they  flourished.  The  wealth 
they  derived  from  their  lordship  in  the  duchy  of 
Spoleto  and  the  LTmbrian  hill-cities,  and  the 
treasures  they  accumulated  in  the  service  of  the 
Itahan  repubUcs,  made  them  omnipotent  in  their 
native  town.  .  .  .  From  father  to  son  they  were 
warriors,  and  we  have  records  of  few  Italian 
houses,  except  perhaps  the  Malatesti  of  Rimini, 
who  equalled  them  in  hardihood  and  fierceness. 
Especially  were  they  noted  for  the  remorseless 
vendette  which  they  carried  on  among  themselves, 
cousin  tracking  cousin  to  death  with  the  ferocity 
and  craft  of  sleuth-hounds.  Had  they  restrained 
these  fratricidal  passions,  they  might,  perhaps,  by 
following  some  common  policy,  like  that  of  the 
Medici  in  Florence  or  the  Bentivogli  in  Bologna, 
have  successfully  resisted  the  Papal  authority,  and 
secured  dynastic  sovereignty.  It  is  not  until  1495 
that  the  history  of  the  Baglioni  becomes  dramatic, 
possibly  because  till  then  they  lacked  the  pen  of 
Matarazzo.  But  from  this  year  forward  to  their 
final  extinction,  every  detail  of  their  doings  Bas  a 
picturesque  and  awful  interest.  Domestic  furies, 
like  the  revel  descried  by  Cassandra  above  the 
palace  of  Mycenae,  seem  to  take  possession  of  the 
fated  house;  and  the  doom  which  has  fallen  on 
them  is  worked  out  with  pitiless  exactitude  to  the 


806 


BA60T 


BAHAISM 


last  generation." — J.  A.  Symonds,  Sketches  in  Italy 
and  Greece,  pp.  70-72. 

BAGOT,  Sir  Charles  (1781-1843),  governor- 
general  of  Canada.    See  Canada:   1838-1S43. 

BAGRATID.ffi,  the  name  of  an  Armenian  dy- 
nasty.   See  Armenia:  I2th-i4th  centuries. 

BAGRATION,  Prince  Peter  (1765-1812), 
Russian  general.  Served  with  distinction  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  fight- 
ing with  skill  and  bravery  and  receiving  a  mortal 
wound  at  Borodino,  1812.  See  Russia:  1812 
(June-September) . 

BAGUIO,  the  summer  capital  of  the  Philip- 
pine islands.  "About  132  miles  in  a  straight  line 
north  of  Manila,  in  the  mountain  region  of  Ben- 
guet,  lies  Baguio,  the  summer  capital  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Before  the  American  occupation,  the 
country  around  Baguio  was  an  inaccessible  wilder- 
ness, inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  the  heathen 
Igorot,  but  already  its  splendid,  invigorating  cli- 
mate had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  authorities. 
■  The  Spanish  government,  anxious  to  secure  a  place 
where  its  soldiers  could  recuperate  from  disease 
in  a  climate  more  favorable  than  that  of  the  low- 
lands, appointed,  shortly  before  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war,  a  commission  to  investigate  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  Benguet  region,  looking  towards 
the  establishment  of  a  military  sanitarium.  This 
commission,  after  an  exhaustive  investigation, 
recommended  that  the  proposed  sanitarium  be  es- 
tablished at  Baguio,  in  the  province  of  Benguet. 
Thus  matters  stood  when  the  change  of  sovereignty 
took  place.  Upon  the  establishment  of  civil  gov- 
ernment under  the  United  States,  the  Philippine 
Commission  took  up  the  question  of  a  health  re- 
sort for  government  employees  and  others,  and  the 
committee  appointed  by  that  body  .  .  .  came  prac- 
tically to  the  same  conclusions  as  the  Spanish 
commission.  ...  To  make  this  region  accessible, 
it  was  proposed  to  connect  Baguio  with  Dagupan, 
the  terminus  of  the  Manila  and  Dagupan  Railroad, 
by  means  of  highways,  the  portion  to  be  con- 
structed by  the  Insular  Government  beginning  at 
Pozorrubio,  in  the  Province  of  Pangasinan.  As 
the  construction  of  this  road  proceeded,  numer- 
ous difficulties  arose,  and  when  it  was  finally  com- 
pleted, it  had  cost  the  Government  two  million 
dollars.  Another,  much  less  expensive  road  was 
constructed  to  connect  Baguio  with  San  Fernando, 
a  seaport  in  the  Province  of  La  Union.  In  igo2 
the  Insular  Government  began  the  construction  of 
a  civil  sanitarium  and  of  several  cottages,  and  in 
May  and  June,  1903,  the  Commission  held  for  the 
first  time  its  sessions  at  Baguio.  During  the  fol- 
lowing years  the  same  course  was  adopted,  and  as 
transportation  facilities  continued  to  improve,  a 
little  town  sprang  up.  The  several  religious  de- 
nominations purchased  land  and  built  churches, 
mission  schools  and  cottages;  private  parties  and 
Manila  firms  bought  lots  and  constructed  cottages 
on  them;  two  hotels  opened  their  doors;  a  mili- 
tary post  was  established  in  the  vicinity  of  Baguio; 
the  Jesuits  built  a  large  observatory  on  Mount 
Mirador,  and  the  Insular  Government  established 
several  schools  for  the  Igorot,  a  training  school  for 
officers  of  the  Philippine  Constabulary,  and  an 
agricultural  experimental  station  and  stock  farm. 
A  water  system  was  established  and  roads  and 
drives  were"  built,  and  before  long  the  surrounding 
country  was  dotted  with  private  residences.  The 
gold  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  Baguio,  which  had 
been  worked  in  a  crude  fashion  by  the  native 
Igorot,  also  came  in  for  a  great  deal  of  attention, 
and  a  number  of  them  are  now  being  worked  by 
American  syndicates.  Several  of  the  latter  have 
imported  modern  plants,  and  all  seem  to  be  doing 
well.  .  .  .  Governor-General   W.   Cameron   Forbes 


took  a  special  interest  in  Baguio.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  his  administration,  in  the  fall  of  1909, 
he  began  to  make  active  preparations  to  carry 
out  his  plan  to  transfer  the  entire  Insular  Gov- 
ernment to  Baguio  during  the  hot  season.  Sev- 
eral large  buildings  were  erected  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  offices  of  the  Government,  also  a 
Mess  Hall  for  the  employees  and  some  twenty  cot- 
tages. A  franchise  was  granted  for  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  an  electric  light  plant;  an 
automobile  service  was  established  between  Baguio 
and  Camp  One,  the  terminus  of  the  branch  line 
of  the  Manila  and  Dagupan  Railroad;  the  exist- 
ing roads  were  improved,  and  everything  was  done 
to  convert  Baguio  into  a  modern  city.  At  the  end 
of  February  [19 10]  .  .  .  the  general  exodus  of  the 
government  offices  to  Baguio  began.  Soon  the 
place  presented  a  lively  aspect.  A  special  session 
of  the  Philippine  Legislature  had  been  called  by 
the  Governor-General  and  was  held  from  March 
2Sth  to  April  19th,  and  the  teachers  held  their 
annual  vacation  assembly  in  a  huge  camp  in  the 
woods  near  Baguio.  Since  the  close  of  the  special 
session  of  the  Legislature  and  of  the  teachers'  as- 
sembly, Baguio  has  ceased  to  be  overcrowded,  and 
its  floating  population  will  continue  to  diminish 
until,  in  July,  Baguio  will  be  once  more  a  quiet 
mountain  village,  with  the  torrential  tropical  rain 
beating  down  on  the  deserted  office  buildings  and 
cottages,  and  the  few  permanent  residents  con- 
fined to  their  homes." — L.  Fischer  (New  Age,  v. 
13,  pp.  407-413). 

BAHADUR  SHAH  II  (d.  1862),  Last  Mogul 
'of  India,  1837-1857.  See  India:  1857  (June-Sep- 
tember). 

BAHAISM:  Baha'u'llah.— Development  from 
Babism  to  Bahaism. — "Among  the  most  influ- 
ential Babis  was  Mirza  Husain  Ali  Nuri,  born  at 
Nur,  in  Mazandaran,  on  November  12,  1817.  His 
family  was  eminently  noble,  and  had  contributed 
viziers  and  councillors  to  the  royal  court.  In  the 
natural  course  of  events,  therefore,  this  child  would 
have  become  a  courtier  and  official,  but  from  his 
early  youth  he  turned  toward  his  own  spiritual 
development,  and  refused  to  enter  upon  a  public 
career.  He  was  imprisoned  for  four  months  dur- 
ing these  persecutions,  confined  in  a  dungeon, 
heavily  chained  to  five  other  Babis.  When  no  po- 
litical conspiracy  could  be  proved  in  his  conduct 
or  impelled  in  his  religious  convictions,  his  property 
was  confiscated  and  he  himself,  with  his  family, 
banished  to  Baghdad,  beyond  the  Persian  border 
and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
A  great  number  of  Babis,  feeling  in  him  the  in- 
telligence, sympathy,  and  courage  necessary  to 
guide  them  through  such  trying  times,  followed 
with  their  families  in  voluntary  banishment.  This 
took  place  in  1852.  The  condition  of  the  Babi 
community  on  its  arrival  at  Baghdad  represented 
economic  chaos,  complicated  by  the  various  opin- 
ions, social  positions,  and  temperaments  of  the 
individual  members.  Mirza  Ali,  however,  arranged 
their  lives  and  activities,  constructing  from  these 
helpless  but  willing  emigrants  an  efficient,  happy 
settlement.  As  soon  as  the  foundations  had  been 
laid  for  their  order  and  prosperity,  he  withdrew 
to  the  mountains  north  of  Sulaimanziah,  where  for 
two  years  he  lived  in  solitude,  continually  medi- 
tating and  drawing  freely  from  the  source  of  all 
human  inspiration  and  power.  His  presence  even 
there  became  known,  and  holy  men  from  near  and 
far  visited  the  hermit  to  discuss  spiritual  problems 
and  experience.  After  two  years,  the  Babi  com- 
munity at  Baghdad  urgently  begged  his  return, 
as  their  circumstances  had  become  difficult  during 
his  absence.  Returning  to  Baghdad,  Mirza  Ali 
gradually  created  so  prosperous  a  settlement  that 


807 


BAHAISM 


BAHAISM 


Babis  and  others  from  all  parts  of  Asia  began  to 
join  themselves  to  the  community.  Their  increas- 
ing numbers  and  influence  frightened  the  clergy, 
and  the  Persian  Government  treated  with  the  Sul- 
tan for  the  surrender  of  the  religious  leader.  Pre- 
ferring to  retain  him  on  Turkish  territor>',  the 
Sultan  summoned  Mirza  Mi  to  Constantinople. 
Outside  Baghdad,  on  his  way  to  Constantinople, 
he  stopped  his  first  day's  journey  at  an  estate 
called  the  'Garden  of  Rizwan,'  where  he  was  joined 
by  his  followers,  nearly  all  having  preferred  to 
attend  him  in  his  new  exile.  Twelve  days  were 
spent  in  the  Garden  of  Rizwan,  during  which  time 
Mirza  Ali  Nuri,  by  the  authority  of  his  own  per- 
sonality, gave  an  eternal,  world-wide  significance 
to  this  religious  movement,  and  transferred  its 
scope  from  Persia  and  Mohammedanism  to  hu- 
manity and  religion.  In  this  garden  he  announced 
to  his  followers  that  he  was  the  supreme  mani- 
festation of  God  foretold  by  the  Bab,  and  publicly 
assumed  the  name  of  'Baha'o'Uah,'  the  Glory  of 
God.  He  commanded  t'le  Babis  to  look  no  more 
to  the  Bab  for  their  prophet,  but  to  himself,  whose 
revelation  would  fulfil  the  Bab's  prophecy  and 
dissolve  their  Mohammedan  sect  in  the  larger  syn- 
thesis of  Bahaism." — H.  Holley,  Modern  social  re- 
ligion, pt.  5,  pp.  161-162. — See  also  B.\bism. — "At 
that  time  he  and  his  followers,  now  known  as 
Bahais,  were  removed  to  Constantinople  and  soon 
after  to  Adrianople,  where  they  remained  until 
1868  A.  D.  when,  under  pressure  from  enemies, 
they  were  transported  to  the  political  prison  of 
Acca  in  Syria.  Acca  is  about  twenty  miles  from 
Nazareth,  the  home  of  Jesus,  and  nine  miles  from 
Mt.  Carmel,  the  scene  of  many  scriptural  events." 
— T.  Chase,  Bahai  revelation,  p.  55. — "During  the 
latter  years  of  His  ministry,  Baha'o'Uah  was  al- 
lowed to  spend  much  time  in  the  country  in  the 
vicinity  of  Akka  [the  modern  Acre,  on  the  coast 
of  Syria],  even  visiting  Haifa  and  Mt.  Car- 
mel. ...  He  departed  this  life  in  the  month 
of  May,  i8q2,  after  forty  years  of  hardship, 
imprisonment,  and  exile,  that  the  soul  of  the 
world  might  be  quickened  with  the  life  of  the 
spirit.  The  tomb  of  Baha'o'Uah,  at  Behje,  is 
greatly  venerated  by  the  many  pilgrims  who  yearly 
visit  it  from  all  parts  of  the  world."— C.  M.  Re- 
mev,  Bahai  movement,  ch.  3. 

Teachings  of  Baha'u'llah.— "Manifold  'tablets' 
and  treatises  of  instruction  fell  from  Baha'u'llah's 
pen.  One  Treatise,  entitled  The  Book  of  Laws, 
contains  text  upon  text  of  commandments  invalu- 
able not  to  Bahais  alone  but  to  'all  the  men  of  all 
the  world.'  In  it  he  orders  the  sword  to  be  set 
aside  for  ever,  to  be  replaced  by  the  Word.  He 
inculcates  the  settlement  of  national  differences  by 
arbitration.  He  enjoins  the  acquirement  of  One 
Universal  Language  to  be  taught  to  all  children  in 
all  schools  so  that  'the  whole  world  may  become 
one  homeland.'  Boys  and  girls  are  to  be  educated 
alike,  and  the  education  must  be  the  best  possible, 
participated  in  by  the  children  of  the  poor  as  well 
as  those  of  the  wealthy.  Progress  is  impossible 
while  ignorance  spreads  its  roots.  So  eager  was 
he  in  this  connection  that  he  wrote:  'He  who 
educates  his  own  son  or  the  son  of  another,  it  is 
as  though  he  educated  the  Son  of  God.'  That 
'work  is  prayer'  he  taught  decisively.  The  high- 
est act  of  prayer  and  worship  consists  in  the  ac- 
quirement of  some  profession  or  handicraft  and 
using  it  thoroughly  and  conscientiously.  By  the 
advancement  of  art  and  science  he  set  great  store. 
Disapproving  of  celibacy,  he  advocated  marriage. 
Objecting  to  asceticism,  he  advised  his  followers  to 
mix  freely  with  all  people,  and  on  all  occasions 
to  exhibit  signs  of  a  glad  and  joyous  but  prac- 
tically   righteous    life.      Naturally,    therefore,    in- 

808 


temperance  and  gambling  are  forbidden,  together 
with  the  use  of  opium.  .  .  . 

"Practical  charity,  practical  goodwill  and  kind- 
ness to  all  and  sundry,  including  the  lower  ani- 
mal world,  Baha'u'llah  insisted  upon.  .  .  . 

"Baha'u'llah  declared  himself  utterly  opposed  to 
priesthood.  He  built  no  church  'made  with  hands.' 
Teachers  of  his  Gospel  of  The  Light  may  not  take 
fees  or  stipends  for  their  teaching.  The  necessities 
of  living  must  be  earned  by  them,  even  as  St. 
Paul  wrought  at  sail-making  for  food.  .  .  . 

"Distrust  of  fellow-men ;  intemperance  of  speech 
or  action;  love  of  wealth;  above  all,  disunion: 
these  are  strenuously  disapproved  of  by  Bahaism." 
— Splendour  of  God  (Wisdom  of  the  East  series, 
pp.  34-38)- 

Abdul  Baha. — "Before  his  departure  in  May, 
1892,  Baha'o'Uah  appointed  his  son  Abbas  Effendi, 
Abdul-Baha,  to  be  'Center  of  the  Covenant'  of 
Light,  Love  and  Peace  which  he  founded  in  the 
Name  of  God.  He  commanded  all  to  turn  their 
faces  to  Abdul-Baha  for  understanding,  thus  mak-' 
ing  him  the  authorized  Interpreter  of  writings. 
The  only  claim  that  Abdul-Baha  makes  for  him- 
self is  this  authority  of  interpretation  and  that 
he  is  Abdul-Baha — the  Servant  of  God  in  this  Rev- 
elation. Abdul-Baha  .^bbas  was  born  in  Teheran, 
Persia,  on  the  evening  of  May  23rd,  1844  A.D. 
At  nine  years  of  age  he  accompanied  his  father  in 
the  journey  of  exile  to  Baghdad,  and  from  that 
time  he  shared  every  hardship,  suffering  and  im- 
prisonment."— T.  Chase.  Bahai'  revelation  p.  5g. 
— "The  name  Abdul-Baha  signifies  the  title  of  its 
bearer,  "The  Servant  of  God.'  Abdul-Baha  is  an 
exile  from  his  country  and  until  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  Turkish  Constitution  in  the  summer 
of  1008,  he  was  a  religious  prisoner,  held  in  the 
fortress  of  Akka.  With  this  political  change,  he — 
with  many  other  prisoners  and  exiles — was  freed 
and  is  no  longer  under  military  surveillance.  Since 
his  release  Abdul-Baha  has  made  but  few  changes 
in  his  daily  Hfe.  Now  it  is  possible  for  many 
more  of  his  followers  to  visit  him  than  formerly, 
consequently  his  duties  and  labors  are  increased. 
.  .  .  While  imprisoned  Abdul-Baha  received  a 
stipend  from  the  Turidsh  government.  Now  that 
he  is  freed,  this  no  longer  continues.  He  holds 
cultivated  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Akka  which 
render  him  an  income.  His  personal  needs  and 
those  of  his  family  are  few.  In  reality,  that  which 
he  possesses  is  for  the  benefit  of  all,  while  he  is 
but  the  guardian  of  it." — C.  M.  Remey,  Bahai 
movement,  ch.  4,  pp.  27,  31. — For  detailed  account 
of  .\bdul  Baha's  journey  through  Europe  and  the 
United  States  in  1911-1013,  consult  H.  Holley, 
Modern  social  religion,  pt.  5,  pp.  173-178. 

Progress  of  the  Bahai  cause. — "Bahaism  is 
now  by  no  means  confined  to  one  personality  or 
one  region.  .  .  .  Persia  itself  .  .  .  contains  more 
than  a  million  believers.  Adherence  to  the  cause 
nowhere  else  implies  so  much  courage  and  stead- 
fastness. Though  tolerating  neither  priesthood 
nor  ecclcsiasticism,  the  Bahai  revelation  makes 
ample  provision  for  social  control  of  its  teaching. 
For  every  city  it  defines  a  special  organization  to 
unite  the  followers,  instruct  them  in  practical  social 
work,  concentrate  their  activity,  and  renew  their 
vision.  .  .  .  No  order  or  precedence  between  per- 
sons or  the  sexes  is  observed,  and  the  Bahai  ser- 
vices resemble  those  of  the  Quakers  more  than  any 
other  religious  gathering  known  to  our  environ- 
ment. The  cause  is  propagated  in  the  natural 
manner,  by  those  who  are  moved  to  serve  by  their 
own  impulse.  .  .  .  Such  assemblies  or  centres,  de- 
viating from  type  according  to  local  circumstances, 
e.xist  in  great  numbers  throughout  Persia,  South- 
ern Russia,  India,  Burma,  and  Egypt,  where  their 


BAHAISM 


BAHAISM 


membership  includes  every  class,  people,  and  sect. 
In  the  West,  Bahai  centres  have  been  established 
in  Germany,  France  and  England,  with  unor- 
ganized but  increasing  sentiment  in  Italy  and 
Russia;  while  in  America,  as  Ihe  history  of  the 
development  of  religious  freedom  would  have  fore- 
told, Bahaism  is  especially  strong.  No  other  race 
has  evolved  so  far  from  the  deadening  influence  of 
dogma  and  orthodoxy,  thanks  to  the  westward  im- 
pulse of  popular  liberty;  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
no  people  have  so  completely  lost  the  clue  to 
mysticism  and  personal  religious  vision.  Oppor- 
tunity and  need,  therefore,  meet  in  particularly 
close  contact  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada — the  rapid  spread  of  the  .Bahai  teaching 
proves  its  capacity  to  satisfy  the  Western  hunger 
for  the  spiritual  life.  In  the  United  States  more 
than  thirty  cities  possess  assemblies,  and  a  con- 
stant stream  of  liberalizing  and  invigorating 
thought  circulates  from  city  to  city  and  from 
State  to  State.  To  summarize,  we  find  that  Ba- 
haism has  taken  active  root  from  California  east- 
ward to  Japan,  and  from  Edinburgh  south  to  Cape 
Town." — H.  Holley,  Modern  social  religion,  pi.  %, 
pp.  181-182. 

"The  Baha'i  doctrines  of  universal  brotherhood, 
mutual  tolerance  among  rival  creeds,  patience  un- 
der persecution,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  quietist 
virtues  are  accessible  in  a  large  number  of  publica- 
tions and  cheap  manuals  published  by  the  faithful 
or  by  sympathizers  with  the  movement.  But  for 
a  scientific  account  of  their  theology  and  their 
metaphysics,  for  the  various  modifications  of  doc- 
trinal teaching  set  forth  by  the  different  ex- 
ponents of  it,  and  for  a  sober  recital  of  the  genesis 
of  the  movement  and  the  historical  development 
of  its  various  sects,  the  wise  student  will  turn  to 
the  works  of  Professor  Edward  G.  Browne  with 
a  feeling  of  assurance  that  in  them  he  will  find  a 
lucid  and  well-documented  exposition.  For  the 
last  thirty  years  Professor  Browne  has  been  making 
a  profound  and  patient  study  of  this  religious 
movement;  he  has  been  in  personal  contact  with 
its  most  authoritative  teachers,  such  as  Subh-i-Azal 
and  Baha'u'llah,  the  heads  of  the  two  rival  sec- 
tions into  which  the  original  community  split,  and 
with  'Abdul-Baha,  the  son  and  successor  of  the 
latter,  and  with  many  other  prominent  Babis  and 
Baha'is.  His  own  writings  and  h'S  edition  of  Eabi 
texts  have  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of  being 
the  greatest  living  authority  on  tbis  subject  in  Eu- 
rope; his  works  are  distinguished  by  sound  and 
painstaking  scholarship,  and  are  free  from  the  parti- 
sanship which  detracts  from  the  merit  of  several 
other  American  and  European  writings.  .  .  .  They 
range  over  a  period  of  seventy  years,  from  contem- 
porary documents  relating  to  the  judicial  examina- 
tion of  the  Bab  in  1S4S  and  an  account  of  him.  by  a 
Dr.  Cormick — who  is  the  only  European  who  is 
known  to  have  ever  seen  and  conversed  with  the 
Bab — to  an  account  of  the  latest  lucubration  by  Dr. 
Khayru'llah,  published  in  1917.  Nearly  a  fourth 
of  the  volume  is  taken  up  with  the  mission  of 
this  Dr.  Khayru'llah  in  America  and  the  notable 
success  he  has  achieved  there.  The  extraordinary 
receptivity  for  Oriental  theologies  and  theosophies 
of  various  kinds,  and  the  unquestioning  acceptance 
of  hard  doctrines  propounded  with  insistent  au- 
thority by  such  teachers  as  Swami  Vivekananda, 
Swami  Ram  Tirath,  and  the  Baha'i  mission,  are 
among  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  religious 
Hfe  of  America  in  the  present  generation,  and  have 
excited  considerable  disquietude  among  the 
Churches  in  that  country.  It  might  have  been 
expected  that  after  conducting  a  mission  in  America 
for  twenty-five  years  Dr.  Khayru'llah  would  have 
imbibed   something    of   the   ethical    spirit    of    the 


American  people.  But  his  latest  work,  'O  Chris- 
tians! Why  do  ye  not  believe  in  Christ?'  con- 
tains an  outspoken  defence  of  polygamy,  and 
apologizes  for  the  assassination  of  Azalis  by 
Baha'is  as  'proving  the  veracity  of  Baha'ism  and 
Christianity.'  Such  teaching  is  hardly  calculated 
to  confirm  the  hopes  centred  on  the  Baha'i  move- 
ment by  the  late  Professor  Cheyne  in  'The  Recon- 
ciliation of  Races  and  Religions,'  1914  and  others. 
.  .  .  Such  persons  have  failed  to  recognize  how 
much  the  Baha'i  teachings  have  retained  of  the 
source  from  which  they  sprang.  The  'manifesta- 
tion' of  the  Bab  came  in  response  to  the  millennial 
expectations  of  those  Shiahs  who  believed  in  the 
possibility  of  there  being  a  follower  of  the  Hidden 
Imam — a  so-called  Bab,  or  'Gate,'  in  direct  spirit- 
ual communication  with  the  Imam;  and  Mirza 
'All  Muhammad'  in  1844  announced  himself 
as  such  exactly  a  thousand  years  after 
the  last  Imam  had  succeeded  to  that  exalted 
office.  Though  cruelly  persecuted  by  the  ortho- 
dox Shiahs,  the  Babis  retained  many  characteris- 
tically Shiah  doctrines;  but  the  breach  with  Islam 
became  irremediable,  when  Baha'u'llah  made  his 
appeal  to  the  whole  world.  The  fact  that  his 
followers  henceforth  called  themselves  Baha'is 
rather  than  Babis  was  no  mere  change  of  no- 
menclature, but  marked  the  transition  from  Persian 
sectarianism  to  the  claim  to  a  world-wide  mis- 
sion. But,  as  Professor  Browne  with  scholarly 
insight  has  pointed  out,  'almost  every  single  doc- 
trine held  by  the  Babis  and  Baha'is  was  pre- 
viously held  and  elaborated  by  one  or  another  of 
the  earlier  cognate  sects  grouped  together  under 
the  general  title  of  Ghuliit,  whereof  the  Isma'ilis 
are  the  most  notable  representative.  For  these 
Ghulat,  or  extreme  Shiahs  of  the  Left,  our  sources 
of  information  are  not  abundant,  and  we  are 
chieily  dependent  for  our  knowledge  of  their  tenets 
on  writers  who  were  hostile  to  them.  But  we 
know  the  enthusiasm  with  which  their  doctrines 
were  often  received  and  the  persecutions  which 
the  faithful  heroically  endured;  along  with  a  care- 
fully graduated  series  of  initiation,  suited  to  the 
capacity  of  the  neophyte,  went  such  an  economy 
of  truth  as,  it  appears  from  the  documents  Pro- 
fessor Browne  publishes,  some  of  the  Baha'i  teach- 
ers still  practice;  and  these  modern  representatives 
of  the  earlier  sects  make  a  similar  demand  for  un- 
hesitating acceptance  of  the  dogmatic  utterances 
of  their  respective  theophanies.  'These  parallelisms 
are  not  worked  out  in  detail  by  Professor  Browne 
in  his  new  volume;  but  he  provides  the  student 
with  the  details  for  such  an  investigation,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  gives  a  synopsis,  from  the 
work  of  a  Persian  Shiah,  of  the  Baha'i  doctrines 
which  are  considered  to  be  deviations  from  the 
orthodox  creed  of  Islam.  Across  the  historical 
record  set  out  in  immense  detail  in  f'his  volume 
is  drawn  a  trail  of  blood.  Relentlessly  persecuted 
by  the  Mahomedan  Governments  under  which  they 
have  lived,  neither  Babis  nor  Baha'is  have  ex- 
emplified that  dictum  of  Cardinal  Manning's  that 
the  children  of  the  martyrs  cannot  be  persecutors. 
The  early  history  of  the  Babis  was  marked  by  a 
succession  of  armed  risings  against  the  Persian 
Government.  They  took  no  pains  to  conceal  their 
hatred  of  the  Shah  and  were  ready  to  condemn  to 
death  those  who  rejected  the  mission  of  the  Bab. 
Since  the  death  of  the  Bab,  two  great  schisms  have 
divided  the  faithful.  On  each  occasion  bloodshed 
has  marked  the  struggle  between  the  rival  fac- 
tions. In  this  respect  the  Baha'is  are  strangely 
reminiscent  of  the  earliest  of  the  Ghulat  who  be- 
came known  to  Christian  Europe — the  Assassins 
who  obeyed  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains." — 
Times  Literary  Supplement,  June  14,   1918. 


809 


BAHAMA  ISLANDS 


BAHIA 


BAHAMA  ISLANDS,  most  northerly  group 
of  the  British  West  Indies. 

The  government  is  representative,  with  a  gov- 
ernor and  an  executive  council,  a  legislative  coun- 
cil and  an  assembly  composed  of  29  members. 
Education  is  free,  compulsory,  and  non-sectarian. 
The  total  area  is  4,403  square  miles,  embracing 
twenty  inhabited  islands  and  some  3,000  islets  and 
rocks;  the  population  (1919)  was  61,000,  the  ma- 
jority negroes;  Nassau,  on  the  island  of  New 
Providence,  is  the  capital. 

1492-1783.— "The  landfall  of  Columbus  on  his 
first  voyage  to  America  was  one  of  the  Bahama 
Islands.  [See  America:  1492.]  The  question  as 
to  whether  it  was  the  present  San  Salvador  or 
Watlings  Island  on  which  he  first  set  foot  is  still 
a  matter  of  controversy,  and  from  evidence  that 
has  been  brought  to  light  it  would  seem  that  the 
dispute  can  never  be  definitely  settled.  But  this 
coincidence,  interesting  though  it  is,  iniluenced 
little  the  later  history  of  the  Bahamas.  M  the 
time  of  the  discovery  the  Islands  were  inhabited 
by  Indians  who  received  the  name  of  'Lucayans.' 
[See  also  Caribs:  their  kindred.]  Subsequently 
the  Spaniards  came  and  enticed  them  away,  or 
forcibly  deported  them,  to  end  their  miserable  lives 
in  slavery  in  Spanish  mines  at  Hispaniola  and 
elsewhere.  It  is  said  that  the  Spaniards  returned 
again  and  again  to  the  Bahamas  to  kidnap  the 
Indians  until  the  Islands  were  completely  de- 
populated of  their  native  inhabitants,  and  left 
desolate.  This  may  be  too  strong  a  statement  of 
the  case,  but  it  is  certain  that  there  are  no 
Lucayan  Indians  living  in  the  Bahamas  to-day,  nor 
are  there  any  traces  of  Lucayan  blood  to  be  seen 
in  the  present  inhabitants.  .  .  .  The  title  to  the 
Lucayan  Islands,  as  the  Bahamas  were  first  called, 
which  was  given  to  the  Spaniards  by  the  Pope, 
was  not  left  undisputed.  English  sea-rovers 
haunted  the  West  Indies  in  order  to  prey  on  Span- 
ish commerce,  and  pirates  who  early  resorted  to 
these  waters  and  rapidly  increased  in  numbers, 
found  among  the  keys  of  the  Bahamas,  havens 
of  retreat  where  they  could  easily  elude  the  clumsy 
Spanish  galleons.  ...  On  October  30,  1629,  an- 
other grant  including  the  Bahama  Islands  was 
made  by  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain,  this  time 
to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  the  Attorney-General.  A 
few  colonists  were  sent  out  under  this  patent  and 
a  settlement  was  formed  on  New  Providence. 
This  settlement  was  ill-fated,  for  the  island  was 
visited  in  1641  by  a  force  of  Spanish  seamen  and 
the  small  band  of  Englishmen  was  captured  and 
carried  away.  The  place  was  then  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  Spaniards  and  held  for  about  twenty 
years.  .  .  .  The  colony  at  New  Providence  did  not 
attract  a  large  number  of  settlers.  It  had  a  small 
force  of  defenders,  generally  less  than  fifty  in 
number,  and  was  consequently  a  prey  for  the 
spoiler  [see  also  British  Empire:  Expansion:  17th 
century:  West  Indies:  1647.]  .  .  .  But  the  Span- 
ish were  not  long  to  enjoy  the  possession  of 
New  Providence.  .  .  .  Buccaneering  was  indulged 
in  freely  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  place.  For 
brief  periods,  to  be  sure,  during  the  next  thirty 
years  attempts  were  made  to  preserve  law  and 
order,  but  without  avail,  as  so  large  a  number  of 
the  population  was  engaged  in  piracy  or  at  least 
in  sympathy  with  it,  that  it  was  not  possible  for 
the  government  with  the  force  at  its  command  to 
stamp  it  out  [see  Buccaneers].  .  .  .  Piracy  with 
this  settlement  as  a  base  became  such  a  menace 
to  the  commerce  passing  through  these  water?  that 
merchants  in  Great  Britain  pressed  upon  George  I 
to  put  a  stop  to  it.  The  Lords  Proprietors,  who 
had  so  poorly  succeeded  in  their  enterprise,  sur- 
rendered their  control  of  the  civil  government  to 

8 


the  Crown,  and  in  1718  Captain  Woodes  Rogers, 
a  hardy  and  fearless  sea-man,  became  Governor 
of  Nassau.  He  restored  order,  punished  or  drove 
out  the  buccaneers  and  made  the  place  a  respect- 
able one  in  which  to  live.  He  was  supported  with 
forces  sufficient  to  establish  his  control,  and  with 
funds  to  make  fortifications  for  security  against 
invaders.  The  Colony  prospered  from  this  time, 
attracting  numerous  settlers,  among  whom  was  a 
company  of  German  Protestants  from  the  Palati- 
nate. More  extensive  fortifications  were  under- 
taken in  173S  under  the  direction  of  Peter  Henry 
Bruce,  of  the  engineer  corps  of  the  Royal  Navy. 
He  has  left  an  interesting  account  of  his  work 
here  in  his  memoirs.  .  .  .  Upon  the  separation  of 
the  Thirteen  Colonies  on  the  continent  from 
Great  Britain  many  of  their  inhabitants  preferred 
to  remain  British  subjects  rather  than  become 
citizens  of  the  States.  .  .  .  For  these  and  other 
reasons  many  emigrated  from  the  States  to  ter- 
ritory that  still  remained  British.  This  exodus 
was  encouraged  by  the  favorable  conditions  offered 
to  those  who  wished  to  settle  in  the  Bahamas.  .  .  . 
The  white  population  of  the  Bahamas  was  doubled 
by  these  immigrants,  and  the  negro  population  was 
nearly  trebled.  Many  of  the  new-comers  were 
cotton  planters.  These  set  to  work  at  once  with 
their  slaves  clearing  lands  and  planting  crops,  and 
soon  brought  the  Colony  to  some  importance  as  a 
producer  of  cotton." — J.  M.  Wright,  Bahama 
Islands,  pp.  420-425. — In  1781  the  islands  were 
surrendered  to  the  Spaniards,  but  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  war  they  were  restored  by  the  Peace  of 
Versailles  in  17S3.  The  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands, 
which  geographically  form  part  of  the  Bahamas 
chain,  were  separated  in  1848  and  formed  into  a 
distinct  presidency. — See  also  Bermi'd.as:  1719- 
1783- 

1834-1900. — Economic  decline. — Disestablish- 
ment of  the  church. — Period  of  quiet. — "Among 
the  factors  contributing  to  the  economic  weaken- 
ing of  the  Bahamas,  perhaps  the  most  important 
was  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  1834.  In 
1848  the  separation  of  the  Turks  and  Caicos 
Islands,  which  had  never  been  contented  under 
the  Bahama  Government,  withdrew  the  most  pro- 
ductive of  the  salt-producing  islands  from  the 
group.  From  1869  to  1875  legislation  was  passed 
for  the  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  church. 
Opposition  to  the  measures  was  at  no  time  very 
strong,  and  the  legislature  was  able  to  deal  with 
the  question  in  a  Hberal  and  impartial  spirit. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  people  of  the  Bahamas  have  remained  con- 
tented under  British  rule.  The  slavery  question 
passed  out  of  men's  minds  and  the  control  of 
local  affairs  was  taken  into  other  hands  than  those 
of  the  radical,  former  slaveholders.  The  Colony 
now  entered  upon  a  period  of  internal  quiet,  which 
with  a  few  temporar\'  interruptions  has  continued 
to  the  present  time."- — Ibid.,  p.  569. 

BAHAMED,  or  Ahmed  bin  Musa  (d.  1900), 
Grand  Vizier  of  Morocco.     See  Morocco:  1903. 

BAHARIA,  an  oasis  in  the  Libyan  desert, 
Egypt.  It  was  the  scene  of  fighting  during  the 
World  War.  See  World  War:  1916:  VI.  Turkish 
theater:  b,  1;   1017:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  b,  2. 

BAHA'U'LLAH  (1817-1892),  the  founder  of 
the  Bahai  movement. — See  also  Bahaism:  Teach- 
ings. 

BAHIA,  a  state  of  Brazil,  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board (see  Latin  America:  Map  of  South  .Amer- 
ica) ;  has  an  area  of  164,650  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  about  3,372,900,  including  the  largest 
negro  population  in  the  republic.  Agriculture  is  the 
principal  industry,  while  gold  and  diamonds  are 
found  in  some  parts.    Bahia,  the  capital,  also  known 

10 


BAHIA  HONDA 


BAJA  CALIFORNIA 


as  Sao  Salvador,  is  a  flourishing  seaport,  possesses 
a  great  harbor  and  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Bra- 
zilian church.  The  bay  (Portuguese  bahia)  on 
which  the  city  is  situated  was  discovered  by  Amer- 
igo Vespucci  in  1503.  Until  1763  the  city  was 
the  capital  of  Brazil. — See  also  Brazil. 

1831.— Revolts.     See  Brazll:  1825-1865. 

BAHIA  HONDA.— Coaling  and  naval  station 
leased  to  the  United  States.     See  Cuba:   iqo3. 

BAHIMA,  an  African  tribe  of  Hamitic  type 
found  in  the  region  of  Victoria  Nyanza. 

BAHREIN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  Persian  gulf,  and  the  center  of  its  pearl  in- 
dustry; now  under  British  protection.  See  Arabia: 
Map. 

BAHRITE    SULTANS.      See    Egypt:     1250- 

BAI.£. — Baiae,  in  Campania,  opposite  Puteon 
on  a  small  bay  near  Naples,  was  the  favorite  water- 
ing place  of  the  ancient  Romans.  "As  soon  as 
the  reviving  heats  of  April  gave  token  of  advanc- 
ing summer,  the  noble  and  the  rich  hurried  from 
Rome  to  this  choice  retreat;  and  here,  till  the  rag- 
ing dogstar  forbade  the  toils  even  of  amusement, 
they  disported  themselves  on  shore  or  on  sea,  in 
the  thick  groves  or  on  the  placid  lakes,  in  litters 
and  chariots,  in  gilded  boats  with  painted  sails, 
lulled  by  day  and  night  with  the  sweetest  sym- 
phonies of  song  and  music,  or  gazing  indolently 
on  the  wanton  measures  of  male  and  female  danc- 
ers. The  bath,  elsewhere  their  relaxation,  was 
here  the  business  of  the  day ;  .  .  .  they  turned  the 
pools  of  Avernus  and  Lucrinus  into  tanks  for 
swimming ;  and  in  these  pleasant  waters  both  sexes 
met  familiarly  together,  and  conversed  amidst  the 
roses  sprinkled  lavishly  on  their  surface." — C. 
Merivale,  History  of  the  Romans,  ch.  40. 

B-AIBURT,  an  Armenian  town  in  north- 
eastern Asia  Minor,  south  of  Trebizond  (q.v.l  on 
tke  main  hishway  to  Erzerum.  Occupied  by  Gen- 
eVial  Paskevich  during  the  Russian  invasion  of  1829 
and  again  captured  by  the  Russians  under  General 
Vudenich  during  the  World  War,  July  15,  1916. 
See  WoFLD  War:   iqi6:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  d,  6. 

BAIF,  Jean  Antoine  (1523-1589),  French  poet. 
See  French  literatur5   1549-1580. 

BAIKAL,  the  sixth  largest  lake  in  the  world, 
situated  in  the  western  part  of  eastern  Siberia. 
For  some  years  it  formed  a  break  in  the  trans- 
Siberian  railway,  trains  being  ferried  across  or, 
in  winter,  temporary  tracks  being  laid  on  the  ice; 
eventually  the  road  was  carried  through  the  rugged 
region  around  the  southern  end  of  the  lake. — See 
also  Trans-Siberian  railway. 

BAILEE,  one  to  whom  goods  are  committed  in 
trust.    See  Common  Law:  1623. 

BAILEN,  or  Baylen,  a  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Jaen  in  southern  Spain;  the  scene  of  the 
Roman  victories  against  the  Carthaginians  (209 
and  206  B.C.)  and  of  the  surrender  of  the  French 
general  Dupont's  corps  of  17,000  to  the  Span- 
iards under  Castafios.  This  was  the  first  serious 
Napoleonic  reverse  in  Spain. 

Capitulation  of.  See  Spain:  180S  (May-Sep- 
tember) . 

BAILEY,  Daniel  Julian,  English  private  who, 
together  with  Sir  Roger  Casement,  stood  trial  (June 
27-29,  iqi6)  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  Unlike 
Casement  he  was  found  not  guilty  and  acquitted. 
— See  also  Ireland:  1916  (June-August). 

BAILEY,  Liberty  Hyde  (1858-  ),  author 
and  educator;  writer  on  botanical  and  horticul- 
tural subjects  and  on  rural  problems,  chairman  of 
the  Roosevelt  commission  on  country  life  1008. 
Director  of  the  college  of  agriculture,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 1903-1913. — See  also  U.  S.  A.:  1908-1909 
(August-February) . 


BAILLEUL,  a  town  northwest  of  Lille, 
France.  Was  the  scene  of  hard  fighting  in  the 
World  War,  changing  hands  in  1914  and  again  in 
1018.  See  World  War:  1914:  I.  Western  front: 
t;  w,  3;  1915:  II.  Western  front:  i,  3;  1918:  II. 
Western  front:  d,  10;  d,  12;  k,  5. 

BAILLEUL,  a  village  captured  by  the  Allies 
at  Vimy  Ridge  in  1917.  See  World  War:  1917:  II. 
Western  front:  c,  9. 

BAILLIE  (Scotch  for  bailif{>,  a  superior  officer 
or  magistrate  of  a  municipal  corporation  in  Scot- 
land with  judicial  authority  within  the  city  or 
burgh. 

BAILLOUD,  Maurice  Camille,  French  general. 
See  World  War:  1915:  V.  Balkans:  c,  3  (i);  1917: 
VI.  Turkish  theater:   c,  i  (vi). 

BAILLY,  Blanchard  A.:  At  second  Peace 
Conference.    See  Hague  conferences:  1907. 

BAILLY,  Jean  Sylvain  (i 736-1 793),  French 
statesman.  Conduct  in  demonstration  in  Champs 
de  Mars.    See  France:  1791   (July-September). 

BAILMENTS,  Law  of.  See  Common  law: 
1689-1710. 

BAINBRIDGE,  Sir  Edmond  Guy  Tulloch 
(1867-  ),  Major-General  in  the  British  army. 
See  World  War:  191S:  II.  Western  front:  c,  8. 

BAINBRIDGE,  Commodore  William  (1774- 
1S33),  American  officer. 

In  Tripolitan  War.  See  Barbary  States:  1803- 
1S05. 

In  War  of  1812.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1812-1813:  In- 
difference to  the  navy. 

BAINSIZZA  PLATEAU,  an  elevated  region 
north  of  Trieste.  In  1917  during  the  World  War 
the  Italian  general  Cadorna  captured  these  heights 
in  his  operation  against  Trieste,  losing  them  later 
in  the  same  year  at  the  time  of  the  Caporetto  dis- 
aster.— See  also  World  War:  1917:  IV.  Austro- 
Italian  front:   d,  1. 

BAIRD,  David,  Sir  (1757-1829),  British  gen- 
eral who  was  in  command  at  Corunna.  See  Spain: 
1808-1809  (August-January). 

BAIREUTH.     See  Bavreuth. 

BAJA  (or  Vieja)  CALIFORNIA,  or  Lower 
California,  is  a  long  narrow  peninsula  forming  a 
territory  of  the  republic  of  Mexico.  (See  also 
Mexico:  Land.)  "The  great  Californian  penin- 
sula, or  Lower  California,  as  it  is  called,  ...  in 
area  is  a  little  larger  than  England  and  Wales, 
measuring  61,562  square  miles.  The  frontier  line 
with  the  United  States  begins  on  the  Pacific  sea- 
board, in  a  dreary  and  solitary  desert  in  a  place 
called  Initial  Point,  a  little  south  of  the  33rd 
parallel  and  running  eastwards  towards  the  Gulf  of 
California  as  far  as  Fort  Yuma,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Rio  Gila  with  the  Rio  Colorado.  The 
peninsula  terminates  southwards  at  Cape  Palms 
.  .  .  and  Cape  S.  Lucas  .  .  .  whose  sandy  shoals, 
strewn  with  fragments  of  rock,  serve  as  an  excel- 
lent natural  bed  for  shell  fish  of  a  choice  quality. 
.  .  .  Watered  by  two  seas,  one  of  which,  reaching 
to  the  Pole,  brings  with  it  warm  and  cold  breezes 
alternately,  according  as  they  blow  from  the  north 
or  from  the  equator,  while  the  other,  being  almost 
completely  land-locked,  is  retained  at  a  high  tem- 
perature. Lower  California  apparently  combines 
all  the  conditions  of  a  damp  climate.  Hence  we 
may  well  wonder  at  its  remarkable  dryness  and 
sterility." — H.  W.  Bates,  Stanford  compendium  of 
geography  and  travel.  Central  and  South  America, 
pp.  41-42. — "Lower  California,  except  the  Cape 
region,  is  virtually  a  desert,  though  in  places,  es- 
pecially in  favourable  years,  there  is  enough  grass 
for  a  little  stock-raising." — Handbook  of  Mexico 
(Prepared  by  the  geographical  section  of  the 
naval  intelligence  division,  naval  staff,  admiralty). 
— "If  Baja  California  is  poor  in  species  of  organic 


811 


BAJAUR 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


life,  nature  has  compensated  it  in  the  mineral 
world,  and  that  peninsula  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  hichly  mineralized  parts  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent.  Copper,  silver,  and  gold  are  among 
its  most  important  products  and  quick-silver, 
opal,  sulphur,  and  rock-salt  exist.  The  famous 
Boleo  copper  mine  is  situated  in  this  territory." — 
C.  R.  Knock,  Mexico,  pp.  207-208. 

Also  in:  P.  F.  Martin,  Mexico,  pp.  S6-57- — 
J.  Barret,  Director  General,  Pan-American  Union, 
Mexico. 

BAJAUR.  See  India:  189S  (March-Septem- 
ber). 

BAJAZET  I.    See  Bayezid  I  and  II  of  Turkey. 

BAJER,  M.  F.  Dane,  awarded  Nobel  peace 
prize  in  looS.    See  Nobel  prizes:  Peace,  1908. 

BAJI  RAO,  Mahratta  peshwa  (prime  minister), 
who  led  an  insurrection  against  British  rule.  See 
India:  1816-1819. 

BAJURA,  the  standard  of  Mohammed. 

BAKAIRI.     See  Caries:   their  kindred. 

BAKER,  Colonel  Edward  Dickinson  (1811- 
1861),  killed  at  Ball's  Bluff.  See  U.  S.  A.:  1S61 
(October:  Virginia). 

BAKER,  Newton  Diehl  (1871-  ),  American 
lawyer,  graduate  of  Johns  Hopkins  University; 
city'  solicitor  of  Cleveland,  1902-1912;  mayor  of 
Cleveland,  1912-1914  and  1914-1916;  secretary  of 
war  from  March,  1016,  to  March,  1921.  See 
U.  S.  A.:  1916-1917;  and  1917  (February-May); 
World  War:  1917:  VIII.  United  States  and  the 
war:  h. 

BAKER,  Sir  Samuel  White  (1821-1893).— 
Conquest  of  Central  Africa.  See  Egypt:  1870- 
1883. 

BAKER,  Valentine  (1827-1887),  British  sol- 
dier. Known  as  Baker  Pasha.  Served  in  Kaffir 
War  1852-1853;  in  1S77  entered  service  of  the  sul- 
tan and  was  major-general  unattached  in  Mehemet 
All's  army  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War;  in  1882 
commander  of  Egyptian  police.  In  1885  was  ap- 
pointed to  General  Wolseley's  staff,  but  appoint- 
ment not  ratified;  returned  to  Egypt  and  in  1887 
was  killed  in  battle  of  El-Teb. 

BAKER'S  ISLAND,  a  small  uninhabited 
island,  less  than  a  square  mile  in  area,  situated  in 
the  Pacific  southwest  of  Hawaii,  It  was  discov- 
ered by  Baker  sailing  under  the  United  States  flag 
in  1832,  but  the  United  States  government  did  not 
take  possession  of  it  until  1859.  It  is  useless  as  a 
coaling  station,  as  it  lacks  facilities  for  anchorage 
and  drinking  water.  It  has  valuable  deposits  of 
guano. 

BAKHCHI-SARAI,  a  town  of  the  Crimea 
between  Simferopol  and  Sevastopol.  As  the  Tatar 
capital  it  was  captured  by  the  invading  Russians 
in   1735. 

BAKHDHI.     See  B.-vctria. 

BAKHMETIEV,  or  Bakhmeteff,  Boris  Alex- 
androvich  (1880-  ),  Russian  Embassador  to 
the  United  States  for  the  Kerensky  government. 
In  Russia:  professor  of  mechanics,  hydraulics  and 
hydraulic  engineering  at  the  Institute  of  Ways  and 
Communication  and  at  the  Polytechnical  Institute 
in  Petrograd.  Came  to  the  United  States  in  1915 
as  representative  of  the  Central  War  Industrial 
Committee  of  Russia,  a  war  sup[)Iy  committee  for 
the  Russian  army,  and  in  the  summer  of  1917 
as  ambassador  and  head  of  the  Russian  Extraor- 
dinary Mission,  representing  the  Kerensky  gov- 
ernment. 

BAKHMETIEV,  Madame.  — Her  humane 
work  in  Macedonia.     See  Turkey:   1902-1903. 

BAKHMUT,  town  of  Russia  in  Ekaterinoslav, 
captured  by  Bolsheviki  in  1919.    See  Russia:  1918- 


1919. 


BAKHTASHIYAH.     See  Dervishes. 


teAKHTIARI,  political  party  in  Persia.  See 
Persia:    1008-1009. 

BAKHTIYAR  KHILTI,  conquered  Bengal  c. 
1200.    See  Bengal. 

BAKHTRI.     See  Bactria. 

BAKSAR,  or  Baxar,  or  Buxar,  Battle  of 
(1764).     See  Ikdia:  1757-1772. 

BAKU,  the  capital  of  Azerbaijan,  the  center  of 
the  petroleum  industry  on  the  Caspian  sea,  and 
one  of  the  great  oil  centers  of  the  world ;  was  an 
integral  part  of  Russia  until  October,  1917,  when 
the  people  of  Transcaucasia,  Azerbaijan,  Georgia, 
and  Armenia  joined  to  form  a  federation  of  re- 
publics. After  the  breakup  of  the  federation  in 
1918,  the  Bolsheviki  obtained  control,  March  17, 
but  were  driven  out  after  a  two  months'  siege. 
The  British  forces  entered  the  port  of  Baku  on 
November  17,  1918,  by  request  of  the  Azerbaijan 
government  and  remained  until  the  end  of  1919. 
(See  World  War:  1918:  VI.  Turkish  theater:  a,  8; 
b,  2;  b,  4;  b,  9.)  In  April,  1920,  the  Bolshevist 
party  overthrew  the  government  and  in  May,  Baku 
was  recaptured. — See  also  Caucusus:  1902-1917. 

Destruction  of  oil  industry,  strikes.  See 
Russia:  1904-1905:  Outline  of  leading  events  in 
Revolution;    1905   (April-November). 

BAKUFU,  Japan.     See  Japan:   1641-1779. 

BAKUNIN,  Mikhail  (1814-1876),  Russian  an- 
archist. In  1840  he  joined  younger  Hegelians  in 
Berlin;  in  1844-1S47  met  Proudhon  in  Paris. 
Stirred  up  popular  insurrections  in  Bohemia  and 
Saxony,  1848;  arrested  in  1849,  condemned  to 
death,  spared  by  Russian  intervention;  1857,  sen- 
tenced to  life  exile  in  Siberia ;  escaped  to  United 
States  and  went  to  France  and  Switzerland;  es- 
tablished headquarters  in  Italy.  In  1872  disagreed 
with  Karl  Marx  and  the  Socialists  and  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  International  Workingmen's  As- 
sociation, which  he  had  joined  in  1S69.  See  An- 
archism: 1861-1876;  Socialism:  1860-1920. 

BALAKHOVITCH,  General:  His  defeat.  See 
Russia:    1020   (October-November). 

BALAKIREV,  Mily  Alexeivich  (1836-igio), 
Russian  composer;  a  pioneer  member  of  the  neo- 
Russian  school  which  was  consolidated  by  the  idea 
of  nationality  in  music  in  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Director  of  the  Imperial  chapel 
and  conductor  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Musical 
Society.  Among  his  disciples  were  Cesar  Cui, 
Borodin,  Moussorgsky  and  Rimsky-Korsakov. — 
See  Music:  Folk  music  and  nationalism:  Russia. 

BALAKLAVA,  Battle  of.  See  Russu:  18S4- 
18S6. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER:  Definition.— "The 
joint  resistance  of  several  nations  to  Cssarism, 
or  the  domination  of  a  single  nation,  is  designated 
as  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of  power.  This 
principle  implies  that  no  state  shall  be  permitted 
to  become  so  powerful  as  to  menace  the  safety 
of  other  states;  that  no  one  nation  shall  be 
permitted  to  exalt  itself  above  all  other  nations. 
This  is  the  end  and  aim  of  the  balance  of  power. 
It  impels  nations  to  protect  the  integrity,  free- 
dom, and  separate  nationality  of  each  other.  .  .  . 
The  balance  of  power  is  a  negative  check  upon 
overgrown  dominion.  It  -was  known  to  antiquity 
as  to  modern  times  but  is  commonly  supposed 
to  have  emanated  from  England.  .  .  .  'You  know 
as  well  as  we  do,'  said  the  Athenians  to  the 
people  of  Melos,  'that,  as  the  world  goes,  the 
question  of  right  is  only  discussed  between  equals; 
while,  among  those  who  differ  in  power,  the 
strong  do  what  they  can,  the  weak  suffer  what 
they  must.'  This  is  a  fair  statement  of  the 
struggle  for  existence  between  the  nations  of  the 
ancient  world.  .  .  .  When  rightly  understood,  the 
balance  of  power  docs  not  mean  an  exact  equi- 


812 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


Ancient  Greece 
and  Rome 


BALANCE   OF   POWER 


poise  but  rather  an  overwhelming  weight  against 
the  aggKssor.  the  evil-doer.  .  .  .  An  equipoise  leads 
to  exhfiisting  wars;  a  preponderance  of  power 
gives  assured  peace.  The  Concert  of  Europe  is  a 
perfect  example  of  the  preponderance  of  power; 
the  division  of  Europe  into  the  Triple  Alliance 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Triple  Entente  (q.v.)  is  a  good 
example  of  an  equipoise  of  power.  The  world 
will  adopt  peaceful  habits  only  when  the  ag- 
gressor among  nations  is  as  certain  to  encounter 
overwhelming  force  as  would  an  aggressor  among 
the  states  of  the  American  Union.  The  balance 
of  power,  if  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion,  would 
bind  the  states  of  the  world  into  a  league  for 
mutual  defence  against  all  aggressors."^S.  C. 
Vestal,  Maintenance  of  peace,  pp.  101-105. — See 
also  Concert  of  Europe. 

Ancient  Greece  and  Rome. — "It  is  a  question, 
whether  the  idea  of  the  balance  of  power  be 
owing  entirely  to  modern  policy,  or  whether  the 
phrase  only  has  been  invented  in  the  later  ages? 
It  is  certain  that  Xenophon,  in  his  Institution  of 
Cyrus,  represents  the  combination  01  the  Asiatic 
powers  to  have  arisen  from  a  jealousy  of  the 
increasing  force  of  the  Medes  and  Persians;  and 
though  that  elegant  composition  should  be  sup- 
posed altogether  a  romance,  this  sentiment, 
ascribed  by  the  author  to  the  Eastern  princes,  is 
at  least  a  proof  of  the  prevailing  notion  of  an- 
cient times.  In  all  the  politics  of  Greece,  the 
anxiety  with  regard  to  the  balance  of  power  is 
apparent,  and  is  expressly  pointed  out  to  us,  even 
by  the  ancient  historians.  Thucydides  represents 
the  league  which  was  formed  against  .Athens,  and 
which  produced  the  Peloponnesian  war,  as  entirely 
owing  to  this  principle.  .And  after  the  decline 
of  Athens,  when  the  Thebans  and  Lacedemonians 
disputed  for  sovereignty,  we  find  that  the  Athe- 
nians (as  well  as  many  other  republics)  always 
threw  themselves  into  the  lighter  scale,  and  en- 
deavoured to  preserve  the  balance.  They  sup- 
ported Thebes  against  Sparta,  till  the  great  vic- 
tory gained  by  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra;  after 
which  they  immediately  went  over  to  the  con- 
quered, from  generosity,  as  they  pretended,  but 
in  reality  from  their  jealousy  of  the  conquerors. 
Whoever  will  read  Demosthenes's  oration  for  the 
Megalopolitans,  may  see  the  utmost  refinements 
on  this  principle  that  ever  entered  into  the  head 
of  a  Venetian  or  English  speculatist.  And  upon 
the  first  rise  of  the  Macedonian  power,  this  orator 
immediately  discovered  the  danger,  sounded  the 
alarm  throughout  all  Greece,  and  at  last  as- 
sembled that  confederacy  under  the  banners  of 
Athens  which  fought  the  great  and  decisive  bat- 
tle of  Cha;ronea.  It  is  true,  the  Grecian  wars  are 
regarded  by  historians  as  wars  of  emulation  rather 
than  of  politics ;  and  each  state  seems  to  have 
had  more  in  view  the  honour  of  leading  the  rest, 
than  any  well-grounded  hopes  of  authority  and 
dominion.  If  we  consider,  indeed,  the  small  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  in  any  one  republic,  compared 
to  the  whole,  the  great  difficulty  of  forming  sieges 
in  those  times,  ancl  the  extraordinary  bravery  and 
discipline  of  every  freeman  among  that  noble  peo- 
ple; we  shall  conclude,  that  the  balance  of  power 
was,  of  itself,  sufficiently  secured  in  Greece,  and 
need  not  to  have  been  guarded  with  that  caution 
which  may  be  requisite  in  other  ages.  But  whether 
we  ascribe  the  shifting  of  sides  in  all  the  Grecian 
republics  to  jealous  emulation  or  cautious  politics, 
the  effects  were  alike,  and  every  prevailing  power 
was  sure  to  meet  with  a  confederacy  against  it, 
and  that  often  composed  of  its  former  friends 
and  allies.  .  .  .  The  successors  of  Alexander  showed 
great  jealousy  of  the  balance  of  power;  a 
jealousy   founded   on   true   politics   and   prudence, 

8 


and  which  preserved  distinct  for  several  ages 
the  partition  made  after  the  death  of  that  famous 
conqueror.  The  fortune  and  ambition  of  An- 
tigonus  threatened  them  anew  with  a  universal 
monarchy;  but  their  combination,  and  their  vic- 
tory at  Ipsus,  saved  them.  And  in  subsequent 
times,  we  find,  that,  as  the  Eastern  princes  con- 
sidered the  Greeks  and  Macedonians  as  the  only 
real  military  force  with  whom  they  had  any  in- 
tercourse, they  kept  always  a  watchful  eye  over 
that  part  of  the  world.  The  Ptolemies,  in  par- 
ticular, supported  first  Aratus  and  the  Achaeans, 
and  then  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  from  no 
other  view  than  as  a  counterbalance  to  the  Mace- 
donian monarchs.  For  this  is  the  account  which 
Polybius  gives  of  the  Egyptian  poHtics.  The 
reason  why  it  is  supposed  that  the  ancients  were 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  balance  of  power,  seems 
to  be  drawn  from  the  Roman  history  more  than 
the  Grecian;  and  as  the  transactions  of  the  former 
are  generally  more  familiar  to  us,  we  have  thence 
formed  all  our  conclusions.  It  must  be  owned, 
that  the  Romans  never  met  with  any  such  gen- 
eral combination  or  confederacy  against  them,  as 
might  naturally  have  been  e.xpected  for  their  rapid 
conquests  and  declared  ambition,  but  were  al- 
lowed peaceably  to  subdue  their  neighbours,  one 
after  another,  till  they  extended  their  dominion 
over  the  whole  known  world.  Not  to  mention 
the  fabulous  history  of  the  Italic  wars,  there 
was,  upon  Hannibal's  invasion  of  the  Roman 
state,  a  remarkable  crisis,  which  ought  to  have 
called  up  the  attention  of  all  civilized  nations. 
It  appeared  afterwards  (nor  was  it  difficult  to 
be  observed  at  the  time)  that  this  was  a  con- 
test for  universal  empire ;  yet  no  prince  or  state 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  least  alarmed  about 
the  event  or  issue  of  the  quarrel.  Philip  of 
Macedon  remained  neuter,  till  he  saw  the  victories 
of  Hannibal:  and  then  most  imprudently  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  conqueror,  upon  terms  still 
more  imprudent.  He  stipulated,  that  he  was  to 
assist  the  Carthaginian  state  in  their  conquest 
of  Italy ;  after  which  they  engaged  to  send  over 
forces  into  Greece,  to  assist  him  in  subduing  the 
Grecian  commonwealth.  The  Rhodian  and  Achaean 
republics  are  much  celebrated  by  ancient  his- 
torians for  their  wisdom  and  sound  policy ;  yet 
both  of  them  assisted  the  Romans  in  their  wars 
against  Philip  and  Antiochus.  And  what  may  be 
esteemed  still  a  stronger  proof,  that  this  maxim 
was  not  generally  known  in  those  ages,  no  an- 
cient author  has  remarked  the  imprudence  of  these 
measures,  nor  has  even  blamed  that  absurd  treaty 
above  mentioned,  made  by  Philip  with  the 
Carthaginians.  Princes  and  statesmen,  in  all  ages, 
may,  beforehand,  be  blinded  in  their  reasonings 
with  regard  to  events,  but  it  is  somewhat  ex- 
traordinary, that  historians,  afterwards,  should  not 
form  a  sounder  judgment  of  them.  .  .  .  The  only 
prince  we  meet  with  in  the  Roman  history,  who 
seems  to  have  understood  the  balance  of  power, 
is  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse.  Though  the  ally  of 
Rome,  he  sent  assistance  to  the  Carthaginians 
during  the  war  of  the  auxiliaries;  'Esteeming  it 
requisite,'  says  Polybius,  'both  in  order  to  re- 
tain his  dominions  in  Sicily,  and  to  preserve  the 
Roman  friendship,  that  Carthage  should  be  safe; 
lest  by  its  fall  the  remaining  power  should  be 
able,  without  control  or  opposition,  to  execute 
every  purpose  and  undertaking.  And  here  he 
acted  with  great  wisdom  and  prudence:  For  that 
is  never,  on  any  account,  to  be  overlooked;  nor 
ought  such  a  force  ever  to  be  thrown  into  one 
hand,  as  to  incapacitate  the  neighbouring  states 
from  defending  their  rights  against  it.'  Here  is 
the   aim   of   modern   politics   pointed   out  in   ex- 


13 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


Modern 
Application 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


press  terms.  In  short  the  maxim  of  preserving 
the  balance  of  power  is  founded  so  much  on 
common  sense  and  obvious  reasoning,  that  it  is 
impossible  it  could  altogether  have  escaped  an- 
tiquity, where  we  find,  in  other  particulars,  so 
many  marks  of  deep  penetration  and  discern- 
ment. If  it  was  not  so  generally  known  and 
acknowledged  as  at  present,  it  had  at  least  an 
influence  on  all  the  wiser  and  more  experienced 
princes  and  politicians.  And  indeed,  even  at  pres- 
ent, however  generally  known  and  acknowledged 
among  speculative  reasoners,  it  has  not,  in  prac- 
tice, an  authority  much  more  extensive  among 
those  who  govern  the  world." — D.  Hume,  Essays 
and  treaties,  v.  i   (1S2S),  pp.  331-336. 

Modern  application. — Policy  of  Wolsey  and 
Temple. — English  position. — Division  of  Poland. 
— -"The  idea  of  the  balance  of  power  and  equi- 
librium of  forces  found  its  first  modem  applica- 
tion in  the  interstate  relations  of  the  leading 
Italian  cities  in  the  fifteenth  century.  ...  In  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  they  [the 
leading  powers  of  Europe]  frequently  combined 
to  preserve  the  Balance  of  Power.  .  .  .  Endangered 
by  Louis  XIV,  this  system  was  revived  by  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  [See  Utrecht:  1712- 
1714.]  Temporarily  destroyed  by  Napoleon  it  was 
restored  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815.  [See 
Vienna,  Conoress  of.  1815.]  In  the  name  of  the 
so-called  'Holy  Alliance',  (q.  v.)  the  Quadruple 
Alliance  formed  at  Paris,  November  20,  1814, 
undertook  to  prevent  and  to  crush  revolution  in 
Italy  and  Spain  and  even  threatened  to  extend 
its  activities  to  the  Western  Hemisphere.  It  was 
mainly  against  the  extension  of  this  system  of  in- 
tervention to  Latin  America  that  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  was  proclaimed  in  1S23." — A.  S.  Hershey, 
Internaliotuil  law  and  diplomacy  of  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war,  p.  151. — Tv«'o  names  which  are 
connected  with  the  growth  of  the  idea  are 
Cardinal  Wolsey  and  Sir  William  Temple.  Henry 
VIII,  influenced  by  Wolsey,  shaped  his  foreign 
policy  accordingly  and  gave  either  moral  or  real 
support  to  the  weaker  participant  in  any  Euro- 
pean quarrel.  Sir  William  Temple,  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II,  upheld  the  doctrine  in  the  case 
of  England's  relations  with  Spain,  France,  and 
the  Netherlands. 

"A  Nation  which  had  the  mastery  of  the  Con- 
tinent could  hardly  allow  Great  Britain  to  main- 
tain an  independent  existence.  .  .  .  Our  [the  Eng- 
lish] position  in  Europe  is  secure  and  will  remain 
secure  only  as  long  as  the  various  powers  or 
groups  of  powers  in  Europe  are  so  nearly  equal 
in  strength  that  no  power  or  group  of  powers  is 
able  to  obtain  that  supremacy  which  earlier  or 
later  would  cause  it  to  attack  Great  Britain.  .  .  . 
When  Spain,  France  and  Russia  in  turn  tried  to 
obtain  the  supremacy  ip  Europe  by  land  and 
when  Holland  tried  to  obtain  the  supremacy  in 
Europe  on  the  sea  each  came  into  collision  with 
.  .  .  and  was  prevented  by  Great  Britain  from 
attaining  that  supremacy  which  would  undoubtedly 
have  endangered  our  [English]  national  ex- 
istence."— J.  E.  Barker,  Great  and  Greater  Brit- 
ain, p.  281. 

"If  the  division  of  Poland  was  the  first  event 
which  an  abuse  of  farm  deranged  the  political 
balance  of  Europe,  it  was  likewise  one  of  the 
first  which  begot  an  apathy  of  spirit,  and  stupid 
insensibility  to  the  general  interest.  The  silence 
of  France  and  England,  the  silence  of  all  Europe, 
when  a  measure  of  so  much  importance  was 
planned  and  executed,  is  almost  as  astonishing 
as  the  event  itself.  The  weakness  of  the  French 
cabinet  toward  the  conclusion  of  the  reign  of 
Louis   XV,   throws  some   light    upon   the  circum- 


stance, but  does  not  sufficiently  explain  it.  No 
effectual  resistance  could  have  been  expected  from 
England  alone,  and  still  less  from  the  other 
powers  after  France  decHned  to  interfere.  But 
it  will  not  escape  the  observation  of  the  future 
historian,  that  the  omission  on  that  occasion 
of  any  public  measure,  of  any  energetic  remon- 
strance, of  any  serious  protest,  nay,  even  of  any 
expression  of  disapprobation,  was  an  indubitable 
symptom  of  general  debUity  and  relaxation.  .  .  . 
It  is  impossible  that  the  history  of  our  time 
[written  in  1806]  should  pass  without  producing 
some  beneficial  fruits  for  us  and  our  posterity. 
Whether  Buonaparte,  in  the  recesses  of  his  haughty 
and  gloomy  mind,  has  really  conceived  the  idea 
of  a  universal  monarchy ;  under  what  form  he 
has  conceived  it ;  what  progress  he  has  made  in 
forming  the  project,  and  when,  and  how  he  thinks 
of  realizing  it,  all  this  futurity  will  cUsclose. 
But  so  much  is  clear  and  certain,  that  in  the 
course  of  six  frightful  years  he  has  been  doing, 
without  intermission,  all  that  he  must  do  on  the 
very  worst  supposition,  and  that  he  has  succeeded 
in  things  which  seem  very  unequivocally  to  prog- 
nosticate the  most  pernicious  and  desperate  issue. 
Were  every  thing  here  to  close,  were  his  career 
to  be  terminated,  were  our  undertakings  to  be 
crowned  with  complete  success,  and  his  star  to 
set  for  ever,  is  it  possible  that  we  could  forget 
what  sorrows,  what  bitterness,  what  disgrace, 
what  troubles,  what  convulsions,  what  a  grievous 
load  of  present  evils,  and  what  anguish  for  every 
coming  day,  was  felt  throughout  the  greatest 
and  best  part  of  Europe,  from  a  bare  attempt  and 
beginning  to  effect  such  a  project?  And  shall 
we  not  therefore  adopt  every  expedient  which 
wisdom  can  devise  to  prevent  the  return  of  these 
hard  trials?" — F.  Gentz,  Fragments  upon  the  bal- 
ance of  power  [1806],  pp.  90,  108-109. 

Views  of  a  publicist  in  the  Napoleonic  era. 
— "The  balance  of  power  among  states  has  always 
been  a  chimera;  in  all  times  the  weak  have  re- 
ceived laws  from  the  strong;  whether  the  law 
is  pronounced  by  one  individual,  or  twenty,  is  the 
same  to  him  whose  fortune  it  is  to  obey."  .  .  . 
What  is  usually  termed  a  balance  of  power,  is 
that  constitution  subsisting  among  neighbouring 
states  more  or  less  connected  with  one  another; 
by  virtue  of  which  no  one  among  them  can 
injure  the  independence  or  the  essential  rights  of 
another,  without  meeting  with  effectual  resistance 
on  some  side,  and  consequently  exposing  itself 
to  danger.  .  .  .  The  allusion  in  the  term  to  cor- 
poreal objects  has  given  occasion  to  various  mis- 
conceptions. It  has  been  represented  that  those 
who  recognized  the  principles  of  a  combination 
among  states  founded  on  an  equal  balance  of 
power,  had  in  view  the  most  perfect  possible 
equality  or  equalization  of  powers,  and  required 
that  the  different  states  composing  a  great  pop\h- 
lation,  riches,  resources,  and  so  forth,  be  exac^Y 
measured,  squared  and  rounded  by  a  cominon 
standard.  Out  of  this  false  hypothesis,  according 
as  it  has  been  applied  by  credulity  or  scepticism 
to  the  relations  between  states,  have  sprung  liwo 
opposite  errors,  the  one  almost  as  hurtful'  as  the 
other.  Those  who  adopted  that  imaginary  prin- 
ciple in  its  full  extent,  were  thereby  led  to  be- 
lieve that  in  every  case  in  which  a  state  gains 
an  accession  of  strength,  either  by  external  ac- 
quisitions, or  by  the  development  of  its  internal 
resources,  the  rest  must  oppose,  and  contend  with 
it  till  they  have  either  obtained  an  equivalent 
or  reduced  it  to  its  former  situation.  ...  A  dif- 
ferent set  justly  persuaded  of  the  impossibility  of 
such  a  system  have,  on  the  other  hand,  declared 
the   whole   idea   of   a    political   balance   to   be   a 


814 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


Napoleonic 
Era 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


chimera  invented  by  dreamers,  and  artfully  made 
use  of  by  designing  men  as  a  pretext  for  dis- 
putes, injustice  and  violence.  The  former  of 
these  errors  would  banish  peace  from  the  earth; 
the  latter  would  open  the  most  desirable  pros- 
pects to  every  state  which,  under  the  influence  of 
ambition,  aspired  to  universal  dominion.  .  .  . 
There  was  formed  among  the  states  of  this  quar- 
ter of  the  globe  [Europe]  an  extensive  social 
commonwealth,  of  which  the  characteristic  object 
was  the  preservation  and  reciprocal  guarantee  of 
the  rights  of  all  its  members.  From  the  time 
that  this  respectable  object  came  to  be  dis- 
tinctly and  clearly  recognized,  the  necessary  eternal 
conditions,  on  which  it  was  attainable,  unfolded 
themselves  by  degrees.  Men  were  soon  aware 
that  there  were  certain  fundamental  principles, 
arising  out  of  the  proportional  power  of  each 
of  the  component  parts  to  the  whole,  without 
the  constant  influence  of  which  order  could  not  be 
secured ;  and  the  following  maxims  were  gradually 
set  down  as  a  practical  basis,  which  was  not 
to  be  deviated  from: 

"That  if  the  states  system  of  Europe  is  to 
exist  and  be  maintained  by  common  exertions,  no 
one  of  its  members  must  ever  become  so  power- 
ful as  to  be  able  to  coerce  all  the  rest  put  to- 
gether;— 

"That  if  that  system  is  not  merely  to  exist, 
but  to  be  maintained  without  constant  perils  and 
violent  concussions;  each  member  which  infringes 
it  must  be  in  a  condition  to  be  coerced,  not  only 
by  the  collective  strength  of  the  other  members, 
but  by  any  majority  of  them,  if  not  by  one 
individual; — 

"But  that  to  escape  the  alternate  danger  of  an 
uninterrupted  series  of  wars,  or  of  an  arbitrary  op- 
pression of  the  weaker  members  in  every  short 
interval  of  peace;  tlie  fear  of  awakening  common 
opposition,  or  of  drawing  down  common  vengeance, 
must  of  itself  be  sufficient  to  keep  every  one  within 
the    bounds    of    moderation  ; — and 

"That  if  ever  a  European  state  attempted  by 
unlawful  enterprizes  to  attain  to  a  degree  of  power, 
(or  had  in  fact  attained  it.)  which  enabled  it 
to  defy  the  danger  of  a  union  of  several  of  its 
neighbours,  or  even  an  alliance  of  the  whole, 
such  a  state  should  be  treated  as  a  common 
enemy ;  and  that  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  had 
acquired  that  degree  of  force  by  an  accidental 
concurrence  of  circumstances,  and  without  any 
acts  of  violence,  whenever  it  appeared  upon  the 
public  theatre,  no  means  which  political  wisdom 
could  devise  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  its 
power,  should  be  neglected  or  untried.  These 
maxims  contain  the  only  intelligible  theory  of  a 
balance  of  power  in  the  political  world.  (Note. — 
It  perhaps  would  have  been  with  more  propriety 
called  a  system  of  counterpoise.  For  perhaps  the 
highest  of  its  results  is  not  so  much  a  perfect 
equipoise  as  a  constant  alternate  vacillation  in  the 
scales  of  the  balance,  which,  from  the  applica- 
tion of  counterweights,  is  prevented  from  ever  pass- 
ing certain  limits.) 

"It  is  only  when  a  state  with  open  wantonness, 
or  under  fictitious  pretences  and  titles  artificially 
invented,  proceeds  to  such  enterprizes  as  immedi- 
ately, or  in  their  unavoidable  consequences,  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  subjugation  of  its  weaker 
neighbours,  and  for  perpetual  danger  to  the 
stronger,  that  conformably  to  sound  conceptions 
of  the  general  interest  of  the  commonwealth,  a 
rupture  of  the  balance  is  to  be  apprehended;  it 
is  only  then  that  several  should  unite  together 
to  prevent  the  decided  preponderance  of  one  in- 
dividual power.  By  this  system,  which  has  been 
acted   upon   since   the  beginning   of   the  sixteenth 


century,  with  more  or  less  good  fortune,  but  with 
great  constancy,  and  often  with  uncommon  pru- 
dence ;  at  lirst  more  in  a  practical  way,  and, 
as  it  were  from  political  instinct,  afterwards  with 
clear,  reflecting,  and  methodical  constancy,  two 
great  results  were  obtained,  in  the  midst  of  a 
tumultuous  assemblage  of  the  most  decisive  events. 
The  one  was,  that  no  person  succeeded  in  pre- 
scribing laws  to  Europe,  and  that,  (till  our  times,) 
all  apprehension,  even  of  the  return  of  a  uni- 
versal dominion,  was  gradually  banished  from 
every  mind.  The  other,  that  the  political  consti- 
tution, as  it  was  framed  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, remained  so  entire  in  all  its  members  till 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  (when  all  ancient 
ordinances  were  abolished),  that  none  of  the  in- 
dependent powers,  which  originally  belonged  to 
the  confederacy,  had  lost  their  political  ex- 
istence. .  .  . 

"A  system  of  political  counterpoise  has  both 
in  its  structure  and  operations,  a  remarkable 
analogy  with  what,  in  the  internal  economy  of 
states,  is  called  a  mixed  constitution,  or  con- 
stitutional balance.  When  this,  as  in  England  for 
example,  has  attained  to  the  highest  pitch  of 
perfection  of  which  it  is  susceptible;  when  every 
thing  is  arranged  and  constituted  in  the  wisest 
manner,  when  none  of  the  different  powers  of 
which  it  is  composed  can  surpass  the  bounds 
of  their  respective  spheres,  or  in  any  way  trans- 
gress their  limits  without  encountering  a  repel- 
ling force,  there  is  yet  another  danger  which  baf- 
fles all  human  skill  to  avoid.  As  the  divided 
powers  must  necessarily  act  in  concert  for  good 
and  salutary  purposes,  they  can  also,  in  extraordi- 
nary cases,  voluntarily  combine  for  bad  ones;  and 
thus,  what  would  have  been  impossible  for  any 
one  singly  to  operate  had  the  principle  of  mutual 
counteraction  continued,  may  be  effected  by  a 
fatal  understanding  between  them,  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  state,  and  the  ruin  of  its  constitution." — 
F.  Gentz,  Fragments  upon  the  balance  of  power, 
xxii,  55,  60,  57,  60-65,  71-72- 

British  foreign  policy. — Its  contribution  to  the 
fall  of  Napoleon. — "  'The  Emperor  [Alexander  I 
of  Russia]  has  the  greatest  merit,  and  must  be 
held  high,'  [Lord  Castlereagh]  wrote  on  April  20 
[1814]  to  Lord  Liverpool,  'but  he  ought  to  be 
grouped,  and  not  made  the  sole  feature  for 
admiration.'  Here  we  have  the  key  to  the  conti- 
nental policy  of  the  British  Government,  as  repre- 
sented by  Castlereagh,  during  the  following  years. 
Its  consistent  aim  was  the  traditional  one  of  estab- 
Ushing  and  maintaining  the  balance  of  power.  After 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon  this  balance  was  seri- 
ously threatened  by  Russia  alone,  and  to  pre- 
serve it  Great  Britain — -as  the  secret  treaty  of 
Jan.  3,  1815,  showed — would  have  used  against 
Alexander  the  same  weapons  that  had  prevailed 
against  Napoleon.  Between  Napoleon  and  Alex- 
ander, however,  there  was  from  the  first  this 
essential  difference,  namely,  that  Napoleon  could 
never  have  been  grouped,  whereas  Alexander 
could — was,  indeed,  an  enthusiast  for  grouping,  so 
long  as  he  was  allowed  to  pose  in  the  centre 
of  the  picture."— W.  A.  Phillips,  Confederation 
of  Europe,  p.  83. — "The  constitution  of  the  Con- 
gress [of  Vienna]  well  illustrates  the  essential 
conditions  of  any  international  organization.  .  .  . 
In  theory  all  sovereign  States  are  equal  and 
should  have  an  equal  voice  in  the  councils 
of  the  nations.  But  in  practice  their  influence 
always  has  been,  and  always  must  be,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  force  behind  them;  which 
means  that,  in  the  last  resort,  all  important  de- 
cisions will  depend  on  an  agreement  between  the 
Great   Powers,   with    or   without   the   consent    of 


815 


BALANCE  OF   POWER 


Relation    to 
International  Law 


BALANCE  OP  POWER 


the  lesser.  The  proceedings  of  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  have  also  a  permanent  interest,  from  the 
same  point  of  view,  as  showing  the  difftculty  of 
arriving  at  such  an  agreement,  when  there  is  a 
fundamental  conflict  of  views  and  interests  be- 
tween the  Powers,  and  the  methods  by  which  this 
difficulty  is  overcome.  The  method  at  Vienna  was, 
as  it  always  must  be  if  one  Power  or  group  of 
Powers  is  not  to  dominate  the  rest,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  the  balance  of  power. 
This  truth  Castlereagh  had  from  the  first  realized, 
and  when  in  January  1S14  he  entered  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Allies  he  announced  the  policy  of 
Great  Britain  to  be  the  restoration  of  a  'just 
equilibrium'  in  Europe.  Napoleon  was  now  over- 
thrown, but  the  equilibrium  had  not  been  thereby 
restored;  for  his  overthrow  had  left  the  immense 
power  of  Russia  without  an  effective  counterpoise 
on  the  Continent.  'The  drawback  to  Russia  as 
an  ally,'  said  Moltke,  'is  that  she  arrives  on  the 
field  very  late  and  is  then  too  strong.'  In  the 
struggle  against  Napoleon  Russia  had  arrived  late, 
and  she  was  now  present  in  Northern  and  Cen- 
tral Europe  in  alarming  force." — Ibid.,  pp.  loi- 
102. — "Those  federations  which  have  survived  have 
done  so  because,  as  in  the  case  of  the  United 
States,  they  have  developed  a  common  sentiment 
far  stronger  than  any  which  may  divide  their  con- 
stituent States,  a  sentiment  based  on  the  con- 
sciousness of  interests,  traditions  and  ideals  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  other  political  groups. 
They  have  survived,  in  short,  because  they  have 
become  nations.  Seeing  the  world  as  it  is,  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  any  such  powerful  cement 
of  sentiment  could  be  found  to  bind  together 
even  the  civilized  peoples,  not  to  mention  the 
semi-civilized  and  the  uncivilized.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  such  a  sentiment  the  stability  of  the 
League  of  Nations  must  depend  on  a  system  of 
checl^  and  balances,  and  this  in  the  long  run  is 
unlikely  to  prove  any  more  effective  in  keeping 
the  peace  than  were  the  expedients  of  the  old 
diplomacy."— /fc;(/.,  pp.  300-301.  See  Concert  of 
Europe;  Europe:  Modern  period:  New  balance  of 
power. 

Neutralization  of  states. — Dual  and  Triple 
Alliances. — "The  reason  why  a  state  may  de- 
sire to  become  neutraHzed  is  that  it  is  weak, 
that  its  independence  is  guaranteed,  that  it 
has  no  desire  or  ability  to  participate  in  in- 
ternational affairs,  in  the  usual  struggles  or  com- 
petitions of  states.  The  reason  why  the  great 
powers  have  consented  to  the  neutralization  of 
such  states  have  differed  in  different  cases.  But 
the  chief  reason  has  been  connected  with  the  ' 
theory  of  the  balance  of  power,  the  desire  to  keep 
them  as  buffers  between  two  or  more  neighbor- 
ing large  state." — C.  D.  Hazen.  Fifty  years  of 
Europe,  1S70-1Q10,  p.  203. — See  also  Neutrality. 
— The  "Dual  Alliance  (q.  v.)  [France  and  Russia] 
was  the  inevitable  outcome  of  the  existence  and 
power  of  the  Triple  .Alliance,  concluded  between 
Germany,  .'\ustria,  and  Italy  in  1882.  The  Dual 
AlHance  grew  out  of  the  need  which  both  Rus- 
sia and  France  felt  of  outside  support  in  the 
presence  of  so  powerful  a  combination.  If  there 
was  to  be  anything  like  a  balance  of  power  in 
Europe,  Russia  and  France  must  combine.  Both 
alliances  were  defensive.  The  action  of  Aus- 
tria against  Serbia  brought  Russia  upon  the  scene. 
Russia's  action  brought  Germany  forward.  Ger- 
many's action  necessitated  action  on  the  part  of 
France.  One  state  was  free  to  act  as  it  saw  fit, 
its  conduct  not  controlled  by  entangling  alliance, 
England." — Ibid.,   p.  326. 

Aftermath  of  World  War.— "The  truth  is  that, 
though   the   Americans   and    British    alike   fought 

8 


[against  Germany]  for  a  principle,  it  was  not  be- 
cause of  a  principle  that  they  entered  the  war,  but 
because  their  honour  and  their  vital  interests  left 
them  no  alternative.  .  .  .  After  all,  a  nation  is  in 
its  essence  a  group  consciously  separated  from 
other  groups  by  a  vivid  sense  of  its  common  and 
separate  interests.  The  problem  of  preserving 
peace  then  remains,  after  I  the  World  War]  as 
before,  the  old  one  of  holding  the  balance  be- 
tween these  groups ;  and  the  problem  of  interna- 
tional organization  is  that  of  creating  and  keeping 
in  order  a  mechanism  by  which  this  balance  shall 
be  kept  steady.  The  task  of  the  allied  and  as- 
sociated nations  at  the  present  time,  that  is  to 
say,  is  the  same  as  that  which  confronted  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  [1S14]  and  during  the  suc- 
ceeding years;  and,  though  in  many  respects  the 
conditions  have  changed,  the  problem  remains  es- 
sentially the  same." — W.  A.  Phillips,  Confederation 
of  Europe,  p.  16. 

Relation  to  principles  of  International  Law. 
— "It  is  the  task  of  history,  not  only  to  show 
how  things  have  grown  in  the  past,  but  also 
to  extract  a  moral  for  the  future  out  of  the 
events  of  the  past.  Five  morals  can  be  said  to 
be  deduced  from  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Law   of   Nations: 

"(i)  The  first  and  principal  moral  is  that  a 
Law  of  Nations  can  exist  only  if  there  is  an 
equilibrium,  a  balance  of  power,  between  the 
members  of  the  Family  of  Nations.  If  the  Powers 
cannot  keep  one  another  in  check,  no  rules  of 
law  will  have  any  force,  since  an  over-power- 
ful State  will  naturally  try  to  act  according  to  dis- 
cretion and  disobey  the  law.  As  there  is  not 
and  never  can  be  a  central  political  authority 
above  the  Sovereign  States  that  could  enforce 
the  rules  of  the  Law  of  Nations,  a  balance  of 
power  must  prevent  any  member  of  the  Family 
of  Nations  from  becoming  omnipotent.  The  his- 
tory of  the  times  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon 
I.  shows  clearly  the  soundness  of  this  principle. 
...  As  regards  interventions  for  the  purpose  of 
self-preservation,  it  is  obvious  that,  if  any  neces- 
sary violation  committed  in  self-preservation  of 
the  International  Personality  of  other  States  is, 
as  shown  above,  excused,  such  violation  must 
also  be  excused  as  is  contained  in  an  intervention. 
/\nd  it  matters  not  whether  such  an  intervention 
exercised  in  self-preservation  is  provoked  by  an 
actual  or  imminent  intervention  on  the  part  of 
a  third  State,  or  by  some  other  incident.  As  re- 
gards intervention  in  the  interest  of  the  balance 
of  power,  it  is  likewise  obvious  that  it  must  be 
excused.  An  equilibrium  between  the  members 
of  the  Family  of  Nations  is  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  the  very  existence  of  International  Law. 
If  the  States  could  not  keep  one  another  in 
check,  all  Law  of  Nations  would  soon  disappear, 
as,  naturally,  an  over-powerful  State  would  tend 
to  act  according  to  discretion  instead  of  accord- 
ing to  law.  Since  the  Westphalian  Peace  of  1648 
the  principle  of  balance  of  power  has  played  a 
preponderant  part  in  the  history  of  Europe.  It 
found  express  recognition  in  1713  in  the  Treaty 
of  Peace  of  LTtrecht  [see  Utrecht:  1712-1714], 
it  was  the  guiding  star  at  the  Vienna  Congress 
(q.  V.)  in  1S15  when  the  map  of  Europe  was 
re-arranged,  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856, 
the  Conference  of  London  in  1867,  and  the  Con- 
gress of  Berlin  (see  Berlin,  Coxgkess  and  Treaty 
oi')  1878.  The  States  themselves  and  the  ma- 
jority of  writers  agree  upon  the  admissibility  of 
intervention  in  the  interest  of  balance  of  power. 
Most  of  the  interventions  exercised  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  preservation  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
must,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  based  on  treaty 

16 


BALANCE  OF  TRADE 


BALFOUR 


rights,  be  classified  as  interventions  in  the  in- 
terest of  balance  oi  power.  Examples  of  this 
are  supplied  by  collective  interventions  exercised 
by  the  Powers  in  i8S6  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  outbreak  of  war  between  Greece 
and  Turkey,  and  in  1S97  during  the  war  between 
Greece  and  Turkey  with  regard  to  the  island  of 
Crete.  .  .  .  Although  subjugation  is  an  original 
mode  of  acquiring  territory  and  no  third  Power 
has  as  a  rule  a  right  of  intervention,  the  con- 
queror ha?  not  in  fact  an  unlimited  possibility  of 
annexation  of  the  territory  of  the  vanquished 
State.  When  the  balance  of  power  is  endangered 
or  when  other  vital  interests  are  at  stake,  third 
Powers  can  and  will  intervene,  and  history  records 
many  instances  of  such  interventions.  But  it 
must  be  emphasised  that  the  validity  of  the  title 
of  the  subjugator  does  not  depend  upon  recogni- 
tion on  the  part  of  other  Powers.  And  a  mere 
protest  of  a  third  Power  is  of  no  legal  weight 
either." — L.  Oppenheim,  International  Law,  v.  i, 
Peace,  pp.  73~74,  185-186,  292. — See  also  Con- 
cert OF  Europe:  History  and  meaning  of 
term. 

BALANCE  OF  TRADE.  See  Commerce: 
Commercial  age:  1914-1921;  Tariff:  1689-1721; 
17th  and  iSth  centuries;   iSth  century;  1776. 

BALBOA,  Vasco  Nuiiez  de  (1475-1517),  dis- 
coverer of  the  Pacific  ocean.  Sailed  for  America 
1500;  went  to  Darien,  where  he  was  elected  alcalde 
1510;  caused  the  imprisonment  of  Governor  En- 
cisco;  received  a  commission  to  act  as  governor 
1512;  explored  the  country;  discovered  and  took 
formal  possession  (1513)  of  the  Southern  sea  (the 
name  Pacific  ocean  was  not  applied  until  seven 
years  later)  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  monarch; 
continued  his  explorations;  retu,rned  to  Darien 
1514.  Upon  complaints  of  former  governor  Encisco 
to  the  king  of  Spain,  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila  was  sent 
to  replace  Balboa.  The  new  governor  had  him 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  contemplated  revolt  and 
beheaded.  See  America:  1513-1517;  and  Map 
showing  voyages  of  discovery;  Colombia:  1499- 
1536;  Pacific  ocean:   1513-1764. 

BALBRIGGAN,  a  town  on  the  east-coast  of 
Ireland  north  of  Dublin;  textile  manufacturing 
center;  the  scene  of  reprisals  by  the  Royal  Irish 
Constabulary,  September  21,  1920,  which  origi- 
nated in  a  quarrel  between  District  Inspector 
Burke,  his  brother.  Sergeant  Burke,  together  with 
five  or  six  other  police  and  local  Republican 
Volunteers,  during  which  Inspector  Burke  was 
killed  and  his  brother  wounded.  Later,  the  "Black 
and  Tans"  began  a  campaign  of  incendiarism,  the 
outcome  of  which  was  the  burning  of  many  homes 
and  the  sho'oting'  oi  two  civilians.  Included 
among  the  razed  buildings  was  the  factory  of 
Deeds,  Templar  and  Company,  which  was  com- 
pletely destroyed. 

BALCARCE,  Antonio  Gonzalez  (1774-1819), 
South  American  soldier  who  served  in  the  defence 
of  Buenos  Aires  (1S07).  Joined  the  revolution- 
ary movement ;  went  with  an  army  into  upper 
Peru;  was  defeated  at  Huaqui,  iSii. 

BALCARCE,  Juan  Ramon  (1773-1S33), 
Argentine  general.  Governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  iSiS 
and  1820;  member  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
1825;  minister  of  war  and  marine,  1827;  chosen 
governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  1S32 ;  driven  out  by 
Rosas,  X833. 

BALCHITAS  INDIANS.    See  Pamp.^s  tribes. 

BALDER,  sun-god  of  Norse  mythology.  He 
was  loved  by  gods  and  men,  and  treacherously 
slain  by  the  device  of  Loki,  the  fire-spirit  and 
subtle  enemy  of  the  gods. 

BALDWIN  I,  Latin  emperor  of  Constantinople 
(Romania),  1204-1205,  previous  to  which,  as  Count 

81 


of  Flanders  and  Hainut,  participated  in  the  cru- 
sades. See  Byzantine  empire:  1204- 1205;  Cru- 
sades:  1201-1203. 

Baldwin  II,  last  Latin  emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople, 1237-1261. 

Baldwin  I,  Prince  of  Edessa  (1098-1100), 
king  of  Jerusalem  (iioo-iiiS).  See  Jerusalem: 
1099-H31. 

Baldwin  II  (Baldwin  du  Bourg),  Count  of 
Edessa  (1100-1118I.  king  of  Jerusalem  (1118- 
1131).    See  Jerusalem:  1099-1131. 

Baldwin  III,  king  of  Jerusalem,  1143-1162. 
See  Jerusalem:    1144-1187. 

Baldwin  IV,  king  of  Jerusalem,  1173-1183. 
See  Jerusalem:  1144-1187. 

Baldwin  I  (d.  879),  Count  of  Flanders.  See 
Belgium:  Ancient  and  medieval  history;  and 
Flanders:  863. 

Baldwin  II  (d.  918),  Count  of  Flanders. 

Baldwin  V  (d.  1067),  Count  of  Flanders.  See 
Belgium:  Ancient  and  medieval  history. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  four  large 
and  eleven  small  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
off  the  east  coast  of  Spain.  They  form  a  province 
of  Spain,  with  Palma  as  capital.  The  most  im- 
portant islands  are  Minorca,  Majorca  and  Iviza. — 
See  also  Minorca. 

1235. — Controlled  by  Aragon.    See  Aragon. 

BALFE,  Michael  (1S08-1870),  popular  Irish 
composer  of  opera  in  English,  Italian  and  French. 
In  1S35  he  produced  at  Drury  Lane  his  first 
English  opera,  "The  Siege  of  Rochelle."  His  most 
famous  opera  "The  Bohemian  Girl"  is  still  a 
popular  favorite.  The  popular  air  "Killarney" 
is  by  Balfe. — See  also  Music:  Modern:  1750- 
1S70. 

BALFOUR,  Arthur  Jamea  (1848-  ),  Brit- 
ish statesman  and  essayist.  Memljer  of  Parlia- 
ment since  1874;  member  of  Berlin  Congress,  1S78, 
as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Salisbury;  chief  sec- 
retaiy  for  Ireland,  i887-'8oi  (see  Ireland:  1885- 
1903)  ;  president  of  loca-  '»  -vernment  board,  1885- 
1886;  created  Congested  Districts  Board  for  Ire- 
land, i8go;  leader  of  the  house  and  first  lord  of 
the  treasury,  1891-1892,  1895-1905  (see  England: 
1894-1895;  and  1900);  premier,  1902-1905  (see 
England:  1902  [July] ;  1903  [May-Sept.] ;  and 
1905-1Q06)  ;  first  lord  of  admiralty  in  Asquith's  co- 
alition cabinet ;  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  af- 
fairs in  Lloyd  George's  cabinet,  1916-1919;  Brit- 
ish representative  at  the  peace  conference,  Paris, 
ioiq;  chancellor  of  Cambridge  University,  1919; 
lord  president  of  the  council,  1919.  Chosen  to  act 
ns  British  official  representative  on  the  League  of 
Nations,  1920.  Chairman  of  league's  committee 
on  organization,  1020.  Leader  of  British  delegation 
to  Washington  Disarmament  Conferenre,  1921. 
Has  written  several  books  on  philosophical  and 
other  subjects. 

Negotiations  for  British  control  in  China.  See 
China:   1898  (.'^pril-.^ugust). 

"Dreadnaught"  debate  of  1909.  See  War, 
Preparation  for:   1909-1 913. 

Attitude  toward  Land  acts.  See  Ireland: 
1900-IQ11. 

On  American  interests  in  British  shipping 
line.    See  Trusts:   International. 

Interest  in  Zionist  movement.  See  Jews: 
Zionism:   1008-1021;  and  Palestine:   1920. 

Head  of  English  mission  to  United  States. — 
Address  to  House  of  Representaives.  See 
U.  S.  A.:    1917   (.^pril-May). 

British  representative  at  Paris  formulating 
armistice  terras.  See  World  War:  191S:  XI.  End 
of  the  war:  a  1. 

Representative  at  the  peace  conference.  See 
Vers.4illes,  Treaty  of:  Conditions  of  peace. 

7 


BALI 


BALKAN    STATES 


Summary  of  report  defining  British  commer- 
cial policy  (Feb.  2,  1917).  See  Commerce:  Com- 
mercial age:   i 91 4-1 921. 

Speech  for  Imperial  Federation  (Dec.  15, 
1919).  See  British  EirPiRE:  Colonial  federation: 
Imperial  federation  proposals:    20th  century. 

BALI,  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  the 
scene  of  a  native  uprising  in  1894.  See  Dutch 
E.^ST  Indies:   1804. 

BALIA  OF  FLORENCE.— The  chief  instru- 
ment employed  by  the  Medici  to  establish  their 
power  in  Florence  was  "the  pernicious  system 
of  the  Parlamento  and  Balia,  by  means  of  which 
the  people,  assembled  from  (ime  to  time  in  the 
public  square,  and  intimidated  by  the  reigning 
faction,  entrusted  full  powers  to  a  select  com- 
mittee nominated  in  private  by  the  chiefs  cf  the 
great  house.  .  .  .  Segni  says:  'The  Parlamento 
is  a  meeting  of  the  Florentine  people  on  the  Piazza 
of  the  Signory.  When  the  Signory  has  taken 
its  place  to  address  the  meeting,  the  piazza  is 
guarded  by  armed  men,  and  then  the  people  are 
asked  whether  they  wish  to  give  absolute  power 
(Balia)    and  authority  to  the  citizens  named,  for 


their  good.  When  the  answer,  yes,  prompted 
partly  by  inclination  and  partly  by  compulsion, 
is  returned,  the  Signory  immediately  retires  into 
the  palace.  This  is  all  that  is  meant  by  this  par- 
lamento, which  thus  gives  away  the  full  power 
of  effecting  a  change  in  the  state." — J.  A.  Symonds, 
Renaissance  in  Italy:  Age  of  the  Despots,  p.  180, 
and  foot-note. — See  also  Florence:  1378-1427; 
1433-1464;   and   1458-1469. 

BALIKESRI,  Fall  of  (1920).  See  Greece: 
1920. 

BALIOL  (or  Balliol),  Sir  John  de  (d.  about 
1269),  regent  of  Scotland  during  minority  of  .■\lex- 
ander  III ;  deprived  of  post  on  charge  of  treason 
1255;  about  1263  established  several  scholarships 
at  Oxford  and  gave  first  lands  for  college  which 
bears  his  name ;  endowment  increased  by  his  will 
and   gifts   of   his   widow. 

BALIZE,  or  Belize,  British  Honduras.  See 
HoxDUR.AS,  British. 

BALKAN  ALLIANCE,  BALKAN  LEAGUE. 
See  B.\LK.AN  St.ates:  1912:  Balkan  league;  and 
Serbia:   1909-1913. 

Breakup  of  league.    See  Balkan  States:  1913. 


BALKAN  STATES 


Geographical  position. — Physical  aspects  of 
the  country. — The  Balkan  peninsula  is  the  eastern- 
most of  the  three  great  southern  peninsulas  of 
Europe.  The  peninsula  embraces  the  following  ter- 
ritories and  states: — .\lbania  (q.v.),  Bosnia  (q.v.) 
and  Herzegovina  (q.v.),  Bulgaria  (q.v.),  Croatia- 
Slavonia  (see  Czecho-Slovakl\),  Dalmatia  (q.v.), 
the  Dobrudja  (Rumania,  (q.v.)),  Greece  (q.v.), 
Serbia  (q.v.),  Montenegro  (q.v.),  the  former  Sanjak 
of  Novibazar  (see  No\tbAz.\r),  or  Novi  Pazar,  now 
a  department  of  Serbia,  Macedonia  and  Thrace. 
Rumania,  though  generally  included  in  the  list, 
is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  Ballian  state.  They 
occupy  mainly  the  regions  known  in  Roman  times 
as  Moesia,  Dacia  and  Illyricum,  to  which  names 
the  reader  is  referred  for  some  account  of  scanty 
incidents  of  their  early  history,  (See  Avars.) 
For  full  details  of  the  Balkan  states,  see  articles 
under  the  respective  political  divisions,  under 
Eastern  question  and  under  World  War. 

"We  should  begin  our  detailed  study  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  with  a  realization  of  the  broad 
outlines  of  its  structure.  A  complex  mass  of  up- 
land, roughly  triangular  in  shape,  composed  of 
hard,  resistant  rocks,  rests  with  its  apex  on  the 
Danube  at  Belgrade,  its  base  stretching  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Aegean.  Its  southern  end,  once 
continuous  with  the  central  mass  of  Asia  Minor, 
lies  sunk  beneath  the  Aegean,  which  is  fringed  with 
the  inlets  and  peninsulas  which  mark  its  shattered 
margin.  The  two  sides  of  the  triangle  are 
bordered  by  young  folded  mountains,  in  which 
limestones  largely  predominate.  But,  necessarily, 
there  is  no  sudden  transition  between  central  mass 
and  folded  margin.  Balkans  and  western  moun- 
tains alike  are  separated  from  the  Central  Up- 
land by  areas  whose  special  feature  is  the  pres- 
ence of  fertile  basins,  which  alternate  with  low 
ridges,  rffering  no  great  obstacle  to  through  transit, 
and  with  mountain-tracts.  Within  these  two  belts 
lie  the  best  lands  of  the  peninsula,  but  they  them- 
selves are  the  natural  highways  of  traffic  from 
north  to  south  and  from  south  to  north,  from 
north-west  to  south-east,  from  .^sia  to  Europe, 
from  the  .Aegean  to  the  European  plains.  It 
has  been  remarked  by  an  acute  observer  that  in 
the  Balkan  Peninsula  the  villages,  contrary'  to 
the    usual    rule,    tend    to    avoid    the    main    road. 

8 


.^long  that  main  road  one  may  find  a  few  large 
towns,  but  the  smaller  settlements,  too  well  aware 
that  the  highway's  main  function  throughout  his- 
torical time  has  been  to  allow  of  the  passage 
of  armies,  seek  safety  in  the  byways.  But  it 
has  been  the  curse  of  the  Balkan  States  that  they 
could  not,  like  small  groups  of  individuals,  thus 
avoid  the  main. lines  of  communication.  To  fly 
to  the  hills  to  starve  there;  to  remain  along  the 
main  route  and  be  crushed  by  trampling  feet; 
it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  these  have 
been  the  main  alternatives  before  the  nations  of 
that  troubled  land.  We  have  said  that  the  cen- 
tral mass  of  upland  is  roughly  triangular  in  shape. 
In  a  quite  general  fashion  we  may  say  that  the 
town  of  Belgrade  is  placed  near  the  apex  of  the 
triangle,  while  Salonika  and  Constantinople  oc- 
cupy approximately  the  ends  of  the  base  line 
and  most  of  the  more  important  towns  of  the 
peninsula  are  strung  along  the  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle, which  are  themselves  the  main  lines  of 
communication.  To  grasp  these  facts  is  to  realize 
some  of  the  essential  difficulties  which  have  re- 
tarded the  political  development  of  the  peninsula. 
It  results  necessarily  from  what  has  been  said 
that,  not  only  is  there  no  natural  centre  within 
the  peninsula  about  which,  as  nucleus,  a  great 
state  might  form,  but  that  rivalries  are  almost 
certain  to  develop  between  small  states.  The  fact 
that  the  peninsula  is  so  easy  of  access  from 
without — a  point  to  which  we  shall  return  in 
a  moment — means  that  weak  peoples  within  will 
surge  upwards  from  the  plains  on  the  main  routes 
to  mountains  and  uplands  for  safety.  The  danger 
past,  they  tend  to  descend,  and  are  then  con- 
fronted with  the  problem  of  how  to  divide  among 
themselves  the  fertile  plains  which  fringe  the 
temporarily  deserted  highway.  As  fresh  incur- 
sions from  without  are  always  liable  to  occur  be- 
fore internal  adjustment  has  become  possible,  the 
problem  is  not  one  easily  settled.  We  have  already 
seen  that  incursion  from  the  north  is  easy,  be- 
cause, beyond  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  the 
peninsula  lies  open  to  the  wide  Hungarian  plain ; 
but  it  may  be  well  to  emphasize  the  contrast  here 
with  the  Italian  and  Iberian  Peninsulas.  Both 
of  these  are  separated  from  continental  Europe 
bv    mountain-chains,    not    absolutely    continuous 

18' 


BALKAN    STATES 


Geography 
Ethnography 


BALKAN    STATES 


from  sea  to  sea,  not,  as  history  has  shown,  giving 
perfect  and  easily  drawn  frontier  lines,  but  still 
of  great  value  as  constituting  in  each  case  a  north- 
ern belt  of  relatively  scantily-peopled  land,  per- 
mitting of  the  development  of  more  or  less  de- 
marcated nationalities  respectively  within  and  with- 
out the  peninsular  areas.  In  contrast  with  the 
Balkan  region,  it  is  worth  note,  the  Iberian 
Peninsula  is  further  remarkable  in  that  it  narrows 
where  it  is  attached  to  the  Continent — a  fact 
which  has  helped  to  promote  a  distinction  be- 
tween intra-peninsular  and  extra-peninsular  na- 
tionalities. On  the  other  hand,  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula is  widest  where  it  joins  the  Continent,  no 
notable  barrier  to  human  progress  separates  the 
one  region  from  the  other,  and,  in  association 
with  this,  many  of  the  peoples  of  the  peninsula 
have  representatives,  sometimes  numerous  repre- 
sentatives, beyond  its  largely  artificial  boundary 
lines.  In  other  words,  their  interests  are  never 
wholly  within  the  peninsula — are  sometimes  largely 
outside  it.  What  are  its  boundary  lines?  As 
usually  defined,  the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  the  land 
area  to  the  south  of  a  line  drawn  along  the  line 
of  the  Lower  Danube,  then  of  the  Save  and  of 
its  insignificant  tributary,  the  Kulpa,  and  from 
the  headwaters  of  this  stream  to  the  shore  near 
Fiume.  How  artificial  this  'geographical'  frontier 
is  may  be  realized  from  the  fact  that  only  along 
part  of  its  course  does  it  correspond  to  political 
boundaries,  and  from  the  other  fact  that  few  maps 
of  the  region  go  so  far  to  the  north-west.  In 
reality,  while  the  southern  part  of  the  Balkan 
region  is  a  true  peninsula,  the  northern  quadri- 
lateral, separated  from  Asia  Minor  only  by  the 
narrow  submerged  river  valleys  which  we  call 
the  Bosphorous  and  the  Dardanelles  respectively, 
is  really  continental,  in  climate  as  well  as  in 
many  of  its  characters.  Europe  stops,  not  at 
Constantinople,  but  in  the  steppe  region  behind 
it,  for  the  city  itself  has  but  little  relation  to 
the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula  on  which  it 
stands.  If  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  factors  we 
have  stressed — the  absence  of  a  natural  centre, 
of  isolation  from  surrounding  regions,  the  ex- 
istence of  broad,  diverging  highways  leading 
through  the  heart  of  the  land — have  been  in  ac- 
tion for  long  centuries,  then  the  welter  of  races 
and  of  creeds  within  the  peninsula,  the  jealousies 
and  quarrels,  the  short-lived  triumphs  of  one  race 
or  another,  will  be  readily  understood.  Here 
within  a  total  area  of  some  ioi,coo  square  miles 
— that  is,  considerably  less  than  Spain — no  less 
than  six  native  races  dwell,  in  addition  to  repre- 
sentatives of  not  a  few  others." — M.  I.  New- 
bigin.  Geographical  aspects  of  Balkan  problems, 
pp.  II,  14-15- 

Races  existing. — Evolution  from  the  past. — 
Migrations  and  activities  from  the  year  A.  D. 
117  to  1453. — "In  no  part  of  Western  Europe  do 
we  find  districts  inhabited  by  men  differing  in 
speech  and  national  feeling,  lying  in  distinct 
patches  here  and  there  over  a  large  country.  A 
district  like  one  of  our  larger  counties  in  which 
one  parish,  perhaps  one  hundred,  spoke  Welsh, 
another  Latin,  another  English,  another  Danish, 
another  Old  French,  another  the  tongue  of  more 
modern  settlers,  Flemings,  Huguenots  or  Pal- 
atines, is  something  which  we  find  hard  to 
conceive,  and  which,  as  applied  to  our  own 
land  or  to  any  other  Western  land,  sounds 
absurd  on  the  face  of  it.  When  we  pass  into 
South-eastern  Europe,  this  state  of  things,  the 
very  idea  of  which  seems  absurd  in  the  West,  is 
found  to  be  perfectly  real.  All  the  races  which 
we  find  dwelling  there  at  the  beginning  of  re- 
corded history,  together  with  several  races  which 


have  come  in  since,  all  remain,  not  as  mere  frag- 
ments or  survivals,  but  as  nations,  each  with  its 
national  language  and  national  feelings,  and  each 
having   its  greater   or   less  share   of   practical  im- 
portance  in    the   politics   of   the   present   moment, 
petting    aside    races    which    have    simply    passed 
through    the    country    without    occupying    it,    we 
may  say  that  all  the  races  which  have  ever  set- 
tled   in    the    country    are    there    still    as    distinct 
races.     And,   though   each   race   has  its  own  par- 
ticular   region    where   it   forms   the   whole    people 
or   the   great   majority    of   the   people,   still   there 
are  large  districts  where  different  races  really  live 
side    by    side   in    the    very    way    which   seems   so 
absurd  when  we  try  to  conceive  it  in  any  West- 
ern  country.      We   cannot   conceive   a   Welsh,   an 
English,  and  a  Korman  village  side  by  side;   but 
a  Greek,  a  Bulgarian,  and  a  Turkish  village  side 
by  side  is   a  thing   which   may  be  seen   in   many 
parts  of  Thrace.     The  oldest  races  in  those  lands, 
those   which    answer   to    Basques   and   Bretons   in 
Western  Europe,  hold  quite  another  position  from 
that  of  Basques  and  Bretons  in  Western  Europe. 
They    form    three    living    and    vigorous    nations, 
Greek,   Albanian,    and    Rouman.     They    stand    as 
nations  alongside  of  the  Slavs  who  came  in  later, 
and   who   answer   roughly   to   the  Teutons  in   the 
West,   while   all   alike   are    [1S77]    under   the   rule 
of  the  Turk,  who  has  nothing  answering  to  him 
in    the   West.  .  .  .  When    the   Romans   conquered 
the   South-eastern   lands,   they   found   there   three 
great    races,    the    Greek,    the    lUyrian,    and    the 
Thracian.     Those   three   races   are   all   there   still. 
The   Greeks  speak   for   themselves.     The   Illyrians 
are   represented    by   the   modern   Albanians.     The 
Thracians  are  represented,  there  seems  every  rea- 
son  to  believe,   by   the   modern   Roumans.     Now 
had    the    whole    of    the   South-eastern    lands   been 
inhabited  by   Illyrians  and'  Thracians,  those  lands 
would     doubtless     have     become     as     thoroughly 
Roman  as  the  Western  lands  became.  .  .  .  But  the 
position  of  the  Greek  nation,  its  long  history  and 
its    high    civilization,    hindered   this.     The    Greeks 
could   not  become   Romans  in   any  but  the   most 
purely  political  sense.     Like  other  subjects  of  the 
Roman  Empire,   they   gradually   took  the   Roman 
name;   but  they  kept   their  own   language,  litera- 
ture,   and    civilization.      In    short    v/e    may    say 
that    the    Roman    Empire    in    the    East    became 
Greek,  and  that  the  Greek  nation  became  Roman. 
The  Eastern  Empire  and  the  Greek-speaking  lands 
became    nearly    coextensive.      Greek    became    the 
one  language  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  while 
those  that  spoke  it  still  called  themselves  Romans. 
Till    quite    lately,    that    is    till    the    modern    ideas 
of   nationality   began  to  spread,   the   Greek-speak- 
ing   subjects    of    the    Turk    called    themselves    by 
no    name    but    that    of    Romans.  .  .  .  While    the 
Greeks  thus  took  the  Roman  name  without  adopt- 
ing   the    Latin    language,    another    people    in    the 
Eastern    peninsula    adopted    both    name    and   lan- 
guage,  exactly    as   the    nations   of   the   West   did. 
If,  as  there  is  good  reason   to  believe,  the  mod- 
ern Roumans  represent  the  old  Thracians,  that  na- 
tion   came    under    the    genera!    law,    exactly    like 
the     Western     nations.      The     Thracians     became 
thoroughly   Roman   in   speech,   as   they  haye  ever 
since  kept  the  Roman  name.     They  form  in  fact 
one    of    the    Romance    nations,    just   as   much    as 
the   people   of   Gaul   or  Spain.  ...  In   short,   the 
existence    of    a    highly    civilized    people    like    the 
Greeks   hindered    in   every    way    the   influence    of 
Rome  from  being  so  thorough  in  the  East  as  it 
was   in    the   West.     The    Greek   nation    lived   on, 
and    alongside    of    itself,    it    preserved    the    other 
two   ancient   nations   of   the   peninsula.     Thus   all 
three    have   lived    on    to    the    present    as    distinct 


819 


BALKAN  STATES 


Ethnography 
Early  History 


BALKAN    STATES 


nations.  Two  of  them,  the  Greeks  and  the  II- 
lyrians,  still  Iceep  their  own  languages,  while  the 
third,  the  old  Thracians,  speak  a  Romance  lan- 
guage and  call  themselves  Roumans.  .  .  .  The 
Slavonic  nations  hold  in  the  East  a  place  answer- 
ing to  that  which  is  held  by  the  Teutonic  nations 
in  the  West.  .  .  .  But  though  the  Slaves  in  the 
East  thus  answer  in  many  ways  to  the  Teutons 
in  the  West,  their  position  with  regard  to  the 
Eastern  Empire  was  not  quite  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Teutons  towards  the  Western  Empire.  .  .  . 
They  learned  much  from  the  half  Roman,  half 
Greek  power  with  which  they  had  to  do;  but 
they  did  not  themselves  become  either  Greek  or 
Roman,  in  the  way  in  which  the  Teutonic  con- 
querors in  the  Western  Empire  became  Roman. 
.  .  .  Thus,  while  in  the  West  everything  except 
a  few  survivals  of  earlier  nations,  is  either  Roman 
or  Teutonic,  in  the  East,  Greeks,  Illyrians,  Thra- 
cians or  Roumans,  and  Slavs,  all  stood  side  by 
side  as  distinct  nations  when  the  next  set  of  in- 
vaders came,  and  they  remain  as  distinct  nations 
still.  .  .  .  There  came  among  them,  in  the  form  of 
the  Ottoman  Turk,  a  people  with  whom  union 
was  not  only  hard  but  impossible,  a  people  who 
were  kept  distinct,  not  by  special  circumstances, 
but  by  the  inherent  nature  of  the  case.  Had 
the  Turk  been  other  than  what  he  really  was, 
he  might  simply  have  become  a  new  nation 
alongside  of  the  South-eastern  nations.  Being 
what  he  was  the  Turk  could  not  do  this.  .  .  . 
The  original  Turks  did  not  belong  to  the  Aryan 
branch  of  mankind,  and  their  original  speech  is 
not  an  Aryan  speech.  The  Turks  and  their  speech 
belong  to  altogether  another  class  of  nations  and 
languages.  .  .  .  Long  before  the  Turks  came  into 
Europe,  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians  had  come; 
and,  before  the  Magyars  came,  the  Bulgarians  had 
come.  Both  the  Magyars  and  the  Bulgarians 
were  in  their  origin  Turanian  nations,  nations  as 
foreign  to  the  Aryan  people  of  Europe  as  the 
Ottoman  Turks  themselves.  But  their  history 
shows  that  a  Turanian  nation  settling  in  Europe 
may  either  be  assimilated  with  an  existing  Euro- 
pean nation  or  may  sit  down  as  an  European  na- 
tion alongside  of  others.  The  Bulgarians  have 
done  one  of  these  things;  the  Magyars  have  done 
the  other;  the  Ottoman  Turks  have  done  neither. 
So  much  has  been  heard  lately  of  the  Bulgarians 
as  being  in  our  times  the  special  victims  of  the 
Turk  that  some  people  may  find  it  strange  to 
hear  who  the  original  Bulgarians  were.  They  were 
a  people  more  or  less  nearly  akin  to  the  Turks, 
and  they  came  into  Europe  as  barbarian  con- 
querors who  were  as  much  dreaded  by  the  nations 
of  South-eastern  Europe  as  the  Turks  themselves 
were  afterwards.  The  old  Bulgarians  were  a 
Turanian  people,  who  settled  in  a  large  part  of 
the  South-eastern  peninsula,  in  lancte  which  had 
been  already  occupied  by  Slaves.  They  came 
in  as  barbarian  conquerors;  but,  exactly  as  hap- 
pened to  so  many  conquerors  in  Western  Europe, 
they  were  presently  assimilated  by  their  Slavonic 
subjects  and  neighbours.  They  learned  the 
Slavonic  speech;  they  gradually  lost  all  traces 
of  their  foreign  origin.  Those  whom  we  now  call 
Bulgarians  are  a  Slavonic  people  speaking  a 
Slavonic  tongue,  and  they  have  nothing  Turanian 
about  them  except  the  name  which  they  borrowed 
from  their  Turanian  masters.  .  .  .  The  Bulgarians 
entered  the  Empire  in  the  seventh  century  [see 
Bulgaria:  7th  century],  and  embraced  Christianity 
in  the  ninth.  They  rose  to  great  power  in  the 
South-eastern  lands,  and  played  a  great  part  in 
their  history.  But  all  their  later  history,  from  a 
comparatively  short  time  after  the  first  Bul- 
garian conquest,  has  been  that  of  a  Slavonic  and 


not  that  of  a  Turanian  people.  The  history  of  the 
Bulgarians  therefore  shows  that  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible, if  circumstances  are  favourable,  for  a  Tura- 
nian people  to  settle  among  the  Aryans  of 
Europe  and  to  be  thoroughly  assimiliated  by  the 
Aryan  nation  among  whom  they  settled." — E.  A. 
Freeman,  Ottoman  power  in  Europe,  ch.  2. — See 
also  Vlakhs. 

Also  in:  R.  G.  Latham,  Nationalities  of  Eu- 
rope. 

"After  Trajan's  death  [117]  these  semi- 
Romanized  Thracians  could  not  longer  be  held 
in  subjection;  during  his  short  reign  of  three 
years,  Maximin,  himself  a  Thraclan  who  had 
risen  from  the  ranks  to  the  purple,  maintained  a 
semblance  of  order  among  his  kinsfolk,  but  to  the 
natural  restlessness  of  the  people  was  now  added 
a  new  cause  of  disturbance.  The  Goths  had  set- 
tled on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Euxine  [Black 
Sea],  the  Vandals  had  boldly  entered  the  province, 
and  from  the  great  plains  further  beyond  was 
pouring  out  a  flood  of  humanity  which  pressed 
hard  upon  both  from  behind,  breaking  through 
in  places  and  emptying  itself  into  the  valley  of 
the  Danube.  Hadrian  was  forced  (270-275)  to 
withdraw  his  troops  to  the  right  bank  of  that 
great  river  and  rename  the  province  Ripuarian 
Dacia.  The  left  shore  to  the  north  was  thus 
lost  to  the  empire,  but  some  of  the  Romans  and 
much  of  the  Romanized  population  continue  to 
dwell  there.  These  and  the  traders  kept  the  preva- 
lent low  Latin  a  living  tongue.  About  the  year 
450  the  Huns,  and  a  century  later  the  Avars, 
permeated  the  land,  until  finally  there  was  a  me- 
chanical mixture  of  races,  peoples,  and  tongues 
in  which  the  old  order  was  utterly  disintegrated 
and  the  way  prepared  for  the  latest  inundation, 
that  of  the  Slavs,  whose  very  name.  Slave,  in- 
dicated the  contempt  in  which  they  were  long 
held.  .  .  .  Slowly  the  great  horde  of  Goths  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  Euxine  had  differentiated  it- 
self into  two  stocks,  somewhat  different  in  char- 
acter and  widely  different  in  their  historical  ca- 
reer; the  west,  or  Visigoths,  and  the  east,  or 
Ostrogoths.  The  next  important  migration  under 
Alaric,  who  actually  settled  in  the  central  por- 
tion of  it  in  382,  in  395  threatened  Constanti- 
nople and  pressed  on  into  Epirus  and  Hellas.  It  is 
to  the  ruthless  occupation  of  the  mainland  by 
barbarians  that  the  islands  of  Hellas  owe  to 
this  day  their  almost  homogeneous  Greek  popu- 
lation, descendants  of  the  Greeks  who  nearly 
fourteen  centuries  ago  fled  before  this  Germanic 
invasion.  In  time  the  Invaders  were  more  or 
less  Hellenized  and  established  themselves  in  Epirus 
as  vassals  of  the  emperors  at  Constantinople.  Rest- 
less and  uncertain  as  was  their  temperament, 
they  soon  began  to  fear  lest  they  should  be  fur- 
ther absorbed  Into  Byzantium,  and  at  last  with- 
drew across  the  Adriatic  to  their  kindred  in  Italy. 
During  the  period  of  their  settlement  in  that 
peninsula  they  destroyed  the  art  treasures  of  the 
country  most  ruthlessly,  and  the  process  which 
they  began  was  continued  by  the  Huns,  who 
poured  their  Mongolian  flood  along  the  same 
highway  of  nations.  These  in  turn  were  followed 
by  the  Ostrogoths  under  Theodoric,  who  laid 
waste  the  Peloponnesus,  and  by  the  Vandals  who 
perpetrated  every  form  of  theft  and  destruction 
along  the  Greek  coast  line;  whatever  was  left 
after  this  devastating  process  substantially  dis- 
appeared under  the  rule  of  the  Bulgars,  who  In 
S17  ravaged  Epirus  and  Thcssaly  as  far  as 
Thermopyls.  The  Byzantine  emperor  Anastasius 
sought  to  protect  his  capital  behind  the  wall 
stretching  from  Propontls  to  the  Euxine,  a  line 
of  defense  so  often  mentioned  in  this  latest  period, 


820 


Maps  prepared  specially  for  the  NEW  LARNED 
under  direction  of  the  editors  and  publishers. 


JU 


C) 


BALKAN    STATES 


Advent  of    Turks 
Nationalism 


BALKAN  STATES 


and  abandoned  all  his  unhappy  provinces  to  their 
fate.  He  and  his  successor,  Justin,  were  utterly 
paralyzed  when  the  Slavs,  abiding  their  time 
on  the  south  shore  of  the  Danube,  began  a 
further  advance  and  established  many  permanent 
colonies  in  the  districts  deserted  by  their  former 
inhabitants.  Justinian,  however  {527-565),  was  a 
man  of  different  temper,  and  while  he  left  the 
Slavic  colonists  already  established  in  their  new 
seats,  yet  he  inaugurated  a  system  of  fortifica- 
tions on  the  Danube  and  in  the  interior  of  his 
empire  which  checked  any  further  inroads.  The 
last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century  is  marked  by 
the  further  invasion  of  the  peninsula  by  the  Avars, 
a  people  of  extremely  warlike  nature.  Coming 
from  their  previous  home  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  they  had  occupied  the  valley 
of  the  Theiss  [Tisza],  whence  for  two  and  a 
half  centuries  they  terrorized  all  their  neighbors. 
They  now  pushed  forward  into  the  east  Roman 
empire  and  found  their  advantage  sometimes  in 
supporting  the  emperor,  sometimes  in  strengthen- 
ing the  Slavic  invasion.  They,  too,  succeeded  in 
establishing  settlements  at  various  places  in  Greece, 
but,  in  the  main,  the  result  of  all  this  confusion 
was  the  greater  and  greater  preponderance  of  the 
Slav  element.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury there  were  more  Avars  to  the  north  of  the 
Danube  than  beyond  it,  and  more  Slavs  to  the 
south  than  on  the  other  side.  Pliny,  in  the  first 
century  of  our  era,  makes  mention  of  tlie  Slavs, 
and  in  their  legendary  lore  the  emperor  Trajan  oc- 
cupies so  important  a  position  that  many  have 
thought  there  must  have  been  some  contact  of  a 
peaceful  nature  between  him  and  the  Slavic  tribes. 
Inasmuch  as  Slavic  folklore  expresses  nothing  but 
kindness  and  admiration  for  the  Roman  powers, 
which  were  afterwards  their  bitterest  enemies,  their 
kindly  relations  may  have  continued  to  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century.  Traces  of  prehistorical 
Slav  migrations  and  settlements  have  been  found 
clear  across  Europe  as  far  as  Hanover,  but  the 
Germans  forced  them  back  over  the  Elbe.  Their 
primitive  seat  appears  to  have  been  the  banks 
of  the  Dnieper  River  in  what  is  known  to-day 
as  southern  Russia.  A  prevailing  hypothesis  makes 
them  descendants  of,  or  close  kin  to,  the  Scythians, 
but  so  commingled  with  the  race  slocks  just  men- 
tioned that  they  appear  to  be  a  composite  race. 
The  Bulgars,  whose  seats  had  been  on  the  lower 
Volga,  were  nearest  in  kin  to  the  Turks.  From 
the  time  of  their  earliest  appearance  they,  too, 
assimilated  themselves,  and  very  closely,  with  the 
nomads  about  them,  and  it  was  Bulgarized  Slavs 
who  founded  the  empire  which  included  the  lands 
of  the  Danube,  Wallachia,  with  a  part  of  Hun- 
gary, as  well  as  their  own  territory — a  mighty  em- 
pire which  lasted  for  over  three  centuries  (702- 
1014).  During  their  ascendancy  three  peoples  of 
unknown  descent — the  Hungarians,  a  Ugrian-Tur- 
coman  folk  from  Asia,  and  two  Turkish  stocks, 
the  Patzinakians  [Petchenegs]  and  Cumanians 
[Kumans] — entered  the  districts  north  of  the 
Danube.  It  was  into  the  very  heart  of  the  vast 
Slavic  territory  that  the  Hungarians  drove  them- 
selves like  a  wedge;  and  for  generations  the  north- 
ern and  southern  groups  lived  in  different  en- 
vironments and  under  different  conditions — a  fact 
which  created  and  perpetuated  substantial  varia- 
tions. In  type,  language,  and  even  in  basic  institu- 
tions they  are  perhaps  as  much  differentiated  as 
the  Spanish  from  the  Portuguese,  much  less  than 
the  Italians  and  Spanish  or  any  other  two  of  the 
Romance  peoples.  It  was  the  south  Slavs  who 
were  first  discernible  in  the  Balkans  during  the 
sixth  century.  In  the  seventh  they  began  to  settle 
westward  of  the  Bulgarians,  occupying  the  Roman 

82 


province  of  Moesia,  and  it  was  there  that  they 
first  received  the  contemptuous  name  which  they 
still  bear,  that  of  Servians,  Slaves.  In  the  eighth 
century  they  accepted  Christianity,  and  thence 
down  to  the  eleventh  century  they  were  at  best 
a  protectorate,  and  more  often  a  dependency  of 
Byzantium.  [See  Christianity:  Qth  century;  Bul- 
garian church].  Thereupon,  separate  stocks  began 
successively  and  successfully  to  assert  independence, 
and  in  1165  they  were  united  under  a  dynasty 
which  in  1222  was  recognized  by  both  the  Pope 
and  by  the  emperor  of  Constantinople.  They  de- 
veloped a  civilization  which  was  quite  remarkable; 
and  under  the  Czar  Stephen  Dushan  (1.530-1335) 
the  empire  embraced,  in  addition  to  its  original 
domains,  Macedonia,  Albania,  Thessaly,  Bulgaria, 
and  northern  Greece.  This  great  Servian  con- 
queror reached  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople 
with  a  summons  to  surrender,  but  there  he  died; 
and  his  lands,  united  only  by  his  imperious  will, 
fell  apart,  a  prey  to  warring  ambitions.  It  was  in 
1453  that  Mahomet  II,  the  great  Osman  Turk, 
mentioned  in  another  connection,  after  capturing 
Constantinople,  marched  onward  with  his  invin- 
cible horde  and  soon  brought  all  the  Balkans  under 
Turkish  sway,  a  grinding  tyranny  that  lasted 
nearly  four  centuries.  [See  Turkey:  1360-13S9; 
1402-1451;  1451-14S1.]  With  the  appearance  in 
the  Balkan  peninsula  of  the  Turks,  an  outline  of 
whose  career  has  already  been  given,  the  long 
roll-call  .of  national  and  race  elements  in  that  dis- 
tracted portion  of  Europe  is  completed.  Not  one 
of  these  elements  has  remained  entirely  pure.  Of 
those  considered,  four  have  admitted  alien  strains, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  their  languages  and  insti- 
tutions; yet  all  survive,  and  all  hold  fast  to  their 
traditions,  and  all  look  forward  to  the  restoration 
of  their  ancient  dominion  and  glory.  The  situation 
is  complicated  by  the  strife  of  confession ;  Islam 
with  Christianity — alas  I  a  divided  Christianity — ■ 
the  adherents  of  the  Greek  Church,  at  least  among 
the  masses,  regarding  those  of  the  Roman  con- 
fession as  utter  outcasts,  and  vice  versa." — W. 
Sloane,  Balkans — a  laboratory  of  history,  pp.  63- 
68. 

lOth-llth  centuries  (Bulgaria). — Overthrow 
of  kingdom  by  Basil  II.  See  Achrida,  Kingdom 
of;  Bulgaria:  loth-iith  centuries;  Constanti- 
nople: 007-1047. 

12th  century  (Rumania). — Second  Bulgarian 
or  Wallachian  kingdom.  See  Bulgaria:  12th 
century;  Dacia:  Trojan's  conquest. 

14th  century  (Bulgaria).  —  Subjection  to 
Hungary.     See  Hungary:   1301-1442. 

14th-19th  centuries  (Serbia  and  Bulgaria). 
See  Bulgaria:  1258-1872;  Russia:  1734-1740;  Tur- 
key:  1360-1389;   1402-1451 ;   1451-14S1. 

1389  (Bulgaria). — Conquest  by  Turks.  See 
Bulgaria:   1258-1872;  Turkey:   1360-1380. 

1718  (Bosnia). — Part  ceded  to  Austria.  See 
Hungary:    1600-1718. 

1739. — Restoration  of  Bosnia,  Serbia,  and 
Austrian    Vallachia    to    Turkey.     See    Russia: 

1734-1740. 

19th  century. — Nationalism. — Growth  of  de- 
mocracy.— Characteristics  of  the  peoples. — "The 

nationality  movement,  which  is  the  main  historic 
tendency  of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  a  phase  of  the 
acquisition  of  political  power  by  the  people,  even 
as  is  the  related  movement  for  democratic  popular 
government.  Near  Eastern  nationalism  is  a  re- 
sult of  the  same  renascence  that  took  among  west- 
ern peoples  the  form  of  a  movement  for  demo- 
cratic institutions.  They  are  both  movements  for 
government  of  the  people  by  the  people  to  the 
exclusion  of  absolutism  and  autocracy.  This  move- 
ment caused  wars  among  the  Anglo-American  and 


BALKAN    STATES 


19th   Century 
Racial  Characteristics 


BALKAN  STATES 


Latin  communities  towards  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  in  the  regions  bordering  the  At- 
lantic, and  ever  since  has  been  steadily  making  its 
way  through  the  people  of  Europe  and  Asia.  After 
revitalizing  the  mid-European  races,  it  has  passed 
into  Asia  with  the  beginning  of  this  twentieth 
century;  its  successive  invasions  of  the  Iberian, 
ItaHan,  and  Balkan  peninsulas  being  specially  in- 
structive. ...  Its  effect  on  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
was  exceptionally  erratic,  for  whereas  the  Greeks 
were  reached  by  it  even  before  many  of  the  Latin 
races,  the  Turks  were  affected  a  full  centur\'  later. 
Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  arrival  of  the  na- 
tionality movement  among  the  Greeks  and  the 
War  of  Emancipation  of  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  is  the  first  historical  cause  of 
the  Balkan  war;  while  its  arrival  among  the  Turks 
and  the  Ottoman  revolution  of  a  century  later  is 
the  very  last.  It  would  be  easy,  though  it  would 
be  too  long,  to  explain  this  by  the  particular  cir- 
cumstances and  character  of  each  place  and  people. 
It  would  be  of  the  greatest  interest  to  examine  in 
detail  the  political  or  social  conditions  under 
which,  for  instance,  Greece,  which  had  so  long  a 
start  of  Bulgaria,  has  been  overtaken  within  our 
generation;  or  why  Servia  as  a  national  democ- 
racy is  a  higher  political  organism  than  auto- 
cratic Russia.  But  the  geographical  method  of 
studying  the  movement  makes  such  detailed  in- 
quiries unnecessan.- ;  for  these  irregularities,  if 
traced  to  their  source,  are  to  be  explained  either 
by  direct  geographical  circumstances  such  as  the 
checks  opposed  by  mountains  and  deserts  or  the 
channels  offered  by  seas  and  rivers,  or  else  by 
indirect  geographical  influences  working  on  na- 
tional character.  This  brings  us  back  again  to 
the  geographical  origins  of  history.  Balkan  pol- 
itics can  only  be  understood  through  a  knowledge 
of  the  stage  of  development  of  the  Balkan  peoples. 
The  Balkan  peoples  can  only  be  understood  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  configurations  and  characteris- 
tics of  the  peninsula.  When,  moreover,  the  main 
configurations  and  characteristics  of  the  peninsula 
are  observed  it  will  be  found  that  the  character  of 
the  populations  has  a  regional  rather  than  a  racial 
basis,  and  is  indigenous  to  the  locality  rather  than 
inherent  in  the  stock.  This  can  be  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  even.'  community  in  question.  Greece  is 
inhabited,  and,  so  far.as  investigation  shows,  always 
has  been  inhabited,  by  people  of  the  Greek  type  of 
character  in  spite  of  renewals  or  even  removals  of 
its  inhabitants  by  Cretans,  Dorians,  Slavs,  Alba- 
nians, and  such  alien  types.  The  assertion  can  be 
advanced  beyond  this,  and  it  might  even  be  said 
that  records  sucgest  that  the  population  of  Boeo- 
tia,  or  of  Sparta,  or  even  of  Athens,  have  main- 
tained through  all  vicissitudes  each  their  distinct 
sub-species.  Again,  Montenegrins  and  certain  Al- 
banian tribes  are  of  very  similar  physical  type; 
but  their  mental  and  moral  character  is  distinct, 
and  while  one  represents  an  essentially  Slav  cul- 
ture, Albanian  civilization  is  peculiar  to  itself  and 
long  antedated  the  advent  of  the  Slavs.  Bulgars 
are  of  Finnish  stock,  have  a  Slav  tongue,  and  a 
Moneol  name ;  but  their  national  character  is  also 
peculiar  to  themselves,  though  it  strongly  resembles 
that  of  the  Finland  Finns.  The  Bulgar  national 
type  is  evidently  one  which  has  had  time  to  adapt 
itself  perfectly  to  its  surroundings,  or,  as  suggested 
above,  to  have  been  perfectly  assimilated  by  its 
surroundings,  physical  and  political.  Back  through 
Byzantine  history  we  find  Bulgars  playing  the  same 
political  role  and  exhibiting  the  same  peculiarities. 
Roumanians  are  also  a  composite  race  of  Latins 
and  Vlachs  with  some  borrowings  from  Jews  and 
Gypsies;  but  the  dominant  characteristics  of  their 
culture  cannot  be  accounted  for  from  any  of  these 

82 


sources.  It  will  help  to  explain  much  that  is  as- 
tonishing in  the  development  of  the  Balkan  na- 
tionality movements  if  we  can  account  for  the 
very  marked  and  matured  national  characteristics 
of  these  very  youthful  nations  by  peculiarities  in 
the  natural  conditions  and  configuration  of  the 
countries  they  inhabit.  For  instance,  the  most 
marked  characteristic  of  the  peninsula  of  Greece 
is  that  it  has  a  deeply  indented  coastline  and  that 
the  mainland  is  cut  up  into  valleys  by  difficult 
ranges.  These  valleys  are  even  more  independent 
of  and  isolated  from  each  other  than  the  islands 
of  which  a  large  portion  of  the  Greek  national 
territory  consists.  Greek  civilization  centres  in 
and  surrounds  the  Aegean  just  as  Anglo-Saxon 
civilization  surrounds  the  North  Atlantic.  The 
Hellenes,  like  the  Anglo-Saxons,  have  in  conse- 
quence always  consisted  of  independent  communi- 
ties of  valley  or  island  folk  in  a  sea-faring,  that 
is  a  foreign,  relation  to  each  other,  united  only 
by  a  common  culture  and  civilization.  The  course 
of  the  early  development  of  the  small  Greek  democ- 
racies was  by  competition  rather  than  by  combi- 
nation. Consequently  the  natural  characteristics 
of  the  Greeks  in  political  and  social  relations  are 
rather  intellicence  and  independence  than  grega- 
riousness  and  generosity.  This  Greek  'separatism' 
was  due  also  in  part  to  disadvantages  attending 
the  development  of  maritime  communities  in  those 
days  from  which  our  later  maritime  civilizations 
have  been  free.  In  primitive  times  the  sea  was 
more  of  a  barrier  than  now;  for  while  it  was  al- 
ready the  high  road  for  culture  it  was  also  the 
open  road  for  piracy,  and  the  pirate  of  that  age 
was  as  important  a  factor  in  regulating  and  re- 
stricting the  free  growth  of  a  community  as  the 
wolf  which  kept  prehistoric  man  to  the  hilltops. 
But  Greek  national  culture  and  character  were 
due  to  more  peculiar  geographical  advantages  than 
an  indented  coastline  and  intersecting  ranges. 
From  its  situation  at  the  juncture  of  the  three 
continents  Greece  became  the  first  country  in 
Europe  to  enjoy  the  stimulus  of  Egyptian  culture 
and  Phoenician  commerce,  and  owing  to  its  con- 
figuration it  was  especially  well  adapted  for  as- 
similating these  advantages.  Greece  thus  became 
a  group  of  politically  compact  but  socially  com- 
plex urban  communities.  Compact  because  their 
political  relationship  to  each  other  and  to  the  out- 
side world  was  a  foreign  and  frequently  hostile 
one;  complex  socially  because  their  situation  de- 
manded independent  municipal  life  and  commercial 
pursuits  tend  to  subdivide  a  community  into  so- 
cial strata.  Such  a  collection  of  communities  and 
such  a  category  of  classes  Greece  has  remained  to 
this  day;  for  while  the  leading  political  feature  of 
Greece  nowadays  is  the  all-dominating  idea  of 
national  fraternity,  yet  this  great  motive  principle 
of  Greek  public  life  has  not  levelled  out  the  local 
feeling  and  local  characteristics  that  differentiate 
the  component  Hellenic  communities.  So  also, 
while  the  dominant  social  note  is  democratic 
equality,  this  again  has  not  affected  the  essential 
classifications  of  Greek  society.  Again,  the  prin- 
cipal pride  of  the  individual  Greek  is  his  liberty 
of  thought,  his  independence  of  mind,  but  no  man 
is  more  dependent  on  the  opinions  of  others  or 
on  obtaining  from  abroad  the  raw  material  of 
culture  for  the  industp,'  of  his  intellect.  In  a 
word,  the  typical  Greek  is  an  islander,  a  towns- 
man, and  a  brainworker.  The  Greek  is  a  cultivator 
of  necessity,  the  Bulgar  by  choice;  as  appears  in 
the  fact  that  the  Bulgars  of  Constantinople  are 
market  gardeners  and  market  their  produce 
through  Greeks.  The  Greek  village  is  a  country 
town;  the  Bulgar  village  is  a  collection  of  farms. 
Greek  nationalism  may  be  described  f>crhaps  rather 


BALKAN    STATES 


19th  Century 
Racial  Characteristics 


BALKAN  STATES 


as  an  imperial  than  a  national  consciousness.  The 
Greeks  of  Crete  and  Corfu  are  one  as  the  British 
of  Montreal  and  Liverpool  are  one,  hut  not  as  the 
Serbs  of  Belgrade  and  Cettinje  are  one.  As  we 
go  north  frnm  the  islands  of  the  Morea  the  val- 
leys widen  into  plains.  First  the  Boeotian  valley: 
then  the  broad  vales  or  narrow  plains  of  Thessaly 
and  of  Epirus;  north  of  them  the  wider  Macedo- 
nian valley,  until,  across  the  Balkans,  Greek  in- 
fluence dies  away  in  the  vast  Danubian  plains. 
The  Greeks  of  these  plain  lands  have  throughout 
been  the  least  Greek  in  character.  This  Boeotian 
temperament  we  all  know  from  the  Classics,  and 
it  is  still  the  butt  of  the  Kafeneion.  The  Thessa- 
lian  temperament  was  the  basis  of  Alexander's 
empire,  which  was  as  non-Greek  in  its  constitution, 
its  phalanx,  and  its  inspiration  as  the  empire  of 
Napoleon  was  non-Latin.  This  national  character 
explains  why  the  Greek  has  had  so  much  difficulty 
in  retaining  the  interior  of  the  Peninsula,  although 
holding  the  coastline — contrary  to  th£  usual  rule 
that  who  holds  the  coast  holds  the  country.  He 
has  exploited  the  coasts  of  the  Aegean  and  of  the 
Black  Sea,  while  the  Bulgars,  Slavs,  Turks,  and 
other  plainsmen  have  exploited  the  plains.  The 
Greek  has  found  the  process  of  recovering  Thessaly 
and  Epirus  a  long  and  laborious  task;  and  Thes- 
saly is  the  northernmost  plain  country  the  ac- 
quisition of  which  can  be  justified  as  ethnological. 
If  the  Greek  national  character  had  allowed  of 
the  Greeks  being  plainsmen,  there  would  have  been 
no  'Eastern  Question.'  (q.  v.)  Their  northern 
neighbours,  the  Bulgars  and  Serbs,  offer  very  il- 
lustrative contrasts.  The  Serbs  in  their  broken 
forest  country  have  retained  in  their  character 
many  more  of  the  mystic  qualities  of  an  earlier 
civilization.  In  their  social  structure  may  still  be 
found  relics  of  early  social  institutions,  such  as 
the  'zadruga'  [family  community ],.^ng  lost  else- 
where. Their  main  national  occupations  are  that 
pastoral  pursuit  which  reformed  the  prodigal  son 
and  the  idyllic  industry  of  making  plum  jam. 
Their  national  character  is  best  explained  by  the 
fact  that  they  are  nearly  all  poets  and  pig  deal- 
ers; and  if  their  national  policy  seems  sometimes 
to  be  more  inspired  by  their  trade  than  by  their 
temperament,  it  is  perhaps  chiefly  the  fault  of 
modern  civilization,  which  has  given  them  cause 
to  seek  a  political  rather  than  a  poetical  expres- 
sion of  their  woodland  nature.  Bulgar  national- 
ism is  as  different  in  character  from  that  of  Greek 
or  Serbs  as  the  Buigar  fertile  plains  and  grassy 
downs  differ  from  the  wooded  hills  of  Servia  or 
the  stony  ranges  of  Greece ;  and  the  Buigar  plough- 
man and  shepherd  both  have  the  true  plainsman's 
character.  Rural  life  on  open  plains  and  pastures 
develops  character  in  its  moral  rather  than  in  its 
mental  or  mystical  capacities.  It  is  a  common 
mistake  to  assume  that  highlanders  are  more  de- 
voted to  liberty  and  more  diligent  in  moral  dis- 
cipline than  lowlanders.  Mountains  have  offered  a 
refuge  and  a  stronghold  for  temporary  resistance 
against  oppression,  but  it  is  in  the  plain  that 
liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity  can  best  find  the 
air,  the  soil,  and  the  springs  necessary  for  their 
growth.  To  their  plains  the  Bulgarians  owe  the 
fraternity  and  equality — the  ethical  solidarity,  and 
the  economic  socialism — which  have  made  their 
moral  and  material  renascence  so  surprising  in  its 
swiftness  and  smoothness.  The  moral  qualities  of 
the  Buigar  character  are  in  a  different  sphere  from 
that  of  the  Greek  mental  qualities  or  from  that 
of  the  mysticism  of  the  Slav.  If  the  political 
position  of  the  British  Isles  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury were  to  be  compared  to  that  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula  of  to-day,  we  should  call  the  Bulgars 
Lowland   Scotch,   the   Serbs   Irish,   the   Albanians 


Welsh,  the  Greeks  English,  and  the  Roumanians 
French.  The  analogy  is  of  course  very  imperfect, 
but  may  be  a  help  in  placing  these  peoples  po- 
litically. While  the  Balkans  offer  an  especially 
favourable  field  for  studying  the  effects  of 
nature  on  nationality  and  of  geographical  con- 
ditions on  the  character  of  nations,  the  phenome- 
non is  of  course  not  peculiar  to  the  Balkans.  The 
same  thing  can  be  observed  in  any  country  of 
marked  configuration  and  character.  .  .  .  Although 
attention  has  only  lately^been  directed  to  national 
consciousness  as  a  moulding  moral  force,  and  to 
the  possibility,  of  its  possessing  subliminal  quali- 
ties, the  effects  of  this  force  have  long  been  ob- 
served by  the  democratic  diplomatist ;  and  nowhere 
are  they  more  remarkable  than  in  the  Balkans.  In 
Balkan  politics,  such  a  subliminal  national  con- 
sciousness can  alone  explain  events  which  other- 
wise would  be  extraordinary  but  not  enlightening. 
Events  such  as  the  sudden  emergence  of  nations 
like  Bulgaria,  fully  equipped  for,  and  expert  in, 
the  difficult  functions  of  national  democracy,  from 
an  inchoate  mass  of  corruption  and  degradation 
such  as  was  Roumelia  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Events  such  as  the  course  taken  and  the  centre 
chosen  by  the  Greek  renascence,  which  developed 
through  the  Moreote  peasants  instead  of  through 
the  national  culture  centre  in  the  Phanar.  Events 
such  as  the  postponement  of  the  renascence  of 
Turkish  democracy  until  it  was  too  late  to  save 
the  Turkish  predominance.  These  and  many  other 
phenomena  require  something  more  than  an  ex- 
planation drawn  from  current  politics.  The  strik- 
ing persistence  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  of  national 
character  and  national  culture,  both  through  long 
periods  of  submergence  and  through  operations 
such  as  the  substitution  of  a  new  race  for  the  old, 
suggests  that  this  power  of  endurance  may  stand 
in  some  relation  to  the  period  of  duration  of  cul- 
ture before  the  submergence  or  the  shock.  We 
find  encouragement  in  this  theory  when  we  note 
that  the  Balkan  peninsula,  with  its  two  broken 
bridges  thrust  out  towards  Africa  and  Asia — one  be- 
ing the  Morea  with  Crete,  the  other  Thrace  with 
the  Troad — must  always  have  been  the  European 
port  of  entry  and  centre  of  production  for  supply- 
ing to  Europe  the  culture  products  of  Egypt,  Phce- 
nicia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Asia  Minor.  The  Balkan 
valleys  and  plains  were  the  channels  and  reser- 
voirs through  which  eastern  culture  flowed  into 
and  fertilized  the  desert  of  European  raw  human- 
ity. The  prototypes  of  those  national  cultures 
which  we  call  nowadays  Greek  or  Latin  can  be 
dug  out  of  the  Aegean  islands  or  Balkan  plains 
even  as  we  dig  out  the  prototypes  of  our  do- 
mestic animals.  Still  they  are  prototypes  only; 
for  Minoan  'nationality'  is  not  Greek,  any  more 
than  the  tree-climbing  hipparion  is  a  race-horse. 
To  these  primitive  prototypes  of  national  char- 
acter may  be  assigned  an  intermediate  place  be- 
tween, on  the  one  hand,  unconscious  habits  and 
modes  of  expression  common  to  all  mankind, 
formed  during  whole  geological  epochs  of  pri- 
mcBval  darkness,  and,  on  the  other,  the  conscious 
civic  functions  of  the  short  noonday  of  civiliza- 
tion. It  is  the  differences  in  subconscious  habits 
of  religious  and  political  thought,  and  of  artistic 
and  literary  expression,  formed  during  the  long 
dim  dawn  of  our  modern  social  civilization,  that 
constitute  the  ineradicable  and  immutable  atmos- 
phere of  nationality  and  connect  it  indissolubly 
with  the  area  in  which  it  was  born.  Those  who 
oppose  a  nationality  movement  from  arbitrary 
policy,  as  do  reactionaries,  or  from  artificialities 
of  reasoning,  as  do  some  revolutionaries,  are  only 
one  degree  less  foolish  than  those  who  pervert  the 
habits  of  man's  body.     Civilization  has  rendered 


823 


BALKAN    STATES 


19th   Century 
Racial   Characteristics 


BALKAN  STATES 


our  body  Independent  of  the  natural  changes  of 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  under  which  its  habits  de- 
veloped; but  that  does  not  permit  us  to  ignore 
these  habits.  We  can  live  now  as  conveniently 
by  night  as  by  day,  but  we  must  still  have  sleep 
and  sunlight.  Even  so,  political  progress  can 
civilize  Russian  or  Bulgar  serfdom  into  self-govern- 
ment and  Russian  or  Turkish  autocracy  into  a 
democracy,  but  did  not  and  cannot  civilize  a  Bul- 
gar into  either  a  South  Russian  or  a  North  Hel- 
lene, a  'Young  Turk'  or — shall  we  add — an  'Old 
Servian.'  The  Balkan  peninsula  contains  those 
regions  where  early  European  culture  existed  long- 
est, where  early  European  national  civilizations 
were  most  completely  extinguished,  and  where 
modern  European  national  democracies  have  been 
most  perfectly  and  speedily  evolved.  It  is  argued 
that  there  must  be  a  relation  between  these  facts; 
a  gospel  of  national  resurrection  full  of  hope  to 
the  worn  and  weak  among  the  nations.  If  this 
conjecture  be  permitted  us,  a  corollary  to  it  sug- 
gests itself  which  will  carry  us  still  further  into  an 
understanding  of  Balkan  events.  These  early 
Balkan  civilizations,  some  of  which  were  more 
completely  extinguished  than  others,  seem  to  have 
revived  with  a  completeness  and  quickness  pro- 
portionate to  the  severity  of  their  suppression. 
Bulgaria  is  by  far  the  most  perfect  national  de- 
mocracy in  the  Balkans,  and  in  its  case  all  tra- 
ditions of  nationality  and  self-government  were 
so  completely  wiped  out  that  intelligent  travellers, 
such  as  Kinglake  in  mid-nineteenth  century,  ig- 
nored even  the  existence  of  the  Bulgar  as  a  dis- 
tinct race  stock.  The  Serb,  the  Rouman,  the 
Greek,  the  Turk,  take  rank  for  perfection  of 
national  democracy  in  the  order  named,  and  that 
order  also  represents  the  degree  of  suppression 
suffered  by  their  cultures  and  civilizations.  On 
the  reflux  of  the  Turkish  inundation  the  Bulgar 
reappeared  a  Bulgar,  and  all  the  more  Bulgarian 
for  having  so  long  been  a  Greek  rayah  and  an 
Ottoman  subject ;  the  Serb  reappeared  as  the  most 
Slav  of  Slavs,  and  all  the  more  Slavonic  for  hav- 
ing been  a  Turk,  an  Austrian,  or  a  Hungarian,  ac- 
cording to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  time.  It  would 
seem  as  though  the  deeper  the  submergence  and 
the  more  sweeping  the  inundation  the  more  does 
anything  atrophied  or  alien  get  purged  out  of  the 
national  character,  leaving  only  the  efficient  and 
essential  elements.  The  virtues  of  Balkan  na- 
tionalities suggest  the  good  qualities  peculiar  to 
the  original  national  temperament,  but  deepened 
and  broadened ;  whereas  their  vices  seem  to  be 
the  general  evil  effects  of  their  temporary  subjec- 
tion. For  this  reason  perhaps  the  vices  of  the 
Balkan  nationalities  are  all  the  same  sort  of  ser- 
vile vices,  dissimilar  only  in  the  same  respects  that 
the  national  characters  are  different.  Thus  the 
Balkan  races,  like  all  subject  races,  are  cruel  to 
their  inferiors  with  a  cruelty  somewhat  different  in 
each  case.  The  cruelty  of  the  Slav  is  the  emo- 
tional cruelty  of  a  certain  class  of  poet  or  of  pork 
butcher.  That  of  the  Greek  is  the  logical  cruelty 
of  the  student  and  the  sweater.  That  of  the  Bul- 
gar is  the  moral  cruelty  of  the  diplomatist  and 
the  drover.  The  cruelty  of  the  Turk,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  that  of  a  ruling  class.  The  lovable  Turk- 
ish kindness  to  inferiors — domestic  animals  or 
Christian  rayahs — changes  in  a  moment  to  the 
cruelty  of  a  class  fighting  for  its  privileges.  Even 
in  an  English  landed  estate  or  in  an  American  fac- 
tory it  is  but  a  short  step  from  this  sort  of  kind- 
ness to  that  sort  of  cruelty.  Thus  also  the  Bal- 
kan races  have  all  the  servile  vices  of  crookedness 
in  dealing  with  superiors.  But  the  Greeks  will  be 
tortuous  from  mere  mental  exuberance  and  the 
joy  of  running  rings  round  a  slow-witted  adversary. 


The  Serb  will  be  crooked  from  natural  incapacity, 
because  he  loses  his  way  in  the  arbitrary  moral 
conventions  of  a  complicated  and  uncongenial 
civilization.  The  Bulgar  will  give  the  effect  of 
crookedness  from  a  love  of  working  out  for  him- 
self the  line  of  least  moral  resistance  towards  a 
goal  he  has  chosen  for  and  keeps  to  himself. 
Since  we  Anglo-Saxons  are  apt  to  adopt  a  moral 
standpoint  in  dealing  with  younger  nations — as 
we  do  with  our  so-called  social  inferiors — the  re- 
sult is  that  we  find  the  Bulgars  most  worthy  of  our 
approbation.  Indeed,  whether  the  standards  of 
modern  morality  by  which  they  are  tried  are  those 
of  Nietzsche  or  of  Kipling,  under  either  the  Bul- 
■  gars  will  be  almost  in  a  class  by  themselves,  as 
'supermen'  of  energy  and  efficiency  or  as  'legion- 
aries of  the  law.'  This,  it  is  argued,  is  partly  due 
to  their  original  national  character,  but  principally 
to  the  purgatory  of  oppression  through  which  the 
the  nation  has  passed.  If.  as  must  be  admitted,  a 
war  may  be  a  phase  of  progress  towards  the  emer- 
gence of  a  nationality  or  the  emancipation  of  a 
democracy,  then,  to  go  a  step  further  back,  a  war 
which  submerges  a  nationality  and  suppresses  pop- 
ular rights  may  serve  a  social  purpose  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  This  is  a  hard  saying,  but  if 
nations  that  have  sinned  are  to  be  saved,  they 
perhaps  can  only  be  saved  by  fire.  It  does  not 
follow  that  oppression  is  not  an  offence  or  that 
arbitrary  alien  rule  is  not  an  anomaly  for  which 
the  penalty  will  be  paid  by  the  party  responsible. 
The  partition  of  Poland  was  a  crime  for  which 
the  penalty  has  been  paid  and  is  being  paid  both 
by  the  accomplices,  at  the  price  of  a  century  of 
antagonisms  and  armaments,  and  by  the  civilization 
which  permitted  it,  in  the  loss  of  the  Polish  na- 
tional contribution  to  the  arts.  But  the  Poland 
that  succumbed  as  an  aristocracy  has  been  helped 
by  its  submergence  to  become,  as  it  is  now  be- 
coming, a  democracy.  A  people  must  be  a  de- 
mocracy before  it  can  be  a  nation;  though  it  can, 
as  Bulgaria  has  done,  combine  in  one  effort  the 
achievement  of  both  grades.  If  the  Bulgar,  as  he 
has  evolved,  is  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  the  least  an- 
tipathetic of  the  Balkan  nations,  the  Serb,  includ- 
ing the  Montenegrin,  has  emerged  so  intensely  a 
Slav  that  probably  the  Russian  people  alone  are 
capable  of  properly  appreciating  his  national  quali- 
ties. This,  quite  as  much  as  present-day  political 
considerations,  accounts  for  the  Russo-Scrb  rela- 
tionship which  has  been  a  ruling  factor  in  the 
late  Balkan  war  [of  1912-1013].  The  Greek  is 
most  sympathetic  to  the  Latin  races.  But  the 
general  mistake  which  western  peoples  are  apt 
to  make  in  judging  the  Balkan  peoples  is  that  of 
expecting  from  the  latter  the  principles  and  point 
of  view  peculiar  to  the  more  advanced  civilization 
of  the  West;  and  the  further  west  the  point  of 
observation  is  placed,  the  more  likely  is  this  mis- 
take to  be  made.  American  or  English  public 
opinion  is  harder  in  its  judgments  of  the  Balkan 
peoples,  even  as  it  is  warmer  in  its  sympathies, 
than  the  public  opinion  of  central  Europe." — Lord 
G.  Young,  Nationalism  and  ztar  in  the  Near  East, 
pp.  S-20.     See  Sebria:  1S04-1817. 

1804.  —  Serbian  insurrection.  —  Turks  ex- 
pelled. 

1807. — Serbs  offered  self-government  by  Tur- 
key.— Offer  refused. — Serbia  joined  Russia  in 
war  on  Turks.    See  Serbi.\:  1S04-1817. 

1812. — Russia,  attacked  by  Napoleon,  made 
peace  with  Turkey. — Serbia  left  to  face  Turks 
alone.    See  Russia:   1812   (June-September). 

1813. — Serbia  reconquered  by  Turkey.  See 
Serbia:   1804-1817. 

1817. — Serbs  win  partial  independence.  See 
Serbia:  1804-1817. 


824 


BALKAN  STATES,  1821 


San  Stefano 
Berlin    Treaty 


BALKAN  STATES,  1878-1891 


1821. — Greek  revolt.  See  Greece:  1821-1829. 
1829. — Treaty  of  Adrianople. — Greece  made 
independent  monarchy. — Rumania  won  subst?.n- 
tial  independence  from  Turkey. — Russia  gained 
from  Turkey  sole  rights  over  the  Danube  delta. 
See  Adriatic  question;  Turkey:    1826-1820. 

1856. — Treaty  of  Paris. — Rumanian  privileges 
guaranteed. — Moldavia  and  Wallachia  granted 
autonomy  under  Turkish  suzerainty.  See 
Rumania:  1856-1875;  Russia:  1854-1856. 

1858-1866. — Union  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 
— Legislative  union  formed  (1861).  See  Ru- 
mania: 1856-1875. 

Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern  succeeds 
Prince  Couza.    See  Turkey:  1861-1877. 

1864-1914. — Red  Cross  and  relief  work.  See 
Red  Cross:   1864-1914. 

1867. — Compromise  of  1867.  See  Jugo-Slavia: 
1848-1S67. 

1875-1878. — Bosnians  revolt  against  Austrian 
rule. — Russo-Turkish  war. — Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina control  by  Austria. — Independence  of 
Serbia. — War  of  Serbia  and  Bulgaria.  See 
Bulgaria:  1875-1878;  Jugo-Slavia:  1867-1917; 
Serbia:  1875-1878. 

1876-1878. — Revolt  in  Bosnia-Herzegovina. — 
Bulgarian  atrocities. — Powers  demand  reforms. 
— Serbian  war  with  Turkey. — Constantinople 
conference. — Russian  preparations  for  war.  See 
Turkey:   1861-1877. 

1877-1878. — Russo-Turkish  war. — Siege  of 
Plevna. — Serbian  full  independence.  See  Tur- 
key:  1877-1878. 

1877-1914. — Austrian  policy  with  Serbs.  See 
Jugo-Slavia:    1867-1914. 

1878.— Treaty   of   San   Stefano. — Berlin   Con- 
gress.— Turkish    territorial    losses. — "On   March 
3,  1878,  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  was  concluded 
between    Russia    and   Turkey,    and    its    provisions 
revolutionised    the    whole    situation    in    the    Near 
East.     The  independence  of  Roumania  and  Serbia 
was    definitely    secured ;    but    while    certain    terri- 
torial concessions  were  made  to  Serbia  and  Mon- 
tenegro,  Bessarabia   was   to   be   taken   from   Rou- 
mania,   who    only    received    the    Dobrudja    as    a 
sorry   exchange;    and    Bosnia-Herzegovina,   instead 
of  being  united  to  their  kinsmen  on  the  East,  were 
to  receive   an   autonomy   of   their   own.     But   the 
outstanding  feature  of  the  treaty  was  the  creation 
of   a   Big   Bulgaria,   under   the   suzerainty    of   the 
Sultan,  comprising  the  whole   of  Bulgaria  proper, 
Eastern  Roumelia  with  the  town  of  Philippopolis 
and  the  whole  cf  Macedonia,  to  the  very  gates  of 
Salonica,   and   extending  westwards  as  far  as  the 
Sar  Mountains,  Dibra  and  Koritza,  and  even  eat- 
ing  right   into   the  heart   of   Albania   to   the   west 
of  the  Lake  of  Ohrida.    The  Treaty  of  San  Stefano 
was    an    obsolutcly    impossible    arrangemenl    tor 
two  reasons.    In  the  first  place  it  was  an  essentially 
Slavonic  settlement,  which  neglected  or  did  grave 
injustice  to  the   non-Slav   races  of  the   Peninsula, 
the   Greeks,   the   Albanians   and   the   Roumanians. 
In  the  second  place  it  left  Turkey  with  frontiers 
such  as  defied  every  law  of  geography,  politics  or 
common  sense.     Autonomous  Bosnia  was  to  retain 
its  nominal  connection   with  Turkey;   but   a  nar- 
row, wholly  indefensible,   and  absurdly   unnatural 
corridor   through   the   Sandjak   of   Novibazar   was 
still  to  connect  Bosnia  with  the  plain  of  Kosovo 
and  to  separate  Serbia  from  Montenegro — a  cor- 
ridor infinitely   less  satisfactory  and  narrower  by 
two-thirds   than   that   which  was   actually   created 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.    Salonica  remained  Turk- 
ish, but  was  entirely  separated  from  its  hinterland. 
Novibazar,  Kosovo,  Albania,  Epirus  and  Thessaly 
were   left   in   Turkish    hands,   as   mere   fragments, 
unworkable  and  disconnected.    Adrianople  and  the 


valley  of  the  Arta  were  retained  by  the  Turks;  but 
the  whole  connection  between  Adrianople  and  Con- 
stantinople   was    directly    threatened    by    the    as- 
signment to  Bulgaria  of  an  enclave  of  territory  in- 
cluding Kirk  Kilisse  and  extending  south  to  within 
a  few  miles  of  the  river  Ergene,  near  Luleburgas. 
But  if  the  settlement  was  unjust  and  fatal  on  gen- 
eral grounds,  it  is  just  upon  Slavonic  grounds  that 
it  had   its  most   fatal  effect.     For  it  would  have 
aggrandised    Bulgaria    at    the    expense    of    all    her 
neighbours;  and  though  it  never  became  effective, 
its   memory   provided   that   tenacious  race   with   a 
programme  which  struck  deep  root  in  the  minds 
of   its  leaders,   and   has  ever  since   been   regarded 
by  them  as  their  excuse  and  justification  for  aim- 
ing   at    the    hegemony    of    the    Balkan   Peninsula. 
Meanwhile  this  settlement  displeased  and  alarmed 
the  Great  Powers  on  purely  selfish  grounds.     Brit- 
ain still  looked  upon  Russian  control  of  Constan- 
tinople  as   a   real   danger,   and   with   more   reason 
regarded  with  disfavour  the  clauses  which  seemed 
to  secure  to  Russia  complete  control   of  the   new- 
Bulgarian  administration  and  of  the  Prince's  elec- 
tion.    Public   opinion   in   England   was   infiuenced 
by  the  sentimental  appeals  of  Indian  Moslems  in 
favour  of  their  Turkish  co-religionists.     Moreover, 
Austria-Hungary   was  determined   to  have   Bosnia 
for  herself   and   was  highly   displeased   at   an   ar- 
rangement   which     would    have    placed     Bulgaria 
across   her    own    path    to    Salonica.      The    British 
Government   took   a   strong   line   in   demanding   a 
revision  of  the  Treaty,  and  was  backed  up  by  the 
mobilisation  of  Austria,  and  by  protests  from  the 
Greeks  and  other  rivals  of  Bulgaria.     Russia  was 
not  prepared  to  risk  an  extension  of  the  war  and 
consented  to  the  convocation  of  an  European  Con- 
gress,  which   in   due   course   met   in    Berlin   under 
the  presidency  of  Bismarck  as  the  'honest  broker' 
(June  13-July  13,   1878).     The  attitude  and  out- 
look of  the  Congress  were  at  once  revealed  in  its 
decision  not  to  admit  the  Greek  and  Roumanian 
delegates  to  direct  representation   or  to   the  vote, 
but   merely   to    allow   them   to   state   their   views. 
Thus  the  fate  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  for  the  next 
thirty    years    was    decided   by    the    Great   Powers 
over  the  heads,  and  generally  in   defiance  of  the 
wishes,  of  the  states  and  races  concerned.     If  the 
settlement   of  San   Stefano  was   unjust   to  all  but 
the  Slavs  and  did  not  draw  a  just  line  even  be- 
tween   those   Slavs   themselves,   the    settlement    oi 
Berlin   succeeded    in    being   equally   unjust   to    all. 
It  was  frankly  based  upon  force,  upon  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Great  Powers,  and  upon  the  negation 
of    the    rights   of    small    nations." — R.    W.   Seton- 
Wat.=on,   Rise   of  nationality   in   the   Balkans,   pp. 
107-ioq.— See  also  Turkey:   1878. — The  actual  re- 
sult of  the  war  was  by  no  means  so  disastrous  to 
Turkey  as  might  have  been  expected.    The  loss  of 
the  Balkan  principalities  had  long  been  inevitable, 
but   the   Sultan   was  still   permitted   to   retain   his 
suzerainty  over  Eastern  Rumelia. — See  also  World 
War:   Causes:   Indirect:   d,  2. 

1878. — Acquisition  of  Bosnia  by  Austria. — In- 
dependence of  Serbia,  Montenegro  and  Ru- 
mania.— Division  and  semi-independence  of 
Bulgaria.  See  Turkey:  1878;  World  War: 
Causes:   Indirect:   d,  1. 

1878-1891. — Proposed  Balkan  confederation 
and  its  aims. — "During  the  reaction  against  Russia 
which  followed  the  great  war  of  1878,  negotia- 
tions were  actually  set  on  foot  with  a  view  to 
forming  a  combination  of  the  Balkan  States  for 
the  purpose  of  resisting  Russian  aggression.  .  .  . 
Prince  Alexander  always  favoured  the  idea  of  a 
Balkan  Confederation  which  was  to  include  Tur- 
key; and  even  listened  to' proposals  on  the  part  of 
Greece,  defining  the  Bulgarian  and  Greek  spheres 


82s 


BALKAN  STATES,  1878-1891  J'u''°J'°^^nu"rZ..,  BALKAN  STATES,  1899-1901 


'  Chronic  Disorders 


of  influence  in  Macedonia.  But  the  revolt  of 
Eastern  Roumelia,  foUowed  by  the  Servo-Bulgarian 
war  and  the  chastisement  of  Greece  by  the  Pow- 
ers, provoked  so  much  bitterness  of  feelint;  among 
the  rival  races  that  for  many  years  nothing  more 
was  heard  of  a  Balkan  Confederation.  The  idea 
has  lately  been  revived  under  different  auspices 
and  with  somewhat  different  aims.  During  the 
past  sU  years  the  Triple  AUiance,  with  England, 
has,  despite  the  indifference  of  Prince  Bismarck, 
protected  the  Balkan  States  in  general,  and  Bul- 
garia in  particular  from  the  armed  intervention  of 
Russia.  It  has  also  acted  the  part  of  policeman 
in  preserving  the  peace  throughout  the  Peninsula, 
and  in  deterring  the  young  nations  from  any  dan- 
gerous indulgence  in  their  angry  passions.  The 
most  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  this 
period  has  been  the  extraordinary  progress  made 
by  Bulgaria.  Since  the  revolt  of  Eastern  Rou- 
nielia,  Bulgaria  has  been  treated  by  Dame  Europa 
as  a  naughty  child.  But  the  Bulgarians  have  been 
shrewd  enough  to  see  that  the  Centra!  Powers  and 
England  have  an  interest  in  their  national  inde- 
pendence and  consolidation;  they  have  recognised 
the  truth  that  fortune  favours  those  who  help 
themselves,  and  they  have  boldly  taken  their  own 
course,  while  carefully  avoiding  any  breach  of  the 
proprieties  such  as  might  again  bring  thera  under 
the  censure  of  the  European  Areopagus.  They 
ventured,  indeed,  to  elect  a  Prince  of  their  own 
choosing  without  the  sanction  of  that  august  con- 
clave; the  wiseacres  shook  their  heads,  and  prophe- 
sied that  Prince  Ferdinand's  days  in  Bulgaria 
might,  perhaps,  be  as  many  as  Prince  Alexander's 
years.  Yet  Prince  Ferdinand  remains  on  the 
throne,  and  is  now  engaged  in  celebrating  the 
fourth  anniversary  of  his  accession;  the  internal 
development  of  the  country  proceeds  apace,  and 
the  progress  of  the  Bulgarian  sentiment  outside  the 
country — in  other  words,  the  Macedonian  propa- 
ganda— is  not  a  whit  behind.  The  Bulgarians  have 
made  their  greatest  strides  in  Macedonia  since  the 
fall  of  Prince  Bismarck,  who  was  always  ready  to 
humour  Russia  at  the  expense  of  Bulgaria.  .  .  . 
What  happened  after  the  great  war  of  187S?  A 
portion  of  the  Bulgarian  race  was  given  a  nomi- 
nal freedom  which  was  never  expected  to  be  a 
reality;  Russia  pounced  on  Bessarabia.  England 
on  Cyprus,  Austria  on  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 
France  got  something  elsewhere,  but  that  is  an- 
other matter.  The  Bulgarians  have  never  forgiven 
Lord  Beaconsfield  for  the  division  of  their  race, 
and  I  have  seen  some  bitter  poems  upon  the  great 
Israelite  in  the  Bulgarian  tongue  which  many  Eng- 
lishmen would  not  care  to  hear  translated.  The 
Greeks  have  hated  us  since  our  occupation  of 
Cyprus,  and  firmly  believe  that  we  mean  to  take 
Crete  as  well.  The  Servians  have  not  forgotten 
how  Russia,  after  instigating  them  to  two  disas- 
trous wars,  dealt  with  their  claims  at 'San  Stefano; 
they  cannot  forgive  Austria  for  her  occupation  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  every  Servian  peas- 
ant, as  he  pays  his  heavy  taxes,  or  reluctantly  gives 
a  big  price  for  some  worthless  imported  article, 
feels  the  galling  yoke  of  her  fiscal  and  commer- 
cial tyranny.  Need  it  be  said  how  outraged  Bul- 
garia scowls  at  Russia,  or  how  Roumania,  who 
won  Plevna  for  her  heartless  ally,  weeps  for  her 
Bessarabian  children,  and  will  not  be  comforted? 
It  is  evident  that  the  Balkan  peoples  have  no 
reason  to  expect  much  benefit  from  the  next  great 
war,  from  the  European  Conference  which  will 
follow  it,  or  from  the  sympathy  of  the  Christian 
Powers.  .  .  .  What,  t'hen,  do  the  authors  of  the 
proposed  Confederation  suggest  as  its  ultimate  aim 
and  object  ?  The  Balkan  States  are  to  act  in- 
dependently of  the  foreign  Powers,  and  in  concert 


with  one  another.  The  Sick  Man's  [Turkey's]  in- 
heritance lies  before  them,  and  they  are  to  take 
it  when  an  opportunity  presents  itself.  They  must 
not  wait  for  the  great  Armageddon,  for  then  all 
may  be  lost.  If  the  Central  Powers  come  victo- 
rious out  of  the  conflict,  Austria,  it  is  believed,  will 
go  to  Salonika;  if  Russia  conquers,  she  will  plant 
her  standard  at  Stamboul,  and  practically  annex 
the  Peninsula.  In  cither  case  the  hopes  of  the 
young  nations  will  be  destroyed  forever.  It  is, 
therefore,  sought  to  extricate  a  portion  at  least 
of  the  Eastern  Question  from  the  tangled  web  of 
European  politics,  to  isolate  it,  to  deal  with  it 
as  a  matter  which  solely  concerns  the  Sick  Man 
and  his  immediate  successors.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  Sick  Man  may  be  induced  by  the  determined 
attitude  of  his  expectant  heirs  to  make  over  to 
them  their  several  portions  in  his  lifetime;  should 
he  refuse,  they  must  act  in  concert,  and  provide 
euthanasia  for  the  moribund  owner  of  Macedonia, 
Crete,  and  Thrace.  In  other  words,  it  is  beUeved 
that  the  Balkan  States,  if  once  they  could  come 
to  an  understanding  as  regards  their  claims  to 
what  is  left  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe, 
might  conjointly,  and  without  the  aid  of  any 
foreign  Power,  bring  such  pressure  to  bear  upon 
Turkey  as  to  induce  her  to  surrender  peaceably 
her  European  possessions,  and  to  content  herself 
henceforth  with  the  position  of  an  Asiatic  Power." 
— J.  D.  Bourchier,  A  Balkan  Confederation  {Fort- 
nightly Revieiv,  Sept.,  1891).— See  also  Bulgaria: 
1885-1886. 

1885. — In  September  Eastern  Rumelia  rose  in 
revolt.  Here  the  Sultan  was  anxious  to  intervene, 
but  owing  mainly  to  British  diplomatic  support 
of  Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria,  Turkish  action 
was  stayed.  Serbia  declared  war  on  Bulgaria  in 
November,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Bucharest  the 
real  independence  of  the  two  Bulgarias  was  con- 
firmed.    See  Serbia;    1S75-187S. 

1899-1901.— Condition  of  Balkan  States.— 
"The  States  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  ever  since 
the  practical  disruption  of  European  Turkey  after 
the  war  of  1877-78,  have  been  in  a  condition  of 
chronic  restlessness.  Those  who  desire  the  re- 
pose of  Europe  have  hoped  against  hope  that  the 
new  communities  which  were  founded  or  extended 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Ottoman  dominion  in  Europe 
would  be  able  and  willing  to  keep  the  peace 
among  themselves  and  to  combine  in  resisting  the 
intrusion  of  foreign  influences.  These  expectations 
have  been  too  frequently  disappointed.  The  law- 
lessness of  Bulgaria  and  the  unsettled  state  of 
Servia.  more  especially,  continue  to  constitute  a 
periodical  cause  of  anxiety  to  the  diplomacy  of 
Europe.  The  recent  murder  at  Bukharest  of  Pro- 
fessor Mihaileano,  a  Macedonian  by  birth  and  a 
Rumanian  by  extraction,  appears  to  be  a  shocking 
example  of  the  teaching  of  a  school  of  political 
conspirators  who  have  their  centre  of  operations 
at  Sofia.  These  persons  had  already  combined  to 
blackmail  and  terrorise  the  leading  Rumanian  resi- 
dents in  the  capital  of  Bulgaria,  where  the  most 
abominable  outrages  are  stated  to  have  been  com- 
mitted with  impunity.  Apparently,  they  have 
now  carried  the  war,  with  surprising  audacity,  into 
the  Rumanian  capital  itself.  Two  persons  marked 
out  for  vengeance  by  the  terrorists  of  Sofia  had 
previously  been  murdered  in  Bukharest,  according 
to  our  Vienna  Correspondent,  but  these  were  Bul- 
garians by  birth.  It  is  a  further  step  in  this  mis- 
chievous propaganda  that  a  Rumanian  subject,  the 
occupant  of  an  official  position  at  the  seat  of  the 
Rumanian  government,  should  be  done  to  death 
by  emissaries  from  the  secret  society  at  Sofia. 
His  crime  was  that,  born  of  Rumanian  parents  in 
Macedonia,  be  had  the  boldness  to  controvert  in 


826 


BALKAN  STATES,  1S99-1901     Balkan  League         BALKAN  STATES,  1912 


the  Press  the  claims  of  the  Bulgarians  to  obtain 
the  upper  hand  in  a  Turkish  province,  where 
Greeks,  Turks,  Bulsarians,  Albanians,  and  Serbs 
are  inextricably  mixed  up.  Professor  Mihailcano 
had  probably  very  Rood  reasons  for  coming  to  the 
conclusion  that,  whatever  may  be  the  evils  of  Ot- 
toman rule,  they  are  less  than  those  which  would 
follow  a  free  fight  in  the  Balkans,  ending,  it  may 
be,  in  the  ascendency  of  Bulgarian  ruffianism. 

"It  is  for  this  offence  that  M.  Mihaileano  suf- 
fered the  penalty  of  death  by  the  decree  of  a  secret 
tribunal,  and  at  the  hands  of  assassins  sent  out 
to  do  their  deadly  work  by  political  intriguers 
who  sit  in  safety  at  Sofia.  The  most  serious  as- 
pect of  the  matter,  however,  is  the  careless  and 
almost  contemptuous  attitude  of  the  Bulgarian 
Government.  The  reign  of  terror  at  Sofia  and 
the  too  successful  attempts  to  extend  it  to  Ru- 
mania have  provoked  remonstrances  not  only  from 
the  government  at  Bukharest,  but  from  some  of 
the  Great  Powers,  including  Austria-Hungary,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  .  .  .  There  is  only  too  much  rea- 
son to  fear,  even  now,  that  both  the  Bulgarian 
Government  and  the  ruler  of  the  Principality  are 
afraid  to  break  with  the  terrorists  of  Sofia.  Po- 
Utical  assassination  is  unfortunately  among  the 
traditions  of  the  Bulgarian  State,  but  it  has  never 
been  practised  with  such  frequency  and  impunity 
as  under  the  rule  of  Prince  Ferdinand.  .  .  .  His 
own  conduct  as  a  ruler,  coupled  with  the  lamen- 
table decline  of  the  spirit  of  Bulgarian  indepen- 
dence, which  seemed  to  be  vigorous  and  unflinch- 
ing before  the  kidnapping  of  Prince  Alexander, 
has  steadily  lowered  his  position.  The  Bulgarian 
agitation — to  a  large  extent  a  sham  one — for  the 
'redemption,'  as  it  is  called,  of  Macedonia  is  a 
safety-valve  that  relieves  Prince  Ferdinand  and 
those  who  surround  him  from  much  unpleasant 
criticism.  .  .  . 

"The  situation  in  the  Balkans  is  in  many  re- 
spects disquieting.  The  Bulgarian  agitation  for 
the  absorption  of  Macedonia  is  not  discouraged  in 
high  quarters.  The  hostility  of  the  Sofia  con- 
spirators to  the  Koutzo-Wallachs,  the  Rumanians 
of  Macedonia,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  latter, 
being  a  small  minority  of  the  population,  are 
ready  to  take  their  chance  of  equal  treatment 
under  Turkish  rule,  subject  to  the  supervision  of 
Europe,  rather  than  to  be  swallowed  up  in  an 
enlarged  Bulgaria,  dominated  by  the  passions  that 
now  prevail  in  the  Principality  and  that  have  been 
cultivated  for  obvious  reasons.  Russia,  it  is  be- 
lieved, has  no  wish  to  see  Bulgarian  aspirations 
realized,  and  would  miich  rather  keep  the  Prin- 
cipality in  a  state  of  expectant  dependence.  Ser- 
via  and  Greece  would  be  as  much  embarrassed  as 
Rumania  by  the  success  of  the  Bulgarian  propa- 
ganda, and  Austria-Hungary  would  regard  it  as  a 
grave  menace.  Of  course  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment could  not  be  expected  to  acquiesce  in  what 
would,  in  fact,  be  its  knell  of  doom.  ...  In 
Greece,  the  insubordination  in  certain  sections  of 
the  army  is  a  symptom  not  very  alarming  in  itself, 
but  unpleasantly  significant  of  latent  discontent. 
In  Turkey,  of  course,  the  recrudescence  of  the 
fanaticism  which  periodically  breaks  out  in  the 
massacres  of  the  Armenians  cannot  be  overlooked. 
A  more  unfortunate  time  could  not  be  chosen  for 
endeavouring  to  reopen  the  Eastern  question  by 
pressing  forward  the  Bulgarian  claim  to  Mace- 
donia. Nor  could  a  more  unfortunate  method 
be  adopted  of  presenting  that  claim  than  that  of 
the  terrorists  who  appear  to  be  sheltered  or 
screened  at  Sofia." — J.  D.  Bourchier  {London 
Times,  August  bc,  iqoo). — See  also  Bulgaria:  1875- 
1878  to  i8qs-i896;  Montenegro:  1389-1868  to 
1898;  Rumania:  1856-1875;  1866-1914. 


1903. — Turkish  rule  in  Macedonia. — Murz- 
steg  reform  program. — Young  Turk  movement. 

See  Macedonia:  20th  century. 

1903. — Alleged  promotion  of  revolt  in  Mace- 
donia.    See  Turkey:   1Q02-1903. 

1903. — Murder  of  King  Alexander  and  Queen 
Draga  of  Serbia.    See  Serbia:  1885-1903. 

1905. — Serbia-Croat  coalition. — Serbo-Bulga- 
rian  commercial  treaty.  See  Jugo-Slavia:  1867- 
1917. 

19O8. — Serbian  and  Austro-Hungarian  rela- 
tions.— Annexation  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina  by 
Austria-Hungary.  —  Pan-Serbism.  —  Relations 
with  Macedonians. — Turkish  treatment. — Race 
struggle  in  Macedonia.  See  Austria-Hungary: 
igoS-1909;  Jugo-Slavia:  1867-1917  and  Serbia: 
1903-1908;  Turkey:   1908. 

1908-1909. — Bulgarian  independence  recog- 
nized.   See  Bulgaria:  1908-1009. 

1910. — Montenegro  proclaimed  a  kingdom. 

1910-1911. — Insurrection  against  Turks.  See 
Turkey:  1910-1911. 

1912. — Balkan  League. — The  idea  of  a  Balkan 
confederation  aimed  at  Turkish  rule  in  the  penin- 
sula, dates  back  to  the  later  'seventies  of  last  cen- 
tury.  Mutual  distrust  and  jealousies  had  prevented 
the  fruition  of  the  idea,  and  it  fell  through  from  the 
sheer  impossibility    of   securing   the   essential   har- 
mony    among     the     Balkan     peoples    themselves. 
Turkish  rule  was  safe  so  long  as  the   discord  of 
centuries  continued.     How   those  differences  were 
temporarily  overcome  and  the  league  finally  came 
into  being;  how  it  speedily  and  almost  completely 
achieved  its  object  only  to  fall  apart  again,  forms 
one    of   the   political   romances    of   modern   times. 
The    prominent    part    played    by    James    David 
Bourchier    (died  January,   1921),  for  many  years 
Balkan    correspondent    of    the    London    Times.   Is 
thift  told  by  Colonel  Rankin  of  the  British  army: 
"Bourchier,   with   a   knowledge   of    the   conditions 
prevailing  in  Turkey  and  in  the  Balkans,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  at  the  councils  of  the  Great  Powers 
on  the  other,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  man 
living,    saw    that    things    must    go    from    bad    to 
worse.     The  end  would  be  the  extinction   of  the 
subject    nationalities.      All   hope    of    the    interven- 
tion of  the  Powers  had  gone  shipwreck.    Bourchier 
realised  that  the  only  remedy  was  a  combination 
of    the    free    nations,    kinsmen    of    the    oppressed 
peoples,  either  to  bring  such  pressure,  to  bear  on 
the  Young  Turks  as  to  induce  them  to  mitigate 
their  rule,  or,  if  they  resisted,  to  put  them  out  by 
force.     He  came  to  this  conclusion  at  the  end,  I 
believe,  of  1910.     He  did  not  want  an  immediate 
war;  the  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  apply  pres- 
sure.    But   there   was   little   probability   that   this 
would  succeed.     The  Young  Turks  were  elated  by 
success  and  by  the  praise  which  their  admirers  in 
Western  Europe  had  lavished  on  them.    They  had 
spent  all  the  money  which  they  could  obtain  from 
their  financial   friends  or  by   taxation   in   creating 
a  powerful  army,  and  could  snap  their  fingers  at 
the    little    States;    so    the    programme    of    pacific 
remonstrance  seemed  to  end  in  a  cul-de-sac.     So 
Bourchier  turned  his  attention  to   the  other  pos- 
sible solution  of  the  problem.     What  forces  could 
the  four  States  of  the  Balkans — Bulgaria,  Servia, 
Greece,  and   Montenegro — command   for  the  pur- 
poses  of   bringing   pressure,   of   one   kind    or    an- 
other,  to  bear   upon   the   oppressors   of   their   co- 
religionists and  kinsmen?    The  Bulgars  were  ready; 
their   army   was  excellent,   reorganised   by   Savoff, 
who  had  seen  the  evil  effects  on  other  armies  of 
politics   in   cafes,   and   had   inspired   in   his   junior 
officers  an  enthusiasm   for  hard   work   which   has 
borne  its  due  fruit.    The  Bulgars  could  put  250,000 
men  in  the  field  on  the  day  of  mobilisation.     The 


827 


BALKAN  STATES,  1912  '''Bal^aTuaZe'^      BALKAN  STATES,  1912 


Servian  army  had  improved  since  the  Bulgars 
hammered  it;  it  could  provide  at  least  another 
150,000.  The  Greek  army  had  had  latterly  the 
advantage  of  the  instruction  of  French  officers, 
English  officers  had  been  reorganising  the  fleet, 
and  their  Averof  was  a  bigger  and  better  man-of- 
war  than  any  the  Turks  possessed.  Little  Mon- 
tenegro could  certainly  put  up  a  gallant  fight. 
.  .  .  Here  was  the  germ  of  the  Balkan  League — 
the  first  cause  of  the  war  which  drove  the  Turks 
out  of  Europe  after  nearly  five  hundred  years  of 
misrule — a  calculation  si;nmering  in  the  brain  of 
an  unofficial  Irishman  who.  for  love  of  them,  had 
given  half  his  life  to  the  service  of  the  Balkan 
peoples.  So  it  came  about  that  during  the  winter 
of  1910-11  Bourchier  had  long  talks  with  M. 
Venezelos,  the  Greek  Prime  Minister  [who  was 
the  moving  spirit  of  the  plan],  and  the  two  men 
discussed  the  scheme  of  a  defensive  and  eventually 
offensive  alliance  between  the  Balkan  States 
against  the  Turk.  ...  At  last,  one  day  in  May, 
igii,  the  decisive  step  was  taken.  .  .  .  Venezelos 
told  Bourchier  that  he  had  finally  approved  the 
draft  treaty  of  an  alliance  with  Bulgaria  against 
Turkey.  ...  As  before  narrated,  the  Greek  pro- 
posals were  sent  to  Bulgaria  in  May,  1911.  Some 
months  later,  Bourchier  went  to  Sofia  and  put 
his  arguments  in  favour  of  the  alliance  before 
King  Ferdinand  and  M.  Gueshoff.  Just  so,  nearly 
a  year  before,  he  had  persuaded  Venezelos  and 
King  George  [of  Greece]  to  take  the  first  step 
towards  the  formation  of  the  Balkan  League,  so 
again  in  Sofia  he  persuaded  the  Bulgarian  Gov- 
ernment to  fall  into  line  with  Greece.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1912,  he  himself  brought  back  to  Athens  from 
Sofia  a  reply  favourable  to  Venezelos'  proposal  of 
a  defensive  alliance.  Up  to  that  moment  only  five 
people  had  an  inkling  of  what  was  going  on, 
namely,  King  George  of  Greece  and  M.  Venezelos, 
King  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria  and  M.  Gueshoff,  and 
Bourchier.  After  Bourchier's  return  to  Athens  ne- 
gotations  were  put  on  a  diplomatic  basis,  and  the 
Greek  Minister  at  Sofia  was  informed  of  the  al- 
liance and  instructed  to  conduct  the  negotiations 
at  the  Bulgarian  capital.  That  made  six  people  m 
the  plot.  February  and  March  passed;  the  ne- 
gotiations went  on  in  absolute  secrecy ;  in  April 
a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  between  Greece  and 
Bulgaria.  Bourchier  had  not  left  Servia  out  of 
the  hunt.  At  the  end  of  December,  iqii,  he  went 
to  Belgrade,  and  broached  his  plan  to  M.  Milo- 
vanovitch,  the  Foreign  Minister.  He  urged  on 
him  the  idea  of  a  combination  between  the  Bal- 
kan States — a  defensive  combination  to  protect 
and  maintain  the  rights  of  the  Christian  nation- 
alities in  Turkey.  Milovanovitch  was  favourable 
in  principle,  but  he  pointed  out  the  great  risks 
that  Servia  would  run — in  the  first  place  from 
Austria,  if  that  Power  got  wind  of  the  project, 
and  in  the  second  from  Turkey  herself,  who  could 
kill  Servian  commerce  by  closing  the  Salonika 
route.  But  M.  Milovanovitch,  who  had  already 
had  a  secret  interview  with  M.  Gueshoff,  was 
sound  on  the  question,  and  Bourchier  left  him, 
not  doubting  the  ultimate  issue,  and  went  back 
to  Bulgaria  to  inform  his  friends  there  how  matters 
stood  in  Belgrade.  In  due  course  the  Serbo-Bul- 
gar  Treaty  was  signed  a  week  or  two  before  the 
Bulgar-Greek  Treaty.  Montenegro  had  no  treaty 
with  cither  Bulgaria  or  Greece,  but  there  was  a 
definitive  treaty  between  her  and  Servia.  Bour- 
chier went  back  to  England  in  July,  1912,  and  at 
that  time  the  Balkan  League  was  practically 
formed,  although  further  details  and  military  con- 
ventions were  agreed  on  a  little  later.  ...  In  the 
early  autumn  things  got  rapidly  worse  between 
the  Turks  and  Bulgarians  on  the  one  hand,  and 

8 


the  Turks  and  the  Servians  and  Montenegrins  on 
the  other.  There  was  a  frontier  dispute,  followed 
by  a  series  of  massacres  which  did  nothing  to  al- 
leviate the  situation.  But  matters  did  not  come 
to  a  head  till  September,  when  the  assembling  of 
a  large  Turkish  force  at  Adrianople  caused  the 
fear  of  invasion  to  spread  throughout  Bulgaria. 
At  last,  on  September  30,  the  four  States  mobil- 
ised."— R.  Rankin,  Inner  history  of  the  Balkan 
war,  pp.  11-15. — See  also  E.astefln  question. — 
"What  is  known  as  the  'Berchtold  Proposition'  was 
an  ambiguous  appeal  made  to  Europe  in  August 
1912  (by  the  Power  [.\ustria]  that  in  igoS  took 
from  Turkey,  Bosnia-Herzegovina)  to  assist  the 
Ottoman  Government  in  applying  a  policy  of 
progressive  decentralization  in  favour  of  the  Mace- 
donian nationalities,  and  to  urge  upon  the  Balkan 
States  a  peace-policy.  This  proposal,  made  while 
the  French  Prime  Minister,  M.  Poincare,  was  in 
Russia  conferring  with  the  Tsar's  Government, 
aroused  suspicion  in  Europe.  It  was  generally 
regarded  as  an  attempt  to  steal  a  march  on  Rus- 
sia and  to  checkmate  the  policy  of  the  Triple  En- 
tente. Yet  the  good  faith  of  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  Government  would  seem  to  have  been  demon- 
strated by  the  subsequent  course  of  events.  Count 
Berchtold's  initiative  was  perhaps  one  of  the  ef- 
ficient causes,  it  was  not  necessarily  the  final  cause, 
of  the  Balkan  Crusade.  The  Balkan  States, 
crushed  between  the  Young  Turks  and  Austria- 
Hungary,  fearing  both  the  growth  of  Ottoman  im- 
perialism and  the  descent  of  .'\ustria  to  Salonica, 
had — by  191 1 — achieved  their  miraculous  union 
under  the  hegemony  of  the  Bulgarian  tsar.  Mean- 
while the  prolongation  of  the  Turco-Italian  war 
aroused  their  dormant  ambition.  .  .  .  Count 
Berchtold  formulated  his  famous  proposal  calcu- 
lated to  forestall  and  avert  just  such  irreparable 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Balkan  League  as  took 
place  in  October  1912,  when  the  four  Balkan 
States  declared  war." — W.  M.  Fullerton,  Problems 
of  power,  p.  327. — See  also  Bulgarw.  1912:  Serbo- 
BuLCARUx  p.icr;  Concert  of  Europe:  History  and 
meaning  of  term;  Italy:  1912-1914. 

1912. — German  interest  in  Balkans. — Opposi- 
tion of  Balkan  States  to  war.  See  Germany: 
1912:  Balkan  and  Asia  Minor  interests;  and  Inter- 
national: 1912;  World  War:  Diplomatic  back- 
ground:  71   (iv). 

1912. — First  Balkan  war. — Bulgaria  allied 
with  Serbia,  Greece  and  Montenegro  declared 
war  on  Turkey. — "What  was  the  occasion  of  the 
war  between  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  states  in 
1912?  The  most  general  answer  that  can  oe 
given  to  that  question  is  contained  in  the  one 
word  Macedonia.  Geographically  Macedonia  lies 
between  Greece,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria.  Ethno- 
graphically  it  is  an  extension  of  their  races.  And 
if,  as  Matthew  Arnold  declared,  the  primary  im- 
pul.se  both  of  individuals  and  of  nations  is  the 
tendency  to  expansion,  Macedonia  both  in  virtue 
of  its  location  and  its  population  was  fore-ordained 
to  be  a  magnet  to  the  emancipated  Christian  na- 
tions of  the  Balkans.  Of  course  the  expansion  of 
Greeks  and  Slavs  meant  the  expulsion  of  Turks. 
Hence  the  Macedonian  question  was  the  quintes- 
sence of  the  \ear  Eastern  Question.  But  apart 
altogether  from  the  expansionist  ambitions  and  the 
racial  sympathies  of  their  kindred  in  Bulgaria, 
Servia.  and  Greece,  the  population  of  Macedonia 
had  the  same  right  to  emancipation  from  Turkish 
domination  and  oppression  as  their  brethren  in 
these  neighboring  states.  The  Moslems  had  for- 
feited their  sovereign  rights  in  Europe  by  their 
unutterable  incapacity  to  govern  their  Christian 
subjects.  Had  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  sanctioned, 
in.stead    of   undoing   the   Treaty    of   San   Stefano, 

28 


BALKAN  STATES,  1912      First  Balkan   War       BALKAN  STATES,  1912-1913 


the  whole  of  Macedonia  would  have  come  under 
Bulgarian  sovereignty ;  and  although  Servia  and 
especially  Greece  would  have  protested  against  the 
Bulgarian  absorption  of  their  Macedonian  breth- 
ren (whom  they  had  always  hoped  to  bring  under 
their  own  jurisdiction  when  the  Turk  was  ex- 
pelled), the  result  would  certainly  have  been  bet- 
ter for  all  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Macedonia 
as  well  as  for  the  Mohammedans  (who  number 
800,000  persons  or  nearly  one  third  of  the  en- 
tire population  of  Macedonia).  As  it  was  these 
people  were  all  doomed  to  a  continuation  of  Turk- 
ish misgovernment,  oppression,  and  slaughter. 
The  Treaty  of  Berlin  indeed  provided  for  reforms, 
but  the  Porte  through  diplomacy  and  delay  frus- 
trated all  the  efforts  of  Europe  to  have  them  put 
into  effect.  For  fifteen  years  the  people  waited 
for  the  fulfillment  of  the  European  promise  of  an 
amelioration  of  their  condition,  enduring  mean- 
while the  scandalous  misgovernment  of  Abdul 
Hamid  II.  But  after  1893  revolutionary  societies 
became  active.  The  Internal  Organization  was  a 
local  body  whose  programme  was  'Macedonia  for 
the  Macedonians.'  But  both  in  Bulgaria  and 
Greece  there,  were  organized  societies  which  sent 
insurgent  bands  into  Macedonia  to  maintain  and 
assert  their  respective  national  interests.  This  was 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  war  between  Turkey  and 
Greece  in  1807,  and  the  reverses  of  the  Greeks  in 
that  war  inured  to  the  advantage  of  the  Bulga- 
rian propaganda  in  Macedonia.  Servian  bands 
soon  after  began  to  appear  on  the  scene.  These 
hostile  activities  in  Macedonia  naturally  produced 
reprisals  at  the  hands  of  the  Turkish  authorities. 
In  one  district  alone  100  villages  were  burned, 
over  8.000  houses  destroyed,  and  60,000  peasants 
left  without  homes  at  the  beginning  of  winter. 
Meanwhile  the  Austrian  and  Russian  governments 
intervened  and  drew  up  elaborate  schemes  of  re- 
form, but  their  plans  could  not  be  adequately  en- 
forced and  the  result  was  failure.  The  Austro- 
Russian  entente  came  to  an  end  in  laoS,  and  in 
the  same  year  England  joined  Russia  in  a  project 
aiming  at  a  better  administration  of  justice  and 
involving  more  effective  European  supervision. 
Scarcely  had  this  programme  been  announced 
when  the  revolution  under  the  Young  Turk  party 
broke  out  which  promised  to  the  world  a  regenera- 
tion of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  [See  Turkey: 
IQ03-1907.]  Hopeful  of  these  constitutional  re- 
formers of  Turkey,  Europe  withdrew  from  Mace- 
donia and  entrusted  its  destinies  to  its  new 
master.  Never  was  there  a  more  bitter  disappoint- 
ment. If  autocratic  Sultans  had  punished  the 
poor  Macedonians  with  whips,  the  Young  Turks 
flayed  them  with  scorpions.  Sympathy,  indigna- 
tion, and  horror  conspired  with  nationalistic  as- 
pirations and  territorial  interests  to  arouse  the 
kindred  populations  of  the  surrounding  states. 
And  in  October,  iqi2,  war  was  declared  against 
Turkey  by  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro,  and 
Greece." — J.  G.  Schurman.  Balkan  wars  (igi2- 
iQi,3),  pp.  30-32. — See  also  TtrRKEv:    1012-1913. 

1912.— War  opened  by  Montenegro.— The 
smallest  member  of  the  Balkan  Lcauue  started  the 
conflict  on  its  own  account,  before  the  others  were 
ready. — "On  Wednesday,  October  o,  the  astound- 
ing news  of  Montenegro's  declaration  of  war  took 
every  one  aback,  especially  as  the  earlier  press 
telegrams  had  announced  Turkey's  decision  to  in- 
troduce into  Macedonia  the  reforms  sanctioned  by 
the  law  of  1880,  which  would  at  least  afford  a  con- 
venient basis  for  negotiation.  The  diplomatic 
corps  was  furious  and  did  not  hesitate  to  term  it 
an  insult  to  the  Great  Powers.  Relatively,  how- 
ever, it  created  little  excitement  in  the  capital 
[Belgrade],    although    a    few    unscrupulous   news- 


papers did  a  thriving  business  by  selling  extra 
editions  which  did  not  contain  any  additional 
news.  .  .  .  On  the  next  day  it  became  more  and 
more  apparent  that  the  Montenegrin  coup  de  force 
had  created  a  serious  flutter  in  diplomatic  dove- 
cots, and  no  secret  was  made  of  the  fact  that 
every  one  suspected  Russia  of  having  egged  on 
King  Nicholas.  The  chief  argument  given  as  proof 
of  Russian  support  was  that  Nicholas  declared 
war  with  such  indecent  haste  in  order  to  prevent 
the  Russian  and  Austrian  ministers  presenting  the 
pacific  advice  of  their  governments  in  Cettigne,  as 
they  did  on  the  same  day  in  Sofia,  Belgrade  and 
Athens.  .  .  .  From  October  11  events  moved  apace, 
and  it  became  more  and  more  apparent,  even  to 
the  dullest,  that  any  intervention  of  the  Powers 
would  now  come  too  late.  .  .  .  The  next  step  was 
the  presentation  to  the  Turkish  Ministers  in  the 
four  capitals  of  the  allied  States  of  a  Note  dic- 
tating the  reforms  which  must  be  applied  by  the 
Sublime  Porte  to  improve  the  conditions  of  the 
Christian  population  in  the  vilayets  of  Mace- 
donia and  Adrianople." — Special  correspondent, 
Balkan  war  drama,  London,  1913,  pp.  66-68. — 
"Nor  was  it,  perhaps,  unfitting  that  the  Balkan 
country,  over  whose  rude  crags  the  Crescent  had 
never  flown,  should  be  the  champion  to  throw 
down  the  glove  of  defiance  in  that  death-struggle 
which  was  to  free  the  Balkans  from  the  Turk. 
Pretexts  for  war  were  not  wanting,  for  the  nor- 
mal state  of  life  upon  the  frontier  between  Mon- 
tenegro and  Albania  is  one  of  disguised  warfare. 
A  Montenegrin  post  had  been  besieged  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  apologies  of  the  Turkish  Minister 
at  Cettigne  were  not  accepted.  Nothing  further 
was  needed  to  set  alight  the  conflagration.  War 
against  Turkey  was  declared,  and  at  once  every 
Montenegrin  sprang  to  arms." — R,  Rankin,  Inner 
history  of  the  Balkan  war,  p.  160. — See  also  Mon- 
tenegro:   1912-1913. 

1912-1913. — Entrance  of  Bulgaria,  Serbia  and 
Greece. — "Turkey  was  attacked  on  four  sides  at 
the  same  time,  as  the  movements  of  the  Allies 
were  well  coordinated.  The  Montenegrins  in- 
vaded .'\lbania ;  the  Serbians,  Northern  Macedonia  ; 
the  Bulgarians,  Thrace;  and  the  Greeks,  Southern 
Macedonia.  General  Savoff,  with  an  army  of  three 
hundred  thousand  Bulgarians,  captured  Kirk-Kil- 
issch.  He  then  engaged  the  enemy  at  the  great 
Battle  of  Lule  Burgas  (October  27  to  November 
2),  where  a  Turkish  army  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  was  completely  routed  by  the  Bul- 
garians, who  displayed  great  skill  and  courage. 
The  Turks  were  driven  to  seek  refuge  behind  the 
fortress  of  Tchatalja,  which  barred  the  way  to 
Constantinople.  [Behind  the  Tchatalja  lines  the 
Turks  were  strongly  intrenched  and  in  uninter- 
rupted communication  with  Constantinople.]  The 
Serbians,  too,  won  notable  successes  in  the  western 
field.  They  occupied  Prishtina,  Novi  Bazaar,  and 
Monastir;  and  on  November  28  they  captured  the 
important  seaport  of  Durazzo.  The  Greeks  in- 
vaded Macedonia  from  the  south;  and,  after  a 
series  of  victories,  they  laid  siege  to  Saloniki, 
which  surrendered  on  November  8.  The  Greek 
navy  did  notable  service  by  blockading  Turkish 
ports  and  by  capturing  many  islands  in  the 
JEgean."  On  November  14,  1912,  simultaneous 
proposals  with  a  view  to  mediation  were  made  to 
the  Balkan  States  by  representatives  of  the  Great 
Powers.  At  Sofia,  Belgrade,  and  Athens  the  gov- 
ernments agreed  to  take  the  matter  into  considera- 
tion. At  Cettigne  the  King's  representative  de- 
clared that  Montenegro  could  not  now  consent  to 
an  armistice  except  subject  to  the  unconditional 
surrender  of  Skutari.  "At  the  instance  of  Sir  Ed- 
ward Grey,  the  English  Foreign  Minister,  an  ar- 


829 


BALKAN  STATES,  1912-1913 


Second 
Balkan  War 


BALKAN  STATES,  1913 


mistice  preliminary  to  peace  was  signed  in  Lon- 
don on  December  3,  1012.  The  armistice,  how- 
ever, accomplished  nothing,  for  Turkey  refused  to 
surrender  Adrianople  to  Bulgaria  and  the  .^i^gean 
Islands  to  Greece.  HostiUties  were  resumed  early 
in  February  of  the  following  year.  The  Greeks 
captured  Janina,  and  a  combined  army  of  Serbs 
and  Bulgarians  forced  their  way  into  Adrianople. 
Scutari,  an  important  town  in  Albania,  was  in- 
vested by  an  army  of  Montenegrins,  who  con- 
tinued to  besiege  it  even  after  a  second  armistice 
was  made  to  negotiate  a  peace.  It  fell  on  April 
23,  igi3.  Representatives  of  the  belligerent  na- 
tions met  in  London,  where,  on  May  30,  IQ13  they 
concluded  peace.  Turkey  was  practically  ousted 
from  Europe,  as  she  was  compelled  to  cede  to  the 
Allies  all  her  European  territory  except  Constan- 
tinople and  the  adjacent  region,  which  lay  be- 
tween the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  line  connecting 
Midia  on  the  Black  Sea  with  Enos  on  the  .^^^gean. 
Crete  was  given  to  Greece.  The  status  of  the 
islands  in  the  ^gean  and  that  of  Albania  were 
left  for  a  later  decision  " — J.  S  Schapiro,  Modern 
and  contemporary  European  history,  pp.  646-647. 
— "Kirk-Kilisse  marks  the  end  of  an  epoch,  the 
Bismarckian,  and  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  not 
merely  of  European,  but  of  world  history.  Thirty- 
nine  years  before  the  discovery  of  America  the 
Turks  took  Constantinople.  Four  hundred  and 
fifty-nine  years  later  Turkey  virtually  ceased  to 
be  a  European  power.  Although,  in  consequence 
of  Bulgarian  treason  to  the  cause  of  Balkan  Unity, 
Turkey  ultimately  recovered  Adrianople  from 
which  she  had  been  driven,  she  has,  in  reality, 
been  thrust  back  info  Asia  by  a  military  coalition 
of  the  small  Slav,  States  This  is  the  first  result 
of  the  Balkan  War  of  tot 2.  .  .  The  VV'ar  has  put 
an  end  to  the  dream  of  Catherine  II:  the  road  to 
Byzantium  is  closed  to  Russia.  At  the  same  time 
the  enforced  concentration  of  the  Turks  in  Asia 
will  oblige  Russia  to  exercise  special  vigilance  in 
the  region  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian, 
and  particularly  in  her  sphere  of  influence  in  Ar- 
menia. But  while  Russia  has  been  arrested  in 
her  overland  march  to  the  Middle  Sea.  Austria 
has  been  arrested  as  well,  and  Germany  also:  a 
new  Slav  empire,  a  potential  United  States  of 
Balkany.  is  taking  the  place  left  vacant  by  the 
Ottomans,  closing  the  road  to  Salonica,  and  the 
Pan-German  hopes  of  eventually  making  Trieste 
an  integral  part  of  the  national  patrimony  of 
Greater  Germany  have  thus  been  dissipated." — 
W  M.  Fullerton,  Problems  of  power,  pp.  333-334 
(London,  1014). — See  also  Bulcarm:  igi2:  First 
Balkan  War;  Greece:  IQ12 ;  Serbu:  1909-1913; 
World  W.^r:   Causes:   Indirect:   d,  3. 

1912-1913.— Effect  of  wars  on  England,  Ger- 
many and  Austria. — London  conference.  See 
World  W.ar:  Diplomatic  background:  71  (viii); 
and  (ix.) 

1913. — Second  Balkan  war. — Serbo-Bulgarian 
quarrel. — Break-up  of  League. — Bulgarian  de- 
feat and  losses. — "By  the  Treaty  of  London,  Bul- 
garia had  gained  not  only  the  much-coveted  terri- 
tories in  Macedonia,  but  nearly  the  whole  of 
Thrace,  and  it  was  to  be  left  to  the  Powers  to  lay 
down  the  frontier  between  the  extreme  points  of 
Enos  and  of  Midia,  which  was  to  determine  how 
near  she  was  to  be  brought  to  Gallipoli,  to  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  to  Constantinople  Servia,  on 
the  othi>r  hand,  had  profited  but  little  by  the 
war.  The  jealousy  of  Austria  and  of  Italy  had 
excluded  her  from  the  .Adriatic,  which  she  could 
only  reach  under  conditions  which  made  her  in 
fact  if  not  in  name  the  humble  servant  of  Mon- 
tenegro and  of  .Mbania;  her  gains  in  the  Sanjak 
with  its  bleak  pasture   lands  would   have   to   be 


shared  with  Montenegro;  whilst  those  in  Kossovo 
and  in  old  Servia  neither  gave  her  a  direct  access 
to  the  seaboard  of  the  /Egean  nor  provided  her 
with  any  compensation  for  the  blood  and  treasure 
which  she  had  expended  for  Bulgaria  m  Thrace. 
....  In  short,  by  the  Treaty  of  London  the  sole 
Power  which  had  gained  far  more  than  could 
have  been  anticipated  even  by  the  wildest  dreamers 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  was  Bulgaria,  and 
those  gains  she  had  to  a  great  e.xtent  made  with 
the  help  of  her  .Allies.  Yet,  of  all  the  Allied 
Powers,  Bulgaria  was  the  only  one  which  showed 
herself  unreasonable.  The  Bulgarians  ignored  the 
sacrifices  of  their  .'\llies,  and  held  only  to  their 
ethnographical  claims,  real  or  pretended.  .  .  .  But 
Servia  held,  and  probably  rightly,  that  as  she  had 
been  cut  off  from  the  .Adriatic,  and  as  the  war  had 
been  prolonged  for  four  months  so  as  to  enable 
Bulgaria  to  acquire  .Adrianople  at  the  cost  of 
Servian  blood,  she  was  entitled  to  a  revision  of 
these  arrangements  [as  made  in  the  Treaty  of 
March  13.  iqi;].  especially  as  much  of  the  dis- 
puted territory,  for  instance,  Prilip  and  Monastir, 
was  already  held  by  Ser\'ian  troops.  This  revision 
Bulgaria  refused  to  grant  mainly  upon  the  grounds 
that  Servia  had  not  been  called  upon  to  give  her 
the  military  support  in  Western  Thrace  which  had 
been  provided  for  by  the  militarv"  convention.  .  .  . 
In  both  Servia  and  in  Bulgaria  the  war  fever  was 
rising.  .  .  .  Greece,  Montenegro,  and  Servia  ac- 
cepted, moreover,  without  reserve,  the  invitation 
to  the  Conference  of  Prime  Ministers  at  St.  Peters- 
burg [Petrograd] ;  Bulgaria  alone  held  back  on  the 
pretext  that  she  wished  to  submit  the  questions 
at  issue  to  the  arbitration  of  the  six  Great  Pow- 
ers, and  not  to  that  of  those  of  the  Triple  En- 
tente alone.  .  .  .  Servia,  on  June  22,  rejected  the 
Bulgarian  proposals,  and  suggested  that  the  origi- 
nal Treaty  should  be  torn  up  and  a  newer  and 
wider  basis  created  for  Russian  arbitration.  .  .  . 
In  vain  the  Great  Powers  made  representations 
both  at  Belgrade  and  Sofia  to  induce  the  disputants 
to  submit  to  arbitration:  the  military  element  was 
too  strong  to  be  disregarded." — R.  Rankin.  Inner 
history  of  the  Balkan  war.  pp.  524-526,  529. 
— "A  second  Balkan  war  broke  out  in  July,  igiSv 
this  time  between  Bulgaria  and  her  erstwhile  al- 
lies. Hostile  armies  began  to  converge  on  Bul- 
garia from  three  directions,  Serbians  and 
Montenegrins  from  the  west  [see  Monte- 
negro: 1912-1913],  Greeks  from  the  south  [see 
Greece:  1913:  Second  Balkan  War],  and  Ruma- 
nians from  the  south.  Several  battes  were  fought 
in  which  the  Bulgarians  were  defeated  Frightful 
atrocities  were  committed  on  both  sides,  who  now 
hated  each  other  more  than  they  hated  the  Turks. 
The  latter,  taking  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
among  their  foe?,  reopened  hostilities  and  recap- 
tured .Adrianople  from  the  Bulgarians.  At  the 
instance  of  .Austria  the  Second  Balkan  War  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest. 
which  was  concluded  on  .August  lo,  1913.  Bul- 
garia was  shorn  of  nearly  all  her  conquests.  .  .  . 
By  the  Treaty  of  Constantinople  (Sept.  29,  1913) 
between  Turkey  and  Bulgaria,  the  former  doubled 
the  European  territorj-  left  to  her  by  the  Treaty 
of  London,  as  Adrianople  and  Eastern  Thrace  were 
given  back  to  the  Sultan." — J.  S  Schapiro.  Modern 
and  contemporary  European  history,  p.  648. — 
Rumania  had  remained  neutral  during  the  first 
Balkan  war.  When  the  Serbo-Bulcarian  dispute 
became  acute,  a  significant  communication  from 
Bucharest  appeared  in  a  Vienna  journal  stating 
that  Rumania  would  not  remain  neutral  in  the 
event  of  another  war:  "Any  government  which 
should  remain  inactive  during  a  new  Balkan  war 
would  be  swept  away  by  the  force  of  public  opin- 


830 


BALKAN  STATES,  1913 


Aftermath   of 
Balkan    Wars 


BALKAN   STATES,  1913-1914 


ion."  After  the  defeat  of  Bulgaria,  Rumania  took 
from  that  country  a  large  strip  of  territory  on  the 
Black  sea. — See  also  Bulgaria:  1913:  Second  Bal- 
kan war;  Pan-Turanism. 

That  the  Balkan  situation  was  fraught  with 
danger  for  the  peace  of  Europe  was  vividly  re- 
vealed after  the  assassination  of  the  King  of  the 
Hellenes  on  March  iji.  loij,  who  was  struck 
down  at  Salonika,  which  he  had  won  for  Greece. — 
"But  whilst  the  heirs  to  the  Bulgarian  and  Servian 
thrones  were  kneeling  in  homage  to  a  monarch,  of 
whom  even  the  Turkish  press  spoke  with  the 
courtesy  due  to  a  chivalrous  foe,  and  whilst  the 
funeral  chants  were  sounding  through  the  flower- 
decked  Cathedral  at  Athens,  the  wranglings  of  the 
Great  Powers  continued  till,  suddenly,  Europe 
started  back  appalled  when  an  article  in  The  Times 
and  a  speech  by  Sir  Edward  Grey  raised  the  cur- 


.  Balkan  wars  of  1912-1913  as  the  progenitors  of 
the  vastly  greater  struggle  which  followed  a  year 
later.  The  Eastern  question,  which  involved  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  was  merely  a  peculiar  and  ag- 
gravated form  of  the  European  question — the 
tradition  whereby  nations  regulated  their  affairs 
by  dominance  within  and  competition  without. 
This  was  especially  apparent  in  Central  and  East- 
ern Europe,  where  the  three  empires — Russia,  Ger- 
many and  Austria-Hungary — formed,  as  it  were,  a 
triangle  of  reaction.  With  the  German-Austrian 
alliance  of  1879 — "the  policy  of  the  Drang  nofh 
Osten  reached  its  full  stature,  and  the  breach  with 
Russia  steadily  widened.  Germany,  working 
through  Austria-Hungary,  wished  to  drive  a  cor- 
ridor through  the  Balkans,  hold  Constantinople, 
and  control  Turkey.  Russia,  in  the  name  of  Pan- 
Slavism,  and  moved  by  mystic  and  idealistic  rea- 


H  U  ISI     G    A   R.    V 


5  ef> 


(    \ 

■.      V  Russia 

H    U    M   O   A    R.  Y     *"%    4-    ] 


BALKAN    STATES    AFTER    TREATY    OF    BERLIN    AND    AFTER 
BALKAN  WARS 


tain  which  had  concealed  from  her  the  fact  that 
she  had,  all  unconsciously,  been  standing  on  the 
very  brink  of  war.  The  obstinacy  of  Montenegro 
and  of  Servia  with  regard  to  the  delimitations  of 
the  northern  and  north-eastern  frontiers  of  Al- 
bania .  .  .  had  all  but  brought  the  difficulties  be- 
tween Russia  and  Austria  to  a  head.  .  .  .  The  dis- 
pute about  these  delectable  possessions,  with  their 
joint  population  of  61,000  inhabitants,  scarcely 
exceeding  that  of  Bath,  might  well  have  brought 
into  collision  six  great  Empires,  with  a  population 
amounting  in  all  to  at  least  a  third  of  the  total 
population  of  the  globe.  It  may  well  be  asked  if 
diplomatic  folly  and  atno7ir-ptopre  could  go  fur- 
ther."— R.  Rankin,  Inner  history  of  the  Balkan 
war,  pp.  206-207. — See  also  World  War:  Causes: 
Indirect:   d,  3. 

1913-1914. — Causes  and  results  of  Balkan 
wars. — According  to  a  competent  British  observer,' 
the   historic   chain    of    events   clearly    marks   the 


sons,  wished  to  control  the  Balkans,  possess  Con- 
stantinople and  the  Straits,  and  turn  the  Black 
Sea  into  a  Russian  Lake.  France  and  England 
appeared  on  the  scene,  first  as  the  enemies  of  Rus- 
sia and  the  upholders  of  Turkey  in  the  name  of 
the  balance  of  power,  and  then,  by  the  same  token, 
as  the  friends  of  Russia  and  the  opponents  of  Ger- 
many. The  net  result  of  the  play  of  intrigue  and 
counter-intrigue  was  that  the  Balkan  States  were 
set  by  the  ears,  national  hatreds  inflamed,  do- 
mestic reforms  checked  all  over  Europe,  and  the 
Turk  allowed  to  harry  his  subjects  at  his  own 
sweet  will.  [See  also  Concert  of  Europe:  History 
and  meaning  of  term.]  In  1907  it  looked  as  if 
Austria-Hungary  would  make  a  bold  and  wise  re- 
form, raising  herself  from  a  dualistic  to  a  triform 
state  by  giving  the  Slavs  self-government.  In- 
stead, came  Count  Aehrenthal's  annexation  of  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina,  throwing  Serbia  into  the  arms 
of  Russia.     In  1912,  under  Russian  auspices  and 


83^ 


BALKAN   STATES,  1913-1914 


Outbreak   of 
World    War 


BALKAN   STATES,   1914 


through  the  statesmanship  of  M.  Venizelos,  cam? 
the  Balkan  League  and  the  war  against  Turkey. 
But  by  checking  Serbia's  access  to  the  Adriatic  and 
setting  up  an  independent  Albania,  Austria  suc- 
ceeded in  causing  strife  among  the  Balkan  Allies, 
and  the  League  broke  up  in  the  Second  Balkan 
War.  A  weakened  and  exasperated  Serbia  was  at 
once  an  easy  victim  and  a  dangerous  neighbor  to 
Ihe  Dual  Monarchy,  and  so  arose  the  machinations 
of  the  nationalist  societies,  the  murder  at  Serajevo, 
and  the  great  European  war.  Austria  threatened 
Serbia.  Russia  backed  her  up;  Germany  supported 
Austria,  France  supported  Russia,  England  sup- 
ported France;  Austria  attacked  Serbia,  and 
Europe  entered  upon  the  fiercest  and  most  barbar- 
ous war  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.'' — N.  Buxton, 
Austria-Hungary  and  the  Balkans  (Atlantic 
Monthly,  March,  1918,  p.  371).— The  collapse  of 
the  Balkan  League  and  the  disastrous  consequences 
to  Bulgaria  in.  1913  were  directly  responsible  for 
Bulgaria's  fatal  resolve  to  cast  in  her  lot  with  Ger- 
inany  and  Austria  in  the  World  War. — "The  Allies 
could  offer  her  freedom  and  cooperation,  but  could 
not  satisfy  Bulgaria's  national  aspirations,  owing 
to  the  reluctance  of  Serbia,  Roumania,  and  Greece 
to  yield  the  necessary  territory,  in  spite  of  the 
compensations  offered  elsewhere."  Hence,  "Bul- 
garia entered  the  camp  of  the  Central  Powers  re- 
luctantly, deliberately  accepting  the  bird  in  the 
hand  after  patient  and  vain  waiting  for  the  two 
in  the  bush.  Her  aims  were  perfectly  definite.  She 
wished  to  unite  under  her  flag  the  territories  in- 
habited by  her  nationals  and  allotted  to  her  in 
Februr'v,  1912,  by  the  treaty  with  Serbia,  namely, 
the  so-called  uncontested  zone  in  Northeast  Mace- 
donia, which  was  taken  by  Serbia  in  the  Second 
Balkan  War;  the  great  trade-route  down  the 
Struma  Valley  debouching  at  Kavala,  taken  by 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Southern  Dobrudja,  taken  by 
the  Roumanians,  in  the  same  war.  In  addition,  the 
imponderabilia  weighing  tor  her  decision  were  her 
dislike  of  Russian  imperalism  and  her  dread  of 
Russia  at  Constantinople." — Ibid.,  p.  373. — "In  the 
secret  treaty  with  Bulgaria  just  before  the  first 
Balkan  War,  Serbia  agreed  to  the  definition  of  a 
neutral  strip  running  cast-northeast  to  Lake  Ok- 
hrida,  one  hundred  miles  northwest  of  Saloniki, 
which  was  to  be  the  subject  of  later  negotiation 
between  her  and  Bulgaria.  The  later  negotiation 
never  took  place,  for  Bulgaria  made  unexpected 
gains  in  eastern  Thrace,  and  the  powers  decided 
to  form  an  independent  Albania  in  the  regions 
where  Serbia  had  hoped  to  increase  her  territory. 
Serbia  and  Greece  denounced  the  territorial  terms 
of  the  alliance,  Bulgaria  insisted  on  them  in  spite 
of  changed  conditions,  and  the  second  Balkan 
War  resulted.  With  the  complete  success  of  Ser- 
bia and  Greece,  as  opposed  to  Bulgaria,  they  di- 
vided Macedonia  between  them,  leaving  only  the 
Strumnitsa  salient  and  the  country  immediately 
northeast  and  cast  of  it  to  Bulgaria ;  and  the  Treaty 
of  Neuilly  [Nov.  27,  iqiq],  by  taking  awav  the 
Strumnitsa  salient,  has  shut  the  door  on  Bulgaria's 
expansion  in  this  direction." — E.  M.  House  and  C. 
Seymour,  What  really  happened  at  Paris,  pp. 
160-170. — "\i  a  result  of  the  Balkan  Wars,  the 
German  drans,  nacb  O.sten  was  summarily  checked, 
and  Austria  called  back  westward.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that  the  Balkan  ambitions  of  Austria 
were  the  result  of  her  disasters.  Napoleon  drove 
her  out  of  Italy  and  Germany,  and  offered  her 
Istria  and  Dalmatia.  Bismarck,  continuing  the 
work  of  Napoleon,  took  from  her  Venice,  prom- 
ised her  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and.  construct- 
ing a  solid  German  bulwark  at  her  back,  launched 
her  on  her  perilous  voyage  down  the  Danube.  He 
gave  her  a  free  pass  across  Macedonia,  and  thereby 


lured  her  forth  on  her  ambiguous  destiny.  Al- 
though .Austria  is  a  Power  essentially  German,  Bis- 
marck sought  to  make  her  Slav ;  and  she  went  on 
assimilating  the  territories  of  the  Slavs  until  she 
became  positively  'saturated'  with  them.  'Satur- 
ated' is,  indeed,  the  very  word  employed  by  Comte 
d'.\chrenthal,  the  first  of  her  public  men  to  re- 
coil before  the  consequences  of  pursuing  a  German, 
rather  than  a  purely  Austrian  policy.  When 
Uskub  and  Ipek  were  captured  by  the  Servians  six 
million  men  of  their  blood  in  Austria-Hungary  ap- 
plauded."— W.  M.  Fullerton,  Problems  of  power, 
P-  335- — See  also  World  War:  Causes:  Indirect: 
d,  3;  Diplomatic  background:  71  (iv);  (viii); 
(ix). 

1914. — Relations  of  Austria-Hungary  with  the 
Balkan  States  before  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War. — Hostility  to  Serbia. — Aehrenthal's  for- 
eign policy  in  Austria.  See  World  War:  Diplo- 
matic  background:    8. 

1914. — Austrian  plan  for  a  new  Balkan 
League.  See  World  War:  Diplomatic  back- 
ground: 9. 

1914. — Pan-German  plan.  See  Pan-German- 
ism:   Pan-German  league  and  its  branches. 

1914. — Assassination  of  Austrian  archduke  in 
Bosnia. — Austrian  attitude  toward  Serbia.  See 
World  War:  Diplomatic  backi;round:  5. 

1914. — Approaching  crisis  between  Serbia  and 
Austria  discussed  at  Vienna  war  council.  See 
World  War:  Diplomatic  background:   13. 

1914. — Austro-Serbian  question  as  stated  by 
German  foreign  office. — Russia's  interest  in  Ser- 
bia.   See  World  War:  Diplomatic  background:  69. 

1914-1916.— Balkans  and  the  World  War.— 
"In  the  autumn  of  1914  .A.ustria-Hungary  launched 
a  terrific  attack  upon  Serbia,  and  after  four 
months  of  sanguinary  fighting  succeeded  (Decem- 
ber 2)  in  capturing  Belgrade.  [See  World 
War:  1914:  Balkans.]  But  their  triumph  was 
short-lived.  By  an  heroic  effort  the  Serbians, 
three  days  later,  recaptured  their  capital ;  the 
Habsburg  assault  was  repelled,  and  for  the  first 
half  of  igiS  Serbia  enjoyed  a  respite,  from  the 
attacks  of  external  enemies.  .\n  epidemic  of  ty- 
phus fever  in  its  most  virulent  form  wrought  ter- 
rible havoc,  however,  upon  an  exhausted,  ill-fed. 
and,  in  certain  parts,  congested  population.  From 
this  danger  Serbia  was  rescued  by  the  heroism  of 
English  doctors  and  English  nurses,  warmly  sec- 
onded by  .American  and  other  volunteers.  Had  the 
methods  of  English  diplomacy  been  as  energetic  and 
effective  as  those  of  the  English  Medical  Service, 
Serbia  might  still  have  escaped  the  terrible  fate  in 
store  for  her.  Judged  by  results,  and  as  yet  we 
have  no  other  materials  for  judgment,  nothing 
could  have  been  more  inept  than  the  efforts  of 
allied  English  diplomacy  in  the  Balkans  through- 
out the  year  IQ15.  .  .  .  [See  also  .fVusTRO-HLTN- 
cary:  1914-1015.]  The  Triple  Entente  needed  all 
the  friends  they  could  muster  in  southeastern 
Europe.  In  February  the  world  learnt  that  an 
English  fleet,  assisted  by  a  French  squadron,  was 
bombarding  the  forts  of  the  Dardenelles.  and  hieh 
hopes  were  entertained  in  the  allied  countries  that 
the  passage  of  the  Straits  would  be  quickly  forced. 
Nothing  would  have  done  so  much  to  frustrate 
German  diplomacy  in  south-eastern  Europe  as  a 
successful  blow  at  Constantinople.  But  the  hopes 
aroused  by  the  initiation  of  the  enterprise  were  not 
destined  to  fulfilment.  It  soon  became  evident 
that  the  navy  alone  could  not  achieve  the  task 
entrusted  to  it.  Towards  the  end  of  April  a  large 
force  of  troops  was  landed  on  the  Gallipoli  Penin- 
sula; but  the  end  of  May  came,  and  there  was 
nothing  to  show  for  the  loss  of  nearly  40,000 
men.     On   August  6th   a  second  army,  consisting 

832 


BALKAN   STATES,  1914-1916    cfrftZl^piwers     BALKAN  STATES,  1914-1916 


largely  of  Australians,  New  Zealanders,  and  Eng- 
lish Territorials,  was  thrown  onto  the  peninsula. 
The  troops  displayed  superb  courage,  but  the  con- 
ditions were  impossible;  Sir  Ian  Hamilton,  who 
had  commanded,  was  succeeded  by  Sir  C.  C. 
Munro,  to  whom  was  assigned  the  difficult  and 
ungrateful  task  of  evacuating  an  untenable  posi- 
tion. To  the  amazement  and  admiration  of  the 
world  a  feat,  deemed  almost  impossible,  was  ac- 
complished before  the  end  of  December,  without 
the  loss  of  a  single  man.  How  far  the  expedition 
to  the  Dardanelles  may  have  averted  dangers  in 
other  directions  it  is  impossible,  as  yet,  tc>  say ; 
but,  as  regards  the  accomplishment  of  its  imme- 
diate aims,  the  enterprise  was  a  ghastly  though  a 
gallant  failure.  [See  Dardanelles.]  The  failure 
was  apparent  long  before  it  was  proclaimed  by 
the  abandonment  of  the  attempt.  Nor  was  that 
failure  slow  to  react  upon  the  situation  in  the 
Balkans.  "On  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War 
Greece  had  proclaimed  its  neutrality,  though  the 
Premier,  M.  Venizelos,  at  the  same  time  declared 
that  Greece  had  treaty  obligations  in  regard  to 
Serbia,  and  that  she  intended  to  fulfil  them.  But 
in  Greece,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Near  East,  opinions 
if  not  sympathies  were  sharply  divided.  The  Greek 
kingdom  owed  its  existence  to  the  Powers  com- 
prising the  Triple  Entente;  the  dynasty  owed  its 
crown  to  their  nomination;  to  them  the  people 
were  tied  by  every  bond  of  historical  gratitude. 
No  one  realized  this  more  clearly  than  M.  Veni- 
zelos, and  no  one  could  have  shown  himself  more 
determined  to  repay  the  debt  with  compound  in- 
terest. Moreover,  M.  Venizelos  believed  that  the 
dictates  of  policy  were  identical  with  those  of 
gratitude.  The  creator  of  the  Balkan  League  had 
not  abandoned,  despite  the  perfidious  conduct  of 
one  of  his  partners,  the  hope  of  realizing  the 
dream  which  had  inspired  his  policy  in  IQ12.  The 
one  solution  of  a  secular  problem  at  once  feasible 
in  itself  and  compatible  with  the  claims  of  nation- 
ality was  and  is  a  Balkan  Federation.  A  German 
hegemony  in  the  Balkans,  an  Ottoman  Ehnpire  de- 
pendent upon  Berlin,  would  dissipate  that  dream 
for  ever.  To  Greece,  as  to  the  other  Balkan  States, 
it  was  essential  that  Germany  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  establish  herself  permanently  on  the 
Besphorus.  If  that  disaster  was  to  be  averted 
mutual  concessions  would  have  to  be  made,  and 
Venizelos  was  statesman  enough  to  make  them. 
Early  in  IQ15  he  tried  to  persuade  his  sovereign  to 
offer  Kavalla  and  a  slice  of  'Greek'  Macedonia  to 
Bulgaria.  He  was  anxious  also  to  co-operate  in 
the  attack  upon  the  Dardanelles  with  allies  who 
had  offered  to  Greece  a  large  territorial  concession 
in  the  Smyrna  district.  To  neither  suggestion 
would  King  Constantine  and  his  Hohenzollern  con- 
sort listen.  Venizelos  consequently  resigned.  If 
Venizelos  desired  harmony  among  the  Balkan 
States,  so  also,  and  not  less  ardently,  did  the  al- 
lies. Macedonia  still  remained  the  crux  of  the 
situation.  Hohenzollern-Habsburg  diplomacy  had, 
as  we  have  seen,  thrown  oil  upon  the  flames  of 
inter-Balkan  rivalries  in  that  region.  Bulgaria,  the 
willing  cat's-paw  of  the  Central  Empires,  had  in 
1Q13  drawn  down  upon  herself  deserved  disaster, 
but  that  she  would  permanently  acquiesce  in  the 
terms  imposed  upori  her  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest 
was  not  to  be  expected.  Venizelos  was  quick  to 
recognize  this  truth.  Had  his  advice  been  fol- 
lowed Bulgaria  would  have  gained  a  better  outlet 
to  the  Aegean  than  that  afforded  by  Dedeagatch. 
Serbia  possessed  no  statesman  of  the  calibre  of 
Venizelos.  But  the  situation  of  Serbia  was  in  the 
last  degree  hazardous,  and  under  the  pressure  of 
grim  necessity  Serbia  might  have  been  expected 
to  listen  to  the  voice  of  prudence.     How  far  that 


voice  reached  her  ears  in  the  early  summer  of  igi.? 
we  cannot  yet  know  for  certain.  .  .  .  "Not  until 
August,  igiS,  was  Serbia  induced  to  offer  such  con- 
cessions in  Macedonia  to  Bulgaria  as  might  possibly 
have  sufficed,  in  May,  to  keep  Bulgaria  out  of  the 
clutches  of  the  Central  Empires.  In  Bulgaria,  as 
elsewhere,  opinion  was  sharply  divided.  Both 
groups  of  Great  Powers  had  their  adherents  at 
Sofia.  Had  the  Russian  advance  been  maintained 
in  1915;  had  the  Dardenelles  been  forced;  had 
pressure  been  put  by  the  Entente  upon  Serbia  and 
Greece  to  make  reasonable  concessions  in  Mace- 
donia, Bulgaria  might  not  have  yielded  to  the  se- 
ductions of  German  gold  and  to  the  wiles  of  Ger- 
man diplomacy.  But  why  should  a  German  king 
of  Bulgaria  have  thrown  in  his  lot  with  Powers  who 
were  apparently  heading  for  military  disaster; 
whose  diplomacy  was  as  inept  as  their  arms  were 
feeble  ?  What  more  natural  than  that  when  the  Ger- 
man avalanche  descended  upon  Serbia  in  the  au- 
tumn of  iqis  Bulgaria  should  have  co-operated  in 
the  discomfiture  of  a  detested  rival?  Yet  the  En- 
tente built  their  plans  upon  the  hope,  if  not  the  ex- 
pectation, that  Bulgaria  might  possibly  be  induced 
to  enter  the  war  on  the  side  of  the  allies  against 
Turkey.  Serbia  was  anxious  to  attack  Bulgaria 
in  September,  while  her  mobilization  was  still 
incomplete.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  allies 
intervened  to  restrain  the  Serbian  attack;  hoping 
against  hope  that  a  concordat  between  the  Balkan 
States  might  still  be  arrived  at.  To  that  hope 
Serbia  was  sacrificed.  A  great  Austro-German 
army,  under  the  command  of  Field-Marshal  von 
Mackensen,  concentrated  upon  the  Serbian  fron- 
tier in  September,  and  on  the  7th  of  October  it 
crossed  the  Danube.  Two  days  later  Belgrade  sur- 
rendered, and  for  the  next  few  weeks  von  Macken- 
sen, descending  upon  the  devoted  country  in  over- 
whelming strength,  drove  the  Serbians  before  him, 
until  the  whole  country  was  in  the  occupation  of 
the  Austro-German  forces.  The  Bulgarians  cap- 
tured Nish  on  November  5  and  effected  a  junction 
with  the  army  under  von  Mackensen ;  Serbia  was 
annihilated;  a  remnant  of  the  Serbian  army  took 
refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Montenegro  and  Al- 
bania, while  numbers  of  deported  civilians  sought 
the  hospitality  of  the  allies.  On  November  28 
Germany  officially  declared  the  Balkan  campaign 
to  be  at  an  end.  For  the  time  being  Serbia  had 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  Balkan  State.  [See  World 
War:  1015:  V.  Balkans.]  What  had  the  Al- 
lies done  to  succour  her?  On  September  28 
Sir  Edward  Grey,  from  his  place  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  uttered  a  grave,  though  not  un- 
friendly, warning  to  Bulgaria,  and  declared  that 
Great  Britain  was  determined,  in  concert  with 
her  aUies,  to  give  to  her  friends  in  the  Balkans  all 
the  support  in  her  power  in  a  manner  that  would 
be  most  welcome  to  them  'without  reserve  and 
without  qualification.'  How  was  this  solemn  prom- 
ise fulfilled?  Russia  was  not,  at  the  moment,  in 
a  position  to  afford  any  effective  assistance,  but  on 
October  4  she  dispatched  an  ultimatum  to  Bul- 
garia, and  a  few  days  later  declared  war  upon  her. 
On  October  s  the  advance  guard  of  an  Anglo- 
French  force,  under  General  Sarrail  and  Sir  Bryan 
Mahon,  began  to  disembark  at  Salonica.  The  force 
was  miserably  inadequate  in  numbers  and  equip- 
ment, and  it  came  too  late.  Its  arrival  precipitated 
a  crisis  in  Greece.  As  a  result  of  an  appeal  to  the 
country  in  June,  King  Constantine  had  been  re- 
luctantly compelled  to  recall  Venizelos  to  power  in 
September.  Venizelos  was  as  determined  as  ever 
to  respect  the  obligations  of  Greece  towards  Serbia, 
and  to  throw  the  weight  of  Greece  into  the  scale 
of  the  allies.  But  despite  his  parliamentary  ma- 
jority he  was  no  longer  master  of  the  situation. 


833 


BALKAN  STATES,  1914-1916 


Balkan 
Campaigns 


BALKAN  STATES,  1914-1918 


The  failure  of  the  Dardanelles  expedition,  the  re- 
treat of  Russia,  the  impending  intervention  of 
Bulgaria  on  the  Austro-German  side,  the  ex- 
hortations and  warnings  which  followed  in  rapid 
succession  from  Berlin,  above  all,  the  knowledge 
that  von  Mackensen  was  preparing  to  annihilate 
Serbia,  had  stiffened  the  back  of  King  Constan- 
tine.  Venizelos  had  asked  England  and  France 
whether,  in  the  event  of  a  Bulgarian  attack  upon 
Serbia,  the  Western  Powers  would  be  prepared 
to  send  a  force  to  Salonica  to  take  the  place 
of  the  Serbian  contingent  contemplated  by  the 
Greco-Serbian  treaty.  The  landing  of  the  Anglo- 
French  force  in  October  was  the  practical  re- 
sponse of  the  allies  to  the  'invitation'  of 
Venizelos.  Technically,  however,  the  landing 
looked  like  a  violation  of  Greek  neutrality,  and 
Venizelos  was  compelled  by  his  master  to  en- 
ter a  formal  protest  against  it.  But  the  protest 
was  followed  by  an  announcement  that  Greece 
would  respect  her  treaty  with  Serbia,  and  would 
march  to  her  assistance,  if  she  were  attacked  by 
Bulgaria.  That  announcement  cost  Venizelos  his 
place.  He  was  promptly  dismissed  by  King  Con- 
stantine,  who,  flouting  the  terms  of  the  Con- 
stitution, effected  what  was  virtually  a  monarchical 
coup  d'etat.  The  king's  violation  of  the  Hellenic 
Constitution  was  the  opportunity  of  the  protecting 
Powers.  They  failed  to  seize  it,  and  King  Con- 
stantine  remained  master  of  the  situation.  From 
an  attitude  of  neutrality  professedly  'benevolent,' 
he  passed  rapidly  to  one  of  hostility  almost  openly 
avowed.  That  hostiUty  deepened  as  the  year  igi6 
advanced.  On  May  25,  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  an  agreement  secretly  concluded  be- 
tween Greece,  Germany,  and  Bulgaria,  King  Con- 
stantine  handed  over  to  the  Bulgarians  Fort  Rupel, 
an  important  position  which  commanded  the  flank 
of  the  French  army  in  Salonica.  A  few  weeks 
later  a  whole  division  of  the  Greek  army  was 
instructed  to  surrender  to  the  Germans  and  Bul- 
garians at  Kavalla.  Kavalla  itself  was  occupied 
by  King  Constantine's  friends,  who  carried  off  the 
Greek  division,  with  all  its  equipment,  to  Ger- 
many. Nearly  the  whole  of  Greek  Macedonia 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  Germany  and  her  allies, 
and  the  Greek  patriots,  led  by  Venizelos,  were 
reduced  to  despair.  In  September  a  Greek  Com- 
mittee of  National  Defence  was  set  up  at  Sa- 
lonica, and  in  October  Venizelos  himself  arrived 
there. 

"By  this  time,  however,  the  Balkan  sit- 
uation had  been  further  compUcated  by  the  mili- 
tary inter\'ention  of  Roumania  on  the  side  of 
the  allies.  In  Roumania,  as  elsewhere,  opinion 
was,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  sharply  divided. 
The  sympathies  of  King  Carol  were,  not  un- 
naturally, with  his  Hohenzollern  kinsmen,  and,  had 
he  not  been,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  a 
constitutional  sovereign,  his  country  would  have 
been  committed  to  an  Austro-German  alliance. 
Nor  was  the  choice  of  Roumania  quite  obviously 
di,.tated  by  her  interests.  If  the  coveted  districts 
of  Transylvania  and  the  Bukovina  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  Habsburgs,  Russia  still  kept  her 
hold  on  Bessarabia.  A  'Greater  Roumania,"  cor- 
responding in  area  to  the  ethnographical  distribu- 
tion of  population,  would  involve  the  acquisition 
of  all  three  provinces.  Could  Roumania  hope, 
either  by  diplomacy  or  by  war,  to  achieve  the  com- 
plete reunion  of  the  Roumanian  people?  In  Octo- 
ber, 1Q14,  the  two  strongest  pro-German  forces 
in  Roumania  were  removed  almost  simultaneously, 
by  death:  King  Carol  himself,  and  his  old  friend 
and  confidant  Demetrius  Sturdza.  Roumania  had 
already  declared  her  neutrality,  and  that  neutrality 
was,  for  some  time,  scrupulously  observed.     The 


natural  affinities  of  the  Roumanians  attract  them 
.  .  .  towards  France  and  Italy,  and  it  was  antici- 
pated that  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war  would 
be  speedily  followed  by  that  of  Roumania.  But 
not  until  .August,  1Q16,  was  the  anticipation  ful- 
filled. On  August  27  Roumania  declared  war  and 
flung  a  large  force  into  Transylvania.  The  Aus- 
trian garrisons  were  overwhelmed,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  a  considerable  part  of  Transylvania  had 
passed  into  Roumanian  hands.  But  the  success, 
achieved  in  defiance  of  sound  strategy,  and  also, 
it  is  said,  in  complete  disregard  of  warnings  ad- 
dressed to  Roumania  by  her  allies,  was  of  brief 
duration.  In  September  Mackensen  invaded  the 
Dobrudja  from  the  south,  entered  Silistria  on 
September  10,  and.  though  checked  for  awhile  on 
the  Rasova-Tuzia  line,  renewed  his  advance  in 
October  and  captured  Constanza  on  the  twenty- 
second.  Meanwhile,  a  Germany  army,  under  Gen- 
eral von  Falkenhayn,  advanced  from  the  west, 
and  on  September  26  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon 
the  Roumanians  at  the  Rothen  Thurm  pass.  The 
Roumanians,  though  they  fought  desperately,  were 
steadily  pressed  back ;  at  the  end  of  November 
Mackensen  joined  hands  with  Falkenhayn,  and 
on  December  6  the  German  armies  occupied 
Bucharest.  Thus  another  Balkan  State  was  tem- 
porarily crushed.  From  Belgrade  to  Constanti- 
nople, from  Bucharest  to  the  valley  of  the  V'ardar, 
the  Centra!  Empires  are  [.April,  191 7]  in  un- 
disputed command  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  A 
corner  of  Greek  Macedonia  is  still  held  by  the 
Anglo-French  force  under  General  Sarrail,  and  to- 
w-ards  the  end  of  November  a  Serbian  army,  re- 
formed and  re-equipped,  had  the  gratification  of 
reoccupying  Monastir.  But  the  German  suc- 
cesses in  the  north-east  of  the  peninsula  naturally 
emboldened  their  friends  in  the  south-west,  and 
the  increasing  hostility  of  the  Athenian  Govern- 
ment rendered  the  position  of  the  allies  in  Sa- 
lonica exceedingly  precarious." — J.  A.  R.  Marriott, 
Eastern  question,  pp.  432-44r. — See  World  War: 
1916:  V.  Balkan  theater;  1917:  V.  Balkan  theater. 

"The  fundamental  reasons  which  have  forced  the 
Near  East  into  prominence  before  and  since  the 
outbreak  of  the  w-ar  are  in  many  ways  identical. 
The  real  point  is  that  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and 
the  waterways  which  it  controls  constitute  the 
natural  highw'ay,  the  natural  means  of  communi- 
cation between  the  West  and  East  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  North  and  South  on  the  other.  While 
it  is  the  former  condition  which  makes  the  domi- 
nation of  this  area  one  of  Germany's  primary 
objects  it  is  the  latter  which  constitutes  its  real 
importance  for  Russia.  Consequently,  whereas  by 
military  penetration  across  the  Balkans  into  south- 
ern Russia  and  Asiatic  Turkey  the  Central  Powers 
have  temporarily  greatly  increased  the  strength  of 
their  military  position,  still  more  by  the  driving 
of  a  permanent  wedge  through  the  same  areas 
would  they  have  triumphed  by  endangering  the 
safety  of  the  Allies  throughout  the  world.  On 
the  other  hand,  were  good  relations  to  be  estab- 
lished between  the  Balkan  states  and  were  an 
anti-German  barrier  therefore  to  be  established, 
what  would  amount  to  an  Allied  wedge  would  pre- 
vent the  expansion  of  the  Central  Powers  toward 
the  East  and  at  the  same  time  assure  to  Russia 
her  legitimate  access  to  warm  water.  For  years, 
therefore,  the  question  of  these  wedges  has  con- 
stituted the  real  raison  d'etre  of  the  Near  East 
in  the  world's  politics — a  raison  d'ltre  the  im- 
portance and  meaning  of  which  has  become  more 
apparent  to  the  everyday  man  since  the  outbreak 
of  the  war." — Geographical  Review,  July,  1918, 
p.  19- 

1914-1918. — ^Jugo-Slav  agitations  in  Austria- 


834 


BALKAN  STATES,  1915 


Reconstruction 
Albania 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


Hungary. — Union   with   other   Slavs. — Declara- 
tion of  Corfu.     See  Jugo-Slavia:    1867-1917. 

1915. — Italy's  desire  to  control  South  Slavs. 
See  Italy:  1915:  Treaty  of  London. 

1918. — Summary  of  campaigns.  See  World 
War:   iqiS:  V.  Balkan  theater:  a. 

1918. — Von  Hertling's  answer  to  Lloyd  George 
and  President  Wilson  regarding  settlement  of 
claims.  See  World  War:  1918:  X.  Statement  of 
war  aims:  d. 

1918. — Italian  claims  in  Dalmatia  and  Fiume. 
See  Italy:  ipiS-igig. 

1918. — Union  of  Serbia  with  states  of 
Croatia,  Slovakia  and  Dalmatia.  See  Jugo- 
slavia: 1918:  Formation  of  the  Serb  Croat  Slovene 
kingdom. 

1919. — Loss  of  life  from  famine  and  starvation 
during  the  World  War.  See  World  War:  Mis- 
cellaneous au.xiliary  services:  X\'I.  Cost  of  war: 
b,  3. 

1920. — Formation  of  the  Little  Entente.  See 
Jugo-Sl.avla:    1920. 

1921. — Results  of  World  War. — Division  of 
spoils. — Losses  and  gains. — Geographical  griev- 
ances.— Settlement  problems  and  complications. 
— Reconstruction. — The  end  of  the  World  War 
and  the  resultant  peace  treaties  had  not  the  effect 
of  spreading  perfect  peace  and  general  satisfac- 
tion among  the  various  Balkan  states.  In  allocat- 
ing the  spoils  of  a  great  war,  losses  and  gains  are 
inevitable.  Territories  are  wrested  from  one  na- 
tion and  incorporated  by  another,  giving  rise  to 
complaints  of  injustice  and  prognostications  of  fu- 
ture troubles.  The  following  excerpts  illustrate 
the  situation  as  it  stood  in  the  peninsula  during 
the  first  quarter  of  192 1: 

Albania,  an  autonomous  Adriatic  state  under  the 
Mpret  William  of  Wied  as  the  result  of  the  Peace 
of  London  (1913),  was  abandoned  by  its  rulers  in 
1914  and  became  a  prey  to  internal  dissensions. 
The  faction  of  Essad  Pasha  notably  failed  to 
establish  a  stable  government  and  the  Austrians 
invaded  the  country  in  1916.  Already  in  1914 
Italy  had  taken  possession  of  the  seaport  of 
Valona  and  its  fortress,  and  later  proclaimed  a  pro- 
tectorate. At  the  Peace  Conference,  the  Albanians 
claimed  independence,  but  Italy  maintained  her 
position ;  Greece  demanded  the  southern  part  of 
Albania  as  a  portion  of  Epirus,  while  the  north- 
ern provinces  were  desired  as  an  addition  and 
compensation  to  Serbia.  Moreover,  France,  hav- 
ing military  occupation,  was  ready  to  turn  Scutari 
and  Koritza  over  to  Serbia  and  Greece  respectively. 
The  partition  of  the  country  with  the  assent  of 
the  Peace  Conference  seemed  thus  almost  a  fait 
accompli.  Appeals  to  the  Great  Powers  to  stop 
Serbian  aggressions  were  made. — "How  was  .  .  . 
[a]  complete  change  of  policy  toward  Albania 
brought  about?  The  answer  is  clear:  It  was 
effected  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  United 
States  government.  The  American  government  in- 
tervened on  behalf  of  Albania,  and  actually  saved 
her  from  destruction  and  dismemberment.  The 
first  intervention  took  place  after  the  Supreme 
Council  had  agreed  on  applying  to  Albania  the 
provisions  of  the  secret  Treaty  of  London,  which 
partitioned  her  territories  among  the  Italians, 
Greeks  and  Serbians.  President  Wilson  caused 
this  decision  to  be  reconsidered ;  but  immediately 
upon  the  departure  of  the  American  representatives 
from  the  Supreme  Council  the  great  European 
powers,  left  alone,  reverted  again  to  the  policy  of 
the  dismemberment  of  .Albania.  In  the  session 
of  Jan.  14,  1920,  Great  Britain,  France  and  Italy 
decreed  anew  the  complete  partition  of  Albania 
among  the  Italians,  Serbs  and  Greeks.  When  all 
again  seemed  lost  President  Wilson  came  out  in 


his  Adriatic  notes,  and  vigorously  opposed  the 
plan  of  partition.  Thanks  to  the  moral  influence 
of  .America  alone,  the  plan  of  partition  was 
definitely  discarded.  .  .  .  What  a  strange  contrast 
to  this  outlook  is  now  presented  by  Albania  I  And 
what  spectacular  changes  have  taken  place  within 
a  few  months,  altering  the  situation  entirely! 
Somehow  the  Peace  Conference — or  its  successor, 
the  Supreme  Council — has  practically  held  its 
hands  off  from  Albanian  affairs,  to  the  benefit  of 
the  little  nation.  More  strange  is  the  revulsion 
of  feeling  that  must  have  taken  place  in  high 
French  circles,  as  evidenced  by  the  action  of  the 
French  military  authorities  in  turning  over  to  the 
Albanian  government  the  vital  Provinces  of 
Scutari  and  Koritza,  in  May,  1920.  .  .  .  But  the 
most  spectacular  event  was  the  struggle  with  Italy, 
which  began  early  in  June  last  [1919],  and  con- 
tmued  until  about  the  end  of  July,  with  a  com- 
plete triumph  for  Albania.  Several  weeks  of 
fierce  fighting  between  the  Albanians  and  the 
Italians  ended  in  the  e.xpulsion  of  the  latter  from 
Albania  to  such  an  extent  that  even  the  powerful 
and  modern  fortress  of  Valona,  which  was  held 
as  a  last  resort  by  the  Italians,  was  eventually 
turned  over  to  the  Albanian  government.  That 
government  is  now  in  possession  of  the  terri- 
tories assgined  to  the  Albanian  state  by  the  Lon- 
don Conference  of  1912-1913.  Italy,  the  very 
power  that  was  fatally  in  the  way  of  Albania's 
independence  and  national  unity,  not  only  has 
been  compelled  to  give  up  all  its  claims,  which 
the  Peace  Conference  had  recognized,  such  as  the 
protectorate  and  the  perpetual  possession  of 
Valona,  but  has  now  become,  by  the  clauses  of 
the  Italian-Albanian  agreement,  signed  at  Tirana 
on  Aug.  2,  1920,  the  guarantor  of  those  two  es- 
sential attributes  of  sovereignty  over  the  young 
State,  with  the  result  that  there  exist  now  the 
most  cordial  relations  between  the  two  countries. 
Thus  has  Albania  won  recognition  of  her  state- 
hood from  the  power  that  was  most  bitterly  op- 
posed to  it  only  a  few  months  ago.  The  success- 
ful termination  of  the  conflict  with  Italy  had  also 
the  salutary  effect  of  sobering  the  claims  of  the 
Serbs  and  the  Greeks,  to  the  extent  that  they  were 
induced  to  find  a  modus  vivendi  with  /.Ibania. 
In  consequence,  the  conflicting  claims  between 
these  two  countries  and  Albania  are  no  longer  a 
cause  for  direct  strife.  .  .  .  Not  less  striking  is 
the  internal  transformation  that  has  taken  place 
in  Albania  within  the  last  few  months.  The  peo- 
ple, who  had  been  distracted  and  disunited  as  H 
result  of  continuous  foreign  interference,  have 
found  an  opportunity  to  unite  and  mold  them- 
selves into  a  single  national  entity,  with  the 
transcendent  aspiration  to  preserve  the  national  in- 
dependence and  territorial  integrity  of  their  coun- 
try at  all  costs.  Regional  and  religious  differ- 
ences, which  were  formerly  played  upon  by  for- 
eign powers,  have  disappeared  to  the  extent  that 
there  is  now  but  one  authority  over  the  whole 
people,  the  authority  of  the  central  government 
established  by  the  representatives  of  the  Albanian 
people  assembled  in  parliament — a  parliament  to 
which  the  government  is  strictly  responsible.  This 
government,  with  its  seat  at  Tirana,  has  been 
in  undisturbed  power  for  more  than  a  year.  It 
has  not  only  won  the  confidence  of  the  people, 
but  has  also  established  law  and  order  through- 
out the  Albanian  territories,  one  might  candidly 
say,  for  the  first  time  since  the  impotent  Turkish 
occupation  made  Albania  a  synonym  for  anarchy 
and  lawlessness.  .  .  .  The  Tirana  Government  has 
already  set  out  to  organize  the  nation.  Schools 
are  being  opened  in  a  country  where  teaching 
was  deliberately  prohibited  by  former  conquering 


835 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


Bulgaria 
Greece 


BALKAN   STATES,   1921 


powers,  such  as  the  Turks,  and  negotiations  are 
now  being  carried  on  for  the  establishment  of  an 
American  university  modeled  on  Robert  College 
at  Constantinople.  But  the  chief  attention  of  the 
Albanian  governmer  ■  is  turned  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  the  large  resources  of  the  countr.-,  es- 
pecially its  mineral  resources,  including  iron,  cop- 
per, oil,  asphalt,  coal,  together  with  the  splendid 
water  power  the  country  is  provided  with.  How- 
ever, in  order  to  make  possible  this  development, 
the  first  essential  is  the  construction  of  roads,  rail- 
roads, tramways,  and  the  government  is  already 
out  in  quest  of  capital,  which  the  Albanian  peo- 
ple want  to  have  come  from  .\merica.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  fact  that  Albania  has  not  been 
recognized  by  the  United  States  acts  as  a  bar 
to  the  employment  of  American  capital  in  that 
country.'' — C.  A.  Chekrezi,  Hoiv  Albania  ivon  in- 
dependence (A'.  Y.  Times  Current  History,  Dec, 
1920,  pp.  534-536). 

Bulgaria. — "It  is  a  well-established  fact  tliat 
Bulgaria  concluded  an  armistice  with  the  Allies 
on  September  30,  1918,  because  the  people  and 
army  refused  to  go  on  with  the  war.  As  early  as 
July  of  that  year  the  soldiers,  who  in  the  absence 
of  any  military  caste  in  Bulgaria  really  form  a 
part  of  the  people,  declared  in  writing  and  orally 
to  their  officers  that  they  would  not  fight  be- 
yond the  middle  of  September.  This  decision 
w-as  reached,  as  the  soldiers  themselves  declared, 
after  the  famous  Fourteen  Points  of  President 
Wilson  became  known  to  them.  'Why,'  they  said, 
'should  we  go  on  fighting,  if  these  points  are 
to  be  the  basis  of  the  future  settlement  of  ques- 
tions affecting  Europe  in  general  and  the  Bal- 
kan Peninsula  in  particular?'  .  .  .  The  forced  ab- 
dication of  King  Ferdinand  was  accomplished  with- 
out any  trouble,  and  the  accession  of  his  eldest 
son,  Boris,  to  the  throne  was  hailed  with  uni- 
versal approval.  In  the  general  political  and 
social  perturbation  of  Europe,  Bulgaria  also  was 
threatened  with  a  revolution  by  the  extreme  radi- 
cal elements;  but  the  firmness  and  courage  dis- 
played by  the  present  Premier  of  Bulgaria,  Mr. 
Stambolisky,  the  leader  of  the  Farmers'  party,  in 
coping  with  the  Bolshevist  agitation,  saved  the 
country  from  Bolshevism  and  assured  the  reign 
of  law  and  order.  ...  He  has  refused  to  be 
drawn  into  any  wild  political  schemes,  has  frankly 
accepted  the  situation  created  by  the  Treaty  of 
Neuilly,  and,  while  protesting  against  its  injustice, 
has  promised  to  carry  out  loyally  its  terms." — 
T.  Vladimiroff,  Bulgaria's  novel  methods  of 
reconstruction  (N.  Y.  Times  Current  History, 
Nov.,  1920,  pp.  217-218). — Bulgaria,  by  the 
treaty  of  Xeuilly,  November  27,  1919,  lost  to 
Serbia  on  the  western  frontier  three  small  pieces 
of  territory,  besides  the  Strumnitza  projection 
on  the  southwest  about  fifty  miles  north  of  Sa- 
lonika More  important  still,  Bulgaria  was  not  to 
possess  any  portion  of  the  .Egean  littoral  which 
she  had  naturally  coveted  with  its  Greek  and 
Turk  population,  though  she  was  allowed  com- 
mercial access  to  Dedeagatch,  a  small  roadstead 
where  goods  may  be  transferred  by  lighters. — 
"That  the  Treaty  of  Neuilly  has  not  settled  the 
Balkan  question  justly  and  satisfactorily  is  in- 
disputable. On  the  contrary,  it  has  aggravated 
the  mistakes  made  forty-two  years  ago  by  the 
Berlin  Congress,  and  if  these  mistakes  are  not  cor- 
rected in  the  near  future  by  the  League  of  Na- 
tions or  by  an  international  court  the  Balkan 
peninsula  will  enjoy  a  temporary  truce  and  not  a 
lasting  peace.  ...  It  is  too  early  yet  to  pre- 
dict what  the  relations  of  Bulgaria  to  her  neigh- 
bors will  be.  She  has  been  despoiled  by  them 
of  territory  that  rightly  belongs  to  her;  she  has 


been  practically  debarred  from  free  and  unre- 
stricted access  to  the  /Egean  sea.  .\  progressive 
and  enterprising  people,  as  the  Bulgarians  have 
proved  themselves  to  be  during  the  forty  years 
of  their  political  existence,  cannot  allow  their  fu- 
ture commercial  and  economic  development  to  be 
hampered  by  making  it  dependent  upon  the  mercy 
or  good-will  of  those  who  have  invariably  been 
their  enemies.  ...  So  long  as  Serbia  and  Rumania 
maintain  their  possession  of  Macedonia  and 
Dobrudja  [respectively]  as  a  matter  of  conquest, 
so  long  as  they  treat  the  large  Bulgarian  ma- 
jority in  these  provinces  as  aliens  whom  by 
violent  means  and  oppressive  measures  they  seek 
to  terrorize  and  denationalize,  no  real  friendship 
can  exist  between  them  and  Bulgaria." — Ibid., 
pp.  220-221.— "With  Bulgaria  a  treaty  was  made 
which  imposed  upon  her  an  indemnity,  and 
took  from  her  the  territories  which  she  had 
seized  from  Servia,  Rumania,  and  Greece,  during 
the  war,  while  the  disposition  of  the  territory 
giving  her  access  to  the  /Egean  was  to  be  decided 
by  plebiscite  of  the  local  population.  Bulgaria 
was  left,  therefore,  the  least  important  of  the 
Balkan  states,  in  the  midst  of  rivals  who  haU 
grown  great  by  the  war." — E.  R.  Turner,  Europe, 
p.  590. — "The  financial  burdens  laid  upon  Bul- 
garia by  the  Treaty  of  Neuilly  are  undoubtedly 
very  heavy.  She  is  required  to  pay  an  in- 
demnity of  2,250,000,000  francs  in  gold  or  $450,- 
000.000  at  the  normal  rate  of  exchange.  Her 
external  pre-war  debt  [and  debt]  incurred  during 
the  war,  the  current  state  expenses,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  interest  on  the  debts  make  it  ver.-  doubt- 
ful whether  a  small  country  containing  about 
35,000  square  miles  and  4,500,000  people  can 
successfully  meet  its  financial  obligations.  The 
low  rate  of  exchange  of  the  Bulgarian  currency 
aggravates  the  situation.  Probably  this  will  not 
be  remedied  easily  or  soon,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  Bulgaria  is  not  an  industrial  country,  and 
that  her  imports  have  always  been  in  excess  of 
her  exports."— /6id,  pp.  222-223. 

Greece. — By  the  treaty  of  Sevres,  1920,  the 
great  Western  powers  severed  from  Turkey  the 
larger  part  of  its  European  territor\'  west  of 
the  famous  Chataija  defense  lines  in  favor  01 
Greece,  and  further  gave  to  the  latter  the  ..tgean 
littoral  south  of  Bulgaria,  at  least  Western  Thrace 
which  had  been  transferred  to  the  Allies  by  the 
treaty  of  Neuilly, — thus  extending  peninsular 
Greece  continuously  to  the  Black  sea;  also  Italy 
yielded  to  Greece  the  Dodecanese  Islands  in  the 
.^Egean;  and  in  Asia  Minor  the  Greek  govern- 
ment received  Smyrna  and  adjacent  territory  (un- 
der Turkish  suzerainty)  for  administration  as 
mandatory  of  the  League  of  Nations,  and  for 
decision  by  the  League  at  the  end  of  five  years 
of  the  question  of  definitive  incorporation  in  the 
kingdom  of  Greece.  Mr.  Venizelos,  the  Greek  rep- 
resentative, engaged  that  Greek  forces  would  un- 
dertake in  cooperation  with  the  Allies  in  Con- 
stantinople to  drive  back  and  suppress  the  Kemal- 
ists  or  Turkish  Nationalists  in  Anatolia.  This 
left  the  question  of  the  disposal  of  Eastern  Thrace 
undecided  and  when  King  Alexandros  died  Octo- 
ber, 1920,  and  the  Greeks  recalled  Constantine  to 
the  throne,  the  Allies  being  opposed  to  the  latter, 
it  even  jeopardized  apparently  some  of  the  settle- 
ments of  the  Sevres  treaty,  which  was  already 
in  process  of  revision.  The  new  Greek  admin- 
istration and  both  Turkish  factions  were  sum- 
moned to  send  representatives-  to  the  London 
conference  to  arrange  their  differences  among  them- 
selves and  suppress  hostilities  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
delegates  convened  in  St.  James's  Palace  on  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1921,  and  sat  until  March  13. 


836 


M 


|5l;"ti--'-. 


/^ 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


Jugoslavia 
Macedonia 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


Jugo-Slavia. — "Jugo-Slavia  is  summed  up  in  the 
reply  of  a  deputation  of  Serbs  to  the  question, 
'What  do  you  understand  by  a  nation?'  The 
question  was  put  in  1848,  when  the  Serbs  were 
petitioning  for  recognition  of  their  national  lan- 
guage in  the  Magyar  state,  and  they  replied:  'A 
nation  is  a  race  which  possesses  its  own  language, 
customs,  culture,  and  enough  self-consciousness 
to  preserve  them.'  According  to  this  view,  a 
single  nation  could  exist  divided  among  several 
political  rulers.  .  .  .  Political  organization  came 
in  those  dark  days  of  1917,  when  the  present 
kingdom's  territory  was  altogether  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  and  the  government  had  fled,  with 
the  remnants  of  the  army,  to  the  Greek  island  of 
Corfu.  There  on  July  20,  1917,  the  so-called 
'Declaration  of  Corfu'  was  signed  by  'the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Council,  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs of  the  Kingdom  of  Serbia,  Nikola  Pashitch, 
and  the  President  of  the  Jugo-Slav  Committee, 
Dr.  Anton  Trumbic'  This  declaration,  practically 
all  of  whose  terms  have  since  been  put  into 
effect,  runs,  in  its  most  essential  parts,  as  fol- 
lows: 

"(i)  The  state  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes, 
who  are  also  known  by  the  name  of  Southern 
Slavs  or  Jugo-Slavs,  will  be  a  free  and  inde- 
pendent kingdom,  with  an  indivisible  territory  and 
unity  of  power.  This  state  will  be  a  constitu- 
tional, democratic,  and  parliamentary  monarchy, 
with  the  Karageorgewitch  dynasty,  which  has  al- 
ways shared  the  ideals  and  feelings  of  the  nation 
in  placing  above  everything  else  the  national  lib- 
erty and  will,  at  its  head.  (2)  The  name  of 
this  state  will  be  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs, 
Croats  and  Slovenes,  and  the  title  of  the  sovereign 
will  be  King  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes.  .  .  . 
(9)  The  territory  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slo- 
venes will  comprise  all  the  territory  where  our 
nation  lives  in  compact  masses  and  without  dis- 
continuity. .  .  ." — New  kingdom  of  Jugo-Slavia 
(Literary  Digest,  Jan.  8,  1921,  pp.  10,  25-26). 
— "The  official  name  of  the  country  is  the  BLing- 
dom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  which 
is  generally  abbreviated  in  Europe  to  the  King- 
dom of  the  S.H.S.,  these  letters  being  the  initials 
of  the  name  in  the  native  tongue — Srba,  Hrvata  i 
Slovenica.  .  .  .  This  kingdom  is  made  up  of  the 
old  kingdoms  of  Serbia  and  Montenegro  and  the 
Austro-Hungarian  provinces  of  Slovenia,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  Dalmatia,  and  what 
is  now  known  as  the  Voivodine,  which  includes  the 
several  small  provinces  north  of  the  Danube  be- 
tween Slavonia  and  the  new  Rumanian  boundary. 
The  population  of  the  kingdom  is  practically  all 
Slav,  with  a  small  admixture  of  Turks  in  south- 
ern Serbia,  a  few  Italians  in  some  of  the  cities 
along  the  Adriatic,  and  groups  of  Hungarians, 
Austrians  and  Germans  in  some  of  the  other 
provinces.  Aside  from  the  Turks  in  southern 
Serbia  and  the  Hungarians  and  Germans  in  the 
Voivodine,  the  non-Slav  population  is  confined  al- 
most entirely  to  the  cities  and  towns.  This  is 
especially  true  along  the  Adriatic,  where  even 
the  hinterland  of  Trieste,  which  has  been  given 
to  the  Italians,  is  almost  entirely  Slav,  while  the 
city  itself  has  a  large  Italian  majority." — W.  G. 
Atwood,  Jugoslavia's  resotirces  and  beauty  (N .  Y. 
Times  Current  History,  Feb.,  1921,  p.  278). — As  the 
result  of  a  plebiscite  in  its  southern  part,  the  en- 
tire district  of  Klagenfurt  on  the  Austrian  frontier 
remained  Austrian,  the  Serb  troops  therein  being 
withdrawn.  "The  question  of  the  South  Slavs  pre-  ' 
sented  no  fundamental  difficulty.  It  was  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  people  of  the  provinces 
of  Carniola,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Dalmatia,  Bosnia, 
and  Herzegovina  should  be  given   their  freedom; 


and  there  was  already  a  movement  on  foot  to 
have  them  all  unite  with  their  kinsmen  of  Monte- 
negro and  Servia  in  a  large  Jugo-Slavic  state. 
It  would  undoubtedly  be  difficult  to  hold  in  one 
union  these  people,  of  the  same  race,  indeed,  but 
differing  much  in  culture  and  religion.  The  im- 
mediate difficulty,  however,  was  to  reconcile  con- 
flicting ambitions  of  Italians  and  South  Slavs  on 
the  \driatic  coast,  and  assure  the  new  federation 
an  outlet  to  the  sea.  .  .  .  All  down  the  Dalmatian 
coast,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic,  were 
old  Italian  towns  and  a  fringe  of  Italian  popu- 
lation, while  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  in 
the  country  behind,  were  South  Slavs.  The  islands 
and  the  seaport  towns  were,  indeed,  largely  un- 
redeemed Italian  land,  but  if  they  were  all  given 
to  Italy  then  an  outlying  fringe  of  Italians  would 
shut  off  from  the  sea  a  far  greater  number  of 
Jugo-Slavs.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  because  of 
the  broad  untracked  Dinaric  Alps,  just  back  from 
the  coast,  the  South  Slavic  people  would  be  ef- 
fectually shut  off  from  the  sea  if  they  were  not 
given  Fiume.  .  .  ." — E.  R.  Turner,  Europe,  1789- 
1920,  pp.  582-584. — By  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo,  the 
independence  of  Fiume  was  recognized  by  both 
Italy  and  Jugoslavia;  Zara  and  adjacent  com- 
munes and  the  islands  of  Cherso,  Lussin,  Lagosta 
and  Pelagosa  were  recognized  as  forming  parts  of 
the  Kingdom  of   Italy. 

Macedonia,  the  apple  or  discord. — "In  the 
Balkans,  may  be  transformed  into  a  fruit  of  con- 
tent and  happiness  if  the  vision  of  a  greater 
Jugo-Slavia  now  looming  should  become  realized. 
Thus  it  seems  to  a  political  correspondent  of 
the  Paris  Temps  at  Sofia,  who  believes  in  the  com- 
ing of  this  greater  Jugo  Slavia,  which  will  unite 
all  the  southern  Slavs,  including  the  Macedonians 
and  the  Bulgarians.  The  first  evidence  of  the 
solidification  of  the  southern  Slavs,  he  reminds 
us,  was  the  formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Serbs, 
Croats,  and  Slovenes.  ...  In  the  new  kingdoAi  of 
Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes  .  .  .  the  spirit  of  fed- 
eralism will  triumph,  and  in  this  frame  of  greater 
Jugo-Slavia,  Macedonia  might  find  sufficient  in- 
dependence so  that  she  would  cease  to  be  a  bone 
of  contention  between  the  Serbians  and  the  Bul- 
garians. .  .  .  Macedonia  is  'no  longer  an  object 
of  conquest  by  force  of  arms  among  the  Bul- 
garians.'  'Two  cruel  experiences  have  cured  them 
of  this  policy  of  expansion,'  .  .  .  and  have  made 
them  understand  that  they  must  not  mix  up 
selfishly  in  Macedonian  affairs.  It  is  noted  as  a 
significant  fact  that  the  present  Bulgarian  Gov- 
ernment includes  no  Macedonians,  altho  all  for- 
mer cabinets  had  one  or  even  several  Mace- 
donians. .  .  .  'Nevertheless,  even  if  the  principle  of 
federation  remain  in  abeyance,  Jugo-Slavia  is  sol- 
emnly bound  by  the  terms  of  the  convention  on 
the  protection  of  minorities  to  confer  the  free- 
dom of  cultural  liberty  under  the  protection  of 
the  League  of  Nations.  If  to  this  obligation  be 
added  the  effect  of  parliamentary  government  and 
universal  suffrage — for  there  is  no  doubt  that  young 
Jugo-Slavia  is  inspired  with  a  spirit  of  broad 
liberalism— Belgrade  and  Sofia  will  gradually  find 
in  Macedonia,  which  formerly  held  them  apart,  the 
instrument  of  reconciliation.  ...  At  present  there 
are  in  Bulgaria  more  than  200,000  Macedonians 
who  took  refuge  there  during  recent  decades  and 
are  organized  strongly  in  an  association  of  Mace- 
donian fraternities.  These  are  sixty-eight  in  num- 
ber and  correspond  to  the  different  districts  and 
cities  of  Macedonia  from  which  their  members 
have  come.  Once  a  month  these  societies  send 
their  delegates  to  Sofia,  where  they  meet  in  a  kind 
of  Macedonian  parliament,  presided  over  by  an 
executive  committee.    The  parliament  of  1920  con- 


837 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


Montenegro 
Rumania 


BALKAN  STATES,  1921 


vened    in    Sofia.' " — Vision    of   a    happy    Balkans 
(Literary  Digest,  Jan.  8,  1921,  p.  26). 

Montenegro. — "Montenegro,  included  in  the 
new  state  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  in 
spite  of  some  objections  on  the  part  of  its  former 
rulers,  has  lately  inspired  a  resolution  of  pro- 
test signed  by  some  fifty  prominent  members  of 
the  British  parliament,  including  Viscounts  Bryce 
and  Gladstone  and  Earl  Curzon.  This  protest,  as 
reported  by  Current  History  (New  York),  reads: 
'Having  regard  to  the  most  gallant  services  ren- 
dered by  Montenegro,  the  smallest  of  our  Allies, 
and  to  the  heavy  cost  she  has  sustained,  her  peo- 
ple have  the  clear  right  to  determine  their  future 
form  of  government ;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary 
that  a  Parliament  should  be  elected  under  the 
Montenegrin  Constitution  to  decide  this  question, 
free  voting  being  secured  by  the  withdrawal  of 
all  the  Serbian  troops  and  officials  at  present  oc- 
cupying the  country.'  " — New  kingdom  of  Jugo- 
slavia (Literary  Digest,  Jan.  8,  1921,  p.  26). 
"Two  events  occurred  which  have  gone  far  to 
remove  the  Montenegrin  question  from  being  a 
thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Belgrade  government, 
.  .  .  — the  death  of  the  dethroned  King  Nicholas 
and  the  reports  of  the  British  commissioners, 
Roland  Bryce  and  Major  L.  E.  Otterley,  in  re- 
gard to  the  elections  in  Montenegro.  As  long  as 
King  Nicholas  lived  he  could  not  help  but  have 
a  following,  particularly  among  the  older 
Montenegrins,  who  had  regarded  him  as  the  natural 
head  of  the  Serbo-Montenegrin  people.  .  .  .  Al- 
though he  declared  war  on  Austria-Hungary 
shortly  after  Vienna  had  declared  war  on  Serbia, 
his  negotiations  for  a  separate  peace  with  the 
enemy  show  that  he  believed  the  cause  of  the 
Allies  to  be  lost.  There  are  documents  in  ex- 
istence even  betraying  his  lack  of  sincerity  to- 
ward the  Entente.  Since  the  armistice  he  had 
been  a  pensioner  of  the  French  Government  at 
Antibes,  where  he  conducted  a  propaganda  for  the 
recovery  of  his  throne  until  his  death  there,  on 
March  i.  It  is  now  expected  that  the  Nationalist 
party  in  Montenegro,  which  has  been  campaign- 
ing for  independence,  but  without  a  restoration, 
will  gradually  cease  hostilities  toward  the  estab- 
lished government,  and  that  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil will  finally  define  the  actual  status  of 
Montenegro  as  a  part  of  the  monarchy  of  the 
Croats,  Serbs  and  Slovenes — Jugoslavia." — Jugo- 
slavia   complains     about    Bulgaria     (New     York 


Times   Current  History,  Apr.,  1921,  pp.   173-174). 

Rumania. — Rumania,  "crushed  almost  as  com- 
pletely as  Serbia"  in  the  war,  triumphed  in  the 
peace  arrangements,  being  more  than  "doubled 
in  size  by  having  taken  Transylvania  (Romania 
Irredenta)  from  the  Magyars,  and  a  portion  of 
Bukovina,  regaining  Bessarabia  from  Russia,  as 
well  as  retaining  the  Dobrudja  on  the  south.  .  .  . 
She  became  greater  and  more  important  than  her 
neighbors,  Austria,  Bulgaria  or  any  of  the  Bal- 
kan states.  .  .  .  The  domestic  history  of  the  coun- 
try reveals  steady  development  and  increase  in 
material  prosperity.  .  ,  .  Large  estates  were  di- 
vided among  the  peasants  and  universal  suffrage 
granted.  .  .  .  The  people  claim  descent  from  Ro- 
man colonists  of  the  time  of  Trajan,  and  their 
language  is  an  offspring  of  the  Latin,  but  most 
of  the  people  are  Slavic  and  ...  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  church." — E.  R.  Turner,  Europe, 
17S9-1920,  pp.  465-466. — Their  treatment  of  the 
Jews  has  been  harsh  in  spite  of  the  guarantees 
for  the  protection  of  religious  and  racial  minor- 
ities contained  in  the  treaty  which  the  Rumanians 
finally  signed  at  Paris,  December  q,  igiq.  With- 
drawing at  the  same  time  their  forces  in  Buda- 
pest and  other  parts  of  Hungary  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  Russia  beyond  the  Bessarabian 
frontier  on  the  other,  Rumania  is  nevertheless 
compelled  to  maintain  huge  defensive  forces  against 
white  and  red  foreign  enemies,  while  struggling 
to  repair  the  tremendous  devastation  of  the  war 
and  to  heal  internal  dissensions. — See  also  Albania; 
Bulgaria;  Greece;  Montenegro;  Rumania;  Ser- 
bia; Turkey,  etc. 

Also  in:  E.  Driault.  La  question  d'Orient. — 
D.  G.  Hogarth,  Nearer  East.—H.  C.  Woods,  Dan- 
ger zone  of  Europe. — N.  Buxton  and  C.  L.  Leese, 
Balkan  problems  and  European  peace. — Agnes  E. 
Conway,  Ride  through  the  Balkans. — Sir  C.  Eliot, 
Turkey  in  Europe. — N.  Forbes  and  others.  The 
Balkans. — F.  Fox,  Balkan  peninsula. — G.  Hano- 
taux.  La  Guerre  des  Balkans  et  VEurope. — A.  von 
Huhn.  Struggle  of  the  Balkans  for  national  in- 
dependence under  Prince  Alexander. — J.  E. 
Gueshoff  (Guechoff),  Politics  of  the  Balkan 
League. — W.  Miller,  Balkans. — W.  S.  Murray, 
Making  of  the  Balkan  State. — .'\.  Muzet,  Aux 
pays  Balkaniques. — J.  G  Schurman,  Balkan  Wars, 
1012-1013. — M.  I.  Newbigin,  Geographical  aspects 
of  Balkan  problems. — R.  W.  Seton-Watson,  Rise 
of  nationality  in  the  Balkans. 


838 


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